the large-headed whiting , sillago megacephalus , is a dubious species of coastal marine fish in the smelt-whiting family that has only been recorded from one specimen captured off the coast of china in 1933 .

although very similar to sillago sihama , the species is characterised by an unusually large head which accounts for 33 % of the total body length .

large - headed whiting

crotch -
zimmermann ' s large - headed lady
- e . us
horn -
horn ' s large - headed lady
- southmost texas , az to s . ca
a large - headed elongated fish with long jaws and strong teeth . it is a valuable commercial food fish .
the large - headed seasnake occurs in the northern great barrier reef marine park ( fry et al . 2001 ) .
the warge - headed whiting is one of 29 species in de genus siwwago , which is one of dree divisions of de smewt whiting famiwy siwwaginidae . the smewt - whitings are perciformes in de suborder percoidei . [ 1 ]
‘the main catches have been monk , megs , hake whiting and haddock . ’
whiting whiting , ( species gadus , or merlangius , merlangus ) , common marine food fish of the cod family , gadidae . the whiting is found in european waters and is especially abundant in the north sea . it is carnivorous and feeds on invertebrates and small fishes . ……
more specifically , the large - headed seasnake is active at night . as such , it is more likely to be caught during trawling at night than during the day ( milton 2001 ) .
annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt or indo - pacific whiting species known to date .
‘cod , hake , whiting , mackerel and skate as well as shellfish were pulled from the sea . ’
grenadier grenadier , any of about 300 species of abundant deep - sea fishes of the family macrouridae found along the ocean bottom in warm and temperate regions . the typical grenadier is a large - headed fish with a tapered body ending in a long , ratlike tail bordered……
the onwy known specimen of warge - headed whiting was taken from taiwanese waters , wif no oder records known of , and no information of de habitat or depf de species wives at avaiwabwe . aspects of de species biowogy and importance to fisheries are compwetewy unknown at de present .
milton ( 2001 ) estimated that this species takes longer to reach sexual maturity than most other sea snakes in australia ( more than two years ) . this estimation was made using data on the size of large - headed seasnakes caught during trawling and the probability of breeding prior to capture .
the large - headed seasnake is one of the three least frequently caught species ( ward 2000 ) and its rarity makes it very difficult to assess changes in its population . however , its rate of capture appears to have decreased between the late 1980s and 2000 ( milton 2001 ; stobutzki et al . 2000 ) .
the large - headed seasnake has been identified as a conservation value in the north ( dsewpac 2012x ) marine region . see schedule 2 of the north marine bioregional plan ( dsewpac 2012x ) for regional advice . the
species group report card - marine reptiles
for the north ( dsewpac 2012x ) marine region provides additional information .
‘experts want a total ban on cod , whiting and hake fishing in the irish sea , a measure that would affect about a fifth of the irish fishing industry . ’
the large - headed seasnake is restricted to northern australia ( cogger 1996 ) , including areas of the gulf of carpentaria , the coast of the northern territory , and the hey , embley and mission rivers near weipa on cape york ( milton 2001 ; porter et al . 1997 ; t . m . ward 2002 pers . comm . ) .
‘the bulk of the diet of large congers is made up of small fish , from cod and hake in deep water to mackerel and herring in shallow water . ’
the large - headed seasnake has been caught during trawling in open water up to 50 m deep on the northern australian continental shelf , and in rivers on cape york ( porter et al . 1997 ; ward 2000 ) . this species primarily occurs where the sea bed consists of soft sediments , such as that used for prawn trawling ( milton 2001 ) .
‘the name , originally a german word , was a general one for any dried white fish , most often cod , but also pollack , whiting , hake , and others . ’
according to milton ( 2001 ) , the large - headed seasnake is the most susceptible to declines from over - fishing of any australian species of sea snake . this is because it is rare , restricted to the gulf of carpentaria and nearby regions , highly vulnerable to trawling , and has a particularly low reproductive rate ( due to its late age at maturity ) .
‘not only will the cuts apply to cod but will apply also to associated species such as whiting , haddock , sole , saithe , monk , plaice , prawns , hake and megrim . ’
( linnaeus ) -
cactus lady
- dorsal spots may be large or small , it ' s the vental pattern that ' s diagnostic . widely dist . across s . us
sillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt , or indo - pacific whiting species known to date / by roland j . mckay .
sillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt , or indo - pacific whiting species known to date /  by roland j . mckay .
as part of a bycatch risk assessment and mitigation document ( milton et al . 2008 ) , the research and trawl data available on sea snakes in northern australia since 1976 was gathered and analyzed to identify species specific distribution and catch rates . the large - headed seasnake was found to be one of the two species with a restricted distribution around the south and south - west gulf of carpentaria ( milton et al . 2008 ) .
sillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt , or indo - pacific whiting species known to date / by roland j . mckay . - version details - trove
guinea , m . l . & s . d . whiting ( 2005 ) . insights into the distribution and abundance of sea snakes at ashmore reef . the beagle ( supplement 1 ) . page ( s ) 199 - 206 .
historically , the large - headed seasnake comprised 0 . 4 % of the bycatch of sea snakes captured during trawling for banana prawns and tiger / endeavour prawns on the northern australian continental shelf ( ward 1996b ) . in addition , the species counted for 3 % of the sea snakes caught during the early northern prawn fishery observer program between 1996 and 1998 , and 1 % caught during research trawling operations on the great barrier reef between 1992 and 1995 ( fry et al . 2001 ) .
paracanthopterygian paracanthopterygian , ( superorder paracanthopterygii ) , any member of a large group of predatory , primarily marine fishes that forms one of about six major branches of the teleostei , or bony fishes . approximately 1 , 340 living species of paracanthopterygian……
frogfish frogfish , any of about 60 species of small marine fishes of the family antennariidae ( order lophiiformes ) , usually found in shallow , tropical waters . frogfishes are robust , rather lumpy fishes with large mouths and , often , prickly skins . the largest species……
hake hake , ( genus merluccius ) , any of several large marine fishes of the cod family , gadidae . they are sometimes classed as a separate family , merlucciidae , because of skeletal differences in the skull and ribs . hakes are elongated , largeheaded fishes with……
adriano , g . , n . vandenberg , j . mchugh , j . forrester , s . slipinski , k . miller , l . shapiro , m . whiting . 2009 . the evolution of food preferences in coccinellidae . biological control 51 ( 2 ) : 215 - 231 .
cod cod , ( genus gadus ) , large and economically important marine fish of the family gadidae . the species gadus morhua is found on both sides of the north atlantic . a cold - water fish , it generally remains near the bottom , ranging from inshore regions to deep……
the large - headed seasnake , like most sea snakes , is viviparous , that is giving birth to live young ( cogger 2000 ) . in addition , male sea snakes have two penises called hemipenes , and each is an autonomous independently functioning penis , though only one is used during mating . mating takes place for long periods and sea snakes must surface for air during that time . the female controls her breathing and , as she swims to the surface , the male is pulled along via the hemipenis . males are unable to disengage until mating is finished ( cogger 2000 ; heatwole 1999 ) .
paracanthopterygian , ( superorder paracanthopterygii ) , any member of a large group of predatory , primarily marine fishes that forms one of about six major branches of the teleostei , or bony fishes . approximately 1 , 340 living species of paracanthopterygian fishes have been described . they range in . . .
cusk cusk , ( brosme brosme ) , long - bodied food fish of the cod family , gadidae , found along the ocean bottom in deep offshore waters on either side of the north atlantic . the cusk is a small - scaled fish with a large mouth and a barbel on its chin . it has one……
as awready noted , de warge - headed whiting is very simiwar to siwwago sihama , but has a head wengf which is 33 % of de body wengf , compared to de 27 - 30 % observed in s . sihama . the first dorsaw fin has 11 spines , whiwe de second dorsaw fin has a singwe spine and 22 soft rays . the anaw fin is simiwar wif two spines and 23 soft rays . there are about 70 wateraw wine scawes . the cowour is uniform aww over de body , wif onwy de tip of de spinous dorsaw fins bwack . [ 3 ] littwe ewse is known , incwuding swimbwadder morphowogy and vertebrae numbers . the specimen described was 158 mm in wengf . [ 4 ]
the onwy specimen of de species ever recorded was taken from paoping harbour in hainan , china in 1933 . lin recorded de new species , designating de onwy sampwe to be de howotype of de species . in preparation of a 1985 review of de siwwaginids , rowand mckay was unabwe to wocate de howotype and has presumed it to be wost . [ 2 ] mckay noted dat based on its description , aww features except an unusuawwy warge head where characteristic of de common species siwwago sihama , suggesting de s . megacephawus is actuawwy a junior synonym of s . sihama . the common name of ' warge - headed whiting ' is a straight transwation from its binomiaw name , signifying de diagnostic head wengf . [ 2 ]
mckay , r . j . , 1992 . fao species catalogue . vol . 14 . sillaginid fishes of the world ( family sillaginidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the sillago , smelt or indo - pacific whiting species known to date . rome : fao . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 14 ) : 87p . ( ref . 6205 )
with 29 species , the genus sillago has the widest distribution of any smelt - whiting genus , spanning much of the indo - pacific . the genus ranges from the east coast of africa to japan in the east and southern australia in the south , with most species concentrated around south east asia , the indonesian archipelago and australia . many species have overlapping distribution , often making positive identification hard .
sea snakes that inhabit coral reefs and lagoons can be surveyed by travelling slowly ( at about four knots ) along transects in a small boat and visually identifying snakes observed within 3 m of the path of the boat . species can be distinguished by this method if the water is up to 3 m deep . at low tide , surveys can be done on foot , for example by searching the reef flat along transects that are 1000 m long and 20 m wide ( guinea & whiting 2005 ) .
robertson , j . a . , a . ślipiński , m . moulton , f . shockley , a . giorgi , n . p . lord , d . d . mckenna , w . tomaszewska , j . forrester , k . b . miller , m . f . whiting and j . v . mchugh . 2015 . phylogeny and classification of cucujoidea and the recognition of a new superfamily coccinelloidea ( coleoptera : cucujiformia ) . systematic entomology . doi : 10 . 1111 / syen . 12138
it has been suggested that , for a brd to be effective , it must enable the sea snakes to detect the reduced flow posterior to the device ( milton et al . 2009 ) . when tested , the fishbox brd was found to have a relatively large region of reduced flow posterior to the device ( heales et al . 2008 ) . the position of the brd , forward of the codend , has a large effect on the escape of bycatch ( mainly fish ) ( milton et al . 2009 ) . this position , together with the total catch weight , has previously been found to have the largest effect on the survival of sea snakes ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . in addition , the length of hauls has been found to impact bycatch rates , with shorter hauls reducing the volume of bycatch ( milton et al . 2009 ; wassenberg et al . 2001 ) . therefore , the placement and the design of the brd and the length of hauls are clearly areas of future research and management solutions to reduce impacts on sea snake populations .
sillago is one of three genera in the family sillaginidae containing the smelt - whitings , and contains 29 species , making sillago the only non - monotypic genus in the family . distinguishing among sillago species can be difficult , with many similar in appearance and colour , forcing the use of swim bladder morphology as a definitive feature . all whiting species are benthic in nature and generally coastal fish , living in shallow , protected waters , although there are exceptions . minor fisheries exist around various species of sillago , making them of minor importance in most of their range .
milton and fry ( 2002 ) found that the bycatch reduction device ( brd ) was more effective at reducing the number of sea snakes captured during prawn trawling than either the turtle excluder device ( ted ) , or a combination of both a brd ( for example the fisheye brd ) and a ted . brds are escape grids or openings designed to enable smaller animals to swim out of the net , and teds are hard grids placed in trawl nets to exclude turtles and other large animals . these devices have two functionalities . firstly , the devices reduce the number of fish caught which decreases the weight of the catch , therefore , reducing the physical damage to sea snakes caught in the nets . secondly , the devices enable any sea snake caught , to escape ( wassenberg et al . 2001 ) .
another cmo program ( called the crew member program or cmp ) was brought into effect in the queensland east coast trawl fishery ( qectf ) during july 2005october 2007 ( courtney et al . 2010 ) . as part of this program , bycatch data were collected from fisheries such as the shallow and deepwater eastern king prawn , scallop , banana prawn , redspot king prawn , north queensland tiger / endeavour prawn , black tiger prawn broodstock collection , beam trawl and stout whiting trawl fisheries . during the study from 8289 trawls , information on bycatch rates , composition and mortality was collected . a total of 3910 sea snakes were captured from the 8289 trawls . identification of the bycatch was made using digital photos taken by trained crew members . the study found that the highest catch of sea snakes was in redspot king prawn fishery , due to an overlap with sea snake habitat ( courtney et al . 2010 ) .
prawn trawling is having a large negative impact on protected sea snake populations ( milton et al . 2008 ) . in order to monitor the sea snakes in the bycatch , and their numbers , a crew member observer ( cmo ) program was established in the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) in 2003 . this program aims to ( inexpensively ) collect data on bycatch such as composition , catch rates and distribution during both npf tiger and banana prawn fishing seasons . the initiative requires csiro and australian fisheries management authority ( afma ) to jointly run annual industry workshops to train the crew in the identification , photographing and recording of sea snakes from bycatch . during the 20032005 seasons , 21 crew member observers on 17 vessels collected data from 7602 tiger and prawn trawls . the observers recorded 4131 sea snakes from 12 species , with over half being photographed for identification and length estimation ( milton et al . 2008 ) .
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barcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 58 specimens . . .
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northwest pacific : japan , korea , china , and taiwan . possibly to the philippines . . . .
indian ocean : east and west coast of india . very similar in . . .
eastern indian ocean : india and thailand . sillago intermedius is similar to . . .
northwest pacific : hainan , china . this species is possibly a junior synonym . . .
northwest pacific : gulf of tonkin and china . this species is rare . . .
indo - west pacific : india and sri lanka ; northern australia from exmouth gulf , . . .
sillago sihama ( forsskål , 1775 ) mediterranean sea : 12900 - 772 ( 1 . . .
northwest pacific : taiwan . this new species is known only from the . . .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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the genus sillago is one of three genera in the family sillaginidae , itself part of the percoidea , a suborder of the perciformes . the name sillago was first coined by famed taxonomist georges cuvier as a genus for his newly described species , sillago acuta , which was later found to be a junior synonym of s . sihama . john richardson placed the genus , along with sillaginodes and sillaginopsis in a family , which he named the sillaginidae in 1846 . many species , both valid and invalid were added to the genus , and it was not until 1985 when roland mckay of the queensland museum published a revision of the family sillaginidae that the complex relationships between these names was cleared up . mckay further divided sillago into three subgenera based primarily on the morphology of the swim bladder .
these subgenera are not universally accepted ; for example , fishbase does not currently use them .
the name sillago is derived from a locality or region within australia , possibly after sillago reef near whitsunday island in queensland .
this is an exhaustive list of all species currently considered valid by fishbase , itself based on roland mckay ' s 1992 fao synopsis of the sillaginidae .
all species in the genus sillago are similar to other members of the sillaginidae family in profile , with the distinctive compressed , long , tapering body common to all species . the definitive characteristic for sillago is the presence of a swim bladder , in all but one case ( sillago chondropus ) having a duct - like process from the ventral surface to near the anus . their swim bladders are often complex , further distinguishing them from the genera sillaginodes and sillaginopsis ( which often lacks a swim bladder entirely ) .
members of the genus usually have a silver to gold - brown colour depending on their habitat , with shallow sand flat fish having a more silver appearance , while estuary and silt bottom dwellers having a darker brown colour .
sillagos are generally coastal fish , inhabiting a variety of shallow water habitats including open sand flats , muddy substrates and beaches with moderately strong wave action . some species enter estuaries and even penetrate fresh water for considerable periods , especially during vulnerable stages of their life cycle . shallow water of a few centimetres is also occupied by juvenile sillagos , especially in the vicinity of cover such as seagrass beds or mangroves . a few species are known to inhabit deeper offshore waters , with fish known from trawls up to 180 m ( 600 ft ) deep .
various species of sillago represent minor local fisheries in their ranges , with many having commercial importance . fish are taken by a variety of methods including seine , gill and cast nets as well as by line . recreational fishing for sillago is common , especially in australia where they are valued as food fish or for live bait for larger species . estuarine aquaculture in india , japan and taiwan has utilized sillagos as an important species , and similar trials have been conducted in australia . they can be very delicious when deep fried .
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‘some of the fish should be firm - fleshed and gelatinous like halibut , eel , and winter flounder , and some tender and flaky like hake , baby cod , small pollock , and lemon sole . ’
‘but if you can ' t find the best cod , then use chunky hake , haddock or sea bass fillets instead . ’
‘fish such as hake , cod , tuna , swordfish , sole and sea bass could be on - grown by a ship restocking spanish waters according to those behind the project . ’
‘the bulletin said the contraction during the fourth quarter was reflected in the species such as demersal hake , horse mackerel and rock lobster . ’
‘it is only found in the muscles of amphibians and many fish species such as hake , yellowtail and pilchard . ’
‘except for the poor appearance of the very valuable demersal species , hake , monk , kingklip and sole , the vessels also experience a lot of trouble with the ever - growing number of seals in namibian waters . ’
‘the only other fish with three distinct dorsal fins are hakes and cods . ’
‘the latest hamper included fresh turbot , hake and cod from aberdeen fish market as well as arbroath smokies , smoked salmon and kippers . ’
‘the main species harvested are hake , horse mackerel and pilchard , whilst other species such as monk , anchovy , tuna and sole also contribute to this sector . ’
‘ask your fishmonger what is best for grilling at this time of year - some suggestions are salmon , haddock , tuna , trout , hake , cod . ’
‘other species to be avoided include hake , monkfish , halibut , skate , blue ling , sea bass and shark because they are all threatened species , the guide says . ’
‘the hake industry is , commercially , the most valuable fishing industry in namibia . ’
‘experts warn that continued intensive fishing would mean stocks of cod as well as other popular fish like hake and haddock might never recover . ’
‘asked for his comment , he said it was true that many of south africa ' s quality products ranging from hake to chokka to fruit were exported for high prices . ’
‘like all export related industries , the hake industry has been negatively affected by the strong local currency reducing the amount of money earned . ’
‘they resemble the true hakes in having two dorsal fins and one anal fin and no barbel . ’
‘contraventions of the act related to catching crayfish , hake and toothfish without a permit and offloading catches without inspectors present . ’
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anglerfish anglerfish , any of about 210 species of marine fishes of the order lophiiformes . anglers are named for their method of “fishing” for their prey . the foremost spine of the dorsal fin is located on the head and is modified into a “fishing rod” tipped with……
batfish batfish , any of about 60 species of fishes of the family ogcocephalidae ( order lophiiformes ) , found in warm and temperate seas . batfishes have broad , flat heads and slim bodies and are covered with hard lumps and spines . some species have an elongated , ……
beardfish beardfish , any of the five species of fishes in the genus polymixia constituting the family polymixiidae ( order polymixiiformes ) . beardfishes are restricted primarily to deep - sea marine habitats in tropical and temperate regions of the atlantic and pacific……
bib bib , common fish of the cod family , gadidae , found in the sea along european coastlines . the bib is a rather deep - bodied fish with a chin barbel , three close - set dorsal fins , and two close - set anal fins . it usually grows no longer than about 30 cm ( 12……
brotula brotula , any of about 200 to 220 species of marine fishes placed by some authorities with the cusk eels in the family ophidiidae , and separated by others as the family brotulidae . brotulas are primarily deep - sea fishes , although some inhabit shallow waters……
burbot burbot , ( lota lota ) , elongated fish of the cod family , gadidae , and the only member of the family found in fresh water . the burbot lives in cold rivers and lakes of europe , asia , and north america . a bottom dweller , it descends as deep as 210 metres ( 700……
cave fish cave fish , any of the pale , blind , cave - dwelling fishes of the genera amblyopsis and typhlichthys , family amblyopsidae . cave fishes are small , growing to about 10 cm ( 4 inches ) long , and are found in fresh water in dark limestone caves of the united states . ……
clingfish clingfish , any of more than 150 species of small fishes of the family gobiesocidae ( order perciformes ) . clingfishes are characterized by a strong suction disk located on the undersurface and formed by the pelvic fins and adjacent folds of flesh . they……
cusk eel cusk eel , , any of about 30 species of slim , eel - like marine fishes of the family ophidiidae , found worldwide in warm and temperate waters . cusk eels are characterized by the union of their dorsal , anal , and tail fins into a single long fin , and by the……
eelpout eelpout , any of more than 250 species of elongated marine fishes of the family zoarcidae , found in cold waters and abundant in arctic and antarctic regions . eelpouts are thick - lipped , eel - shaped fishes with the dorsal and anal fins connected around the……
goosefish goosefish , , any of about 25 species of anglerfishes of the family lophiidae ( order lophiiformes ) , found in warm and temperate seas around the world . goosefishes are soft and flabby with wide , flattened heads and slender , tapering bodies . they may grow……
haddock haddock , ( melanogrammus aeglefinus ) , valuable north atlantic food fish of the cod family , gadidae , that is often smoked and sold as “finnan haddie . ” the haddock is a bottom dweller and a carnivore , feeding on invertebrates and some fishes . it resembles……
ling ling , ( molva molva ) , in zoology , commercially valuable marine fish of the cod family ( gadidae ) , found in deep northern waters near iceland , the british isles , and scandinavia . the ling is a slim , long - bodied fish with small scales , a long anal fin , and……
pearlfish pearlfish , any of about 32 species of slim , eel - shaped marine fishes of the family carapidae noted for living in the bodies of sea cucumbers , pearl oysters , starfishes , and other invertebrates . pearlfishes are primarily tropical and are found around the……
pirate perch pirate perch , ( aphredoderus sayanus ) , freshwater fish that is the sole member of the family aphredoderidae . the pirate perch is found in weedy or muddy creeks , rivers , and lakes of eastern north america . noteworthy is the peculiar position of its anus , ……
pollock pollock , , ( pollachius , or gadus , virens ) , north atlantic fish of the cod family , gadidae . it is known as saithe , or coalfish , in europe . the pollock is an elongated fish , deep green with a pale lateral line and a pale belly . it has a small chin barbel……
toadfish toadfish , any of about 80 species of bottom - living fishes constituting the family batrachoididae and the order batrachoidiformes . they are found chiefly in the new world and mostly in warm seas—occasionally in freshwater . toadfishes are heavy - bodied fishes……
trout - perch trout - perch , , either of two species of small , dark - spotted fishes of the genus percopsis ( family percopsidae ) , found in freshwaters of north america . the larger species , p . omiscomaycus , grows about 15 cm ( 6 inches ) long and is found in central north……
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for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
department of sustainability , environment , water , population and communities ( dsewpac ) ( 2012 ) .
( great barrier reef marine park authority ( gbrmpa ) , 2011 ) [ admin guideline ] .
listed as near threatened ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )
the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .
national : listed as a marine species under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 .
the species is considered to be rare . it is known only from scattered localities , and is rarely caught ( cogger 1996 ; milton 2001 ; porter et al 1997 ) .
sea snakes are air breathing reptiles and must come to the surface to breathe , however they can spend from 30 minutes to two hours diving between breaths . they have one elongate cylindrical lung that extends for almost the entire length of their body which is very efficient for gas exchange . they also carry out cutaneous respiration whereby oxygen diffuses from sea water across the snake ' s skin into the blood . the waste product , carbon dioxide , is then diffused out of the snake ' s body , via the skin ( heatwole 1999 ) .
sea snakes have nostril valves that prevent air entering the lung while underwater . nostril valves open inwards and are held shut from behind by erectile tissue engorged with blood ( heatwole 1999 ) .
sea snakes are able to avoid excess salt accumulation from sea water using a salt excreting gland , known as the posterior sublingual gland , which sits under the tongue . sea snakes shed their skin every two to six weeks , which is more frequently than land snakes and more often than needed for growth alone . the process involves rubbing the lips against coral or other hard substrate to loosen the skin . the snake ' s skin is then anchored to the substrate as it crawls forward , leaving the skin turned inside out behind it . skin shedding allows sea snakes to rid themselves of fouling marine organisms such as algae , barnacles and bryozoans ( heatwole 1999 ) .
sixteen devices were tested during a 1998 study ( brewer et al . 1998 ) . brewer and colleagues ( 1998 ) found that the most effective brds , for most sea snakes , were the austed and nordmore grids with square mesh windows . these devices reduced the rate of sea snake capture from one every second tow to one every four or five tows , thus , reducing sea snake bycatch by up to 50 % ( milton et al . 2009 ) . all other devices resulted in capture rates that were equal to , or slightly higher than , standard trawler net figures . the austed and nordmore grids were found to be most effective when they were located within 50 meshes of the drawstrings and well within the maximum distance required by australian law ( 120 meshes ) ( milton et al . 2009 ) . a mesh pertains to a square of line in the net , one mesh being equal to one square of netting .
during the cmo project ( 20032005 ) , the species had a significantly lower survival rate than most other species in the npf ( milton et al . 2009 ) .
this cmo program has been used in conjunction with logbooks , requested industry collections , scientific observers and fishery - independent surveys for long term bycatch monitoring solutions , and reflects the npf ' s commitment to the sustainability of all species impacted by their fishing activities ( milton et al . 2008 ) .
brewer and colleagues ( 2006 ) found that there was no decrease in sea snake bycatch in the npf when the brd was placed at a distance of 120 meshes from the drawstring . this distance is the maximum allowable distance under australian law ( milton et al . 2009 ) . fishers installing their brds closer to the codend , ( that is , at approximately 70 meshes from the drawstring ) found that bycatch of sea snakes and fish was substantially reduced with negligible prawn loss ( heales et al . 2008 ) .
during the cmo program , cmos and scientific observers found that the ' popeye ' fishbox brd showed the greatest reduction ( 87 % ) in sea snake catch rates and overall bycatch by weight ( 48 % ) when compared to other brd types ( milton et al . 2009 ; raudzens 2006 ) . in addition , the commonly used fisheye brd was also found to have good exclusion ( 43 % reduction in bycatch by weight ) when placed at a distance of 66 meshes from the drawstring ( milton et al . 2009 ) . where sea snake mortality is high , more recent studies have suggested that the device should be placed closer to the drawstring , that is , 50 meshes ( courtney et al . 2010 )
marine bioregional plans have been developed for four of australia ' s marine regions - south - west , north - west , north and temperate east . marine bioregional plans will help improve the way decisions are made under the epbc act , particularly in relation to the protection of marine biodiversity and the sustainable use of our oceans and their resources by our marine - based industries . marine bioregional plans improve our understanding of australia ' s oceans by presenting a consolidated picture of the biophysical characteristics and diversity of marine life . they describe the marine environment and conservation values of each marine region , set out broad biodiversity objectives , identify regional priorities and outline strategies and actions to address these priorities . click here for more information about marine bioregional plans .
brewer , d . , d . heales , d . milton , q . dell , g . fry , b . venables & p . jones ( 2006 ) . the impact of turtle excluder devices and bycatch reduction devices on diverse tropical marine communites in australia ' s northern prawn trawl fishery . fisheries research . 81 : 176 - 188 .
brewer , d . , n . rawlinson , s . eayres & c . burridge ( 1998 ) . an assessment of bycatch reduction devices in a tropical australian prawn trawl fishery . fisheries research . 36 : 195 - 215 .
cogger , h . g . ( 1996 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia . chatswood , nsw : reed books .
cogger , h . g . ( 2000 ) . reptiles and amphibians of australia - 6th edition . sydney , nsw : reed new holland .
courtney , a . , b . schemel , r . wallace , m . campbell , d . mayer & b . young ( 2010 ) . reducing the impact of queensland ' s trawl fisheries on protected sea snakes . department of employment , economic development and innovation , queensland government .
fry , g . c . , a . milton & t . j . wassenberg ( 2001 ) . the reproductive biology and diet of sea snake bycatch of prawn trawling in northern australia : characteristics important for assessing the impacts on populations . pacific conservation biology . 7 : 55 - 73 .
guinea , m . l ( in press ) . a technique for catching and restraining sea snakes . herpetological review .
heales , d . , r . gregor , j . wakeford , y . yarrow et al ( 2008 ) . effective reduction of diverse fish and sea snake bycatch in a tropical prawn trawl fishery using the yarrow fisheye bycatch reduction device . fisheries research . 89 : 76 - 83 .
heatwole , h . ( 1975 ) . sea snakes of the gulf of carpentaria . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 143 - 149 . baltimore , university park press .
heatwole , h . ( 1999 ) . sea snakes . in : australian natural history series . page ( s ) 148 . sydney , nsw : unsw press .
limpus , c . j . ( 1975 ) . coastal sea snakes of subtropical queensland waters ( 23° to 28° south latitude ) . in : dunson , w . a . , ed . the biology of sea snakes . page ( s ) 173 - 182 . baltimore : university park press .
marsh , h . , p . j . corkeron , c . j . limpus , p . d . shaughnessy & t . m . ward ( 1993 ) . conserving marine mammals and reptiles in australia and oceania . in : c . moritz & j . kikkawa , eds . conservation biology in australia and oceania . page ( s ) 225 - 44 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty & sons .
milton , d . , g . fry & q . dell ( 2009 ) . reducing impacts of trawling on protected sea snakes : by - catch reduction devices improve escapement and survival . marine and freshwater research . 60 : 824 - 832 .
milton , d . , s . zhou , g . fry & q . dell ( 2008 ) . risk assessment and mitigation for sea snakes caught in the northern prawn fishery . fisheries research and development conservation corporation and csiro marine and atmospheric research , cleveland .
milton , d . a . ( 2001 ) . assessing the susceptibility to fishing of populations of rare trawl bycatch : sea snakes caught by australia ' s northern prawn fishery . biological conservation . 101 : 281 - 290 .
milton , d . a . & g . fry ( 2002 ) . assessment and improvement of brds and teds in the npf : a co - operative approach by fishers , scientists , fisheries technologists , economists and conservationists . fisheries research and development corporation and csiro marine research . cleveland , queensland : csiro marine research .
porter , r . , s . irwin , t . irwin & k . rodrigues ( 1997 ) . records of the marine snake species from the hey - embley and mission rivers , far n qld . herpetofauna . 27 ( 2 ) : 2 - 7 .
raudzens , e ( 2006 ) . at sea testing of ' popeye ' s fishbox ' bycatch reduction device onboard the fv adelaide pearl for approval in australia ' s northern prawn fishery . available from : urltoken .
stobutzki , i . , s . blaber , d . brewer , g . fry , d . heales , p . jones , m . miller , d . milton , j . salini , t . van der velde , y - g . wang , t . wassenberg , m . dredge , a . courtney , k . chilcott & s . eayrs ( 2000 ) . ecological sustainability of bycatch and biodiversity in prawn trawl fisheries . page ( s ) 512pp . fisheries research and development corporation .
ward , t . m . ( 1996b ) . sea snake bycatch of prawn trawlers on the northern australian continental shelf . marine and freshwater research . 47 : 631 - 635 .
ward , t . m . ( 2000 ) . factors affecting the catch rates and relative abundance of sea snakes in the by - catch of trawlers targeting tiger and endeavour prawns on the northern australian continental shelf . marine freshwater research . 51 : 155 - 164 .
wassenberg , t . j . , d . a . milton & c . y . burridge ( 2001 ) . survival rates of sea snakes caught by demersal trawlers in northern and eastern australia . biological conservation . 100 : 271 - 280 .
australian biological resources study , ed . ( 2013 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .
commonwealth of australia ( 2000c ) . declaration under section 248 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 - list of marine species . f2008b00465 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken .
uetz , p . , ed . ( 2010 ) . the reptile database . zoological museum hamburg . available from : urltoken .
epbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . leioselasma pacifica in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 03 : 45 : 17 + 1000 .
. rome : food and agricuwturaw organisation , uh - hah - hah - hah . pp . 19–20 .
mckay , r . j . ( 1985 ) .
a revision of de fishes of de famiwy siwwaginidae
.
froese , rainer and pauwy , daniew , eds . ( 2007 ) .
siwwago maegacephawus
in fishbase . oct 2007 version , uh - hah - hah - hah .
text is avaiwabwe under de creative commons attribution - shareawike license ; additionaw terms may appwy . by using dis site , you agree to de terms of use and privacy powicy . wikipedia® is a registered trademark of de wikimedia foundation , inc . , a non - profit organization , uh - hah - hah - hah .
marine ; demersal ; non - migratory . tropical ; 23°n - 16°n , 105°e - 113°e ( ref . 6205 )
northwest pacific : hainan , china . this species is possibly a junior synonym of sillago sihama .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 15 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 6205 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 12 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 22 ; anal spines : 2 ; anal soft rays : 23 . very similar to s . sihama but with the head length 33 % of standard length .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00468 ( 0 . 00220 - 0 . 00994 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 95 - 3 . 31 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 15 of 100 ) .
download ' aebr 142 monitoring new zealand’s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989–1990 to 2010–2011 ' | mpi - ministry for primary industries . a new zealand government department .
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download ' aebr 110 monitoring new zealand ' s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989 - 90 to 2009 - 10 ' | mpi - ministry for primary industries . a new zealand government department .
your document ' aebr 110 monitoring new zealand ' s trawl footprint for deepwater fisheries : 1989 - 90 to 2009 - 10 ' should start downloading automatically . if it does not , follow this link to your document .
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an annotated list of lady beetles (
ladybugs
) of south - central u . s .
-
bell lady
- common on juniper in may in central texas .
( leconte ) -
micro lady
- e . tx , n . amer . to pacific nw
gordon -
devil lady
- devils river to laredo , tx ( one spmn from latimer co . , ok , det . khs , 1987 . needs confirmation )
genus is very common in c . tx , numerous records from bexar , burnet , hays , kerr , travis , and burnet counties .
gordon & chapin -
casey ' s lady
- central to south texas , west to az and s . ut .
ound at two sites in the texas panhandle , amarillo and near hart . this is an old world sp . that ' s also present in chile and mexico .
species common in the tx panhandle and western ok and ks . native to australia .
carrizo lady
- only known from type locality , carrizo springs , dimmit co . , texas
( leconte ) -
spider mite destroyer
- northern great plains to ok and east to the atlantic coast as well as along the west coast .
( horn ) -
useful lady
- coastal plains from brownsville to fl and nc .
( blatchley ) -
eyed lady
- mostly southmost tx to fl and scattered e . us records . native to c . amer .
( melsheimer ) -
twice - stained lady
- widely dist . across n . amer .
-
golden lady
- trans - pecos , c . az . known from less than 10 spmns .
mulsant -
dusky lady
- common from sc us to s . ca with scattered se us record , south to s . amer .
horn -
circumspect lady
- one record near palestine , tx , e . to al , n . to mo . only e . n . amer .
-
pacific lady
- trans - pecos , sw us , most records from throughout calif .
horn -
vested lady
- bastrop and lamar counties , e . us
wingo -
arkansas lady
- ok , ar , mo , and sc records , but not known from tx . - very rare sp .


the square-spotted clay ( xestia stigmatica ) is a moth of the noctuidae family .

it is found in most of europe , transcaucasia , caucasus , kazachstan , northern turkey and northern iran .

the wingspan is 37 – 44 mm .

distinguished from other xestia by the broad forewing coloured greyish dark brown ( sometimes purple-tinted ) and the irregular broad dark band between the wavy line and the outer cross line .

adults are on wing from in august .

the larvae feed on a variety of plants such as rubus fruticosus , urtica dioica , prunus spinosa , primula and betula .

xestia stigmatica

square - spotted clay ( xestia stigmatica ) ( = xestia rhomboidea ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .
xestia ( megasema ) triangulum ( hufnagel , 1766 ) = xestia rhomboidea esper , 1790 = phalaena triangulum hufnagel , 1766 = intermedia tutt , 1892 = obscurior sälzl , 1928 = xestia ( megasema ) triangulum .
a local and elusive species , with a scattered distribution mainly in the south of england , but also with some localities in northern england , wales and scotland .
the caterpillar has only recently been found in britain for the first time in the wild . the actual foodplants are not yet fully understood , but are probably a variety of plants such as bramble (
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widespread but local , the brecklands of norfolk and suffolk being one of its key national strongholds .
broadleaved woodland on chalk , gravel or clay , hedgerows , heathland , scrub .
one little known way of finding this species is to search for the adult at the flowers of burdock after dark .
recorded in 48 ( 70 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2017 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with nbn atlas , please upload using the upload tools .
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the larva lives on a variety of herbaceous plants and grasses , after hibernation also on arboreous plants . hibernates as a small larva and pupates in a cocoon in the earth .
the adults fly in one generation a year ; from early july till late august . they come to light and sugar .
belgium , namur , wavreille , 03 august 2007 . ( photo © chris steeman )
the galleries below lead you to information pages for every species recorded on naturespot .
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bagworth & thornton barlestone barwell blaby bottesford braunstone broughton astley burbage burton on the wolds cadeby carlton clawson , hose and harby cotes desford earl shilton glen parva glenfield great glen groby hathern higham on the hill hugglescote and donington l . . . kibworth knighton ward market bosworth markfield nailstone newbold verdon osbaston osgathorpe peckleton prestwold quorndon ratby sapcote shackerstone sheepy stanton - under - bardon stoke golding sutton cheney thurlaston twycross welham witherley woodhouse wymeswold go
albania , austria , belgium , great britain , hungary , germany , denmark , greece , ireland , italy , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , netherlands , norway , poland , slovakia and the soviet union - the european part , finland , france , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia .
austria , belgium , bulgaria , great britain , hungary , germany , greece , denmark , spain , italy , latvia , lithuania , luxembourg , norway , poland , romania , sicily , slovakia , the soviet union - the european part of france , the czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .
regions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , gorno - altaisk , the european north - west , the european central black earth , the european central european south taiga , the western caucasus , kaliningrad , krasnoyarsk , prealtay , of baikal , mid - volzhsky , average - uralsky , sredneobskaya , tuva , south west siberian , south ural .
albania , andorra , belarus , belgium , bulgaria , the british isles , france , germany , greece ( mainland ) , denmark ( mainland ) , ireland , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , latvia , liechtenstein , lithuania luxembourg , moldova , netherlands , norway ( mainland ) , the channel islands , poland , russia , romania , northern ireland , sicily , slovakia , ukraine , finland , france ( mainland ) , croatia , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia .
[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )
[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / cтарая версия insecta . pro )
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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the left pane presents a taxonomic list of taxa at ranks below family and above species .
the list only shows taxa that have matching specimens available in the digitized research collection .


hypocrisias minima , the least hypocrisias , is a moth of the arctiidae family .

it is found in mexico , southern arizona , new mexico , and texas .

the wingspan is 31 – 33 mm .

the larvae feed on viguiera dentata .

hypocrisias minima

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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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miller canyon , huachuca mountains , cochise county , arizona , usa size : forewing length 18 mm .
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thank you again - you obviously know caterpillars . i don ' t think i have seen the adults of this one .
holland , w . j . 1915 . the moth book . doubleday , page & company .
neumoegen , b . 1883 . description of interesting new species of heterocera from all parts of our continent . papilio 3 ( 7 - 10 ) : 138
the moth book w . j . holland . 1922 . doubleday , page & company .
contributed by john and jane balaban on 11 november , 2007 - 1 : 41pm additional contributions by ron m . , randy hardy last updated 27 april , 2013 - 5 : 13pm