the southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) is a species of large-tooth flounders native to the eastern and gulf coasts of the united states .

it is a popular sports fish and is the largest and most commercially valuable flounder in the western north atlantic ocean and gulf of mexico .

its range is north carolina to the yucatan peninsula .

it is a " left-eyed flounder " , meaning the left side is pigmented and is the " up side " .

the body color is brown with diffuse , unocellated spots and blotches .

paralichthys lethostigma

southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma . image courtesy of south carolina department of natural resources .
the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , occurs from north carolina south through florida and the gulf of mexico to texas .
physiological performance of juvenile southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma ( jordan and gilbert , 1884 ) , in chronic and episodic hypoxia .
physiological performance of juvenile southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma ( jordan and gilbert , 1884 ) , in chronic and episodic hypoxia . - pubmed - ncbi
paralichthys : parallel fish ( jordan and evermann 1898 ) ; lethostigma : forgetting spots , in reference to the absence of conspicuous spots on the body .
nall , l . e . 1979 . age and growth of the southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) in the northern gulf of mexico with nores on paralichthys albigutta . master ' s thesis , florida state univ . , tallahassee .
jenkins we , smith ti . 1999 . pond nursery production of southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) and weaning to commercial diets . aquaculture 176 : 173 - 180 .
the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , occurs from north carolina south through florida and the gulf of mexico to texas . the southern flounder occurs throughout the indian river lagoon .
fox ls , white cj . 1969 . feeding habits of the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma . barataria bay , louisiana . proc la acad sci 32 : 31 - 38 .
denson mr , smith ti . 1997 . diet and light intensity effects on survival , growth and pigmentation of southern flounder paralichthys lethostigma . j world aquacult soc 28 : 366 - 373 .
table 4 . summary data for the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , recreational fishery in eastern florida waters from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .
smith ti , denson mr , heyward ld , jenkins we , carter lm . 1999 . salinity effects on early life stages of southern flounder paralichthys lethostigma . j world aquacult soc 30 : 236 - 244 .
burke js , miller jm , hoss de . 1991 . immigration and settlement pattern of paralichthys dentatus and p . lethostigma in an estuarine nursery ground , north carolina , usa . netherlands j sea res 27 : 393 - 405 .
powell ab , henley t . 1995 . egg and larval development of laboratory - reared gulf flounder , paralichthys albigutta , and southern flounder , p . lethostigma ( pisces , paralichthyidae ) . fish bull 93 : 504 - 515 .
stokes gm . 1977 . life history studies of southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) and gulf flounder ( p . albigutta ) in the aransas bay area of texas . texas parks and wildlife dept technical series 25 . 37 p .
powell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1979 . food of paralichthys dentatus and p . lethostigma ( pisces : bothidae ) in north carolina estuaries . estuaries 2 ( 4 ) : 276 - 279 .
powell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1979 . food of paralichthys dentatus and p . lethostigma ( pisces : bothidae ) in north carolina estuaries . estuaries 2 ( 4 ) : 276 - 279 .
fox , l . s . , and c . j . white . 1969 . feeding habits of the southern flounder , paralichthys lethostigma , in barataria bay , la . proc . la . acad . sci . 32 : 31 - 38 .
table 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations† . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of paralichthys lethostigma are found here .
p . lethostigma is one of the largest and most commercially valuable flounders in the western north atlantic ( burke et al . 1991 ) .
reagan jr re , wingo wm . 1985 . species profiles : life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( gulf of mexico ) - southern flounder ( paralichthys lethostigma ) ( no . np - 5901733 ) . mississippi state univ . , mississippi state ( usa ) . dept of wildlife and fisheries .
pam fuller , and matt neilson , 2018 , paralichthys lethostigma jordan and gilbert , 1884 : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 7 / 5 / 2011 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018
paralichthys lethostigma is sometimes confused with p . albigutta , the gulf flounder . the two are easily distinguished based on the much smaller size of the gulf flounder , which grows only to 15 inches ( 38 cm ) . additionally , the gulf flounder has 3 ocellated spots : 2 vertically placed posterior to the pectoral fins , and 1 placed inside the base of the tail .
paralichthys lethostigma is sometimes confused with p . albigutta , the gulf flounder . the two are easily distinguished based on the much smaller size of the gulf flounder , which grows only to 15 inches ( 38 cm ) . additionally , the gulf flounder has 3 ocellated spots : 2 vertically placed posterior to the pectoral fins , and 1 placed inside the base of the tail .
deubler , e . e . , jr . 1958 . a comparative study of the postlarvae of three flounders ( paralichthys ) in north carolina . copeia 1958 ( 2 ) : 112 - 116 .
ginsburg , i . 1952 . flounders of the genus paralichthys and related genera in american waters . fish . bull . ( u . s . ) 52 ( 71 ) : 267 - 351 .
powell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1977 . distribution of paralichthid flounders ( bothidae : paralichthys ) in north carolina estuaries . chesapeake science 18 ( 4 ) 334 - 339 .
( of paralichthys letostigma jordan & gilbert , 1884 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
powell , a . d . , and f . j . schwartz . 1977 . distribution of paralichthid flounders ( bothidae : paralichthys ) in north carolina estuaries . chesapeake sci . 18 ( 4 ) : 334 - 339 .
body color is light to dark brown with diffuse non - ocellated dark spots and blotches . the blindside is white or dusky . p . lethostigma are characterized by the following meristic ( number of structures per body part ) counts :
paralichthys lethostigma is distributed in the western north atlantic ocean , from the chesapeake bay south along the u . s . to the loxahatchee river , florida ; absent along the southern florida peninsula ; and in the gulf of mexico , from the west coast of florida at the caloosahatchee river estuary , and west from tampa bay along the entire u . s . gulf coast , and south to tuxpan , mexico ( gilbert 1986 , munroe 2002 , r . robertson pers . comm . 2014 ) .
pigmentation is first observed in middle - stage eggs , following blastopore closure . in larvae , pigmentation is more pronounced in the caudal area , being less developed overall in p . lethostigma than in its close relative p . albigutta , the gulf flounder ( powell and henley 1995 ) .
dissolved oxygen p . lethostigma tolerates low dissolved oxygen concentrations ( less than 5 mg / l ) . however , in a laboratory study , postlarval southern flounder attempted avoidance when dissolved oxygen concentrations in culture vessels fell below 3 . 7 mg / l ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
adult p . lethostigma make extensive migrations from estuarine habitats in order to spawn in offshore waters . eggs of p . lethostigma are buoyant at 32 ‰ , and sink at 29‰ , though data indicate that eggs that sink may still hatch . experiments conducted by smith et al . ( 1999 ) showed that eggs incubated in water with a salinity between 0 - 5 ‰ all died within a day . eggs incubated at 10 ‰ had greater hatching success ( 82 % ) , but all larvae moved sluggishly and died shortly after hatching . eggs incubated in water of salinities between 15 - 35 ‰ were normal in appearance and were active . however , larvae reared through metamorphosis to the juvenile stage showed greater mortality at 15‰ salinity than at either 25‰ or 35‰ . further , recently metamorphosed juveniles showed less tolerance to freshwater conditions than did older fish ( smith et al . 1999 ) .
the adult diet of p . lethostigma consists primarily of fish , but is augmented by crustaceans depending upon regional location . in louisiana , adult southern flounders eat shrimp and fish ; though , fox and white ( 1969 ) reported that the primary prey species for southern flounder was striped mullet ( mugil cephalus ) . also included in the diet are fat sleepers ( dormitator maculatus ) and anchovies ( anchoa spp . ) . larger flounders ( 150 mm long ) ate primarily anchovies , menhaden ( brevoortia spp . ) , sciaenids , and mullet ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
a genus of pleuronectoid fishes , related to the halibut . it has the lateral line strongly arched in front , the dorsal beginning in front of the eye , scales weakly ciliated , and some of the teeth enlarged . it contains a number of species in the american and asiatic seas , among which are some highly esteemed food - fishes , such as the bastard or monterey halibut ( p . californicus ) , the plaice or summer flounder of new york ( p . dentatus ) , and the southern flounder ( p . lethostigma ) . see halibut , and cut under flounder .
powell and henley ( 1995 ) examined egg and larval development in both p . lethostigma and p . albigutta . results from their study show that fins begin to develop when larvae reach approximately 5 . 4 mm notochord length ( nl ) . the dorsal fin is generally the first to begin development , followed by the caudal , anal , pelvic , and pectoral fins ( powell and henley 1995 ) . development of the caudal fin in p . lethostigma can begin when larvae are approximately 5 . 5 mm nl , but fin rays are not observed until larvae attain 8 . 2 mm sl . dorsal fins begin to develop when larvae are in the preflexion stage , at approximately 6 . 5 mm nl . the dorsal fin is first observed in the head region , with development proceeding posteriorly . by the time larvae reach 8 . 4 mm standard length ( sl ) the dorsal fin is fully developed . following postflexion , when larvae reach approximately 7 . 3 mm standard length ( sl ) , anal fin rays begin to develop , with the full adult complement of fin rays reached at a body size of 8 . 4 mm sl . pelvic fins are first observed on larvae at approximately 8 . 2 mm sl , and are fully developed by the time larvae attain 9 . 7 mm sl . pectoral fins first begin formation when larvae are approximately 8 . 4 mm sl , and are fully formed when larvae exceed 11 . 0 mm sl .
southern flounder eggs and larvae from wild populations develop in offshore waters , with late stage , premetamorphic larvae ( stage 4b - 5 ) , likely returned to estuarine habitats via passive transport on nearshore and tidal currents . once returned to estuaries , larvae settle on the substratum and metamorphose into juveniles . in one north carolina study , comparative data from burke et al . ( 1991 ) suggests that settlement in p . lethostigma is influenced by salinity . these authors reported that though larvae of both summer and southern flounder begin to recruit into estuaries during february , southern flounder larvae concentrated on tidal flats near the heads of estuaries where salinity ranged from 9 - 25‰ , and the substratum had a low sand content ( 4 - 50 % ) . conversely , summer flounder larvae settled more downstream , in the middle reaches of estuaries where salinity ranged from 24 - 35‰ and the substratum had a much higher sand content ( 53 - 95 % ) .
eggs of p . lethostigma range from 0 . 85 - 0 . 95 mm in diameter ( powell and henley 1995 ) , with a single oil globule . laboratory rearing of southern flounder shows that eggs hatch after 3 days at 18°c and 30‰ salinity ( denson and smith 1997 ) . larvae begin to feed when 4 - 6 days old , and show signs of becoming premetamorphic by day 14 . by day 16 , larvae begin to settle out of the water column and congregate on the bottom . by day 21 , larvae show signs of adult pigmentation , and begin to rest on their left sides , though their eyes remain in position . by day 23 , metamorphosis is initiated and the left eye begins to migrate to the right side . most animals had completed metamorphosis by day 36 ( denson and smith 1997 ) . in culture experiments , yolk - sac larvae began metamorphosing to postlarvae at 40 - 46 days , when they were approximately 8 - 11 mm in length . metamorphosis to the juvenile stage was complete by 50 - 51 days ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) . data from powell and henley ( 1995 ) show that larvae complete metamorphosis when they reach approximately 8 . 7 - 9 . 0 mm sl . by this time , the migrating eye has reached the dorsal midline , and the larval stage is complete .
all flatfishes , including the southern flounder , are compressed laterally and spend most of their life lying and swimming along the bottom on their side . in the case of southern flounder , the left side is always the
up
side ; in other species , the opposite is true . small flounder grow rapidly and may reach 12 inches in length by the end of their first year . males seldom exceed 12 inches , but females grow larger than males and often reach a length of 25 inches .
the flounder is wonderfully adapted for its way of life . both eyes in adults are on the
up
side of the head and the pigmentation of the upper side of the body can be varied to match the surrounding environment . a small body cavity and the absence of air bladder aid the flounder in maintaining its position on the bottom .
adult southern flounder leave the bays during the fall for spawning in the gulf of mexico . they spawn for the first time when two years old at depths of 50 to 100 feet . the eggs are buoyant . after hatching , the larval fish swim in an upright position and the eyes are located on opposite sides of the head . as the young fish grows , the right eye begins to
migrate
to the left side of the head . when body length of about one - half inch has been attained , the eye migration is complete and the fish assumes its left - side - up position for life .
the young fish enter the bays during late winter and early spring . at this time they are about one - half inch in length and seek shallow grassy areas near the gulf passes . as growth continues , some will move farther into bays . some will enter coastal rivers and bayous . juvenile flounder feed mainly on crustaceans , but as they grow fish become more important in their diet . adult flounder enter shallow water at night where they lie , often partially buried , and wait for prey . empty depressions where flounder have lain are called
beds .
although most of the adults leave the bays and enter the gulf for spawning during the winter , some remain behind and spend winter in the bays . those in the gulf will reenter the bays in the spring . the spring influx is gradual and does not occur with large concentrations that characterize the fall emigration .
flounder are taken by rod and reel or by gig . when fishing with rod and reel , light tackle offers both the greatest sport and best chance for catching flounder . both artificial lures and natural bait can be used . over barren bottoms , leaded plastic worms ( worm jigs ) are often very effective . in heavily vegetated areas , shallow - running spoons are best .
flounder prefer live to dead bait . live shrimp retrieved slowly along the bottom often produce excellent results . killifish ( referred to locally as mud minnows ) fished in a similar fashion , is good bait . these fish can often be taken in large numbers with the cast or minnow seine .
although many are taken by rod and reel ,
floundering
or gigging offers the best challenge for this species . the flounder is vulnerable to this technique because it often enters the shallows at night to feed . both the skills of the angler and the hunter are called for here .
lanterns are used in searching for flounder and gigs ranging from single - pronged to modified hay forks are used to spear the fish . the anglers wade quietly along the shallows looking for flounder . once the flounder is within the light from the lantern , normally it will not move , affording the fisher a chance to
gig
the fish . although this sounds like a sure - fire method , many fish are missed because they go undetected until they swim away or because of inaccurate gigging by an overanxious angler .
the more sophisticated flounder fisher may mount his lanterns ( or battery - powered lamps ) on the front of a flat - bottomed skiff . the skiff is then poled through the water in search of fish or is pushed by a small air motor . floundering from a boat is much easier than wading . it allows the angler to cover more area and search bottoms that are too soft for wading .
although flounder can be taken by rod and reel in almost any portion of the bay , it is more often productive to fish around jetties or oyster reefs that extend from shore into the bay . flounder do not swim continuously so they tend to accumulate in such places in their search for food . during the fall , when flounder are moving to the gulf for spawning , the best catches are made in the channels and passes leading to the gulf . during the spring , wading anglers work the edges of channels , such as the intracoastal waterway , as the fish are moving back into the bays .
floundering is best during the migration from october to december . hundreds of lanterns can often be seen in and around the pass areas during this period , as the fishers wade through the shallows in search of fish .
during the spring and summer the best catches with gigs are made in the back bays . areas with cord grass (
) along the shoreline are good producers , and a bottom that is slightly silty or muddy generally is better than a hard sand bottom . the mouths of small bayous and sloughs often yield flounder .
since water clarity is very important to the success of any floundering trip , floundering should be done on calm nights . when fishing on windy nights , anglers should try to work small protected bays and shorelines .
the best catches are made during an incoming tide and on dark nights as opposed to moonlit nights . however , do not hesitate to flounder on an outgoing tide . during a falling tide trying farther offshore in water one to two feet deep or around offshore sandbars is often more productive . avoid nights when the tides are abnormally high .
stingrays also frequent the shallows at night . they are flat and can sometimes be mistaken for a flounder or stepped on by the unwary . the inexperienced flounder fisher should make certain of what he has gigged before retrieving it . if in doubt , simply hold the creature on the bottom with the gig and wait for the water to settle before attempting to retrieve your catch . a multi - pronged gig is helpful in such cases , because the catch can be lifted unassisted from the bottom .
the flounder ' s reputation as table fare is unsurpassed in texas . remember that the quality of any seafood is largely dependent on how it is handled between capture and preparation . remove the viscera and gills from the flounder and place the fish on ice as soon as possible . cleaning beyond this point depends on how the fish will be cooked .
flounder can be prepared in many ways . broiling the fish with butter , lemon juice and favorite seasoning is popular . they also may be baked or fried . the gourmet may like his flounder stuffed with crabmeat . many other recipes are available at various internet sites .
, is the largest of more than 25 species of flatfishes found in texas coastal waters . it is highly prized as both food and a recreationally harvested fish and accounts for more than 95 percent of the flounder harvest in the state . southern flounder occur from north carolina to the mouth of the rio grande and southward into mexico . they are usually found west of the mississippi river .
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southern flounder attain a size of up to 3 feet ( 91 cm ) in length , and can weigh as much as 9 kg ( 24 . 1 lbs . ) ( smith et al . 1999 ) . the von bertalanffy growth model predicts a maximum age for summer flounder of approximately of 20 years ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
adults migrate to offshore spawning grounds during late fall and winter , though some remain in estuaries year - round . spawning migrations are usually preceded by a drop in water temperature of 4 - 5 °c . males move seaward earlier than females , with few remaining in estuaries after november ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) . in north carolina , southern flounders begin migration in the fall ; in texas , they migrate from october through december ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
laboratory experiments from texas indicate that approximately 3 weeks before spawning takes place , male southern flounder begin following gravid females . in tank experiments , the first spawning was in december and occurred at midday . females swam to the surface and released eggs that were immediately fertilized by attending males . fertilization was 30 % to 50 % successful , and 6 % to 35 % of the eggs hatched within 61 - 76 hr ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
females become sexually mature at 2 years of age in texas , while the youngest mature female southern flounder in northern florida was 4 years old ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
thirteen southern flounders examined in the laboratory , produced a total of 120 , 000 eggs ( approximately 9 , 230 eggs per female ) ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
larvae spawned offshore in the atlantic ocean make their return to estuarine habitats by passive transport on nearshore and tidal currents from november through april , with a peak in recruitment occurring in february ( burke et al . 1991 ) . in the gulf of mexico , southern flounder postlarvae are caught along the gulf of mexico coast during winter and early spring . at galveston island , texas , southern flounder postlarvae 18 - 34 mm in total length ( tl ) were captured during february , march , and may . fish 25 - 51 mm tl were caught in the mississippi river during the spring . in aransas bay , texas , the peak movement of postlarvae flounders into estuaries is in february , when water temperature is 16 . 0 - 16 . 2 °c ( stokes 1977 ) .
temperature influences the migration of postlarval and adult southern flounders ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) . in louisiana coastal waters , adult southern flounders have been collected at temperatures ranging from 5 - 35 °c .
southern flounder are highly euryhaline , and withstand fluctuations in salinities ranging from 0 - 35‰ or more . data from smith et al . ( 1999 ) indicates that salinity tolerance in this species increases with age .
burke et al . ( 1991 ) also reported that juvenile southern flounder moved further upstream to more riverine environments later in the spring , while juvenile summer flounder tended to remain in higher salinity tidal areas near spartina saltmarshes . catch comparisons showed that approximately equal numbers of southern flounder were caught in sandy versus muddy substrate types in low salinity waters ; while summer flounder were most abundant in sandy substrata in higher salinity waters . burke et al . ( 1991 ) concluded that southern flounder settlement is more highly correlated with salinity , while summer flounder settlement is more highly correlated with substratum type .
southern flounder are carnivorous fishes that are generally considered to be top or near - top predators . larvae reared under laboratory conditions begin feeding on rotifers 4 - 6 days posthatch . by 8 - 13 days posthatch , larvae begin to feed on newly hatched artemia nauplii ( denson and smith 1997 ) .
a tank study showed that southern flounder tend to be more active at night than during the day ( reagan and wingo 1985 ) .
the southern flounder is a valuable sport and commercial fish along the gulf coast of the united states . most of the commercial catch in the gulf of mexico is incidental to the catch by shrimp trawlers . there has been significant interest in utilizing southern flounder as an aquaculture species . studies in the southeastern u . s . and in the gulf of mexico are currently underway to improve spawning techniques and develop larval rearing methods for southern flounder in order to improve its attractiveness as an aquaculture product ( jenkins and smith 1999 ; smith et al . 1999 ) .
flounders of all species are harvested annually from waters in and around the indian river lagoon , and are especially prized by recreational anglers . however , the commercial fishery is not of particularly high value . for the years 1987 - 2001 , 1 . 7 million pounds of flounders were harvested , with a dollar value of over $ 3 . 1 million reported in the 5 county area encompassing the irl ( volusia , brevard , indian river , st . lucie and martin counties ) . this ranks flounders nineteenth in commercial value within the irl , and twenty - ninth in pounds harvested .
figure 1 below shows the dollar value of the flounder fishery to irl counties by year . note that all species of flounders were combined in the data presented . as shown , commercial catch ranged from a low of $ 77 , 149 in 1987 to a high of over $ 350 , 927 in 1999 . volusia county annually accounts for the largest percentage of the flounder catch with 83 % in total ( figure 2 ) , followed distantly by brevard county , which accounts for 8 % of the total . indian river , st . lucie and martin counties account for 3 % , 4 % and 2 % of the total respectively . note that the fishery ' s value brings in $ 125 , 000 - $ 300 , 000 annually to volusia county businesses , while in all other irl counties , the dollar value is typically less than $ 25 , 000 .
figure 1 . annual dollar value of the commercial catch of flounders to the 5 - county area of the indian river lagoon .
figure 2 . breakdown of total flounder dollar value by county for the years 1987 - 2001 .
table 1 . total dollar value of flounders to irl counties between 1987 - 2001 .
table 2 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the flounder harvest for the years 1987 - 2001 .
table 3 . by county cumulative dollar value and percentage of total for the irl flounders harvested from 1987 - 2001 .
recreational fishery the recreational flounder fishery in florida accounts for 65 - 70 % of the annual state - wide harvest ( florida fish and wildlife conservation commission 2004 ) . landings on the gulf coast of florida are somewhat lower than those on the east coast , averaging approximately 198 , 015 pounds per year . on the atlantic coast , landings have averaged less than 300 , 000 pounds per year since 2001 . however , catch rates on both coasts are apparently stable , and have remained so since the early 1990s .
southern flounder are recreationally important in the indian river lagoon on a seasonal basis , specifically during the late fall and winter when large specimens may be landed as they migrate out of the lagoon for spawning . this species was first regulated by the state of florida in 1996 , when a 10 - fish bag limit and 12 - inch minimum size limit was implemented .
since 1997 , the recreational harvest in the 5 - county area encompassing the indian river lagoon has remained fairly consistent , with 1 . 3 million fishes harvested , an average of 166 , 500 per year taken by recreational anglers between 1997 - 2001 . the lowest harvest was recorded in 2004 , when 133 , 643 southern flounder were captured . the highest harvest occurred in 1999 when 201 , 195 southern flounder were taken . approximately 45 . 8 % of the catch was taken in inland waters other than the indian river lagoon . within the irl , anglers caught 379 , 472 southern flounder , 28 . 5 % of the total . coastal waters from the shoreline to 3 miles offshore accounted for 23 . 2 % , while offshore waters to 200 miles accounted for only 2 . 4 % .
figure 3 . survey data for the southern flounder recreational fishery showing the number of fishes harvested in east florida waters from 1997 - 2004 .
figure 4 . summary of the southern flounder recreational harvest and percentage of total by area from 1997 - 2004 .
table 5 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the southern flounder harvest for the years 1997 - 2001 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .
table 6 . summary of the southern flounder recreational harvest and percentage of total fish captured in each area from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .
burke js . 1995 . role of feeding and prey distribution of summer and southern flounder in selection of estuarine nursery habitats . j fish biol 47 : 355 - 366 .
florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . recreational fisheries landings . available online : urltoken accessed : 4 july 2016 .
minello tj , zimmerman rj , klima ef . 1987 . creation of fishery habitat in estuaries . in : beneficial uses of dredged material : proceedings of the first interagency workshop , 7 - 9 october 1986 , pensacola , florida . final report . 106 - 120 .
rogers sg , van den avyle mj . 1983 . species profiles : life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( south atlantic ) . atlantic menhaden ( no . fws / obs - 82 / 11 . 11 ) . georgia univ . , athens ( usa ) . school of forest resources .
report by : k . hill , smithsonian marine station submit additional information , photos or comments to irl _ webmaster @ urltoken page last updated : july 9 , 2005
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eschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .
this species supports valuable commercial and recreational fisheries in u . s . waters ; mainly the northern gulf of mexico ( warren et al . 1994 , robinson et al . 1995 ) and the southeast atlantic ( monaghan 1996 ) . it is the single most valuable finfish exploited by north carolina fisheries ( takade - heumacher and batsavage 2009 ) . juveniles and adults are also susceptible to capture by shrimp trawl fisheries .
fishing pressure , including incidental catch , is a factor in population reductions of this species , but simultaneous declines across its entire range suggests that broad - scale oceanographic mechanisms may also be contributing ( anderson et al . 2012 ) . this species is estuarine - dependent , and may be susceptible to anthropogenic activities occurring in these areas . it is taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the same areas it is also directly targeted by fishermen . it also occurs as bycatch in crab pots and crab trawls in north carolina ( brown 2009 , smith and scharf 2010 ) .
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research curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa
eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014
special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3
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full author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , héctor espinosa - pérez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams
page , l . m . , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , et al . , eds .
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .
manooch ( 1984 ) ; robins et al . ( 1986 ) ; hoese and moore ( 1998 ) .
marine . atlantic coastal and estuarine waters of the united states from albemarle sound , north carolina , to jupiter inlet , florida , and from caloosahatchee estuary , florida , to northern mexico . south florida is not included in the range ( lee et al . 1980 et seq . ; boschung 1992 ) . murdy et al . ( 1997 ) reported it as an occasional visitor to lower chesapeake bay , virginia .
primarily found over mud or silt bottoms in coastal and estuarine areas , and lower reaches of rivers ( powell and schwartz 1977 ) . although adults can enter and survive in freshwater for long periods of time , spawining and juvenile development occurs in brackish to marine water ( enge and mullholland 1985 ) . primarily consumes fishes and crustaceans ( powell and schwartz 1979 ) .
extirpated from all reservoirs , with the possible exception of casa blanca ( luebke 1978 ) .
no reproduction has been documented in texas freshwaters . limited benefits to anglers resulted in termination of the experimental stocking ( howells and garrett 1992 ) . stomach contents of southern flounder taken from long lake , texas , were mostly small sunfishes ( lasswell et al . 1977 ) .
boschung , h . t . 1992 . catalogue of freshwater and marine fishes of alabama . alabama museum of natural history bulletin 14 : 1 - 266 .
enge , k . m . , and r . mulholland . 1985 . habitat suitability index models : southern and gulf founders . u . s . fish and wildlife service , national coastal ecosystems team , biological report 82 ( 10 . 92 ) .
hoese , h . d . , and r . h . moore . 1998 . fishes of the gulf of mexico . texas , louisiana , and adjacent waters . 2nd edition . texas a & m university press . college station , tx .
howells , r . g . , and g . p . garrett . 1992 . status of some exotic sport fishes in texas waters . texas journal of science 44 ( 3 ) : 317 - 324 .
lasswell , j . l . , g . garza , and w . h . bailey . 1977 . status of marine fish introductions into the freshwaters of texas . proceedings of the 31st annual conference of the southeastern association of fish and wildlife agencies 31 ( 1977 ) : 399 - 403 .
lee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 et seq . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc . ( cited as a work rather than as individual accounts in the interest of space ) .
luebke , r . w . 1978 . evaluation of a multi - predator introduction . federal aid project f - 31 - r - 4 .
manooch , c . s . 1984 . fisherman ' s guide , fishes of the southwestern united states . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc .
murdy , e . o . , r . s . birdsong , and j . a . musick . 1997 . fishes of chesapeake bay . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .
robins , c . r . , g . c . ray , and j . douglass . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . the peterson guide series , volume 32 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .
this information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .
the data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .
citation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .
contact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .
distribution western atlantic : north carolina to texas in usa , but absent from southern florida .
distribution western atlantic : north carolina to texas in usa , but absent from southern florida . [ details ]
the webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license
robins , c . r . , g . c . ray , j . douglass and r . freund . 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin co . boston . 354 p . [ details ]
mceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223–1316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
lutaenko , k . a . ; furota , t . ; nakayama ; s . ; shin , k . ; xu , j . ( 2013 ) . atlas of marine invasive species in the nowpap region . beijing : nowpap dinrac ( northwest pacific action plan , data and information network regional center ) . 189 pp . [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
lin , y . ; gao , z . ; zhan , a . ( 2015 ) . introduction and use of non - native species for aquaculture in china : status , risks and management solutions . reviews in aquaculture . 7 ( 1 ) : 28 - 58 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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j exp mar bio ecol . 2001 apr 15 ; 258 ( 2 ) : 195 - 214 .
a cryptic species that tolerates low salinities ; occurs frequently in brackish bays and estuaries , even on occasion in fresh water ( ref . 9988 ) . adults are found mostly over mud bottoms in estuaries and coastal waters to about 40 m depth . taken by anglers inshore from bridges , jetties and small boats . they move to deeper water in winter , but are still easily accessible ( ref . 9988 ) . adults feed chiefly on fishes , also on crabs and shrimps . juveniles take mainly small bottom - living invertebrates . marketed fresh and frozen ; eaten steamed , fried , boiled , microwaved and baked ( ref . 9988 ) .
western atlantic : north carolina to texas in usa , but absent from southern florida .
global range : north carolina to jupiter inlet , florida , and from caloosahatchee estuary , florida , to texas or northern mexico ; absent from southern florida . apparently most abundant in western gulf of mexico . stocked in freshwater lakes near austin , texas .
83 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ) ; max . published weight : 9 , 330 g ( ref . 4699 ) ; max . reported age : 8 years ( ref . 46275 )
depth range based on 456 specimens in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 100 samples . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 - 223 temperature range ( °c ) : 16 . 407 - 25 . 874 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 286 - 10 . 594 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 723 - 36 . 472 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 530 - 5 . 755 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 093 - 0 . 783 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 756 - 5 . 295 graphical representation depth range ( m ) : 0 - 223 temperature range ( °c ) : 16 . 407 - 25 . 874 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 286 - 10 . 594 salinity ( pps ) : 33 . 723 - 36 . 472 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 530 - 5 . 755 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 093 - 0 . 783 silicate ( umol / l ) : 0 . 756 - 5 . 295 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .
comments : coastal and estuarine waters ; seems to prefer muddy substrates . often enters fresh waters . spawns offshore ; adults move out of estuaries and bays ; postlarvae and juveniles move into estuaries from january to early summer ( manooch 1984 ) .
non - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .
locally migrant : yes . at least some populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .
found mostly over mud bottoms in estuaries and coastal waters to about 40 m depth . a cryptic species ; tolerates low salinities ; occurs frequently in brackish bays and estuaries , even on occasion in fresh water . feeds chiefly on fishes , also on crabs and shrimps . juveniles take mainly small bottom - living invertebrates .
comments : small individuals eat mysid and penaeid shrimps and other small crustaceans ; large individuals eat blue crabs , penaeid shrimps , and fishes ; feeds by partly burying in sand and ambushing prey ( manooch 1984 ) .
spawns in fall and winter ; eggs hatch in about 3 days at 63 f ; sexually mature in 2 years ( manooch 1984 ) .
the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 5 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .
below is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .
fishing pressure , including incidental catch , is a factor in population reductions of this species , but simultaneous declines across its entire range suggests thatbroad - scale oceanographic mechanisms may also be contributing ( anderson et al . 2012 ) . this species is estuarine - dependent , and may be susceptible to anthropogenic activities occurring in these areas . itis taken as bycatch in shrimp trawls in the same areas it is also directly targeted by fishermen . it also occurs as bycatch in crab pots and crab trawls in north carolina ( brown 2009 , smith and scharf 2010 ) .
comments : localized threats may exist , but on a range - wide scale no major threats are known .
it is a
left - eyed flounder
, meaning the left side is pigmented and is the
up side
.
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the louisiana department of environmental quality ( ldeq ) presented its 2 nd annual green business expo wednesday , august 24 , 2011 . the expo showcased presenters and exhibitors from innovative businesses offering real cost saving opportunities for private and public enterprises while providing an environmental return for the citizens of louisiana . participants assisted in building a report card , which scored presenters on implementation possibilities of their technology .
executive director curt eysink of the louisiana workforce commission will speak about the state’s green jobs initiative . the presentation will focus on opportunities for louisiana’s business community to benefit from global demand for green products and services while increasing the environmental quality of life for louisiana citizens . eysink will present research findings from an 18 - month study of louisiana’s green economy and discuss ways in which the workforce investment community will ensure louisiana workers are prepared to meet changing employer needs .
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madecassophryne truebae is a species of frog in the microhylidae family .

it is in the monotypic genus madecassophryne .

it is endemic to madagascar .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and rocky areas .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

madecassophryne truebae

iucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2016 . madecassophryne truebae . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t57867a84178804 . urltoken
- - . . . none , cophyla phyllodactyla , unknown . genus madecassophryne ( guibe , 1974 ) none ,
madecassophryne truebae guibé , 1974 , bull . mus . natl . hist . nat . paris , ser . 3 , zool . , 171 : 1192 . holotype : mnhnp 1973 . 1149 , by original designation . type locality :
chaînes anosyennes
, madagascar .
- - . . . [ 3 ] records returned . . . institution , genus , species , cnt . ummz , madecassophryne ,
see brief account by glaw and vences , 2007 , field guide amph . rept . madagascar , ed . 3 : 120 - 121 . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 452 . rakotoarison , scherz , glaw , and vences , 2017 , salamandra , 53 : 507–518 , reported on molecular phylogenetics , morphology , osteology , acoustics , and natural history of a population identified as madecassophryne cf . truebae .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is 2 , 317 km 2 , it occurs in fewer than five threat - defined locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in southeastern madagascar .
this species is known only from extreme south - eastern madagascar in the anosyenne mountains , andohahela national park and tsitongambarika ( north of tolagnaro ) , between 700 - 1 , 900m asl . it is known from fewer than five threat - defined locations , and its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 2 , 317 km 2 .
it is apparently not common , but it is very hard to detect and probably has a patchy occurrence . due to ongoing declines in the extent and quality of the habitat , the population is suspected to be decreasing .
it occurs in forests in an area of extensive , continuous rainforest , and is thought to be associated with boulders and granitic outcrops . it is not known from disturbed habitats . the breeding biology of this species is completely unknown .
the major threat is habitat loss due to subsistence agriculture , timber extraction , charcoal manufacture , the spread of invasive eucalyptus , livestock grazing , and expanding human settlements .
conservation actions it occurs in andohahela national park and tolagnaro fivondronana classified forest . research needed research is needed to investigate the breeding biology of this species .
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a small - sized , ground dwelling microhylid with snout vent length 20 - 23 mm . colour in life is unknown . preserved specimens were dark in color . hindlimbs with bands . upper side of the limbs is yellowish while venter is whitish , with black spots on the throat . sometimes the venter is entirely dark . skin on the back is slightly granular , with large tubercles on the head . nostrils are equidistant between the eye and the tip of the snout . tympanum is rather indistinct , tympanum / eye ratio is 1 / 5 . tibiotarsal articulation reaches the eye . toe 3 is longer than toe 5 . a small inner metatarsal tubercle is present while outer metatarsal tubercle is absent . males are found with a distinct single subgular vocal sac . the call is unknown .
are normally smaller and smooth on the back . confusion is also possible with species of
an egg clutch was found in november near a male and female . it contained 18 eggs with a diameter of 4 mm . the gelatinous egg capsule measured 6 mm in diameter . tadpoles are unknown .
frank glaw and miguel vences ( m . vences at tu - bs . de ) , assistant professor and curator of vertebrates at the institute for biodiversity and ecosystem dynamics in the zoological museum at the university of amsterdam
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
this species is known only from extreme south - eastern madagascar in the anosyenne mountains , andohahela national park and tsitongambarika ( north of tolagnaro ) , between 700 - 1 , 900m asl . it is known from fewer than five threat - defined locations , and its extent of occurrence ( eoo ) is 2 , 317 km
* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .
will find all uses of
hyl . . .
anywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .
will find all uses of
. . . hyla
anywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla
will find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor
interprets this as
lithobates or pipiens
so will find the union of all records that contain either
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or
pipiens
: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens
interprets this as
lithobates and pipiens
so will return all records that have the character string
lithobates pipiens
anywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .
trueb ' s madagascar treefrog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 90 ) .
please note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .
for access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .
copyright © 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .
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gesonia obeditalis is a species of moth of the noctuidae family .

it is found from eastern africa , the seychelles , the maldives and the oriental tropics of india , sri lanka east to the philippines , the sula islands and australia .

the adult moth has brown wings with a scalloped dark brown band near the margin .

the hindwings are similar in pattern to the forewings but are a paler shade of brown .

gesonia obeditalis

available , but without included species until walker , 1862 , ibidem 24 : 1100 . h . crambisata is a junior subjective synonym of gesonia obeditalis walker , [ 1859 ] .
gesonia sp . ( erebidae ) . the wings are brown with a scalloped dark brown submarginal band .
see also gesonia walker , [ 1859 ] ; dragana walker , [ 1859 ] ; maresia walker , 1866 ; and amblygoes butler , 1879 .
poole ( 1989 ) included dragana walker , 1859 ; hileia walker , 1862 ; apphadana walker , 1866 : 1212 ( preoccupied ) ; maresia walker , 1866 ; and amblygoes butler , 1879 as junior synonyms of gesonia walker , 1859 .
this caterpillar is yellow with brown lines . it is missing two pairs of prolegs , and so moves in a looper fashion . it feeds on various species of
the adult moth of this species has brown wings , each with a scalloped dark brown submarginal band . the hindwings have a similar pattern to the forewings but are somewhat paler . the wingspan is about 2 cms .
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. this and the next species are very hard to separate , both being variable in shade and the extent to which the forewing postmedial is invested with black markings , particularly a pair of larger ones , one subcostally , the other subdorsally . in
the postmedials are always more sinuous , with the pinkish band on their distal side more irregular , indented by paler lunules distad . both species are fawn with a series of oblique pinkish fasciae on the forewing and curved ones on the hindwing , the postmedial being the strongest fascia in each case . the male antennae are bipectinate in
e . africa , seychelles , maldives , oriental tropics east to the philippines and sula is . , australia ( nielsen
. most records are from open , cultivated and disturbed habitats in the lowlands .
. bell ( ms ) reared the larva in india . it is cylindrical , a semi - looper with prolegs entirely absent from a3 and a4 . t1 overlaps the vertex of the head , which is light yellow , blotched brownish . the body is light yellow with seven longitudinal brownish - orange longitudinal bands : dorsal , subdorsal , lateral and subspiracular . a1 - a3 are suffused velvety black dorsally near their posterior half . a4 - a6 show this also , but to a much lesser extent , though these segments have black suffusion ventrally . the ventral surface is also light yellow . the larva lives stretched on the stems of grasses and feeds on the flower spikes , looping strongly when in motion . pupation is in a densely woven , white , silken cocoon that incorporates debris . the site of pupation is probably on the ground or under ground , but no soil was present in the rearing cage . the pupa lacks a bloom . the host plants are grasses ( gramineae ) , but yunus & ho ( 1980 ) also recorded
acantholipes mesoscota hampson , 1904 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 14 ( 81 ) : 171 ; tl : nassau
walker , [ 1859 ] list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . supplement list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 16 : 1 - 253 ( [ 1859 ] ) , 17 : 255 - 508 ( 1859 ) , 18 : 509 - 798 ( 1859 ) , 19 : 799 - 1036 ( 1859 )
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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genus : hileia walker , 1861 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . ( 23 ) : 948 [ key ] . [ nomenclaturally available , but without included species until walker , 1862 , ibidem 24 : 1100 . ] [ bhl ]
type - species : hileia crambisata walker , 1862 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . : 1100 . [ bhl ]
type specimens : type ( s ) [ india ] : north hindostan , ( ? depository ) . .
this genus was originally proposed in the geometridae , but has since been transferred to the noctuidae , where it was included by hampson , 1894 , fauna br . india ( moths ) 2 : 520 .
poole ( 1989 ) included dagassa walker , 1858 ; and apphadana walker , 1865 : 1094 as junior synonyms of renodes guenée , 1952 .
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. see the generic description ; the mauve submarginal markings on dark brown are distinctive .
. most older material is from mountain localities ( g . marapok , g . kinabalu ) but without altitude data , though there is a specimen from the lowlands of kalimantan in the vicinity of pontianak . in recent surveys a single female has been recorded in lowland forest at labi ( 30 - 60m ) in brunei , and one specimen was taken in the understorey of primary forest at 170m near the danum valley field centre in sabah .
, india , thailand ( vk ) , burma , andamans , peninsular malaysia , singapore , borneo , sulawesi , seram , new guinea .
. only four bornean specimens have been seen , one from sarawak without precise data , one from 250m in lowland forest on the limestone .
g . api during the mulu survey and one from 85 miles above ( upstream from ? ) pontianak in kalimantan . the fourth ( with three more recorded ; s . j . willott , unpublished data ) was from lowland forest at 170m near the danum valley field centre . chey ( 1994 ) recorded four in his survey of lowland softwood plantations in sabah .
. see the generic description . the species could be confused with geometrids in the ennomine tribe baptini , or some drepanidae in the genera
hampson , with its slender build and general facies , but the abdomen is distinctly longer than the hindwings , and the margins of both fore - and hindwings are angled . the dark tufting of the leg joints is also distinctive .
, thailand ( vk ) , peninsular malaysia ( barlow colln ) , sumatra , borneo .
. this is an infrequent species of lowland forest , not recorded above 200m . during the mulu survey five out of eight specimens were taken in wet heath forest . in the vicinity of the danum valley field centre ( s . j . willott , unpublished data ) , the species was always recorded in the understorey of undisturbed forest .
. there is marked sexual dimorphism as noted in the generic description . males tend also to be more strongly fasciated diffusely in dull green - brown and mauve - grey . there are white dots within a dull green submarginal band . in the synonymy above ,
. the species is uncommon . in recent surveys , three specimens have been taken in lowland forest understorey at 150m near the danum valley field centre , and two in lowland forest in brunei ( labi at 30 - 60m and ulu temburong at 300m ) . singletons have been taken in coastal and secondary forest at seria in brunei and ( the only female ) in lower montane forest at 1000m on g . mulu .
1 , ♂ : australia , northern territory , darwin , lee point road , 32 m , 2 . april 2009 lux ; ( det . & phot . : egbert friedrich )
1 - 3 & 4 - 6 , two ♂♂ : data see label ( coll . & photos : egbert friedrich )
1 - 3 & 4 - 6 , two ♀♀ : data see label ( coll . & photos : egbert friedrich )
( [ 1859 ] : 75 - 76 ) [ from copyright - free scans at www . biodiversitylibrary . org ]
original description : w alker , f . [ 1859 ] ( 1858 ) : list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum 16 : 1 - 253 .
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lepidoptera of taiwan . volume 1 . part 2 : checklist | nepticulidae and opostegidae of the world , version 2 . 0
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