mealybugs are insects in the family pseudococcidae , unarmored scale insects found in moist , warm climates .

they are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants , house plants and subtropical trees and also act as a vector for several plant diseases .

mealybug

phenacoccus manihoti ( cassava mealybug ) ; cassava stem ( planting material ) distorted by mealybug infestation .
adult mealybug destroyer lady beetle and its waxy white larva feed within a colony of mealybug nymphs .
several species of mealybug occur in greenhouses or on houseplants . these include pseudococcus calceolariae ( glasshouse mealybug ) , p . longispinus ( long tailed mealybug ) and planococcus citri ( citrus mealybug ) and rhizoecus species ( root mealybugs )
the papaya mealybug can easily be distinguished from maconellicoccus marginatus ( green ) , the pink hibiscus mealybug , because papaya mealybug females have eight antennal segments , in contrast to nine in the latter species .
australia has a large number of native mealybug species , including members of the genera paracoccus , ferrisia and pseudococcus . pest species in field crops include peanut mealybug ( maconellicoccus hirsutus ) and solenopsis mealybug ( phenacoccus solenopsis ) .
biological control . natural enemies of the papaya mealybug include the commercially available mealybug destroyer ( cryptolaemus montrouzieri ) , lady beetles , lacewings , and hover flies , all which are generalist predators that have a potential impact on mealybug populations . in addition to predators , several parasitoids may attack papaya mealybug .
grape mealybug nymph ( ex apple ) ( e . beers , july 1987 )
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; adult females . laboratory specimens . usa
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; infestation , in laboratory . usa .
hosts : citrus , several landscape shrubs . most common mealybug on indoor ornamentals .
spray a mealybug - specific pesticide onto the plant to get immediate results on mealybug control . pesticide sprays , however , are only a short - term solution for mealybug control and should not be used as the only method of controlling the infestation .
almost identical in appearance to obscure mealybug . if poked ( not punctured ) , it will release a reddish orange defensive secretion . obscure mealybug secretion would be clear .
grape mealybug damage to ' anjou ' pear ( e . beers , september 1994 )
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; adult females in a field infestation . usa
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; field infestation on hibiscus spp . usa .
this article will cover simple mealybug facts and detail treatments that will cure the problem .
francois b , 1996 . measuring the impact of mealybug infestation . proceedings of the first symposium on the hibiscus mealybug in the caribbean , 24 - 27 june 1996 , grenada .
provides a key to immature stages of m . hirsutus and five other common mealybug pests .
reviewed the biology of cassava mealybug . the life cycle has been studied in the congo by
cassava contains two significant compounds whose levels increase in response to mealybug infestation . cyanide content acts as a phagostimulant for the mealybug , whereas rutin has an antibiotic effect on the pest . it was found that the use of mulch and manure increased cassava resistance against mealybug infestation (
anonymous . 2014 . dysmicoccus brevipes ( pineapple mealybug ) . invasive species compendium , cabi .
cryptoforce™ is shipped as pre - fed , pre - mated , insectary - reared adults . some popular prey of these beetles include : the citrus mealybug ( planococcus citri ) ; the comstock mealybug ( pseudococcus comstocki ) ; the obscure mealybug ( pseudococcus obscurus ) ; the solenopsis mealybug ( phenacoccus solenopsis ) ; the mexican mealybug ( phenacoccus gossypii ) and many other related species , even the long - tailed mealybug ( pseudococcus longispinus ) can be consumed with greedy abandon , but only if it is present with another species which produce cottony egg - masses .
löhr b , varela a , santos b . exploration for natural enemies of the cassava mealybug ,
hennessey r , neuenschwander p , muaka t . spread and current distribution of the cassava mealybug ,
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; adult male , in a field infestation . usa .
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; foliar damage , from a field infestation . usa .
maconellicoccus hirsutus ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) ; adult female , ventral view . slide mounted specimen .
figure 3 . adult mealybug female . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
figure 4 . adult mealybug male . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
schulthess f , baumgärtner j , herren h . factors influencing the life table statistics of the cassava mealybug
pollard gv , 1997 . fao launches regional project on pink mealybug . caraphin news 16 : 3 .
five parasitic wasps , acerophagus notativentris , have emerged from the parasitized and mummified grape mealybug at right .
some species of mealybug feed on plant roots , most of these are rhizoecus species and are also confined to glasshouse and house plants . one species the golden root mealybug , will survive on roots out of doors
if your landscape or interiorscape has a history of serious mealybug problems , consider using only plant species that are not prone to mealybugs for at least a year or two to reduce mealybug density and harborage potential .
the mealybug destroyer can be purchased for augmentative release and is often released in greenhouses and interiorscapes or in citrus orchards after a cold winter has killed off native populations . adult beetles are bicolored with reddish - brown heads and hind ends and black in the middle ; older mealybug destroyer larvae are covered with white wax , which makes them look somewhat like large mealybugs . when releasing mealybug destroyers , focus on periods when there are many mealybug egg sacs , because the lady beetles require mealybug eggs as food to stimulate their own reproduction . there is little point in releasing them when mealybug numbers are low or when they are not reproducing .
how do you get rid of mealybugs on houseplants ? share your mealybug treatment tips in the comments below .
phenacoccus manihoti ( cassava mealybug ) ; second , third and pre - ovipositing fourth instars feeding on cassava .
phenacoccus manihoti ( cassava mealybug ) ; adult of prochiloneurus insolitus , an indigenous hyperparasitoid of p . manihoti .
reviewed the biological control campaign against cassava mealybug in africa . a . lopezi , collected from south america (
figure 1 . an adult pineapple mealybug , dysmicoccus brevipes . photograph by lyle buss , university of florida .
sether dm , ullman de , hu js . 1998 . transmission of pineapple mealybug wilt - associated virus by two species of mealybug ( dysmicoccus spp . ) . phytopathology 88 ( 11 ) : 1224 - 1230 .
dysmicoccus brevipes , commonly called the pineapple mealybug ( figure 1 ) or more specifically the pink pineapple mealybug , is a worldwide pest of pineapple crops and a minor pest of many other crops . its importance as a crop pest of pineapple is tied strongly to its ability to transmit pineapple mealybug wilt - associated virus to pineapples .
sartiami d , watson gw , roff mmn , hanifah mh , idris ab . first record of cassava mealybug ,
meyerdirk de , 1997 . pink mealybug in us virgin islands . caraphin news , 16 : 4 - 5 .
mealybug damage is not as quick to occur or as devastating as it is when you have spider mites on houseplants .
calatayud pa , le rü bp ( 2006 ) cassava - mealybug interactions . paris : ird éditions . 110 p .
norgaard rb ( 1988 ) the biological control of cassava mealybug in africa . am j agric econ 70 : 366–371 .
iheagwam e , eluwa m . the effects of temperature on the development of the immature stages of the cassava mealybug ,
as the mealybug has no known beneficial effects , it seems unlikely that deliberate introduction would occur except for malicious purposes .
) . pesticide spraying against disease vectors may reduce the natural enemy populations at times and allow a resurgence of the mealybug . additional introductions of predators such as cryptolaemus montrouzieri have been used on some caribbean islands to reduce mealybug populations further (
pollard gv , 1995 . pink or hibiscus mealybug in the caribbean . caraphin news , 12 : 1 - 2 .
the pineapple mealybug forms colonies on the lower stem and roots of pineapple plants , just above ground level . they are less commonly found feeding on the leaves , fruit , and blossom cups . the pineapple mealybug is more reclusive than the gray pineapple mealybug , which feeds and resides on the aboveground portions of the plant ( mau and kessing 2007 ) .
specimens of papaya mealybug turn bluish - black when placed in alcohol , as is characteristic of other members of this genus .
neuenschwander p ( 2001 ) biological control of the cassava mealybug in africa : a review . biological control 21 : 214–229 .
it should be noted that the mealybug paracoccus marginatus causes very similar damage on hibiscus to that caused by m . hirsutus (
cabi - plantwise ( 2012 ) cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) factsheet . available : urltoken . accessed 15 may 2012 .
the influence of temperature on increase rates of the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti mat . - ferr . ( homoptera , pseudococcidae )
mani m , 1990 . rid the grape - vine of mealybug . indian horticulture , 35 ( 3 ) : 28 - 29
peters t , 1999 . the pink mealybug ( maconellicoccus hirsutus ) in grenada . paper presented at the evaluation workshop on biological control of hibiscus mealybug . , maconellicocus hirsutus in the caribbean sub - region , 11 - 12 march 1999 , trinidad and tobago .
pineapple mealybug wilt associated virus - 1 ( pmwav - 1 ) presence is reported for the first time in the caribbean basin .
anonymous ( 2007 ) . citrus mealybug . center for urban ecology and sustainability , university of minnesota . ( 12 april 2016 )
the most obvious damage by grape mealybug results from the honeydew it secretes . honeydew is cast off in small drops and falls down through the canopy . when it lands on fruit it causes a coarse , black russet , which is similar to pear psylla russeting . however , mealybug russeting is scattered over the fruit surface , while honeydew from psylla is in patches or streaks . mealybug russeting is
adult females of the pineapple mealybug reproduce parthenogenetically , meaning no males fertilize the eggs . every egg results in a female mealybug . the species is also ovoviviparous , meaning the eggs hatch within the adult female and she births live , fully - formed larvae . the average lifespan of the pineapple mealybug is 95 days , but ranges from 78 to 111 days ( mau and kessing 2007 ) .
ezumah h , knight a , editors . some notes on the mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti mat . ferr . incidence on manioc ( manihot esculenta ) in bas - zaïre . proceedings of the international workshop on the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti mat ferr ; 1978 .
schauff me , gates m . 2002 . parasitoids of the papaya mealybug ( paracoccus marginatus ) . ec cariforum , caribbean agriculture and fisheries program ,
regional training workshop on management of papaya mealybug
. san juan , puerto rico , 23 - 25 october 2002 .
icac recorder . ( 2008 ) . mealybug : a new threat to cotton production in pakistan and india . international cotton advisory committee .
tinsley ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) , the mealybug species recorded first time on cotton and its alternate host plants in gujarat , india .
francis a , 1999 . report on biological control activities ( pink hibiscus mealybug ) st kitts . paper presented at the evaluation workshop on biological control of hibiscus mealybug . , maconellicocus hirsutus in the caribbean sub - region , 11 - 12 march 1999 , trinidad and tobago .
martinez m , moraima s , perez i . 2000 . second mealybug invader . cabi - biocontrol news and information 21 ( 2 ) .
miller dr , williams dj , hamon ab . 1999 . notes on a new mealybug ( hemiptera : coccoidea : pseudococcidae ) pest in florida and the caribbean : the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . insecta mundi 13 : ( 3 - 4 ) .
adult m . hirsutus can encapsulate and kill up to 60 % of anagyrus kamali eggs laid in them , but earlier instars of the mealybug are less able to defend themselves in this way . a . kamali attacks all stages of the mealybug but prefers adult females for oviposition (
) , so pesticides are only used to control heavy infestations of the mealybug ; populations are subsequently maintained at low levels by biological control .
beardsley jw . 1993 . the pineapple mealybug complex ; taxonomy , distribution , and host relationships . acta horticulturae 334 : 383 - 386 .
speare at . 1922 . natural control of the citrus mealybug in florida . u . s . department of agriculture bulletin 1117 : 18 .
people with houseplants , gardens , and flower beds often encounter these pests . the mealybug thrives during the warm months of spring and summer .
if mealybug issues persist after beneficial insects have been released , use a beauveria bassiana product like mycotrol so that the beneficials are not harmed .
commercially available beneficial insects , such as ladybugs , lacewing and the mealybug destroyer ( cryptolaemus montrouzieri ) , are important natural predators of this pest .
winotai a , goergen g , tamò m , neuenschwander p ( 2010 ) cassava mealybug has reached asia . biocontrol news inf 31 : 10n–11n .
neuenschwander p . biological control of the cassava mealybug in africa : a review . biological control . 2001 ; 21 ( 3 ) : 214–29 .
tinsley ( sternorrhyncha : coccoidea : pseudococcidae ) , an invasive mealybug damaging cotton in pakistan and india , with a discussion on seasonal morphological variation .
the effects of temperature on the development of the immature stages of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti mat - ferr . ( homoptera , pseudococcidae )
root mealybugs ( rhizoecus species ) are also covered in a white waxy substance and found on plant roots . the golden root mealybug is yellow in colour
some females carry a live mealybug with them on the mating flight and take it to the new colony site , where the mealybug’s offspring provide the honeydew to feed the ant’s initial offspring . generally , however , the female ant does not provide food for her first offspring ; instead , the larvae eat…
figure 4 . adult female papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . drawing by d . miller and g . miller , usda .
figure 5 . adult male papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . drawing by d . miller and g . miller , usda .
noyes js , hayat m . 1994 . oriental mealybug parasitoids of the anagyrini ( hymenoptera : encyrtidae ) . cab international , uk . 554 pp .
norgaard rb , 1988 . the biological control of cassava mealybug in africa . american journal of agricultural economics , 70 ( 2 ) : 366 - 371
seasonal density of adult and egg sac of tea mealybug , p . viburni in the tea gardens of north of iran during period of 2003 to 2005
remove mummified fruits . in warmer regions , mealy bugs may survive over winter amongst long grass and weeds , removing these helps reduce the mealybug population .
edwards s , 1999 . control of the pink mealybug ( maconellicoccus hirsutus ) in st vincent and the grenadines 1996 - 1998 . paper presented at the evaluation workshop on biological control of hibiscus mealybug . , maconellicocus hirsutus in the caribbean sub - region , 11 - 12 march 1999 , trinidad and tobago .
figure 1 . adults and egg sacs of papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . photograph by dale meyerdirk , national biological control institute .
figure 3 . papaya leaf infestation of the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . photograph by dale meyerdirk , national biological control institute .
williams dj , cox jm , yaseen m ( 1981 ) the cassava mealybug and its parasites in paraguay and bolivia . biocontrol news inf 2 : 146 .
gowda dks , manjunath d , 1998 . hibiscus cannabinus as a trap crop of mealybug in mulberry . insect environment , 4 ( 2 ) : 46 .
) . following the establishment of a . lopezi , the cassava mealybug food web was investigated over the whole continent and found to comprise about 130 species (
the citrus mealybug is a common pest of citrus primarily in greenhouses , and of several ornamental plants in florida . it has been recognized as a difficult - to - control pest in europe since 1813 ( where it is called the greenhouse mealybug ) and in the united states since 1879 ( anonymous 2007 ) .
woglum rs , neuls jd . 1917 . the common mealybug and its control in california . united states department of agriculture and farmer’s bulletin 862 : 16 .
growth period and number of generations of tea mealybug , p . viburni in natural condition in tea gardens of north of iran during period of 2003 to 2004
adult beetle presence , larval presence , reduction of pest numbers , “exploded” mealybug egg - masses . these are all signs that cryptoforce™ is hard at work .
the striped mealybug is named for the two dark , dorsal stripes that run longitudinally down its body . these stripes are visible on the mealybug cuticle through bare patches in the waxy covering ( figure 1 ) . length of the adult female body is approximately 2 . 0 - 4 . 5 mm ( kaydan and gullan 2012 ) . additional identifying features of the striped mealybug are the two posterior waxy tails or tassels with a length half that of the mealybug body , the presence of crystalline , hair - like rods extending laterally from the body , and the absence of an ovisac ( egg sac ) ( ferris 1950 ) .
the papaya mealybug is polyphagous and has been recorded on > 55 host plants in more than 25 genera . economically important host plants of the papaya mealybug include papaya , hibiscus , avocado , citrus , cotton , tomato , eggplant , peppers , beans and peas , sweet potato , mango , cherry , and pomegranate .
but if a mealybug infestation goes left untreated , the plant will eventually die . although it will usually take a long time for them to kill a plant .
hodges a , hodges g , buss l , osborne l . 2000 . mealybugs & mealybug look - alikes of the southeastern united states , usda / csrees .
figure 8 . papaya leaf deformation caused by the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . photograph by dale meyerdirk , national biological control institute .
zeddies j , schaab rp , neuenschwander p , herren hr ( 2001 ) economics of biological control of cassava mealybug in africa . agric econ 24 : 209–219 .
ghose sk , 1972 . biology of the mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) ( pseudococcidae , hemiptera ) . indian agriculturist , 16 : 323 - 332 .
phenacoccus manihoti ( cassava mealybug ) ; ' cassava trees ' used at iita to rear the parasitoid epidinocarsis lopezi , the main natural enemy of p . manihoti .
adults : adults are female only , and have a half - sphere body shape . they are pinkish or pink - orange in color , covered in a thick layer of white wax . identifying the pink pineapple mealybug female from the gray pineapple mealybug female requires microscopic examination and identification of distinguishing features ( anonymous 2007 ) .
in addition , many mealybug species have projections extending from their body , giving them the appearance of having many legs on the side and rear of the body .
figure 3 . a female gill’s mealybug , ferrisia gilli gullan , on the underside of a magnolia leaf . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
m . hirsutus forms dense colonies in cracks and crevices . the severe distortion of new growth caused by the mealybug on many hosts , creates a microhabitat for them (
recorded transport of m . hirsutus by nymphs of another mealybug species ( ferrisia virgata ) in india . accidental introductions to new countries apparently occur via infested plant material .
use of manure or other fertilizers can result in a reduction in the mealybug population because improved nutrition results in the production of larger parasitoid wasps with higher fertility levels ( schulthess et al . , 1997 ) . mulch and fertilizer use also enhances the antibiotic properties of cassava against mealybug infestation ( tertuliano et al . , 1999 ) .
charleston , k . , addison , s . , miles , m . , & maas , s . ( 2010 ) . the solenopsis mealybug outbreak in emerald .
influence of temperature and relative humidity on the capacity for increase and population dynamics of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti ( hom . , pseudococcidae ) , in the congo
jadhav rg , madane np , kathamale , dk . 1996 . record of soybean as a new host in india for citrus mealybug . insect environment 2 : 90 .
similar to citrus mealybug with shorter filaments than other mealybugs in grapes . has a dark stripe on its back . may be found on roots as well as aboveground .
mealybug infestations appear on plants as tiny , soft - bodied insects surrounded by a fuzzy , white mess around the stems and leaf nodes . mealybugs are common indoor pests .
figure 2 . distribution of the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink , as of may 2003 . drawing by dale meyerdirk , national biological control institute .
figure 7 . papaya fruit infestation and damage caused by the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink . photograph by dale meyerdirk , national biological control institute .
mani m , 1989 . a review of the pink mealybug - maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) . insect science and its application , 10 ( 2 ) : 157 - 167
p . manihoti reproduces by parthenogenetic oviparity . the life cycle consists of an egg and four instar stages with the fourth being the adult mealybug . various laboratory experimental results (
nwanze kf , 1982 . relationships between cassava root yields and crop infestations by the mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti . tropical pest management , 28 ( 1 ) : 27 - 32
von ellenrieder n . 2003 . california department of agriculture fact sheet : citrus mealybug ( planococcus citri : pseudococcidae ) . california department of agriculture . ( 12 april 2016 )
avoid unnecessary applications of nitrogen fertilizer on plants with mealybugs . high rates of nitrogen coupled with regular irrigation may stimulate tender new plant growth as well as mealybug egg production .
pollen isn’t the only thing these beetles will eat . they will also consume mealybug honeydew ; they produce a lot . a honeydew substitute product may help encourage the beetles .
. mealybug populations begin to build up in february , and there are nine generations . the largest generation is that during the dry season . population numbers drop at the onset of the rainy season , when many mealybugs are washed off the plant . within cassava fields , this mealybug occurs in a markedly aggregated distribution pattern , which differs between seasons .
meyerdirk de , kauffman wc . 2001 . status on the development of a biological control program for paracoccus marginatus williams , papaya mealybug . internal usda , aphis , ppq report .
neuenschwander p , 1990 . biological control of the cassava mealybug by epidinocarsis lopezi in africa : a review of impact . iita research , 1 ( 1 ) : 1 - 4
a pheromone lure baited with the sex pheromone of grape mealybug is the most reliable way to confirm the presence or absence of this important vector of grapevine leafroll - associated viruses .
no doubt the best mealybug spray is adonis . this concentrate is both odorless and water based making it very safe for use on any non - edible house or yard plant .
franco jc , zada a , mendel z . 2009 . novel approaches for the management of mealybug pests . biorational control of arthropod pests . springer , pp . 233 - 278 .
tested the alkaloid abrine , isolated from seeds of abrus precatorius , on m . hirsutus and found evidence that abrine could have a drastic effect on the population density of the mealybug .
levy j , 1996 . banana inspection guidelines ( re : pink mealybug ) . riverdale , maryland , usa : united states department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service .
nwanze kf ; leuschner k ; ezumah hc , 1979 . the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus sp . in the republic of zaire . pans , 25 ( 2 ) : 125 - 130
figure 5 . a farmer in ghana holds up a pineapple plant infected with pineapple mealybug wilt - associated virus . photograph by jennifer l . gillett - kaufman , university of florida .
figure 6 . a pineapple field in ghana with several plants showing symptoms of pineapple mealybug wilt - associated virus . photograph by jennifer l . gillett - kaufman , university of florida .
seasonal density of nymphal instars ( first , second and third instars ) of tea mealybug , p . viburni in the tea gardens of north of iran during period of 2003 to 2005
ants attending mealybugs for their honeydew are known to defend the pests from natural enemies that would otherwise attack them . they have been observed interfering with biological control of cassava mealybug in ghana (
, b ) . results from olfactometer studies indicate that exotic and indigenous species of diomus react more strongly to cassava mealybug , honeydew and exuviae than do indigenous exochomus spp . ( van den
norgaard rb , 1988 . economics of the cassava mealybug ( phpnacoccus manihoti ; hom . : pseudococcidae ) biological control program in africa . entomophaga , 33 ( 1 ) : 3 - 6
miller , d . r . 1999 . identification of the pink hibiscus mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) . insecta mundi 13 : 189203 . [ links ]
kerns d , wright g , loghry j . ( 2001 ) . citrus mealybug ( planococcus citri ) . college of agriculture cooperative extension , university of arizona . ( 12 april 2016 )
if you suspect you have mealybugs infesting your plants , contact your local orkin branch office for an inspection and to prepare an integrated mealybug treatment plan to effectively and efficiently resolve the problem .
) , originating from the neotropics . in the neotropics , the insect was first discovered in paraguay in 1981 by a . c . bellotti of ciat . p . manihoti had earlier been confused with another mealybug species found on cassava in guyana and northern brazil . whilst exploration for the natural enemies of p . manihoti continued , this other mealybug was identified as p . herreni (
ferrisia gilli gullan , or gill’s mealybug ( figure 3 ) , is a native species that is indistinguishable from the striped mealybug in the field and is not a member of the ferrisia virgata complex ( gullan et al . 2003 ) . ferrisia gilli is a pest in pistachio and almond orchards in california , where it is believed to have been introduced ( kaydan and gullan 2012 ) .
gullan pj , kaydan m , hardy nb . 2010 . molecular phylogeny and species recognition in the mealybug genus ferrisia fullaway ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) . systematic entomology 35 : 329 - 339 .
gutierrez ap , neuenschwander p , schulthess f , herren hr , baumgaertner ju , et al . . ( 1988 ) analysis of biological control of cassava pests in africa . ii . cassava mealybug
moffit lj , 1999 . economic risk to united states agriculture of pink hibiscus mealybug invasion . report to the animal and plant health inspection service , united states department of agriculture . 15 pp .
roberto padilla m , 2000 . bioecology of the pink mealybug and the risk of its entry into honduras . manejo integrado de plagas , no . 57 : 10 - 22 ; 25 ref .
) . in most countries the mealybug caused severe damage by stunting the growth points of cassava plants , sometimes totally defoliating the plants . storage root yield losses of 84 % have been reported (
pandey rr , johnson mw . 2007 . enhanced production of pink pineapple mealybug , dysimococcus brevipes ( hemiptera : psuedococcidae ) . biocontrol science and technology 16 ( 4 ) : 389 - 401 .
meyerdirk de , dechi lw , 2005 . models for minimizing risks of dangerous pests : the pink hibiscus mealybug and papaya mealybug . in : proceedings 39th annual meeting :
food production , marketing and safety : strategies for caribbean food security
. july 13 - 19 , 2003 , st . gerorge’s , grenada , w . i . pub . caribbean food crops society , in press .
common name mealybug scientific name planococcus citri , pseudococcus longispinus , p . calceolariae and others plants affected many houseplants and greenhouse plants main symptoms fluffy white wax , honeydew and sooty moulds most active year round
) . the most important predators are coccinellids , e . g . , hyperaspis spp . , exochomus sp . , and diomus sp . , which usually occur at high densities of cassava mealybug (
) . ants attending mealybugs for their honeydew are known to defend the pests from natural enemies that would otherwise attack them . they have been observed interfering with biological control of cassava mealybug in ghana (
giga dp , 1994 . first record of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti matile - ferrero ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) , from zimbabwe . african entomology , 2 ( 2 ) : 184 - 185
the predator - parasitoid complex that attacks grape mealybug in orchards has not been thoroughly studied . many generalist predators , such as lacewings , ladybird beetles and predaceous bugs , will feed on this pest . an encyrtid egg parasitoid , acerophagus notativentris , is common in infested orchards . grape mealybug populations are generally reduced to nondamaging levels by natural control in orchards where soft pesticide programs are used for a few years .
kauffman wc , meyerdirk de , warkentin r . biological control of papaya mealybug in the caribbean safeguarding the u . s . presented 2 - 4 august 2001 at the iobc meeting , bozeman , mt .
matile - ferrero d . cassava mealybug in the people ' s republic of congo . in : nwanze kf , leuscher k , editors . proceedings of the international workshop on the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti mat - fer , ( pseudococcidae ) inera - m ' vuazi , bas - zaire , zaire , june 26–29 , 1977 : international institute of tropical agricuture , nigeria ; 1978 . p . 29–46 .
petty gj , tustin h . 1993 . ant ( pheidole megacephala f . ) - mealybug ( dysmicoccus brevipes ckll . ) relationships in pineapples in south africa . acta horticulturae 334 : 378 - 395 .
rohrbach kg , beardsley jw , german tl , reimer nj , sanford wg . 1988 . mealybug wilt , mealybugs , and ants on pineapple . plant disease 72 ( 7 ) : 558 - 565 .
citrus mealybug populations are naturally regulated by parasitic fungi and predacious insects . summer rains cause mortality by washing the mealybugs from plants . additional control measures may be necessary to reduce populations when infestations are large .
operators of greenhouses or interiorscapes with regular mealybug problems can establish their own mealybug destroyer colonies for self - release . the lady beetle can be reared in wide - mouth jars on mealybugs grown on sprouted potatoes or other hosts . a ring of petroleum or other sticky material smeared inside jars around the top will prevent the flightless mealybugs from crawling out but allows the lady beetles to fly out into the greenhouse .
products containing the systemic insecticide dinotefuran may reduce mealybug numbers on some landscape plants , and plant spikes or granules containing the related insecticide imidacloprid may reduce mealybug crawler numbers on houseplants . these neonicotinoid products are less reliable against mealybugs than against other piercing - sucking insects in many situations . their use should be avoided when possible , especially on flowering plants , because of potential negative impacts on natural enemies and pollinators .
singh t , editor the mealybug problem and its control . root crops in eastern africa proceedings of a workshop held in kigali , rwanda , 23–27 november 1980 ; 1982 : international development research centre , ottowa .
garland ja , 1998 . pest risk assessment of the pink mealybug maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) , with particular reference to canadian greenhouses . pra 96 - 21 . ontario , canada : canadian food inspection agency .
michaud jp , evans ga , 2000 . current status of pink hibiscus mealybug in puerto rico including a key to parasitoid species . florida entomologist , 83 ( 1 ) : 97 - 101 ; 9 ref .
the cassava mealybug strongly prefers cassava and other manihot species ; the other host crops and wild hosts are only marginally infested . talinum triangulare , croton and poinsettia species are particularly suitable for laboratory rearing and experiments .
zeddies j ; schaab rp ; neuenschwander p ; herren hr , 2001 . economics of biological control of cassava mealybug in africa . agricultural economics , 24 ( 2 ) : 209 - 219 ; 36 ref .
herren hr , hennessey rn ( 1983 ) biological control and host plant resistance to control the cassava mealybug and green mite in africa : proceedings of an international workshop . ibadan , nigeria : iita . 154 p .
ghose sk , 1970 . predators , parasites and attending ants of the mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) ( pseudococcidae , hemiptera ) . plant protection bulletin , india , 22 ( 3 ) : 22 - 30
lema km ; herren hr , 1985 . release and establishment in nigeria of epidinocarsis lopezi , a parasitoid of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti . entomologia experimentalis et applicata , 38 ( 2 ) : 171 - 175
matile - ferrero d , 1978 . cassava mealybug in the people ' s republic of congo . in : nwanze kf , leuschner k , ed . proceedings of the international workshop on the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti mat . - ferr . ( pseudococcidae ) held at inera - m ' vuazi , bas - zaire , zaire , june 26 - 29 , 1977 . international institute of tropical agriculture . ibadania niger , 29 - 46
schulthess f ; baumgartner ju ; herren hr , 1987 . factors influencing the life table statistics of the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti . insect science and its application , 8 ( 4 - 6 ) : 851 - 856
grasswitz , t . r . & james , d . g . 2008 . movement of grape mealybug , pseudococcus maritimus , on and between host plants . entomologia experimentalis et applicata 129 : 268275 . [ links ]
monga , d . , kumar , r . , pal , v . , & jat , m . c . ( 2009 ) . mealybug , a new pest of cotton crop in haryana : a survey .
invading asia and use them to estimate the climatic suitability for its establishment throughout the region . to further support detection and response efforts , we also provide a taxonomic key that differentiates all mealybug species recorded from the genus
it is recommended that crops infested with pineapple mealybug or pineapple mealybug wilt - associated virus ( figure 6 ) be removed entirely from the field and burned . this includes all crop residue , followed by a field tilling . mealybugs and ants can reside on many plants other than their preferred hosts , and weeds and other debris in and around the field will keep a population stable unless routinely cleared ( mau and kessing 2007 ) .
the full mealybug life cycle is about 7 - 10 weeks . it takes a week or two for the eggs to hatch into nymphs , and then another 6 - 9 weeks for the nymphs to mature into adults .
kaydan m , gullan p . 2012 . a taxonomic revision of the mealybug genus ferrisia fullaway ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) , with descriptions of eight new species and a new genus . zootaxa 3543 : 1 - 65 .
u . s . department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service . 1999 . control of the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) . environmental assessment , october 1999 . riverdale , md .
u . s . department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service . 2002 . control of the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) . environmental assessment , june 2002 . riverdale , md .
since its appearance in the caribbean region in 1994 / 1995 , m . hirsutus is regarded as of high quarantine importance by the cppc . the mealybug is regarded as a plant quarantine threat to colombia ( caicedo ramirez and
miller dr , 2001 . identification of the pink hibiscus mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) ( hemiptera : sternorrhyncha : pseudococcidae ) . insecta mundi ( 1999 ) 13 ( 3 / 4 ) : 189 - 202 .
cassava mealybug spread across the width of africa in a period of 16 years . its accidental introduction damaged a staple crop that is particularly important in times of drought , during a time of drought , leading to famine (
hennessey rd ; muaka t , 1987 . field biology of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti , and its natural enemies in zaire . insect science and its application , 8 ( 4 - 6 ) : 899 - 903
james bd , 1987 . the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti mat - ferr ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) in sierra leone : a survey . tropical pest management , 33 ( 1 ) : 61 - 66 , 103 , 107
aheer , g . m . , shah , z . & saeed , m . 2009 . seasonal history and biology of cotton mealybug , phenacoccus solenopsis tinsley . journal of agricultural research 47 : 423431 . [ links ]
for the homeowner , mealybug control may not be expensive , but can be very time consuming since success depends upon a very careful inspection process . the easiest solution for the homeowner may simply be tossing out infested plants .
preserve naturally occurring biological control agents by avoiding use of broad - spectrum insecticides for any pests in the area . also keep ants out of mealybug - infested areas and plants because ants protect mealybugs from their natural enemies .
) . it may be advisable to discourage ants in cassava fields if this becomes a problem . the economic impact of biological control of the cassava mealybug , mainly by a . lopezi , has been judged to be excellent (
iheagwam eu , 1981 . the influence of temperature on increase rates of the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti mat . - ferr . ( homoptera , pseudococcidae ) . revue de zoologie africaine , 95 ( 4 ) : 959 - 967
neuenschwander p ; ajuonu o , 1995 . measuring host finding capacity and arrestment of natural enemies of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti , in the field . entomologia experimentalis et applicata , 77 ( 1 ) : 47 - 55
parsa s ; kondo t ; winotai a , 2012 . the cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) in asia : first records , potential distribution , and an identification key . plos one , 7 ( 10 ) : e47675 .
ru ble , 1986 . epizootiology of the fungus neozygites fumosa ( zygomycetes , entomophthorales ) in a population of cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti ( hom . : pseudococcidae ) . entomophaga , 31 ( 1 ) : 79 - 89
while adult females are wingless and similar in shape to nymphs , adult male mealybugs , which are rarely seen , are tiny two - winged insects with two long tail filaments . many mealybug species can reproduce asexually without mating .
citation : yonow t , kriticos dj , ota n ( 2017 ) the potential distribution of cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) , a threat to food security for the poor . plos one 12 ( 3 ) : e0173265 . urltoken
the above characters will facilitate recognition of many phenacoccus species , especially the economically important ones . the lanceolate setae are especially distinctive for this genus . regional keys to mealybug faunas , such as the one provided by williams and granara de
on the basis of the exotic origin and rapid spread of the cassava mealybug in africa , classical biological control has been the main and most appropriate approach to the pest problem . among several natural enemies introduced to combat the pest (
hammond wno ; neuenschwander p ; herren hr , 1987 . impact of the exotic parasitoid epidinocarsis lopezi on cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) populations . insect science and its application , 8 ( 4 - 6 ) : 887 - 891
hennessey rd ; neuenschwander p ; muaka t , 1990 . spread and current distribution of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) , in zaire . tropical pest management , 36 ( 2 ) : 103 - 107
nwanze kf , 1978 . biology of the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti mat . - ferr . in the republic of zaire . in : nwanze kf , leuschner k , ed . proceedings of the international workshop on the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti mat . - ferr . ( pseudococcidae ) held at inera - m ' vuazi , bas - zaire , zaire , june 26 - 29 , 1977 . international institute of tropical agriculture . ibadania niger , 20 - 28
culik , m . p & gullan , p . j . 2005 . a new pest of tomato and other records of mealybug ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) from espírito santo , brazil . zootaxa 964 : 18 . [ links ]
ullman de , williams df , fleisch h , hu js , sether d , gonsalves a . 1993 . heat treatment of pineapple : subsequent growth and occurrence of mealybug wilt of pineapple . acta horticulturae 334 : 407 - 410 .
we thank miss m . moghadam for assistance with slide - mounting and checking identifications of mealybug samples . the financial support for this work was supported by university of shahed and technical support was provided by tea research center of iran .
mealybug bodies are distinctly segmented and usually covered with wax . older individuals may have wax filaments around their body margins . in some species the filaments are longer in the rear and can be used to help distinguish between different species .
as with any houseplant pest infestation , when you first spot a problem , begin mealybug treatment immediately . the first thing to do is quarantine the affected plant ( s ) so that you can prevent mealybugs from infesting your other houseplants .
gullan p , downie d , steffan s . 2003 . a new pest species of the mealybug genus ferrisia fullaway ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) from the united states . annals of the entomological society of america 96 : 723 - 737 .
u . s . department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service . 2000 . control of the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) . environmental assessment ( supplement ) , june 2000 . riverdale , md .
citation : parsa s , kondo t , winotai a ( 2012 ) the cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) in asia : first records , potential distribution , and an identification key . plos one 7 ( 10 ) : e47675 . urltoken
herren hr ; bird tj ; nadel dj , 1987 . technology for automated aerial release of natural enemies of the cassava mealybug and cassava green mite . insect science and its application , 8 ( 4 - 6 ) : 883 - 885
le ru b ; tertuliano m , 1993 . tolerance of different host - plants to the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti matile - ferrero ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) . international journal of pest management , 39 ( 4 ) : 379 - 384
in brazil , all these three mealybug species have been recorded in cotton and in other plants ( bastos et al . 2007 ; silva - torres et al . 2013 ; culik et al . 2013 ) . recently , infestations of striped mealybug were found in cotton plants in the semiarid region of pernambuco . this was the first record of f . virgata on cotton in brazil ( torres et al . 2011 ) . the striped mealybug has also been recorded in the state of espírito santo ( williams & granara de willink 1992 ) as well as m . hirsutus ( culik et al . 2013 ) . thus , bioecological studies are needed to develop integrated pest management strategies for f . virgata on cotton .
when mealybug populations are dense , they may enter the calyx ends of fruit , causing contamination problems on processed fruit . their feeding softens tissue in the calyx and around the seed cavity . symptoms resemble those of a disorder called pink end .
bhat a , devasahayam s , sarma y , pant r . 2003 . association of a badnavirus in black pepper ( piper nigrum l . ) transmitted by mealybug ( ferrisia virgata ) in india . current science 84 : 1547 - 1550 .
balikai ra , bagali an , 2000 . population density of mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) on ber ( zizyphus mauritiana lamarck ) and economic losses . agricultural science digest , 20 ( 1 ) : 62 - 63 ; 3 ref .
chong jh , 2009 . first report of the pink hibiscus mealybug , maconellicoccus hirsutus ( green ) ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) , in south carolina . journal of agricultural and urban entomology , 26 ( 2 ) : 87 - 94 . urltoken
cudjoe ar ; neuenschwander p ; copland mjw , 1993 . interference by ants in biological control of the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) in ghana . bulletin of entomological research , 83 ( 1 ) : 15 - 22 .
gutierrez ap ; neuenschwander p ; alphen jjmvan , 1993 . factors affecting biological control of cassava mealybug by exotic parasitoids : a ratio - dependent supply - demand driven model . journal of applied ecology , 30 ( 4 ) : 706 - 721
hammond wno ; neuenschwander p , 1990 . sustained biological control of the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti ( hom . : pseudococcidae ) by epidinocarsis lopezi ( hym . : encyrtidae ) in nigeria . entomophaga , 35 ( 4 ) : 515 - 526
milena varela a ; belloti ac ; reyes ja , 1979 . biology and ecology of the cassava mealybug phenacoccus gossypii townsend & cockerell ( homoptera : pseudococcidae ) . revista colombiana de entomologia , 5 ( 1 / 2 ) : 9 - 15
mourier m , 1997 . effects of neem ( azadirachta indica ) kernel water extracts on cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti ( hom . , pseudococcidae ) . journal of applied entomology , 121 ( 4 ) : 231 - 236 ; 17 ref .
neuenschwander p ; schulthess f ; madojemu e , 1986 . experimental evaluation of the efficacy of epidinocarsis lopezi , a parasitoid introduced into africa against the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti . entomologia experimentalis et applicata , 42 ( 2 ) : 133 - 138
souissi r ; rn ble , 1997 . comparative life table statistics of apoanagyrus lopezi reared on the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti fed on four host plants . entomologia experimentalis et applicata , 85 ( 2 ) : 113 - 119 ; 35 ref .
gutierrez ap , neuenschwander p , schulthess f , herren hr , baumgaertner ju , et al . . ( 1988 ) analysis of biological control of cassava pests in africa . ii . cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti . j appl ecol : 921–940 .
in crops where the pineapple mealybug is a minor pest , such as in coffee , they may cause an overall weakening of the plant due to feeding . this can result in stunted growth and lower yields ( mau and kessing 2007 ) .
you can buy an organic insecticidal soap spray , or make your own . my recipe for homemade mealybug spray is 1 tsp of dr . bronner’s baby - mild liquid soap per 1 liter of water . the soap kills the bugs on contact .
noyes js , schauff me . 2003 . new encyrtidae ( hymenoptera ) from papaya mealybug ( paracoccus marginatus williams and granara de willink ) ( hemiptera : sternorrhyncha : pseudococcidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 105 : 180 - 185 .
stsubli dreyer b ; baumgsrtner j ; neuenschwander p ; dorn s , 1997 . the functional responses of two hyperaspis notata strains to their prey , the cassava mealybug phenacoccus manihoti . bulletin de la société entomologique suisse , 70 : 21 - 28 .
once a mealybug infestation has been found , you’ll need to treat the plant with either traditional pesticides or something organic . if the infested plant will be producing edible fruit or vegetables , you may want to limit your treatment to an organic active .
discard the indoor plant if it is heavily infested with the mealybugs . sometimes it may be virtually impossible to get a mealybug infestation under control , and the best course of action may be to replace the plant with one that is not infected .
kauffman wc , meyerdirk de , miller d , schauff m , hernandez hg , villanueva jimenez ja . 2001 . papaya mealybug biological control in puerto rico and dominican republic . presented 11 december 2001 at the esa annual meeting , san diego , ca .
miller dr , miller gl . 2000 . taxonomic information on paracoccus marginatus . technical meeting and workshop for the biological control of the papaya mealybug , paracoccus marginatus , in the caribbean . st . kitts , west indies , 25 - 26 july 2000 .
bennett f , greathead u , editors . biological control of the mealybug phenacoccus manihoti matile - ferrero : prospects and necessity . proceedings cassava protection workshop , ciat , cali , colombia , 7–12 november , 1977 ; 1978 : centro internacional de agricultura tropical .
dewi sartiami ; watson gw ; mohamad roff mn ; hanifah ym ; idris ab , 2015 . first record of cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti ( hemiptera : pseudococcidae ) , in malaysia . zootaxa , 3957 ( 2 ) : 235 - 238 . urltoken
fabres g , 1981 . bioecology of the cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti hom . pseudococcidae ) in the people ' s republic of congo . ii - - variations in abundance and regulation factors . agronomie tropicale , 36 ( 4 ) : 369 - 377
löhr b ; varela am , 1987 . the cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti mat . - ferr . , in paraguay : further information on occurrence and population dynamics of the pest and its natural enemies . in : herren hr , hennessey rd , bitterli r , eds . proceedings of an international workshop on biological control and host plant resistance to control the cassava mealybug and green spider mites in africa , ibadan , nigeria , 6 - 10 december 1982 . ibadan , nigeria : iita , 57 - 69 .
anon , 1999 . summary of activities associated with maconellicoccus hirsutus in st lucia . paper presented at the evaluation workshop on biological control of hibiscus mealybug . , maconellicocus hirsutus in the caribbean sub - region , 11 - 12 march 1999 , trinidad and tobago .
fabres g ; boussiengue j , 1981 . bioecology of the cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti hom . pseudococcidae ) in the people ' s republic of congo . 1 - development cycle and biological parameters . agronomie tropicale , 36 ( 1 ) : 82 - 89
geiger , c . a . , daane , k . m . , bentley , w . j . , yokota , g . y . , & martin , l . a . ( 2001 ) . sampling program for grape mealybug improves pest management .
if a minor mealybug infestation is discovered , treating the infested plant ( s ) may require using alcohol - soaked cotton swabs to treat the insects ; removing mealybugs by exposing infested plants to running water ; and / or washing the plants with soapy water .
female mealybugs lay eggs under a white , waxy coating . mealybug nymphs resemble the adult insects and can complete their development in about a month in mid - summer . breeding continues throughout the year in greenhouses , but takes place at a slower rate in winter .
: the challenge , the achievements . in : herren hr , hennessey rn , editors . biological control and host plant resistance to control the cassava mealybug and green mite in africa : proceedings of an international workshop . ibadan , niger : iita . pp 81–102 .
peters t , watson gw , 1999 . the biological control of hibiscus mealybug in grenada . in : bell k , ed . paths to prosperity : science and technology in the commonwealth 1999 / 2000 . london , uk : kensington publications , 130 - 132 .
singh r , 1999 . socio - economic impact and evaluation of the hmbcontrol programme . paper presented at the evaluation workshop on biological control of hibiscus mealybug . , maconellicocus hirsutus in the caribbean sub - region , 11 - 12 march 1999 , trinidad and tobago .
boussienguet j , 1986 . the natural enemy complex of cassava mealybug , phenacoccus manihoti ( hom . coccoidea pseudococcidae ) in gabon . i . - faunistic inventory and trophic relationships . annales de la societe entomologique de france , 22 ( 1 ) : 35 - 44


streptoperas luteata is a moth in the drepanidae family .

it was described by hampson in 1895 .

it is found in the north-eastern himalayas and on borneo , sumatra , java , bali and sulawesi .

the wingspan is about 44 mm .

adults are yellow , suffused and irrorated with red-brown , the forewings with an indistinct antemedial line which is highly angled in the cell .

there are two specks at the end of the cell and the inner margin is more yellow and crossed by numerous indistinct waved rufous lines .

there is also a waved submarginal line and some white subapical spots .

the hindwings have a yellow subbasal area , crossed by waved rufous lines and there is a black speck at the end of the cell , as well as a double postmedial line .

the area beyond it is yellow , crossed by waved rufous lines .

there is a more distinct submarginal waved line and a rufous marginal band from vein 3 to the anal angle .

streptoperas luteata

the two species in streptoperas are very similar in appearance . the shape of the hindwing , with the margin smooth convex anterior to the angle and shallowly concave posterior to it , and the multiple crenulate fasciation on pale yellow between the postmedial and the margin are diagnostic for luteata .
the facies , particularly the forewing shape and fasciation is similar to that of luteata , but crenelata has uniform darker grey hindwing , the margin scalloped on either side of the central angle and with white beading along the medial .
type species : luteata hampson the forewings in this genus are narrowly falcate at the apex , the hindwings strongly angled where vein cua1 meets the margin . there are double postmedials on both wings , that of the forewing acutely angled subcostally , that of the hindwing straight . on the underside of the forewing there is a white zone over the posterior half of the wing between the postmedial and subbasal fasciae . the male antennae are lamellate . in the male abdomen the eighth segment is unmodified . the uncus is narrowly bifid as in gogana and other genera in the palm - feeding sequence , and the saccus is narrow , digitate as in some of these genera . the valve is triangular , with a subbasal spur or flap on the costa . in the female genitalia ( luteata ) the ovipositor lobes are simple . the ductus is very long and slender , extending with the corpus bursae to about half as long again as the abdomen . the corpus bursae is large , spherical , finely scobinate , with a slight , umbonate signum . both included species occur in borneo . the biology of one is described in s . crenelata swinhoe .
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nb : the taxon name search is for single names only . for example , to locate dysodia vitrina flammata warren , 1904 you should enter flammata only .
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n . e . himalaya , borneo , sumatra , java , bali , sulawesi .
of the only two bornean specimens seen , one is without altitude data , collected by waterstradt in the kinabalu area , and the other is from lowland forest at 75m near labi in brunei .
the facies is a rather washed out grey and pale orange with some similarity in the extent of the latter to the more conspicuous , well - defined markings of nummularia , except they do not extend obliquely across the centre of the forewing , and there is an additional pale orange area at the forewing tornus .
[ sic ] crenelata swinhoe , 1902 , trans . ent . soc . lond . , 1902 : 590 .
the only bornean specimen seen is the holotype , a female from pulo laut .
h . steiner ( in litt . ) has reared the species from the palm , pinanga scortechinii , in peninsular malaysia . a cast larval skin has scoli as in other genera of the palm - feeding complex .
the syntypes are male , from pulo laut , but have not been located definitely : the only old specimens from that locality are not labelled as types . one is illustrated . it has an oblique darker brown triangle on the forewing costa at two thirds , and the postmedials are also evident , rows of fine , dark brown lunules . the male genitalia resemble those of g . kerara above , and species a and b below .
pulo laut is a low lying island at the south east corner of borneo .
14mm . the hindwing postmedial is straight as in semisecta , but otherwise the species is distinctive , with an excavate hindwing apex and a generally rather reticulated rich dark brown pattern with an oblique , straight postmedial on the forewing that has a large , rather elongate translucent patch just distal to it opposite the more posterior half of the margin as illustrated . the male genitalia have socii and gnathus as in nigridorsoides , but the aedeagus lacks apical processes though has scobination in the vesica . the valves are somewhat deeper . the eighth sternite bears a pair of widely spaced spines on its distal margin .
sarawak : gunung mulu nat . park , r . g . s . exped . 1977 - 8
site 20 , mar . - apr . , west melinau gorge , 150m . 422577 , feg 3 , kerangas , bm drepanid slide 2090 .
1 as holotype ; 1 brunei : rampayoh , 200m 2 . iii . 1982 ( t . w . harman ) .
two specimens are from wet heath ( kerangas ) forest on a river terrace and one from an area of lowland forest .
there is only slight sexual dimorphism in this straw - coloured species . the fasciation is fine , brown , rather indistinct , lunulate . confusion with euphalacra semisecta is possible , but the hindwings are shorter , and the forewing postmedial fasciation is more oblique .
this is the only truly montane member of the genus , known from g . kinabalu where it occurs from 1760m to 2110m , with three out of four known specimens taken at the latter altitude .


the four-line wrasse , larabicus quadrilineatus , is a species of wrasse native to the red sea and the gulf of aden .

it can be found on coral reefs at depths from the surface to 15 m ( 49 ft ) .

juveniles are cleaner fish , while the adults feed on coral polyps .

this species grows to 11.5 cm ( 4.5 in ) in total length .

this species is the only known member of its genus .

four - line wrasse

four line wrasse adults will reach only 2 . 9 inches ( 7 . 3 cm ) .
the four line wrasse is a beautiful fish but is quite secretive , shy and quick . . . making it a difficult fish to collect !
the 4 line wrasse comes from hawaii and isn’t as available as the 6 line wrasse . it’s not as aggressive as the 6 line wrasse , and is actually slightly small . you need to be careful when mixing it with other wrasse and basslet . needs a secure top as it’s a jumper .
the four line wrasse is a small beautifully colored fish . the body is dark blue with four orange lines outlined in black running horizontally across the upper part , and the eyes are red . the white lines through the red eye is similar to that of the six line wrasse , but with four lines instead of six and a white chin you will quickly be able to differentiate the two . they are slightly smaller as well .
the four line wrasse , generally imported from hawaii , is available most of the year . usually it can be acquired by request from your pet store or found on the internet .
it seems there is a direct correlation between size and sex for the four line wrasse . the males are generally the largest , with females coming in second and immature fish being the smallest .
the 6 line is much more readily available than the 4 line . although the 4 line is a little less violent than the 6 line i would avoid it as well . if your planning on adding it i would recommend making it the last fish you add . i had one and any new wrasse i would add would get harrassed to no end .
…flasher wrasse , also known as the eight - line fairy wrasse , originates from the waters of the red sea . the eightline flasher wrasse is a remarkably colored wrasse featuring different hues of yellow , orange and red . the distinguishing feature of this fish are the eight striking blue lines that run…
the four line wrasse is found in the tropical north and south pacific ; from indonesia to australia , japan to hawaii , the marshall islands and adjoining areas . they inhabit seaward reefs at depths of 20 feet to 145 feet ( 6 - 44 meters ) , dwelling close to the bottom among corals and rubble .
being active small colorful fish , the lined wrasses are popular for a small marine aquarium . they are quite hardy , disease resistant , and long lived . the aquarium care and behavior of the four line wrasse is very similar to that of the six line wrasse . once acclimated both these fish will even take care of a few pests in the aquarium , like the pyramidellid snails and commensal flatworms some coral keeping aquarists have to deal with at times . they are considered reef safe as they will not harm corals or coral anemones .
the hoeven ' s wrasse is also referred to as the tail spot wrasse , the yellow - lined wrasse , the orange - tipped rainbowfish , the tailspot wrasse , and the pinstriped wrasse . the body of this fish is blue - green in color and has pink or yellow stripes running horizontally across its sides . the color of the…
the fourline wrasse is best kept as the only member of its species due to its aggression towards other line wrasses . if you want to keep more than one you ' ll need a large aquarium into which you introduce all line wrasses at the same time . this species is quite aggressive in aquariums and should only be kept with larger semi - aggressive fish such as marine angelfish , tangs and puffers . it should not be kept with other wrasse species . if you want to keep friendly species with your fourline wrasse ( which is risky ) you should introduce these before the wrasse .
…tailed flasher wrasse is the newest member of the genus paracheilinus to be imported from fiji and vanuatu . we are fortunate to offer you this occasional fish outside of diver ' s den and on a more regular basis . the red tailed flasher wrasse has a wide red patch with a single line on its dorsal fin . …
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no other wrasse did a better job on the few flatworms i had than my dusky wrasse . it is constantly investigating every nook and cranny of the live rock searching for pods or anything else it can find . you can also try a yellow or green coris wrasse .
the linespot flasher wrasse is also known as the dot dash or spot lined flasher wrasse , and is one of the most peaceful members of all the flasher wrasse . this gorgeous fish is an active show - stopper and makes a perfect addition to your peaceful community reef aquarium . the color of the female is…
4 lines tend to cost more than a 6 line and i guess people like the coloring better on a 6 line . i see 6 lines around me from 10 - 15 bucks and 4 lines go up to 30 bucks , so i guess for someone starting out with no knowledge or very little on either fish will go with the cheaper brighter fish . just a guess
the four lined wrasse should be kept singly as they do not co - habitat well with other lined wrasses . they are basically reef safe with more semi - aggressive fish such as tangs , angels , and butterflies . they will not harm corals or coral anemones . they can also be kept in a non - reef setting with goatfish , puffers , and squirrelfish .
…simply - striking grey head wrasse , or threespot wrasse has three white lines on either side of its head , three black spots along its back , and three false
eyes
running along its dorsal fin back to a fourth on the tail in juveniles and females . adult male grey head wrasse , sport vivid blue stripes…
the four line wrasses are excellent hiders and love to have live rock with plenty of retreats . they are diurnal , which means they are active by day and sleeping at night . as with all fish in this genus they sleep in a mucus cocoon , which fortunately does not seem degrade the water quality . it is thought that the cocoon protects them from predators as they sleep by masking their scent . in nature they are found with a coral called pocillopora meandrina .
i ' m surprised to read this about a melanarus wrasse they are usually peaceful . mine is a model citizen .
seems like very few people go with the 4 - line ' s . is there a reason why that is the case ? i always thought both were very active , eat flatworms , etc , but the 6 - line is much more violent . i am deciding on which to get . i do want to put other wrasses in the tank too , so don ' t want to guess wrong at the beginning .
this species is very popular because of its stunning beauty and small size which makes the fourline wrasse suitable for small marine aquariums . it has a green body with blue and purple fins and four horizontal stripes that run across the upper half of the body . each stripe is made up of three smaller stripes : one black stripe , one blue stripe and one red stripe . the eye is red with two white lines on it .
my reef tanks lots of rare fish , 180 , 180 , 125 lots of angels , tangs , wrasse . lit by leds
in the wild they feed on many small organisms such as various crustaceans , molluscs , all kinds of worms , and fish eggs . in one article it was noted that during autopsy of 3 different four lines , one had remains of pistol shrimp , one had crab and a third only shrimp and gastropod larvae .
the fourline wrasse is an excellent jumper and it is important to cover the aquarium well do avoid that they jump out of the tank .
we have no information on the breeding of the fourline wrasse . sexing is possible since males are more colorful than females and grow larger .
…peaceful wrasses , including other halichoeres biocellatus . the red - lined wrasse will eat fireworms and pyramidellid snails ; protecting corals and clams . in addition , it may eat feather dusters , wild shrimp , tubeworms , and flatworms . it may also eat parasites off of tank mates . the red - lined wrasse …
i like the idea of the dusky and coris wrasses . my wife likes the green coris wrasses , as we have too much yellow in the tank already . are green coris wrasses as peaceful as the yellow variant ? will they accept other wrasses and also school together with other green coris ? i am going to open a new post specific on this question as well since this post may just be grabbing x - line wrasse browsers . thanks !
the fourline wrasse originates in the tropical pacific ocean where they are found from japan in the north to australia and the south and eastwards to hawaii and the marshall islands .
the sohal tang is hardy , but susceptible to a disease known as lateral line erosion , or hole in the head . a vegetarian diet high in vitamins , especially beta - carotene can aid in the prevention of development of the disease . stray voltages are also thought to contribute to this disease and the…
…have an elongated body that is dark in color as a juvenile . when mature , their body lightens to a silver color , and they develop a dark longitudinal line spanning the entire length of the fish . these are very interesting fish that swim in a vertical position . these shrimpfish are difficult to keep…
… wrasse , also known as the diamond - tail fairy wrasse , originates solely from the marshall islands . in nature , they occur close to the substrate within the sand and rubble zones of the reef . they are gold in color with a vibrant blue head . their entire body is marked with a maze - like series of lines , …
i mainly just need a wrasse that will eat up my flatworm problem . any others that are more peaceful that we will do this ? seems like the flatworm eaters are always violent .
ideal conditions for the fourline wrasse is ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , salinity 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 , and temperature 72 - 78ºf ( 22 - 26°c ) .
the fourline wrasse is a small , gorgeous wrasse from hawaii . these fish are very similar in design and behavior to their popular cousin the six line wrasse , but are colored slightly differently and not nearly as available to the hobbyist . the fourline wrasse has a hunter green colored body with horizontal neon blue lines running along its body . they have bright eyes highlighted in red , which also have a horizontal band . as they move their eye upward or downward the band becomes more noticeable . these fish are very peaceful and love to swim around with curiousity . the fourline are also beneficial for their interest in eating nuisance bristle and flat worms . these fish are perfect for reef tanks . the wrasse family of fish is a large group of usually very colorful free swimming fish . these fish are powerful swimmers using their pectoral fins to propel them through the water . wrasses usually have powerful jaws that enable them to crush their food , which includes worms . these fish usually have long continuous dorsal fins and are found in groups in the wild . the wrasses are one of the few fish that will bury themselves in the sand when sleeping or during flight . as with most pomacanthus angels , these fish go through extraordinary color changes from juvenile to adult . wrasses are also able to change their sex during these phase changes .
the aquarium should be well lit . keep the water quality high and the water parameters stable . good filtration and circulation is important if you want the fourline wrasse , as well as most other marine species , to thrive .
the fourline wrasse is a relatively small species and it can there fore be kept in aquarium as small as 20 gallon / 80 l . it is important to create an environment where your wrasse feels safe . if the fourline wrasse doesn ' t feel safe it will become stressed and very shy , spending most of its time hiding in the sand rather than swimming around showing itself off . there are two basic things to think if you want to create an environment that feels safe for you wrasses : 1 . the bottom of the tank should be covered with at least 2 - 3 in / 5 - 7 . 5 cm sand . the sand is important as the fourline wrasse wants to bury itself when it feels threatened and when it time for it to go to sleep . 2 . decorate the aquarium so that a lot of caves and other hiding places are created among live rock . at least some of the caves should be shaded .
the fourline wrasse is a carnivore that mainly eats micro invertebrates in the wild . they will accept most food types when kept in an aquarium including flake food and pellets . they should be fed a varied diet and you can for instance create a diet based around a high quality flake food and complement with other foods such as vitamin enriched brine shrimp and fine chopped sea food ( shrimps , clams , crab ) . feed your fourline wrasse 3 - 4 times a day .
in the past my 4 - lines have always been nicer . but thats a fish by fish thing . i have had 6 - lines be very timid and not agressive at all towards anything but mayb e a snail / hermit here or there . yellow corris wrasse was a great addition in a zoo tank i had years ago . it was strictly zoas and palys with a few fish . the corris wrasse kept any pests i had under control and did a great job at it .
common name : fourline wrasse scientific name : pseudocheilinus tetrataenia max size : 3 inches / 7 . 5 cm ph : 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 salinity : 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 temperature : 72 - 78ºf ( 22 - 26°c )
this species is relatively hardy once it has acclimatized to an aquarium and it is a species that can be recommended to people who want to start their first marine aquarium . it is important to introduce the fourline wrasse to your tank slowly , giving it ample time to acclimate before letting it out into its new home . it is best to allow 4 hours for acclimatization before releasing it . the fourline wrasse will be very shy for the first few days but will slowly become more and more active and visible in the tank .
the fourline wrasse is reef save in that regard that it doesn ' t touch corals or anemones , but it may eat small delicate shrimp and other small invertebrates . it will help you control organisms like pyramidellid snails , commensal flatworms , and bristleworms by eating them .
…shades before acclimating this one out of the box , because the male vrolik ' s wrasse is a true razzle - dazzler . neon red stripes pop against iridescent blues and greens . a sunny yellow dorsal fin glows under the glimmer lines of your lighting system . halichoeres chrysotaenia , while appearing similar…
i mainly just need a wrasse that will eat up my flatworm problem . any others that are more peaceful that we will do this ? i bought a melanurus a little while back and took him out after he took out all my bangaii cardinals . seems like the flatworm eaters are always violent .
…has multiple blue horizontal lines covering the head and body , which break into spots as they progress towards the tail . the female / sub - dominant male will change into a dominant male if incorporated into the aquarium as the only fish of this species . these wrasse are one of the most beautiful…
…peaceful wrasses , including its own species , is an acceptable environment . it will eat fireworms and pyramidellid snails , protecting corals and clams . in addition , it may eat feather dusters , wild shrimp , tubeworms , and flatworms . it may also eat parasites off of tank mates . the christmas wrasse …
…online . the richmond ' s wrasse has distinct chain - like lines along its sides , with females also exhibiting orange and yellow toward the anal fin . a 70 gallon or larger aquarium with a sealed lid , a 2 - 3 inch sandy bottom to hide under when frightened , and other peaceful wrasses , including its own…
though they are shy secretive fish in the wild , once they become acclimated to the home aquarium they become quite boisterous . they are fine in a community tank but will become aggressive towards shy timid species in the same aquarium , and sometimes even larger fish . to prevent confrontations it is best to keep it with similar sized or larger semi - aggressive fish and to make a single lined wrasse the last addition to the aquarium . they do not co - habitat well with other lined wrasses .
this fourline wrasse seems to be displaying aggression towards a few pairs of peaceful hawaiian fairy flame wrasses ( c . jordani ) . fourline wrasses and others in their genus are aggressive toward slower moving or peaceful fish like fairy and flasher wrasses , leopard wrasses , and shy gobies . these are probably the least aggressive of their genus , but still need to be kept with fish that are larger and will not take their bossiness . they can do well in a reef tank as they will get rid of pyramidellid snails and flatworms , but they will attack ornamental shrimp . an interesting behavior is that they spin a cocoon at night within the rock work to sleep in .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is a red sea endemic that is collected for the aquarium trade . adults are live coral feeders . the conservation status of this species is unclear . there is no information available on current densities or on population declines associated with collection . it is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population . it is therefore listed as data deficient .
this species occurs in fringing reefs , among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth . adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes . it relies on live coral .
this species is collected for the aquarium trade and this could possibly pose as a threat .
there are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . however , its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range ( wood 2007 ) . it is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 8883 )
occurs in fringing reefs , among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth ( ref . 9710 ) . adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes .
randall , j . e . , 1986 . red sea reef fishes . london , immel publishing . 192 p . ( ref . 8883 )
) : 24 . 8 - 29 . 2 , mean 27 . 6 ( based on 307 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00977 ( 0 . 00458 - 0 . 02086 ) , b = 3 . 05 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 61 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 21 of 100 ) .
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we would like to import some live zebra shark . contact me please . best regard , liu wei chung . email : s89186 @ urltoken
i have a green moray eel that is just too big now , does anyone have a huge tank . . . . 400 + gallons ?
being hardy and disease resistant , these fish are easy to maintain once they are established in the aquarium . they are poor shippers however , so make sure the individual you choose is eating and active .
, provide a diet rich in all kinds of protein foods , formulas and flakes with an emphasis on small crustaceans . they are very active and need to be fed twice a day at least if not more . as with other lined wrasses they benefit from productive live rock . picking on the rock is a particular love of theirs and they will eat the copepods , amphipods , and other micro fauna it provides .
these fish are generally very easy to care for and are hardy . provide basic marine aquarium care with a 20 % water change monthly or 10 % twice a month .
this timid fish needs to have plenty of good quality live rock with holes for hiding to feel comfortable especially in a smaller aquarium .
prefers sunlight to moderate light . they don ' t mind the bright light that most coral reef owners have due to their shallow water preferences .
no special requirements . normal temperatures for marine fish is between 74° and 79° fahrenheit .
in the wild they are not found far from the bottom , in fact no more than a foot above the substrate . they will spend time in the bottom of the aquarium , but usually spending most of the time in the rockwork .
do not keep with invertebrates such as small shrimp , or fish that are smaller than they are as they will become a quick meal . they have been known to go after small snails as well . it is feasible to keep the lined wrasses with larger crustacea however , as they reportedly are more amiable towards larger cleaner , marble and coral shrimp . shy fish such as firefish , gobies , grammas , fairy wrasses , flasher wrasses , leopard wrasses , and others will be pestered to death . the mandarins may or may not be picked on , but most likely will be . they will also out compete the mandarins and other fish for food . slow - moving feeders such as pipefish and seahorses will starve in their presence . predators such as groupers , lionfish , and scorpion fish will eat the lined wrasses in a heartbeat .
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availability ; that ' s all . 4 lines don ' t get quite as big ( 3
v . 4
) , but their temperament is just the same . pretty aggressive .
4 - lines are much nicer . both are territorial and rather vicious after established .
the bigger problem here is that the
flatworm eaters
are not very consistent in their tendency to eat flatworms . my advice in this situation is to get a fish that you want , and if it happens to eat flatworms , that ' s a bonus . every fish that i ' ve seen listed as a possible flatworm eater i ' ve seen fail in enough tanks that i don ' t even bother to recommend any of them anymore .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ human beings , who are almost unique in having the ability to learn from the experience of others , are also remarkable for their apparent disinclination to do so . - douglas adams current tank info : 14g , 29g nano reefs
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choose 7278f 72 - 78° f ( 13 ) dkh812 dkh 8 - 12 ( 13 ) ph8184 ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 ( 13 ) sg10201025 sg 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 ( 12 ) kh812 kh 8 - 12 ( 1 ) sg10231025 sg 1 . 023 - 1 . 025 ( 1 )
…this method is considered more advanced then other methods . it is geared toward sensitive inhabitants such as snails , corals , shrimp , sea stars , wrasses , and discus . you need the foster & smith aquatics fish acclimation kit and must be willing to monitor the entire process . gather a clean , 3 - or…
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this species does very well in reef setups without small shrimp but can be kept in
fowlr
aquariums as well .
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the crescent-tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , is a species of wrasse native to the pacific ocean from sulawesi to the line islands .

this species can reach 8.7 cm ( 3.4 in ) in standard length .

juveniles are white and black .

adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on caudal peduncle and caudal fin .

it can be found in the aquarium trade .

the crescent-tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins .

crescent - tail hogfish

the crescent - tail hogfish differs from bodianus masudai by having white pelvic fins .
the holotype of the crescent - tail hogfish , bodianus sepiacaudus , possibly from bali , indonesia , 70 . 0 mm sl , nmv a18420 . source : s . michael , in gomon 2006 a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus , rec aus mus , suppl 30 . license : all rights reserved
a small slender hogfish with red and white stripes , the broader reddish stripes becoming blackish towards the rear , and a black spot on the gill cover . the pelvic fins are whitish and the tail has a large black spot often followed by white , yellow , red and / or black crescent - shaped bands posteriorly .
hogfish are quite hardy and in time eat all the most common available fish foods . they do however , demand plenty of space to swim and for concealment .
name from latin nouns ' sepia ' for ink and ' cauda ' for tail , refers to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .
the specific name sepiacaudus : is from the latin ' sepia ' ( ink ) and ' cauda ' ( tail ) in reference to the inky black caudal peduncle and base of the caudal fin that distinguish this species .
hogfish ( bodianus ) get their name from the way they look for food in the substrate using their snout . they can regularly be seen blowing water down into the sand and in their natural habitat they often follow other fish which have disturbed it .
they can hide for long periods of time if kept with more aggressive species . hogfish can also be aggressive towards more docile species or those that resembles themselves . when fully grown they can become a threat to various invertebrates , e . g . worms , snails , small bivalves and crustaceans amongst others .
bodianus after bodiano or pudiano , from the portuguese pudor , meaning modesty ( jordan & evermann , 1896 ) .
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . tropical
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 8 . 7 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 )
this species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .
gomon , m . f . , 2006 . a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species . rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 1 - 133 . ( ref . 75973 )
) : 25 . 6 - 29 , mean 27 . 8 ( based on 72 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 19 of 100 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : little is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .
this species is known conclusively from indonesia : sulawesi ( near maluku ) and flores ( pomana besar ) , in the western pacific , and fiji and kiritimati atoll , line islands in the central pacific ( b . russell pers . comm . 2008 ) . it was recorded from sogod , cebu , philippines ( b . stockwell pers . comm . 2009 ) . the photograph was confirmed by m . gomon ( r . myers pers . comm . 2009 ) .
there is no population information avaiable for this species . this is an uncommon species .
a small species to at least 87 mm sl . it has photographed it at depths of 25 - 50 m , noting that adults occur in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , with juveniles observed at about 50 m ( b . russell pers comm . 2008 ) .
there are no known threats to this species . however , species is sought after by aquarium trade collectors .
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from the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we’ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .
holmes reef in the coral sea . the species occurs elsewhere in the tropical west - central pacific , from indonesia , the philippines , fiji , kiritimati atoll and the line islands .
differs from the similar bodianus masudai ( not found in australian waters ) in having white pelvic fins , white interspaces , whereas they are yellow to white in b . masudai .
bodianus sepiacaudus gomon 2006 , rec . aust . mus . suppl . 30 : 33 , fig . 16 , pl . 2g - h . type locality : bali ( ? ) , indonesia .
. the iucn red list of threatened species 2010 : e . t187576a8573103 . urltoken downloaded on 27 november 2015 .
this species searches through the sand for food , which can make the water cloudy and shakes up detritus .
when a male is needed , a female changes sex and takes on the role .
wrasses are nearly always seen in reef aquaria , since many of the species are both attractive and useful in battling a range of unwanted invertebrates like i . e . flatworms , pyramide snails . these fish live of everything from zooplankton to large crustaceans , sea urchins and the like .
the needs and behaviour of wrasses vary greatly , so it is vital to familiarize oneself with the specific species before buying one .
bob fenner . the wrasses we call hogfishes - wet web media - ( english ) scott michael . 2002 . aquarium fish : the hogfishes , family labridae - advanced aquarist - ( english )
scott w . michael . 2009 . wrasses and parrotfishes ( reef fishes series book 5 ) - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english )
froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .
minimum volume
indicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .
this is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .
hardiness
indicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .
in this case , a
normal
aquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26°c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .
special aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .
always reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .
often reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .
reef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .
reef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .
not reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .
this species has been photographed at depths of 25 - 50 m , with adults occurring in groups along ledges on steep dropoffs at depths greater than 20 m , and juveniles observed at about 50 m ( ref . 75973 ) . oviparous , distinct pairing during breeding ( ref . 205 ) .
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eastern indian ocean , western pacific : bali ( indonesia ) , line islands ( kiribati ) ; probably more widespread .
8 . 7 cm sl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 75973 ) )
reef - associated ; marine ; depth range 20 - 75 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 20 - 50 m ( ref . 75973 )
little is known of population and life history characteristics of this species . it has a widespread distribution but is only known from a few scattered localities in the pacific . it is found in deeper water and is uncommon so it has likely not been discovered in between areas . it sought by aquarium fish collectors . the population status is unknown . it is listed as data deficient .
. it can be found in groups at depths from 20 to 75 m ( 66 to 246 ft ) . this species can reach 8 . 7 cm ( 3 . 4 in )
juveniles are white and black . adults are white with four broad red stripes , suffused with black on
russell , b . ( 2010 ) . bodianus sepiacaudus . in : iucn 2014 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 22 august 2014 .
froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2014 ) .
bodianus sepiacaudus
in fishbase . august 2014 version .
martin f . gomon ( 2006 ) .
a revision of the labrid fish genus bodianus with descriptions of eight new species
. records of the australian museum , supplement 30 : 1–133 .
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