spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs , the only genus in the family spondylidae .

as well as being the systematic or scientific name , spondylus is the most often used common name for these animals , though they are also known as spondylids , thorny oysters , and spiny oysters ( though they are not , in fact , oysters ) .

the meat of these bivalves is edible .

spondylus

variety spondylus gaederopus var . albinus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . coralinus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . foliosus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . horrida dautzenberg , 1895 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . inermis monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . spinosa pallary , 1904 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
species spondylus albidus broderip , 1836 accepted as spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830
species spondylus minimus chenu , 1844 accepted as spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830
species spondylus calcifer carpenter , 1857 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847
species spondylus ciliatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793
species spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793
species spondylus cumingii g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus regius linnaeus , 1758
species spondylus delessertii chenu , 1844 accepted as spondylus varius g . b . sowerby i , 1827
species spondylus digitatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus tenuis schreibers , 1793
species spondylus jamarci okutani , 1983 accepted as spondylus occidens g . b . sowerby iii , 1903
species spondylus petroselinum g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus foliaceus schreibers , 1793
species spondylus iredalei fulton , 1915 accepted as spondylus raoulensis w . r . b . oliver , 1915
spondylus linnaeus , 1758 ( basis of record ) spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus versicolor schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus candidus lamarck , 1819 ( basis of record ) spondylus castus reeve , 1856 accepted as spondylus echinatus schreibers , 1793 ( basis of record ) spondylus coccineus lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( additional source ) spondylus gloriandus melvill & standen , 1907 ( basis of record ) spondylus gravis fulton , 1915 ( basis of record ) spondylus groschi lamprell & kilburn , 1995 ( basis of record ) spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus layardi reeve , 1856 ( basis of record ) spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( basis of record ) spondylus marisrubri röding , 1798 accepted as spondylus spinosus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( additional source ) spondylus pickeringae lamprell , 1998 accepted as spondylus darwini jousseaume , 1882 ( original description ) spondylus pratii parth , 1990 ( basis of record ) spondylus punicus bernard , cai & morton , 1993 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 accepted as spondylus fauroti jousseaume , 1888 ( original description ) spondylus somalicus parth & philippe , 1992 accepted as spondylus gravis fulton , 1915 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus spinosus schreibers , 1793 ( additional source ) spondylus versicolor schreibers , 1793 ( basis of record )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
species spondylus mireilleae lamprell & healy , 2001 accepted as spondylus occidens g . b . sowerby iii , 1903
species spondylus darwini sensu lamprell & healy , 1998 accepted as spondylus asperrimus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847
species spondylus lamarckii sensu carpenter , 1857 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( misidentification )
species spondylus longitudinalis sensu g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus tenuis schreibers , 1793 ( misidentification )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
species spondylus armatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus victoriae g . b . sowerby ii , 1860
one of the most - cited article on aegean spondylus , akira tsuneki’s “the manufacture of spondylus objects at neolithic dimini , greece “ , a pioneering study on spondylus shell technology , published in 1989 , is now available in pdf format .
the life expectancy of spondylus americanus has not been recorded as of march , 2011 .
no genetic data is currently available for spondylus americanus ( as of march 2011 ) .
worms - world register of marine species - spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830
( of spondylus ( rimaespondylus ) damarco , 2015 ) damarco p . ( 2015 ) . a new species of spondylus from indonesia . malacologia mostra mondiale . 87 : 6 - 14 . [ details ]
species spondylus coccineus lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( invalid : junior homonym of s . coccineus schreibers , 1793 ; s . punicus is a replacement name )
( of spondylus parocellatus iredale , 1939 ) lamprell , k . 2006 . spiny oysters : a revision of the living spondylus species of the world . jean lamprell : brisbane . 119 pp . [ details ]
to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 194 publications ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 8 nucleotides ; 1 proteins ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection
spondylus is associated with water shrines in the wari and inca empires , at sites such as marcahuamachucot , viracochapampa , pachacamac , pikillacta , and cerro amaru . at marcahuamachucot was recovered an offering of about 10 kilograms ( 22 pounds ) of spondylus shells and shell fragments , and small turquoise figurines carved in the shape of spondylus .
( of spondylus rostratus chenu , 1844 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
( of spondylus igneus fulton , 1915 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
generally , members of the family spondylidae will look similar to each other because of the presence of spines ; spondylus princeps appears most alike , although its red coloration and shorter spines distinguish it from the more muted yellow shell of spondylus americanus ( weisbord , 1964 : 166 ) .
a chimu spondylus and mussel shell necklace with stone beads , 1100 - 1470 ce . ( american museum of natural history , new york )
spondylus was known as the
food of the gods
, according to a quechua myth recorded in the 17th century . some debate exists among scholars as to whether this meant that the gods consumed spondylus shells , or the flesh of the animal . american archaeologist mary glowacki ( 2005 ) makes an interesting argument that the effects of eating spondylus shell meat out of season may have made them an essential part of religious ceremonies .
what made you want to look up spondylus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
a detail of the celebrated aztec double - headed serpent . it is made from wood covered in turquoise mosaic , spondylus ( red . . .
delivering alien invasive species inventories for europe ( daisie ) to barcode of life ( 1 barcode ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 20 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 37 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 50 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 52 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 5 nucleotides ; 2 proteins ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym spondylus serratissimus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 )
the features of pectinids were adapted for swimming , but as a sessile species , spondylus americanus has experienced changes in the function of some organs : while the adductor muscle is similar , spondylus americanus ’ has more development in the area designed to close the shell ( dakin , 1928a : 342 ) .
spondylus americanus is threatened by predators , but not to the extent that conservational efforts will be required ( logan , 1974 : 583 - 584 ; feifarek , 1987 ) . human factors such as pollution or overfishing are probably not major threats to spondylus americanus either ( mikkelsen , 2003 : 454 ) .
one less - known to the western - language academia article on the diminian spondylus by akira tsuneki entitled “ spondylus shell objects of neolithic greece used on the materials from dimin i” and published in 1988 , is also available in pdf format . being written in japanese , it serves mostly as a “collector’s item”…
research focusing on spondylus varius reveals it to have hepatoprotective properties , preventing the human liver from damage ; whether the same holds for spondylus americanus remains to be seen ( koyama et al . , 2006 : 729 - 731 ) . because it is a filter feeder , spondylus americanus can also be of benefit to the oceanic ecosystems it is a part of , redistributing nutrients and clearing out particles suspended in water ( peterson and lubchenco , 1997 : 182 ) .
lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species .
spondylus americanus is a sessile bivalve , occurring in shallow water in the atlantic ocean from brazil to north carolina , where it is usually found as part of a coral reef . like all spondylidae , spondylus americanus is noted for its striking , spiny appearance , giving rise to its common name , the atlantic thorny oyster .
halstead p . 1993 . spondylus shell ornaments from late neolithic dimini , greece : specialized manufacture or unequal accumulation ? antiquity 67 ( 256 ) : 603 - 609 .
dimitrijevic v , and tripkovic b . 2006 . spondylus and glycymeris bracelets : trade reflections at neolithic vinca - belo brdo . documenta praehistoric a 33 : 237 - 252 .
( of spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
because spondylus lives so far below sea level , retrieving them requires experienced divers . the earliest known illustration of spondylus diving in south america comes from drawings on pottery and murals during the early intermediate period [ ~ 200 bc - ad 600 ] : they likely represent s . calcifer and the images probably were of people diving off the coast of ecuador .
bauer de . 2007 . the reinvention of tradition : an ethnographic study of spondylus use in coastal ecuador . journal of anthropological research 63 ( 1 ) : 33 - 50 .
lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
glowacki m . 2005 . food of the gods or mere mortals ? hallucinogenic spondylus and its interpretive implications for early andean society . antiquity 79 ( 304 ) : 257 - 268 .
spondylus shell also was also part of the extensive north american pre - columbian trade network , finding its way into far - flung places in the form of beads , pendants , and unworked valves . ritually significant spondylus objects such as the so - called
charlie chaplin
figurines have been found in several maya sites dated between the pre - classic to late classic periods .
by the middle to late neolithic , the number and size of spondylus shell pieces sharply drop off , found in archaeological sites of this time period as tiny pieces of inlay in necklaces , belts , bracelets , and anklets . in addition , limestone beads appear as imitations , suggesting to scholars that the sources of spondylus dried up but the symbolic importance of the shell had not .
pillsbury j . 1996 . the thorny oyster and the origins of empire : implications of recently uncovered spondylus imagery from chan chan , peru . latin american antiquity 7 ( 4 ) : 313 - 340 .
spondylus americanus typically inhabits shallow water bodies that may be enclosed , such as lagoons , or unenclosed , at depths of 10m to 168m ( tunnell et al . , 2010 : 330 ; logan , 1974 : 576 ) . as part of the epifaunal community of its habitats , the adolescent spondylus americanus will traverse surfaces until it finds a suitable settling spot , where the adult will typically remain ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) .
spondylus gaederopus lives in the eastern mediterranean , at depths between 6 - 30 m ( 20 - 100 ft ) . spondylus shells were prestige goods showing up in burials within the carpathian basin by the early neolithic period ( 6000 - 5500 cal bc ) . they were used as whole shells or cut into pieces for ornaments , and they are found in graves and hoards associated with both sexes . at the serbian site of vinca in the middle danube valley , spondylus were found with other shell species such as glycymeris in contexts dated to 5500 - 4300 bc , and as such are thought to have been part of the trade network from the mediterranean region .
the main trade route for spondylus in south america was along the andean mountain routes which were precursors to the inca road system , with secondary pathways branching down the river valleys ; and perhaps partially by boat along the coasts .
mackensen ak , brey t , and sonnenholzner s . 2011 . the fate of spondylus stocks ( bivalvia : spondylidae ) in ecuador : is recovery likely ? journal of shellfish research 30 ( 1 ) : 115 - 121 .
archaeological research in the salango region indicates spondylus was first exploited beginning during the valdivia phase [ 3500 - 1500 bc ] , when beads and worked rectangular pendants were made and traded to the ecuadoran interior . between 1100 and 100 bc , the produced items increased in complexity , and small figurines and red and white beads were traded to the andean highlands for copper and cotton . beginning about 100 bc , trade in ecuadoran spondylus reached the lake titicaca region in bolivia .
spondylus shell first appears in andean archaeological sites dated to the preceramic period v [ 4200 - 2500 bc ] , and the shellfish was consistently used up until the spanish conquest in the 16th century . andean people used spondylus shell as complete shells in rituals , cut into pieces and used as inlay in jewelry , and ground into powder and used as architectural decoration . its form was carved into stone and made into pottery effigies ; it was worked into body adornments and placed in burials .
oxygen isotope analysis supports scholars & apos ; contentions that the sole source of the central european spondylus was the mediterranean , specifically the aegean and / or adriatic coasts . shell workshops were recently identified at the late neolithic site of dimini in thessaly , where over 250 worked spondylus shell fragments were recorded . finished objects were found in other locations throughout the settlement , but halstead ( 2003 ) argues that the distribution suggests that the amount of production waste indicates that the artifacts were being produced for trade into central europe .
distinguishing characteristics in the early stages of growth spondylus species are extremely difficult to identify and many exhibit a similar ornamentation , shape and color . differences from the very similar s . spinosus in rib number and shape , spine development and color are given under s . spinosus .
no documentation of the eggs and pre - juvenile stages of spondylus americanus exists , but that data is available for members of the family pectinidae , with which spondylus americanus shares some similarities ; possibly the larval stages are alike ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . pecten irradians hatches from the egg as a free - swimming , ciliated trocophore , before developing into a veliger which may feed using the velum ( fay et al . , 1983 : 4 ) . the foot is the final development of this stage ( fay et al . , 1983 : 5 ) .
the aim of this blog - based community is to gather info , news and data on spondylus , a sea - shell whose importance is acknowledged both in new and old worlds prehistory . if you want to become a co - author , please e - mail at fotisif @ urltoken
spondylus americanus is found in mostly tropical regions in the atlantic , where there is an abundance of calcium carbonate from coral reefs in the area . the calcium carbonate molecule is instrumental in the development of the species ' spines and cementation , so spondylus americanus will seek to settle near coral formations ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . they can then become members of the coral ecosystem , serving as roosts for epibiontic algae which camouflage the shell , as well as being subject to predators such as gastropods , and lobsters ( logan , 1974 : 581 ; feifarek , 1987 ) .
( of spondylus albibarbatus reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus spectrum reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
mienis h . k . , galili e . and rapoport j . , 1993a . the spiny oyster , spondylus spinosus , a well established indo - pacific bivalve in the eastern mediterranean off israel ( mollusca , bivalvia , spondylidae ) . zoology in the middle east , 9 : 83 - 91 .
lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
spondylus americanus is a heterotrophic organism , relying on omnivorous filter feeding to attain sustenance ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . water is brought in past the marginal denticles at the edge of the shell where particles may be foraged from the water to serve as nutrients ( logan , 1974 : 579 ) .
a few other organisms prey on spondylus americanus , including octopi and fish such as wrasses , although specific species that act as predators towards the species have not been recorded ( logan , 1974 : 583 - 584 ) . it is likely that the sharp spines defend against predators , and successful cementation to a substrate has been shown to increase survivability against predators ( logan , 1974 : 583 ; harper , 1990 : 457 ) . although parrot fish are not natural predators of the species , as they consume the algae lining the shell as camouflage , they may decrease spondylus americanus ’s survivability ( logan , 1974 : 583 ) .
( of spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) pallary p . ( 1900 ) . coquilles marines du littoral du départment d ' oran . journal de conchyliologie . 48 ( 3 ) : 211 - 422 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 372 [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) pallary p . ( 1912 ) . catalogue des mollusques du littoral méditerranéen de l ' egypte . mémoires de l ' institut d ' egypte , 7 ( 3 ) : 69 - 207 , pl . 15 - 18 , available online at urltoken [ details ]
these oysters ' spines serve as protection and provide growth areas for barnacles and algae , which in turn provide camouflage . although the spondylus imperialis resembles oysters , these creatures are more closely related to scallops . thorny oysters live attached to hard substrates or other shells , and interspecific variability makes them difficult to identify with certainty .
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) spencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the larval stage of spondylus americanus has not been observed , but presumably the larvae are free - swimming until choosing a substrate to attach to and develop into the postlarval stage ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . adults will remain attached to the substrate unless they have been forcibly detached ( logan , 1974 : 578 ) .
the symptoms of psp include sensory distortions , euphoria , loss of muscular control , and paralysis , and , in the most severe cases , death . glowacki suggests that purposefully eating spondylus during the wrong months may well have effected a hallucinogenic experience associated with shamanism , as an alternative to other forms of hallucinogens such as cocaine .
although evidence of shell - working is known in the andean highlands , workshops are also known to have been located much nearer their source beds along the pacific coast . in coastal ecuador , for example , several communities have been identified with prehispanic procurement and production of spondylus shell beads and other goods which were part of extensive trade networks .
( of spondylus contrarius anton , 1838 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus fulvus schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus mediterraneus hermann , 1781 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus plurispinosus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus rostratus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gracilis chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus lima chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus lindea iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus maculatus schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus parocellatus iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus percea iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus pseudochama schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus igneus fulton , 1915 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus radians lamarck , 1819 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albibarbatus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albus anton , 1838 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus spectrum reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus spinulosus kuster , 1858 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albidus broderip , 1836 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus minimus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
bajnóczi b , schöll - barna g , kalicz n , siklósi z , hourmouziadis gh , ifantidis f , kyparissi - apostolika a , pappa m , veropoulidou r , and ziota c . 2013 . tracing the source of late neolithic spondylus shell ornaments by stable isotope geochemistry and cathodoluminescence microscopy . journal of archaeological science 40 ( 2 ) : 874 - 882 .
calcium carbonate is necessary for spine development and cementation to a substrate , and spondylus americanus will attempt to dwell on or around coral in order to easily fulfill the requirements for that substance ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . a variety of substrate shapes are suitable : the species’ shell will adapt to even narrow clefts ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . the presence of coral is desirable , but by no means necessary for life once matured , as sand - dwelling , non - cemented adults have also been found ( logan , 1974 : 576 , 578 ) . however , life on the substrate is more sustainable , as spondylus americanus is protected from the turbulence of storms ( logan , 1974 : 578 ) .
foot : the foot serves the function of cleaning the interior of the shell , as cementation frees it from having to anchor spondylus americanus to the substrate ( yonge , 1973 : 180 - 181 ) . cilia are present to aid in transporting particles ; when large groups of particles are built up , they can then be expelled ( yonge , 1973 : 181 ) .
( of spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) lamprell k . , stanisic j . & clarkson p . ( 2001 ) . spondylids from the mediterranean sea and atlantic ocean with the description of a new species ( mollusca , bivalvia , spondylidae ) . . memoirs of the queensland museum 46 : 611 - 622 page ( s ) : 612 [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . spinosa pallary , 1904 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . albinus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . coralinus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . horrida dautzenberg , 1895 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus serratissimus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus ciliatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
eventual size of the shell and spines depends on the area the larva chooses to attach to : the valves have some plasticity to adapt for proper function in narrow places . spines grow at random angles before resolving to the large spines pointed away from the shell seen in adult spondylus americanus ; older spines are usually ground away by this point ( logan , 1974 : 573 - 574 ) .
( of spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus radians lamarck , 1819 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution à l ' étude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies françaises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . société d ' editions géographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
the fossil record of spondylidae extends to the early jurassic , although spinous bivalves that existed during the late paleozoic may be ancestors ( logan , 1974 : 584 ) . spondylus americanus ' particular evolution does not appear to have been studied , but with respect to the family as a whole , one of these potential ancestors may be the pectinidae of the carboniferous ( dakin , 1928a : 354 ) .
mantle : the middle of three mantle folds houses a row of short tentacles and eyes , while the innermost fold is muscular and dappled with brown ( logan , 1974 : 570 ; yonge , 1973 : 177 ) . the eyes on spondylus americana are of a relatively small size , and there are 92 on the upper valve and 71 on the lower valve ( dakin , 1928b : 356 ) .
in 1525 , francisco pizarro & apos ; s pilot bartolomeo ruiz met an indigenous balsa wood craft sailing off the ecuadoran coast . its cargo included trade goods of silver , gold , textiles , and seashells , and they told ruiz they came from a place known as calangane . research conducted near the city of salango in that region indicated that it has been an important center of spondylus procurement for at least as long as 5 , 000 years .
between the months of april and september , the flesh of spondylus is toxic to humans , a seasonal toxicity recognized in most shellfish called paralytic shellfish poisoning ( psp ) . psp is caused by toxic algae or dinoflagellates consumed by shellfish during those months , and typically it is at its most toxic following the appearance of the algae bloom known as the
red tide
. red tides are associated with el niño oscillations , themselves associated with catastrophic storms .
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
american anthropologist daniel bauer conducted ethnographic studies with modern shell - workers at salango in the early 21st century , before over - exploitation and climate change caused a crash in shellfish population and resulted in a fishing ban in 2009 . modern ecuadoran divers collect spondylus using oxygen tanks ; but some use a traditional method , holding their breaths for up to 2 . 5 minutes to dive to the shell beds 4 - 20 m ( 13 - 65 ft ) below the surface of the sea .
charlie chaplin figurines ( referred to in the literature as gingerbread cut - outs , anthropomorphic figurines , or anthropomorphic cut - outs ) are small , crudely - shaped human forms lacking much detail or gender identification . they are found primarily in ritual contexts such as burials , and dedicatory caches for stelae and buildings . they aren & apos ; t just made of spondylus : charlie chaplins are also made of jade , obsidian , slate , or sandstone , but they are almost always in ritual contexts .
the pectinidae have unique eyes among the bivalves that are homologous to those found in spondylus americanus ( dakin , 1928b : 356 ) . both families rest on the same valve ( dakin , 1928a : 337 , 338 ) . the mantle , adductor muscle , and radial muscle characteristics that have been specialized in pectinidae are mostly shared in spondylidae as well ( dakin , 1928a : 338 - 342 ) . the ctenidia of both families have a “respiratory expansion” that also appears unique ( dakin , 1928a : 344 ) .
the larvae are most likely motile , seeking suitable substrates to settle on ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . adult spondylus americanus live a sessile existence , relying on filter feeding for sustenance and defense via sealing the valves ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . if necessary , flapping of the valves allows the organism to swim , and may be useful in spreading sexual products during reproduction and possibly evading predators if s . americanus becomes detached from the substrate ( dakin , 1928a : 342 ; drew , 1906 : 34 ) .
atlantic thorny - oyster spondylus americanus hermann , 1781 description : this bivalve shell is attached to the substrate with one shell . the shells are roundish with numerous spines in rows . the spines can be up to 4 cm . long . the color is variable , from white via yellow and orange to purple . size : up to 10 cm . habitat : the shell lives on reefs , usually under overhangs or in recesses . well camouflaged by its color . depth : ranges from 12 m down to 40 m . distribution : common all over the caribbean . remarks : in most countries it is illegal to bring back these shells from holidays .
( of spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
javascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .
parent taxon : spondylidae according to t . j . wild and j . d . stilwell 2016
see also coan and valentich - scott 2012 , dockery 1982 , islamoglu and taner 1995 , lamprell and healy 1998 , moore 1987 , olsson 1931 , perrilliat 1992 , sepkoski 2002 , spencer et al . 2004 , squires and demetrion 1990 , stilwell 1998 , todd 2001 , vokes 1980 , vokes and vokes 1992 , woodring 1982 and wozny 1977
this page was last edited on 2 june 2017 , at 13 : 08 .
text is available under the creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . by using this site , you agree to the terms of use and privacy policy .
linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]


heteroteuthis dagamensis is a species of bobtail squid native to the southeastern atlantic ocean and southwestern indian ocean .

it occurs off western , southern , and southeastern africa .

the type specimen was collected off south africa and is deposited at the natural history museum in london .

heteroteuthis dagamensis

heteroteuthis dispar ( triangle ) and heteroteuthis dagamensis ( circle ) . . . | download scientific diagram
figure 1 . heteroteuthis dispar ( triangle ) and heteroteuthis dagamensis ( circle ) distribution in the atlantic ocean based on the male specimens examined .
published records indicate that heteroteuthis dispar ( ruppell , 1844 ) is found in the north atlantic ocean and that heteroteuthis dagamensis robson , 1924 inhabits the south atlantic ocean . however , specimens recently collected in the northern gulf of mexico ( n = 123 ) show that h . dagamensis is the only species of the genus common in the gulf of mexico based on identification of male specimens . also , comparison of dna barcodes for three morphologically similar species of heteroteuthis , h . dispar , h . dagamensis , and heteroteuthis hawaiiensis ( berry , 1909 ) confirm that all are distinct species and indicate that h . dagamensis and h . hawaiiensis are closer genetically than either is to h . dispar .
judkins , h . , k . rosario , m . vecchione . 2016 . morphological and molecular evidence of heteroteuthis dagamensis in the gulf of mexico . bulletin of marine science . doi : urltoken
published records indicate that heteroteuthis dispar ( ruppell , 1844 ) is found in the north atlantic ocean and that heteroteuthis dagamensis robson , 1924 inhabits the south atlantic ocean . however , specimens recently collected in the northern gulf of mexico ( n = 123 ) show that h . dagamensis is the only species of the genus common in the gulf of mexico based on identification of male specimens . . . . [ show full abstract ]
reproduction in heteroteuthis dispar ( rüppell , 1844 ) ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) : a sepiolid reproductiv . . .
figure . left - brachial crown of a mature female h . dagamensis 16 mm ml , arms i are in center . right - left arms i - iii of a female . drawing by a . hart .
small cephalopods of the genus heteroteuthis are the most pelagic members in the family sepiolidae . this study examines the reproductive biology of heteroteuthis dispar ( rüppell , 1844 ) , the first such study on any member of the genus , based on 46 specimens ( 27 females and 19 males ) collected during the mar - eco cruise in the north atlantic in the region of the mid - atlantic ridge in 2004 , and . . . [ show full abstract ]
figure . oral view of the brachial crown of h . dagamensis 16 mm ml , mature male . note that the large suckers on arms iii are in the dorsal series and alternate with small suckers in the ventral series . drawing by a . hart .
at present the only character that distinguishes h . dagamensis from h . dispar / hawaiiensis is the arrangement of large suckers on arms iii of males . we have not made detailed comparisons of these species to search for additional characters . the description presented here is made from notes taken many years ago .
figure . oral view of the arms of h . dagamensis 19 mm ml , male left - full arm crown . note that right arms i and ii are folded dorsally . right - dorsal view of the head showing the distal region of right arms i and ii . photographs by r . young .
rotermund n . & guerrero - kommritz j . ( 2010 ) taxonomy and biogeography of the genus heteroteuthis ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) in the atlantic ocean . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom 90 ( 2 ) : 367 - 390 . , available online at urltoken ; = 7399392 [ details ]
the stomachs of 427 giant red shrimps , aristaeomorpha foliacea , caught in the strait of sicily ( mediterranean sea ) during four seasonal surveys contained 73 cephalopods , or 8·6 % of prey . cephalopods ranked third as prey following crustaceans ( 49·2 % of prey ) and bony fish ( 20·5 % of prey ) . the following cephalopod taxa were identified : heteroteuthis dispar , sepietta oweniana , brachioteuthis sp . , . . . [ show full abstract ]
yes , it ' s a cephalopod ! this squid and other cephalopods are featured in the cephalopod pages maintained at the national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology ! see the following links for more information on cephalopods .
cephalopods in action . this is a multimedia appendix to published papers , that features video clips of cephalopods filmed from submersibles . included are :
the list of species featured in the videos , arranged as a taxonomic list , only relevant taxa included .
introducing an interactive key to the families of the decapodiformes . try this , it ' s exciting !
expedition journals from the search for the giant squid off new zealand , 1999 .
this page was created by jim felley , mike vecchione , clyde roper , mike sweeney , and tyler christensen . if you have questions or comments , contact mike vecchione .
robson , g . c . ( 1924 ) . preliminary report on the cephalopoda ( decapoda ) procured by the s . s .
pickle
. report of the fisheries and marine biological survey of the union of south africa . 3 : 1 - 14 . page ( s ) : 11 [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
has been assessed as data deficient as major taxonomic issues exist which need clarifying and will likely alter the known range of this species .
. ( 2007 ) report specimens from south africa , off the atlantic coast of south america , off new zealand and off australia .
this species is of no current interest to fisheries ( reid and jereb 2005 ) .
further research is required to resolve taxonomic uncertainties and determine population trends and life history patterns of this species .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
michael vecchione , richard e . young , and clyde f . e . roper
right arms i and ii hectocotylized : arms longer than left counterparts , with deep joining membrand and swollen marginal membranes on proximal half of both arms with pores and internal white glandular masses . proximal ventral bilobed projection of right arm i overlaps base of right arm ii . large gland between these arms opens between lobes .
males with few greatly enlarged suckers in the dorsal sucker series on arms iii : sucker 10 about 4 - 5 times diameter of sucker 9 ; enlarged suckers of dorsl series much larger than counterparts in ventral series but latter still enlarged .
type locality - off the natal coast , south africa . the specimen we photographed came from the south atlantic off south africa at 36°s , 11°e and off south america at 37°s , 53°w . the specimen drawn came from off new zealand at 40 . 1°s , 168 . 1°e .
this media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .
. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the
vecchione , michael , richard e . young , and clyde f . e . roper . 2013 .
each tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .
for a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .
tree of life design and icons copyright © 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
typical mantle - length 15 mm . lives in offshore waters . native . endemic to southeastern australia ( nsw , tas and vic ) . in tasmanian waters , this species occurs well offshore , with available records all from off the south and east coasts .
the web - pages on this web - site are generated from an underlying database . these can be cited as
for full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .
examination of specimens of euprymna steenstrup , 1887 from northern australia led to the discovery of a new species . it is described here as euprymna pardalota sp . nov . it is distinguished from all but one other nominal species of euprymna ( e . phenax voss , 1962 ) in having two rows of suckers on the arms , rather than four rows . it differs from e . phenax in a number of traits , including : the . . . [ show full abstract ]
the bulletin of marine science is dedicated to the dissemination of high quality research from the world ' s oceans . all aspects of marine science are treated by the bulletin of marine science , including papers in marine biology , biological oceanography , fisheries , marine affairs , applied marine physics , marine geology and geophysics , marine and atmospheric chemistry , and meteorology and physical oceanography .
ingenta . article copyright remains with the publisher , society or author ( s ) as specified within the article .
website makes use of cookies so as to keep track of data that you have filled in .
join researchgate to access over 30 million figures and 118 + million publications – all in one place .
allcock , l . , h . judkins , y . sakuri . 2017 . editorial : recent advances in cephalopod science . ciac 2015 special issue . 2565 - 2567 . urltoken
shea , e . , h . judkins , m . d . staudinger , v . hartigan , a . lindgren , m . vecchione . 2017 . cephalopod biodiversity in the vicinity of bear seamount , western north atlantic . marine biodiversity ; 47 : 699 . urltoken 0633 - 3
judkins h . , m . vecchione , a . cook , t . sutton . 2016 . diversity of midwater cephalopods in the northern gulf of mexico : comparison of two collecting methods . marine biodiversity . doi 10 . 1007 / s12526 - 016 - 0597 - 8
roper , c . f . e . , h . judkins , n . voss , e . shea , e . dawes , d . ingrao , p . rothman , i . roper . 2015 . a compilation of recent records of the giant squid , architeuthis dux ( steenstrup , 1857 ) ( cephalopoda ) from the western north atlantic ocean , newfoundland to the gulf of mexico . american malacological bulletin , 33 ( 1 ) 1 - 11 .
hoving , hj , j . perez , k . bolstad , h . braid , a . evans , d . fuchs , h . judkins , j . kelly , j . marian , r . nakajima , u . piatkowski , a . reid , m . vecchione , j . xavier . 2014 . the study of deep - sea cephalopods ; e . vidal editor ; advances in marine biology , v . 67 ; 235 - 259 .
judkins , h , s . arbuckle , m . vecchione , l . garrison , a . martinez ( 2013 ) . cephalopods in the potential prey field of sperm whales ( physeter macrocephalus ) in the northern gulf of mexico . journal of natural history , doi : 10 . 1080 / 00222933 . 2013 . 802045
judkins , h and m . vecchione . 2013 . doryteuthis plei ( blainville , 1823 ) , the slender inshore squid . advances in squid biology , ecology and fisheries , part i : myopsid squid . ed . rui rosa , graham pierce , ron o’dor ; pp . 241 - 256 .
judkins , h , m . vecchione , j . torres , c . f . e . roper . 2010 . cephalopod species richness in the wider caribbean region . - ices journal of marine science , 67 : 1392 - 1400 .
judkins , h . m . vecchione , & c . f . e . roper . 2009 . cephalopods ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) of the gulf of mexico . gulf of mexico origin , waters , and biota biodiversity , volume 1 ( darryl felder , david a . camp , editors ) texas a & m university press , college station , texas , ch . 34 , pp . 701 - 710 .
judkins , heather . 2009 . cephalopods of the broad caribbean : distribution , abundance and ecological importance ; dissertation ; university of south florida ; 156 p .
judkins , h . debra ingrao , c . f . e . roper . august 2009 . first records of asperoteuthis acanthoderma ( lu , 1977 ) cephalopoda : oegopsidae : chiroteuthidae ) , from the north atlantic ocean , straits of florida . proceedings of the biological society of washington ; 122 ( 2 ) : 162–170 .
heather judkins , ph . d . assistant professor department of biological sciences , stg 222 university of south florida st . petersburg 140 7th ave south st . petersburg , fl 33701 ( 727 ) 873 - 4512 lab
we use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .
this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .
guerrero - kommritz , jürgen and rodriguez - bermudez , adriana 2017 . sepiolids ( mollusca : cephalopoda ) from the southern caribbean , colombian coast , and a redescription of nectoteuthis pourtalesii verrill , 1883 . marine biodiversity , vol . 47 , issue . 1 , p . 203 .
in the south atlantic ocean . in total 58 individuals were examined , 23 belonging to the species
. all specimens were captured during the walther herwig expeditions 1966 , 1968 , 1976 and 1982 . a full description of both sexes of
is provided . these two species can only be distinguished by means of the male ' s enlarged suckers on arm pair iii . females are not useful for taxonomic identifications and are morphologically identical in both species . the results do not support the definition of subgenera in this genus . this is the first report for
cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date . vol . 1 . chambered nautiluses and sepioids ( nautilidae , sepiidae , sepiadariidae , idiosepiidae and spirulidae )
[ fao species catalogue for fishery purposes , no . 4 , vol . 1 . ]
le pesche abissali eseguite da f . a . krupp col yacht puritan nelle adjacenze di capri ed altere località del mediterraneo
preliminary report on the cephalopoda ( decapoda ) procured by the s . s . “pickle”
intorno ad alcuni cefalopodi del mare di messina . lettera del d . eduardo rüppel di frankfort sul meno al prof . anastasio cocca
mollusques méditerranéens . prémiere partie : céphalopodes de la méditerranée . gênes , imprimerie des souds - muets , 132 pp . , 44 plates
email your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .