the pygmy three-toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) , also known as the monk sloth or dwarf sloth , is a sloth endemic to isla escudo de veraguas , a small island off the coast of panama .

the species was first described by robert p. anderson of the university of kansas and charles o. handley jr. , of the smithsonian institution in 2001 .

the pygmy three-toed sloth is significantly smaller than the other three members of its genus , but otherwise resembles the brown-throated three-toed sloth .

according to anderson and handley jr. , the head-and-body length is between 48 and 53 centimetres ( 19 and 21 in ) , and the body mass ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 kg ( 5.5 to 7.7 lb ) .

this sloth , like other sloths , is arboreal ( tree-living ) and feeds on leaves .

it is symbiotically associated with green algae , that can provide it with a camouflage .

details of mating behavior and reproduction have not been documented .

the pygmy three-toed sloth is found exclusively in the red mangroves of isla escudos de veraguas , restricted to an area of 4.3 square kilometres ( 1.7 sq mi ) .

a 2012 census of pygmy three-toed sloths estimated the total population at 79 .

the iucn lists the pygmy three-toed sloth as critically endangered and they are listed on the world 's 100 most threatened species .

pygmy three - toed sloth

the pygmy three - toed sloth was recognised as a distinct species in 2001 .
pygmy three - toed sloths on the edge of existence ( edgeofexistence . org )
a 2011 study found only 79 pygmy three - toed sloths on escudo de veraguas .
the pygmy three - toed sloth is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
of those , the pygmy sloth is critically endangered and the maned sloth is vulnerable .
brown - throated three - toed sloth dallas world aquarium and zoo , dallas , tx .
pygmy three - toed sloths have been found living only in coastal , red mangroves at sea level .
pygmy three - toed sloths have home ranges that are small , on average 1 . 6 ha .
the pygmy three - toed sloth is found in a tiny area of red mangrove forests on isla escudo de veraguas , panama .
pygmy three - toed sloths are 15 % smaller in total length , and 40 % smaller in their mass .
the pygmy three - toed sloth has rapidly evolved a much smaller body size in its short 8 , 900 years of isolation from mainland species .
the pygmy three - toed sloth is known exclusively in red mangrove forests surrounding the island at near sea level ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .
female pygmy three - toed sloths invest heavily in young through gestation and lactation , as do females in other sloth species . details of parental care are not reported for pygmy three - toed sloths , but related species care for their young for up to 6 months .
main characteristics pygmy three - toed sloths have a body length between 44 and 47 cms ( 17 - 18 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 4 and 6 cms ( 1 . 5 - 2 . 4 inches ) and they weigh between 2 . 5 and 3 . 5 kgs ( 5 . 5 - 7 . 7 lbs ) . they have long , coarse fur that is pale grey / brown in colour and they have a tan coloured face with a dark band across their forehead . they have three long , hook - clawed toes on each of their front feet . habitat pygmy three - toed sloths are found in the mangrove forests of the island of isla escudo de verguas off the coast of panama . they are arboreal and solitary . diet pygmy three - toed sloths feed on variety of leaves , buds and soft twigs . breeding little is known about reproduction in the pygmy three - toed sloth . it is assumed that it is similar to that of the other species of three - toed sloth . predators humans and habitat loss are the main threats to the pygmy three - toed sloth . subspecies there are no subspecies of the pygmy three - toed sloth . interesting facts pygmy three - toed sloths are also known as : monk sloth dwarf sloth similar animals linnaeus ' s two - toed sloth hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth maned three - toed sloth pale - throated sloth brown - throated sloth
the pygmy three - toed sloth is known only from isla escudo de veraguas in the archipelago of bocas del toro , panama ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .
pygmy three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores . they eat leaves from many different kinds of trees and have low metabolic rates .
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the behavior of pygmy three - toed sloths has not been reported , but can be inferred from the behavior of its close relative , the brown - throated sloth .
three - toed sloths may have quite small or absent canine - like upper teeth .
three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) do not survive out of their natural habitat .
the following habitats are found across the pygmy three - toed sloth distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .
sloth distribution . black box represents approximate range of hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth ; red box represents linnaeus ' two - toed sloth . adapted from urltoken according to iucn fact sheets for hoffman ' s two - toed and linnaeus ' two - toed sloths . see iucn fact sheets for detailed distributions .
do you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the pygmy three - toed sloth , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .
sloths are identified by the number of long , prominent claws that they have on each front foot . there are both two - toed and three - toed sloths .
. like other sloths , pygmy three - toed sloths are likely to have relatively poor eyesight . they may use vocalizations and are likely to use chemical cues in communication .
two - toed sloths are generally faster moving than three - toed sloths . both types tend to occupy the same forests : in most areas , one species of three - toed sloth and one species of the larger two - toed type will jointly predominate . they are arboreal and sleep , eat , and travel among the trees , moving very slowly and generally hanging upside down .
the pygmy three - toed sloth was only described scientifically in 2001 and is critically endangered . a team of conservationists from zsl are surveying them to build the first picture of how these little - known animals are faring .
citation : kaviar s , shockey j , sundberg p ( 2012 ) observations on the endemic pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus of isla escudo de veraguas , panamá . plos one 7 ( 11 ) : e49854 . urltoken
bezerra , b . 2008 . observation of brown - throated three toed sloths , mating behavior and simultaneous nurturing of two young .
the pygmy sloth is listed on cites appendix ii ( notification to the parties 2013 / 052 , 20 november 2013 ) .
historically there has been little conservation attention or support for the pygmy sloth and the island habitat it depends on . this project seeks to address the threats facing the pygmy sloth , while helping to ensure the sustainable livelihoods of the ngobe bugle people .
anderson , r . , c . handley . 2001 . a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus .
the living sloths are placed in one of two families , known as the megalonychidae (
two - toed
sloths ) and the bradypodidae ( three - toed sloths ) , with the former limited to the genus choloepus and the later to the genus bradypus . all living sloths have in fact three toes , that is three toes on the hindfeet . however , the
two - toed
sloths have only two fingers , versus three for the three - toed sloths . the living sloths are characterized by short , flat heads , big eyes , a short snout , long legs , and tiny ears .
, commonly called monk , dwarf , or pygmy three - toed sloth , is found only on the isla escudo de veraguas of bocas del toro , which is located off the coast of panama . this island is small , only about 5 square kilometers in area .
a three - toed sloth can rotate its head nearly 90 degrees or more , and its mouth is shaped in a way that makes the animal appear as if it ' s always smiling .
nice ' n ' slow : a three - toed sloth climbs a liana to the forest canopy . lianas provide critical connections among trees to allow arboreal animals to move from tree to tree .
isla escudo de veraguas is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the comarca indigenous reserve . however , law enforcement within this protected area is currently inadequate , and needs to be improved , in order to benefit the pygmy three - toed sloth ( 1 ) .
the pygmy three - toed slothis on the iucn species survival commission ' s top 100 list of most threatened species . these tiny sloths can only be found on escudo island , which is found off the coast of panama .
sloths mate and give birth while hanging in the trees . three - toed sloth babies are often seen clinging to their mothers—they travel by hanging on to them for the first nine months of their lives .
the three - toed sloth emits a long , high - pitched call that echoes through the forests as “ahh - eeee . ” because of this cry these sloths are sometimes called ais ( pronounced “eyes” ) .
predators of pygmy three - toed sloths have not been reported . however , like other sloths , they are very slow - moving animals with long , hair that often grows algae , allowing them to blend in well in their leafy habitats . other sloth species are preyed on by harpy eagles (
because pygmy three - toed sloths are a recently described species , little is known about their ecosystem roles . they are hosts to various parasites , may influence vegetation through their browsing , and act as prey for larger , arboreal predators .
our long term aim is to establish and implement a participatory management plan that engages all stakeholders in the conservation of escudo and the pygmy sloth .
shockey , who has now graduated , considers himself lucky to have seen and studied the rare pygmy three - toed sloths .
during my time on escudo , i witnessed their daily routine of long afternoon naps , casual eating and climbing into the sunny branches to dry off after a downpour . ultimately , i hope our work will help maintain that reality for the pygmy sloth .
two - toed and three - toed sloths were formerly placed in the same family but the two genera have profound behavioral and anatomical differences and are believed to come from two different fossil lineages . they are now placed in separate families .
three - toed sloths also have an advantage that few other mammals possess : they have extra neck vertebrae that allows them to turn their heads some 270 degrees .
there are two categories of sloths . the two - toed sloth is slightly bigger than the three - toed sloth , though they share many of the same features . they are about the size of a medium - sized dog at around 23 to 27 inches ( 58 to 68 cm ) and 17 . 5 to 18 . 75 pounds ( about 8 kilograms ) .
we found evidence for three different patterns of algae that occur in the hair of five sloth species : 1 ) the green alga in the fur of the brown - throated sloth , bradypus variegatus , and the pygmy three - toed sloth , b . pygmaeus , is a unique species and no other green algal species were found in their fur . microscopy of the alga on the hair revealed characteristic features to the description of trichophilus ( weber - van bosse 1887 ) , which has indeed been described from the hair of bradypus . 2 ) the maned three - toed sloth bradypus torquatus was shown in our study to host a variety of algae belonging to genera known to be terrestrial , e . g . trentepholia and myrmecia . 3 ) the hoffmann ' s two - toed sloth choloepus hoffmanni and the pale - throated sloth bradypus tridactylus , showed both patterns ; they hosted terrestrial green algae from their surroundings , as well as the unique genus trichophilus .
location : separated from the panamanian coast by 17 kilometres of ocean , the island of escudo de veraguas is the only home of the pygmy three - toed sloth . the sloths live only in red mangroves found in a narrow band along the seaside , which are estimated to cover just 1 . 5 square kilometres .
the sloth’s fur is grey , though the face is tan with chocolate stripes , and the male has an orange patch on the back divided lengthwise by a black stripe . there is long hair on this sloth’s head , hanging down and giving the appearance of a hood , inspiring the alternative name of “monk sloth” . a unique species of symbiotic algae grows in the fur of the pygmy three - toed sloth , giving their fur a greenish tint that acts as excellent camouflage when combined with their slow movements .
montgomery gg , sunquist me : habitat selection and use by two - toed and three - toed sloths . the ecology of arboreal folivores . edited by : montgomery g . 1978 , washington , dc : smithsonian institution press , 329 - 359 .
] . it is a popular assumption that the association between the three - toed sloth and the alga embedded in its hairs is a symbiotic relationship with the alga obtaining shelter in the cracks of the hair while providing green camouflage for the sloth . it also has been proposed that the alga offers no benefit to the sloth , but is able to survive in the hair because the sloth does not prevent the alga growing [
with only a small population confined to a single tiny island off the coast of panama , the pygmy three - toed sloth is the most endangered of all xenarthra . as its name suggests , this recently discovered species is a dwarf compared with its mainland relatives ( 4 ) . in addition to its small size , the pygmy three - toed sloth is characterised by usually blotchy , pale grey - brown fur and a tan - coloured face with a distinctive dark band across the forehead , from which long , shaggy hair hangs over the face , giving a hooded appearance . sloths have an unusual means of camouflage to avoid predation ; their outer fur is often coated in algae , giving the pelage a greenish tint that helps hide them in their forest habitat . three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) can be distinguished from their distant relatives , the two - toed sloths ( choloepus ) , by the three digits on their forelimbs , blunter muzzle , and simpler , peg - like teeth ( 3 ) .
green , h . ( 1989 ) .
agonistic behavior by three - toed sloths , bradypus variegatus
. biotropica 21 ( 4 ) : 369–372 . jstor 2388289 .
— 1985a . use of hands and feet of three - toed sloths ( bradypus variegatus ) during climbing and terrestrial locomotion . journal of mammalogy 66 : 359 - 366 .
with only a small population confined to a single tiny island off the coast of panama , the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) is the most endangered of all xenarthra . as its name suggests , this recently discovered species is a dwarf compared with its mainland relatives ( 4 ) . in addition to its small size , the pygmy three - toed sloth is characterised by usually blotchy , pale grey - brown fur and a tan - coloured face with a distinctive dark band across the forehead , from which long , shaggy hair hangs over the face , giving a hooded appearance . sloths have an unusual means of camouflage to avoid predation ; their outer fur is often coated in algae , giving the pelage a greenish tint that helps hide them in their forest habitat . three - toed sloths ( bradypus ) can be distinguished from their distant relatives , the two - toed sloths ( choloepus ) , by the three digits on their forelimbs , blunter muzzle , and simpler , peg - like teeth ( 3 ) .
very little is known about the biology of the pygmy three - toed sloth , although much can be inferred from what is known about three - toed sloths generally . three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores that eat the leaves of a variety of trees . this is an energy - poor diet , and these animals have a very low metabolic rate ( 3 ) . their main defences are camouflage , stealth and stillness , whereby they avoid predation largely by avoiding detection ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . however , should they be attacked , sloths also have a remarkable capacity to survive due to their tough hides , tenacious grips and extraordinary ability to heal from grievous wounds ( 5 ) .
very little is known about the biology of the pygmy three - toed sloth , although much can be inferred from what is known about three - toed sloths generally . three - toed sloths are arboreal folivores that eat the leaves of a variety of trees . this is an energy - poor diet , and these animals have a very low metabolic rate ( 3 ) . their main defences are camouflage , stealth and stillness , whereby they avoid predation largely by avoiding detection ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . however , should they be attacked , sloths also have a remarkable capacity to survive due to their tough hides , tenacious grips and extraordinary ability to heal from grievous wounds ( 5 ) .
the evolutionary history of the three - toed sloths is not at all well - known . no particularly close relatives , ground - dwelling or not , have yet been identified .
almost all mammals have seven cervical vertebrae or
neck bones
( including those with very short necks , such as elephants or whales , and those with very long necks , such as giraffes ) . the two - toed sloths and the three - toed sloths are among the few exceptions . the two - tailed sloths and manatees have only six cervical vertebrae , and three - toed sloths had nine cervical vertebrae ( narita and kuratani 2005 ) .
pygmy three - toed sloths have a tan face with a dark brown band across the brow and orange eye patches . the back can exhibit either uniform or blotchy color distribution , but is usually dark brown with an obvious dorsal stripe . pygmy sloths are unique in that they have long hairs on the crown and the sides of the head , giving the distinct impression of a hood .
the pygmy three - toed sloth has an extremely restricted range on one very small island . although the island is uninhabited , fishermen , farmers , lobster divers and local people are all seasonal visitors , and are thought to hunt the sloths illegally . the growing tourism industry is also a potential threat to the species , by degrading its habitat ( 1 ) .
the pygmy three - toed sloth has an extremely restricted range on one very small island . although the island is uninhabited , fishermen , farmers , lobster divers and local people are all seasonal visitors , and are thought to hunt the sloths illegally . the growing tourism industry is also a potential threat to the species , by degrading its habitat ( 1 ) .
wujek de , cocuzza jm : morphology of hair of two - and three - toed sloths ( edentata : bradypodidae ) . rev biol trop . 1986 , 34 : 243 - 246 .
pygmy three - toed sloths are mainly arboreal , although they can walk on the ground and also swim . like other sloths , they can be active at any time of the day and spend much of their time sleeping or sedentary . they are generally solitary and do not tend to travel far .
limited to central and south america . the 2 species are partially sympatric ( overlap ) in the andean regions and western amazonia . both overlap with the 3 - toed sloth .
two - toed sloths live 10 to 15 years in the wild and over 30 years in zoos .
bezerra , b . 2008 . observation of brown - throated three toed sloths , mating behavior and simultaneous nurturing of two young . journal of ethology , 26 / 1 :
175 - 178
.
after around nine hours of sleep , the sloth still doesn ' t make an attempt at getting friendly with others . they live solo lives . the closest a sloth gets to social time is sleeping in the same tree with another sloth .
in may 2011 , after months of preparation , jakob shockey and two fellow biology students from evergreen state college in washington state found themselves on a tiny panamanian island staring at one of the rarest mammals in the world : the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) .
i felt humbled to finally stand knee - deep in the mud of a mangrove thicket on isla escudo de veraguas and watch this sloth move so comfortably through its world , entirely unconcerned by my presence or anticipation ,
he says .
the species is not utilized . although it was previously thought that locals would eat pygmy sloths , this was recently disproven .
the living sloths are omnivores . they may eat insects , small lizards , and carrion , but their diet consists mostly of buds , tender shoots , and leaves . the three - toed sloths in particular feed almost exclusively on leaves . the two - toed sloths eat fruits , nuts , berries , bark , and occasionally small rodents .
the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) last week announced that the world ' s rarest and smallest sloth could deserve protection under the endangered species act ( pdf ) . the pygmy three - toed sloth ( bradypus pygmaeus ) lives only on the tiny isla escudo de veraguas off the coast of panama and is probably one of the rarest mammals in the world . when i last wrote about the species back in 2012 , surveys had only managed to locate 79 of these critically endangered tree - dwellers .
anderson , r . p . and handley jr . , c . o . ( 2001 ) a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 114 ( 1 ) : 1 - 33 .
anderson , r . , c . handley . 2001 . a new species of three - toed sloth ( mammalia : xenarthra ) from panama , with a review of the genus bradypus . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 114 :
1 - 33
. accessed july 27 , 2009 at urltoken .
in response to this incident , a nonprofit called the animal welfare institute filed an emergency petition with the fws this past november seeking to add the pygmy sloth to the endangered species list . this protection , if granted , would require any person or organization seeking to import a pygmy sloth into the u . s . to first receive a permit from the fws , the same process that is required for any other foreign endangered species .
a newly discovered , rare species of sloth looks like a teddy bear and can swim .
habitat : pygmy three - toed sloths spend most of their lives in trees , though they must descend to the ground to urinate and defecate . they can only crawl while on the ground , though they are good swimmers . in the trees , they hook themselves securely to branches with the three large claws on each of their feet . they often hang upside down from branches while in the trees . their sole food is the leaves of the red mangrove trees where they live .
the two - toed sloths are somewhat larger and generally faster moving than the three - toed sloths , but all are noted for their very slow , graceful movements . they also are noted for their almost exclusively arboreal existence , descending to the ground only rarely to urinate and defecate and generally hanging upside - down from branches with their long , curved claws .
mammalian species include the collared - peccary , who may be found in mainland bocas del toro lowland moist forest or grasslands . also found here is the critically endangered pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , whose extant population of no more than a few hundred animals is restricted to the tiny ( 3 . 4 km 2 ) island of isla escudo de veraguas . there are also central american red brocket , mazama temama , a species of forest deer widespead in mesoamerica .
compared to the related brown - throated three - toed sloth , the pygmy species is , on average 40 % smaller in body mass , weighing 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 kilograms ( 5 . 5 to 7 . 7 lb ) , and 15 % smaller in body length . adults measure 48 to 53 centimetres ( 19 to 21 in ) , with a 4 . 5 to 6 . 0 centimetres ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 in ) tail .
when frightened , young sloth ' s hair
puffs out
, almost doubling its size .
a rare pygmy sloth that looks like a teddy bear and can swim , an insect as long as your arm and a fish from the deep with a face like a headlight . just some of the extraordinary and weird new species chosen by
pygmy three - toed sloths are an excellent example of insular dwarfism , which occurs when a population is confined to an island and must adapt to the limited resources of space and food . these sloths look compact and are approximately 40 % smaller than the mainland sloths they are descended from . weight is just 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 kilograms , while length ranges from 48 to 53 centimetres .
a typical case of island dwarfism , the pygmy sloths are about 40 percent smaller than brown - throated sloths ( b . variegatus ) , which can be found across the water on the panama isthmus as well as throughout the southern half of central america and the northern half of south america . other than size , pygmy sloths look almost exactly like their mainland cousins—so much so , in fact , that the pygmies were only identified as a separate species in 2001 . at that time scientists estimated the pygmy sloth population at about 300 to 500 animals , enough to consider them critically endangered , the only sloth species with that designation .
additional file 1 : sloth sample collection details . collection details of the sloth samples which sequence data was used in the study and the number of clones sequenced from each sample . ( pdf 30 kb )
sloth is the common name for any of the slow - moving , new world arboreal mammals comprising the families megalonychidae ( two - toed sloths ) and bradypodidae ( three - toed sloths ) of the order pilosa . there are six extant species . the four living species of bradypodidae are about the size of a small dog and are characterized by three - clawed digits on their forelimbs and a short tail . the two living species of megalonychidae are characterized by only two digits on their forefeet , the absence of a tail , and a more prominent snout , and longer fur . sloths are found in central and south america .
the pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , was first described as a species in 2001 [ 1 ] . bradypus pygmaeus is morphologically distinct from bradypus variegatus , most obviously in their reduced body size , although genetic differentiation has not been shown [ 2 ] . bradypus pygmaeus are found only on the 4 . 3 km 2 island of isla escudo de veraguas ( = isla escudo ) , 17 . 6 km off the caribbean coast of panama [ 1 ] . to date , researchers have only observed pygmy sloths in the red mangroves ( rhizophora mangle ) of isla escudo’s tidal areas , leading to the working hypothesis of obligate red mangrove dietary specialization within the species [ 1 ] .
threats : since they are confined to one island surrounded by oceanic waters , every hectare of habitat is vitally important to pygmy three - toed sloths . unfortunately , vigorous cutting of mangrove trees is occurring on escudo de veraguas . if unchecked , this could lead to the outright extinction of these intriguing , dwarf mammals . surreptitious hunting by fishermen operating near the island may also be occurring , since the sloths are an easy source of meat .
sloth fur exhibits specialized functions . the outer hairs grow in a direction opposite from that of other mammals . in most mammals , hairs grow toward the extremities , but because sloths spend so much time with their legs above their bodies , their hairs grow away from the extremities in order to provide protection from the elements while the sloth hangs upside down . sloth fur is also host to algae ; this algae colors the coat green and acts as camouflage ( butler 2007 ; kissell 2008 ) . because of this algae , sloth fur is a small ecosystem of its own , hosting many species of non - parasitic insects ; one sloth was found to host about 950 beetles ( butler 2007 ) . one species of moth is dependent on the sloth for its life cycle , traveling with the sloth to the ground when the sloth defecates and laying its eggs at that time ( butler 2007 ) .
, a new species of bluegreen alga from sloth hair . brenesia . 1988 , 29 : 1 - 6 .
the sloth ' s scientific name is bradypus tridactylus . here is its taxonomy according to the national history museum :
three - toed sloths are about the size of a small dog , with the head and body having a combined length of around 60 centimeters , and the animal having a weight of 3 . 5 to 4 . 5 kilograms ( or between 7 and 10 pounds ) . unlike the two - toed sloths , they also have a short ( 6 - 7 centimeters ) tail , and they have three clawed toes on all four of their limbs . the generally larger two - toed sloths have a body length of between 58 and 70 centimeters , and weigh between 4 and 8 kilograms . other distinguishing features of the two - tailed sloths include a more prominent snout , longer fur , and the absence of a tail .
) . the first two pco axes explained 40 . 6 % of the variability . however , the canonical analysis of the three species of sloths that had been sampled from several locations showed a separation of the different sloth species with squared canonical correlations of δ
the members of the two families of living sloths , megalonychidae and bradypodidae , have similar adaptations , but the actual relationships of the living sloth genera are more distant from each other than their outward similarity suggests . the two - toed sloths of today are far more closely related to one particular group of ground sloths than to the living three - toed sloths . whether these ground - dwelling megalonychidae were descended from tree - climbing ancestors or whether the two - toed sloths are really miniature ground sloths converted ( or reverted ) to arboreal life cannot presently be determined to satisfaction . the latter possibility seems slightly more likely , given the fact that the small ground sloths acratocnus and synocnus , which were also able to climb , are among the closer relatives of the two - toed sloths , and that these together were related to the huge ground sloths megalonyx and megalocnus .
like many other mammals , sloths only have one baby at a time . baby sloths have a gestation of five to six months for some types sloths and as much as 11 . 5 months for others , such as the hoffman ' s two - toed sloth .
) . similarly , ciliates were different on the three compared species . this can be due to differing hair structure and possibly chemistry as well as differing ecology of the species . it may also reflect the divergence of the two sloth genera about 20 million years ago [
2 - toed is larger , faster , and nocturnal . diet is more varied - eats leaves and fruit . 6 or 7 neck vertebrae and vestigial tail
shockey had originally planned to travel to panama to study the local manatee population , but contacts with a local nongovernmental organization told him they were hearing reports of
imminent risk
to the pygmy sloths .
little was known by the scientific community about the actual conditions on the island , and it was hard to separate fact and rumor , but the pygmy sloth seemed to be in trouble ,
shockey says . they decided to study the sloths instead .
pygmy three - toed sloths are pretty laid back even as sloths go , but there ' s serious trouble in the caribbean paradise where these highly specialised mangrove dwellers hang out . they were only recognised as a species in 2001 , and with their population perhaps already numbering less than 1 , 000 , time is rapidly running out . these diminutive sloths are fairly decent swimmers , can turn their heads 360 degrees and have a unique green algae that grows in their fur and provides camouflage .
. additional clones originated from sloth hairs and tree bark which were positioned within the ulvophyceae in the phylogenetic analyses of fig .
) . this systematic visual survey was conducted throughout all mangrove thickets . when we encountered a sloth an identity number was assigned , and the sloth ' s location recorded with a gps . date , time , and notes on the physical appearance and dorsal coloration of each sloth were recorded . this strictly observational study was conducted under permit # sea4311 , titled
status de
was found . the clade was subdivided into three subclades that received moderate to high internal node support . two clades , a and c in ( fig .
mating , gestation , birth and post - birth dynamics have not been observed for pygmy sloths , but these features may be inferred from studies of other species in the genus .
here we investigate the genetic diversity of the eukaryotic community present in fur of all six extant species of sloth . analysis of 71 sloth hair samples yielding 426 partial 18s rrna gene sequences demonstrates a diverse eukaryotic microbial assemblage . phylogenetic analysis reveals that sloth fur hosts a number of green algal species and suggests that acquisition of these organisms from the surrounding rainforest plays an important role in the discoloration of sloth fur . however , an alga corresponding to the morphological description of trichophilus welckeri was found to be frequent and abundant on sloth fur . phylogenetic analysis demonstrated the retention of this alga on the fur of sloths independent of geographic location .
hair samples were examined from 71 sloth individuals , which originated from french guiana , panama , costa rica and brazil ( fig .
this article mainly deals with the living tree - dwelling sloths . until geologically recent times , large ground sloths such as megatherium ( bbc 2008 ) lived in south america and parts of north america . ground sloths disappeared soon after humans arrived , suggesting that humans drove ground sloths to extinction ( mason 2005 ) . of the six living species , only one , the maned three - toed sloth ( bradypus torquatus ) , has a classification of
endangered
at present . the ongoing destruction of south america ' s forests , however , may soon prove a threat to other sloth species .
the young researchers also learned how little of the island constituted suitable habitat for the animals .
we had expected to find pygmy sloths using the interior forests of the isla escudo , but it seems they are completely reliant on mangroves for food and primary habitat ,
shockey says .
we found the intertidal mangrove thickets on only 0 . 024 percent of the already small island , and these were fragmented by upland forest and logging . this is a sobering reality for the pygmy sloth .
this project aims to improve our understanding of the pygmy sloth population and the threats to the species . to ensure the conservation of the species , it also carries out educational programmes and workshops to increase local awareness , enhance support for conservation , establish sustainable resource management , and support local authorities in enforcing legal regulations .
— 1981a . use of hands and feet of two - toed sloths ( choloepus hoffmanni ) during climbing and terrestrial locomotion . journal of mammalogy 62 : 413 - 421 .
from manuel antonio , costa rica ( three sequences ) have been excluded from this analysis . ( a ) the principal coordinate analysis ( b ) the canonical analysis of
the critically endangered pygmy sloth is only found on escudo de veraguas , a tiny island off the east coast of mainland panama . the island is the only land mass in the 41 , 596 ha escudo de veraguas - dego protected sanctuary and is a part of the natural heritage of the local ngobe - bugle people .
sloth hair grows in the opposite direction to most animals , so water runs away from the skin when the animal is upside down .
martins bezerra , b . , a . da silva souto , et al . ( 2008 ) ,
observation of brown - throated three - toed sloths : mating behaviour and the simultaneous nurturing of two young
, journal of ethology 26 ( 1 ) : 175–178 , doi : 10 . 1007 / s10164 - 007 - 0038 - z
( porphyridiales , phragmonemataceae ) , a new red alga from sloth hair . brenesia . 1986 , 25 - 26 : 163 - 68 .
weignberg , i . 1999 . speed of a sloth . in g . elert , the physics factbook . retrieved october 15 , 2008 .
— 1981b . the hand of two - toed sloths : its anatomy and potential uses relative to size of support . journal of morphology 169 ( 1 ) : 1 - 19 .
at least three genera of giant ground sloths lived in southern california during the pleistocene . a shasta ' s ground sloth skeleton was recently excavated in carlsbad ( thought to be about 2 . 1 m ( 7 ft ) long and weighing about 136 - 181 kg ( 300 - 400 lbs ) — bear sized .
but smaller . pygmy three - toed sloths have buff - colored faces with dark circles that surround the eye and go outwards to their temples . clay - orange fur covers the face , starting underneath the dark eye circles . the hair on the head and shoulders is long and bushy , distinctive against the shorter facial hair and making it look as if these sloths have a hood . the throat is brown - gray and the dorsum is speckled and has a dark mid - sagittal stripe . males differ in that they have a dorsal ginger speculum with fuzzy hair following the margin . pygmy three - toed sloths have in total 18 teeth , 10 from the upper jaw which consists of 2 anterior chisel - shaped teeth and 8 molariform teeth . on the bottom jaw there are 8 teeth ; 2 anterior chisel - shaped , and 6 molariform teeth . the skull is small in comparison to other closely related species , lacks foramina in the anterodorsal nasopharynx , and doesn ' t have pterygoid sinuses that are inflated . the zygomatic arch is incomplete with slim roots , and the process of the jugal descends long and thin .
diorene smith successfully completed her edge fellowship in 2015 . in 2016 , diorene was awarded the disney conservation hero award for her impressive dedication and hard work towards the conservation of this species . diorene has joined the iucn xenarthan specialist group and has helped to establish a collaborative ‘committee for the protection of the pygmy sloth’ overseeing conservation and research activities .
mendel , f . c . 1979 . the wrist joint of two - toed sloths : its relevance to brachiating adaptations in the hominoidea . journal of morphology 162 : 413 - 424 .
make a symbolic sloth adoption to help save some of the world ' s most endangered animals from extinction and support wwf ' s conservation efforts .
there ' s still a long way to go in the process to get the pygmy sloth protected in the u . s . the fws will now spend the next 12 months officially conducting a status review of the species , which will gather scientific data about the sloth ' s population , ecology and threats . once that step is done , fws will then declare if protection is warranted , which could kick off another 15 - month process ( at minimum ) before any legal protections can be enacted .
the pygmy sloth ' s fates have been up and down over the past 18 months . newer surveys this past april found
a bunch of very healthy babies ,
according to the friends of the pygmy sloth facebook page . but seven months before that a u . s . zoo called the dallas world aquarium almost set off an international incident by trying to export six sloths from panama to the u . s . , something it had permits from the panamanian government to do but which set off protests at the airport . the animals , plus two more that were bound for a zoo in panama , were all returned to isla escudo but one of the sloths reportedly died in october following the stressful experience .
beall , l . 2009 .
animal facts : sloth
( on - line ) . helium . accessed august 17 , 2009 at urltoken .
a sloth only has its claws for defense against predators . however , its very low level of movement and the camouflage make it difficult to notice .
] found uv - absorbing mycosporine - like amino acid ( 324 nm - maa ) from a green alga found in sloth hair . reduced exposure to uv - light could also be seen as beneficial to the sloth over the long run . however , there is no clear evidence supporting any hypothesis at present .
briggs , h . 2008 . sloth ' s lazy image
a myth .
bbc news may 13 , 2008 . retrieved october 15 , 2008 .
3 - toed is smaller , slower and both diurnal and nocturnal . highly specialized browsers - eat only leaves . 8 or 9 neck vertebrae . stout tail is 68 mm ( 2 . 7 in ) long
here we collected 71 sloth hair samples from all six extant sloth species as well as 12 environmental samples from tree trunks to survey the diversity of eukaryotic organisms present there . we found evidence for the acquisition of green algae from the environment as well as retention of green algae in the hair independent of the sloths geographic location .
britton sw : form and function in the sloth . q rev biol . 1941 , 16 : 13 - 34 . 10 . 1086 / 394620 . 190 - 207
is endemic to a single island of panama , which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the ngäbe bugle comarca . there is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area . a comprehensive conservation plan is underway , bringing together the local community , wildlife authorities in panama , and the national and international scientific community to protect the island , using the pygmy sloth as a flagship species .
is endemic to a single island of panama , which is protected as a wildlife refuge and is contained within the ngbe bugle comarca . there is a need to improve the enforcement of this protected area . a comprehensive conservation plan is underway , bringing together the local community , wildlife authorities in panama , and the national and international scientific community to protect the island , using the pygmy sloth as a flagship species .
compared to most mammals , a sloth moves very slowly . sloths can climb only 6 to 8 feet ( 1 . 8 to 2 . 4 meters ) per minute .
] . the algae growing on sloth hair may also produce exopolymeric substances that may give the hair a desired texture or allow beneficial bacteria to grow . karsten et al . [
sloths are an integral part of tropical rain forest ecosystems . among the most common mid - sized mammals in central and south american rain forests is the brown - throated sloth .
the u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) last week announced that the world’s rarest and smallest sloth could deserve protection under the endangered species act ( pdf ) .
] but has not yet been isolated into pure culture and sequenced before . it is likely not to occur in any other environment besides sloth hair given that tropical terrestrial green algal species like
the ensuing decade has not been kind to the sloths . families of indigenous fishermen from the ngöbe–buglé comarca ( a semiautonomous region roughly equivalent to a native american reservation ) began moving to the island around 1995 and quickly started cutting down mangrove trees for firewood and lumber . unfortunately , pygmy sloths depend on those mangroves for their food and habitat . as the trees disappeared , so did the sloths . shockey and fellow researchers sam kaviar and peter sundberg spent three days counting the animals and found that just 79 remained .
we were all surprised to find such a low population ,
he says . a paper detailing their census of the sloth population was published november 21 in plos one .
similarly , intriguing questions about the origins of life and why our planet is blessed with such a variety of life forms could remain unanswered . fascinating discoveries about our world , such as the dinosaur - tree wollemi pine , the glow - in - the - dark cockroach and a pygmy sloth living on its own caribbean island don’t contribute majorly to gdp . one could argue that humans would survive , albeit with diminished lives , if that’s all taxonomists did .
the field team , led by former edge fellow diorene , visit escudo twice a year to monitor the pygmy sloth population . transects are walked through the mangroves and forest , where the team record the number of sloths and other important data on their activity and habitat use . we have also put radio collars and gps backpacks on the sloths to help us find out how large an area each individual needs and which parts of the island they use in different seasons .
some reports suggest that female sloths give birth to a single offspring , but observations of a female brown - throated sloth in the wild with two infants suggest that they are capable of producing twins .
the tough leaves in a sloth ' s diet are difficult to digest . sloths have a four - part stomach that slowly digests the leaves with bacteria . it can take up to a month for a sloth to digest one meal . their leafy diet isn ' t very nutritious though , so they don ' t get much energy from it . this may be why sloths are so slow .
our objective was to ascertain the population status of the pygmy three - toed sloth , bradypus pygmaeus , an iucn critically endangered species , on isla escudo de veraguas , panama . bradypus pygmaeus are thought to be folivorous mangrove specialists ; therefore we conducted a visual systematic survey of all 10 mangrove thickets on the island . the total mangrove habitat area was measured to be 1 . 67 ha , comprising 0 . 024 % of the total island area . the population survey found low numbers of b . pygmaeus in the mangrove thickets and far lower numbers outside of them . the connectivity of subpopulations between these thickets on the island is not established , as b . pygmaeus movement data is still lacking . we found 79 individuals of b . pygmaeus ; 70 were found in mangroves and 9 were observed just beyond the periphery of the mangroves in non - mangrove tree species . low population number , habitat fragmentation and habitat loss could lead to inbreeding , a loss of genetic diversity , and extinction of b . pygmaeus .
. green algae were neither found in microscopic examinations of these two samples . an average of 27 % of the sloth samples for which 18s rrna gene clone libraries were constructed contained green algae ( fig .
. a small tuft of sloth hair was sampled from a greenish patch , if the animal was visibly green or a darker patch if no greenish coloring was observed . the hair was removed with scissors and preserved in a plastic vial containing silica gel . samples were stored in silica gel at ambient temperature until further processing , which usually varied from one to three months . all hair samples were studied with a light microscope . if green algae were visibly present they were photographed for further comparison and preserved samples were kept in silica gel for herbarium material . in addition to the sloth hair samples we collected environmental samples from 12 locations on barro colorado island ( additional file
although the island is uninhabited , there are seasonal visitors ( fishermen , campesinos , lobster divers , tourists , and local people ) who harvest timber to maintain wooden houses on the island . preliminary studies suggest a reduced level of genetic diversity for pygmy sloths compared to its putative population of origin , the common sloth population from mainland panama . this is expected , considering the history of species diversification and isolation on the island . however , signs of a more recent population bottleneck were also detected ( silva
its scientific name , bradypus , is greek for
slow feet ,
which makes sense since it is the world ' s slowest animal . it is so slow , in fact , that algae grows on its fur , according to national geographic . the algae works to the sloth ' s advantage , though . the green of the algae helps the sloth blend into the trees , hiding it from predators .
for the most part , a sloth ' s life revolves around sleeping and eating in their tree homes . the only times these mammals leave their tree is to use the bathroom and to take a swim .


the cape hairy bat , also known as little brown bat , temminck 's mouse-eared bat , cape myotis , tricoloured mouse-eared bat , cape hairy myotis , temminck 's hairy bat and three-coloured bat ( myotis tricolor ) is a species of vesper bat that is found in sub-saharan africa .

cape hairy bat

zool . cape hairy bat [ myotis tricolor , syn . : vespertilio tricolor ]
a young / baby of a cape hairy bat is called a ' pup ' . a cape hairy bat group is called a ' colony or cloud ' .
approximately 18 species of bats have been recorded in the fynbos biome of the cape peninsula including the insectivorous schreiber’s long - finger bat , cape serotine bat , darling’s horseshoe bat and temminck’s hairy bat and the fruit - eating straw coloured fruit bat and wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat .
zool . hairy - faced bat [ myotis annectans , syn . : pipistrellus annectans ]
cape of good hope ( cape town ) research report : mammals 1978 : 23–41 .
the cape hairy bat is listed as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species
records from the western cape . vernon ( 1972 ) recorded a collection from little brak
cape province : descriptions of some new subgenera and subspecies . annals of the south african museum
pellets from 10 or more western cape province quarter - degree squares . white circles indicate dominance in
zool . northern long - eared bat [ myotis septentrionalis , syn . : myotis keenii septentrionalis , vespertilio gryphus septentrionalis ] [ north american bat species ]
africa ( avery et al . 2002 , 2003 ) , examines for the first time all western cape
cape province quarter - degree squares . white circles indicate dominance in squares yielding remains of at least 100
in the southern cape province , south africa . annals of the south african museum 86 : 183–374 .
mills g , hes l . 1997 . the complete book of southern african mammals . cape town :
pellets from the western cape province ( list according to bronner et al . 2003 and musser and carleton 1993
southern cape . in : vogel jc , editor . late cainozoic palaeoclimates of the southern hemisphere . rotterdam :
. in : mills g , hes l , editors . the complete book of southern african mammals . cape
lynch cd . 1989 . the mammals of the north - eastern cape province . memoirs of the national museum
stuart ct , lloyd ph . 1978 . preliminary distribution maps of the cape province ( excluding chiroptera , cetacea
zool . kashmir cave bat [ myotis longipes , syn . : vespertilio longipes ]
zool . singapore whiskered bat [ myotis oreias , syn . : vespertilio oreias ]
zool . sakhalin bat [ myotis petax , syn . : myotis daubentonii petax ]
stuart ct , palmer ng , munnik bm . 1978 . a preliminary report on the vertebrate fauna of cape provincial
zool . brandt ' s bat [ myotis brandtii , syn . : myotis brandti ]
zool . daubenton ' s bat [ myotis daubentonii , syn . : myotis daubentoni ]
zool . eastern water bat [ myotis petax , syn . : myotis daubentonii petax ]
if a bat flies into your house open the doors and windows and quietly watch until it leaves . the bat is most likely young , lost and eager to leave .
de hoog rj . 1967 . a survey of small mammals at the provincial wildlife farm , de hoop . cape provincial
zool . malagasy mouse - eared bat [ myotis goudoti , syn . : vespertilio goudotii ]
zool . eastern small - footed bat [ myotis leibii , syn . : vespertilio leibii ]
zool . western small - footed bat [ myotis ciliolabrum , syn . : vespertilio ciliolabrum ]
depending on the type of bat , their life span is between 4 and 30 years .
lawson ab . 1982 . notes on the mammals of the gamka mountain reserve , cape province . bontebok 2 : 1–8 .
zool . formosan mouse - eared bat [ myotis taiwanensis , syn . : myotis adversus taiwanensis ]
zool . maghreb mouse - eared bat [ myotis punicus , syn . : myotis blythi punicus ]
zool . maghrebian mouse - eared bat [ myotis punicus , syn . : myotis blythi punicus ]
large - spotted genet genets are associated with fynbos in the southern cape . they feed on insects , rodents , birds and reptiles .
we first checked the bat house where the one yellow house bat had been seen on my previous visit . to my surprise this bat house was again occupied with a colony of angolan free - tailed bats – perhaps 150 of them . then we went to the bat house where we hoped to find out what type of yellow house bats had caused me such confusion the last time i was there .
a medium sized antelope with a long hairy coat . the colour of mountain reedbuck varies from grey to reddish - brown and the neck is always brown . the belly is white , the tail bushy with white underneath . . .
correspondence : iziko south african museum , p . o . box 61 , cape town , 8000 south africa . email : mavery @ urltoken
grindley j , siegfried wr , vernon cj . 1973 . diet of the barn owl in the cape province . ostrich 44 : 266–267 .
hen suddenly at about 18 . 45 hrs – about 25 minutes after the emergence of the angolan free - tailed bat from other bat houses , there was a sudden thump into the upper mist net and we were confident that we indeed had something unusual on account of size alone . i rushed to remove the bat from the mist net in case it might free itself . with the light available from our torches i could see that it was a yellow house bat and that this would not be the normal yellow house bat on account of the much greater size . we had , indeed , captured the first giant yellow house bat ,
large grey mongoose ( cape ichneumon ) these mongoose occur in various vegetation types , but they’re always associated with rivers . they feed on rodents , birds , reptiles , snakes , frogs and insects . the cape grey mongoose and the water mongoose are lso fairly common in the knysna area .
zool . bechstein ' s bat [ myotis bechsteinii , syn . : m . bechsteini , vespertilio bechsteinii ]
in response to the early success of the superman in action comics , bob kane of national publications ( later dc comics ) created the ' bat - man ' , a caped crusader , fighting crime whilst incorporating the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals . he wore a scallop - hem cape , a cowl covering most of the face featuring a pair of batlike ears , a stylized bat emblem on the chest , and the ever - present utility belt .
zool . rufous mouse - eared bat [ myotis bocagii , syn . : m . bocagei , vespertilio bocagii ]
zool . bat volute [ cymbiola vespertilio , syn . : c . ( cymbiola ) vespertilio , voluta vespertilio ]
but the whole story started on 12th october 2004 when i was doing some work in the komatipoort area in preparation for a documentary on a breeding colony of sundevall’s leaf - nosed bats . in a moment of spare time i was checking on some bat houses that i had previously supplied to a time - share resort . i was concerned that while these bat houses had been occupied by well - established colonies of angolan free - tailed bats , mops condylurus , it now seemed that these bats may have left these bat houses . so when checking in one bat house i could only find a single yellow house bat tucked in high up between the crevices within the bat house .
the intermediate slit - faced bat ( nycteris intermedia ) , wood ' s slit - faced bat ( nycteris woodi ) , and n . aurita are considered by the iucn to be lower risk / near threatened . the javan slit - faced bat ( nycteris javanica ) and ja slit - faced bat ( nycteris major ) are considered vulnerable , the former because of declining range , the latter because of restricted range . too little is known about the madagascar slit - faced bat ( nycteris madagascariensis ) to assess its conservation status , and it is listed as data deficient .
batman was really bruce wayne , who lived in wayne manor . when he is needed , gotham city police would activate a searchlight with a bat - shaped insignia over the lens called the bat - signal , which shines into the night sky , creating a bat - symbol on a passing cloud . on a clear night , gotham city police commissioner gordon would call him on the bat - phone , situated in the study with an extension into the batcave .
zool . rickett ' s big - footed bat [ myotis pilosus , syn . : myotis ricketti , vespertilio ricketti ]
the vampire bat is a fascinatingly unique creature in many ways . here ' s something more about it . . .
vampire bats do indeed feed on blood , however , rather than being the huge monstrous creatures depicted in fiction and film , they are actually not larger than a mouse . there are only three species of bats that have this feeding habit―the desmodus rotundus , or the common vampire bat , the diphylla ecuadata , or the hairy legged vampire bat , and the diaemus youngi , or the white winged vampire bat . and all these species are in the americas , in the regions of mexico , chile , brazil , and argentina . amongst these , as is evident from its name , the common vampire bat is the species that is most widespread . these bats feed on cattle , birds , horses , pigs , donkeys , goats , and so on .
never touch or pick up a bat : it may bite in self - defense , just like any other wild animal .
the banana bat is a tiny bat which is 77 mm long and weighs 4 . 0 grams . the dense fur on the back can be various shades of brown , whereas the undersides are always of a lighter shade than the dorsal colouration . . .
sharpe ' s grysbok is a shy antelope , which is slightly smaller than the cape grysbok , and which has a thick - set body and a rich rufous - coloured coat . . .
whether in the folklore of central and south america , where the vampire bat is mainly found , as well as the mythology of european cultures and various others too , or in popular film and fiction , vampire bats have always been depicted as monstrous blood - sucking creatures . it was the movie ' dracula ' , based on bram stoker ' s novel , featuring count dracula , with his bat - like cape and fangs , prowling for victims to suck blood from in the dead of the night , while he slept all day long , which also featured bats , that has left lasting images of the vampire bat .
bats have teeth and chew their food . seventy percent of all bats eat insects . one bat can eat more than a thousand insects in 1hr !
to continue benefitting from having bats nearby , but not in your roof , you can construct a ‘bat box’ to provide them with a vital roosting site . for instructions on how to construct a bat box go to the endangered wildlife trust’s website : urltoken or email kathp @ urltoken for more information .
widespread in savanna woodlands of sub - saharan africa from sierra leone in the west through east africa and north to the middle east on either side of the red sea ; occur south in africa to the cape .
i debated in my mind the best way to check out my hunch . i concluded that it would be essential to have some companions with me who were active bat workers with good knowledge to help out . i contacted lientjie cohen and koos de wet , who regularly work with us on bat outings and who do a lot of bat work within their department duties . we agreed to meet at ngwenya lodge , near komatipoort , in the late afternoon of monday 25th october .
for the record the average forearm length of the four captured bats was about 79 . 76mm and their average weight ( mass ) with empty stomachs prior to evening feeding was 84 . 95gms ( about three times the weight of the standard yellow house bat , scotophilus dinganii ) while considering that the three females were probably in about mid pregnancy . these figures reveal that this species is the second largest insectivorous bat in south africa with the commerson’s leaf - nosed bat , hipposideros commersoni , being somewhat larger .
although the average bat weighs just about 40 grams , it usually drinks more than 20 grams of blood in a 20 - minute feeding session . this adds another element of complexity , since this weight would make flying after a session of feeding quite impossible . but , the bat ' s digestive system has adapted itself to process its food rapidly and digest it .
the mention of bats does not usually evoke feelings of love and warmth in most people . misconceptions about bats have not made them very popular creatures even though they play a vital role in maintaining biodiversity and in the sustainability of the environment . bats are the only mammals that can fly and south africa boasts some 7 fruit - eating bat species and 65 insect - eating bat species .
the female cape hare is slightly larger than the male . the mass varies from 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 kg . the fur is pale brownish - grey . the long ears and black - and - white tail is most obvious in flight . . .
but for girlie , it was not just a matter of eating as much as she could . she also had a number of engagements to fulfil ; she had to attend a committee meeting and meet the members , she had an appointment with a visiting bat zoologist from cape town , who needed an extra biopsy from the wing for dna information to go towards a phd and to trace the wing shape to assess manner of flight , and she was to visit the taxonomist at the transvaal museum for an acquaintance , but she was not destined to remain there . ( to the inexperienced eye i believe from the wing shape that this is a very fast flying bat ) .
cape clawless otter these otters always live near water ( fresh or salt ) and they’re often seen playing and hunting in the breakers . they do sometimes wander onto dry land in search of food , which includes crabs , frogs , fish , small mammals , insects and birds .
but by having now supplied the transvaal museum with a specimen of the species of the giant yellow house bat , there is now no necessity for another of this species to be collected from that same region .
body stripes of the burchells zebra are less numerous and broader than that of the cape mountain zebra , whereas body stripes extend around the belly . leg striping is less prominent . measures 1 . 3 to 1 . 4 metres at the shoulder and weighs 300 - 320 kg . . .
despite these , and many more , fantastic benefits of bats over one fifth of all bat species are threatened and some people still consider them loathsome creatures . below is a list of myths and misconceptions about bats ;
the cape clawless otter is larger than the only other species which occurs in southern africa , the spotted - necked otter . it is long - necked , sleek - furred and short - legged with a long , flattened but pointed - tipped tail which it uses as a rudder . . .
with lientjie , koos and me were my wife , rose , who was also our photographer , and adam palmer , who was again kindly helping us with ladders and other logistics . koos looked up at the bat house and noticed that a large lizard was in the bat house with it’s head sticking out . this dampened our spirits , as we were worried that something unexpected may be interfering with our hopes to make a strange finding .
the bat - eared fox has a shoulder height of only 30cm , a length of about 75cm and weighs less than 5 kilograms . it has a beautiful silver - gray fluffy coat with a black - tipped bushy tail . . .
there are approxiamately 900 species of bat worldwide , all with a unique lifestyle as different from each other as a cheetah from a leopard . they are divided into two sub - orders . most of the species found in namibia belong to :
bats do not suck blood and are not vampires . only 3 bat species , all from south america , feed on cow , horse and chicken blood by making a small incision on their skin and licking – not sucking - the blood .
a medium - sized bat ; forearm ranging 1 . 6–2 in ( 4 . 2–5 . 1 cm ) ; weight 0 . 2–0 . 4 oz ( 7–12 g ) . long , fine fur is gray to red . large ears .
in typical manner girlie devoured a full meal of scarab and dung beetles on the evening of 17th november , and then i returned her into the bat house from which she had been captured 22 days earlier . we were always conscious that we did not want to take a female bat that was likely to be pregnant at that time of the year as a scientific voucher for museum records . by the time that girlie was released , there was every indication that she was indeed well pregnant .
the vampire bat has developed a unique social behavioral pattern which can be seen in their reciprocal altruism , wherein , bats that feed successfully come back to their roost and regurgitate some of the blood to a hungry bat . according to studies , it has been found that this behavior of blood sharing by regurgitation occurs amongst both related as well as unrelated bats in a group . in fact , they even set up a buddy system , wherein , pairs of bats form relationships based on blood sharing .
like all so - called ' free - tailed ' bats , the distal portion of the tail of the ansorgi ' s free - tailed bat is not encased in the interfemoral membrane , and thus presents as a protrusion above the flying membrane . . .
most species of slit - faced bats occur in africa , one ranging from the north ( israel and adjacent countries ) to the south ( the cape ) . two other species occur in southeast asia , from myanmar , thailand , and malaysia to sarawak , sumatra , java , borneo , and bali . one species has been reported from madagascar .
african elephant large herds of elephant roamed the cape until well into the 19th century . in 1876 the local forestry officer reported that there were between 400 and 600 elephants in the knysna - tsitsikamma district . but hunting , poaching , the great fire of 1869 , and human encroachment on their environment almost wiped out the elephants of the southern cape . a few survivors still range freely in the knysna area , and although they ' re associated with the forests , reay smithers noted in his mammals of the southern africa sub - region that “elephants are not a forest species , and their occurrence in the knysna forest appears to be due to their being forced into this unnatural environment by man . ”
as implied by the popular name , the lesser yellow house bat is similar in general appearance to its sister species , but is slightly smaller and leaner with a total head - to - tail length of 120 mm and a body mass of about 16 gr . . .
. . . data based on records in the durban natural science museum ) . similarly , d . capensis was relatively infrequently sampled through barn owl ( tyto alba ) pellets in the western cape province ( avery et al . 2005 ) . as a wetland specialist that rarely emerges from the wetlands , it is trap - shy and thus difficult to monitor . . . .
aldridge , h . d . j . n . , m . obrist , h . g . merriam , and m . b . fenton .
roosting , vocalizations and foraging by the african bat , nycteris thebaica .
journal of mammalogy 71 ( 1990 ) : 242–246 .
rose and i returned to gauteng with the one female giant yellow house bat . she became a bit of a celebrity over the next three weeks as keen members wished to view the bat , take photographs and try to get some echolocation records . the bat , called ‘girlie’ over that period , performed wonderfully by impressing visitors with her rugged ability to decimate the biggest and hardest beetles available . for the 3 to 3 . 5gm rhino beetles and similar sized scarabs , she would ambush them in her cage with rapid powerful chomps with her well developed mouthful of incisors and molars . with these large beetles she would seize the prey in her teeth , then hang up by her thumbs on the cage mesh and devour the beetle with noisy chewing within the chamber formed by her interfemoral membrane . she was able to consume five standard size chafer beetles every thirty seconds .
this paper provides a basis for conservation work by detailing the micromammalian taxa occurring in the northern cape province . it presents new evidence from 30 barn owl pellet collections , augmented by previously published material from trapping or observation ( here called ‘conventional’ reports ) and owl roosts , divided into pre - 1930 , 1930–1979 and 1980 and newer as an indication of . . . [ show full abstract ]
the bat is a mouse - like flying mammal . it belongs to the order chiroptera which is greek for ' hand wing ' . it ' s forelimbs are modified to form wings , consisting of mainly elongated fingers between which the wing membrane , ( a double layer of skin ) is stretched .
then on monday 25th october 2004 we had a major breakthrough in the positive finding of a species of bat that had never been located before in south africa . in fact , it is a very poorly known species throughout it’s distribution range almost throughout sub saharan africa . so the species is only recorded from isolated spots , with nine known records from nine different countries . these separate records are from senegal , ghana , nigeria , sudan , eastern congo , malawi , zimbabwe , mozambique and now south africa . but in some of those discoveries more than a single bat of the species was encountered but only at single localities .
and then i went to check another of the same type of bat house , and when i opened the bottom cleaning door , i saw the rapid shuffling away and up into the crevices of several yellow house bats that just looked very unusual to me as they seemed larger than usual . but i did not have any reference literature with me and it was frustrating to not be able to search for some explanation on what i had just seen . i was aware , though , from memory , that there was another larger species of yellow house bat , but i would have to wait until i returned to gauteng to consult the literature .
the blood plasma , which has no nutritive value , is absorbed rapidly by the lining of the stomach , which is then swiftly taken to the kidneys by the circulatory system . from there , it goes into the bladder and is excreted . in fact , the common vampire bat begins expelling extremely dilute urine , mainly comprising blood plasma , within 2 minutes of starting to feed .
then it goes back to its roost , settling down for the remaining part of the night to digest its meal of blood . but , it now faces a new digestive problem . since blood is basically protein , it creates a large amount of urea which has to be eliminated . therefore , the bat ' s urinary system utilizes a number of hormones which makes the urine very concentrated , containing less water and more urea .
they may not depend upon to find their prey , relying instead on sound cues such as the songs or footfalls of prey . slit - faced bats also take flying prey . accumulations of discarded pieces of prey under feeding roosts provide biologists with a picture of the diets of slit - faced bats . unlike other species of bat , slit - faced bats are warm - blooded and cannot enter torpor , a state of total inactivity .
light brown above , ventral side is lighter brown or grayish white . medium - sized bat with large ears and well - developed calcar . muzzle has deep median furrow . head and body length 3 . 8–4 . 3 in ( 9 . 7–11 cm ) , tail length 1 . 8–2 . 2 in ( 4 . 7–5 . 8 cm ) , forearm length 1 . 6–1 . 9 in ( 4 . 3–4 . 7 cm ) .
at the back of my mind , has been that some four to five years ago , dr brian whiting and i , who have put in many hours working with and studying the bats at ngwenya together , had on two occasions sighted single much larger insect eating bats that had exited from a bat house , but we were never able to find out what we had seen . were we about to get to the moment of unravelling this puzzle ?
the best way to attract bats to your area or garden is to provide them with feeding sites . bats like a diversity of habitat and are more likely to forage in gardens planted with a diverse collection of indigenous vegetation . there is little or no danger or risk of disease if bats live in your roof , in fact , having a resident bat colony may go a long way in reducing mosquito problems ! here are some tips to help you live harmoniously with bats in your area ;
other animals that feed on blood , such as leeches and ticks , do not have the same problem , because they can go for weeks , or months , and sometimes even years without feeding themselves . however , since the vampire bat is a warm - blooded animal , the necessity of it staying warm means that if it fasts it can die soon . this is one of the reasons why they are not found in the cooler regions of north , or central , or south america .
however , the common vampire bat does have the ability of maneuvering on the ground as well as in the air . and they have strong pectoral muscles which they use , along with their long thumb and their hind knees to launch themselves into the air , catapulting about 4 feet high . once airborne , it transitions into flight in a single fluid motion , all of which takes just 30 milliseconds . as they need to feed close to the ground , this rapid take - off is highly advantageous .
the saliva is one of the most important elements used in their system of feeding . it contains a number of ingredients which help in prolonging bleeding . one of them is an anticoagulant , called draculin , that prevents clotting . another ingredient prevents red blood cells from sticking together , while a third prevents the veins at the wound from constricting . it then uses its tongue to lap up the blood , and not suck it , as is the common misconception . each bat requires about 2 tablespoons of blood per day .
many fruit bats are responsible for pollinating flowing and fruit trees , including bananas , mangos , wild guavas and even the iconic african baobab . bat guano , or faeces , is considered one of the most nutrient - rich types of plant fertilizer and is sold all over the world . research is currently underway to use unique anticoagulant , extracted from the saliva of south american vampire bats , to help stroke and heart attack victims and studies of bats’ use of echolocation have resulted in the design of navigation systems for the blind .
. . . barn owl ( tyto alba ) pellets from de hoop nature reserve contained all seven species of bats but in small proportions relative to the proportions of other species of prey taken . amongst bat species , more n . capensis are taken by owls ( avery et al . , 2005 ) probably because , as a clutter - edge forager , it combines relatively slow flight with foraging at the edge of vegetation rather than under its cover . bats have been reported to reduce or suppress activity in bright light with increased activity on cloudy and moonless nights , leading to the inference of predation as the cause of the behavioural changes ( reith , 1982 ; welbergen , 2006 ) . . . .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
this species has been patchily recorded in sub - saharan africa . in west africa the species has currently only been reported from the northwestern uplands of liberia ( koopman 1995 ) , while in central africa it is known only from a few records in the democratic republic of the congo and rwanda ( hayman et al . 1966 ; baeten et al . 1984 ) . the species is much more widely recorded in east africa , ranging from ethiopia in the north , through uganda , kenya , tanzania , malawi , zambia , mozambique and zimbabwe through to southern south africa .
it has been recorded from the virunga national park in the democratic republic of the congo ( baeten et al . 1984 ) and in view of its east african range , it seems likely that it is present in additional protected areas . further studies are needed into the range of this species in west and central africa .
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this species has been patchily recorded in sub - saharan africa . in west africa the species has currently only been reported from the northwestern uplands of liberia ( koopman 1995 ) , while in central africa it is known only from a few records in the democratic republic of the congo and rwanda ( hayman
1984 ) . the species is much more widely recorded in east africa , ranging from ethiopia in the north , through uganda , kenya , tanzania , malawi , zambia , mozambique and zimbabwe through to southern south africa .
classification from integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) selected by jakob fahr - see more .
jakob fahr marked the classification from
integrated taxonomic information system ( itis )
as preferred for
myotis tricolor ( temminck , 1832 )
.
jakob fahr set
image of myotis tricolor
as an exemplar on
myotis tricolor ( temminck , 1832 )
.
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simmons , nancy b . / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
with contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer
comments : includes eptesicus loveni , see schlitter and aggundey ( 1986 ) . see taylor ( 2000a ) for distribution map
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
welcome to itis , the integrated taxonomic information system ! here you will find authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world . we are a
) ; other organizations ; and taxonomic specialists . itis is also a partner of
zool . temminck ' s myotis [ myotis tricolor , syn . : vespertilio tricolor ]
bot . granny vine / grannyvine [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]
bot . tricolored morning glory [ am . ] [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]
bot . heavenly - blue morning glory [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]
bot . flying saucers { pl } [ treated as sg . ] [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]
bot . three - colored morning glory [ am . ] [ ipomoea tricolor , syn . : i . rubro - coerulea , violacea , pharbitis rubro - caerulea , p . tricolor ]
zool . rickett ' s big - footed myotis [ myotis pilosus , syn . : myotis ricketti , vespertilio ricketti ]
zool . northern myotis [ myotis septentrionalis , syn . : myotis keenii septentrionalis , vespertilio gryphus septentrionalis ]
bot . silver ( tree ) fern [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ]
bot . silver treefern / tree fern [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ]
bot . kaponga [ nz ] [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ] [ silver tree fern ]
bot . ponga [ nz ] [ cyathea dealbata , syn . : alsophila tricolor ] [ silver tree fern ]
zool . bechstein ' s myotis [ myotis bechsteinii , syn . : m . bechsteini , vespertilio bechsteinii ]
zool . brandt ' s myotis [ myotis brandtii , syn . : m . brandti , vespertilio brandtii ]
zool . david ' s myotis [ myotis davidii , syn . : vespertilio davidii ]
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dieses deutsch - englisch - wörterbuch basiert auf der idee der freien weitergabe von wissen . mehr informationen ! enthält übersetzungen von der tu chemnitz sowie aus mr honey ' s business dictionary ( englisch / deutsch ) . vielen dank dafür ! links auf dieses wörterbuch oder einzelne übersetzungen sind herzlich willkommen ! fragen und antworten
english - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers
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species can be found everywhere in namibia from the orange river into the namib desert ( including sossusvlei ) , the kalahari desert , etosha national park and as far north as the zambezi region ( formerly the caprivi strip ) .
bats are amazing animals . they can see , they ' re harmless , nocturnal and are the only mammals that can truly fly . other types of mammals , such as flying lemurs , sugar gliders ( marsupials commonly found in australia ) and flying squirrels , glide . african bats are not vampires nor do they transmit parasites to human beings .
depending on the species , bats can be grey , brown , white or reddish brown .
bats sleep upside down . they use their feet to grasp onto a twig or board , and when it is cold , they hang close together .
so off he would go in the batmobile and more often that not , a battle of wits would ensue in a contest with his ' most implacable foe ' - ' the joker ' - who represents everything batman opposes . the batman stories have been told in many forms over the years . to this day the master sleuth and scientist remains a popular rival to superman - who of course wears his underpants over his tights !
a privately owned game farm , with a good variety of wildlife just a short distance south of windhoek .
this lodge is very popular amongst those seeking leopard and cheetah viewing close to windhoek . regular feedings guarantee great sightings and photographic opportunities
opposite the windhoek international airport , close enough to be extremely convenient but far enough away that planes are not a distraction . great for those arriving late or leaving early , as cuts out the 45km drive from windhoek /
one of namibia ' s most popular spas with the added bonus of top game viewing .
for full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .
been augmented periodically ever since . the present paper follows vernon ( 1972 ) and grindley et al .
representation of some species and rainfall , either its amount per annum or its seasonality . variation
suggests that mean size in this species may be influenced by rainfall seasonality . although the vlei rat ,
owls are more nearly opportunistic while in others they appear to be considerably more selective .
africa to attract the attention of european naturalists . unfortunately , few of the rec
some 70 years later the first systematic collections were made in southern africa by c . b .
( shortridge and carter 1938 ; shortridge 1942 ) . during the last 40 years publication has
african national parks staff or concerning reserves administered by these bodies ( e . g . de
hoog 1967 ; robinson 1976 ; stuart and braack 1978 ; stuart et al . 1978 ; lawson 1982 ; de
graaff and rautenbach 1983 ; avery et al . 1990 ) . apart from the preliminary distri
river near mossel bay and grindley et al . ( 1973 ) reported collections from
of the samples discussed here in other contexts ( e . g . avery 1977 , 1982 , 1992 , 1999 ; avery
three areas regular collections were made over a period of years . these latter are the west
potberg ) and vrolijkheid nature reserve . in cases where regular collections were made , the
identification methods is given in avery et al . ( 2002 ) . the nomenclature of bronner et al .
examined for evidence of changes in population structure . estimates of age at death were
on discrete changes in the pattern of the teeth as wear progresses ( e . g . hanney 1963 ) . in
surface and maximum length of tooth was calculated as a proportion of the latter . the
observed range in this occlusal index has been found to be between 0 . 50
( neo - natal ) animals to zero in old animals ( avery 1984 ) . the age of the old animals
taken as 24 months ) . this function was employed to accommodate the fact that occlusal
length does not increase at a steady rate throughout life . ages were estimated to the nearest
in 3318da ( philadelphia ) and 9945 in 3318aa ( west coast national park ) . in all , 56
mandibles and maxillae , number of mandibles and maxillae measured ; map , mean annual precipitation . % win ,
andriesgrond ; bbs , blombos ; kfn , kraaifontein ; stb , stellenbosch airfield .
represented ( total ) and is dominant ( dom . ) , with the range of percentage representation of the dominant species
animals ( classes 5–8 ) are not well represented at any time of the year . when estimat
born in a given month varied between 4 . 3 % in june and 11 . 3 %
present data add to what was previously known . however , stuart and lloyd’s ( 1978 )
squares . white circles indicate dominance in squares yielding remains of at least 100 individuals .
seen ; it is also readily identifiable because of the stripes along its back .
( friedmann and daly 2004 ; venturi et al . 2004 ) although it is not
in the de hoop nature reserve ( 3420ad ) . present data confirm that the species has
7 ) , is apparently affected by rainfall seasonality rather than by amount . its
mm , no more than about 65 % of which falls in winter . this reflects the fact that these
and climate variables in the de hoop nature reserve ( geelbek and bottelary ) . ( a ) same - season rainfall and
mean annual precipitation increasing from left to right . sfn and sfs , steenbokfontein north and south
breeding is offset by a month or more from rainfall . according to the pres
can re - grow . conversely , the low proportion of births in june at geelbek could reflect
rainfall in late summer . it is probably less likely that night - time temperatures are sufficien
be expected in the unpredictable climate of the north - west coast . it would appear therefore
rainfall , diversity is also relatively low despite quite high numbers of species . in this case the
equable climate of the area . there are , however , extensive reed - beds round a series of lakes ,
which are likely to be favoured hunting grounds for the owls . in this case , therefore , it is not
pellets from the west coast national park ( avery 1992 ) . at the time this was
taken as evidence that the species concerned inhabited the same or nearby microhabitats . it
species in a single pellet than are the larger species . however , the commonly co - occurri
among the dense reed beds and thick grass . in this case the quite high numbers of
principal co - occurrence among 10 best represented species at four sites in different parts of the province .
each sample has a dominant species ( dom sp . ) representing approximately one - fifth to one - quarter of the sample
( % dom sp . ) . the sample size is the number of micromammalian prey individuals in each sample .
possible , as more samples are studied , to confirm or modify conclusions reached so far .
mr r . k . brooke , and ms a . scott and co - workers at the
l . avenant , national museum bloemfontein , and dr g . malan , tshwane university of
technology , offered useful comments on a previous draft . the ongoing project of which
willem pretorius nature reserve , free state , south africa . south african journal of wildlife research
the korannaberg conservancy . in : singleton gr hinds la krebs cj spratt dm , editors . rats , mice &
province , south africa : new information . annals of the south african museum 74 : 201–209 .
avery dm , avery g , colahan bd . 2003 . micromammal distribution in the free state , south africa : barn owl
avery dm , avery g , roberts a . 2002 . a contribution from barn owl pellets to
distributions in kwazulu - natal , south africa . african zoology 37 : 131–140 .
avery dm , rautenbach il , randall rm . 1990 . an annotated checklist of the land mammal fauna of the west
bronner gn , hoffmann m , taylor pj , chimimba ct , best pb , matthee ca , robinson tj . 2003 . a revised
systematic checklist of the extant mammals of the southern african subregion . durban museum novitates
davis dhs . 1974 . the distribution of some small southern african mammals ( mammalia : insectivora , rodentia ) .
davis rm , meester j . 1981 . reproduction and postnatal development in the vlei rat ,
de graaff g . 1981 . the rodents of southern africa . durban : butterworths .
de graaff g , rautenbach il . 1983 . a survey of mammals in the newly proclaimed karoo national park , south
friedmann y , daly b editors . 2004 . red data book of the mammals of south africa : a conservation assessment .
ascertaining population dynamics of rodent prey . annals and magazine of natural history ( series 13 )
. in : mills g , hes l , editors . the complete book of southern african
longland ws . 1985 . comments on preparing owl pellets by boiling in naoh . bird - banding 56 : 277 .
lynch cd . 1983 . the mammals of the orange free state . memoirs of the national museum bloemfontein
meester j , lambrechts a von w . 1971 . the southern african species of
meester jaj , lloyd cnv , rowe - rowe dt . 1979 . a note on the ecological role of
meester jaj , rautenbach il , dippenaar nj , baker cm . 1986 . classification of southern african mammals .
musser gg , carleton md . 1993 . family muridae . in : wilson de , reeder dm , editors . mammal species of the
rautenbach il . 1982 . the mammals of the transvaal . pretoria : ecoplan .
robinson ga . 1976 . notes on mammals encountered in the tsitsikama national parks . koedoe 19 : 145–152 .
rookmaker lc . 1989 . the zoological exploration of southern africa 1650–1790 . rotterdam : balkema .
shortridge gc , carter d . 1938 . a new genus and new species and subspecies of mammals from little
skinner jh , smithers rhn . 1990 . the mammals of the southern african subregion . 2nd ed . pretoria : university
smuts j . 1832 . dissertation zoologica , ennumerationem mammalium capensium . leiden : cyfveer .
stuart ct , braack hh . 1978 . preliminary notes on the mammals of the bontebok national park . koedoe
thomas o , schwann h . 1906 . the rudd exploration of south africa . iv . list of mammals obtained by mr
at knysna . proceedings of the zoological society of london 1906 ( i ) : 159–168 .
velleman pf . 1988 . datadesk 6 . 0 statistics guide . ithaca ( ny ) : data description .
venturi fp , chimimba ct , van aarde rj , fairall n . 2004 . the distribution of two medically and agriculturally
vernon cj . 1972 . an analysis of owl pellets collected in southern africa . ostrich 43 : 109–124 .
. . . as they are nocturnal , they are often preyed on by barn owls ( tyto alba ) as documented in studies analysing owl pellets ( avenant 2005 ; avery et al . 2005 ) . they live in burrows or crevices ( de graaf 1981 ; armstrong & van hensbergen 1996b ) , and can also swim ( hickman & machiné 1986 ) . . . .
. . . ecosystem and cultural services : they have been recorded as a forage species for owls ( dean 1978 ; avery et al . 2002avery et al . , 2003 avery et al . , 2005 ; avery & avery 2011 ) . previously they were considered susceptible to plague which occurs sporadically in free - living populations but the national institute for communicable diseases ( 2005 ) did not list them as plague - carrier . . . .
a conservation assessment of mystromys albicaudatus . the 2016 red list of mammals of south africa , swaziland and lesotho .
. . . micromammals are suitable as palaeoenvironmental in - dicators due to their limited territorial ranges , precise ecological requirements and their role as primary consumers in the food chain . analyses of modern micromammal samples have demonstrated close correlation between relative abundance of species and composition of vegetation substrate in the vicinity of sample sites ( andrews , 1990 ; reed , 2003reed , , 2005 avery et al . , 2005 ) . local alterations in vegetation substrate and climatic conditions may thus be reflected in presence / absence and / or variations in proportions of micromammal species in an archaeological assem - blage . . . .
. . . reed ( 2005 ) and matthews ( 2008 ) found similar ranges of micromammal species when comparing modern spotted eagle owl and african barn owl pellets . both species are claimed to be nocturnal ( andrews , 1990 ) , however modern pellet samples show that they hunt species such as otomyinae ( diurnal ) and r . pumilio ( crepuscular ) ( avery et al . , 2005 ; matthews , 2008 ; matthews et al . , 2011 ) . certain micromammal taxa are found in relatively high frequencies in spotted eagle owl and african barn owl pellets . . . .
. . . certain micromammal taxa are found in relatively high frequencies in spotted eagle owl and african barn owl pellets . species typical for the south coast are otomyinae , gerbillinae and soricids ( avery et al . , 2005 ; matthews , 2008 ; matthews et al . , 2011 ) . . . .
. . . the interaction between the southern hemisphere tropical and temperate climate systems are the main cause of the current rainfall pattern in southern africa [ 35 ] . bbc is situated in an intermediate gradient rainfall zone ( yrz ) , characterized by aseasonal rainfall with 54 % precipitation during the winter half year [ 36 ] ( fig 1 ) . to the west of this region is a winter rainfall zone ( wrz ) where more than 60 % of precipitation occurs during the winter months . . . .