trichomycterus is a genus of pencil catfish , the largest genus of the family trichomycteridae with over 160 species currently described .

this genus is native to freshwater habitats in central and south america .

these fish are generally small , usually about 5 to 15 cm ( 2 – 6 in ) sl , although the largest , t. rivulatus , can reach more than twice this size .

species differ from one another primarily in body proportions , fin ray counts , and colouration .

despite their relatively small size , some , such as t. punctulatus , support fisheries and are important in the local cuisine .

trichomycterus

de novo assembly and analysis of the chilean pencil catfish trichomycterus areolatus transcriptome . - pubmed - ncbi
type locality of trichomycterus ytororo ; tabay waterfalls , tabay stream , jardín américa , misiones , argentina .
comparative characters among the species assigned to the trichomycterus stawiarski group and its possible sister taxon t . perkos .
morphometric data for holotype and paratypes of trichomycterus balios . sd = standard deviation ; n = number of specimens .
morphometric data for holotype and paratypes of trichomycterus diatropoporos . sd = standard deviation ; n = number of specimens .
morphometric data for holotype and paratypes of trichomycterus poikilos . sd = standard deviation ; n = number of specimens .
morphometric data for holotype and paratypes of trichomycterus brachykechenos . sd = standard deviation ; n = number of specimens .
a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from south brazil and redescription of t . iheringi ( eigenmann )
a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from south brazil and redescription of t . iheringi ( eigenmann )
eukaryotic orthologous groups ( kog ) characterization of trichomycterus areolatus transcripts . putative transcript functions were assessed and transcriptome completeness was evaluated using kog analysis . the trichomycterus areolatus transcriptome and mrna nucleotide entries from ncbi of cyprinus carpio , salmo salar , and danio rerio were assigned kog terms . the three transcriptomes have similar distributions , supporting the completeness of the trichomycterus areolatus transcriptome .
trichomycterus sp . 2 . becker et al . ( 2013 : table 1 , listed , taquari - antas river basin ) .
trichomycterus sp . 1 . becker et al . ( 2013 : table 1 , listed , taquari - antas river basin ) .
trichomycterus sp . 3 . becker et al . ( 2013 : table 1 , listed , taquari - antas river basin ) .
about bullockia gen . nov . , trichomycterus mendozensis n . sp . and revision of the family trichomycteridae ( pisces , siluriformes )
seven new species of the catfish genus trichomycterus ( teleostei : siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from southeastern brazil and redescription of t . brasiliensis
this study revealed an astonishing undescribed diversity of trichomycterus in a relatively small region with four undescribed species , along with one species recently described in 2011 . we expect that the revision of other understudied basins in southern brazil will reveal new and undescribed species of trichomycterus .
a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from south brazil and redescription of t . iheringi ( eigenmann ) | wosiacki | zootaxa
trichomycterus maracaya , a new catfish from the upper río paraná , southeastern brazil ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) , with notes on the t . brasiliensis species–complex
in the present study the trichomycterus in the laguna dos patos system are reviewed through an extensive analysis of large collections of specimens . four new species are recognized in addition to t . tropeiro . comments on distributions and an identification key are given for the species of trichomycterus from the laguna dos patos system .
paratypes of trichomycterus poikilos ( ufrgs 14992 , 40 . 5 - 92 . 5 mm sl ) with ontogenetic variation in coloration . specimens represented in scale .
1 . pelvic fins absent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trichomycterus tropeiro
trichomycterus ytororo , holotype , ci–fml 7240 , 94 . 2 mm sl ; argentina , misiones province , jardín américa , tabay stream , paraná river basin .
trichomycterus anhanga , a new species of miniature catfish related to t . hasemani and t . johnsoni ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the amazon basin , brazil
six troglobitic species are in the genus trichomycterus : t . chaberti , t . itacarambiensis , t . santanderensis , t . spelaeus and t . uisae .
trichomycterus brachykechenos , holotype , mcn 18929 , 61 . 1 mm sl , brazil , rio grande do sul state , municipality of caraá , rio do sinos .
trichomycterus diatropoporos , holotype , mcp 46947 , 58 . 8 mm sl , brazil , rio grande do sul state , municipality of nova prata , rio da prata at passo do despraiado .
autopalatine of trichomycterus brachykechenos , paratype , ufrgs 16245 , 41 . 9 mm sl , dorsal view . arrow indicates the concavity of mesial margin . scale bar = 0 . 5 mm .
trichomycterus balios , holotype , ufrgs 16229 , 82 . 0 mm sl , brazil , rio grande do sul state , municipality of são francisco de paula , rio santa cruz , rio caí basin .
o gênero trichomycterus é revisado no sistema da laguna dos patos e cinco espécies são reconhecidas . trichomycterus tropeiro ferrer & malabarba tem distribuição restrita , ocorrendo somente na porção mais superior do rio das antas . trichomycterus balios , sp . n . , distribui - se na porção superior das bacias dos rios das antas e caí . trichomycterus diatropoporos , sp . n . , é endêmica da bacia do rio da prata , tributário do rio das antas . trichomycterus poikilos , sp . n . , é amplamente distribuída nos cursos superiores da bacia do rio jacuí e tributários dos rios taquari - antas . trichomycterus brachykechenos , sp . n . , é endêmica do curso superior do rio dos sinos . as espécies novas distinguem - se de grande parte de seus congêneres pelo baixo número de raios na nadadeira peitoral ( i + 5 - 6 ) e o primeiro raio da nadadeira peitoral não prolongado como filamento , exceto de t . davisi , t . mboycy , t . naipi , t . papilliferus , t . payaya , t . perkos , t . plumbeus e t . tropeiro , distinguindo - se destas por outros caracteres . a distribuição do gênero no sistema da laguna dos patos é discutida e uma chave taxonômica é fornecida
castellanos - morales , c . a . 2007 . trichomycterus santanderensis : a new species of troglomorphic catfish ( siluriformes , trichomycteridae ) from colombia . zootaxa , 1541 : 49 - 55 . [ links ]
representative photo of organism - trichomycterus areolatus organism photos of unspecified sex taken from two different locations in chile , the maule river ( top ) and pangue river ( bottom ) . trichomycterus areolatus displays intimate contact with both sediment and the water column . morphology and behavior is typical of fish who dwell in fast - moving streams . photos were provided by courtesy of pablo reyes , fundación ictiológica ( chile ) .
geographic distribution . the review of a large number of lots of the trichomycteridae collected in practically all portions of laguna dos patos system revealed that trichomycterus is restricted to the northern portion of that basin along the middle and upper stretches of the rio jacuí and middle and upper stretches of its large tributaries , the rio do sinos , rio caí , rio taquari - antas , and rio pardo ( fig . 8 ) . the few lots of trichomycterus listed in fish collections as having originated in the southern portion of the laguna dos patos system proved to be ituglanis , a genus which has an external morphology very similar to trichomycterus .
arratia , g . 1998 . silvinichthys , a new genus of trichomycterid catfishes from the argentinian andes , with redescription of trichomycterus nigricans . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 9 : 347 - 370 . [ links ]
species of trichomycterus inhabit a diversity of habitats throughout south and central america from costa rica in the north to patagonia in the south and from lowland atlantic rainforest in the east to andean streams in the west . a number of species of trichomycterus are known from various mid - to high - elevation localities in western argentina ; in these upland regions the species of trichomycterus are among the few , or sometimes only , fishes occupying water bodies at middle to higher elevations . about 60 nominal species are endemic to the river basins draining the andes and hills of the guianan shield and about 30 species are endemic to river basins draining the brazilian shield .
the species of the genus trichomycterus inhabiting the laguna dos patos system are reviewed and five species are recognized . trichomycterus tropeiro ferrer & malabarba has a restricted range and is endemic to the uppermost portion of the rio das antas . trichomycterus balios , n . sp . , is distributed in the upper portion of the rio das antas and rio caí basins . trichomycterus diatropoporos , n . sp . , is endemic to the rio da prata basin , a tributary of the rio das antas . trichomycterus poikilos , n . sp . , is widely distributed in the upper portion of the rio jacuí basin and tributaries of the rio taquari - antas . trichomycterus brachykechenos , n . sp . , is endemic to the upper portion of the rio dos sinos . the new species are distinguishable from most congeners , except for t . davisi , t . mboycy , t . naipi , t . payaya , t . papilliferus , t . perkos , t . plumbeus , and t . tropeiro by the lower number of pectoral - fin rays ( i + 5 - 6 ) and by the first pectoral - fin ray not prolonged as a filament . other characters distinguish the new taxa from these eight species . the distribution of the genus in the laguna dos patos system is discussed and a taxonomic key is provided .
ardila rodríguez , c . a . 2008 . trichomycterus cachiraensis ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) , nueva especie del río cachira , cuencia del río magdalena , colombia . dahlia , 10 : 33 - 41 . [ links ]
castellanos - morales , c . a . 2010 . trichomycterus sketi : a new species of subterranean catfish ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the andean cordillera of colombia . biota colombiana 11 : 33 - 41 . [ links ]
costa , w . j . e . m . ( 1992 ) description de huit nouvelles espèces du genre trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) , du brésil oriental . revue française d ' aquariologie et herpétologie , 18 , 101–110 .
fernández , l . & vari , r . p . ( 2000 ) new species of trichomycterus ( teleostei : siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) lacking a pelvic fin and girdle from the andes of argentina , copeia , 4 , 990–996 .
ferrer , j . & malabarba , l . r . ( 2011 ) a new trichomycterus lacking pelvic fins and pelvic girdle with a very restricted range in southern brazil ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . zootaxa , 2912 , 59–67 .
trichomycterus poikilos , holotype , ufrgs 16239 , 63 . 3 mm sl , brazil , rio grande do sul state , municipality of júlio de castilhos , arroio passo dos buracos or tipiaia on road br - 158 , upper rio jacuí basin .
garcia - melo lj , villa - navarro fa , donascimiento c . a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the upper río magdalena basin , colombia . zootaxa . 2016 . 4117 ( 2 ) , 226 . pmid : 27395171
trichomycterus brachykechenos is apparently endemic to the upper course of the rio do sinos . one sample tentatively identified as t . poikilos was found in other stretch of the upper basin of the rio dos sinos , but not syntopic with t . brachykechenos .
trichomycterus ytororo is so far known only from its type locality , the tabay waterfalls in the tabay stream ( fig 5 ) , a tributary of the left bank of the paraná river , province of misiones , northeast of argentina ( fig 4 ) .
costa , w . j . e . m . 1992 . description de huit nouvelles espèces du genre trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) , du brésil oriental . revue française d ' aquariologie et herpétologie , 18 : 101 - 110 . [ links ]
ferrer , j . & l . r . malabarba . 2011 . a new trichomycterus lacking pelvic fins and pelvic girdle with a very restricted range in southern brazil ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . zootaxa , 2912 : 59 - 67 . [ links ]
de pinna , m . c . c . 1992b . trichomycterus castroi , a new species of trichomycterid catfish from the rio iguaçu of southeastern brazil ( teleostei : siluriformes ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 3 : 89 - 95 . [ links ]
a new species of the genus trichomycterus is described from the rio uruguai drainage , rio grande do sol state , brazil , with a single paratype from the rio paranapanema basin , são paulo state . both rivers are tributaries within the rio paraná watershed .
the non - monophyletic nature of the group and the long and complicated taxonomic history has placed trichomycterus the most formidable problem in the systematics of the tricomycteridae [ 3 ] . many species of trichomycterus have uninformative descriptions and are associated to old type material , limiting the applicability of the name only to the types [ 24 ] . currently , the genus contains over 170 species [ 6 ] , however , its known diversity remains increasing along the recent years . even with these obstacles , species groups within trichomycterus were defined based on morphological characteristics [ 11 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ] , some of them constantly redefined and re - diagnosed , such as the trichomycterus brasiliensis species complex [ 14 , 32 , 33 ] , which , to date , its monophyly could not be consistently assessed [ 34 ] . besides , these characters and all species included on these groups were not placed into a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis , therefore with the possibility of representing artificial groups due to possible parallelisms .
barbosa , m . a . & costa , w . j . e . m . ( 2003a ) trichomycterus potschi ( siluriformes : loricarioidei ) : a new trichomycterid catfish from coastal streams of southeastern brazil . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 14 , 281–287 .
geographic distribution of species of trichomycterus in the laguna dos patos system . some symbols represent more than one collection locality . stars represent type localities . trichomycterus balios ( green symbols ) , t . brachykechenos ( red symbols ) , t . diatropoporos ( brown symbols ) , t . poikilos ( yellow symbols ) , trichomycterus cf . poikilos ( yellow lozenge ) and t . tropeiro ( blue symbols ) , abbreviations : 1 , rio dos sinos ; 2 , rio caí ; 3 , rio das antas ; 3 ' , rio taquari - antas ; 4 , rio da prata ; 5 , rio carreiro ; 6 , rio guaporé ; 7 , rio forqueta ; 8 , rio pardo ; 9 , rio jacuí ; 10 , laguna dos patos ; and 11 , rio mampituba basin .
fernández , l . & r . q . chuquihuamaní . 2007 . a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the andean cordillera of peru , with comments on relationships within the genus . zootaxa , 1545 : 49 - 57 . [ links ]
fernández , l . & k . osinaga . ( 2006 ) a new trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from aguarague national park of the bolivian preandean region , with comments on relationships within of the genus . environmental biology of fishes , 75 , 385–393 . urltoken
trichomycterus cachiraensis possess the posterior cranial fontanel reduced to a small round opening restricted to the parieto - supraoccipital - condition identical to that reported for ituglanis ( costa & bockmann , 1993 ) - and the anterior cranial fontanel variable ( ardila rodríguez , 2008 : fig . 4 ) . trichomycterus sketi has three openings with triangle shape : the anterior cranial fontanel between frontals , and the posterior cranial fontanel divided in one orifice between frontals and the other in the parieto - supraoccipital ( castellanos - morales , 2010 : fig . 3 ) .
lima , s . m . q . & costa , w . j . e . m . ( 2004 ) trichomycterus giganteus ( siluriformes : loricarioidea : trichomycteridae ) : a new catfish from the rio guandu basin , southeastern brazil . zootaxa , 761 , 1–6 .
comparative material examined . nematogenyidae : nematogenys inermis ; 1 ( c & s ) ufrgs 3955 . trichomycteridae . copionodontinae : copionodon pecten , 6 ( c & s ) mzusp 42462 . trichogeninae : trichogenes longipinnis , 3 ( c & s ) mzusp 63478 . trichomycterinae : eremophilus mutisii , 1 ( c & s ) mzusp 35409 - 1 ( c & s ) amnh 56092 ; e . candidus ( paratypes ) , 5 ( 2 c & s ) mzusp 11762 ; trichomycterus n . sp . a , 7 ( c & s ) mzusp 25022 ; trichomycterus n . sp . b , 2 mzusp uncat . ; trichomycterus naipi mpeg 6699 ( holotype ) ; ( paratypes ) , 2 mzusp 38788 - trichomycterus papilliferus mpeg 6692 ( holotype ) ; trichomycterus mboycy ( holotype ) mpeg 6695 ; trichomycterus taroba mpeg 6689 ( holotype ) ; trichomycterus plumbeus mpeg 6686 ( holotype ) ; t . nigricans , 1 ( c & s ) mcp 10649 ; t . castroi , 1 ( c & s ) mhnci 7881 - 1 mhnci 7643 ; t . iheringi , 8 ( 1c & s ) mhnci 7916 ; t . davisi , 2 ( c & s ) mcp 10646 - 34 mzusp 38783 ; t . brasiliensis , 15 ( 2c & s ) mzusp uncat . ; t . mimonha , 4 mzusp 34344 - 5 mcp 18021 ; t . stawiarski , 44 ( 3c & s ) mzusp uncat . ; t . rivulatus , 6 ( 1c & s ) rom 403409 ; bullockia maldonadoi , 1 ( c & s ) mzusp 36958 ; hatcheria macraei , 2 ( c & s ) mzusp 35687 ; scleronema minutum , 13 ( c & s ) mcp 11169 ; s . operculatum , 1 ( c & s ) mcp 9315 ; ituglanis sp . , 13 ( 5 c & s ) mnrj 11489 ; ituglanis proops , 7 mzusp 36502 - 2 muzsp 46902 - 2 mzusp 39027 .
3 . maxillary barbel extending beyond posterior margin of interopercular patch of odontodes , usually reaching or extending beyond posterior margin of the pectoral - fin insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trichomycterus brachykechenos
barbosa , m . a . & w . j . e . m . costa . 2003 . trichomycterus potschi ( siluriformes : loricarioidei ) a new trichomycterid catfish from coastal streams of southeastern brazil . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 14 : 281 - 287 . [ links ]
wosiacki , w . b . & j . c . garavello . 2004 . five new species of trichomycterus from the rio iguaçu ( paraná basin ) , southern brazil ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 15 : 1 - 16 . [ links ]
wosiacki , w . b . & de pinna , m . c . c . ( 2008 ) trichomycterus igobi , a new catfish species from the rio iguaçu drainage : the largest head in trichomycteridae ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . neotropical ichthyology , 6 , 17–23 . urltoken
alencar , a . r . & w . j . e . m . costa . 2006 . trichomycterus pauciradiatus , a new catfish species from the upper rio paraná basin , southeastern brazil ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . zootaxa , 1269 : 43 - 49 . [ links ]
wosiacki , w . b . & m . c . c . de pinna . 2008 . trichomycterus igobi , a new catfish species from the rio iguaçu drainage : the largest head in trichomycteridae ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . neotropical ichthyology , 6 : 17 - 23 . [ links ]
datovo , a . , carvalho , m . & ferrer , j . ( 2012 ) a new species of the catfish genus trichomycterus from the la plata river basin , southern brazil , with comments on its putative phylogenetic position ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . zootaxa , 3327 , 33–44 .
garcia - melo , l . j . , villa - navarro , f . a . & donascimiento , c . ( 2016 ) a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the upper río magdalena basin , colombia . zootaxa , 4117 ( 2 ) , 226–40 . urltoken
citation : terán ge , ferrer j , benitez m , alonso f , aguilera g , mirande jm ( 2017 ) living in the waterfalls : a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from tabay stream , misiones , argentina . plos one 12 ( 6 ) : e0179594 . urltoken
lima , s . m . q . , h . lazzarotto & w . j . e . m . costa . 2008 . a new species of trichomycterus ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from lagoa feia drainage , southeastern brazil . neotropical ichthyology , 6 : 315 - 322 . [ links ]
this genus is defined by the lack of specializations found in other trichomycterids and is certainly polyphyletic . although known to contain many species , trichomycterus is poorly known with many of the known species based on brief descriptions . many species have been described recently and many more are waiting to be described .
several species of trichomycterus have the deeper skin layer ( = inner skin layer ) usually composed of larger blotches and spots , formed by densely grouped chromatophores ( bockmann & sazima , 2004 ) . among the species from laguna dos patos system , trichomycterus balios , t . diatropoporos , and t . tropeiro share this pattern of the inner skin layer . both t . balios and t . tropeiro possess black circular blotches variable in size on the dorsal and lateral surface of body over a lighter background , while t . diatropoporos has black blotches variable in size and shape coalescent dorsally on a lighter background .
bockmann , f . a . & i . sazima . 2004 . trichomycterus maracaya , a new catfish from the upper rio paraná , southeastern brazil ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) , with notes on the t . brasiliensis species - complex . neotropical ichthyology , 2 : 61 - 74 . [ links ]
barbosa , m . a . & costa , w . j . e . m . ( 2010 ) seven news species of catfish genus trichomycterus ( teleostei : siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) : from southeastern brazil and re - description of t . brasiliensis . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 21 , 97–122 .
datovo , a . , m . carvalho & j . ferrer . 2012 . a new species of the catfish genus trichomycterus from the la plata river basin , southern brazil , with comments on its putative phylogenetic position ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . zootaxa , 3327 : 33 - 44 . [ links ]
barbosa , m . a . & w . j . e . m . costa . 2010 . seven new species of the catfish genus trichomycterus ( teleostei : siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from southeastern brazil and redescription of t . brasiliensis . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters , 21 : 97 - 122 . [ links ]
pelvic girdle of trichomycterus diatropoporos , paratype , ufrgs 16237 , 57 . 8 mm sl , dorsal view . abbreviations : bs , basipterygium ; ep , external process ; ip , internal process ; mp , medial process ; pr , pelvic - fin rays ; ps , pelvic splint . scale bar = 1 mm .
in this paper , we present a new species assignable to the genus trichomycterus which is markedly distinct from all other forms so far described . a number of conspicuous morphological characteristics set it apart from all others species as yet known in the genus . for instance , its very large head distinguishes it at once from all other species so far known in trichomycterus , and in fact from all other trichomycterid . other characters of external and internal morphology also unambiguously support its specific distinctiveness . the new form is the tenth species of trichomycterus described from the rio iguaçu , a drainage that contains an impressive radiation of the genus , which only recently received attention from fish systematics ( wosiacki & garavello , 2004 ; wosiacki & de pinna , in press ) . character evidence indicates that the new species is closely related to t . stawiarski and to a second new species , t . sp . c ( wosiacki & de pinna , in press ) , also from the rio iguaçu .
4 ' . lateral surface of body mottled or with stripes , i + 5 pectoral - fin rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trichomycterus poikilos
color pattern . trichomycterus balios , t . diatropoporos , and t . poikilos shares the two distinct layers of pigmentation in the skin of large specimens as reported for t . castroi by de pinna ( 1992b ) , t . brasiliensis , t . iheringi , t . maracaya , t . mimonha , t . potschi , and undescribed species of the t . brasiliensis complex by bockmann & sazima ( 2004 ) , and t . crassicaudatus , t . diabolus , t . giganteus , t . igobi , t . perkos , t . stawiarski , and t . tropeiro by datovo et al . ( 2012 ) . among the species from laguna dos patos system , only trichomycterus brachykechenos lacks the two distinct layers . the distribution of these patterns across trichomycterus species , however , is mostly unknown because it is missing in most species descriptions or because it is difficult to recognize the two skin layers in specimens preserved for a long period of time ( datovo et al . , 2012 ) .
arratia , g . , a . chang , s . menu - marque & g . rojas . 1978 . about bullockia gen . nov . , trichomycterus mendozensis n . sp . and revision of the family trichomycteridae ( pisces , siluriformes ) . studies on neotropical fauna and environment , 13 : 157 - 194 . [ links ]
the cranial fontanel of trichomycterus megantoni is illustrated and described as
reduced between frontals and supraoccipital
( fernández & chuquihuamaní , 2007 : fig . 3 ) , a shape very similar to t . brachykechenos , which is absent or restricted to a very small opening anteriorly and elongate and restricted to the parieto - supraoccipital posteriorly ( fig . 2d ) . fernández & chuquihuamaní ( 2007 ) stated that the peculiar cranial fontanel of trichomycterus megantoni is probably an autopomorphy , but cannot be ascertained as unique in trichomycterinae because some species are rare or do not have their anatomy examined . indeed , the discovery of t . brachykechenos confirms that the condition is not unique in the subfamily trichomycterinae .
dutra , g . m . , wosiacki , w . b . & de pinna , m . c . c . ( 2012 ) trichomycterus anhanga , a new species of miniature catfish related to t . hasemani and t . johnsoni ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the amazon basin , brazil . neotropical ichthyology , 10 , 225–231 . urltoken
there is little doubt that closest relatives of t . igobi are to be found among other taxa now included in trichomycterus . the new species shares all synapomorphies for the clade including all trichomycterids except copionodontinae and trichogeninae , while lacking those that support the distal group composed of glanapteryginae , sarcoglanidinae , tridentinae , stegophilinae and vandelliinae ( de pinna , 1998 ) . taxa that fit neither of those clades are currently allocated in the trichomycterinae , demonstrably non - monophyletic ( costa & bockmann , 1993 ; wosiacki , 2002 ) . within that subfamily , t . igobi lacks the known synapomorphies for each of bullockia , eremophilus , hacheria , rhizosomichthys , and scleronema ( arratia , 1990 ) , ituglanis ( costa & bockmann , 1993 ) , and silvinichthys ( arratia , 1998 ; fernández & de pinna , 2005 ) . that leaves the genus trichomycterus as a default alternative for the inclusion of the new species . that genus is currently undiagnosable by synapomorphies and is the one that includes the majority of trichomycterine species . despite that , we consider that the inclusion of the new species in trichomycterus is the most reasonable course of action . we would not defend a new genus for t . igobi unless srictly required by phylogenetic criteria , which is not presently the case . inclusion in trichomycterus is further strengthened by evidence indicating that t . igobi is related to a subgroup of species currently allocated in that genus .
4 . lateral surface of body with blotches , i + 6 pectoral - fin rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trichomycterus diatropoporos
dutra , g . m . , w . b . wosiacki & m . c . c . de pinna . 2012 . trichomycterus anhanga , a new species of minature catfish related to t . hasemani and t . johnsoni ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from the amazon basin , brazil . neotropical ichthyology , 10 : 225 - 231 . [ links ]
trichomycteridae is a monophyletic group comprising seven monophyletic subfamilies ( copionodontinae , glanapteryginae , sarcoglanidinae , stegophilinae , trichogeninae , tridentinae , and vandelliinae ) and the recognized non–monophyletic subfamily trichomycterinae as presently conceived [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ] . among the eight genera of trichomycterinae , bullockia arratia , chang , menu - marque & rojas , eremophilus humboldt , hatcheria eigenmann , and rhizosomichthys miles , are monotypic based on autapomorphies ; scleronema eigenmann is a monophyletic group including three psamophyly species ; ituglanis costa & bockmann and silvinichthys arratia were proposed to allocate species previously included in trichomycterus valenciennes ; and lastly , trichomycterus lacks any diagnostic character being demonstrably non - monophyletic assemblage of species [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ] .
a new species assigned to the genus trichomycterus from the area of the waterfalls of tabay stream , paraná river basin , misiones , argentina , is described . trichomycterus ytororo sp . nov . is distinguished from all other species in the genus by the presence of 31–35 dorsal procurrent caudal - fin rays and the combination of some external characters such as : coloration , number of pectoral–fin rays and pores of the laterosensory canals . the new taxon belongs to a presumably monophyletic group of species composed of t . crassicaudatus , t . igobi , and t . stawiarski based on the presence of 24 or more thickly ossified and rigid procurrent caudal - fin rays with a slender distal tip extending along the tips of at least ten neural spines .
for further information see the paper : datovo , a . , m . carvalho , and j . ferrer . 2012 . a new species of the catfish genus trichomycterus from the la plata river basin , southern brazil , with comments on its putative phylogenetic position ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) . zootaxa 3327 : 33 - 44 , of which the abstract is available here .
transcript coverage of two model organisms . coverage of salmo salar and danio rerio predicted proteins by trichomycterus areolatus predicted proteins . predicted polypeptide sequences produced in this study were blasted against publically available non - redundant salmo salar proteins ( count = 112 , 089 ) and danio rerio proteins ( count = 81 , 931 ) . the length of the local alignment region reported by the blastp algorithm was subsequently divided by the length of the query sequence . compilation of these results indicated that a vast majority of trichomycterus areolatus predicted protein sequences exhibited greater than 90 % coverage of both danio rerio ( 64 . 7 % ) and salmo salar ( 68 . 9 % ) protein sequences , suggesting that the assembly produced a high degree of full - length transcripts .
during recent samplings in northeastern argentina we collected specimens of a remarkable new species of trichomycterus from waterfalls in the paraná river basin , which are described herein as a new species . the new taxon exhibits conspicuous characters that indicate a close relationship with t . crassicaudatus wosiacki & de pinna , t . igobi wosiacki & de pinna , and t . stawiarski ( miranda ribeiro ) .
barbosa , m . a . & w . j . e . m . costa . 2008 . description of a new species of catfish from the upper rio paraíba do sul basin , south - eastern brazil ( teleostei : siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) and re - description of trichomycterus itatiayae . aqua , international journal of ichthyology , 14 : 175 - 186 . [ links ]
kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes ( kegg ) transcriptomic analysis . kegg analysis was performed to functionally describe transcript functions and evaluate transcriptome completeness . to serve as comparisons mrna sequences for danio rerio , salmo salar , and cyprinus carpio were retrieved from ncbi and characterized into kegg pathways . the percent distribution shows a similar proportion among compared species indicating a complete transcriptome for trichomycterus areolatus .
the analysis of comparative material from adjacent drainages to the north and northeast of laguna dos patos system ( rio uruguay , rio tramandaí , and rio mampituba basins ) allow us to propose that three among the four new species are endemic to the laguna dos patos system , excepting t . balios , which occurs also in the headwaters of rio mampituba . however , their degree of endemism is variable . trichomycterus balios is distributed in the upper courses of rio das antas , rio caí , and rio mampituba basins ; t . poikilos is widely distributed in the upper courses of the rio jacuí basin and tributaries of the rio the taquari - antas ; t . brachykechenos and t . diatropoporos are known only from few localities in the rio dos sinos and the rio da prata basin respectively . trichomycterus tropeiro is also endemic to the laguna dos patos drainage and has a very restricted range , occurring only in headwaters of rio das antas ( ferrer & malabarba , 2011 ) . endemism and restricted ranges seem typical among species of trichomycterus , which is the dominant genus in the compilation of species with restricted - ranges in nogueira et al . ( 2010 ) , with 45 species .
right lower jaw of ( a ) trichomycterus diatropoporos , paratype , ufrgs 16237 , 57 . 8 mm sl in lateral view and ( b ) t . poikilos , paratype , mcp 22699 , 79 . 0 mm sl , in medial view . abbreviations : ar , anguloarticular ; cp , coronoid process ; de , dentary ; mc , meckel ' s cartilage . scale bar = 1 mm .
nevertheless , the several differences between the two species ( see diagnosis ) lead us to believe that they are not closely related and that this reduction is homoplastic among the two species . it reinforces the assumption of fernández & chuquihuamaní ( 2007 ) that cranial fontanel reduction must be interpreted as homoplastic among trichomycterus species , ituglanis , glanapterygines and stegophilines , according to the current understanding of the trichomycterid phylogeny .
2 . lateral surface of body with circular black blotches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trichomycterus balios
diagnosis . trichomycterus igobi is distinguishable from all other species currently in trichomycterus by its large head ( 23 . 8 - 26 . 8 % sl ) , which is proportionally the largest head in any trichomycteridae . other diagnostic features that distinguish the new species from most or all of its congeners include an almost entirely cartilaginous second hypobranchial ( with only vestigial ossification ) ; a mesially expanded palatine ossification ; a narrow cleithrum , falciform in shape ; and the lack of a proximal posterior concavity on the third ceratobranchial . the rigid spine - like morphology of individual procurrent rays of the caudal fin , the extension of the dorsal caudal - fin procurrent ray series ( extending for ten neural spine tips ) , and the presence of ten or eleven branchiostegal rays each distinguish t . igobi from all congeners except t . stawiarski and t . sp . c ( see discussion ) . other characters shared with various other species of trichomycterus yet useful for identification include a dorsal fin located on a concavity on dorsal profile of trunk ; the short caudal peduncle ( 15 . 4 - 19 . 7 % sl ) ; and the first anal - fin ray base posterior to the vertical through the base of the last dorsal - fin ray .
uma nova espécie de trichomycterus é descrita para a bacia do rio iguaçu , sul do brasil . trichomycterus igobi , nova espécie , é facilmente distinguida das outras espécies atualmente no gênero por sua cabeça extremamente grande ( 23 . 8 - 26 . 8 % sl ) , que é proporcionalmente a maior em trichomycterinae e talvez em trichomycteridae . esta característica , em combinação com o corpo relativamente alto , resulta em um aspecto geral atacarracado que é o mais extremo no gênero trichomycterus . outras características que distinguem a nova espécie da maioria ou todas as outras espécies do gênero incluem o curto pedúnculo caudal ( 15 . 4 - 19 . 7 % sl ) ; segundo hipo - branquial quase inteiramente cartilaginoso ( somente com ossificação vestigial ) ; palatino expandido medialmente ; cleitro estreito , de formato falciforme ; e ausência de uma concavidade posterior no terceiro ceratobranquial . a nova espécie parece formar um grupo monofilético com t . stawiarski e outra espécie não descrita ( t . sp . c ) , também endêmicas do rio iguaçu . como potenciais sinapomorfias , as três espécies compartilham uma morfologia rígida dos raios procurrentes caudais , que são semelhantes a espinhos ; área estendida de distribuição de raios procurrentes caudais dorsais ; e raios branquiostégios numerosos ( 10 ou 11 ) .
a new species of trichomycterid catfish , trichomycterus pascuali , is described from paranapanema basin and is distinguished from all congeners by the possession of five pectoral - fin rays and the absence of pelvic fin , girdle , and muscles . additional features further differentiate the new species from the other congeners lacking pelvic fins , t . candidus , t . catamarcensis , and t . tropeiro . the identification of t . pascuali is additionally corroborated by genetic divergence based on dna - barcode analysis . osteological and myological data unequivocally support the inclusion of the new species in the trichomycterinae and molecular analyses justify its allocation to the genus trichomycterus rather than eremophilus , a trichomycterine taxon traditionally diagnosed by the lack of pelvic fins . our genetic analysis further indicates that pelvic fins were independently lost in e . mutisii , t . candidus , and t . pascuali .
the monophyly of trichomycterinae was proposed by arratia ( 1990 ) based on four putative synapomorphies , but these were demonstrated invalid by datovo & bockmann ( 2010 ) , even with the exclusion of trichomycterus hasemani ( eigenmann , 1914 ) , and t . johnsoni ( fowler , 1932 ) . these two species , along with t . anhanga , are more closely related to other subfamilies of trichomycteridae ( de pinna , 1989 ; wosiacki , 2002 ; dutra et al . , 2012 ) . the new species , however , lack the diagnostic features of the subfamilies tridentinae , stegophilinae , vandelliinae , sarcoglanidinae , and glanapteryginae ( so - called tsvsg clade by costa & bockmann , 1993 ; de pinna , 1998 , datovo & bockmann , 2010 ) and the trichomycterine genera bullockia , eremophilus , hatcheria , rhizosomichthys , scleronema , and silvinichthys ( cf . eigenmann , 1918 ; arratia et al . , 1978 ; arratia , 1990 , 1998 ; wosiacki , 2002 ) . the new species also lack the three synapomorphies proposed by costa & bockmann ( 1993 ) for the genus ituglanis - except trichomycterus brachykechenos ( discussed below ) - which leads us to include them in the non - monophyletic genus trichomycterus ( de pinna , 1989 , 1998 ; datovo & bockmann , 2010 ) .
bockmann & sazima ( 2004 ) cited for t . brasiliensis species complex the superficial skin layer ( = outer skin layer ) formed by chromatophores gradually denser and organized in well - defined patches in progressively larger specimens , sometimes covering so intensely that hides the deeper skin layer ( bockmann & sazima , 2004 : fig . 11b ) . this superficial pigmentation in the largest specimens is distinct from that observed in trichomycterus balios , t . diatropoporos , and t . poikilos , which is composed by small spots and similar to the
freckled
pattern reported to trichomycterus perkos in datovo et al . ( 2012 ) , as well as for t . brasiliensis , t . castroi , t . crassicaudatus , t . diabolus , t . giganteus , t . igobi , t . maracaya , t . mimonha , t . stawiarski , and t . tropeiro .
trichomycterus areolatus is an endemic species of pencil catfish that inhabits the riffles and rapids of many freshwater ecosystems of chile . despite its unique adaptation to chile ' s high gradient watersheds and therefore potential application in the investigation of ecosystem integrity and environmental contamination , relatively little is known regarding the molecular biology of this environmental sentinel . here , we detail the assembly of the trichomycterus areolatus transcriptome , a molecular resource for the study of this organism and its molecular response to the environment . rna - seq reads were obtained by next - generation sequencing with an illumina® platform and processed using prinseq . the transcriptome assembly was performed using trinity assembler . transcriptome validation was performed by functional characterization with kog , kegg , and go analyses . additionally , differential expression analysis highlights sex - specific expression patterns , and a list of endocrine and oxidative stress related transcripts are included .
despite the broad distribution of the genus , most species have limited distributions and usually are restricted to only one river . wide - ranging species are most likely complexes of species that are difficult to differentiate , such as the t . brasiliensis species - complex . trichomycterus gorgona , from a small stream on gorgona island located west of the pacific coast of colombia , is the first known trichomycterid to be endemic to an offshore island .
da silva , c . c . f . , s . l . s . f . da matta , a . w . s . hilsdorf , f . langeani & a . p . marceniuk . 2010 . color pattern variation in trichomycterus iheringi ( eigenmann , 1917 ) ( siluriformes : trichomycteridae ) from rio itatinga and rio claro , são paulo , brazil . neotropical ichthyology , 8 : 49 - 56 . [ links ]
the tabay stream basin through 192 km from its headwaters at campo viera to its mouth on the paraná river , at jardín américa ( fig 4 ) . the stream bed is mainly composed of basaltic bedrock , in which sections with waterfalls and pools alternates all along its run . at the type locality ( tabay waterfall ; fig 5 ) , the stream is surrounded by remnants of the paranaense riparian forest , with its left margin degraded due to a camping site . this waterfall consists of three consecutive falls , the main one is 10m high and 20–50m wide , which drains into a narrow gorge . all specimens of trichomycterus ytororo were captured above the waterfalls at shallow areas ( about 1 meter depth or less ) or in rapids witha predominantly rocky bottom and strong current . trichomycterus davisi was the single congener recorded at the type locality , which was not collected syntopically with t . ytororo .
despite the high number of described species within trichomycterus , ferrer & malabarba ( 2011 ) highlighted the lack of taxonomic studies of this genus in the laguna dos patos and uruguay basins in southern brazil . notwithstanding the common occurrence of the genus in these basins , t . tropeiro ferrer & malabarba , 2011 endemic to the headwaters of rio das antas in laguna dos patos system is so far the only member of the genus recognized for that drainage .
trichomycterus crassicaudatus , t . igobi , and t stawiarski are endemic to the iguazú ( or iguaçu , in brazil ) river basin , a left bank tributary of the paraná river , while t . ytororo inhabits a downstream section of the same basin ( fig 5 ) . curiously , all these species are known from few collecting sites or only from their type localities ( as t . ytororo ) , possibly indicating some ecological constraints in their distributions .
dorsal view of urohyal of ( a ) trichomycterus balios , paratype , ufrgs 6831 , 81 . 7 mm sl ; ( b ) t . diatropoporos , paratype , ufrgs 16237 , 57 . 8 mm sl ; ( c ) t . poikilos , paratype , mcp 22699 , 79 . 0 mm sl ; and ( d ) t . brachykechenos , paratype , ufrgs 16245 , 41 . 9 mm sl . scale bar = 0 . 5 mm .
even so , the aforementioned presumably derived character states shared by the species herein proposed as belonging to the trichomycterus stawiarski group ( table 1 ) suggest their close relationship and the reduced number of branchiostegal rays in t . ytororo could be interpreted as a homoplastic feature . however , a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the genus is still needed to assess if those character states are more parsimoniously attributed to common ancestry or parallelisms and to test the monophyly of this putative clade .
gene ontology ( go ) analysis of the trichomycterus areolatus transcriptome . go functional analysis was performed on assigned proteins in order to evaluate transcript function and the overall completeness of the isolated transcriptome . go terms were given for each of the t . areolatus predicted proteins as well as the proteomes of salmo salar , cyprinus carpio , and danio rerio ( retrieved from ncbi ) . the distribution of protein functions closely match one another , suggesting the assembled transcriptome is complete .
morphological data for species are based on literature , personal observations and photographs from image database of the all catfishes species inventory ( morris et al . , 2006 ) , muséum national d ' histoire naturelle urltoken and california academy of sciences urltoken trichomycterus santaeritae ( eigenmann , 1918 ) and the species from t . hasemani group were not included in comparisons due to their reported relationship with non - trichomycterine taxa ( de pinna , 1989 ; dutra et al . , 2012 ) .
the new species proposed herein is allocated in the genus trichomycterus ( subfamily trichomycterinae ) due to the presence of all the synapomorphies for the clade that includes all the trichomycterids excepting the copionodontinae and trichogeninae and lacks those derived characters that support the clade comprising the subfamilies glanapteryginae , sarcoglanidinae , stegophilinae , tridentinae , and vandelliinae [ 3 ] . the presence of the levator internus 4 muscle originating from the neurocranial floor and the dorsal face of the posttemporo - supracleithrum , a synapomorphy for trichomycterinae latu sensu [ 13 ] , in the new taxon also supports its inclusion in the subfamily . among the trichomycterinae , the new taxon also lacks the diagnostic characters of bullockia , eremophilus , hatcheria , ituglanis , rhizosomichthys , scleronema , and silvinichthys [ 3 , 4 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ] . in view of these facts , the inclusion of the new species in the genus trichomycterus is the most plausible action for the moment .
besides both t . balios and t . poikilos occur in the rio taquari - antas drainage , they also show disjoint distributions . trichomycterus balios occurs to the east , in the rio da prata , a tributary in the right margin of the rio das antas , and tributaries of the rio das antas above the mouth of the rio da prata in both right and left margins . trichomycterus poikilos occurs to the west in the rio carreiro , rio guaporé and rio forqueta , all right margin tributaries of the rio taquari - antas , below the rio da prata , but is also widely distributed in the upper tributaries of the rio jacuí basin that are geographically close to the rio taquari - antas tributaries ( fig . 8 ) . the occurrence of t . poikilos in close proximity in the upper portions of the tributaries of two sub - drainages ( rio taquari - antas and upper rio jacuí ) may indicate headwater capture events among these small tributaries .
trichomycterus ytororo is distinguishable from all congeners by the presence of 31–35 dorsal caudal procurrent rays ( fig 3 ; vs . 29 or less ) . in addition , trichomycterus ytororo exhibits two characters shared only by three congeners ( table 1 ; t . crassicaudatus , t . igobi , and t . stawiarski ) : the procurrent caudal - fin rays thickly ossified and rigid with a slender distal tip and the dorsal procurrent caudal - fin rays extending along the tips of 10–13 neural spines ( fig 3 ; vs . procurrent caudal - fin rays thin and flexible with the dorsal ones extending for less than eight neural spines tips ) . trichomycterus ytororo can be further distinguished from t . crassicaudatus , t . igobi , and t . stawiarski by the number of branchiostegal rays ( 9 vs . 10–11 ) . trichomycterus ytororo can be further distinguished from t . igobi by the smaller head length ( 19 . 7–22 . 5 % vs . 23 . 8–26 . 8 % of sl ) , longest caudal peduncle ( 20 . 3–23 . 4 % vs . 15 . 4–19 . 7 % of sl ) and 4–7 pores in the trunk canal of the laterosensory system ( vs . two pores ) ; from t . crassicaudatus by the caudal - fin distal margin rounded in adults ( vs . forked ) , higher number of vertebrae ( 37–38 vs . 35–36 ) , lower number of ventral procurrent caudal - fin rays ( 13 vs . 17–18 ) , and the dorsal procurrent caudal - fin rays extending over the tips of 13 neural spines ( vs . dorsal procurrent caudal - fin rays extending over the tips of 12 neural spines ) ; and from t . stawiarski by the lower number of ventral procurrent caudal - fin rays ( 13 vs . 17 ) , the higher number of pectoral - fin rays ( i , 7 vs . i , 6 ) , and lower number of vertebrae ( 37–38 vs . 39 ) .
costa & bockmann ( 1993 ) suggest that ituglanis and scleronema are closely related to tsvsg clade based in two synapomorphies ( reduction of the interopercular patch of odontodes and urohyal thin and elongate ) , and de pinna ( 1998 ) reinforced the monophyly of this clade based on shared three or fewer abdominal vertebrae by its members . however , datovo & bockmann ( 2010 ) listed a unique derived character shared by at least five genera of the subfamily trichomycterinae ( bullockia , hatcheria , ituglanis , scleronema and trichomycterus ) , the posterior portion of the levator internus 4 originating from the dorsal face of the posttemporo - supracleithrum , and contested the utility of the characters that corroborated the monophyly of the clade scleronema + ituglanis + tsvsg ( costa & bockmann , 1993 ; de pinna , 1998 ) . according to datovo & bockmann ( 2010 ) , the reduction of the interopercular patch of odontodes and the thinness and elongation of urohyal lateral processes is present in many other trichomycterines ( e . g . , trichomycterus stawiarski and silvinichthys bortayro fernández & de pinna , 2005 ) and seem to be developed to varying degrees with a continuum of intermediate states between the more extreme conditions . trichomycterus balios , t . diatropoporos , and t . poikilos present the urohyal with lateral processes with wide bases and decreasing in width distally with rounded tips , but t . brachykechenos possesses the lateral processes of urohyal thin and elongate with pointed tips ( fig . 5 ) , corroborating the statements of datovo & bockmann ( 2010 ) .
in the trichomycterus species the cranial fontanel is normally divided in two openings separated by epiphyseal bar : the anterior fontanel which is a small rounded opening situated between frontals , and the posterior fontanel which is long and narrow extending from posterior portion of frontals to parieto - supraoccipital . a reduced cranial fontanel is present in at least other three species of the genus : t . cachiraensis ardila rodríguez , 2008 , t . sketi castellanos - morales , 2011 from colombia , and t . megantoni from peru .
ecological data . specimens of trichomycterus igobi were collected in the same general locality as t . sp . c in the rio jordão , and presumably occupy the same kind of fast water , rocky - substrate environment reported for that species ( cf . wosiacki & de pinna , in press ) . the details of its microhabitat , however , are as yet unknown . the stomach of the cleared and stained specimen contained larvae of diptera ( simulidae ) , ephemeroptera , and trichoptera , indicating benthic feeding habits .
upper caudal plates of trichomycterus balios , lateral view , anterior to left . ( a ) = paratype , mcp 41292 , 64 . 7 mm sl ; ( b ) paratype , mcp 41292 , 72 . 3 mm sl . abbreviations : hu3 , hypural 3 ; hu4 + hu5 , complex plate formed by co - ossification of hypurals 4 and 5 ; hu3 + hu4 + hu5 , complex plate formed by co - ossification of hypurals 3 , 4 and 5 . scale bar = 0 . 5 mm .


chilorhinophis gerardi , commonly known as gerard 's black and yellow burrowing snake , is a species of venomous snake in the family atractaspididae .

the species is endemic to africa .

chilorhinophis gerardi

apostolepis gerardi boulenger 1913 : 103 parkerophis gerardi — barbour & amaral 1927 chilorhinophis gerardi — de witte & laurent 1947 : 54 chilorhinophis gerardi gerardi — loveridge 1958 chilorhinophis gerardi gerardi — broadley 1959 chilorhinophis gerardi — frank & ramus 1995 chilorhinophis gerardi — welch 1994 : 43 chilorhiniophis [ sic ] gerardi — broadley 1998 chilorhinophis gerardi — broadley et al . 2003 : 96 chilorhinophis gerardi — wallach et al . 2014 : 158 chilorhinophis gerardi — spawls et al . 2018 : 465 chilorhinophis gerardi tanganyikae loveridge 1951 : 195 chilorhinophis gerardi tanganyikae loveridge 1958 chilorhinophis gerardi tanganyikae — broadley & howell 1991 : 29
chilorhinophis gerardi by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow
battersby , j . c . 1950 . a new amphisbaenid lizard from tanganika territory and notes on the rare snake chilorhinophis . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 12 ) 3 : 413 - 417
chilorhinophis carpenteri , or the liwale two - headed snake , is a species of venomous snake in the atractaspididae family . = = geographic range = = it is endemic to africa and is found in mozambique and southeastern tanzania . = = taxonomy = = it was originally named parkerophis carpenteri . = = etymology = = the specific name , carpenteri , honors the type specime . . .
the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
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urltoken
snake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )
working manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
update 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !
images provided by flickr - / inaturalist - api . sporadic false assignments may occur .
? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )
gerard ' s black and yellow burrowing snake can be identified by its small slender body , the round pupils of its eyes , the 3 black stripes on a yellow background that are distinctive and it strictly nocturnal lifestyle . it grows to an average length of 40 cm and a maximum length of 50 cm .
eats other small snakes ( including its own species ) , amphisbaenids and other burrowing reptiles .
oviparous ( egg - laying ) , lays up to six eggs in summer .
broadley , d . g . 1983 . fitzsimons ' snakes of southern africa . delta books , johannesburg .
marais , j . 2004 . a complete guide to snakes of southern africa . struik publishing , cape town .
tanganyikae : w tanzania , se zaire , n zambia ; type locality : nyamkolo , lake tanganyika , zambia .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : mrac 1205 , a 315 mm male ( gérard ) . holotype : mcz r - 30402 [ tanganyikae ]
venomous ! taxonomy : broadley et al . 2003 listed this species under atractaspididae : aparallactinae . habitat : dry savannah
named after dr . pol gerard ( 1886 - 1961 ) a physician , histologist , anatomist , and naturalist and professor of histology and ( 1931 - 1961 ) at the institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique . gerard collected the holotype .
barbour , t . ; amaral , a . d . 1927 . studies on african ophidia . bulletin of the antivenin institute of america 1 ( 1 ) : 25 - 27
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
boulenger , g . a . 1913 . description de deux reptiles nouveaux provenant du katanga . revue zoologique africaine , 3 : 103 - 105 - get paper here
broadley , d . & blaylock 2013 . the snakes of zimbabwe and botswana . chimaira , frankfurt , 387 pp . [ book review in sauria 35 ( 2 ) : 59 and copeia 2014 : 388 ] - get paper here
broadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1—70
broadley , d . g . 1959 . the herpetology of southern rhodesia . part i - - the snakes . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 120 ( 1 ) : 1 - 100 [ reprint 1972 ] - get paper here
broadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]
broadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here
chifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .
haagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 – 25
loveridge , a . 1951 . on reptiles and amphibians from tanganyika territory collected by c . j . p . ionides . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 106 ( 4 ) : 175 - 204 . - get paper here
loveridge , a . 1958 . revision of five african snake genera . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 119 : 1 - 198 ( 141 ) - get paper here
spawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here
spawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
witte , g . f . de & laurent , r . f . 1947 . revision d ' un groupe de colubridae africains : genres calamelaps , miodon , aparallactus , et formes affines . mém . mus . roy . hist . nat . belgique ( sér . 2 ) 29 : 1 - 134
encyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook


mango mealybug ( drosicha mangiferae ) , is a pest of mango crops in asia .

the nymphs and females suck plant sap from inflorescences , tender leaves , shoots and fruit peduncles .

as a result , the infested inflorescences dry up , affects the fruit set , causing fruit drop .

these bugs also exude honey dew over the mango tree leaves , on which sooty mold fungus develops reducing the photosynthetic efficiency of the tree .

it is a polyphagous pest and is found on over 60 other plant species

mango mealybug

the mango mealybug . first instars were less often encountered and were seldom parasitized . first
due to environmental pollution considerations , chemical control of mango mealybug , may be undertaken judiciously with care .
infested mango trees having indigenous predators declined from 42 . 3 % to 20 . 9 % . average mealybug
in this episode of annadata , viewers will get to know about the measures to control mealybug in mango crop .
insects suck the sap of infested plants . mealybug infestations , together with sooty mold , seriously
mango mealybug , an exotic pest of mango , was first observed in benin in 1986 . in a biological control programme , natural enemies were successfully released in the following years . the present study is the first attempt to measure the impact of the biological control of mango mealybug over a large area , through a survey of mango producers . most producers attributed the observed improvement of . . . [ show full abstract ]
ables , the duration of the parasitoid’s presence proved to be a major factor . it influenced mealybug
hussain si , saleem ma and freed s ( 2012 ) .
toxicity of some intsecticides to control mango mealybug , drosicha mangiferae , a serious pest of mango in pakistan
. pakistan journal of zoology 44 ( 2 ) : 353–359 .
mealybug was assessed at 72 % . from the first survey year to the third , the percentage of infested
ganta , r . allomasso , and i . okon . 1990 . biological control of the cassava mealybug ,
bokonon - ganta a , de groote h , neuenschwander p ( 2002 ) socio - economic impact of biological control of mango mealybug in benin . agric ecosyst environ 93 : 367–378
africa was insignificant ( butani , 1975 ; laroussihle , 1980 ) . in 1986 , however , a mealybug–later de -
341 _ 37 epiphytic survival of xanthomonas campestris pv . mangiferaeindicae on mango buds .
banda , a . chalabesa , t . bird , and t . haug . 1994 . biological control of the cassava mealybug ,
oriental region to west africa and causing damage to mango , citrus and other trees .
341 _ 39 pectic zymogram analysis for characterizing genetic diversity of the mango anthracnose pathogen .
341 _ 54 effect of ethephon on mango ( mangifera indica l . ) fruit quality
veys across different ecological zones of benin . the overall yield loss due to infestations by mango
341 _ 16 physiology of saline stress in one mango ( mangifera indica l . ) rootstock
341 _ 20 chemical pruning and induction of panicles in mango ( mangifera indica l . )
341 _ 31 effect of bottom heat temperatures on rooting of mango cuttings of different cultivars .
mango mealybug , an exotic pest of mango , was first observed in benin in 1986 . in a biological control programme , natural enemies were successfully released in the following years . the present study is the first attempt to measure the impact of the biological control of mango mealybug over a large area , through a survey of mango producers . most producers attributed the observed improvement of mango production to the success of biological control . based on production estimates by producers , the negative impact of the pest on plant production and the positive impact of the introduced natural enemy were demonstrated . interviewed mango producers gained on average us $ 328 per year by the biological control programme . extrapolated to all producers of benin , a yearly gain of us $ 50 million in mango production can be estimated . the present value of accrued benefits is estimated at us $ 531 million over a period of 20 years . the total cost of the biological control of mango mealybug is estimated at us $ 3 . 66 million , which includes initial costs in other african countries and the introduction of the natural enemy from india , resulting in a benefit–cost ratio of 145 : 1 for benefits in benin alone .
mango mealy bugs . ( photo by dr . sandeep singh , pau , ludhiana via nbaii )
neuenschwander , 1995 ) to fruit production . each mango farmer gained on average $ 328 per year
of energy and nutrients . mango is also a valuable ornamental shade tree and contributes to the protec -
tion of soil against erosion . until recently , damage to mango trees by insect pests and diseases in
agounké , d . and fischer , h . u . ( 1993 ) . biological control of the mango mealybug ( rastrococcus invadens ) in togo . acta hortic . 341 , 441 - 451 doi : 10 . 17660 / actahortic . 1993 . 341 . 49 urltoken
341 _ 23 influence of paclobutrazol on growth and leaf nutrient content of mango ( cv . blanco ) .
341 _ 26 comparison of manual and ethephon - induced deblossoming of mango cv . keitt in the canary islands
341 _ 27 vegetative growth analysis of mango ' manila ' trees grafted onto several interstock / rootstock combinations .
341 _ 32 mulching and irrigation effects on growth , cropping and fruit quality of the mango cv . sensation
mango mealybug is one of the most important insect pests of mango . the mealybug feeds on the tree , and produces droppings which make the leaves black and sticky . this lowers the strength of the tree , and its production of mangoes . during heavy attack , a whole part of the tree looks blackish in colour . this insect pest lowers the yield and quality of the mango and can go from one tree to another , if the trees are touching . young mealybugs are brown in colour . females are about half the size of your small nail , do not have wings and are covered with white wax . male adults are brick red , winged and smaller than the wingless female .
cultivation for over 6000 years ( hill , 1952 ) . today , mango is a fruit of great importance throughout
341 _ 12 mango ( mangifera indica l . ) introduction and evaluation in florida and its impact on the world industry
341 _ 21 control of vegetative growth and inductive of regular and early cropping in ' alphonso ' mango with paclobutrazol .
karar h , sayyed ah , arif mj , ashfaq m and aslam m ( 2010 ) .
integration of cultural and mechanical practices fro management of the mango mealybug drosicha mangiferae
. phytoparasitica 38 ( 3 ) : 223–229 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s12600 - 010 - 0094 - 8 .
densities declined steadily from 9 . 7 females per sampling unit in 1989 , with 3 . 2 % of all mango trees
nymphs to crawl up the stem of mango trees , by wrapping plastic sheets innovatively around the tree stem , ahead of attack .
mango trees declined from 31 . 0 % in 1989 to 17 . 5 % . during the same period , the mean percentage of
two specific endophagous parasitoids gyranusoidea tebygi and anagyrus mangicola , of indian origin , were mass‐reared at the international institute of tropical agriculture in cotonou and released against the mango mealybug rastrococcus invadens , in collaboration with national biological control programmes . g . tebygi was released in the following countries : benin , gabon , ghana , nigeria , sierra . . . [ show full abstract ]
341 _ 25 effect of growth regulator and media on in vitro shoot tip culture of different cultivars of mango ( mangifera indica l . ) rootstocks
in 1986 , it was described as rastrococcus invadens williams ( hemiptera : pseudoccocidae ) from india , where several cryptic species of rastrococcus infest mango , a native of this sub - . . .
young insects and adult females suck the sap from twigs , leaves , flowers and fruit from january to june . a single female mealybug will go from the tree to the soil and will lay many eggs in the soil , about as deep as your little finger under the tree canopy near the trunk during july to august . they hatch during december and january and then go to feed on the weeds . they can travel up the mango tree either via the trunk or using branches touching the ground .
williams dj ( 1986 ) rastrococcus invadens sp . n . ( homoptera pseudococcidae ) introduced from the oriental region to west africa and causing damage to mango , citrus , and other trees . bullet entomol res 76 : 695–699
this is one of many insects that came to the attention of science only after it had been inadvertently transported and established on a new continent , where it became an important pest . to date , most field data concerning this species are therefore from west africa . in the 1980s , mealybug infestations suddenly devastated mango , but also many ornamental and shade trees , around lomé , togo , and cotonou , bénin . from there , this new plague rapidly spread along the coast , west to ghana and côte d’ ivoire and east to nigeria . at the turn of the millennium , it had invaded most of west and central africa ( from senegal to r . d . congo ) . in benin , for instance , it was observed most often in and around large cities , being less abundant in commercial orchards and even less so on local mango varieties in farmers’ fields .
mealy bugs are sucking insects , soft bodied , oval shape and cottony in appearance . mealy bugs are found on leaves , stems , roots and fruits which are covered like whitish powder . this condition is very difficult to eradicate the mealy bugs . the mango mealy bugs suck a large amount of sap from all parts of the tree . recently in pakistan the mango fruit in punjab districts like multan , bahawalpur , muzzaffargarh , rahim yar khan is being seriously infested with mango mealy bugs . mealy bugs are found in moist warm climate and also act as a vector for several plant diseases . they attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery wax layer used for protection while they suck the plant juices . some species of mealy bug lay their eggs in the same waxy layer used for protection in the quantities of 50 - 100 ; other species are born directly from the female .
has a total lifecycle of 78–135 days . between april and may , purple - colored eggs are laid in egg - sacs comprising mass of wax threads , in the loose soil around ( within 2–3 m radius ) the infested mango trees . eggs hatch in december–january and nymphs start ascending the trees to succulent shoots and base of fruiting parts . nymphs go through stages of 1st instar ( 45–71 days ) , 2nd instar ( 18–38 days ) and 3rd instar ( 15–26 days ) . female and male appearance starts during march–april . males are winged and short - lived after mating , and do not cause damage to the trees .
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active during spring and monsoon season i . e . feb - april & june –august .
cause damage by sucking cell sap & by egg laying in the inflorescence and young leaves by injecting ovipositor .
both nymphs and adult damage the plant , but nymphs are more harmful due to voracious feeding .
spraying with confidor 200 sl @ 30 - 50 ml / 100 lit . of water
male - - winged while female - - wingless , flattened body with white powder .
lay eggs in clusters in fruit skin with its sharp ovipositor at the start of ripening .
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put slippery , 1 foot wide bands of polyethylene around the trunk , 3 feet above the ground . apply grease or any other sticky material on the band for better control of insects
check 100 leaves on 5 different trees in an acre . if mealybugs are found on 5 of the 100 leaves checked , chemical control should be applied : spray only the affected tree using pressure sprayers with carbosulfan and imidacloprid at the recommended dose
note : imidacloprid can have non - target effects . use protective clothing , goggles , mask and gumboots during the pesticide spray . do not eat and smoke during the spray . wash hands , eyes and exposed parts of the body after the spray .
when using a pesticide , always wear protective clothing and follow the instructions on the product label , such as dosage , timing of application , and pre - harvest interval .
juvenile mealy bugs can crawl from an infected plant to non - infected plant . the other mode of transfer is the small ‘crawlers’ are transferred by wind , rains , birds , ants , clothing and vehicles and settled on new plants . the wax which sticks to each egg also facilitates passive transport by equipments , animals or people . the female mealy bug is unable to fly and not active . in fact , humans are great friends helping in transport of mealy bug . as the infested plant back the colonies of mealy bugs migrate from shoot tips to twigs , branches and finally down the trunk . ants attracted by the honeydew , have been seen carrying mealy bugs from plant to plant .
heavy clustering of mealy bugs can be seen under leaf surface giving the appearance of thick mat with waxy secretion .
they excrete copious amount of honeydew that attracts ants and help in development of black sooty mould which inhibits the plants ability to manufacture food .
nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and reduce the vigour of the plant which also causes the withering and yellowing of the leaves .
fruit may drop prematurely on crop plants . heavy infestation can cause defoliation and even death of the plant .
they infest the plant during flowering season and if the control measures are not taken timely , the crop may be destroyed completely .
excessive and continuous draining of plant sap causes wilting and finally drying of infested tissue .
polythene ( 400 gauges ) bands of 25 cm width fastened around the tree trunk have been found affective barrier to stop the ascent of nymphs to the tree . the band should be fastened well in advance before hatching of eggs , i . e . around november - december . all crop residues in previously infested fields should be removed and burnt . fields borders should be free from weeds and debris that may support mealy bugs between planting . apply sticky bands like ‘track - trap’ on main stem to prevent crawlers of mealy bugs reaching the bunch .
monochillus sexmaculatus , rodolia fumida and suminius renardi are important predators in controlling the nymphs . the entomogenous fungus beauveria bassiana is found to be an effective bioagent in controlling the nymphs of the mealy bug . foliar spray of verticillium lecanii or beauveria bassiana 5g / ml per liter of water is effective during high humid months in reducing the population of mealy bugs .
application of 250 g per tree of methyl parathion dust 2 percent or aldrin dust 10 percent in the soil around the trunk kills the newly hatched nymphs which come in contact with the chemical . spraying of 0 . 05 percent monocrotophos or 0 . 2 percent carbaryl or 0 . 05 percent methyl parathion have been found useful in controlling early instar nymphs of the mealy bug .
the ipm schedule of mealy bug is very important and useful if timely operations are done . flooding of orchards with water in the month of october kills the eggs . ploughing the orchards in the month of november exposes the eggs to sun’s heat . in the middle of december , 400 gauges alkathene sheet of 25 cm width may be fastened to the tree trunk besides raking the soil around the tree trunk and mixing of 2 percent methyl parathion dust . the dust may also be sprinkled below the alkathene band on the tree . the congregated nymphs below the band may be killed by any of the suggested insecticides . the above ipm schedule holds promise to control the mealy bug but spraying of neem product and the spores of the fungus beauveria bassiana will further ensure the reduction of the pest population .
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khan : this is an excellent article . i liked it . i think , instead of keeping chicks for . . .
rehematull baloch : sir kindly tell mn the students of molecular biology are eligible for this inter . . .
syed mustafa sabir : assalam o alaikum , i am writing from peshawar and i want to grow mushrooms of di . . .
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how to grow a pineapple plant on your first try . works every time !
protect your orchids from mealy bug , spider mites , slugs , snails . . . etc . . .
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anterior ostioles absent ; cerarii with more than 5 truncate setae ; cerarii on anterior thorax and head separate ; without long dorsal setae adjacent to anal ring ; quinquelocular pores present on venter ; large - sized quinqueloculars present n marginal band on venter , about 1 pore wide ; multilocular pores restricted to abdomen , absent from lateral areas ; antennae 9 - segmented ; denticle on claw .
updated on 10 / 21 / 2011 9 : 42 : 51 am available online : padil - http : / / www . padil . gov . au .
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the tropics ( laroussihle , 1980 ) . it is sold at local markets in africa and constitutes an important source
affect plant growth , flowering , and fruiting of attacked trees . chemical and mechanical ( i . e . , trim -
decisionmakers in towns became concerned . as chemical and mechanical control , together with local
the origin of the pest was considered to achieve a long - term control .
chanical and chemical measures were adopted to control the pest , but appeared ineffective . it was then
remained the only important host ( bokonon - ganta and neuenschwander , 1995 ) . similar observa -
by narasimham and chacko ( 1988 ) , but also on third instars . in this study , sex ratios were highly
bugs than in smaller ones , and were always larger than males from the same host instar .
instars were , however , preferred for host feeding . handling time per host decreased with increasing
them , did not oviposit into them . the sex ratio of emerging parasitoids , expressed as proportion of
decreasing host size , from young adult females to first instars . female wasps emerging from any size
of host were always larger than the corresponding males . male size increased with that of the host ,
into hosts , unparasitized , or previously parasitized by the other species . this suggests that neither
species discriminates against each other . the total number of parasitoids of either species emerging
ferrero ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) ( herren and neuenschwander , 1991 ) . the later - attacking
having densities above 100 mealybugs , to 6 . 4 in 1991 , with 1 . 3 % of all trees having densities above 100
( table 1 ) ( bokonon - ganta and neuenschwander , 1995 ) . similar multiple regression analyses have
through this biological control program . including operational costs , the present value of iita’s in -
volvement was estimated at $ u . s . 1 . 75 million . other organizations provided additional support ( gtz ,
fao , cab international , and the benin plant protection service ) . the total depreciated cost of bio -
to $ u . s . 3 . 66 million . compared with the benefit of $ u . s . 531 million , the benefit - cost ratio was
port . the contribution of profs . j . j . m . van alphen and m . w . sabelis to some of the findings in this
agounké , d . , u . agricola , and h . a . bokonon - ganta . 1988 .
( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) , a serious pest of fruit trees and other plants in west africa .
agricola , u . , d . agounké , h . u . fischer , and d . moore . 1989 . the control of
baumgärtner , j . , u . regev , n . rahalivavololona , b . graf , p . zahner and v . delucchi . 1990 . rice
boavida , c . , p . neuenschwander , and f . schulthess . 1992 . spatial distribution of
williams , populations . ( data obtained in bénin , from 1989 to 1991 ) .
boavida , c . , p . neuenschwander , and h . r . herren . 1995 . experimental assessment of the impact
boavida , c . , m . ahounou , m . vos , p . neuenschwander , and j . j . m . van alphen . 1995 . host stage
bokonon - ganta , a . h . and p . neuenschwander . 1995 . the impact of the biological control agent
bokonon - ganta , a . h . , h . de groote , and p . neuenschwander . 2002 .
bokonon - ganta , a . h . , p . neuenschwander , j . j . m . van alphen , and m . vos . 1995 . host stage
bokonon - ganta , a . h . , j . j . m . van alphen , and p . neuenschwander . 1996 . competition between
butani dhamo , k . 1975 . parasites et maladies du manguier en inde .
adjakloe , k . k . antwi , and i . olaleye . 1994 . stem and ear borers of maize in ghana , plant
gutierrez , a . p . , p . neuenschwander , and j . j . m . van alphen . 1993 . factors affecting biological
herren , h . r . and p . , neuenschwander . 1991 . biological control of cassava pests in africa .
matokot , l . , g . reyd , p . malonga , and b . le ru . 1992 . dynamique des populations de
waijnberg , e . , j . k . scott , and p . c . quimby ( eds ) .
neuenschwander , p . , r . borowka , g . phiri , h . hammans , s . nyirenda , e . h . kapeya , and a .
neuenschwander , p . , c . boavida , a . h . bokonon - ganta , a . gado , and h . r . herren . 1994 . estab -
pijls , j . w . a . m . , k . d . hofker , m . j . van staalduinen , and j . j . m . van alphen . 1990 . interspecific
establishment and spread of gyranusoidea tebygi noyes and anagyrus mangicola noyes ( hymenoptera : enc . . .
williams ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) , a serious exotic pest of fruit trees and other plants in west africa . bull entomol res 78 : 695–702
neuenschwander p ( 1996 ) evaluating the efficacy of biological control of three exotic homopteran pests in tropical africa . entomophaga 41 : 405–424
williams ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) in africa . biol control sci technol 4 : 61–69
williams ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) . in : capinera j . l . ( eds ) encyclopedia of entomology . springer , dordrecht
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341 _ 30 production efficiency of compact ' manila ' mangos grafted onto different interstock - rootstock combinations .
341 _ 59 impact of current u . s . pesticide issues on availability of pesticides for tropical fruits