the big-eared horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus macrotis ) is a bat species within the rhinolophidae native to china , india , indonesia , laos , malaysia , nepal , pakistan , the philippines , thailand , and vietnam .

big - eared horseshoe bat

complete mitochondrial genome of the big - eared horseshoe bat rhinolophus macrotis ( chiroptera , rhinolophidae ) .
complete mitochondrial genome of the big - eared horseshoe bat rhinolophus macrotis ( chiroptera , rhinolophidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
big - eared horseshoe bat or rhinolophus macrotis is listed on the iucn red list ( 1996 ) as lower risk / least concern .
a young / baby of a bigeared horseshoe bat is called a ' pup ' . a bigeared horseshoe bat group is called a ' colony or cloud ' .
the big - eared horseshoe bat is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species
in china , 79 individuals of big - eared horseshoe bat complex were sampled during 2006–2012 from 14 localities ( fig . 1 and table s1 , supporting information ) , including the 12 specimens of the 7 small form and 5 large form bats published previously 18 . all bats were identified following csorba et al . 19 .
how to cite this article : sun , k . et al . the complex evolutionary history of big - eared horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus macrotis complex ) : insights from genetic , morphological and acoustic data . sci . rep . 6 , 35417 ; doi : 10 . 1038 / srep35417 ( 2016 ) .
pleistocene climatic fluctuations and accompanying ecological changes in china have presented severe challenges to the survival of bat species , greatly affecting their population differentiation and contemporary distribution 3 , 21 , 22 . in this study , the tmrca of the entire r . macrotis complex populations dated to 1 . 51 ma . during this period , china was experiencing glacial - interglacial cycles , including the poyang glacial stage ( 1 . 8 ma ) and the dagu glacial stage ( 1 . 1 ma ) 23 . climatic changes and temperature decline may have forced the big - eared horseshoe bats to diverge from other bat species and evolve separately .
we sequenced and characterized the complete mitochondrial genome of the big - eared horseshoe bat , rhinolophus macrotis . total length of the mitogenome is 16 , 848 bp , with a base composition of 31 . 2 % a , 25 . 3 % t , 28 . 8 % c and 14 . 7 % g . the mitogenome consists of 13 protein - coding genes , 2 rrna ( 12s and 16s rrna ) genes , 22 trna genes and 1 control region . it has the same gene arrangement pattern as those of typical vertebrate mitochondrial genome . the results will contribute to our understanding of the taxonomic status and evolution in the genus rhinolophus bats .
in our previous study 18 , the large and small forms were identified from sympatric large - eared horseshoe bats in china , suggesting the existence of a cryptic species . in this study , three sympatric populations ( gd1 , hun and jx1 ) were detected between small and large forms ( fig . 1 ) , suggesting secondary contact after putative speciation .
we used a uniq - 10 column animal genomic dna isolation kit ( sangon , china ) to extract total genomic dna from collected bat wing membranes which had been preserved in 99 % ethanol .
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the mainland populations probably represent two distinct species . the philippine form of r . macrotis was initially described as a separate species , r . hirsutus ( anderson , 1905 ) , but was later subsumed under r . macrotis by tate ( 1943 ) but hirsutus is morphologically and genetically distinct ( guillen et al . in csorba et al . 2003 ) .
hutson , a . m . , racey , p . a . ( chiroptera red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
though this species is widely distributed in its range in south asia it is known from a few localities and has a small colony size . the population size of this species is low and a declining trend in the population is inferred ( molur et al . 2002 ) . in peninsular malaysia and southern thailand it is rare in tall lowland forest and also hill forest in peninsular malaysia ( bumrungsri and francis pers . comm . 2006 ) and widespread but seemingly uncommon in the philippines ( heaney et al . 1998 ) .
in south asia , the habitat of this species is being deforested for timber , firewood and conversion for agricultural use . in nepal it is threatened due to increase in tourism leading to disturbance to roosting sites ; fumigation and chemical pesticides to rid the caves of roosts ( t . k . shreshta pers . comm . january 2002 ; molur et al . 2002 ) . in southeast asia , it is probably threatened in parts of its range ( such as malaysia ) by ongoing habitat loss .
in south asia , there are no direct conservation measures in place for this species . the species has not been recorded from any protected areas . additional studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , breeding biology , general ecology and threats to this little - known species . populations should be monitored to record changes in abundance and distribution . habitat maintenance , conservation and restoration are needed . public awareness activities need to be taken up to mitigate any further threats to this taxon ( molur et al . 2002 ) . in view of its wide range in southeast asia , it seems probable that the species has been recorded from some protected areas , although this needs to be confirmed .
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( a ) phylogenetic tree based on the analysis of the combined mitochondrial cyt b and control region . numbers above the branches are bootstrap support from in maximum likelihood followed by posterior probabilities from bayesian analyses . ( b ) sampling sites for the mt lineages included in the study . circle sizes are proportional to the number of individuals captured . abbreviations of samples populations are indicated in table s1 . the map was made with qgis 2 . 8 ( urltoken ) and natural earth public domain map data ( urltoken ) , and modified in illustrator .
for 79 individuals in the r . macrotis complex sampled from 14 localities across the entire chinese range of the species , we found much variation in cyt b ( 1 , 140 bp ) and control region ( 464 bp ) . a total of 29 haplotypes of cyt b were defined based on 103 polymorphic sites ( 71 of which were parsimony informative ) . no insertions or deletions were found . fifty haplotypes of the control region were defined based on 115 polymorphic sites ( 90 of which were parsimony informative ) . the alignment of the combined cyt b and control region ( 1 , 604 bp ) resulted in 53 haplotypes . for the autosomal chd1 gene ( 742 bp ) , a total of 20 haplotypes were defined from 71 individuals based on 24 polymorphic sites ( 6 of which were parsimony informative ) .
the ranges of the three clades were partially sympatric ( fig . 1b ) . both sxi and cq populations contained individuals from clades 2 and 3 ( all large forms ) , both the hun and jx1 populations contained individuals from clades 1 and 3 , and the gd1 population contained individuals from clades 1 and 2 .
in general , intraspecific genetic divergence levels among bats are typically less than 2 % within cyt b 20 . thus we used cyt b to calculate the intra - lineage and inter - lineage genetic differences . in this species complex , the maximum level of uncorrected intra - clade divergence was ≤2 % ( table 1 ) . among the three clades , the minimum uncorrected divergence was over 2 % ( table 1 ) , though never exceeded 4 % .
since the clades were distinct genetic pools , population genetics analyses were performed within each lineage . genetic diversity was highest in clade 1 , followed by clades 3 and 2 for both the cyt b and control region ( table 2 ) .
we estimated divergence times among clades using cyt b ( table 3 ) . the inferred tmrca for all r . macrotis complex was 1 . 51 ma ( million years ago ) , with similar divergence times mt clades 1 and 2 ( 0 . 64 and 0 . 66 ma , respectively ) . in contrast , mt clade 3 originated much later . tajima’s d values and fu’s fs tests indicated that none of the three mt lineages deviated significantly from neutrality ( table 4 ) . unlike in mt clades 2 and 3 , analysis of mt clade 1 failed to reject the model of population expansion ( table 4 ) , with an estimated timing of expansion occurring 78 . 8 ka ( thousand years ago ) ( 95 % ci : 38 . 1–96 . 1 ka ) .
consistent with the microsatellite results , the large form individuals from mt clade 2 and mt clade 3 did not form independent chd1 haplogroups and instead shared five haplotypes ( fig . 3 ) . however , the large form and the small form had their own distinct haplotypes with one exception ( fig . 3 ) .
colours indicate the membership of each mt lineage , including clade 1 ( red ) , clade 2 ( green ) and clade 3 ( blue ) .
we focused on the geographic pattern of nuclear genetic variation within mt clades 2 and 3 , as the above analyses failed to detect their genetic differentiation in individual clustering ( figs 2 and 3 ) . no significant ibd was found within the large forms ( p > 0 . 05 ) . however , when excluding the gd1 population , the test of ibd suggested that the two lineages had not evolved separately but were connected because smooth clinal variation rather than a geographic break was observed in the nuclear genetic variation ( fig . 4 ) .
white circles represent the distances between gd1 population in large forms and other populations .
phenotypic analyses distinguished the large and small forms using either forearm length or resting frequency of echolocation calls ( fig . 5 ) , including in sympatric populations .
circles represent the mean values . colours indicate the membership of each mt lineage , including clade 1 ( red ) , clade 2 ( green ) and clade 3 ( blue ) . the asterisks represent the individuals from gd1 population in large forms .
within the large form , morphological differentiation was not significant between mt clade 2 and mt clade 3 . forearm length was significantly explained by site , but not by sex and mt lineage , or by interactions among variables ( table 5 ) . resting frequency was significantly explained by sex and mt lineage , as well as by site . no significant interaction was found between effects ( table 5 ) .
lineage , sex and site , analyzed by general linear model ( glm ) .
we focused on the geographic pattern of acoustic variation within mt clade 2 / clade 3 of the large form as we found no significant morphological differences between these two clades . we detected positive significant associations between resting frequency and both longitude ( r = 0 . 39 , p = 0 . 0011 ) and latitude ( r = 0 . 284 , p = 0 . 0199 ) . when excluding gd1 , clinal variation was much more significant ( longitude : r = 0 . 48 , p < 0 . 0001 ; rf vs latitude : r = 0 . 74 , p < 0 . 0001 ) .
the tmrcas of the combined mt clade 1 ( small form ) and mt clade 2 ( large form ) dated to 1 . 16 ma , suggesting that the two mt lineages differentiated from each other between 1 . 16–0 . 64 ma . this time was consistent with two major cold glacial stages , xixiabangma glaciations ( 1 . 17–0 . 8 ma ) 24 and the naynayxungla glaciations ( 0 . 71–0 . 59 ma ) 25 . the former stage is one of the coldest recent climatic periods based on a high mass accumulation rate for chinese loess 26 . at that time , the populations might have become isolated into different refugia and occupied different habitats and climate zones either due to , or eventually leading to , local ecological adaptation , and two distinct lineages distributed in central and southwest china .
the mitochondrial genetic analyses indicated that large forms diverged into two distinct lineages , clade 2 and clade 3 with a level of divergence similar to that between the small and large forms . additionally , these two mt clades show distinct geographic distribution , with clade 2 primarily occurring central china , whereas clade 3 is primarily in southeast china ( fig . 1 ) , although there is sympatry in two localities ( cq and sxi ) . these results suggest a cryptic mitochondrial lineage in the large form in china .
an increasing number of studies have reported mitochondrial species - level paraphyly ( e . g . refs 6 , 7 and 8 ) . in our study , phylogenetic analyses revealed that mt clade 1 ( small forms ) was nested within the mt clades 2 + 3 group ( large forms ) , rendering large forms paraphyletic with respect to small forms . two evolutionary processes may account for this mitochondrial paraphyly : ( i ) incomplete lineage sorting and the persistence of highly divergent mt lineages , and ( ii ) mitochondrial introgression .
based on our analyses of population demographic history , the small form might have undergone post - glacial range expansion after the baiyu ( the last ) glaciation 24 , following secondary contact with the large forms . in the mitochondrial trees , all individuals from the three sympatric areas diverged recently ( see the top of mt clade 1 ; figs s1 and s2 ) . moreover , the number of small forms is less than large forms in three sympatric areas ( fig . 1 ) , suggesting the small form may be expanding into areas occupied by the large form .
sampling sizes were different for morphological characters , echolocation calls , mtdna , microsatellite dna and the chd1 gene . for morphological characters ( forearm length ) , 133 independent samples were measured . for echolocation calls , 109 independent samples were recorded . from those individuals with morphological and echolocation data , 79 samples were sequenced for mtdna , 78 and 71 were examined using microsatellite dna and chd1 analyses , respectively . for each sampling locality , we determined the latitude and longitude using gps ( etrex vista ) and then calculated the geographic distance matrixes among localities .
eight microsatellite loci , reffer 15 , 22 , 24 , 27 , h3 , pd3 , a4 and ph69a , were amplified using fluorescently labeled primers for 78 individuals . primer sequences and pcr conditions followed those of rossiter et al . 45 and hua et al . 46 . amplified pcr products were analyzed using the abi 3730 automated dna sequencer . the resulting sequences were analyzed using genemapper id 3 . 2 ( applied biosystems ) . all loci were screened for null alleles and large allele dropouts using micro - checker v2 . 2 . 3 47 . tests for deviation from hardy - weinberg equilibrium and linkage disequilibrium were performed for each population in genepop v4 . 0 48 .
the autosomal chd1 gene was amplified using two sets of primers ( ex26f and ex27r ; emb26f and emb27r ) 49 because some individuals failed to amplify with one set , and so we tried a second set . for the first set of primers , the pcr conditions were an initial denaturation at 95 °c for 5 min , followed by 36 cycles of denaturation at 94 °c for 30 s , annealing at 63 °c for 30 s , and extension at 70 °c for 2 min 30 s , and a final extension at 72 °c for 10 min . for the second set , the pcr conditions were 35 cycles of denaturation at 94 °c for 45 s , annealing at 59 °c for 45 s , and extension at 72 °c for 1 min . heterozygous sites in chd1 sequences were resolved to two haplotypes per individual using phase 2 . 1 50 implemented in dnasp v5 51 .
haplotype diversity ( h ) and nucleotide diversity ( π ) were calculated for mitochondrial cyt b and control region for each population and mt lineage . the uncorrected cyt b genetic distances within and among mt lineages were calculated in mega 5 . 05 52 . for microsatellites , expected heterozygosity ( h e ) and observed herterozygosity ( h o ) were calculated using genepop , and mean allele number and allelic richness for per locus and per taxon was assessed in fstat 2 . 9 . 3 53 . for the chd1 gene , π , h e and h o for each taxon was calculated using arlequin v3 . 5 54 .
we calculated nuclear genetic distances between localities using slatkin’s linearized f st ( given by f st / ( 1 − f st ) ) . an isolation by distance ( ibd ) model was estimated from the large forms based on microsatellites .
we used jmodeltest 61 and the akaike information criterion to select the best model of evolution for ml and bi analyses . the best - fit models were as follows : ( 1 ) trn + g [ g = 0 . 072 ] for cyt b , ( 2 ) tim3 + i + g [ i = 0 . 478 ; g = 0 . 507 ] for control region , trn + i + g [ i = 0 . 651 ; g = 0 . 714 ] for the combined mtdna data . for ml analysis , the starting tree was obtained with bionj 62 and we evaluated support of the resulting topologies using 1 , 000 nonparametric bootstraps . for bi analysis , we used the molecular evolution model parameters estimated for each data set and two simultaneous runs of markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) analysis , each comprising four chains and 10 6 generations . trees and parameters were sampled every 10 generations . when the run terminated , the deviation of split frequencies reached a value < 0 . 01 . the ln - likelihoods of trees reached an asymptote . the first 25 % of the sampled trees were discarded as a burn - in .
geographic variation for phenotypic characters was explored via box plots , with longitude and latitude on the abscissa . the relationship of resting frequency to either longitude or latitude was estimated by linear regression analysis , with averaging of frequency by site .
to estimate the phenotypic differentiation between mt clade 2 and mt clade 3 in the large form , we used a general linear model with type iii sums of squares to test for an effect of sex , site and mt lineage on forearm length and echolocation frequency . all variables were treated as fixed effects in the model .
accession codes : all sequence data has been uploaded to genbank ( kx261888 - kx261966 , kx826057 - kx826076 ) . microsatellite genotypes , sequence alignments by markers , phylogenetic trees and morphological and acoustic data files are uploaded on the dryad digital repository ( doi : 10 . 5061 / dryad . b1c88 ) .
( eds . ) ] [ 339–361 ] ( academic press , new york , 2003 ) .
( eds . ) ] ( cornell university press , new york , 1996 ) .
fstat , a program to estimate and test gene diversities and fixation indices ( version 2 . 9 . 3 ) . updated from goudet ( 1995 ) . available at :
arlequin suite ver 3 . 5 : a new series of programs to perform population genetics analyses under linux and windows
populations 1 . 2 . 30 : population genetic software ( individuals or population distances , phylogenetic trees ) ( 2007 ) .
genetix 4 . 05 , logiciel sous windows tm pour la génétique des populations . laboratoire génome , populations , interactions , cnrs umr 5171 , université de montpellier ii , montpellier ( 1996–2004 ) .
we thank lei wang , yuyan you , sen liu , shi li , guanjun lu , limin shi and xu zhu for field support . this work was financed by the national natural science foundation of china ( grant nos . 31370399 , 31270414 and 31570390 ) , the specialized research fund for the doctoral program of higher education ( no . 20120043130002 ) , the fundamental research funds for the central universities ( no . 2412016kj045 ) and the program for introducing talents to universities ( b16011 ) .
k . s . designed the study , performed much of the sampling , implemented most of genetic methodologies and analyses , and wrote the manuscript . r . t . k . assisted with interpretation of data and gave important comments on multiple versions of the manuscript . t . l . and x . w . contributed part of genetic methodologies . l . j . , t . j . and a . l . assisted with sample collection . j . f . assisted with study design , provided laboratory space , reagents , and some funding . all authors reviewed the manuscript .
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simmons , nancy b . / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
with contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer
comments : philippinensis species group . includes episcopus and hirsutus ; see ellerman and morrison - scott ( 1951 ) , tate ( 1943 ) , corbet and hill ( 1992 ) , and bates and harrison ( 1997 ) , but also see ingle and heaney ( 1992 ) , who suggested that hirsutus may deserve recognition as a distinct species . does not include siamensis , see francis et al . ( 1999b ) and hendrichsen et al . ( 2001b )
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
mitochondrial dna a dna mapp seq anal . 2016 nov ; 27 ( 6 ) : 4078 - 4079 . epub 2015 jan 21 .
a jilin provincial key laboratory of animal resource conservation and utilization , northeast normal university , changchun , china .
picture has been licensed under a creative commons attribution sharealike license original source : base map derived from file : blankmap - world . png . distribution data from iucn red list author : chermundy
biokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright © 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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stephensia brunnichella is a moth of the elachistidae family .

it is widespread throughout europe .

in the north , the distribution extends up to southern sweden and finland and in the east it ranges as far as asia minor and the crimea .

the wingspan is 8 – 9 mm .

the larvae feed on calamintha nepeta , clinopodium vulgare and satureja calamintha .

they mine the leaves of their host plant .

the mine starts as a long , narrow , full depth gallery running toward the leaf tip .

the frass is found in a narrow central line .

after reaching the leaf tip , the mine becomes a large , full depth , brown blotch .

here , the frass is deposited in black lumps .

the larvae may vacate the mine and start elsewhere .

pupation takes place outside of the mine , in a white spinning , mostly between the leaves of the host plant .

the larvae have a greenish body with a black head .

they can be found from autumn to april and again in july .

stephensia brunnichella

stephensia brunnichella ( basil dwarf ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .
phalaena brunnichella linnaeus , 1767 . syst . nat . ( ed . 12 ) 1 : 898 . stephensia brunnichella ( linnaeus , 1767 ) .
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egg at the underside of the leaf , in the basal part , near the midrib . the mine begins as a long , narrow , full depth gallery running towards the leaf tip ; frass here in a narrow central line . after the leaf tip has been reached a large , full depth , brown blotch is made . much silk is deposited within , strongly contracting the mine and making it opaque . frass lies in big black lumps here either in the oldest part , or in the centre , of the blotch . the larvae are capable of leaving their mine and restarting elsewhere , in which case the initial corridor is missing . larvae of the first generation hibernate in the mine . pupation external , in a white spinning , often between the leaves of the hostplant ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
larva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .
see steuer ( 1987a ) ; body greenish , head and thoracic plate black ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
pupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .
see patocka ( 1999a ) , patocka and turcáni ( 2005a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
adult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .
autumn up to april , and then in july ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
distribution in great britain and ireland : britain including bedfordshire , derbyshire , east gloucestershire , east kent , east suffolk , glamorgan , herefordshire , north essex , north hampshire , north somerset , north wiltshire , south wiltshire , stafford , west gloucestershire , west norfolk , west suffolk and worcestershire ( nbn atlas ) .
also recorded in the republic of ireland ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .
distribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , bulgaria , czech republic , danish mainland , european turkey , finland , french mainland , germany , hungary , italian mainland , kaliningrad region , latvia , lithuania , norwegian mainland , poland , portuguese mainland , romania , russia - north , slovakia , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands and ukraine ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .
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notes : nationally scarce ( nb ) in deciduous woodland and woodland margins , on chalky soils , in england from the wash - mersey line southwards and also in the north ; in wales from glamorgan ( mbgbi vol 3 ) . in hampshire and on the isle of wight this species occurs along the borders of woods on calcareous downland , and has been found in several localities in the county , notably at leckford and stockbridge down in the north , and portsdown nr and oxenbourne in the south . not recorded from the isle of wight since 1938 . wingspan 8 - 9 mm . imago similar to many of the elachista species , although the white band on the antenna at three - quarters is distinctive . larva mines leaves of wild basil .
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leafmine found at alderford common in 2017 ( s . wright , 30 / 09 / 17 ) only modern - day norfolk record .
recorded in 3 ( 4 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 2017 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
resident but scarce in both vice - counties with records from just three sites in recent times . double - brooded , flying in may and june and again in august and september . the larvae feed on wild basil ( pratt , 2011 ) .
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rarely observed ; on the common wild - basil . beaten from oak in bentley woods in mid - august ( morley ) ; leiston ( grey ) ; brandon ( barrett ) .
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the bleeding toad , fire toad , or indonesia tree toad ( leptophryne cruentata ) is a species of true toad endemic to java , indonesia .

it is listed as a critically endangered species due to a drastic population decline , caused in part by habitat loss due to global climate change and the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 .

chytridiomycosis has been identified as a possible threat , but no positive identification has been made .

it is possible that the chemical cocktail secreted by the toads provides them with some resistance to the fungus .

bleeding toad

bleeding toad ( iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 ) .
the bleeding toad is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
information on the bleeding toad ( leptophryne cruentata ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the specific name
cruentata ' is derived from the latin word for bleeding .
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part of the range of bleeding toad is located in gunung gede pangrango national park . future conservation actions should include population surveys and possible captive breeding plans .
the bleeding toad , leptophryne cruentata , is listed as ‘critically endangered’ on the iucn red list of threatened speciestm . it is endemic to west java , indonesia , specifically around mount gede , mount pangaro , and south of sukabumi . this toad is most commonly found near small creeks in the mountains . the female lays her eggs in clutches in the creeks . the bleeding toad’s scientific name , cruentata , is from the latin word meaning “bleeding” because of the frog’s overall reddish - purple appearance and blood - red and yellow marbling on its back .
the bleeding toad , leptophryne cruentata , is listed as ‘critically endangered’ on the iucn red list of threatened species tm . it is endemic to west java , indonesia , specifically around mount gede , mount pangaro , and south of sukabumi . this toad is most commonly found near small creeks in the mountains . the female lays her eggs in clutches in the creeks . the bleeding toad’s scientific name , cruentata , is from the latin word meaning “bleeding” because of the frog’s overall reddish - purple appearance and blood - red and yellow marbling on its back .
fire toad ( iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 ) .
revised critical habitat for the arroyo toad ( anaxyrus californicus ) : proposed rule .
veterinarian ' s assistant : i ' m sorry to hear that . the veterinarian will know what to do about this bleeding . i ' ll connect you asap . is there anything else important you think the veterinarian should know about there ?
the short - horned lizard is often referred to as a “horned toad” or “horny toad” because its squat , flattened shape and short , blunt snout give it a toad - ish look . there are over a dozen recognized horned - lizard species found in the deserts and semi - arid environments of north and central america , from southern canada to guatemala .
a number of studies suggest that cane toad tadpoles may impact on the growth and survival of native species through competition for food . cane toad tadpoles appear to significantly affect tadpoles of the ornate burrowing frog , limnodynastes ornatus , probably as a result of the superior competitive ability of cane toad tadpoles , rather than predation of early life stages of the species ( crossland 1997 ) .
the population declined drastically after the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 . it is believed that other declining factors may be habitat alteration , loss , and fragmentation . although the amphibian chytrid fungus has not been recorded in this area , the sudden decline in a creekside population is reminiscent of declines in similar amphibian species due to the presence of this pathogen . only one individual bleeding toad was sighted from 1990 to 2003 .
large scale research efforts to control toad populations , such as researching biological control solutions , have not yielded sufficiently encouraging results to justify their continuation or implementation . similarly , efforts to stop or limit toad incursion by physical barriers or removal , despite having some success at a very local scale , do not provide a broad scale solution and protection for the key biodiversity assets impacted by the cane toad .
the population declined drastically after the eruption of mount galunggung in 1987 . it is believed that other declining factors may be habitat alteration , loss , and fragmentation . although the amphibian chytrid fungus has not been recorded in this area , the sudden decline in a creek - side population is reminiscent of declines in similar amphibian species due to the presence of this pathogen . only one individual bleeding toad was sighted from 1990 to 2003 .
indonesia tree toad ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 44 ) .
any assessment of the northern quoll ' s eligibility for listing as a threatened species as a direct result of cane toad poisoning is complicated by the species having been in the process of decline prior to the arrival of the cane toad and the likelihood that other factors are also contributing to the decline . it is possible that the impact of the cane toad has accelerated a gradual decline , into a more sudden and catastrophic one .
species of native snakes are also known to survive cane toad invasion . to what extent they are susceptible to cane toad toxin and whether observed impacts on individuals translates into population or species decline is uncertain . it is also not known whether these observed declines are short term or long term .
i have a gulf coast toad that appears to be shedding skin for over a week now . much of it has come off . she soaked in
i have a gulf coast toad that appears to be shedding skin for over a week now . much of it has come off . she soaked in her bowl , and it looks slimy . there is one part where the skin came off , and it looks reddish , like it was almost bleeding . i put on latex gloves and picked her up , but it seems to have stopped and is no longer red . she also has not been eating for three days now .
straughan , i . r . ( 1966 ) . the natural history of the cane toad in queensland . australian natural history 15 , 230 - 232 .
larval cane toads are algal , detritus and suspension feeders . while it has been shown that cane toad tadpoles readily prey upon anuran eggs , in laboratory tests in northern queensland cane toad tadpoles were not found to be significant predators of native anuran eggs , hatchlings or tadpoles . this study suggested that native tadpoles are often likely to have a greater impact on the survival of early life history stages of native anurans via predation than are cane toad tadpoles ( crossland 1998 ) .
freeland , w . j . ( 2004 ) . a review of the cane toad ' s ( bufo marinus lineaus ) impacts on the native australian fauna .
seabrook , w . ( 1991 ) . range expansion of the introduced cane toad bufo marinus in new south wales . australian zoologist 27 , 58 - 62 .
northern quoll populations demonstrate a normal fluctuation in numbers involving a slight decline through the dry season . they eat several species of native frogs and are known to mouth cane toads causing the release of poison from the cane toad ' s parotoid glands ( the swellings on each shoulder behind the eardrum ) . the poison is then ingested by northern quolls . symptoms of death from cane toad toxin can include bright red lips and or gums and can also include a red roof of mouth or bright red nose and nose bleeds , red ears , bleeding from the ears , a red eye , red skin pouch , bright purple teats and faeces around the anus ( oakwood 2003 ) .
large bodied goannas are known to undergo initial population declines following the invasion of the cane toad . in queensland , anecdotal evidence exists of severe population declines in gould ' s goanna , varanus gouldii ; merten ' s monitor , varanus mertensi , varanus panoptes and the spotted tree monitor , varanus timorensis , in almost immediate response to cane toad colonisation ( burnett 1997 ) . however a lack of systematic surveys of these species in northern queensland precludes comparisons of pre and post cane toad abundances . eight of the twenty monitor species whose distributions overlap potential cane toad distribution were considered to be at high risk from cane toads due to their micro habitat preferences , distribution and diet ( burnett 1997 ) .
a study of native frog species from the darling downs area of southern queensland that undertook competition trials found that cane toad tadpoles may affect the growth of native anuran tadpoles under some circumstances . trials conducted in artificial ponds indicated that cane toad larvae reduced the growth of three native species , limnodynastes tasmaniensis , limnodynastes terraereginae , and notaden bennettii ( williamson 1999 ) .
freeland , w . j . ( 1986 ) . populations of cane toad , bufo marinus , in relation to time since colonization . australian wildlife research 13 , 321 - 329 .
proposed designation of critical habitat for the arroyo toad ( bufo californicus ; revisions to proposed critical habitat , reopening of public comment period , and notice of availability of draft economic analysis .
other possible impacts have been suggested for ground feeding geckos , fish and bird species . in addition , there are reports of freshwater crocodiles , crocodylus johnstoni , dying after ingestion of cane toad toxin in the borroloola and beswick communities and numerous anecdotal reports of freshwater crocodiles dying following cane toad consumption ( begg et al . 2000 , van dam et al . 2002 ) .
there are a number of anecdotal reports and more recently , experimental data , on the impacts of ingestion of the cane toad by native species . studies have been , and are continuing to be , undertaken on the northern quoll , vertebrate fauna in kakadu national park , reptiles , snakes , and crocodiles to determine the impact of lethal toxic ingestion of the cane toad on these species .
over the next 10 years , the rest of the mainland top end population is expected to also disappear , along with much of the kimberley mainland population . these areas are estimated to constitute a further 30 % of the species ' pre - toad distribution . with the exception of some of its island locations , an almost total cane toad colonisation of the northern quolls range is expected .
more recent studies on reptiles , frogs , and the vertebrate fauna of kakadu national park are instructive and in particular recent population crashes in northern quolls provides compelling evidence that the invasion of the cane toad into new environments can cause local populations of the northern quoll to decline catastrophically . some local populations of the northern quoll persist in queensland post the introduction of the cane toad , but little information exists concerning the numbers that persist , why they persist , and there is no indication that the species is recolonising its former range habitat , or that recovery is occurring or likely to occur in the presence of the cane toad . there is no evidence that northern quolls , which are generally solitary hunters , learn to live successfully with the cane toad . the lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin poses a significant risk to the northern quoll and is a threatening process which could cause this species to become eligible for listing as extinct , extinct in the wild , critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable .
crossland , m . r . ( 1998 ) . a comparison of cane toad and native tadpoles as predators of native anuran eggs , hatchlings and larvae . wildlife research 25 : 373 - 81 .
recent studies in kakadu national park have demonstrated that local extinction of northern quolls is occurring following cane toad invasion . over the last two years this work has shown a significant decline in northern quoll populations with declines considered to be a direct result of lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin . two recent studies are notable : one involving dedicated surveys of the northern quoll at two sites and another that undertook broad scale fauna surveys .
translocation of northern quolls from mainland northern territory ( i . e . as part of the island arks program ) : approximately sixty northern quolls have been translocated to toad - free astell and pobasso islands from the mainland as a safeguard against advancing cane toads severely impacting mainland populations . this program is also attempting to improve the quarantining of islands to reduce the chance of cane toad invasion and to maintain the biodiversity present there ;
the study concluded that 75 species are potentially at risk from the invasion of the cane toad . these represent both species of crocodile , all 14 species of tortoise , 37 of 63 species of agamid and 22 of 26 species of varanid . of these 75 at risk species , 34 were considered likely to have their range totally encompassed by the cane toad ( under predicted 2030 climate change models ) and seven have already had their range totally encompassed .
anecdotal evidence suggests that queensland northern quoll populations have survived in small , high altitude areas associated with extremely rocky habitats . these populations would have survived cane toad invasion for over fifty years . however , there appear to be no studies documenting the size or extent of these populations or the factors that have led to the survival of these remnant populations following cane toad invasion . while northern quolls may still be present in a number of localised areas in queensland in which cane toads have been present for many years , they do not appear , to date , to be recolonising their former locations and to date there is little evidence that any substantive recovery has occurred following cane toad invasion .
studies have demonstrated that cane toad eggs , hatchlings and tadpoles are toxic to many native aquatic predators . it has also been suggested that there are possible impacts from cane toads on a proteocephalid tapeworm of the python , ataresia maculosus .
since its introduction to australia , the cane toad has spread south and west across the continent and now occurs in queensland , northern territory and new south wales . from their introductory site near cairns , the cane toad has spread throughout queensland , being recorded in brisbane in the 1940s , and was considered to occupy approximately 50 % of the state by the late 1990s ( sutherst et al . 1995 ) . during the early 1960s , the cane toad was recorded in north eastern new south wales and is now considered to occur on the north coast of new south wales as far south as the clarence river / yamba . the only confirmed breeding colony south of this area being at lake innes , near port macquarie .
while this species is one of the 49 species considered to be potentially at risk from lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin ( phillips et al . 2003 in press ) , and it is likely that this is a factor in the decline of the species , there is lack of quantitative evidence that the species is declining , or has declined , as a direct result of lethal toxic ingestion of cane toad such that it would become eligible to be listed at a higher level of endangerment . nor can it be established that the cane toad is having an adverse affect on the species . additional research is needed to identify whether lethal toxic ingestion is contributing to a decline of the ornamental snake at a population or species level .
the most common result of low vitamin a in the diet is a condition called short tongue syndrome , first described in the wyoming toad ( anaxyrus [ bufo ] baxteri ) . the low vitamin a levels create a condition called squamous metaplasia , which results in the animal’s inability to produce proper sticky mucus on the tongue . when a toad or frog tries to grasp prey , it doesn’t stick to the tongue when it is retracted into the mouth , and the prey gets away .
williamson , i . ( 1999 ) . competition between the larvae of the introduced cane toad bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) and native anurans from the darling downs area of southern queensland . australian journal of ecology 24 : 636 - 643 .
the cane toad is a highly invasive species which has colonised substantial areas of the australian continent , occupying the habitats of many native species . as a result , a number of native species are considered to have experienced impacts from cane toads , most notably in relation to lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin . much of the research to date remains inconclusive at a species and population level ; is complicated by other factors of decline ; and it is uncertain to what degree species may survive short term crashes into the longer term . more recent research on the impact of lethal ingestion of cane toad toxin is compelling , particularly in relation to recent population crashes of the northern quoll in kakadu national park , northern territory . due to the symptoms and the absence of any other known cause of mortality , the deaths have been directly attributed to lethal toxic ingestion of cane toad poison . while the northern quoll is considered to have survived in isolated populations in queensland , there is little information on how successful this persistence is and no evidence that the species is recovering , or likely to recover . it is estimated that the cane toad will , in the foreseeable future , colonise almost the entire mainland range of the northern quoll and the species will continue to decline as a result .
the cane toad is a native of central and south america with a natural range extending from southern united states to tropical south america . cane toads have proven to be highly effective invaders of new ecosystems with their distribution now extending to over twenty new countries .
it is evident that a major decline of the northern quoll has occurred in kakadu national park , and will continue to occur , and that northern quolls may disappear from kakadu national park altogether within the foreseeable future due to the invasion of the cane toad .
sutherst , r . w . , floyd , r . b . , and maywald , g . f . ( 1995 ) . the potential distribution of the cane toad , bufo marinus l . in australia . conservation biology 10 , 294 - 299 .
crossland , m . r . ( 1997 ) . impact of the eggs , hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced cane toad , bufo marinus ( anura : bufonidae ) on native aquatic fauna in northern queensland , australia . phd thesis , james cook university , townsville .
cane toads eat a wide variety of prey , breed opportunistically , have a far greater fecundity than native anurans and develop rapidly particularly in warmer waters . they are considered to be an extreme generalist with a tolerance for a broad range of environmental and climatic conditions and able to potentially occupy many habitats . there is considerable concern over the impact of the cane toad on native species and in particular , invertebrate communities , through predation and competition . most significantly , they possess highly toxic chemical predator defences and many scientific and anecdotal reports exist of deaths of native predators that have attempted to consume cane toads . historically , reports on the impacts of cane toads have been largely anecdotal with little quantitative data available since the cane toad ' s introduction in the 1930s . more recent studies have been undertaken to quantify the impacts of the cane toad and include :
two species listed as threatened under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 may be potentially affected by the cane toad . these species are the ornamental snake , denisonia maculata , and the green and golden bell frog , litoria aurea , both of which are listed as vulnerable under the act .
the green and golden bell frog has been recorded as being in decline since the 1960 ' s . the factors leading to the decline are not well understand but are likely to include predation of the tadpoles by introduced fish such as gambusia , loss of habitat through clearing and drainage , and diseases such as chytridiomycosis . the cane toad may also be a factor in the decline as the historical distribution of the green and golden bell frog has retracted to the south , such that its northern extent almost exactly correlates with the southern extent of the southern continuous distribution of the cane toad into new south wales .
population declines or evolutionary responses have been recorded for varanus panoptes and varanus gouldii . one expert noted that historically , such declines have been temporary , with recovery occurring in the following year and complete population recovery being noted in the third year post invasion and that many monitor species continue to survive following cane toad invasion .
she is half burrowed and hiding behind a plant right now . i don ' t want to disturb her again . no areas that appear to be raw and bleeding now . it was when i picked her up and some skin came off on my glove that i noticed a thin line of pink near the top of her head . i would liken it to when you get an abrasion on your skin and the blood comes up , but i don ' t see it now and there does not appear to be any redness or blood . her eyes are bright , although the last few days i noticed her eyes half shut . she has not accepted any food in three days now .
there is insufficient data on the diversity of queensland ' s frog populations before cane toad invasion to determine if there has been a resulting change in frog diversity or density . in the northern territory , where the cane toad is still colonising , baselines studies have been undertaken to monitor the calling activity of native frogs to determine changes in frog communities in response to cane toad incursion . these studies , which commenced in 1996 in the roper river valley and in 1998 in kakadu national park are based on the identification of the calls of more than twenty species of frogs as well as cane toads . to date there is insufficient data from the kakadu sites to support analysis . however , initial analysis of the roper river valley provides some indication of a decline in calling rates which correlates with the incursion of cane toads . in particular , the number of frog species calling per station declined markedly between the beginning of the study in 1997 / 98 and 2001 / 02 .
in northern queensland , the northern quoll appears to have undergone a decline during the past two decades . anecdotal evidence exists suggesting severe population declines in almost immediate response to cane toad colonisation of their habitat in three widely distributed areas of northern queensland ( burnett 1997 ) . however , lack of systematic surveys in northern queensland precludes any useful comparison between pre and post cane toad abundances of the species . despite other potential impacts , including the impacts of a rapidly expanding agricultural industry and human population growth in north east queensland , quoll species were considered to be at high risk from cane toads due to their habitat preferences , distribution and diet ( burnett 1997 ) .
while there is limited quantitative information on the declines of many of these reptiles in response to cane toads , the vertebrate fauna surveys undertaken in kakadu national park do give an indication of potential impact on these species with substantial declines in cane toad invaded sites recorded for the gilbert ' s dragon and goannas ( watson and woinarski 2003a + b ) .
this work was based on ecoclimatic predictions of the likely eventual distribution of cane toads across australia and identified those species that will come , or have come , into contact with cane toads . the percentage of the species ' range currently encompassed by the cane toad was estimated along with the percentage of their range that is likely to become affected as cane toads reach their full extent .
one study undertaken in the western gulf of carpentaria , northern territory , reported that the abundance of beetles was significantly lower , in the short term , in sites colonised by cane toads compared to cane toad free sites ( catling et al . 1999 ) . apart from this study , there have been no studies to investigate the impact of cane toads on invertebrate prey communities in australia or elsewhere .
over the last 10 years , the population has almost entirely been lost from the north east top end , northern territory ; cape york peninsula ; and the einasleigh uplands of northern queensland . these areas have been estimated to constitute approximately 30 - 40 % of the northern quoll ' s pre - toad distribution . the viability of these remnant populations in the wild is , at this stage , unknown .
all stages of the cane toad ' s life cycle : eggs , tadpoles , toadlets and adult toads , are poisonous . cane toads have venom - secreting poison glands ( known as parotoid glands ) or swellings on each shoulder where poison is released when they are threatened . if ingested , this venom can cause rapid heartbeat , excessive salivation , convulsions and paralysis and can result in death for many native animals .
many native snakes prey on frogs using their mouths to capture and consume cane toads entirely and cannot avoid direct exposure to toxins in the cane toad ' s body . frog eating snakes are known to be susceptible to impacts ( e . g . northern death adder , acanthophis praelongus , king brown or mulga snake , pseudechis australis , western brown snake , pseudonaja nuchalis , red - bellied black snake , pseudechis porphyriacus ) .
it appears that cane toads are more likely to have an adverse impact on terrestrial ground frogs or larger species such as the giant frog ( cyclorana australis ) and the marbled frog ( limnodynastes convexiusculus ) due to competitive interaction and in some circumstances , high densities of cane toad tadpoles in isolated pools could out compete native aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates for food resources . however there is limited quantitative data to adequately support a conclusion on such impacts .
in the northern territory , preliminary data from an intensive radio tracking study of goannas , initiated in september 2002 , kakadu national park , has estimated an initial mortality rate of around 50 - 70 % coincident with the arrival of cane toads . it was estimated that a 50 % plus decline occurred in populations of varanus panoptes within an approximately seven month period ( late oct 2003 to late may 2004 ) coincident with the arrival and build up of cane toad numbers ( holland 2004 ) . there is evidence that most goannas died following attempted ingestion of cane toads . there is little quantitative data yet on whether or not recovery of goanna populations is likely to occur in the northern territory as it has in queensland . some species are known to persist in areas of queensland that have had cane toads present from a few to many decades but there are no quantitative data on pre - toad population sizes .
it is evident that many species continue to maintain populations throughout their range , even in the presence of the cane toad , and there are some anecdotal reports that the wildlife impacts of cane toads may diminish over time . alternatively , a substantial body of anecdotal evidence , and more recent experimental evidence , suggests that some predator species undergo dramatic and potentially threatening declines in abundance as a result of fatal poisoning by cane toads , immediately following colonisation of their habitat .
cane toads attain high population densities after colonisation and consume large volumes of invertebrates . while larval cane toads are algal , detritus and suspension feeders , metamorphling , juvenile and adult cane toads feed on a broad variety of small prey items , predominantly ground dwelling arthropods . cane toads are thought to consume approximately 200 food items per night , far more prey than most native frogs ingest in the same period . the bulk of the diet is usually ants , beetle and termites , although they can eat anything that fits in their mouth including a wide variety of insects , frogs , small reptiles , mammals and birds . in addition , cane toads have the potential to compete with native species for food and shelter sites . the ability of the cane toad to rapidly expand both its range and density and to consume relatively large numbers of a wide variety of prey has led to concern that the cane toad is a key factor in the decline in of many native species .
while northern quolls are still present in a number of localised areas in queensland in which cane toads have been present for many years , they do not appear , to date , to be recolonising their former locations and to date there is little evidence that any substantive recovery has occurred following cane toad invasion . more recent experimental evidence from the northern territory supports anecdotal reports from cape york peninsula and other areas of queensland that northern quoll populations have been , and continue to be , severely affected by the presence of cane toads .
radio tracking of northern quolls commenced at the mary river ranger station , northern territory in 2002 , shortly before the arrival of cane toads later that year . the mary river population declined dramatically between october and december 2002 and by march 2003 appeared to be extinct with no northern quolls being caught in the subsequent may and july trapping trips . in contrast , northern quolls at the cane toad free control site at east alligator were still abundant . six subsequent trapping sessions at the mary river site , southern kakadu , have caught no northern quolls .
is a small and slender toad named after its characteristic red tinge and red spots or marbling . females of this species have a snout - vent length of 25 - 40 mm , while males have a snout - vent length of 20 - 30 mm . the skin is covered with small tubercles . the parotoid gland is small and sometimes indistinct . no bony ridges are present on the head . finger and toe tips are slightly swollen . the toes are webbed , with the webbing reaching up to the final subarticular tubercles on toes iii and v .
leptophryne cruentata is a small and slender toad named after its characteristic red tinge and red spots or marbling . females of this species have a snout - vent length of 25 - 40 mm , while males have a snout - vent length of 20 - 30 mm . the skin is covered with small tubercles . the parotoid gland is small and sometimes indistinct . no bony ridges are present on the head . finger and toe tips are slightly swollen . the toes are webbed , with the webbing reaching up to the final subarticular tubercles on toes iii and v .
there is , to date , insufficient data quantifying the impacts from cane toad predation ( e . g . on aquatic invertebrates , insects , worms , snails etc ) and the competition effects that may occur on native species through the presence of cane toads in their habitats . it is likely that cane toads compete with native species for food and shelter but little is known of these competition effects . while it is suspected that predation and competition may play significant roles in reducing biodiversity of native species , and altering ecosystems , data concerning such impacts is neither complete or comprehensive .
public awareness campaigns . in 2000 , new south wales launched a new campaign to ; prevent cane toads establishing outside their existing range ; raise community awareness of cane toads including impacts on biodiversity ; increase community ownership and involvement of the cane toad issue ; and raise community awareness of native frogs and their conservation requirements . the northern territory has also undertaken public awareness campaigns to alert residents and communities to the pending arrival of cane toads , notably around darwin and rural communities . this campaign highlighted the biology and impact of cane toads ; their identification , and outlined safe methods of collection and disposal .
for the most part , amphibian skin is delicate ( an obvious exception would be something like a bufo toad with thick , leathery skin ) . even the act of a human hand touching the skin can cause damage . abrasive nets or transport bags can also harm the slime layer and the skin . when handling amphibians , one should wear wet latex gloves , rinsed with chlorine - free water before touching the amphibian . cage furniture , such as rocks , plants , substrate , etc . , can cause abrasions to the feet , belly , rostrum ( nose ) and skin . once the skin is damaged , the risk of infection increases dramatically .
the northern quoll is likely to continue to disappear over most of its mainland , and some of its island , range . based on evidence from cape york peninsula and more recently kakadu national park ( and allowing for persistence in the existing pockets in queensland and in some offshore islands ) , this reduction is estimated at about 95 % of the range ( and hence total population ) as it was in 1980 , by about 2010 . over the next 10 years , it is likely that the rest of the mainland top end population will also disappear , as will much of the kimberley mainland population , estimated to represent a further loss of approximately 30 % of the species ' pre - toad distribution .
whilst not likely to be the sole cause of the northern contraction in range of the green and golden bell frog , competition and predation interactions between the cane toad and the green and golden bell frog are likely to have operated in concert with other threatening processes such as frog chytrid infection , gambusia predation , and habitat loss in the decline of the green and golden bell frog in the northern parts of its range . despite these observations , at this stage there is insufficient quantitative data to indicate that cane toads are causing the green and golden bell frog to decline . such that it would become eligible to be listed at a higher level of endangerment or that it is having an adverse affect on the species .
lethal ingestion of cane toads is thought to also pose a threat to many species of australian reptiles . both snakes and varanids prey upon frogs and have few options for prey manipulation . one study has estimated that 59 % of ' agamids ' ( dragons ) , 85 % of the ' varanids ' ( monitors ) and all of australia ' s crocodiles and freshwater turtles are potentially at risk from cane toads . this study reviewed published information on the distributions and dietary habits of australian reptiles and tested the ability of eleven ' at risk ' reptile taxa for their susceptibility to cane toad toxin ( one python , one freshwater turtle , two crocodiles , two dragons and five monitor species ) ( smith and phillips in prep ) .
research sites have been established to the west of kakadu national park and it is hoped that these studies will provide information directly relevant to the management of cane toad impacts in kakadu national park as well as much of northern australia . coordination of these various studies to assess available results , identify gaps and provide support funding if required , and to consider their implications will require ongoing attention . to this end , a national approach to address cane toads is being developed by the natural resource management ministerial council . it has directed the vertebrate pests committee to review the current threat posed by cane toads ; review the state of research to abate those threats ; identify gaps in current approaches ; and assess the costs and benefits of various options for national action .
to date , there is insufficient information to adequately quantify the likely extent of declines of many affected species . for some native species , cane toad impacts may be minor and inconsequential in the longer term , despite marked short term responses . alternatively , species may experience little immediate response but be either directly or indirectly impacted on in the longer term . most fauna populations undergo population fluctuations of varying magnitude and it is difficult to interpret changes from a baseline to a single subsequent re - sampling period . longer term population trends can only be discerned from natural fluctuations by a series of monitoring periods . it is considered that further research on the precise nature of both short and longer term impacts of cane toads on native species is required , including the impacts that are likely to come from predation and competition .
it is considered that , at this stage , there is insufficient data to adequately quantify the exact level of impact that cane toads pose to any listed threatened species , including the ornamental snake and the green and golden bell frog . while it is likely that cane toads are having a detrimental effect , this effect is , to date , insufficiently quantified . there are also currently no data on the impact of the cane toad on a listed threatened ecological community . there is insufficient quantitative data to indicate that the threatening process could cause a listed threatened species or a listed threatened ecological community to become eligible to be listed in another category representing a higher degree of endangerment . in addition , it can not be adequately demonstrated that any listed threatened species or listed threatened ecological community is adversely affected by the threatening process .
cane toads are large ground dwelling amphibians with a dry warty skin . they have a bony head with bony ridges over their eyes , sit upright and move in short rapid hops . their colour ranges from grey to olive brown and they have a pale belly with dark irregular spots . the average size of an adult is 10 - 15cm long but females have been recorded growing up to and over 23cm . they breed in still or slow - flowing water and can tolerate salinity levels up to 15 % . adult cane toads are active at night during the warm months of the year and can survive temperatures ranging from 5 - 40 degrees celsius . cane toad spawn occurs in long gelatinous strings with double rows of black eggs with females laying between 8 - 35 000 eggs at a time . cane toads have a life span of about five years , breed twice a year , and take between 6 - 18 months to reach sexual maturity .
a series of broad scale fauna surveys were conducted in kakadu at sites that had been surveyed up to 25 years previously . the monitoring and re - sampling of the terrestrial vertebrate fauna of kakadu national park was undertaken initially to provide some assessment of the short term impacts of colonising cane toads . the project sought to provide some assessment of the change in abundance of wildlife species in kakadu national park in the first year following the arrival of cane toads and was an assessment of short term responses only . changes in fauna abundances were examined since the last surveys and again after the arrival of cane toads . this survey also used control sites , monitored over the same period to eliminate the influence of factors other than cane toads ( e . g . fluctuations in northern quoll numbers between years due to levels of rainfall ) . while northern quolls declined to zero at the cane toad invaded sites , there was no decline at the control sites .
analysis of climatic variables and the adaptive abilities of the cane toad suggests that cane toads may eventually permanently inhabit the wet coastal areas of the eastern and northern parts of the continent at least as far south as port macquarie in the east of the continent and south to broome in western australia . temperature range analysis has indicated that cane toads , in warm years , could overwinter as far south as bega near the victorian border . conversely , a drop of 2 - 2 . 5 degrees celsius in mean temperature would result in a shrinkage of the suitable overwintering area to the far north coast of nsw . it was estimated , based on this model , that cane toads will further increase their range primarily throughout coastal and near coastal regions of tropical australia to encompass an area of approximately two million km2 ( sutherst et al . 1995 ) . in addition , cane toads have now been recorded well inland , at least as far south as dunmarra , northern territory .
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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
justification : listed as critically endangered because of a drastic population decline , estimated to be more than 80 % over the last ten years , inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population .
this species occurs only on mount pangrango , mount gedeh and curug luhur , jawa barat , java , indonesia , at altitudes between 1 , 000m and 2 , 000m asl .
in 1976 , this species was abundant within its small range . in 1987 , it was very rare following the eruption of mount galunggung . there were no records from the early 1990s until 2003 , when one individual was sighted from the cibeureum waterfall . it appears to have undergone a major decline .
it lives in the boundary zone between moist lowland and montane forest . it breeds in very slow - moving , intermittent streams in forest where the larvae also develop .
it appears to have declined drastically due to a volcanic eruption . however , its decline is also reminiscent of similar disappearances of montane stream - breeding amphibians in other parts of the moist tropics , and so chytridiomycosis cannot be ruled out ( although this disease has not so far been recorded in this region ) .
this species occurs in the gunung gede pangrango national park . surveys are needed to locate this species and a captive - breeding programme might need to be established .
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bufo cruentatus tschudi , 1838 , classif . batr . : 52 . syntypes : rmnh 2130 ( 2 specimens ) according to m . s . hoogmoed in frost , 1985 , amph . species world : 67 ; given as rmnh 2130 - 31 by gassó miracle , van den hoek ostende , and arntzen , 2007 , zootaxa , 1482 : 32 , who noted that 2131 could not be located . type locality :
india orient .
; given as java [ indonesia ] by duméril and bibron , 1841 , erp . gen . , 8 : 666 ; iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 , noted that the types came from cibodas , java , indonesia .
bufo montanus werner , 1897 , zool . anz . , 20 : 265 . holotype : nhmw 22864 , according to häupl and tiedemann , 1978 , kat . wiss . samml . naturhist . mus . wien , 2 : 14 , and häupl , tiedemann , and grillitsch , 1994 , kat . wiss . samml . naturhist . mus . wien , 9 : 18 . type locality :
tijibodas ( java )
, indonesia . synonymy by van kampen , 1923 , amph . indo - austral . arch . : 78 .
cacophryne cruentata — brongersma , 1935 , zool . meded . , leiden , 18 : 257 - 259 .
known only from mount pangrango , mount gedeh , and curug luhur , jawa barat , java , indonesia , 1000 - 2000 m elevation .
see comment under leptophryne borbonica . see accounts by liem , 1973
1971
, philipp . j . sci . , 100 : 137 ( as cacophryne cruentata ) , and iskandar , 1998 , amph . java bali : 43 - 44 . see identification table by manthey and grossmann , 1997 , amph . rept . südostasiens : 26 , to compare this species with others in the sunda shelf region . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 195 .
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submit your observations of this species to inaturalist and they will appear on this map . learn more about this species on amphibiaweb .
outlined below are the roles and responsibilities for the 4 different levels of involvement for potential partners . if your organization would like to be a part of the amazing amphibians program in either of these capacities please email amazing @ urltoken .
senior partner – these partners will help with multiple aspects of the program , help facilitate the completion of several species profiles , publicize each amazing amphibian and will likely have a landing page for the program on their website . this level of partner will be leading in using their communication channels to gather additional information for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .
strategic partner – these partners will play an active role in creating species profiles , submitting at least three species profiles per year and actively use their social network to publicize each amazing amphibian . this level of partner will be active in using their communication channels to gather additional information for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .
focal partner – partners tend to be active in a limited geographic area . this partner will submit at least one regional species profile per year and use their social network to publicize each amazing amphibian . this level of partner will be involved in using their communication channels to gather additional information at a regional level for the program such as images and data points for inaturalist .
affiliate – these partners are interested in promoting the program but might not be in a position to provide profiles . these partners will publicize each amazing amphibian through the social media outlets .