asemonea tenuipes is a species of salticidae ( jumping spiders ) which can be found on andaman islands and in such countries as burma , india , sri lanka , and thailand .

it is commonly referred to as tailed jumper .

asemonea tenuipes

asemonea tenuipes ( ♂ , ♀ ) ( o . pickard - cambridge , 1869 )
asemonea tenuipes ( pickard - cambridge o . , 1869 ) | species | india biodiversity portal
lyssomanes tenuipes o . pickard - cambridge , 1869c : 65 , pl . 5 , f . 50 - 52 ( d m ) . asemonea tenuipes peckham & peckham , 1886 : 340 . asemonea tenuipes peckham , peckham & wheeler , 1889 : 243 , pl . 12 , f . 5 , 19 ( m , d f ) . asemonea cingulata thorell , 1895 : 314 ( d m ) . asemonea tenuipes simon , 1901a : 399 , f . 399 - 400 , 412 ( m ) . lyssomanes andamanensis tikader , 1977a : 205 , f . 25a - c ( d m f ) . lyssomanes bengalensis tikader & biswas , 1978 : 259 , f . 4 - 6 ( d f ) . asemonea tenuipes wanless , 1980d : 240 , f . 2d ; 18a - i ( m , s f ) . lyssomanes bengalensis tikader & biswas , 1981 : 107 , text - f . 21 - 23 ( f ) . lyssomanes andamanensis tikader & biswas , 1981 : 109 , f . 201 - 203 ( m f ) . asemonea tenuipes prószyński , 1984a : 3 ( f ) . asemonea tenuipes roy , saha & raychaudhuri , 2016 : 23 , f . 19a - e , 25h , 27q ( f ) . asemonea tenuipes prószyński , 2017b : 125 , f . 54h - i , 55a ( m f ) .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . asemonea tenuipes ( pickard - cambridge o . , 1869 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .
a revision of the spider genera asemonea and pandisus ( araneae : salticidae ) . bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( zool . ) 39 ( 4 ) : 213 - 257
asemonea tenuipes ( male ) photographed at karnala . a little more than 1 cm long . canon eos 500d , canon 100mm macro usm lens aperture - priority ae tv 1 / 60 av 9 . 0 ec 0 iso 1600 hand held cropped and did a little bit of nr in lightroom 3 . ( no significant detail loss due to the nr ) also tried a vertical crop , but it looked a little tight for my taste . thanks , c & c awaited .
wanless , f . r . ( 1980d ) . a revision of the spider genera asemonea and pandisus ( araneae : salticidae ) . bulletin of the british museum of natural history ( zool . ) 39 : 213 - 257 . - - show included taxa
the main id characteristic of the genus asemonea is the pair of elongated spinnerets ( of the male ) that give it a
tailed
appearance . also , the eye arrangement is peculiar to the genus , the most notable feature being that the front of the head is occupied by only the pair of very large anterior median eyes . will also share an image of a female of this species shortly .
no . xxxx sri lanka , india , andaman is . , burma , thailand
lsid : [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 032356 ]
peckham , g . w . & peckham , e . g . ( 1886 ) . genera of the family attidae : with a partial synonymy . transactions of the wisconsin academy of sciences , arts and letters 6 : 255 - 342 . - - show included taxa
peckham , g . w . , peckham , e . g . & wheeler , w . h . ( 1889 ) . spiders of the subfamily lyssomanae . transactions of the wisconsin academy of sciences , arts and letters 7 : 222 - 256 . - - show included taxa
pickard - cambridge , o . ( 1869c ) . descriptions and sketches of some new species of araneida , with characters of a new genus . annals and magazine of natural history ( 4 ) 3 : 52 - 74 . - - show included taxa
prószyński , j . ( 1984a ) . atlas rysunków diagnostycznych mniej znanych salticidae ( araneae ) . wyższa szkola rolniczo - pedagogiczna , siedlcach 2 : 1 - 177 . - - show included taxa
prószyński , j . ( 2017b ) . pragmatic classification of the world ' s salticidae ( araneae ) . ecologica montenegrina 12 : 1 - 133 . - - show included taxa
roy , t . k . , saha , s . & raychaudhuri , d . ( 2016 ) . a treatise on the jumping spiders ( araneae : salticidae ) of tea ecosystem of dooars , west bengal , india . world scientific news 53 ( 1 ) : 1 - 66 . - - show included taxa
simon , e . ( 1901a ) . histoire naturelle des araignées . paris 2 , 381 - 668 . - - show included taxa
thorell , t . ( 1895 ) . descriptive catalogue of the spiders of burma . london , pp . 1 - 406 . - - show included taxa
tikader , b . k . ( 1977a ) . studies on spider fauna of andaman and nicobar islands , indian ocean . records of the zoological survey of india 72 : 153 - 212 . - - show included taxa
tikader , b . k . & biswas , b . ( 1978 ) . two new species of spiders of the family lyssomanidae from india . proceedings of the indian academy of science 87 ( b ) : 257 - 260 . - - show included taxa
tikader , b . k . & biswas , b . ( 1981 ) . spider fauna of calcutta and vicinity : part - i . records of the zoological survey of india , occasional paper 30 : 1 - 149 . - - show included taxa
as external resources , the world spider catalog links here to species pages of other databases . they may contain further information for the given species . the databases , listed as external resources , however , are not managed by world spider catalog and the information given there is not necessarily in agreement with the world spider catalog . all responsibility for such data is with the external database .
prószyński , j . ( 2016 ) . monograph of salticidae ( araneae ) of the world 1995 - 2015 . part ii . global species database of salticidae ( araneae ) . version may 5th , 2016 , online at urltoken .
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cephalothorax oval shaped . median eyes prominent . thick yellow band in the mid dorsum of the cephalothorax and blackish cover laterally . abdomen cylindrical . ends with an extended spinnerets ventrally . spinnerets modified as a tail like outgrowth . abdomen is black colored anteriorly . a yellow mark lies near the posterior end . legs are positioned straight during rest . less chitinized . possess hairs
gupta , r . , devi , o . s . & islam , m . ( eds . ) 2015 . common spiders from select protected areas of upper assam . assam state biodiversity board . guwahati . pp . 189 .
describes average size , max , range ; type of size ( perimeter , length , volume , weight . . . ) .
cephalothorax elongate with elevated ocular region . cephalothorax is black with a yellow band in the mid - dorsal area and orange coloured ocular region in males . females are uniformly cream coloured . eight eyes are arranged in four rows , anterior lateral eyes and posterior median eyes are present on distinct tubercles . ocular area covered with yellow - white hairs . abdomen of male is elongated , yellow coloured with an orange patch and a white mark near the tip . females have cream coloured abdomen . distinct tail like slender spinnerets present . legs are long , slender , cream coloured and covered with spines
describes the general appearance of the taxon ; e . g body plan , shape and color of external features , typical postures . may be referred to as or include habit , defined as the characteristic mode of growth or occurrence associated to its environment , particularly for plants . comprising its size , shape , texture and orientation . example : tree , shrubs , herbs . may also be referred to include anatomy .
active hunter . rest under irregular build web . caring the eggs is displayed among both the sexes
relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment . variables of interest to ecologists include the composition , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , number , and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems .
general description of the sites where the species is found ( ecosystem , forest , environment or microhabitat ) . includes realm ( e . g terrestrial etc ) and climatic information ( e . g boreal ) ; also includes requirements and tolerances ; horizontal and vertical ( altitudinal ) distribution . also includes information referring to territorial extension of the individual or group in terms of its activities ( feeding , mating , etc . ) , associated mostly to vertebrates .
prefer habitats of slightly hilly areas . seen generally under broad leaves of short heighted trees
enumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .
this is a very first attempt to compile a checklist of spiders from gujarat . it is a result of prim . . .
a total of 86 species of spiders belonging to 56 genera of 20 families have been recorded from the . . .
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spiders of the sub - family lyssomaninae . trans . wisconsin acad . sci . arts . lett . , madison , wisconsin 7 : 222 - 256 , pl . xi - xii
histoire naturelle des araignees . deuxieme edition . paris ( roret ) 2 ( 3 ) : 381 - 668
descriptions and sketches of some new species of araneida , with characters of a new genus . ann . mag . nat . hist . , london 4 ( 3 ) : 52 - 74
atlas rysunkow diagnostcznych mniej znanych salticidae ( araneae ) [ atlas of drawings of less known salticidae ( araneae ) ] . wsrp , siedlce 1 - 177
two new species of spiders of the family lyssomanidae from india . proc . indian acad . sci . 87 ( b ) : 257 - 260
spider fauna of calcutta and vicinity . part - i . rec . zool . sur . india 1 - 149
i found this tiny spider under the leaves of jamaica cherry ( muntingia calabura ) tree . the spider was hardly 2mm in size . this shy and reclusive spider tried hiding from my view by going around the leaf in circles . i was able to capture it with lot of difficulty . here are five photos i could manage …
images and content copyright © 2006 - 2018 krishna mohan . please contact me to purchase prints or for image publication license .
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lovely composition . the different shades of green look nice . the clean background adds to the composition . good details . thanks for sharing .
not sure about id . it is exciting to view images of such small creatures . slightly more space between the leaf edge and the right frame would have been better . thanks for sharing . cheers , sabyasachi
hi . . abhisehek nice shot . i like the plane bg . and nice eye contact . i think , not sure . . this is tutelina elegans jumping spider . you can check video of tutelina elegans male and female . urltoken
bhavya , it ' s not tutelina elegans . thanks all the same for your help . i found a few pages on the net showing this spider . . . but none of them have identified it beyond
jumping spider
. will update this thread with the id if i find it .
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great to know the difference between the male and female of the species . the water drop effectively conveys the size . thanks for sharing . cheers , sabyasachi
yes . . nice to see the difference between male and female . . from which site did you find the id . ? ?
thanks bhavya , i got the id from a friend who is documenting spiders . will send you a link to his page if you are interested .
looks like more than a record image to me . the water droplet helps to compare the size . how do you sight these in the field , as these being so small wont be seen easily . would like to know the technique you use . thanks for sharing the information . look forward to more .
thank you mrudul , glad that you appreciate it . this ( and the male ) was found in the garden of my place near karnala , so i had a smaller area to search in . searching for the same spider in a large forest would have been far more difficult . in any case , there is no specific technique as such . using a macro lens for a few months gets one into the habit of looking for subjects under every leaf , rock , etc . in fact i would not recommend macro lenses for you people who specialise in mammals and birds , since you might end up searching only under leaves and rocks , and neglecting the larger animals
using a macro lens for a few months gets one into the habit of looking for subjects under every leaf , rock , etc . in fact i would not recommend macro lenses for you people who specialise in mammals and birds , since you might end up searching only under leaves and rocks , . . .
with my considerable bulk , twisting and turning to get the right angle to click these fellows under a leaf or rock . . . nah . . . i leave that to you , joshi , bhargava and others . . .
that would be tough abhishek ! with my considerable bulk , twisting and turning to get the right angle to click these fellows under a leaf or rock . . . nah . . . i leave that to you , joshi , bhargava and others . . .
you , mrudul , praveen , bhargava and others are wonderful at shooting tigers , other mammals , birds etc . i am perfectly happy with you guys continuing to focus on those , and will always look forward to your contributions in those fields .
copyright © for the photos by r . r . jackson , 2000 . copyright © for the page by j . proszynski , 2000 .


parastenolechia suriensis is a moth of the gelechiidae family .

it is found in southern and central korea .

the wingspan is 13 – 16 mm .

the forewings are creamy white , densely irrorated with fuscous scales throughout and with dark brown trapezoidal patches overlaid with raised scales , as well as four to five small blackish patches beyond the last trapezoidal patch on the costa and a large blackish discal spot .

the hindwings are grey .

parastenolechia suriensis

figure 1 . adult of parastenolechia suriensis , sp . nov . ( paratype ) .
parastenolechia suriensis , sp . nov . , is described and illustrated , and p . asymmetrica kanazawa is reported from korea for the first time . a check list of the species of the genus is given .
a new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list o . . .
figures 2–4 . male and female genitalia of parastenolechia suriensis , sp . nov . 2 , male genitalia ( holotype , gen . prep . no . 5147 ) ; 2a , lateral view of aedeagus ( paratype , gen . prep . no . 5186 ; 2b , latero - dorsal view of tegumen , uncus , and gnathos ( gen . prep . no . 5186 ) ; 3 , variation of eighth sternite of abdomen ( 3a , gen . slide no . 5147 ; 3b , gen . slide no . 5186 ; 3c , gen . slide no . 5187 ) ; 4 , female genitalia .
park , kyu - tek & ponomarenko , margarita g . , 2006 , a new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list of the genus , zootaxa 1338 , pp . 49 - 55 : 52
park , kyu - tek & ponomarenko , margarita g . , 2006 , a new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list of the genus , zootaxa 1338 , pp . 49 - 55 : 53
park , kyu - tek & ponomarenko , margarita g . , 2006 , a new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list of the genus , zootaxa 1338 , pp . 49 - 55 : 54
park , kyu - tek & ponomarenko , margarita g . , 2006 , a new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list of the genus , zootaxa 1338 , pp . 49 - 55 : 53 - 54
liu , linjie & li , houhun , 2016 , taxonomic review of the genus parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae , litini ) from mainland china , with descriptions of six new species , zootaxa 4178 ( 1 ) , pp . - 1 - - 1 : - 1
park , kyu - tek , ponomarenko , margarita g . ( 2006 ) : a new species of parastenolechia kanazawa ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) from korea , with a check list of the genus . zootaxa 1338 : 49 - 55 , doi : 10 . 5281 / zenodo . 273588
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two new species of gelechiidae , teleiopsis motleella , sp . nov . , and sitotroga pseudopsacasta , sp . nov . , are described from korea . illustrations of adults and male genitalia are provided . scrobipalpa spumata ( povolný , 2001 ) , comb , n . , is newly recorded from korea . it was described from the female , and the male genitalia are described and illustrated for the first time .
. . . with regard to taxonomic perspective , the nymphalidae along with other butterflies occurring in south korea were further welllisted by several important earlier studies since the beginning work by foreign scientists ( see kim , 2012 ) . the subsequent majority of nymphalidae research in south korea has focused on introduction of individual species in illustrated books ( e . g . , kim , 2002 ) , finding and listing new species through morphological analysis ( e . g . , joo et al . , 1997 ; lee and takakura , 1981 ; park , 1987 ) , and ecological investigation of a limited number of species ( e . g . , kim , 2012 ) . . . .
two new species of gelechiidae ( lepidoptera ) from korea , with notes on the taxonomic status of telph . . .
two new species of the family gelechiidae , concubina trigonalis park and ponomarenko , n . sp . and teleiodes gangwonensis park and ponomarenko , n . sp . are described from korea . telphusa euryzeucta meyrick , 1922 , is transferred to concubina : concubina euryzeucta ( meyrick 1922 ) , n . comb . concubina subita n . omelko and m . omelko , 2004 is considered a new junior synonym of c . euryzeucta .
six species of the genus anarsia zeller were recognized from siberia and far east . two of the species are described as new to science ( anarsia gajiensis sp . n . and a . sibirica sp . n . ) , and a . bipinnata meyrick is reported from the primorye territory ( russian far east ) for the first time . key to the species is given .
new faunistic data for the family gelechiidae in the korean peninsula and ne china ( lepidoptera : gel . . .
from the result of identification of gelechiids collected in the korean peninsula or mt . changbai - shan , ne china and preserved in the center for insect systematics , korea , 25 species of the family gelechiidae are reported for the first time from korea and three species of them are first known from china . a new synonymy of teleiodes sattler , 1960 ( = dubitationis m . omelko & n . omelko , 1998 , . . . [ show full abstract ]
a new subfamily crocanthinae of lecithoceridae ( lepidoptera ) for the genus crocanthes meyrick and it . . .
a new subfamily , crocanthinae n . subf . , is proposed for crocanthes meyrick and its allies , which have been considered as a monophyletic group with a unique genital character—an absent or remarkably reduced gnathos in the male genitalia . the subfamily includes aprosoesta turner , lamprista park , pacificulla park , hannara park , and gonaepa walker . aprosoesta turner st . rev . is resurrected as a . . . [ show full abstract ]
subscription or article purchase required to access item . to verify subscription , access previous purchase , or purchase article , log in to journal .
lee , sangmi & brown , richard l . , 2008 , revision of holarctic teleiodini ( lepidoptera : gelechiidae ) , zootaxa 1818 , pp . 1 - 55 : 28 - 29
proline accumulation was induced in detached tomato pera leaves in the absence of any saline or osmotic stress .
effects of phlorizin and p - chloromercuribenzenesulfonic acid on sucrose and proline accumulation in detached tomato leaves submitted to naci and osmotic stresses . journal of plant physiology 145 ( 3 ) : 367 - 373 , 1994
sucrose and proline accumulation and sugar efflux in tomato leaf discs affected by nacl and polyethylene glycol 6000 iso - osmotic stresses . plant science ( limerick ) 107 ( 1 ) : 9 - 15 , 1995
changes in polyamine titers associated with the proline response and osmotic adjustment of rape leaf discs submitted to osmotic stresses . plant science ( shannon ) 112 ( 2 ) : 175 - 186 , 1995
the relation between accumulation of abscisic acid and proline in detached rice leaves . biologia plantarum 43 ( 2 ) : 301 - 304 , 2000
characteristics of the induction of the accumulation of proline by abscisic acid and isobutyric acid in detached rice leaves . plant & cell physiology 32 ( 2 ) : 269 - 272 , 1991
effects of osmotic - and high - light stresses on psii efficiency of attached and detached leaves of three tree species adapted to different water regimes . photosynthetica 49 ( 4 ) : 555 - 563 , 2011
effect of abscisic acid and fusicoccin on nacl - induced proline accumulation in pea leaves . comptes rendus de l & apos ; academie bulgare des sciences 46 ( 8 ) : 77 - 80 , 1993
effects of nacl and mannitol iso - osmotic stresses on the free polyamine levels in leaf discs of tomato species differing in salt tolerance . journal of plant physiology 151 ( 6 ) : 754 - 758 , dec , 1997
proline accumulation in leaves of nacl - sensitive and nacl - tolerant tomatoes . biologia plantarum 40 ( 4 ) : 623 - 628 , 1998
effect of nacl and mannitol iso - osmotic stresses on proline and free polyamine levels in embryogenic fraxinus angustifolia callus . journal of plant physiology 161 ( 6 ) : 701 - 708 , 2004
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the grass goby ( zosterisessor ophiocephalus ) is a species of goby native to the mediterranean sea , the sea of azov and the black sea .

it is currently the only known member of its genus .

grass goby

reproductive cycle and life history traits of the grass goby , zosterisessor ophiocephalus ( gobiidae ) . . .
age and growth of the grass goby zosterisessor ophiocephalus pallas , 1811 in the gulf of gabes ( tuni . . .
scaggiante m , mazzoldi c , petersen cw , rasotto mb ( 1999 ) . sperm competition and mode of fertilization in the grass goby
mazzoldi c , scaggiante m , ambrosin e , rasotto mb ( 2000 ) . mating system and alternative male mating tactics in the grass goby
ota d , marchesan m , ferrero ea ( 1996 ) sperm release behavior and fertilization in the grass goby . j fish biol 49 : 246–256
in the marbled and grass gobies ) we can consider it as an occasional infestation .
a list is presented of metazoan parasites that infect seven gobiid fishes ( the toad goby mesogobius batrachocephalus , monkey goby neogobius fluviatilis , racer goby n . gymnotrachelus , bighead goby n . kessleri , round goby n . melanostomus , ratan goby n . ratan , and syrman goby n . syrman ) from the dniester estuary ( black sea ) . infections by thirteen species of metazoa parasites , including four . . . [ show full abstract ]
marbled goby was rather rare ( 5 , 7 and 8 fishes respectively ) .
. mode of sexual selection determined by resource abundance in two sand goby populations .
. parental behaviour in relation to the occurrence of sneaking in the common goby .
co - immigration of the marbled goby and its specific parasites to the black sea .
pujolar jm , locatello l , zane l , mazzoldi c ( 2012 ) . body size correlates with fertilization success but not gonad size in grass goby territorial males . plos one 7 ( 10 ) , 46711 .
fauna of this goby . so , the core species in the parasite component community are most -
marbled goby is annual small - sized fish ) was completed . it was a cause of successful
. the influence of oxygen stress on female choice for male nest structure in the common goby .
experiments were performed from 24 april to 23 may 2002 for the grass goby and from 4 july to 7 august for the black goby . aquaria used for the experiments ( 60 × 36 × 40 cm high , 70 l ) were divided in two equal sections by a glass partition , attached to the bottom and sides with silicone , to prevent water and sperm flow across sections ( figure 1 ) . every aquarium was provided with a sandy bottom , water temperature was kept at 16°c for grass goby and 22°c for black goby , and water was renewed daily . the artificial light regimen followed natural conditions , and fish were fed once a day with fresh black mussel meat .
skolbekken r , utne - palm ac ( 2001 ) . parental investment of male two - spotted goby
reproductive biology of the rock goby , gobius paganellus ( actinopterygii : perciformes : gobiidae ) , on . . .
size distribution of male and female two - spotted goby in early ( may ) and late ( july ) reproductive season .
magnhagen c ( 1998 ) . alternative reproductive tactic and courtship in the common goby . j fish biol 53 : 130–137 .
actually , it ' s more like eat and be eaten for most organisms . while plants and some bacteria can make their own food , other organisms must eat living things to survive . this makes them predators . you might not think of a grass - munching cow as much of a predator , but cows are indeed the predators of their grass prey .
feeding habits of the black goby , gobius niger ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , in the gulf of gabes ( southern tuni . . .
similar to the ones of other gobiid species in the black sea , is typical for the marbled goby ( kvach , 2005 a ) .
immler s , mazzoldi c , rasotto mb ( 2004 ) . from sneaker to parental male : change of reproductive traits in the black goby ,
forsgren e , kvarnemo c , lindström k ( 1996 ) . mode of sexual selection determined by resource abundance in two sand goby populations . evolution 50 : 646–654 .
) . this result basically implies a change in mating tactic among the smaller males . the sperm seen in the sdgs of small and intermediate sized males in the late breeding season could be sperm left over from a time when the sdgs functioned primarily for sperm storage ( an earlier sneaking period ) , or that the sdgs continue to be used as sperm storage as well as mucin producers . the grass goby ,
[ … ] in biology makes sense ! , amy dapper writes about one consequence of sex , among grass gobies : “sneaker” males with specialized sperm . and jeremy yoder ( yours truly ) takes a look at daisies that attract pollinators by fooling them [ … ]
as an added bonus , i ( bravely ) searched youtube for videos of goby mating behavior and found this lovely video of a pair of trimma gobies , set to adele’s crazy for you .
of course , the cows themselves are prey to other animals , like humans and coyotes . now we have a simple food chain , with grass plants making food at the bottom , cows as middle predators , and then humans and coyotes as
top predators .
mobley kb , amundsen t , forsgren e , svensson pa , jones ag ( 2009 ) . multiple mating and a low incidence of cuckoldry for nest - holding males in the two - spotted goby ,
. sexual selection and sex roles in the sand goby . in : behaviour and conservation of littoral fishes ( almada vc , oliveira rf , gonçalves ej , eds ) . lisboa : ispa ; 249–274 .
benthic , inshore , brackish water , estuaries and lagoons , on mud and eel - grass meadows . commercial in the black sea and in sivash ( ref . 2058 ) . occasionally recorded in freshwater , but there are no documented records of actual occurrence in european freshwaters ( ref . 59043 ) .
the researchers , part of the rasotta lab group at the university of padova , studied the mating behavior and sperm competition strategies of the grass gobies that inhabit the venetian lagoon . grass gobies exhibit alternative mating strategies . the larger males directly compete for access to , and guard , female mates . in contrast , less competitive males avoid direct competition and instead sneak copulations with females already guarded by other males . this variation in behavioral strategies allowed locatello et al . to ask whether guarding and sneaking males may also employ alternative sperm competition strategies . they hypothesized that the two types of males may differ in the degree to which they invest in high quality seminal fluid or high quality sperm .
citation : utne - palm ac , eduard k , jensen kh , mayer i , jakobsen pj ( 2015 ) size dependent male reproductive tactic in the two - spotted goby ( gobiusculus flavescens ) . plos one 10 ( 12 ) : e0143487 . urltoken
territorial males spent more time patrolling the territory ( time out of the nest ) when one and four sneakers were present rather than in the absence of sneakers ( table 1 , figure 2a ) . attacks ( rapid movements toward the sneaker compartment ) were observed only when sneakers were present ( table 1 , figure 3a ) . considering only the trials in which sneakers were present , territorial males performed more attacks when there were four sneakers compared to a single sneaker in the black goby ( f 1 , 20 = 6 . 12 , p = . 022 ) but not in the grass goby ( f 1 , 11 = 0 . 21 , p = . 66 ) . after the female was introduced , territorial males decreased the time spent patrolling the territory and attacking the sneakers , and male territorial behavior did not differ according to the number of sneakers ( table 1 , figures 2b and 3b ) .
to test how territorial males respond to the presence of sneakers , we measured the behavior and sperm output of territorial males facing different levels of sperm competition in the grass and black gobies . our aim was to investigate whether territorial males adjust their sperm output to the number of sneaker males attending the spawn and to test whether they respond to the presence of sneakers by increasing their mate guarding and courtship rate .
] . ontogeny could to some extent explain why we find predominantly small sized , presumably younger males ( born late in season ) , with sneaker type gonads early in the breeding season , but which develop a more dominant gonad structure with older age later in the season . in a laboratory study on the black goby (
in the two - spotted goby , nest defence , brood care and courtship are energetically demanding [ 22 ] , which probably causes increasing mortality rates of nest holding males over the season . thus one should expect to find smaller males using a sneaking strategy , especially early in the breeding season when male—male competition is at its highest .
] the two - spotted goby exhibits sexual size dimorphism , where males are on average larger than females . however , in the presented studied population on the west norwegian coast ( bergen ) this size dimorphism is reversed as average female size is slightly larger than average male size , caused by a large proportion of very small males (
the results of the experiments demonstrated that , while both ‘guard’ and ‘sneaker’ sperm performed equally well in seminal fluid from males with the same behavioral strategy , the sperm of sneaker males had increased performance in the seminal fluid of guarding males . conversely , the sperm of guarding males had reduced preformance in the seminal fluid of sneaking males . furthermore , when sperm was exposed to a mixture of seminal fluid from both types of males , the sperm of ‘sneaker’ males again outperformed that of ‘guard’ males . all together , these results indicate that grass goby males also exhibit alternative sperm competition strategies , such that ‘guard’ males invest in higher quality seminal fluid at the expense of sperm quality ( measured by swimming speed ) and that ‘sneaker’ males invest in higher quality sperm at the expense of seminal fluid quality .
] . however , the authors of this study speculate that the tendency to observe fewer small colourless males late in the breeding season could be because these smaller males have changed mating tactics , from sneaker to the more colourful territorial males . also the presented findings somewhat contradict a study of cuckoldry reported in a two - spotted goby population on the west coast of sweden [
the diet of the black goby , gobius niger in the gulf of gabes ( southern tunisia ) was described from analysis of stomach contents of 1055 specimens . samples were collected monthly by trawls from february 2009 to january 2010 . in the laboratory , the total length ( tl ) was measured and prey items in the stomach contents were identified to large taxonomic groups . overall , 654 stomachs were empty . . . [ show full abstract ]
three different sampling locations on the west coast of norway were selected in order to obtain samples as representative as possible of the habitat of the two - spotted goby . these locations were the inner and outer fanafjord and the kvalen raunefjord , all located north of bergen , which differed in terms of exposure , temperature and salinity . fish used in the histological studies where captured by beach seine in may and july 2008 at the kvalen raunefjord location .
gobies are the most diverse fish family on the reef , with more than 200 species described . with their generally small sizes and ability to adapt to a wide variety of specialized habitats , gobies have become the most diverse marine fish family in the world . this does not mean they are always successful at avoiding predators , though . for instance , the blueband goby ( valenciennia strigata ) is eaten by a variety of predators , including the venomous coneshell .
coneshells ( conus spp . ) are gastropod mollusks , closely related to the more familiar and harmless land snails . with beautiful , ornately designed shells , coneshells are highly sought - after by shell collectors . these gastropods have evolved as deadly predators , however ; a single puncture from their venomous radula ( modified tooth ) can rapidly paralyze and even kill a human . of course , coneshells evolved not to defend themselves against collectors , but to efficiently kill prey , such as the blueband goby .
the rock goby gobius paganellus is one of the most common gobiid fish on the southern tunisian coast and this study provides the first detailed information on its reproductive biology in the gulf of gabes . a total of 356 males ( 8 . 9 - 14 cm total length , tl ) and 273 females ( 9 . 1 - 14 . 3 cm tl ) were analyzed . specimens were dissected and their gonads and livers were removed . mean size at sexual . . . [ show full abstract ]
] ) , females now resort to courting smaller males ( several females were seen courting small males in the late breeding season ( july ) , while early in the breeding season ( may ) we only observed males courting females . pers . obs . a . c . utne - palm and m . hordnes during a transect snorkeling survey at the same study sites , 2008 ) . in contrast , such a size related tactic change over the breeding season was not found in the sand goby (
grass gobies are external fertilizers , meaning that both sexes release their gametes into the aquatic environment where fertilization takes place . this characteristic allowed the researchers to separate sperm and seminal fluid and set up a reciprocal experimental design in which sperm performance is tested in different seminal fluid environments ( table 1 ) . using this design , they tested sperm performance ( swimming speed ) in the presence of a single type of seminal fluid from either males with the same or different mating strategies . they also performed a second experiment in which sperm from either ‘guard’ or ‘sneaker’ males was exposed to a mixture of seminal fluid from both type of males , which more closely mimics the environment of competing sperm .
in birds , traits associated with good genes and those associated with paternal care are not necessarily the same ( møller and jennions , 2001 ; soler et al . , 1998a ) . in the sand goby , females do not invite sneaker males to sneak ( svensson , 2004 ) , and they probably have no control over parasitic fertilizations . therefore , in contrast to many birds , indirect benefits such as good genes or genetic compatibility have to be provided by the same individual as the direct benefits . this abolishes the potential intersexual conflict between females and nest - holding males over simultaneous parasitic spawnings .
male behaviors used in the statistical analyses are the time the males spent ( 1 ) completely inside the nest , ( 2 ) with head visible in nest opening , ( 3 ) outside the nest , ( 4 ) fanning ( with head visible in nest opening ) , and ( 5 ) displaying toward female ( outside the nest ) ; as well as the number of bouts the males performed ( 6 ) nest building from the inside of the nest , ( 7 ) nest building from the outside of the nest , and ( 8 ) rubbing the anal - urogenital area toward the ceiling inside the nest . the sand goby male prepares mucus trails by rubbing the anal - urogenital area ( personal observation ) .
a study from the west coast of sweden , [ 19 ] ( where we find the traditionally reported size dimorphism ♂ > ♀ ) previously showed that over the short breeding season of the two - spotted goby there was a transition from a strong male–male competition with intensive courting males in the beginning of the season to a strong female–female competition with actively courting females towards the end of the season . this observation has recently been supported by further studies in the same location ( gullmarsfjorden , west coast of sweden ) , reporting that i ) the size of nest holding males decreased over the season—indicating a decrease in male—male competition [ 20 ] , and ii ) courtship is typically initiated by males and terminated by females early in the season , while the opposite pattern is found late in the season [ 21 ] .
in svensson and kvarnemo ( 2003 ) , sand goby males built much smaller nest openings in the presence of sneaker males , suggesting that the nest opening may work as a defense or camouflage against sneaker males . however , we have found no behavioral or genetic support for this to be true ( svensson , 2004 ) . similarly , in the azorean rock - pool blenny , parablennius sanguinolentus parvicornis , nests in the field with associated satellite males did not have larger openings than nests without satellites . on the other hand , nests with two openings had an associate satellite male much more often than nests with one ( oliveira et al . , 2002 ) . in the present study , we hypothesized that males should be more engaged in nest building when experiencing a sneaker male compared to when not , which was not the case .
marine ; brackish ; demersal ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 30 - ? m ( ref . 2058 ) . subtropical ; 47°n - 28°n , 6°w - 42°e
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 29 . 9 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 115022 ) ; max . reported age : 5 years ( ref . 4696 )
iteroparous , females produce more than one batch of eggs within the breeding season ( ref . 50965 ) .
miller , p . j . , 1979 . gobiidae . p . 483 - 515 . in j . c . hureau and th . monod ( eds . ) check - list of the fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and of the mediterranean ( clofnam ) . unesco , paris . vol . 1 . ( ref . 4345 )
) : 14 - 20 . 1 , mean 17 . 1 ( based on 26 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00813 ( 0 . 00495 - 0 . 01335 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 22 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 3 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 2 - 3 ; fec > 5 , 000 ) .
prior r = 0 . 55 , 2 sd range = 0 . 29 - 1 . 04 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 6 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 32 , based on : 1 k , 2 tgen , 1 tmax , 4 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .
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bulgaria ; croatia ; france ( corsica , france ( mainland ) ) ; greece ( east aegean is . , greece ( mainland ) , kriti ) ; italy ( italy ( mainland ) , sardegna , sicilia ) ; libya ; monaco ; romania ; russian federation ( european russia , south european russia ) ; slovenia ; tunisia ; turkey ( turkey - in - asia , turkey - in - europe ) ; ukraine ( krym , ukraine ( main part ) )
the species is locally abundant and assumed to have a stable population , although harvested in some parts of its range .
this species is harvested for food in some parts of its range . the species has commercial importance in parts of its range , including in the black sea and in sivash ( berg 1965 ) . miller ( 1986 ) documents tissue contaminants ( pcbs , ddt etc . ) and heavy metal concentrations in fish from greek and italian habitats , which may affect consumers .
the species habitat may be impacted locally but there are no known widespread threats .
. however , it likely occurs in marine protected areas . it was assessed globally as data deficient in 1996 and as least concern in the mediterranean ( abdul malak
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aegean sea : 22700 - 787 ( 1 spc . ) , may 2000 , bozcaada island , 9 m , l . eryilmaz . inland water : 22700 - 626 ( 1 spc . ) , 1975 , bueyuekcekmece lagoon , istanbul , n . meriç .
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making sense of life as we know it , in the light of evolution .
however , sperm constitute only a small portion of the male ejaculate transferred to females during mating . the rest , up to 90 % , is composed of a myriad of proteins and other compounds that constitute the seminal fluid . in addition to being produced in abundance , seminal fluid proteins are also diverse . for example , scientists have found that males , of many species , produce dozens , if not hundreds , of different types of seminal fluid proteins . so , what then , do all these proteins do ? it turns out that these protein are involved in many different processes that indirectly influence male reproductive success , including influencing female physiology and interacting with a male’s own , as well as rival , sperm .
these fascinating results suggest many exciting avenues for future research . for example , from a mechanistic perspective : how exactly does seminal fluid composition vary between ‘guard’ and ‘sneaker’ males ? do many different proteins to differ in presence or concentration ? or does variation in one or very few seminal fluid proteins produce the observed differences in sperm performance ? furthermore , from an evolutionary perspective , we can ask : why do the males differ at all ? what constraints keep males from producing both high quality sperm , like the ‘sneakers’ , and high quality seminal fluid , like the ‘guards’ ?
locatello , l . , f . poli , and m . b . rasotto ( 2013 ) tactic - specific differences in seminal fluid influence sperm performance . proc r soc b 280 : 20122891 .
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this study was supported by m . u . r . s . t . 60 % .
fagen rm , young dy ( 1978 ) temporal patterns of behaviors : durations , intervals , latencies , and sequences . in : colgan pw ( ed ) quantitative ethology . wiley , new york , pp 79–114
haccou p , meelis e ( 1992 ) statistical analysis of behavioral data . oxford university press , oxford
kemadjou nijwa jr , muller p , klein r ( 2004 ) variations of sperm release in three batches of zebrafish . j fish biol 64 : 475–482
pall . ( pisces , gobiidae ) in laguna di venezia e osservazioni sulle caratteristiche dei riproduttori . lav soc ven sc nat 27 : 47–56
marconato a , rasotto mb , mazzoldi c ( 1996 ) on the mechanism of sperm release in three gobiid fishes ( teleostei : gobiidae ) . environ biol fish 46 : 321–327
parker ga ( 1990 ) sperm competition games : raffles and roles . proc royal soc lond b 242 : 121–126
scaggiante m , rasotto mb , romualdi c , pilastro a ( 2005 ) territorial male gobies respond aggressively to sneakers but do not ad just their sperm expenditure . behav ecol 16 : 1001–1007
siegel s , castellan nj ( 1992 ) statistica non parametrica . mcgraw - hill , new york , p 477
sokal rr , rohlf fj ( 1995 ) biometry , 3rd edn . freeman , new york , p 880
stoltz ja , neff bd ( 2006 ) sperm competition in a fish with external fertilization : the contribution of sperm number , speed and length . j evol biol , 1873–1871
malavasi , s . , lugli , m . , torricelli , p . et al . environ biol fish ( 2008 ) 82 : 279 . urltoken
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it is characterized by a squat body , swollen cheeks and big lips . it has not swimming - bladder , thus it can not do long moving and lives on the bottom , to which it sticks by the pelvic fin . the eyes are shifted to the top of the head , to allow a complete vision , even if it is covered with sand .
male looks after the eggs : it oxygenates them with its fins , defends from predators , and it cleans them with a germicidal mucus .
it lives in brackish environment , estuary and lagoons , on the muddy bottoms or in phanerogames prairies .
female goes in the den and lays the eggs sticking them to the stones that constitute the vault of the deg . hatching happens 5 - 6 days after fertilization .
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dipartimento di biologia , università di padova , viale g . colombo 3 , 35131 padova , italy e - mail : rasotto @ urltoken tel . : + 39 - 49 - 8276191 ; fax : + 39 - 49 - 8276199
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address correspondence to a . pilastro . e - mail : andrea . pilastro @ urltoken .
instead of adjusting sperm expenditure ( evans et al . , 2003 ; pilastro et al . , 2002 ; simmons and kvarnemo , 1997 ) , males could alternatively respond to the presence of competing males by guarding the mate or the nest ( alonzo and warner , 2000a ; birkhead and møller , 1992 ; komdeur , 2001 ; zamudio and sinervo , 2000 ) or making the nest less accessible to sneakers ( svensson and kvarnemo , 2003 ) . evidence of a trade - off between mate guarding and sperm expenditure has been found in some fish species , suggesting that both strategies are expensive in terms of time and / or energy ( candolin and reynolds , 2002 ; henson and warner , 1997 ; marconato et al . , 1996 ; warner et al . , 1995 ) .
fish were housed at chioggia hydrobiological station of the university of padova . at the end of the experiments they were released back into the wild . housing and experimental procedures have been conducted in accordance with italian national law ( dl116 / 92 ) .
plan view of the experimental tank ( 60 × 36 × 40–cm height ) . the tank was divided in two equal - sized compartments : the compartment of the territorial male contained a plastic nest ( 20 - cm long and with a diameter of 15 cm ) and a ripe female confined into a transparent plexiglas tube . the sneaker compartment contained zero , one , or four competitor sneakers , according to the treatment .
we tested all distributions for normality using shapiro - wilks test . some behavioral observations were not normally distributed , and we therefore used log transformation when appropriate . we compared territorial male behavior and sperm expenditure under three conditions , that is , with zero , one , and four sneakers , using a generalized linear model ( glm ) model in which territorial male behavior and sperm expenditure were the dependent variables , number of attending sneakers was the fixed factor , and identity of territorial male was the random factor ( to control for repeated observations ) . the test was repeated for each of the two phases of the experiment ( before and after female introduction ) . probabilities are two tailed . where not otherwise stated , mean ± se is reported . statistical analyses were performed using spss 12 .
time spent patrolling the territory ( time out of the nest , s ) by the territorial male according to the number of sneakers ( zero , one , or four ) and the phase of the experiment . ( a ) after the introduction of the sneakers and before the introduction of the female ( s out of nest 20 min −1 ) ; ( b ) after the introduction of the female ( s out of nest 20 min −1 ) . data were log transformed .
time spent attacking the sneakers ( i . e . , hitting the transparent divider , s ) by the territorial male according to the number of sneakers ( zero , one , or four ) and the phase of the experiment . ( a ) after the introduction of the sneakers and before the introduction of the female ( s of attack 20 min −1 ) ; ( b ) after the introduction of the female ( s of attack 20 min −1 ) . data were log transformed .
the results of glm in which territorial male behavior was the dependent variable , the number of attending sneakers the fixed factor , and territorial male identity the random factor are shown . interactions were nonsignificant and were removed from the model .
courtship behavior and sperm released of territorial male according to the number of sneakers ( zero , one , or four ) . ( a ) courtship rate of territorial male ( seconds of display 20 min −1 ) ; ( b ) sperm release ( log of sperm concentration , sperm per milliliter ) by the territorial male . data were log transformed .
each territorial male was tested in the three conditions ( with zero , one , and four attending sneakers ) .
we wish to thank the staff of the chioggia hydrobiological station for their kind support during the experiments and chris petersen , tommaso pizzari , and three anonymous referees for commenting on various versions of the manuscript . this study has been partially supported by institutional research grants ( ex60 % ) from the university of padova and grants from the italian ministry for research and university ( cofin2000 ) to a . p . and m . b . r .
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adepartment of biology , university of padova , via u . bassi 58 / b , i - 35131 padova , italy
bcribi biotechnology centre , university of padova , via u . bassi 58 / b , i - 35131 padova , italy
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this study aims to extend the current knowledge on biology aspects , such as age and growth , to the gulf of gabes ( southeast of tunisia ) . the determination of the von bertalanffy growth parameters of…
[ more ]
diet shifts of gobius paganellus ( teleostei , gobiidae ) from the gulf of gabes ( central mediterranean . . .
the aim of this paper is to describe the diet of the population of gobius paganellus from the gulf of gabes , looking at seasonal and ontogenetic shifts and identifying the main preys . this species is an intertidal fish sparsely distributed on the tunisian coast . a total of 629 specimens with total lengths ranging from 8 . 9 to 14 . 3 cm were captured on the gulf of gabes . in the laboratory , the tl . . . [ show full abstract ]
zosterisessor ophiocephalus is currently an important component of the eastern mediterranean inshore fisheries . in tunisia it was recorded for the first time in the gulf of gabes in 1993 , where it is now an important fished species . in this study age and growth parameters were determined in the gulf of gabes ( southeast of tunisia ) based on otolith analysis of 824 specimens caught between . . . [ show full abstract ]
the retinal vascularization of zosterisessor ophiocephalus is described by scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts . the retina is vascularized sclerad by the choroidal body and the choriocapillaris , and vitread by the lentiform body and by a dense network of hyaloid vessels . in the bodies there is a parallel arrangement of capillaries indicating a counter current exchange mechanism . the well developed vascularization and its correlation with the hypoxic conditions of the muddy habitat of the species are discussed .
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contributed equally to this work with : a . c . utne - palm , k . eduard
copyright : © 2015 utne - palm et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited
data availability : the data are all contained within the paper and its supporting information files .
funding : this study was funded by the university of bergen through the contributing work of a master student .
in common with most teleost fishes displaying alternative mating tactics , a conditional tactic seems to be most common in species of the family gobidae . in gobies , larger males usually adopt the dominant mating tactic ( territorial nest holders ) , while the smaller males adopt the parasitic tactic ( sneakers ) [ 12 – 14 ] . even more drastically , some gobies change their sex and hence their reproductive tactic completely [ 15 ] .
to make it easier to distinguish between the lines in cases where they overlap , the lines for early and late season are placed 0 . 015 units to the left and right on the x - axis , respectively . average lengths related to season are marked with arrows . sample size females n = 600 , males n = 533 .
the present study was undertaken to determine firstly , whether the small males discovered in the bergen population display a parasitic spawning tactic . secondly , if so we wanted to determine whether the prevalence of this spawning tactic changes over the course of the breeding season .
fish samples were collected during the early ( may ) and late ( july ) breeding season in 2006 and 2008 , using a beach seine ( 30 m long , 3 m high , mesh size 3–5 mm in the catch area ) . some modifications were made to the seine to ensure that it followed the topography without lifting off the bottom by the macro algae ; this included additional weights to the bottom line and floaters on the top line . to ensure that a true representative sample of nest holding males was collected ( hiding in their nest on the bottom ) one seine net was first set to effectively enclose our sampling area , after which the enclosed area was sampled twice with a second beach seine , before finally the outer seine was hauled in .
all statistics and plots were performed using r version 3 . 2 . 2 ( r development core team 2015 , urltoken ) . fish size was compared between sex and season by using a linear mixed effects model ( lme ) with the predictor total length of the fish ( cm ) and the two categorical predictors season and sex . station was set as a random effect factor . sample sizes for males and females were 533 and 600 , respectively . demography was investigated by making simple frequency plots of fish lengths depending on sex and season . additionally , for each sex we made size - frequency distributions over early and late season for the 25 % smallest and largest fish , respectively . this allowed us to get a clearer picture of eventual demographic differences between males and females over the season .
for male fish , the investment in seminal duct gland ( sdg ) and testes were compared between early and late season , i . e , may vs july . we did this by using five different models to cover the most commonly used methods from earlier studies e . g . [ 24 , 33 ] .
model a , gsi : the response variable was the gonadosomatic index ( gsi ) and the two predictors were total length and season .
model b , sdgi : the response variable was the seminal duct gland index ( sdgi ) and the two predictors were total length and season .
model c , testis mass : the response variable was log ( testis weight ) and the predictors were log ( soma mass ) and season .
model d , sdg : the response variable was log ( seminal duct gland weight ) and the two predictors were log ( soma mass ) and season .
model e , relative investment in sdg : the response variable was log ( seminal duct gland weight / testes weight ) and the two predictors were log ( soma mass ) and season .
in the models about sdg and testes investment the sample size was reduced from 533 to 506 as we were lacking sdg and testes measurements for 27 of the fish ( due to problems separating the testes and sdg during dissection ) .
condition factor was analysed for females and males in one model , allowing for a three way interaction between the predictors ; total length of the fish , season and sex . we used an lme for this purpose and the random effect factor was the same as explained in the models above .
based on histological findings on whether the sdgs contained sperm or not we divided the males into either “sneakers” ( size range with sperm in sdg ) and “territorial” males ( size range without sperm in sdg ) for early and late season . finally , we performed a linear regression ( log ( y ) = log ( a ) + b * log ( x ) , where y refers to sdg and testes weight and x to soma weight ) , to look at possible difference in “b” ( slope ) between groups ( sneakers and territorial ) and season [ 33 , 36 , 37 ] .
all aspects of this study , including field sampling , fish transportation , and killing of fish ( by overdose of ms222 ) , were approved in advance by the animal care committee at the university of bergen . this committee closely follows the strict regulations of the european commission directive for animal used for scientific purposes . collection of fish along the norwegian coast does not require permission . the field collections did not involve endangered or protected species .
the comparison of fish size depending on sex and season revealed no interaction between the two predictors , i . e . the change in size when going from early to late season is the same for the two sexes ( lme ; f 1 , 1127 = 1 . 385 , p = 0 . 240 ) . however , there was a significant effect of both sex and season , where the mean size of males is significantly smaller than females ( lme ; f 1 , 1127 = 98 . 185 , p < 0 . 001 , fig 1 ) and mean size is significantly smaller in the early compared to the late breeding season ( lme ; f 1 , 1127 = 22 . 087 , p < 0 . 001 , fig 1 ) . among all male fish sampled in this study , the ones belonging to the size range representing the 25 % smallest males are more represented in the early compared to the late breeding season , with 100 and 33 small males sampled in the early and late breeding season , respectively . the same trend was also observed for the 25 % largest males with 82 and 51 large males in the early and late breeding season , respectively . for females , the 25 % smallest individuals were represented with 92 and 58 females sampled in the early and late breeding season , respectively , while the 25 % largest females , were represented with 66 and 84 females sampled in the early and late breeding season , respectively . thus , our results indicate a higher mortality or a different growth rate among larger males compared to females in the late breeding season .
the model for gsi showed a significant interaction between the two predictors total length ( including second order polynomial ) and season ( lme ; f 2 , 498 = 21 . 763 , p < 0 . 001 , fig 2 ) . this indicates that the relationship between gsi and fish length changes from early to late in the breeding season . fig 2 shows that this is mainly due to the high proportion of small fish having high gsi values in the early compared to the late breeding season . this is supported by the treatment contrasts from the model ( the summary output of r ) : early season has significantly higher mean than late season ( contrast between mean of early and late season ; t 498 = 14 . 256 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and the relative decrease in gsi depending on total length is steeper in early compared to late season ( contrasts between first order polynomials of early vs late season ; t 498 = 6 . 483 , p < 0 . 001 ) . the untransformed mean gsi in early and late season is 1 . 981 ( se = 0 . 084 ) and 0 . 778 ( se = 0 . 026 ) , respectively . for a complete list of results from the model see supporting information material ( model a in s1 file ) .
scatterplots showing gonadosomatic index gsi ( gsi = ( testes weight + sdg weight ) / body weight * 100 ) related to total length for early and late reproductive season .
the solid lines represent the mixed effect model . the grey horizontal lines represent the average of the full dataset—independent of season and soma mass . early season has significant higher mean than late season and the relative decrease in gsi depending on total length is steeper in early compared to late season ( for more details see results ) . n = 506 .