the porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) is a rare species of stingray in the family dasyatidae .

this bottom-dweller is found throughout the tropical indo-pacific , as well as off west africa .

it favors sand , coral rubble , and seagrass habitats in inshore waters to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) .

a large and heavy-bodied species reaching 1.2 – 1.5 m ( 3.9 – 4.9 ft ) in width , the porcupine ray has a nearly circular , plain-colored pectoral fin disc and a thin tail without any fin folds .

uniquely within its family , it lacks a venomous stinging spine .

however , an adult ray can still defend itself ably with the many large , sharp thorns found over its disc and tail .

the diet of the porcupine ray consists mainly of benthic invertebrates and bony fishes , which it digs up from the sea floor .

it is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother .

the porcupine ray has long been valued for its rough and durable skin , which was made into a shagreen leather once used for various utilitarian and ornamental purposes , such as to cover sword hilts and shields .

it is caught incidentally by coastal fisheries .

because it must be handled carefully due to its thorns , its commercial significance is limited .

unregulated fishing has led to this species declining in many parts of its range , and thus has been listed as vulnerable by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) .

porcupine ray

it has also been called the roughskin stingaree , rough - skinned ray , solander’s ray and thorny ray .
porcupine ray reaches a maximum length of 4 . 8 feet ( 147 cm ) .
the strange - looking porcupine ray is covered with plate - like tenticles and sharp thorns .
examines wnt3a - porcupine interactions and the importance of fdh - related and other mutations on porcupine activity .
rare porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) in marsa alam , egypt . shot on lumix tz10 while snorkelling .
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a porcupine ray , urogymnus asperrimus , in the seychelles . source : olivier cochard - labbé / wikimedia commons . license : cc by attribution - sharealike
porcupine ray populations are declining today , and the species is considered vulnerable to extinction . porcupine rays are not targeted by commercial fisheries , but they are often caught accidently by vessels in nearshore waters . fewer porcupine rays are caught today as bycatch compared to years past , and researchers believe this means the species has been overexploited in its range and there are fewer individuals . further , a porcupine ray’s preferred habitat is in populated coastal areas that are more susceptible to human activity .
determine whether porcupine rays exhibit consistent and predictable patterns when using specific habitats and locations .
a layer of sharp thorns on its back gives this ray a considerable edge over any predators looking for a bite . the spikes , which are a mixture of large , cone - shaped thorns and smaller , pointed scales known as denticles , are critical for the porcupine ray that lacks the venomous barb most stingray species use for warding off larger animals . the porcupine ray is a rarely seen and distinctive ray species that unfortunately faces many threats in its range .
data was obtained through pilot study on ' crowd sourcing ' where divers were asked through different source egg . dive magazine to report sightings of the porcupine ray .
assess how the porcupine ray’s habitat use and movement patterns affect the species’ exposure and sensitivity to impacts , and its potential to adapt to impacts through movement and dispersal .
researchers at the save our seas foundation dárros research centre have a pretty tough time trying to capture a porcupine ray for research purposes . porcupine rays are well camouflaged , as they are a similar colour as the sand - this makes spotting them from the surface a challenge .
rough skin of this ray has been used as leather by many different cultures .
although the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus is widespread in the indian ocean and indo - west pacific , it is rare and has declined in at least parts of its range . furthermore , very little is known about the species . by investigating the porcupine ray’s movement patterns and habitat dependencies , this project will contribute to better understanding the species’ vulnerability to habitat degradation and environmental change .
andrew wants to know more about the ‘spiky pancakes’ that are porcupine rays , but to do this , he needs to find them first . armed with underwater cameras , a kayak , and snorkelling and fishing gear he is on a mission to seek out the elusive porcupine ray in the great barrier reef .
reports a click - based technology to visualize palmitoylated forms of wnt proteins in cells , porcupine fatty acid substrate preference , incorporation of fatty acids of different chain lengths by wnts , and s - palmitoylation of human porcupine .
the porcupine ray inhabits coral reefs , preferring sandy , coral rubble and seagrass areas , and is often seen near caves and overhangs ; also near mangroves , in depths to at least 30 m .
the porcupine ray is aptly named for its prickly body that acts as armor against a litany of predators . stingray species are often vulnerable to the appetites of h ammerhead and bull sharks , killer whales and other carnivorous fish . though the porcupine ray has a signature whip - like tail similar to other stingrays , theirs does not hold venom for stunting predators . the porcupine ray ' s body is flattened into an oval - shaped disc with a rounded snout , and is usually shaded brown or grey above and white below . its black tail stands out against its light body , and appears darker towards the tip . the porcupine ray inhabits the indian ocean and the indo - west pacific , concentrating around east africa , the red sea and parts of australia where tropical , inshore waters give way to coral reefs and sandy seafloors .
established the first connection between mutations in porcupine and the x - linked dominant disorder focal dermal hypoplasia ( fdh ) .
information on the undulate ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
brisson ba , bersenas a , etue sm . ultrasonographic diagnosis of septic arthritis secondary to porcupine quill migration in a dog .
provides proof of concept for pharmacological targeting of porcupine by using the small - molecule inhibitor c59 in mouse mammary xenograft models .
describes the identification of a small - molecule inhibitor of porcupine that shows efficacy and is well tolerated in rodent tumor models .
taken as incidental bycatch in trawl nets , tangle nets , and beach seines throughout its range . although occasionally taken in northern australian trawl fisheries , turtle exclusion devices on trawl nets appear to exclude the porcupine ray from capture .
information on the japanese electric ray is currently being written and researched and will appear here shortly . …
information on the caribbean electric ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
information on the golden cownose ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
information on the brazilian cownose ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
little is known about the life history of the porcupine ray . it forages on and around the sea - bed for bottom - dwelling crustaceans , polychaete worms and fish ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . prey is grasped in the ray’s downward - facing jaws , which bear rows of flattened teeth capable of crushing hard , outer shells ( 6 ) . like other stingrays , the porcupine ray probably retains its eggs internally during development , so that once the egg hatch , the female gives birth to a litter of live young ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .
the porcupine ray is found on or near the sea - bed in shallow inshore water , often in association with coral reefs . it commonly occurs over sand or coral rubble substrates , frequently in caves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
as discussed in communication , several groups of ray - finned fishes have quite peculiar methods of capturing prey .
johnson md , magnusson kd , shmon cl , et al . porcupine quill injuries in dogs : a retrospective of 296 cases ( 1998–2002 )
© 2018 porcupine musings | a common sense libertarian ( voluntary polycentrist ) perspective on whatever topic i feel particularly compelled to debunk that day .
the porcupine ray has an oval - shaped disc that is covered with plate - like tenticles and sharp thorns . the tail lacks stinging spines and skin folds . the fish is brown to grey above and white below . the tail tip is dark .
the porcupine ray is a really interesting and unusual critter that gets its name from the sharp thorns covering its skin . these rays look something like spiky pancakes , which if you think about it makes a lot of sense . stingrays are really big , flat ‘meat…
information on the fake round ray ( urotrygon simulatrix ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
the pmnhs is an informal society interested in marine natural history and recording , particularly in the north east atlantic region and the mediterranean sea . the name “porcupine” is taken from the naval survey vessel hms porcupine which was engaged on scientific expeditions in the north east atlantic and mediterranean in 1869 and 1870 .
information on the common shovelnose ray ( glaucostegus typus ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
there are no known conservation measures in place for the porcupine ray ( 1 ) . individuals have , however , been recorded in the nature reserve of the glorieuses islands ( 8 ) , and given this species’ large range , it almost certainly occurs in other protected areas ( 9 ) .
a distinctive but uncommon stingray named for its protective covering of thorns and denticles . the porcupine ray has a thick oval - shaped body with a rounded snout and a long - whip - like tail . unlike other stingrays in the family dasyatidae , there is no venomous barb on the tail .
the flapper skate ( dipturus batis ) is the largest european ray . the undersurface is dark grey with black spots or stripes and the…
ray - finned fishes exhibit quite a variety of mating systems . the four major types , along with a few examples , are :
is the most important means of communication and foraging for many ray - finned fishes . the eyes of fish are very similar to terrestrial
) , combined with pollution and habitat alteration have proven particularly disastrous for groups of endemic ray - finned fishes ( i . e .
the key objective of this research is to document the movement and habitat use patterns of the porcupine ray in coral reef environments and thus determine how the species’ behaviour and habitat use affect its vulnerability to habitat loss and environmental change , and identify potential management responses to reduce impacts and increase the species’ resilience .
very little is known about this mysterious ray , as just ten specimens have been identified and studied in museums . named for the pale margin…
the spotted eagle ray is very distinctive with a flattened body and triangular corners to the wing - like pectoral fins . the snout is rounded…
concepts and terminology , as well as numerous examples from a diverse range of ray - finned fish families . a section of particular interest is
ray - finned fishes inhabit a variety of extreme environments . these include high altitude lakes and streams , desert springs ( e . g .
theiss , s . m . , kyne , p . m . & chisholm , l . a . 2010 . distribution of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) in australian waters , with new records from queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum - nature 55 : 101 - 105 .
theiss , s . m . , kyne , p . m . and chisholm , l . a . 2010 . distribution of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) in australian waters , with new records from queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum - nature 55 : 101 - 105 .
the reproductive habits of porcupine rays have rarely been observed , but females most likely retain their eggs internally as most other stingrays do until the eggs are fully developed and then the female can give birth to a live litter . newborn porcupine rays lack the species’ characteristic sharp thorns , but are still equipped with countless denticles on the upper part of the body . porcupine rays forage for bottom - dwelling crustaceans , marine worms and fish that burrow into soft , sandy bottoms . sharp rows of teeth in the ray ' s downward - facing jaws are ideal for breaking the hard , outer shells of its prey . porcupine rays are benthic , which means they live near the sediment surface of the ocean . benthic rays tend to
ripple
their fins to move around above the seafloor , in contrast to pelagic rays that flap their pectoral fins .
ray - finned fishes are essential components of most ecosystems in which they occur . while many ray - finned fishes prey on each other , they can also have significant impacts on nearly all other animals in their habitats . zooplanktivorous fishes , for instance , select for specific types and sizes of
in many ways , the pygmy devilray resembles its larger and more iconic relative , the manta ray . large pectoral fins , fused to the sides of…
ray - finned fishes perceive the external environment in five major ways – vision , mechanoreception , chemoreception , electroreception and magnetic reception , and to humans several of these sensory systems are entirely alien . many types of perception are also used by ray - finned fishes to communicate with individuals of the same (
) , which make up nearly all existing ray - finned fishes , have repeated and extended early trends . many of the sections , such as physical description , reproduction , behavior and ecosystem roles merely scratch the surface , but there are numerous links to family - level ray - finned fish accounts . (
magee aa , ragle ca , howlett mr . use of tenoscopy for management of septic tenosynovitis caused by a penetrating porcupine quill in the synovial sheath surrounding the digital flexor tendons of a horse .
the porcupine ray is widely distributed throughout the indian ocean and the indo - west pacific , occurring from the coast of east africa and the red sea , east as far as marshall islands and fiji , and south as far as northern australia ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . it also occurs in tropical inshore waters of the east atlantic , around central west africa ( 4 ) .
the knifetooth sawfish is an unusual type of ray , with a shark - like body and a distinctive , elongated snout , or rostrum , known as a saw . in…
( wheeler , alwyne 1985 : viii ) . detecting sound in water can be difficult because waves pass through objects of similar density . therefore , ray - finned fishes have
mobulids ( family mobulidae ) , commonly referred to as devil rays , are cartilaginous fishes found circumglobally in tropical , subtropical , and warm temperate waters . these pelagic species exhibit low fecundity and slow maturation ; however , their life history remains poorly understood , yet these species are highly exploited worldwide . this family includes the genus manta and the genus mobula with 11 identified species . five of these species have been confirmed in the philippines , namely : the spine - tail devil ray ( mobula japanica ) , bent - fin devil ray ( mobula thurstoni ) , sickle - fin devil ray ( mobula tarapacana ) , the oceanic manta ray ( manta birostris ) and the reef manta ( manta alfredi ) . two other species the pygmy devilray ( mobula eregoodootenkee ) and the shortfin devil ray ( mobula kuhlii ) are thought to occur in philippine waters though these sightings have not yet been officially confirmed .
many ray - finned fishes exhibit migratory behavior ; daily migrations are usually related to feeding or predator avoidance while longer migrations are usually for reproduction purposes . some fishes stay within saltwater (
and siphonophores ( colonies of organisms , e . g . man - o - war ) , also regularly consume various ray - finned fish . there is even some unlikely predators like
freshwater groups , however , account for the vast majority of actual extinctions in ray - finned fishes . the most significant threats are to families with restricted distribution ( i . e .
, resulting in even more extinctions . the latter example illustrates the complexity of ecological interactions and the fact that ecological interactions are not confined to aquatic organisms . because ray - finned fishes are often important food source to terrestrial organisms ( see below ) , including humans ( see economic importance and conservation ) , changes in ray - finned fish communities can have significant ecological implications .
ray - finned fishes have significant aesthetic , cultural , scientific and transformative value to humans . to many native people , especially in the united states , fish are symbols of cultural tradition and the subject of works of art . snorkeling , scuba diving , and sport fishing are increasingly popular around the world and , of course , ray - finned fishes have significant scientific and educational value .
the porcupine ray is a distinctive and unusual stingray associated with coral reefs . it appears to play an important role in bioturbation and habitat formation in reef lagoons . it is widely distributed from the indian ocean to the indo - west pacific , but relatively rare and very little is known about its biology or ecology . a recent review of the species in australia located only 25 records in museums and scientific databases . the lack of information about the porcupine ray’s biology and ecology is a significant issue given its rarity and the serious threats it faces from habitat degradation and environmental change , especially considering both the documented and projected declines in coral reefs throughout its range . lack of information about the species’ habitat use and movement compromises scientific understanding of its exposure to risks , sensitivity to these risks and ability to adapt to impacts through compensatory behaviours , such as reaching and colonising alternative habitats and locations should coral reefs in one area become degraded . while the species is rare , its highly unusual appearance makes it easy to identify and contributes to its potential role as a charismatic coral reef species . capitalising on these traits , a pilot study was carried out in 2012 using citizen scientists to identify hot spots of porcupine ray distribution . this facilitated the identification of two potential study sites in the great barrier reef . this project will focus on one of these sites , one tree island in the southern great barrier reef .
porcupine’s annual conference and agm takes place over the weekend of saturday / sunday with a two - day conference of talks and posters at plymouth university , followed by a field meeting nearby at wembury on monday [ low tide 0 . 7m @ 12 : 30 ] .
the spiny butterfly ray is under great pressure from fishing in the canary islands , a paradise in the atlantic ocean . david will work with citizen scientists to expand our knowledge about the lives of these vulnerable rays .
, which have greater density than the rest of the fish , in the inner ear attached to sensory hair cells . since gas bubbles increase sensitivity to sound , many ray - finned fish ( e . g .
. while many ray - finned fishes migrate well outside their home range – in many cases hundreds of kilometers , against current and even up waterfalls – they have remarkable abilities to find their way back . for instance ,
another common characteristic of ray - finned fishes is aggressive behavior , which results from competition for valuable resources , such as feeding , refuge and mating territories , mates , eggs , and young . one form of aggressive behavior is
not surprisingly , the lifespan of ray - finned fishes varies widely . in general , smaller fish have shorter lives and vice versa . for instance , many smaller species live for only a year or less , such as north american
wnt proteins are critical regulators of signaling networks during embryonic development and in adult tissue homeostasis . the generation of active wnt proteins requires their regulated secretion into the extracellular space . once secreted , wnts signal through the cell surface via receptor binding on wnt - receiving cells , a mechanism that is prevalent in stem cell and cancer biology . important to both wnt secretion and receptor recognition is their post - translational fatty acylation . in this perspective , we highlight progress in elucidating the biochemistry of wnt fatty acylation and provide a molecular view on the enzymology of substrate recognition and catalysis , with a focus on the wnt o - acyltransferase porcupine . special emphasis is given to wnt fatty acid biosynthesis , wnt - porcupine interactions , clinical mutations of porcupine and emerging therapeutics for perturbing wnt fatty acylation in cancer . finally , we discuss models for the functional role of the unsaturated fatty acyl chain in mediating lipid - protein interactions and in wnt trafficking .
although very wide ranging , this ray appears to be uncommon compared to various species of dasyatid rays which are sympatric with it . occurrence appears to be patchy with localised hotspots ( chin 2014 ) . juveniles appear to be site - attached , and highly resident to small areas of shallow coastal mud and mangrove habitats ( cerutti - pereyra et al . 2014 ) . it has been recorded from coral reefs , sandy reef lagoons , beaches , mud flats and mangroves , at depths of ~ 1 m to at least 30 m ( o ' shea 2013 , cerutti - pereyra et al . 2014 , chin 2014 ) . there is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species . age at maturity , longevity , average reproductive age , generation time and average annual fecundity are all unknown . attempts to collect size - at - age data from vertebral counts have proved difficult due to the fragile nature of vertebra ( o ' shea 2013 ) . the porcupine ray reaches a maximum size of at least 115 cm disc width ( dw ) with females mature by ~ 100 cm dw and males at ~ 90 cm dw ( last and stevens 2009 ) . using data from the brown stingray ( dasyatis lata ) , a related species of similar size from the pacific as a proxy , generation time for the porcupine ray is inferred to be 21 . 5 years .
despite its large range , the porcupine fish is not regularly recorded by fisheries surveys , and is therefore believed to have a relatively small population . the population data that is available for this species indicates that it has undergone a significant population decline in parts of the centre of its range ( 1 ) . the reason for this is unclear , as while the meat , skin and cartilage all have commercial value , the porcupine fish typically has little or no importance to fisheries . it is , however , often caught as bycatch in trawls and beach seines , which may be having a detrimental effect on its population . ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
a 17 - month - old holstein heifer was presented for persistent enlargement above the right hind fetlock of 1 - month’s duration . diffuse plantar soft tissue swelling was present on the radiographs and ultrasonography revealed the presence of multiple porcupine quill extremities embedded in the subcutaneous tissue within the flexor tendon sheath wall . surgical removal was performed .
porcupine representations of the different eigenvectors derived from the md simulations demonstrated less evidence of long range concerted motions . moreover , porcupine analysis of intermediate subtrajectories ( 3 - 15 ns , 6 - 15 ns , 9 - 15 ns , 3 - 12 ns ) showed little mutual similarity . taken together , these results suggest that the modes of motion generated by analysis of concoord ensembles might emerge on a time scale that is longer than that of our simulation . interestingly , however , in an analysis of the full 15 - ns trajectory of au , a motion resembling eigenvector 1 of the concoord ensemble appeared as eigenvector 3 ( fig . 2 c ) .
. in this situation , smaller males attempt to ' sneak ' fertilize the eggs of females as peak spawning is occurring ; the smaller males release gametes simultaneously in the vicinity of the spawning pair . hermaphroditism in ray - finned fishes involves individuals containing ovarian and testicular tissue (
species , which grow primarily in the sea but return to aquatic areas before they , spreading nutrients from the ocean up and down rivers . during rainy periods in tropical watersheds , ray - finned fish forage in flooded areas , consuming seeds and dispersing them throughout the floodplain .
little is known about the population status , trends or structure of this species , although the porcupine ray is considered to be an uncommon species . globally , shark and ray landings have declined by at least 20 % since 2003 , but the indo - pacific is amongst the regions where this decline has been more severe ( dulvy et al . 2014 ) . catches of sharks and rays in southeast asia are very high but are declining and fishers are travelling much further from port in order to increase catches ( chen 1996 ) . net and trawl fisheries in indonesia ( especially the java sea ) and elsewhere are very extensive and as a result , many shark and ray species are highly exploited and stocks of most species have declined by at least an order of magnitude ( blaber et al . 2009 ) . batoids are heavily exploited ( white and dharmadi 2007 ) and datasets from as early as 1963–1972 show the considerable decline in batoids in the gulf of thailand ( pauly 1979 ) . trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further afield . for example , in jakarta the gillnet fishery at muara baru travels to waters around kalimantan due to the decline in local populations ( w . t . white , unpubl . data ) . while species - specific data on long - term declines in elasmobranchs in the southeast asian region are lacking , declines of he porcupine ray in southeast asia and elsewhere in the indo - west pacific are inferred given the widespread historical and continuing declines of demersal fisheries in this region ( stobutzki et al . 2006 ) . furthermore , the extensive loss and degradation of habitats such as coastal mangroves are another key threat to coastal and inshore species ; southeast asia has seen an estimated 30 % reduction in mangrove area since 1980 ( fao 2007 , polidoro et al . 2010 ) .
) have modified gas bladders and swimbladders adjacent to the inner ear . most ray - finned fishes have keen hearing ability and sound production is common but not universal . in groups that do utilize sound for communication , the most common purpose is territorial defense ( e . g .
) . at this point , approximately 90 species of ray - finned fishes are known to be extinct or only survive in aquaria , 279 are critically endangered or endangered , and another 506 are listed as vulnerable or near threatened . families of particular concern ( in descending order ) are
one of our primary research sites has been the monitoring of a century - old ray fishery site in bohol , with the goal of understanding the reproductive biology of the devil rays to assess the sustainability of the fishery . our team has been working with the local fishing community since 2012 .
justification : the porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) is a shallow water species occurring inshore to at least 30 m depth , often associated with sandy and coral reef habitats . this species is widespread in the indo - west pacific region where intensive and largely unmanaged net and trawl fisheries occur ( with the exception of australia ) . while life history data are not available , the life history of a related species , the brown stingray ( dasyatis lata ) , suggests that this species may have a long generation length ( 21 . 5 years ) . fishing pressure is heavy in its known , shallow - water habitat , and fisheries are likely to catch this species if present . many shark and ray fisheries and stocks in the region are known to be over - exploited , with catches declining . market surveys indicate that this species has decreased in abundance in parts of the centre of its range for which comparative data are available such as the gulf of thailand . it is also a commonly caught and heavily used species in indonesia which is a global centre for intense shark and ray fishing and over - exploitation . based on its shallow water habitat preferences , long estimated generation time , global declines in chondrichthyan landings of at least 20 % over the past 12 years , and the fact that the indo - west pacific region is a region with some of the most poorly managed and intensely fished waters , a population reduction of greater than 30 % over three generations is inferred for the porcupine ray , resulting in an assessment of vulnerable . in australia , the species is assessed as least concern as has no commercial value in australian waters and is seldom caught . while the species was occasionally captured in commercial trawl fisheries , the introduction of trawl exclusion devices has significantly decreased the bycatch of large batoids in australian trawl fisheries . marine protected areas at ningaloo reef and the great barrier reef are likely to provide effective protection for this species .
during courtship ray - finned fishes exhibit a wide range of complex behaviors , reflecting their evolutionary heritage and the particular environments they inhabit . for instance , pelagic spawners tend to have more elaborate courtship rituals than benthic spawners . some of the behaviors include sound production , nest building , rapid swimming patterns , the formation of large schools , and many others . in addition , ray - finned fishes frequently change color at specific points in their reproductive cycle , either intensifying or darkening depending on the species , release pheromones , or grow tubercles ( tiny bumps of keratin ) on the fins , head or body .
clearly ray - finned fishes display considerable complexity in their ability to perceive their environment and communicate with other individuals , yet until recently it was assumed that fish had negligible cognitive ability . current research , however , indicates that learning and memory are integral parts of fish development and rely on processes very similar to those of terrestrial
some species of stingrays have evolved the amazing ability to crush and consume hard - shelled marine critters like clams , scallops , oysters and snails . these durophagous ( meaning ‘hard - eating’ ) stingrays can be found in subtropical to temperate waters worldwide , and they include the cownose and eagle rays . unfortunately , because their diets occasionally include economically valuable shellfish , durophagous stingrays are often considered ‘pest’ species by fishermen . this has led to the development of uncontrolled kill tournaments for these rays and advertising campaigns to increase ray consumption ( such as , ‘save the bay , eat a ray’ ) despite these species having some of the lowest reproductive rates among marine fishes .
benthic ray - finned fishes also utilize numerous methods of camouflage ( for both hunting and predator avoidance ) . a common and elaborate method in tropical seas is mimicking the background of the habitat ( protective resemblance ) , which involves variable color patterns as well as peculiar growths of the skin that may resemble pieces of dead vegetation ,
in 2015 lamave started a collaborative project with the tubbataha reefs natural park to assess the abundance and diversity of rays within the park . using bruv systems and visual identification a number of different species have been reported in the park including : porcupine , marble , cowtail , whiptail , mobula and manta rays . recently we started a tagging project , using acoustic tags to determine the local movements of reef mantas around the atolls .
consume the scales of the dead fish as they sink . ray - finned fishes also have significant impacts on a variety of plant species . the trophic cascade example ( above ) illustrated an indirect connection between microscopic plants ( phytoplankton ) and fish , but fish also excrete soluble nutrients into the water , such as phosphorus . phosphorus is essential for phytoplankton growth , and fish secretions may provide significant amounts of nutrients in some lakes . a more direct connection is simply the consumption of numerous plant species ( see food habits ) . finally , fish may significantly alter the geological dynamics of their habitats . many ray - finned fish build nests or burrows ( e . g . several
ap— the x - ray structure determined for phosphorylated cdk2 , bound to cyclin a ( pdb accession id : 1jst ) was reduced to a single dimer with associated atp and water of crystallization , as for iu . in this case a metal ion , manganese , was already in place . for the simulation the manganese was replaced with a magnesium 2 + ion in the same location .
a 17 - month - old heifer was referred to the veterinary hospital for a persistent enlarged flexor tendon sheath on the right hind limb of 1 - month’s duration . the anamnesis revealed the heifer had been injured by porcupine quills in this area 1 mo ago . quills were removed by the owner several hours after the initial injury and penicillin procaine ( depocillin ; intervet canada , whitby , ontario ) , 20 000 iu / kg body weight ( bw ) , im was administered for 5 d .
dynamic modes— fig . 2 a shows , in porcupine representation , the most significant motion of the cdk2 - cyclin a complex predicted by concoord for the ap state : a twist about an axis that runs from the cdk2 to cyclin a , pivoting approximately about residue p155 . however this gross twisting motion of the cdk2 - cyclin a dimer masks a flexing motion of the cdk2 . we can isolate the dynamics of the cdk2 within the complex by considering only cdk2 atoms in the pca analysis of the dimer .
based on feeding habits , researchers broadly classify ray - finned fishes as herbivores , carnivores , omnivores , zooplanktivores and detrivores . there is considerable nuance within each of these categories because many fish are opportunistic feeders – they tend to consume whatever is around , especially when food is scarce . however , primary feeding habits are often associated with body form , mouth type and digestive apparatus , as well as teeth . for instance ,
the porcupine ray is a highly distinctive , but little known species , which is named for the unusual thorny projections that are found on the upperside of its body ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this species has a thick , oval , disc - shaped body , a rounded snout and a long , whip - like tail , which does not possess the venomous barb that is characteristic of most members of the stingray family ( dasyatidae ) ( 2 ) . instead , this species is protected from predators by its armoured body , which is covered with a mixture of large , sharp , conical thorns and smaller , pointed projections known as “denticles” . the young lack the thorns , but bear numerous large , flat denticles on the upper surface of the body ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the colouration of this species is brown to light grey above and white below , while the tail is blackish , becoming darker towards the tip ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
in this report we use a two letter code to identify a cdk2 - cyclin a structure in a given state of phosphorylation and activity as in table i . according to this nomenclature therefore , ap ( for active form , phosphorylated ) corresponds to the x - ray structure for thr 160 phosphorylated ( and therefore active ) cdk2 - cyclin a with the phosphate group intact . au ( for active structure , manually edited so as to be unphosphorylated ) is the same structure with the phosphate group removed in silico . likewise iu ( for inactive form , unphosphorylated ) corresponds to the x - ray structure for unphosphorylated ( and therefore inactive ) cdk2 - cyclin a with no addition of phosphate group , and ip ( for inactive structure , manually edited so as to be phosphorylated ) is the same structure with a phosphate group added in silico to thr 160 before simulation . the four starting configurations were prepared as follows .
for the peak at residue 11 , this is consistent with the proposed biological function of this loop : it opens and closes to allow entrance and exit of atp and adp respectively . the second loop at around residue 35 is often difficult to model in x - ray structures of both monomeric cdk2 and cdk2 in complex with cyclin a , and may play a role at the edge of the interface between the pstaire helix and the cdk - proximal domain of cyclin a .
differential roles for the cluster of arginines that bind phospho - thr 160 — as discussed above , examination of the x - ray structure of phosphorylated cdk2 shows that the negatively charged phosphate group on phospho - thr 160 is docked into a triad of positive arginines : arg 50 , arg 126 , and arg 150 . the natural interpretation is that there is a coulomb attraction between these entities , which anchors the phospho - thr 160 in place and maintains the functional phosphorylated configuration .
the species is presumably largely taken as bycatch in unregulated fisheries in nearshore waters . it has been recorded as a high value catch in indonesian net fisheries ( white et al . 2006 ) . it appears to have disappeared or become extremely rare ( compared to certain other batoids ) in the batoid catches landed in bangkok from the gulf of thailand in recent decades ( compagno and cook , unpubl . data ) . this suggests probable local over - exploitation here and possibly also in the bay of bengal . similar trends are likely to be occurring or will occur in other areas where batoids are taken in multi - species fisheries . certainly , demersal fishery resources in the gulf of thailand and southeast asia have been severely depleted from historical levels ( stobutzki et al . 2006 ) . human modification and degradation of the ray ' s habitat is also possibly occurring in some of the more highly populated and polluted coastal areas as a result of human influences . the loss of coastal habitats such as mangroves may be of particular concern for this species which is suspected to have highly localized habitat use ( a . chin , unpubl . data ) . this species was occasionally taken in northern australian trawl fisheries ( brewer et al . 2006 ) . however , the introduction of turtle exclusion devices appears to have successfully excluded this species from continuing capture in trawl nets ( brewer et al . 2006 ) . the porcupine ray is considered to be potentially one of the most vulnerable chondrichthyans to the impacts of climate change in northern australia ( chin et al . 2010 ) .
fishes are obviously of enormous economic import to humans . primarily , humans consume fish through fishing and aquaculture , and fish are an essential form of protein for millions of people around the world . the farmed salmon industry alone is valued at over 2 billion dollars a year , but unfortunately , aquaculture operations can have serious ecological consequences . similarly , ray - finned fishes are quite popular in the aquarium trade , and those with high cash value , such as many tropical fishes , are removed in highly damaging ( i . e . using poisons ) and exploitive ways ( see conservation and other comments ) . televised sport fishing events are also popular on rivers , lakes , coastal areas and reefs around the world . the fast - growing scuba industry relies heavily on thriving coral reefs with diverse and abundant communities of ray - finned fishes . finally , of less direct ( and severely underappreciated ) economic importance are the ecological roles that fishes fill , like controlling insect populations ( e . g . many still - water groups like
three specimens of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) are reported from heron island on the great barrier reef , qld . these are the first records from the southern great barrier reef and represent the southernmost records for this species on the east coast of australia . an immature male with a disc width ( dw ) of 650 mm and two females measuring 620 mm dw and 545 mm dw were caught on the eastern side of the island using hand or seine nets . the two females were released alive after examination . some morphometric data from two of the individuals are provided . the distribution , biology and ecology of this species are poorly - known , with only five catalogued australian specimens held in australian museums . the majority of these are not whole specimens and are in poor condition . there is further scattered information from photographs and live sightings . all known australian records of u . asperrimus are summarised here . there are records of the species across tropical northern australia , from ningaloo reef , wa ( 22 [ degree ] 43 [ minute ] s ) to heron island , qld ( 23 [ degree ] 26 [ minute ] s ) .
the porcupine ray is a widely distributed but relatively uncommon species found in the indo - west pacific ; it is also possibly tropical west africa ( senegal , guinea , ivory coast ) and as an invasive in the eastern mediterranean ( via the suez canal ) ( last and stevens 2009 ) . localities include south africa , madagascar , kenya , seychelles , red sea ( koseir ) , saudi arabia , oman ( muscat ) , gulf of oman , arabian sea and persian gulf , pakistan , india ( bombay , madras , malpe , south canara on malabar coast ) , sri lanka , myanmar , malaysia ( malay peninsula , penang ) , singapore , taiwan , thailand , indonesia ( jakarta , java , kalimantan ) , possibly the philippines , viet nam ( cholon ) , australia ( queensland , western australia , northern territory ) , new guinea and melanesia ( fowler 1941 , herre 1953 , capape and desoutter 1990 , last and stevens 1994 , last and compagno 1999 , theiss et al . 2010 , ebert et al . 2013 ) . the species appears to have patchy localized distributions with local hotspots recorded at d ' arros island in the seychelles , and specific sites in ningaloo reef and the great barrier reef , australia ( theiss et al . 2010 , chin 2014 ) .
actinopterygians , or ‘ray - finned fishes , ’ are the largest and most successful group of fishes and make up half of all living vertebrates . while actinopterygians appeared in the fossil record during the devonian period , between 400 - 350 million years ago ( ma ) , it was not until the carboniferous period ( 360 ma ) that they had become dominant in freshwaters and started to invade the seas . at present , approximately 42 orders , 431 families , and nearly 24 , 000 species are recognized within this class but there are bound to be taxonomic revisions as research progresses .
key to interpreting these eigenvectors is a helpful visualization of them . we have based our visualizations on the porcupine plots of ( 30 ) . in that study , a stick was drawn for all residues corresponding to the movement implied for that residue for a given eigenvector . for example to visualize eigenvector 1 a stick is drawn for each residue starting from the cα and projecting in the direction of the component of the first eigenvector that corresponds to that residue . we have found that cones are easier for the eye to interpret than sticks and a script was written to allow the molecular graphics program vmd ( 32 ) to automatically plot these cones onto the protein , given the eigenvectors of the pca decomposition . 2 we have described elsewhere ( 29 ) a web - service 3 in which we have made these analyses and visualizations available to other researchers .
) . the key to electrical communication is not simply the ability to detect electrical fields , but to produce a mild electrical discharge and modify the amplitude , frequency , and pulse length of the signal . this makes electrical signals individually specific , in addition to being sex and species - specific . consequently , “electrical discharges can have all the functions that visual and auditory signals have in other fishes , including courtship , agonistic behavior and individual recognition” ( moyle and cech 2004 : 206 ) . finally , a few highly migratory ray - finned fishes can apparently detect earth - strength magnetic fields directly , in much the same way sensation occurs with the lateral line . while the specific mechanisms of
our results show that the charge on the phosphate accounts for much , but not all of the tendency of the phospho - thr 160 not to unfold from its active conformation . however , the full 2 - charge is not required for this effect over the timescales considered : little difference is observed in simulations where the phosphate is given a single negative charge . as expected , removal of the phosphate from a simulation of the phosphorylated x - ray structure leads to a significant loosening of the association between the arginine triad ( arg 50 , arg 126 , and arg 150 ) and thr 160 . indeed , in one simulation , a rapid partial unfolding of the t - loop was observed .
ray - finned fishes generally avoid predators in two ways , through behavioral adaptation and physical structures , such as spines , camouflage and scents . usually , several behavioral and structural tactics are integrated because it is advantageous for fishes to break the predation cycle ( 1 - 4 ) in as many places as possible , and the earlier the better . for instance , ( 1 ) the primary goal of most fish is to avoid detection , or avoid being exposed during certain times of the day . if detected , ( 2 ) a fish might try to hide very quickly , blend in with the surroundings , or school ; ( 3 ) if the fish is about to be attacked then it must try to deflect the attack , and if attack is unavoidable ( 4 ) the fish will try to avoid being handled and possibly escape . therefore , many fishes avoid even the chance of attack through particular cycles of activity , shading ( or lighting , see below ) and camouflage , mimicking , and warning coloration .
( including chemoreception , electroreception , magnetic reception and a “distance - touch” sensation – see communication ) , and some even produce their own light or electricity . in addition , color diversity in ray - finned fishes is “essentially unlimited , ranging from uniformly dark black or red in many deepsea forms , to silvery in pelagic and water - column fishes , to countershaded in nearshore fishes of most littoral [ near - shore ] communities , to the strikingly contrasted colors of tropical freshwater and marine fishes” ( helfman et al . 1997 : 367 ) . of course , extravagant coloration is not helpful for fish at risk of being eaten , yet bright coloration is environment - specific ( see helfman et al . 1997 : 367 ) and bright colors at one depth are cryptic at others due to light attenuation ( see communication ) . further , color change is common in brightly colored ( as well as many other ) fishes and occurs under a variety of circumstances . pigments are responsible for a many types of color change , but there are also
monomeric cdk2 has negligible activity because the residues that should form its catalytic and substrate - recognition sites are disordered ( 3 ) . full activation requires both binding by cyclin a or cyclin e and phosphorylation of residue thr 160 on a loop ( the “t - loop” ) by a cdk - activating kinase ( cak ) activity ( 4 – 6 ) . the structure of cyclin a ( 7 ) does not change significantly , but many of the cdk2 residues are realigned toward their active configuration ( 8 ) . in this state the cdk2 has 0 . 4 % of its full activity : 100 % activity is achieved when thr 160 is phosphorylated ( 9 ) . x - ray structural data shows that phosphorylated thr 160 turns in to contact three arginine residues ( arg 50 , arg 126 , arg 150 ) , twisting the t - loop and stabilizing the conformation of residues linked to the catalytic apparatus of the kinase ( 6 ) . fig . 1 shows the experimentally determined structures of phosphorylated and unphosphorylated cdk2 in complex with cyclin a , emphasizing the arginines and the phosphorylated threonine .
principal dynamic modes of the cdk2 - cyclin a dimer . a , porcupine plot of principal motion of the dimer calculated using concoord . the view is from cdk2 along the cdk2 - cyclin a axis . the motion is primarily an interdomain twist . b , same motion recast to show only motions internal to the cdk2 . the motion is seen to be a relative flexing of the n - and c - terminal domains causing the active site to open and close . c , similar motion is sometimes observed in a corresponding analysis of a subset of the trajectories generated by molecular dynamics , although in this case it appears as the 3rd ranked eigenvector . d , when an ensemble of structures taken from the pdb of cdk2 bound to a range of ligands is subjected to the same analysis the result obtained is similar to that of the concoord ensemble : the dominant mode is shown here . e , relative contributions of different modes ( eigenvectors ) to the overall motion is shown for the three analyses : concoord ( short dashed line ) , md ( long dashed line ) , and experimental ensemble ( solid line ) . the data are renormalized so that the eigenvalues for each set add up to unity . f , second most significant motion for cdk2 is a relative twist of the n - and c - terminal domains . this view is looking “down” from the n - terminal domain , and was generated from the concoord ensemble .


atractaspis boulengeri , or the central african burrowing asp , is a species of venomous snake in the atractaspididae family .

it is endemic to africa .

atractaspis boulengeri

atractaspis boulengeri by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow
the specific epithet , boulengeri , is in honor of belgian - british herpetologist george albert boulenger .
scott ellsworth changed the thumbnail image of
atractaspis bibronii bibron ' s stiletto snake
.
scott ellsworth changed the thumbnail image of
atractaspis bibronii , bibron ' s stiletto snake
.
renato agazzi added the italian common name
atrattaspide di bibron
to
atractaspis bibronii smith 1849
.
hans - martin braun added the german common name
südliche erdotter
to
atractaspis bibronii smith 1849
.
renato agazzi marked the classification from
integrated taxonomic information system ( itis )
as preferred for
atractaspis bibronii smith 1849
.
laurent , r . f . ( 1945 ) contribution a la connaissance du genre atractaspis a . smith . : rev . zool . bot . afr . , 38 : 312 - 343
beolens b , watkins m , grayson m . 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( atractaspis bibroni [ sic ] , p . 25 ) .
branch , bill . 2004 . field guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . third revised edition , second impression . sanibel island , florida : ralph curtis books . 399 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 042 - 5 ( atractaspis bibronii , p . 62 & plate 38 ) .
boulenger ga . 1896 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) , volume iii . , containing the . . . viperidæ . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xiv + 727 pp . + plates i - xxv . ( atractaspis bibronii , p . 515 ) .
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snake species of the world , vol . undetermined , manuscript ( version 2004 )
working manuscript of follow - up volumes to mcdiarmid et al . ( 1999 ) ,
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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images provided by flickr - / inaturalist - api . sporadic false assignments may occur .
do not try to catch these snakes by grabbing them behind the head . they can and will bite while being held at the neck . the potency of their venom is discussed controversely . lethal bite accidents ( circulatory failure , respiratory arrest ) are well documented .
? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )
treatment summary burrowing asp bites mostly cause minor effects , but severe local effects , including necrosis , can occur , as can potentially lethal systemic effects , so all cases should be urgently assessed , have ongoing cardiac monitoring , receive supportive & symptomatic treatment . antivenom is not generally available .
general approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .
( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike
( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike
( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .
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chifundera , k . ( 1990 ) snakes of zaire and their bites . : afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .
chirio , l . & lebreton , m . ( 2007 ) atlas des reptiles du cameroun . : mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .
chirio , laurent and ivan ineich ( 2006 ) biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . : african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 .
dobiey , m . & vogel , g . ( 2007 ) venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . : terralog 15 , edition chimaira , frankfurt am main , 150 pp .
laurent , r . f . ( 1956 ) contribution à l ' herpetologie de la région des grandes lacs de l ' afrique centrale . : ann . mus . roy . congo belge ( sci . zool . ) , 48 : 1 - 390
mocquard , m . f . ( 1897 ) sur une collection de reptiles recueillis par m . haug , à lambaréné . : bull . soc . philom . paris , ( 8 ) 9 : 5 - 20
pauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . ( 2008 ) les reptiles du gabon . : smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp .
sternfeld , r . ( 1917 ) reptilia und amphibia . in : schubotz , h . ( hrsg . ) : wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der zweiten deutschen zentral - afrika - expedition , 1910 - 1911 unter führung adolph friedrichs , herzog zu mecklenburg . : leipzig : klinkhardt & biermann , [ band ] 1 , zoologie , lieferung 11 ; s . 407 - 510 .
trape , j . f . ( 1985 ) les serpents de la region de dimonika ( mayombe , republique popilaire du congo . : revue de zoologie africaine 99 ( 2 ) : 135 - 140
trape , j . f . & r . roux - estève ( 1995 ) les serpents du congo : liste commentée et clé de détermination . : journal of african zoology 109 ( 1 ) : 31 - 50
werner , f . ( 1897 ) über reptilien und batrachier aus togoland , kamerun und tunis aus dem kgl . museum für naturkunde in berlin . : verh . zool . - bot . ges . , wien 47 : 395 - 407
adults average 30 - 50 cm ( 12 - 20 inches ) in total length with a maximum of 70 cm ( 27½ inches ) . the color pattern consists of a purplish - brown , gray or black ground color , often with a purplish sheen . the belly can be brownish , white or pale yellow in color , with a series of dark blotches . in specimens with a lighter belly coloration , this may also include two or three scale rows on the flanks .
snout prominent , subcuneiform . portion of rostral visible from above as long as or a little shorter than its distance from the frontal . dorsal scales in 21 or 23 rows . ventrals 221 - 260 ; anal entire ; subcaudals 20 - 23 , all or greater part single ( not divided ) .
the venom is highly toxic , although it is produced in very small amounts . bites are common in some areas . often , snake handlers are bitten who are unaware that this species is able to bite while being held by the neck . bite symptoms usually include mild to intense pain , local swelling with occasional blistering and necrosis and regional lymphadenopathy . no fatalities have been recorded .
spawls s , branch b . 1995 . the dangerous snakes of africa . ralph curtis books . dubai : oriental press . 192 pp . isbn 0 - 88359 - 029 - 8 .
classification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by renato agazzi - see more .
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algia is a genus of butterflies of the subfamily heliconiinae in the family nymphalidae found in southeast asia .

the genus ranges from burma to new guinea .

algia

algia fasciata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 233
algia satyrina ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 233
algia fasciata angustata ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 232
algia fasciata lautus ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 232
algia satyrina satyrina ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 233
algia satyrina sibylla ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 233
“ - algia ” in diccionario de la lengua española , vigésima tercera edición , real academia española , 2014 .
algia satyrina similliana [ sic ] ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 233
genus : algia herrich - schäffer , 1864 . corresp . - bl . zool . - min . ver . regensburg 18 ( 9 ) : 125 .
algia fasciata ( c . & r . felder , 1860 ) = atella fasciata c . & r . felder , 1860 = cirrochroa fasciata = paduca fasciata .
most words ending in - algia are specialist medical terms , but a few are more generally known , such as neuralgia , intense intermittent pain along the course of a nerve .
it is still felt that stability and universality will best be served by the continued use of paduca moore , 1886 and the rejection of algia herrich - schäffer , 1864 , and a proposal to this effect is being submitted .
in annot . rhop . 1968 ( p . 16 , note 2 ) it was said than an application would be submitted under article 23b regarding algia herrich - schäffer , 1864 and paduca moore , 1886 , whose type - species are regarded respectively as the celebes and the sumatran subspecies of the same species . this has not been done .
algia was never brought into general use because , not only was it introduced in unsatisfactory fashion as hemming points out so clearly , but it also was discarded by scudder in his historical sketch ( 1875 ) . it ranked as a perfect example of a nomen oblitum when , a century after its introduction , hemming ( 1964 : 124 ) improperly revived it . this act contravened article 23 ( b ) of the code in that he did not
refer it to the commission , to be placed either on the appropriate official index of rejected names or , if such action better serves the stability and universality of nomenclature , on the appropriate official list [ hemming , 1967 ] . a nomen oblitum is not to be used unless the commission so directs .
ducapa moore , 1900 ; lepidoptera indica 4 : 209 ( unn . repl . paduca moore , 1886 ) ; ts : atella fasciata c . & r . felder
paduca fasciata fasciata ; [ bor ] , 260 ; [ bmp ] : 152 , pl . 21 , f . 16 - 17
paduca fasciata palloris fruhstorfer , 1900 ; berl . ent . zs . 45 ( 1 / 2 ) : 16 ; tl : palawan
cirrochroa fasciata bilbilis fruhstorfer , 1912 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 485
cirrochroa fasciata ortopia fruhstorfer , 1912 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 485
cirrochroa satyrina angustata fruhstorfer , 1912 ; in seitz , gross - schmett . erde 9 : 485
cirrochroa fasciata formosana matsumura , 1929 ; insecta matsumurana 3 ( 2 / 3 ) : 96 , pl . 4 , f . 12 ; tl : formosa
cirrochroa satyrina c . & r . felder , [ 1867 ] ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 3 ) : 389 ; tl : celebes
cirrochroa sibylla röber , 1887 ; corr . - bl . ent . ver . iris 1 ( 4 ) : 191 , pl . 7 , f . 7
cirrochroa similiana röber , 1887 ; corr . - bl . ent . ver . iris 1 ( 4 ) : 191 , pl . 7 , f . 8
cirrochroa felderi kirsch , 1877 ; mitt . zool . mus . dresden ( 2 ) : 123
? messaras mimicus rothschild , 1904 ; novit . zool . 11 ( 1 ) : 318 , pl . 3 , f . 43 ♂ ; tl : upper aroa river
[ ² ] this may require parentheses or not . i don ' t have the necessary information for this taxon .
the butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera
reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera
- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .
rhopalocera bazilana . verzeichniss der von w . doherty auf der insel bazilan gesammelten tagfalter
list of the lepidoptera of mergui and its archipelago collected for the trustees of the indian museum , calcutta , by dr john anderson f . r . s . , superintendent of the museum
lepidoptera from british new guinea , collected by mr . a . s . meek
vane - wright & de jong , 2003 the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island faunda zool . verh . leiden 343 : 3 - 268 , pl . 1 - 16
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) , and neuralgia ( nerve pain ) . derived from the greek algos meaning pain .
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brackets ( also called parentheses ) are used to enclose a word or words which can be left out and still leave a meaningful sentence . the wooded area ( see map below ) is approximately 4 , 000 hectares . . . .
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one that seems not to fit here is nostalgia , a sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past ; this first entered the language meaning homesickness ( greek nostos , return home ) , hence having a sense close to ‘pain of separation’ .
a few terms have linked adjectives in - algic , for example arthralgic , myalgic , neuralgic , and nostalgic .
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those oversized vrykul are not the first thing you want to run into in northrend . try the undead of borean tundra instead .
equip : gain 10 % increased movement speed and 2 % haste . successfully applying a loss of control effect to an enemy , interrupting an enemy , or dispelling any target increases this effect to 70 % increased movement speed and 25 % haste for 10 sec . this increase may occur once every 30 sec .
intangibility is a curious concept . the word suggests some magical ability , but in the physical world , it simply means the power to be here or there , now or later .
equip : your damaging abilities have a chance to create a ravaging storm at your target ' s location , inflicting 88 nature damage split among all enemies within 6 yds over 6 sec . golganneth ' s thunderous wrath when empowered by the pantheon , your autoattacks cause an explosion of lightning dealing 12 nature damage to all enemies within 8 yds of the target . lasts 15 sec .
equip : your melee attacks have a chance to grant an echo of gorshalach . on reaching 15 applications , you lash out with a devastating combination of attacks , critically striking enemies in a 15 yd cone in front of you for 177 fire damage .
equip : grants the fury of the illidari ability , which repeatedly slashes all nearby enemies with your warglaives .
make examples of those foolish enough to oppose you , and the rest of their kind will grovel at your feet .
charge to your target and deal 207 , 869 fire damage . demon ' s bite has a chance to reset the cooldown of felblade . generates 30 fury .
your auto attacks have a 60 % chance to deal additional shadow damage and generate fury .
throw glaive causes targets to bleed for 150 % of the damage inflicted over 10 sec . if this effect is reapplied , any remaining damage will be added to the new bloodlet .
slip into the nether , increasing movement speed by 100 % and becoming immune to damage , but unable to attack . lasts 5 sec .
fel rush and vengeful retreat increase your damage done by 20 % for 4 sec .
throw glaive now has 2 charges , and snares all enemies hit by 50 % for 6 sec .
at your command , unleash fel , inflicting 1 . 6 million chaos damage to your target and nearby enemies over 2 sec . your damaging abilities have a chance to reduce the cooldown of fel barrage by 5 sec .
infernal strike ' s range is increased by 10 yards , and its cooldown is reduced by 8 sec .
immolation aura ' s initial burst has a chance to shatter lesser soul fragments from enemies .
brutally slam your target for 474 , 543 physical damage , and shatter two lesser soul fragments from them .
place a sigil of chains at the target location that activates after 2 sec . all enemies affected by the sigil are pulled to its center and are snared , reducing movement speed by 70 % for 6 sec .
consume all soul fragments within 25 yds and then explode , afflicting nearby enemies with frailty for 20 sec and damaging them for 106 , 219 fire per fragment . you heal for 20 % of all damage you deal to enemies with frailty .
sustaining fatal damage instead transforms you to metamorphosis form , and returns you to 30 % health . this effect may only occur every 8 min .
this species was until recently known from myanmar ( karen hills southward ) , indo - china ( thailand , laos , vietnam ) , se asia , and andaman islands . recently there have been several records from ne india , extending the range of the species northwestward by approximately 1 , 000 km , over several mountain ranges . the records are :
1 . a male from kaliabor , nagaon district , assam , 13 april 2011 , by prarthana mudai ( urltoken ) .
2 . a female and another unsexed individual from malidor river , sonapyrdi , east jaintia hills district , meghalaya , 25 nov . 2011 , by rajkamal goswami ( boi media code an947 ) .
3 . a male and another unsexed individual from same location as an947 , on 10 nov . 2012 , by rajkamal goswami ( boi media codes an945 and an946 ) .
felder & felder , 1860 – branded yeoman . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .
if mentioning specific images please give media code ( s ) . for misidentifications please list reasons to assist in diagnosis .
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urltoken
type - species : cirrochroa satyrina felder & felder , 1867 . reise öst . fregatte novara ( 9 ) , 2 ( 2 ) : 389 . [ bhl ]
type - species designation : by subsequent designation by hemming , 1964 . annot . lep . : 124 .
it is wrong to treat paduca moore ( see also : list [ hemming , 1967 ] : 330 ) as not in current use . with ducapa the name has long been well known , and was mentioned in seitz ( grschm . erde 9 : 484 , by fruhstorfer , 1912 ) , and paduca was confirmed as fully valid by corbet in 1956 ( butt . malay penin . : 198 , 446 , 477 note 15 ) , in his classic which is widely consulted now in the territory of paduca .
these two generic names remain both valid , their synonymy being purely subjective . the type - species , a . satyrina felder & felder , 1867 and p . fasciata folder & felder , 1860 are remarkably different in appearance and there is even some structural difference between them . although they must represent the same original parent species their divergence is considerable and presents an interesting situation . it is felt that until more is known of their early stages , habits and other properties , there is no harm in leaving the nomenclature as it stands . in any case it is not possible to act under article 23b at present , as that article is still in abeyance , having been inoperative since 1966 .
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we have kept jott a free peer - reviewed scientific journal to promote conservation . we have not put up a paywall to readers , and we do not charge for publishing . but running a monthly journal costs a lot . while we do have some partners , we still require support to keep the journal alive . if our readers help fund it , our future will be more secure .
urn : lsid : zoobank . org : pub : 81923c7e - 531a - 499c - baea - 42bd6e2f8d26
. creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . jott allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium , reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication .
council of scientific and industrial research ( csir ) and rufford small grant ( rsg ) .
we thank the council of scientific and industrial research ( csir ) for supporting the fellowship of the first author , rufford small grants for financially supporting the study and dr . krushnamegh kunte for identifying the species from the first images and prashanth m . b . for preparing the map . we also thank two anonymous reviewers whose comments helped to improve the manuscript .
( felder & felder , 1860 ) has been known to occur from myanmar ( south of karen hills ) , thailand , laos , vietnam , hainan , malay peninsula , borneo , sumatra , nias , java , philippines and the andaman islands with different geographical races or subspecies ( inayoshi 2012 ) . from both myanmar and the andamans , it was reported as ‘not rare’ by evans ( 1932 ) whereas corbet et al . ( 1992 ) reported the species to be very common in the malay peninsula . the other two species of the genus
from jaintia hills of meghalaya and the adjacent barail hills of assam ( see fig . 1 ) , based on several individuals recorded consistently over a period of three years between november 2011 and july 2014 . this is the only species of the genus
a detailed description of the species was provided by evans ( 1932 ) . the female of
are with a dull ochreous brand on either side of veins 5 and 6 . upperside is dark brown with a pale yellow discal band on the fore and hind wing and two outer rows of conjoined yellow spots ; the discal band on upper fore wing ends at vein 4 and there is a yellow spot that spreads across veins 5 and 6 . the wingspan of the species is 40–50 mm ( pinratana 2006 ) . the larvae which feeds on
the first known record of this species from the indian mainland was reported through an image posted for identification on facebook ( on 10 september 2011 ) . the image was shot at kaliabor , situated in the nagaon district of assam on 13 april 2011 ( fig . 1 ) and has been reported in the local print media (
monsoon jyoti gogoi ( mjg ) might have sighted the species in numaligarh reserve situated in the golaghat district of assam circa february 2008 , but the record remains unconfirmed in the absence of a photographic record . apart from the above sightings , the species has not been reported from the above two sites or any nearby locations till date .
on 24 november 2011 and three individuals from malidor on 25 november 2011 . rg and seena n . karimbumkara ( snk ) further recorded two individuals in sonapyrdi on 8 november 2012 and seven individuals on the same date in malidor ( image 1 a , c , d , e ) . subsequently , from barail hills , mjg reported
through two individuals recorded in december 2012 . mjg has also recorded several individuals of this species from three different locations at barail wildlife sanctuary in 2013 and 2014 , both during the month of december ( image 1 b , f ) .
from jaintia hills , all the records of this species have been reported from approximately 50–300 m elevation . however , the elevation range of this species was much higher in barail hills , with records at 950m .
both rg and mjg have been involved in multi - seasonal monitoring of the species in jaintia hills and barail hills and both these sites have been intensively monitored between 2011–2013 . it has been observed that the flight period of
is between july and december in the jaintia and barail hills . we are yet to record the species during the month of march - april , as was recorded by mudai in 2011 .
between july and december might mean that the butterfly is not breeding in the area and that the sighted individuals are vagrants from neighbouring myanmar . alternatively , their restricted appearance in assam and meghalaya might also be an indicator of the population’s univoltine characteristic . according to our sightings , the species is locally common in the narpuh area of east jaintia hills , meghalaya and barail wildlife sanctuary , cachar , assam .
from india , apart from the sites mentioned in assam and meghalaya , the species has also been reported from the buxa tiger reserve ( btr ) , situated in the duar region , northern part of west bengal ( s . nandi pers . comm . 2012 ) . since then , however , the species has not been reported from btr , where both amateurs and researchers are engaged in
baan lae suan - amarin printing and publishing , bangkok , 388 + 40pls .
copyright ( c ) 2015 rajkamal goswami , monsoon jyoti gogoi , seena n . karimbumkara
the journal of threatened taxa is an open access and print , peer - reviewed , monthly , international journal on conservation and taxonomy . the aim of the journal is to promote wildlife research and conservation action worldwide at no cost to authors , no subscription or membership cost , and no hidden cost , on a regular basis without compromising on ethics , standards and pre - requisites of scientific publications .
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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species cirrochroa orissa c . felder & r . felder , 1860 - malay yeoman