orthotylus marginalis is a species of stinkbugs from miridae family that can be found throughout europe ( except for liechtenstein and various european islands ) .

orthotylus marginalis

in great britain and / or ireland : foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on salix caprea foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on salix cinerea ssp . oleifolia foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on salix foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on alnus glutinosa foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on malus foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on ribes foodplant / feeds on orthotylus marginalis feeds on prunus spinosa animal / predator orthotylus marginalis is predator of tetranychus urticae animal / predator orthotylus marginalis is predator of aphidoidea animal / predator orthotylus marginalis is predator of insecta
leaf beetles on willows : orthotylus marginalis
. department of ecology , swedish university of agricultural sciences .
orthotylus marginalis population density was estimated in 15 of the gray willow stands in june 1999–2011 and in the two other stands in 1999–2010 and 1999–2005 . all insects on the upper 35 cm of each current - year shoot were dislodged into a white plastic container . orthotylus marginalis nymphs were counted and then re - released . the number of shoots sampled was proportional to the size of the stand . for a detailed description of the sampling method see dalin ( 2006 ) .
the adult orthotylus flavosparsus is normally about 4 millimetres ( 0 . 16 in ) in length , and green in colour .
population densities related to leaf nitrogen status . predicted mean number of orthotylus marginalis individuals per 35 cm shoot ( based on data from 17 gray willow stands collected over 13 years ) related to measured spad values ( relative difference in leaf nitrogen concentration— lower horizontal scale ) and to the predicted corresponding leaf nitrogen concentration ( upper horizontal scale )
orthotylus flavosparsus is a species of plant - eating bug in the miridae family , which is found everywhere in europe except for albania and iceland . it was introduced to north america .
predation rate related to leaf nitrogen status . number of leaf beetle eggs consumed by orthotylus marginalis ( day × mg dry weight ) −1 related to leaf nitrogen status under three nitrogen treatment levels ( n = 37 ) . predation rates differed between all treatments at p < 0 . 01 . box plots show medians with the first and third quartile and 95 % confidence interval of the median
total numbers of o . marginalis nymphs surviving to the adult stage under the 1 . 4 , 8 . 4 and 15 . 4 mg n week −1 nitrogen treatments were : 6 in all cases with prey absent ; and 15 , 10 and 13 , respectively , with prey present . orthotylus marginalis survival was clearly higher on plants in the presence of prey ( f 1 , 72 = 22 . 41 , p < 0 . 001 ) , but there was no difference in survival on plants under different nitrogen treatments ( f 2 , 72 = 1 . 50 , p = 0 . 23 ) . however , these results should be treated cautiously as various mortality factors , such as parasitization and molting failure , were not necessarily related to leaf nitrogen status . mortality due to parasitization was 16 % for o . marginalis with no prey and 11 % with prey present .
performance related to leaf nitrogen status . dry weight ( mg ) of orthotylus marginalis adults in the a absence ( n = 18 ) and b presence of prey ( n = 38 ) on plants exposed to different nitrogen treatments . performance differed between all nitrogen treatments in the absence of prey at p < 0 . 01 , but there was no difference between any of the treatments in the presence of prey . box plots show medians with the first and third quartile and 95 % confidence interval of the median
population variability related to leaf nitrogen status . variability ( cv = coefficient of variation ) in population density of orthotylus marginalis related to measured spad values ( relative difference in leaf nitrogen concentration— lower horizontal scale ) and to the predicted corresponding leaf nitrogen concentration ( upper horizontal scale ) . solid and dotted lines indicate model predictions and standard error of predicted means ( r 2 = 0 . 53 ) , respectively . open circles are data points used in the model . data points indicated by crosses were not considered in the model . population variability was calculated from data collected in 15 stands over 10 years . a small cv represents high stability between years
two new records of the subfamily orthotylinae ( heteroptera : miridae : orthotylinae ) , zanchius tarasovi kerzhner , 1988 and orthotylus bilineatus ( fallén , 1807 ) , are reported for the first time to the korean fauna . the genus zanchius is also first recorded from the korean peninsula . redescriptions of genitalia , diagnoses of each species and genus , and biological notes are presented with the photographs and illustrations .
the effects of leaf nitrogen status on performance and predation rate in the greenhouse experiment were examined using two glmms . response variables in the two performance models were o . marginalis survival ( binomial distribution , logit link ) and adult dry weight ( µg ) ( poisson distribution , log link ) . the response variable in the predation model was total egg consumption by o . marginalis ( poisson distribution , log link ) using an offset for development time ( days ) and adult dry weight ( mg ) . over - dispersion was accounted for using quasi - models . fixed effects in both performance models were nitrogen treatment and the presence / absence of prey , and in the predation model nitrogen treatment . we incorporated a variance structure in the omnivore performance models to account for differences in residual spread between groups with and without prey . gray willow clone was included as a random effect in all models .
altogether 90 o . marginalis nymphs were collected for the greenhouse experiment from the same gray willow stand . all individuals were collected simultaneously , on the first day that first stage nymphs appeared in late may . the nymphs were randomly assigned to plants under different nitrogen treatments and plants with or without prey : 45 to plants with prey and 45 to plants without prey . perforated plastic bags ( 0 . 5 mm diameter perforations , baumann saatzuchtbedarf , germany ) sealed at the base of the pot , prevented mirids from escaping and stopped potential prey from accessing the plants .
the relationship between o . marginalis population density and gray willow leaf nitrogen status in the field study was examined using a generalized linear mixed model ( glmm ) ( poisson distribution , log link function ) with an offset for number of samples in each stand . the fixed effects were the spad values recorded in june , sampling year and stand area . by treating gray willow stand as a random effect , the model intercept was allowed to vary between stands and between years within stands . temporal autocorrelation was accounted for by introducing an autoregressive first - order structure , with observation year nested within willow stand .
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is one of the larger species and is found on willows and sallows . the upper surface is covered in dense pale hairs , and the membrane veins are green . the 1st antennal segment is brownish .
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are 6 millimetres ( 0 . 24 in ) long , and are green coloured . their upper surface is covered with dense pale hairs , with brownish
kerzhner i . m . , josifov m . ( 1999 ) .
family miridae
. in aukema , berend and rieger , christian . catalogue of the heteroptera of the palaearctic region . 3 , cimicomorpha ii . amsterdam : netherlands entomological society . pp . 1–577 , pages 253 & 263 . isbn 978 - 90 - 71912 - 19 - 1 .
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adults are 6 millimetres ( 0 . 24 in ) long , and are green coloured . their upper surface is covered with dense pale hairs , with brownish antennas .
the species members feed on alder , apple trees , currant , sloe , sallow , and willows . adults feed on aphididae , carabidae , and psyllidae . in some cases , they also feed on plants of pear trees , causing the pears to have stoney pits , among other damages .
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open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license ( urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made .
the online version of this article ( doi : 10 . 1007 / s00442 - 016 - 3742 - y ) contains supplementary material , which is available to authorized users .
plant traits , such as nutrient status , morphology and secondary metabolites affect herbivore performance , long - term population dynamics and community structure and can even cascade across trophic levels to mediate trophic interactions ( price et al . 1980 ; underwood and rausher 2000 ; harvey et al . 2003 ; dalin and björkman 2003 ; kagata and ohgushi 2006 ; bukovinszky et al . 2008 ; carmona et al . 2011 ; volf et al . 2015 ) . the interactions between plant - feeding omnivores and their herbivore prey can be mediated by plant traits ( 1 ) via density effects and ( 2 ) by altering the omnivores’ trophic status ( behavioral effects ) ( agrawal et al . 1999 ; eubanks and denno 1999 , 2000 ; eubanks 2005 ) .
omnivory and trophic behavior is determined by evolutionary history , driven by resource abundance and quality to optimize nutritional needs ( agrawal et al . 1999 ; coll and guershon 2002 ; eubanks et al . 2003 ) . plant feeding allows for survival of small omnivore nymph stages and for persistence during periods of rapidly declining prey densities ( naranjo and gibson 1996 ; wheeler 2001 ; coll and guershon 2002 ; eubanks and styrsky 2005 ) . feeding on high - quality host plants can , thus , strengthen the buffering effect of this alternative resource , which should increase and stabilize omnivore population density and enhance the long - term predation pressure ( density effect ) . high plant quality can , however , also increase the omnivores’ relative consumption of plant resources and reduce the average per capita predation rate ( behavioral effect ) ( eubanks and denno 2000 ; coll and guershon 2002 ) .
nitrogen concentration is a characteristic of plant nutrient status with a potentially strong direct effect on omnivore performance in the absence of prey , which is also relevant for comparing the relative importance of resources at different trophic levels ( eubanks and denno 1999 , 2000 ; fagan et al . 2002 ; denno and fagan 2003 ; matsumura et al . 2004 ) . herbivore population density commonly increases on nitrogen enriched plants ( mattson 1980 ; awmack and leather 2002 ) and sap - feeding insects ( i . e . , many heteropteran omnivores ) may be especially responsive to enhanced plant nitrogen , since they feed selectively and often on tissue that does not contain nitrogen - based allelochemicals ( toxic secondary metabolites ) ( holopainen et al . 1992 ; wheeler 2001 ; huberty and denno 2004 ) . nitrogen concentration is substantially lower in plant than in herbivore biomass and the relative abundance of nitrogen in relation to growth conditions is , by orders of magnitude , more variable in plants than in herbivores ( mattson 1980 ; sterner and elser 2002 ; andersen et al . 2004 ) . the stoichiometric mismatch in nitrogen across trophic levels has also been critical for the evolution of omnivory in heteropteran insects ( eubanks et al . 2003 ) .
the gray willow ( salix cinerea l . ) grows in wet moderately nutrient - rich soils and often forms dense stands along small streams , ditches and pastures and at forest edges ( jonsell 2000 ) . stands generally consist of individuals of the same clone and range from a few square meters to several hectares in size ( although small stands are more common ) .
leaf nitrogen status in the field study and the greenhouse experiment was estimated using an optical chlorophyll meter ( model , spad - 502 , konica minolta sensing , japan ) . this is a non - destructive alternative to analytical methods that can be used to estimate leaf nitrogen content per unit area ; the method is commonly used in plant sciences and has been extensively evaluated for a number of hardwoods , including salix and populus species ( bonneville and fyles 2006 ; weih and rönnberg - wästjung 2007 ; bonosi et al . 2010 ) . spad values are , however , mainly useful for relative comparisons of nitrogen content in leaves , under similar environmental conditions ( chang and robison 2003 ) .
one - year - old shoots were cut from 15 of the gray willow stands and used to create a leaf nitrogen gradient in the greenhouse , similar to the one recorded in the field . the shoots were stored at −5 °c for 3 months and then divided into 90 ( 6 × 15 ) cuttings ( length 20 cm , diameter 0 . 9–1 . 7 cm ) . the cuttings were placed in water in the greenhouse for 2 weeks to initiate root development , before being planted in pots with 2 dm 3 sand ( grain size 0 . 2–1 mm ) . the insides of the pots were lined with cloth , so that water and air ( but not the sand ) could pass through the holes in the base of the pots . the sand was saturated with water at all times . this ensured that water availability would not influence access to nitrogen and simulated the conditions gray willows experience in the field ( growing in wet soils or more or less directly in water ) .
six cuttings from each of the 15 stands were randomly assigned to three different fertilization treatments in the greenhouse , corresponding to 1 . 4 , 8 . 4 or 15 . 4 mg n × week −1 . these fertilization levels were used in a preceding pilot study and therefore known to create nitrogen levels similar to those observed in gray willow stands in the field . to fertilize the plants we used a complete nutrient solution , ‘blomstra’ ( wallco , sweden ) ( n : p : k 5 : 1 : 4 . 3 , ph 7 . 8 ) . the temperature in the greenhouse ranged from 18 to 24 °c . leaf nitrogen status of plants in the greenhouse was recorded 30 days after the first fertilizer application to ensure that the selected treatments resulted in leaf nitrogen concentrations similar to those observed in the field . spad values were recorded at five different positions between the mid - rib and the leaf margin , on three leaves from the mid part of each plant .
the relationship between spad - 502 chlorophyll meter values and leaf nitrogen concentrations was determined using three leaf samples collected from each gray willow stand ( n = 51 ) in the field in june , 2011 , covering almost the full spectrum of values found in gray willow stands at that time of the year . in addition , three leaf samples were collected from clones of the same willows grown in the greenhouse ( n = 45 ) . the aim was to determine whether the relationship between spad values and nitrogen concentrations differed between greenhouse and field samples , for instance due to differences in light and hydrological conditions . mass - based leaf nitrogen concentrations of sampled leaves were determined by gas chromatography using a carlo erba na 1500 elemental analyzer ( carlo erba , milano , italy ) .
the relationship between spad values and mass - based leaf nitrogen concentrations in leaves sampled in the field and in the greenhouse experiment was validated using a linear model . leaf origin was treated as a fixed effect in the model .
the predicted difference in spad values between gray willow stands in the field study and nitrogen treatments in the greenhouse experiment was tested using two separate linear mixed models . potential correlation between data points due to repeated measures of spad values in the field was accounted for by incorporating a first - order autoregressive correlation structure for the time variable ( month ) . by treating stand as a random effect in the models , the intercept was allowed to vary among willow clones .
two measures were used to estimate population variability : the coefficient of variation ( cv ) and the inter - quartile ratio ( iqr ) . cv was calculated for each stand by dividing the standard deviation of density by the mean density . cv thus provides a standardized measure of variability which allows for comparisons regardless of the mean . however , cv is sensitive to zero counts and low means ( heath 2006 ) . the iqr equals the inter - quartile range divided by the median and provides an alternative measure of variability that is independent of both observation extremes and the mean . we fitted two separate linear models with the response variable population variability expressed either as cv or iqr and leaf nitrogen status and willow stand area as fixed effects . cv and iqr were estimated using a subset of the population density data ( for 15 stands , 1999–2008 ) . the selection of data was intended to optimize the number of stands sampled over the same years and the longest continuous time period . the model was restricted to spad values in the range 30–36 because of the low number of observations below this range ( spad < 30 ) . including or excluding the two observations in this lower range in the model did not change the overall results .
analyses were performed in r version 3 . 1 . 0 ( r development core team 2014 ) using the mass package glmmpql function for the poisson glmms ( venables and ripley 2002 ) and the nlme package lme function for the linear mixed model ( pinheiro et al . 2011 ) .
) . the relationship was best described by the model spad = 0 . 41n
spad - leaf nitrogen validation models plotted with field - and greenhouse - recorded leaf nitrogen gradients . predictions were based on linear models describing the relationship between spad values and leaf nitrogen concentrations ( mg × g −1 ) in gray willow leaves ( r 2 = 0 . 67 ) , collected in the greenhouse ( solid line ) and the field ( dotted line ) . fine dotted gray lines are standard errors of prediction estimates . open squares show mean spad values recorded in june for 17 gray willow ( salix cinerea ) stands in forest and open habitats ( squares with white and gray backgrounds , respectively ) . solid squares show mean greenhouse spad values recorded under the 1 . 4 , 8 . 4 and 15 . 4 mg n × week −1 nitrogen treatments . bars show standard errors
the recorded spad values ranged from 25 . 07 to 36 . 39 in may and from 20 . 06 to 36 . 72 in june ( fig .
< 0 . 001 ) . when spad values were translated into nitrogen concentrations using the spad–nitrogen validation for gray willow in the greenhouse , the range was similar to the field - recorded nitrogen concentrations ( fig .
) . population density increased by 195 % with a spad value increase from 30 . 75 to 36 . 49 , which is approximately equivalent to an average increase in leaf nitrogen from 26 to 40 mgn × g
= 0 . 44 ) . population variability , expressed as cv , decreased by 63 % with a spad value increase from 30 . 75 to 36 . 49 , which is approximately equivalent to an average increase in leaf nitrogen from 26 to 40 mgn × g
) . adults with access to both plant and prey exhibited , on average , 89 % higher dry weight , compared to individuals without access to prey . dry weight of individuals without prey increased by , on average , 69 % from the lowest ( 1 . 4 mg n week
< 0 . 01 . predation rate decreased by , on average , 28 % from the lowest ( 1 . 4 mg n week
we utilized a combination of data from long - term field studies and controlled greenhouse experiments to show that feeding on plant resources with a high nitrogen status increases and stabilizes omnivore population density , and enhances performance in the absence of prey . to our knowledge , this is the first empirical evidence under field conditions for this effect . moreover , we found that leaf nitrogen status can alter the omnivore’s trophic behavior : individuals on plants with higher nitrogen status consume less prey . both results are consistent with accumulating ( but scattered ) evidence linking the distribution , dispersal , performance , oviposition preference and trophic behavior of omnivorous insects to intra - specific variation in plant quality ( agrawal et al . 1999 ; eubanks and denno 1999 , 2000 ; eubanks and styrsky 2005 ; groenteman et al . 2006 ; jiménez et al . 2012 ) .
the long - term population level effect and the behavioral effect ( plant vs . prey feeding ) of leaf nitrogen status differed with respect to the consequence for omnivore prey suppression and the outcome of the plant–herbivore–omnivore interaction . the different environmental conditions ( field vs . greenhouse ) and spatial and temporal scales make it impossible to integrate the effects entirely and to predict the net outcome of leaf nitrogen status on prey suppression . the density effect associated with increased plant nutrient status seems , however , as expected , to be stronger than the per capita changes in trophic behavior—especially when longer time scales are considered ( eubanks and denno 2000 ) . consequently , we expect the long - term effect of high leaf nitrogen status ( population stability ) to outweigh the short - term behavioral effect on per capita predation rates—resulting in a net increase in population predation rates with increasing leaf nitrogen status .
supplementary material 3 ( csv 1 kb ) ( 1 . 6k , csv )
supplementary material 4 ( csv 8 kb ) ( 8 . 9k , csv )
supplementary material 5 ( csv 3 kb ) ( 3 . 1k , csv )
we thank martin weih for advice on spad - nitrogen validation , tomas grönqvist for gc analyses , marie melander and karin eklund for field assistance . support for this work was provided by energimyndigheten , future forests and the oscar and lili lamm foundation .
asl , pd and cb conceived and designed the experiments . asl and pd collected the data . asl analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript ; other authors provided editorial advice .
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eubanks md ( 2005 ) predaceous herbivores and herbivorous predators : the biology of omnivores and the ecology of omnivore–prey interactions . ecol . predator - prey interact . oxford university press , pp 3–16
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biology of the plant bugs ( hemiptera : miridae ) : pests , predators , opportunists .
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the species can be found on oraches and chenopods , which is their main food .
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sources results page - southwood , t . r . e . & leston , d . ( 1959 ) land and water bugs of the british isles 1 - 436 : 261
the influence of plant sex on the performance of a detrimental herbivore and two biocontrol agents in the dioecious grey willow , salix cinerea .
dioecious plants can be used as model systems for studying how variation in host plants affects plant - insect interactions . this thesis describes investigations into the impact of plant sex on plant - herbivore - predator interactions for the host plant salix cinerea . both herbivores and predators were found to prefer female plants , all other things being equal . as a result , top - down control had a more significant impact on the herbivore population on female plants than was the case for males . despite this , phratora beetles were more abundant on , and preferred , female plants . this may be due to bottom - up control , since female plants have longer leaves . both herbivores and biocontrol agents were more abundant on female plants in the field . because of predation by omnivores , survival rates for herbivore eggs on female plants were lower than those for male plants , and omnivore predation was the primary cause of death among herbivore eggs . these findings may provide novel opportunities for pest control in salix short rotation coppices .
( nl , nj ) > dept . of ecology ( s ) > dept . of ecology
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llallawavis scagliai ( magnificent bird of scaglia ) is a large , extinct predatory bird from pliocene argentina .

its fossil is the most complete fossil of a phorusrhacid ( or " terror bird " ) yet found .

the fossil , discovered in 2010 in sediment among the cliffs above la estafeta beach , contains the complete palate , complete trachea , skull , voice box , and eye bones .

the fossil shows l. scagliai was a medium-sized phorusrhacid around four feet tall and lived in argentina approximately 3.5 million years ago during the pliocene epoch .

l. scagliai likely roamed in grassland and weighed around 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) .

the joints separating the skulls bones were fused , unlike modern birds , and that may have helped it batter prey .

ct scans of its inner ear show that it could only hear frequencies between about 380 and 4230 hertz , and probably had a deep voice to match .

the below cladogram is simplified after the analysis of degrange et al. ( 2015 ) .

llallawavis

cience - llallawavis - scagliai - terror - bird - argentina - 02684 . html
skeleton of llallawavis scagliai . image credit : m . taglioretti / f . scaglia .
new species of ancient terror bird , llallawavis scagliai , discovered | science 2 . 0
this suggests that llallawavis would have been better at detecting lower frequency sounds than humans are .
drawing showing the skeletal anatomy of llallawavis scagliai . figure 2 from degrange et al . , 2015 .
a reconstruction of llallawavis . the white elements are those that have been discovered . from degrange et al . , 2015 .
they found that llallawavis would have had an average hearing range of around 3 , 800hz and a sensitivity of around 2 , 300hz .
llallawavis scagliai is a medium - sized terror bird with an estimated body mass of 18 kg and estimated height of 1 . 2 m
the newly discovered species is dubbed llallawavis scagliali (
scaglia ' s magnificent bird
) after the study ' s senior author fernando scaglia .
based on comparisons with living species , these measurements suggested that the ears of terror birds like llallawavis were most sensitive to low - pitched sounds .
the south american bird has been named llallawavis scagliai - meaning scaglia ' s magnificent bird after one of argentina ' s famous naturalists galileo juan scaglia .
' this seems to indicate that llallawavis may have had a narrow , low vocalization frequency range , presumably used for intraspecific acoustic communication or prey detection . '
[ 2 / 2 ] ♫ . . . tahdon laulaa riemusuulla sävelmän uuden tään : krrääääkh ! art : h . santiago druetta # llallawavis # scagliai urltoken
the scientific name of the bird is llallawavis scagliai . llallawa means magnificent in the quechua language in reference to the nature of the terror bird’s remains , and avis means bird .
' however , based on the hearing frequencies that we know that they were able to hear , it is possible to state that llallawavis may have produced sound of low frequency . '
although smaller than some of the species discovered , llallawavis scagliai , was one of the last terror birds to prowl the earth before they died out around 2 . 5 million years ago .
he said : ' the palate is a big area of jaw muscle attacment in birds . so , we are able to state how much developed were some of the jaw muscles in llallawavis .
one of south america’s top predators in its day , the 1 . 2 - meter - tall “terror bird” llallawavis scagliai ( artist’s representation shown ) lived in what is now northeastern argentina about 3 . 5 million years ago .
scaglia’s terror bird ( llallawavis scagliai ) is the most recently discovered member of the terror bird family ( phorusrhacidae ) . this species known for a single near - complete , fully - articulated skeleton which even includes a preserved windpipe .
paleontologist federico degrange of argentina’s centro de investigaciones en ciences de la tierra and colleagues named the old bird in the latest journal of vertebrate paleontology . drawing from quechua and latin , they’ve called it llallawavis – the “magnificent bird” . it’s an apt title . found in the 3 . 3 million year old rock of argentina , llallawavis is represented by a nearly - complete skeleton that includes the delicate bones of the middle ear , the bony ring of the eye , and ossified rings of the avian’s throat .
aside from giving degrange and coauthors a more detailed look the specific group of terror birds to which llallawavis belonged – called mesembriornithines – the beautiful fossil adds some new details about how this 40 pound , 4 - foot - tall carnivore interacted with the pliocene world .
thanks to the inner ear of llallawavis , for example , the paleontologists were able to estimate that the terror bird had a relatively narrow range of hearing in the neighborhood of 3800 hz . and since birds often vocalize in the lower ranges of what they can hear , degrange and coauthors point out , this hints that llallawavis may have communicated with low - frequency sounds that could travel long distances . unfortunately , despite having part of the throat set in stone , the branches of the bird’s airway critical for sound - making were not fossilized to check what sounds they could have produced . what these impressive avians actually sounded like is still left to our imagination .
“the mean hearing estimated for this terror bird was below the average for living birds . this seems to indicate that llallawavis scagliai may have had a narrow , low vocalization frequency range , presumably used for intraspecific acoustic communication or prey detection , ” said dr federico degrange of the universidad nacional de córdoba , conicet and the centro de investigaciones en ciencias de la tierra , argentina , who is the lead author of the paper published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology .
famed for their large hooked beaks and a presumed taste for meat , flightless phorusrhacids , also known as “terror birds , ” were among south america’s top predators before going extinct about 2 . 5 million years ago . now paleontologists have unearthed one of the most complete fossils of a phorusrhacid to date . the skeleton of the new species , dubbed llallawavis scagliai , is approximately 95 % complete , giving scientists the ability to study a terror bird’s anatomy in unprecedented detail . analyses of the well - preserved remains are already providing insights into the bird’s hearing ability , scientists say .
a 90 % - complete
terror bird
skeleton found on an argentinean beach suggests these big - beaked predators had good low - frequency hearing and deep voices .
it is the most complete skeleton ever discovered for one of these menacing beasts , and represents a new species .
this offers clues about the animal ' s hearing , which was probably lower than that of modern birds and suggests they used low - pitched calls to communicate .
argentinian palaeontologists made the discovery in the cliffs of la estafeta beach , not far from the popular tourist city of mar del plata .
federico degrange , one of the study ' s authors , said dealing with the tide had presented a challenge .
the sea can actually take the fossil and destroy it in the sea . it ' s a nice place to work , but you have to be fast ,
he told bbc news .
terror birds , or
phorusrhacids
, were the top predators on the south american land mass in the era following the dinosaurs ' extinction some 65 million years ago .
the flightless beasts stood up to 3m tall , boasting long legs and devastating hooked beaks . a previous study of this weaponry suggested that the birds could have despatched their prey with a single blow , before setting to work on its flesh .
they evolved very unique forms , with huge skulls , huge beaks with hooks , and long hindlimbs ,
said dr degrange , a terror bird specialist who works at the national university of cordoba .
they lost their ability to fly and they developed very unusual predatory capabilities that were not present in any comparable animals .
it stood about 1 . 2m tall and probably weighed 18kg , making it a medium - sized addition to the terror bird family . and it lived towards the end of that family ' s long period of dominance , some 3 . 5 million years ago .
this means it probably ate mammals or other birds ; pretty much anything smaller than itself , dr degrange suggested .
perhaps most intriguing among the well - preserved details of the fossil is its skull , which allowed the researchers to make some educated guesses about the animal ' s sensory capabilities - and even its voice .
a very interesting thing is that we could reconstruct the shape of the inner ear ,
dr degrange said .
we are able to say that terror birds had low frequency sensitivity - so it seems reasonable to suggest that they also produced low - frequency sounds .
again , by comparing their anatomy with birds that are alive today , you might imagine that they sounded something like an ostrich or an emu , dr degrange said .
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“it’s rare to find such a complete fossil of anything , let alone a bird , ” says lawrence witmer , a vertebrate paleontologist at ohio university , athens , who wasn’t involved in the new study . “this is a very exciting find . ”
the fossil , which is missing only a few wing and toe bones and the tip of its stubby tail , was excavated in northeastern argentina in 2010 from material laid down as sediment about 3 . 5 million years ago . l . scagliai likely lived in an open environment , possibly a grassland or a sparse forest through which small rivers flowed , says federico degrange , a paleo - ornithologist at the national university of córdoba in argentina and lead researcher on the study .
the new species of terror bird weighed an estimated 18 kilograms ( about 40 pounds ) and stood about 1 . 2 meters ( 4 feet ) tall , degrange’s team reports in the current issue of the journal of vertebrate paleontology . that’s a moderate size for a terror bird , degrange notes ; at least one other species in the group grew more than 2 meters tall and weighed 70 kg or more .
unlike most birds , many of the joints between bones in a terror bird’s skull are typically fused , witmer says . in this species , the joints in the birds’ upper palate , as well as some of those near the beak , are much less flexible than they are in other types of birds , which may have helped them pummel their prey and more effectively rip apart carcasses .
but the most interesting information from the new fossil came from ct scans of its inner ear . the shape and orientation of the semicircular canals in that structure suggest the bird could swivel its head quickly , as it might when tracking or striking at prey , degrange says . moreover , he notes , analyses of the scans even provide information about the bird’s sense of hearing , which was most likely limited to frequencies between 380 and 4230 hertz—approximately the same range as keys on the right half of a standard piano keyboard . that is substantially lower than the range measured for l scagliai ’s closest flightless relatives , the team reports .
“that’s to be expected for a large animal , ” says luis chiappe , a vertebrate paleontologist at the natural history museum of los angeles county in california . “the general rule of thumb is , the bigger you are , the lower the sounds you produce and hear . ”
the emphasis on low - frequency hearing is very interesting , witmer says , because it may suggest something about how the birds tracked prey . “low frequencies tend to propagate across long distances with little attenuation . ”
but in recent years , some scientists have proposed that not all terror birds were good hunters . this suggests that the members of some species may have spent a good fraction of their time scavenging carcasses rather than chasing prey . by measuring the proportions of various carbon and nitrogen isotopes in terror bird fossils , researchers could better assess the birds’ dietary habits , chiappe says . in particular , they could get a better idea about where in the food chain the terror birds’ main sources of nutrition were coming from . “i’m surprised that no one has done a careful study of such isotopes yet , ” he notes .
© 2018 american association for the advancement of science . all rights reserved . aaas is a partner of hinari , agora , oare , chorus , clockss , crossref and counter .
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the skeleton of a new species of giant predatory bird that terrorised the earth 3 . 5 million years ago has been discovered and is helping to reveal how these creatures would have sounded .
palaeontologists say the four feet ( 1 . 2 metres ) tall bird is the most complete skeletons of a ' terror bird ' - a group of flightless prehistoric meat - eating birds - to be discovered .
it was so well preserved that scientists have been able to study part of the bird ' s auditory system and its trachae .
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they say that while it had a terrifying apperance , its hearing was probably below average compared to birds living today .
a giant prehistoric ‘terror bird’ - once thought to have been a ruthless predator which snapped the necks of mammals with its enormous beak - was actually a vegetarian , according to one study .
the two - metre gastornis was a flightless creature which lived in europe between 40 and 55 million years ago .
because of its size and ominous appearance , it was thought to be a top carnivore .
but a team of german researchers , who studied fossilised remains of the beasts found in a former open cast coal mine , say they believe it was actually not a meat eater .
palaeontologists in the us have also found footprints believed to belong to the american cousin of gastornis , and these do not show the imprints of sharp claws , used to grapple prey , that might be expected of a raptor .
also , the bird’s sheer size and inability to move fast made some believe it couldn’t have preyed on early mammals - though others claim it might have ambushed them .
they claim that the animal probably also had a limited vocal range that was quite low frequency .
it has also raised the prospect that the bird may have even used low frequency sounds to help detect its prey .
dr federico degrange , a palaeontologist at the centre for research in earth sciences and the university of córdoba in argentina , said : ' the mean hearing estimated for this terror bird was below the average for living birds .
terror birds , or phorusracids as they are also known , were a group of carnivorous birds that grew up to 10 feet tall and had large hooked beaks .
they were the dominant predators in south america during the cenozoic age which started with the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago .
it was discovered by fernando scaglia , from the lorenzo scaglia municipal museum of natural sciences , along with matias taglioretti and alejandro dondas at la estafeta beach south of mar del plata city in the buenos aires province of argentina in 2010 .
dr scaglia is the grandson of galileo juan scaglia who was director of the museum between 1940 and 1980 .
due to incoming tides which were damaging the cliff , the team had to work quickly to excavate the entire fossil in one day .
however , despite this they were able to retrieve a skeleton that is around 90 per cent complete .
in a study published in the journal of vertebrate paleontology , the researchers were able to reconstruct the structure of the bird ' s inner ear using 3d computed tomography .
the human ear , by contrast , can detect sounds with frequencies between 20hz and 20 , 000hz , but is best at around 4 , 000 - 5 , 000hz .
dr degrange told mail online the bird had a tracheobronchial syrinx - the structure that produces sound in birds - that was mainly made of cartilage and so it did not survived .
he said : ' it is not possible then through this to know exactly what kind of sounds terror birds were capable of produce .
the researchers have also been able to better understand the some of the birds other features based on the palate and bones around the eye that were also preserved .
dr degrange said the bird would have had powerful muscles around its jaws but they were still conducting studies on the eyes to discover whether the bird was active during the day , at night or in the twilight hours .
' the sclerotic ring will give us an idea of the eye shape and size . this will allow us to infer if terror birds were diurnal , nocturnal or crepuscular . '
he added that the fossil may also help scientists unpick what caused the giant birds to eventually die out .
he said : ' the discovery of this species reveals that terror birds were more diverse in the pliocene than previously thought .
' it will allow us to review the hypothesis about the decline and extinction of this fascinating group of birds . '
dr claudia tambussi , another author of the study at argentina ' s centre for research in earth sciences , added : ' the discovery of this new species provides new insights for studying the anatomy and phylogeny of phorusrhacids and a better understanding of this group ' s diversification . '
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a group of paleontologists has described a new genus and species of phorusrhacidae that lived in what is now argentina during the pliocene epoch , around 3 . 5 million years ago .
phorusrhacidae ( the so - called terror birds ) were a group of extinct terrestrial carnivorous birds that are known mainly from the cenozoic of south america , but also from the plio - pleistocene of north america and the eocene of africa .
these birds had a very large body mass , up to 70 kg , and were 0 . 9 – 2 meters in height .
they were the predominant predators during the cenozoic and certainly one of the most striking groups that lived during that period .
the new species , named the scaglia’s magnificent bird , is the most complete terror bird ever discovered , with almost 100 percent of the skeleton exquisitely preserved .
the species name honors galileo juan scaglia ( 1915–1989 ) , naturalist and director of the museo municipal de ciencias naturales lorenzo scaglia in buenos aires , argentina , during 1940–1980 .
according to the paleontologists , the specimen reveals details of anatomy that rarely preserve in the fossil record , including the auditory region of the skull , voice box , complete trachea , bones for focussing the eye , and the complete palate , allowing an unprecedented understanding of the sensory capabilities of terror birds .
federico j . degrange et al . 2015 . a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds . journal of vertebrate paleontology , vol . 35 , no . 2 ; doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2014 . 912656
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the name llallawa means “magnificent” in quechua , in reference to the well - preserved nature of the remains . avis is the latin word for “bird” . the species name is after galileo juan scalia , a naturalist and director of the museo municipal de ciencias naturales in mar del plata , argentina . fully translated , the binomial name therefore means “scaglia’s magnificent bird” .
scaglia’s terror bird lived during the late pliocene in what is now argentina . its habitat was likely grassland and open woodland .
this species is known from a single , nearly complete articulated skeleton , the most complete of any terror bird known to date . discovered in 2010 and described in 2015 , the skeleton ( shown above ) was missing only some of the forelimb bones , toe bones , and the pygostyle * . this specimen is particularly valuable in that it includes the only complete trachea known for any terror bird , as well as intact sclerotic rings * .
scaglia’s terror bird was one of the smaller members of its family , with an estimated body mass of 18kg ( 40lbs ) and a hip height of about 90cm ( 3ft ) . when fully erect , it could have stood 120cm ( 4ft ) tall at the top of its head . the body was lightly - built with long , slender legs for fast running . the skull was about 27cm ( 0 . 9ft ) long with a beak that was relatively shallower and with a less prominent hook than that of other terror birds . another notable feature of the bird’s head was its narial knob or bump just above its nostrils .
the structure of the inner ear suggests that scaglia’s terror bird was adapted for very rapid and precise movements of the head and neck in response to visual and audio cues . its low , narrow beak and lightweight body suggests that its diet consisted of relatively small prey items such as cavimorph rodents and other small mammals , as well as smaller birds and reptiles . it probably hunted in a manner similar to modern seriemas ; after a short dash the prey would be pinned down before being picked up and violently slammed into the ground repeatedly . this action not only kills the victim , but also makes it easier to swallow due to the breaking of its bones .
although it is currently impossible to reproduce the types of sounds scaglia’s terror bird could produce , detailed analysis of its hearing capacity has shown that it could detect frequencies ranging from 380 to 4230 hz , with a mean sensitivity of 2300 hz . the bird’s own vocalizations , as well as those of its prey would have fallen within this range .
pygostyle : in birds , the fusion of several caudal ( tail ) vertebrae into a single bone .
sclerotic ring : rings of interlocking bones which support the eyeball in several vertebrate groups .
degrange fj , tambussi cp , taglioretti ml , dondas a , scaglia f ( 2015 ) . “a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds” . journal of vertebrate paleontology 35 ( 2 ) : e912656 <
the long - nosed peccary ( mylohyus nasutus ) was a large north american peccary that lived from the late pliocene to the early holocene . am . . .
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the steller’s sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) was the largest of the sirenians to have lived in recent times , growing up to 9 meters long a . . .
saber - toothed cat skeleton at the national museum of nature and science in tokyo , japan . wiki one of the most iconic animals of the pl . . .
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the haast’s eagle ( harpagornis moorei ) was the largest and most powerful bird of prey known to have ever existed and was the top predato . . .
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the scimitar cat ( homotherium serum ) was a smaller and lesser known cousin of the more famous saber - toothed cat ( smilodon fatalis ) . th . . .
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when you think of a scary dinosaur , what comes to mind ? the agile , sickle - clawed utahraptor ? a towering tyrannosaurus ? something as alien as the croc - snouted , sail - backed spinosaurus , perhaps ? books and museum halls are well - stocked with such mesozoic nightmares , but scary dinosaurs have also stalked the land in the days after the end - cretaceous mass extinction . there’s an entire group of fossil dinosaurs – technically known as p horusrhacids – that are imposing enough that paleontologists often call them by a more evocative name . these were the terror birds .
there aren’t any terror birds around today . the first evolved around 62 million years ago and the last perished about 2 . 5 million years ago , most of them playing the part of apex predator among the forests and plains of ancient south america . their skeletons are evolutionary works of frightful beauty , and the latest to be described is the best - preserved terror bird ever seen .
degrange , f . , tambussi , c . , taglioretti , m . , dondas , a . , scaglia , f . 2015 . a new mesembriornithinae ( aves , phorusrhacidae ) provides new insights into the phylogeny and sensory capabilities of terror birds . journal of vertebrate paleontology . 35 ( 2 ) . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2014 . 912656
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most well preserved terror bird - 90 % cmokele aand givesus a ideaof wat they sunder like .
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