root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus meloidogyne .

they exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters .

about 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5 % of global crop loss .

root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots , causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the plant 's photosynthate and nutrients .

infection of young plants may be lethal , while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield .

root - knot nematode

meloidogyne incognita ( root - knot nematode ) ; male , full body image .
glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica .
adegbite aa , adesiyan so . 2005 . root extracts of plants to control root - knot nematode on edi -
figure 6 . the lettuce on the left is wilting due to root knot nematode infestation .
figure 1 .
knotted
roots on a tomato plant caused by root - knot nematode .
table 4 . example of a rotation plan for a root knot nematode - infested garden 1 .
karssen g , van aelst a . root - knot nematode perineal pattern development : a reconsideration .
cracking on storage roots due to root - knot nematode ( g . lawrence , aps ) .
figure 2 . a three week - old tomato plant ready for root - knot nematode inoculation .
management of root knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita affecting chickpea , cicer arietinum for sust . . .
development of a simple multiplex pcr protocol for identification of the tropical root - knot nematode . . .
use of trap crops and antagonistic crops . planting tagetes erecta and crotolaria spectabilis in nematode infested soil is effective against the root - knot nematode
root - knot nematode infection and growth of infected okra and brinjal plants . pak j bot . 40 :
identification of the tropical root - knot nematode species meloidogyne incognita , m . arenaria and m . . . .
effect of various physico - chemical factors on the incidence of root knot nematode meloidogyne spp . i . . .
1 most varieties susceptible to at least one species of the nematode type listed . 2 harmony and freedom grape rootstocks are resistant to root knot nematodes . 3 nemaguard and nemared ( peach ) rootstocks are resistant to root knot nematodes . 4 royal blenheim rootstock is resistant to root knot and root lesion nematodes .
figure 2 . close - up of
knotted
roots on a tomato plant infected with root - knot nematode .
abad p , favery b , rosso mn , castagone - sereno p . 2003 . root - knot nematode parasitism and
1 most varieties susceptible to at least one species of the nematode type listed . 2 some blackeye , lima , and snap bean varieties are resistant to meloidogyne incognita , a species of root knot nematode . 3 tomato varieties designated “n” are resistant to most root knot nematode species .
a role of the gelatinous matrix in the resistance of root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne spp . ) eggs to microorganisms .
figure 1 . a two week - old cowpea plant grown in a pouch and ready for root - knot nematode inoculation .
root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne species ) : systemics , biology , and control .
the root knot nematode species , m . incognita , is the most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world (
castagnone - sereno p . genetic variability and adaptive evolution in parthenogenetic root - knot nematodes .
the threat of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in africa : a review
meloidogyne incognita ; juvenile mortality ; egg hatching ; plant extracts ; root - knot nematodes .
monitoring or assessment of nematode populations is an important aid to nematode management . monitoring should begin well before problems occur , as it is too late to prevent crop losses once root - knot nematode damage is seen in the field .
however , with careful planning , rotation in combination with fallowing and solarization can reduce root knot nematode numbers . annual crops that are useful in a rotation plan for reducing root knot nematode populations include small grains such as wheat and barley , sudangrass , and resistant tomato and bean varieties .
katcho za , 1972 . first occurrence of certain root - knot nematode species in iraq . plant disease reporter , 56 ( 9 ) : 824 .
ehlers jd , matthews wc , hall ae , roberts pa . inheritance of a broad - based form of root - knot nematode resistance in cowpea .
in general , members of the grass family are less susceptible than other plants to root - knot nematodes .
the threat of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in africa : a review | request pdf
nematode analysis is likely to show a number of plant - parasitic species . however , root - knot nematode is the only species known to cause economic damage to tomatoes in queensland and nematode management decisions should be made on the basis of its presence or absence .
babatola jd , 1980 . reactions of some rice cultivars to the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita . nematropica , 10 ( 1 ) : 5 - 9
mishra sm , 1991 . screening of tomato varieties at nursery stage against root - knot nematode . indian journal of nematology , 21 ( 2 ) : 162 .
adam mam , phillips ms , blok bc . molecular diagnostic key for identification of single juveniles of seven common and economically important species of root - knot nematode (
root - knot nematode juveniles are active , thread - like worms about 0 . 5 mm long . they are too small to be seen with the naked eye .
fademi oa , 1987 . resistance of some rice varieties to the root - knot nematode ( rkn ) meloidogyne incognita . international rice research newsletter , 12 : 11 .
several nematicide have been very effective against the root - knot nematode in sweetpotato . examples are nemagon , mocap , dasanit , nemacur , furadan , temik , vydate .
sharon e , spiegel y . glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica . j nematol . 1993 ; 25 : 585 - 9
root - knot problems increase and control becomes more difficult when tomatoes or other susceptible crops are grown without rotation .
corrigendum : distribution and genetic diversity of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in potato . . .
host suitability of ixora spp . for the root - knot nematodes meloidogyne incognita race 1 and m . javanica .
evidence of direct feeding , apparent in the form of galls and other root malformations leads to the damage symptoms described above . the invasive stage of the root - knot nematode life cycle is the juvenile root - knot nematode , which can freely move through the soil and will enter the root of a suitable host plant . only the female is capable of establishing a feeding site . the female will become immobile , causing the plant to form giant cells for feeding , which essentially appears as a gall on the root . the presence of root - knot nematodes can be detected by the presence of these characteristic galls .
) . after penetrating the root , the larvae move towards the central cylinder ( stele ) . larvae of root - knot and cyst nematodes migrate by different pathways : the
mishra c , singh b , laha sk , 1987 . integrated approach for root - knot nematode management in jute . indian journal of nematology , 17 : 285 - 287 .
mature female root knot nematodes are pear - shaped and about 0 . 01 inch long . root knot nematodes spend most of their life in galls . mature females resemble tiny , white pearls ; they sometimes can be seen with the use of a hand lens when root galls are cut open .
figure 1 . an adult female citrus nematodes , tylenchulus semipenetrans , shown imbedded in a root cut in cross section . the nematode’s front end is deep inside the root tissue while the rear end remains outside of the root .
hussey rs , mims cw , westcott sw . , iii ultrastructure of root cortical cells parasitized by the ring nematode ,
m . incognita is probably the most widely distributed and economically important species of plant parasitic nematode in tropical and subtropical regions . two - thirds of the root - knot nematode samples obtained from a number of tropical countries were of m . incognita (
wu jq , xue zh , 1986 . a preliminary study on the root - knot nematode disease of kenaf . acta - phytopathologica sinica , 16 ( 1 ) : 53 - 56 .
a number of other nematode species also can damage home garden and landscape plants including the ring nematode ( criconemoides xenoplax ) , root lesion nematodes ( pratylenchus species ) , the sugarbeet cyst nematode ( heterodera schachtii ) , the citrus nematode ( tylenchulus semipenetrans ) , the stem and bulb nematode ( ditylenchus dipsaci ) , and others . tables 1 , 2 , and 3 list some common garden plant species and their nematode pests .
trudgill dl , block vc . apomictic , polyphagous root - knoot nematodes : exceptionally successfull and damaging biotrophic root pathogens .
nematode assays can be obtained through the nematode assay section , agronomic division , north carolina department of agriculture & consumer services .
rasina b , 1970 . root - knot nematodes in hothouses . darzs un drava , 10 ( 150 ) : 14 - 15
meng q , long h , xu j . pcr assays for rapid and sensitive identification of three major root - knot nematodes ,
winter cereals are useful because they are generally poor hosts and little nematode reproduction occurs during the cold winter months . it is more difficult to find summer crops with good resistance to root - knot nematode , though sorghum x sudan grass hybrids ( particularly cv . jumbo ) are useful against most populations of the nematode .
r . n . perry , m . moens and j . starr , eds . root - knot nematodes . lincoln : cabi .
i have been told numerous times that beneficial nematodes will not work on root knot nematodes . in fact the university of florida states :
mcsorley , r . 1999 . host suitability of potential cover crops for root - knot nematodes . journal of nematology 31 : 619–623 .
a fungal egg parasite , was found effective against root - knot attacking sweetpotato . the parasite reduced egg masses by about 50 % .
lordello rra , lordello ail , sawazaki e , trevisan wl , 1986 . root - knot nematode damages a maize field in goias . nematologia brasileira , 10 ( 1 ) : 145 - 149 .
sharon e & spiegel y . ( 1993 ) . glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica . journal of nematology , 25 , pp . 585 - 9 .
fademi oa , 1986 . reaction of some selected rice cultivars to a root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita ( kofoid and white ) chitwood . pakistan journal of nematology , 4 : 15 - 18 .
instead of sending soil samples to a laboratory for nematode analysis , a simple bioassay is sometimes useful , particularly for detecting low populations of root - knot nematode . transplant a nematode - free tomato seedling of a susceptible variety into a pot containing about 2 l of your soil sample . grow plants at temperatures of 20 - 28 o c for about one month , and then remove the root system and examine it for galls . at this stage , the galls ( if present ) will be less than 0 . 5 mm in diameter but their occurrence will indicate the presence of root - knot nematode .
one of the best ways to manage nematodes is to use vegetable varieties and fruit tree rootstocks that are resistant to nematode injury . tomato varieties with the code vfn ( verticillium , fusarium , nematodes ) on the seed packet or label are resistant to common root knot nematode species . although even resistant tomato varieties can still exhibit some root galling under high nematode levels , they usually maintain their yield . for example in recent vegetable garden - type experiments on root knot nematode soil , nematode - resistant tomatoes yielded almost 6 times more tomatoes than a similar susceptible variety . an additional benefit of growing a resistant variety is the nematode levels in the soil decline rather than increase , making it more feasible to grow a susceptible crop the following season .
a considerable amount of work has been devoted to the biological control of root - knot nematodes in general and m . incognita in particular (
abad p , favery b , rosso mn , castagnone - sereno p ( 2003 ) root - knot nematode parasitism and host response : molecular basis of a sophisticated interaction . mol plant pathol 4 : 217–224 .
dubreuil g , magliano m , deleury e , abad p , rosso mn ( 2007 ) transcriptome analysis of root - knot nematode functions induced in the early stages of parasitism . new phytol 176 : 426–436 .
root injury from other nematode species can produce aboveground symptoms similar to those from root knot nematodes . however , the actual injury to the roots is more difficult to detect . roots can be shortened or deformed with no other clues as to the source of the injury . you can confirm a nematode infestation by collecting soil and root samples and sending the material to a laboratory for positive identification of the infesting species .
stanton jm , o ' donnell we . assessment of the north carolina differential host test for identification of australian populations of root - knot nematodes (
amin aw , budai cs , 1994 . some weed host plants of the root - knot nematode meloidogyne species in south - eastern hungary . pakistan journal of nematology , 12 ( 1 ) : 59 - 65 .
mohandas c , ramakrishnan s , 1997 . pathogenic effect of root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita on african white yam , dioscorea rotundata . indian journal of nematology , 27 ( 2 ) : 233 - 236 .
tesarová b , zouhar m , ry ? ánek p , 2003 . development of pcr for specific determination of root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita . plant protection science , 39 ( 1 ) : 23 - 28 .
the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita , is worldwide in distribution . it is widespread in asia , southeast asia and usually occurs in warmer areas . in some countries , m . javanica is more dominant .
sharon e , spiegel y . glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica . j nematol 1993 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 585 - 9 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
rosso mn , dubrana mp , cimbolini n , jaubert s , abad p ( 2005 ) application of rna interference to root - knot nematode genes encoding esophageal gland proteins . mol plant microbe interact 18 : 615–620 .
nematodes cause extensive injury to many vegetables in over half of the gardens in north carolina . nematode - control measures will significantly reduce root - knot and other nematodes from the garden site . the continued combined use of rotation , resistance , and cultural practices will minimize nematode damage and , over time , will reduce the nematodes to low population levels so that a serious problem is not likely to occur . root - knot nematode problems can be detected by examining the roots of vegetables soon after harvest is completed or through an assay of a soil sample . root - knot affected cantaloupe , cucumber , eggplant , okra , squash , tomato , and other susceptible crops will have very conspicuous root galls ( swellings ) .
when tomatoes ( or other root - knot susceptible crops ) are planted in the same field every year , a check for root - knot galls at the end of the season provides valuable information on the level of nematode infestation and the likelihood of nematode damage in the next year . a thorough sampling of the field at harvest may provide as much information as having soil samples analysed for nematodes before the planting of the next crop .
may promote the giant cells to divide , it is not sufficient to drive expansion of giant cells . for the root - cyst nematode ,
li hq , cheng jl , feng cc , 1992 . the primary report on the investigation and identification of tobacco root - knot nematode in shaanxi . shaanxi agricultural science , no . 2 : 29 ; 2 ref .
nasira k , shaheen n , shahina f , 2011 . root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita wartellei on pomegranate in swat , kpk , pakistan . pakistan journal of nematology , 29 ( 1 ) : 117 - 118 .
salam ma , 1991 . weed hosts of root knot nematodes in little andaman island . current nematology , 2 ( 1 ) : 83 - 84 .
root knot nematodes , mainly m . incognita and m . javanica , are always pests of economic importance in tobacco culture , wherever the climate favours them (
bhardwaj ln , hogger ch , 1984 . root - knot nematodes of chitwan district of nepal . nematologia mediterranea , 12 ( 1 ) : 155 - 158
whitehead ag , 1969 . the distribution of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in tropical africa . nematologica , 15 : 315 - 333 .
hadisoeganda w , sasser jn . resistance of tomato , bean , southern pea , and garden pea cultivars to root - knot nematodes based on host suitability .
r . n . perry , m . moens and j . l . starr , eds . root - knot nematodes , 1 . london : cabi .
r . n . perry , m . moens and j . l . starr , eds . root - knot nematodes , 1 . wallingford , uk .
meloidogyne incognita ( root - knot nematode ) ; female . ( reproduced from orton williams kj , 1973 . cih descriptions of plant - parasitic nematodes . set 2 , no . 18 . wallingford , uk : cab international . )
nematodes are basically aquatic animals and require a water film around soil particles before they can move . also , nematode eggs will not hatch unless there is sufficient moisture in the soil . thus , soil moisture conditions that are optimum for plant growth are also ideal for the development of root - knot nematode .
it is believed the root knot nematode survives from season to season primarily as eggs in the soil . after the eggs hatch , the second - stage juveniles invade roots , usually at root tips , causing some of the root cells to enlarge where the nematodes feed and develop . the male nematodes eventually leave the roots , but the females remain embedded , laying their eggs into a jellylike mass that extends through the root surface and into the soil .
≤ 0 . 01 ) for dry root weight . although the effect of the combined nematode treatment ( mx + mp ) was less than that of
sivapalan p , 1978 . investigation on root - knot nematodes in sri lanka under international meloidogyne project . kasetsart journal , 12 ( 1 ) : 14 - 24
although california has many different species of root - feeding nematodes , the most damaging ones to gardens are the root knot nematodes , meloidogyne species . root knot nematodes attack a wide range of plants , including many common vegetables , fruit trees , and ornamentals . they are difficult to control , and they can spread easily from garden to garden in soil on tools and boots or on infested plants .
root knot nematodes are named for the reason that they feed off of a plant’s root cells from their first stage as a worm or larvae after hatched from an egg . the root knot nematode lives in three stages , growing each time and shedding their outer layer . as nematodes grow they also attach themselves to a host plant’s roots , feeding off of the plant cells and inserting itself deeper within the root as it feeds which creates a root knot or gall . throughout the three stages of shedding and growing within a plants root system , the root knot nematode will live anywhere between 17 to 57 days depending on the climate . the easiest way to eliminate nematodes is to kill them while they are in the egg stage of their life so they have no chance to damage your plants . a simple way to manage a nematode infestation is with a nematicide like multiguard protect that kills nematodes on contact without damaging your plant or the beneficial organisms in the soil . the difference is that multiguard protect is not phytotoxic , leaves no harmful residue in the soil and stimulates the growth of beneficial organisms in the soil .
field - if the management practices above are adopted , nematicides should only be needed in the field as a last resort ( e . g . in sandy soils where tomatoes are particularly prone to nematode damage ) . even in situations where root - knot nematode problems are usually severe , the use of good management practices reduces the nematode population pressure and gives nematicides a greater chance of providing effective control .
tomatoes are very susceptible to root - knot nematodes under queensland conditions . in the past , control measures were normally recommended if one root - knot nematode was found in a 200 ml soil sample taken before planting or a gall was found in the roots of bioassay plants . however , recent research suggests that the economic threshold may be a little higher than previously thought . thus , well managed crops grown in fields with a preplant density of 1 - 10 root - knot nematodes per 200 ml soil may be heavily galled at harvest but will suffer little yield loss from nematodes .
general identification of root - knot nematode infestation can be conducted by competent nematologists with basic equipment . identification of species within the genus meloidogyne requires the services of specialized taxonomists . in addition to classical taxonomic techniques , biochemical methods are also being developed (
d ' errico g , crescenzi a , landi s , 2014 . first report of the southern root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita on the invasive weed araujia sericifera in italy . plant disease , 98 ( 11 ) : 1593 - 1594 . urltoken
sharma gl , baheti bl , 1992 . loss estimates due to root - knot nematode in peas , okra , tomato and bottle gourd crops in rajasthan , india . current nematology , 3 ( 2 ) : 187 - 188 ; 3 ref .
singh sk , conde b , hodda m , 2012 . root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne incognita ) on bitter melon ( momordica charantia ) near darwin , australia . australasian plant disease notes , 7 ( 1 ) : 75 - 78 . urltoken
mclean md , yevtushenko dp , deschene a , van cauwenberghe or , makhmoudova a , et al . ( 2003 ) overexpression of glutamate decarboxylase in transgenic tobacco plants confers resistance to the northern root - knot nematode . mol breeding 11 : 277–285 .
1 most varieties susceptible to at least one species of the nematode type listed .
and is now present in many tomato cultivars . early after infection , a localized necrosis occurs at the nematode feeding site inhibiting further development of the nematode . the
count the nematode inoculum and stir on a magnetic stirring plate as described earlier .
long way in nematode management . it will provide bright future for identifying new class
khan a , shaukat ss . 2001 . management of plant parasitic nematode associated with
root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) are a major problem facing crop production globally including potatoes . during the 2011 / 2012 potato growing season , root - knot nematode infected potato tubers were obtained from different potato growing regions in south africa for identification of meloidogyne spp . using the intergenic region of the ribosomal dna ( igs - rdna ) together with the region between . . . [ show full abstract ]
root knot nematodes are tiny , almost microscopic , wormlike creatures that are very common in soil . they have a wide range of host plants , tomatoes one of the most critically affected , and very widespread distribution . root knot nematodes thrive in very moist conditions in the soil . they require a film of water around the soil before they are able to move , and the eggs cannot hatch without sufficient moisture . unfortunately , the same conditions that allow root knot nematodes to prosper are the same that make most plants flourish . root knot nematodes are parasitic creatures that live off the cells of their host plant . they excrete enzymes that cause plant cells to enlarge , creating galls or lumps ranging from 1mm to 10mm in diameter to develop all over the roots . effects of a root knot nematode infestation include stunting , wilting , yellowing , reduction of flowering , fruit set , and fruit development , and sometimes even plant death .
potting mixes - if peat , sand and other components are obtained from sources free of root - knot nematode and are not contaminated before use , the treatment of potting mixes for nematode control is unnecessary . treatments for damping - off fungi ( e . g . aerated steam at 60°c for 30 minutes ) will also kill nematodes .
meloidogyne incognita ( root - knot nematode ) ; posterior cuticular patterns of females . ( reproduced from orton williams kj , 1973 . cih descriptions of plant - parasitic nematodes . set 2 , no . 18 . wallingford , uk : cab international . )
bhat ok , kaul v , 1994 . influence of soil temperature on the population behaviour of root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita in a tomato field . annals of plant protection sciences , 2 ( 1 ) : 28 - 29 ; 6 ref .
accurate diagnosis is crucial to the development of an effective control program . soil samples can be examined for root knot juveniles and other species of nematodes . if root galls are present , the roots and soil may be submitted for analysis . for information on submitting samples to the umass extension diagnostic laboratory for nematode analysis , please see urltoken
one explanation for the suppression in nematode reproduction by one nematode species on another may be attributed to a reduction or alteration of suitable feeding sites on the root . nematode - feeding sites on roots differ between a sedentary endoparasite , such as the root - knot nematode , and a migratory ectoparasite , such as the ring nematode . meloidogyne spp . penetrate at the root tip , establish themselves and feed within the vascular cylinder region for the remainder of their life cycle ( de guiran and ritter , 1979 ) . the ring nematode feeds from individual cortical cells further back on the root for up to eight days and then moves to a new feeding site along the root ( hussey et al . , 1992 ) ; these sites are modified into discrete food cells . apparently , as a result of direct or indirect competition for feeding sites , the more aggressive nematode may influence reproduction of the cohabiting nematode . on soybean and peach , m . incognita suppressed reproduction of pratylenchus brachyurus and m . xenoplax , respectively ( herman et al . , 1988 ; nyczepir et al . , 1993 ) , whereas m . xenoplax suppressed reproduction of m . hapla on grape ( santo and bolander , 1977 ) . our results showed that m . partityla suppressed the reproduction of m . xenoplax in pecan and appears to be the more aggressive nematode specie and competitor in this nematode - nematode host - parasite relationship .
dig up plants from several areas of the field , taking care to retrieve the fine feeder roots , and look carefully for the presence of galls . the number and size of the galls provides an indication of the degree of root - knot nematode infestation .
bridge j , otim - nape w , namaganda j , 1991 . the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita , causing damage to cassava in uganda . afro - asian journal of nematology , 1 ( 1 ) : 116 - 117 ; 7 ref .
moura rmde , regina mdgc , silva - lima stda , costa mbda , ribeiro ars , 2010 . first report of root - knot nematode on yam ' são tomé ' in brazil . nematologia brasileira , 34 ( 3 ) : 178 - 180 . urltoken
young seedlings are the best developmental stage for root - knot nematode inoculation . however , this needs to be balanced with the formation of an adequate root system providing sufficient numbers of root tips as points of entry for the j2s . maintaining optimal plant growth condition is also critical for the screens . avoid over - watering plants specially those grown in pouches . over - watering the pouches , as indicated by standing water in the bottom of the pouch , can promote fungal growth and diminish root health .
if you are growing a crop susceptible to root - knot , check a sample of roots and determine the level of galling approximately 12 months before planting tomatoes . eight months before planting , destroy nematode - infested root systems and plough out the crop immediately after harvest . maintain a weed - free fallow until a cover crop is planted . plant a cover crop that is not susceptible to root - knot nematodes , such as winter cereals or forage sorghum . two months before planting , collect soil samples and either do a bioassay or test the soil for nematodes . if the results of nematode analyses or bioassays , or the previous occurrence of nematode problems , suggest that nematodes are likely to cause damage , either plant a nematode - resistant variety or apply a preplant nematicide .
seedbeds - in crops established from seedlings , transplants must be free of root - knot nematodes . before planting , fumigate all seedbeds with a registered chemical according to label directions .
dabaj kh , jenser g , 1987 . list of plants infected by root - knot nematodes in libya . international nematology network newsletter , 4 ( 3 ) : 28 - 33
ogunfowora ao , 1982 . root - knot nematodes on cowpea and some selected vegetable crops . proceedings of the 3rd research planning conference on root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , regions iv and v , 16 - 20 november 1981 , ibadan , nigeria . ( international meloidogyne project ) . international institute of tropical agriculture ibadania niger , 72 - 84
pinochet j , 1977 . occurrence and spatial distribution of root - knot nematodes on bananas and plantains in honduras . plant disease reporter , 61 ( 6 ) : 518 - 520
zijlstra cm , uenk bj , van silfhout ch . a reliable , precise method to differentiate species of root - knot nematodes in mixtures on the basis of its - rflps .
moody , e . h . , lownsbery , b . f . and ahmed , j . m . ( 1973 ) — culture of the root - lesion nematode
raveendran v , nadakal am , 1975 . an additional list of plants infected by the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita ( kofoid & white , 1919 ) chitwood , 1949 in kerala . indian journal of nematology , 5 ( 1 ) : 126 - 127
the use of trays and growth pouches enables screening of hundreds to thousands of plants in a small growth space . growth pouches also allow fast and efficient non - destructive evaluation of root - knot nematode infections with no need for washing roots ( figure 4 ) .
root - knot nematodes , ( meloidogyne spp . ) are main pathogens of tomato in india . a survey was undertaken to find out the effect of physico - chemical properties of soil on the incidence and infestation of two root - knot nematode species namely meloidogyne javanica and meloidogyne incognita on tomato growing fields in aligarh . maximum disease frequency ( 87 . 5 % ) was found in shah jamal and mahraval . . . [ show full abstract ]
nwauzor ec , fawole b , 1982 . root - knot nematodes on yams in eastern nigeria . proceedings of the 3rd research planning conference on root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , regions iv and v , 16 - 20 november 1981 , ibadan , nigeria . ( international meloidogyne project ) . international institute of tropical agriculture ibadania niger , 161 - 167
nematodes–especially root - knot nematodes–cause major losses in vegetable crops in commercial farms , greenhouses , and home gardens in north carolina . root - knot nematodes are microscopic roundworms that can pierce the roots of certain plant species and lay their eggs inside the roots . this gives the roots a “knotty” appearance ( figure 1 and figure 2 ) and results in a wilted or stunted appearance of the whole plant . meloidogyne incognito , the southern root - knot nematode , is most common in north carolina , but other species have been found recently . these pests occur in about two - thirds of the fields used for crops in the state .
raymundo sa , 1985 . cropping systems research and root - knot nematode control . in : sasser jn , carter cc , eds . an advanced treatise on meloidogyne . vol . i . biology and control . raleigh , north carolina state graphics , 277 - 281 .
sharon e , spiegel y :
glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica .
journal of nematology , vol . 25 , no . 4 , 1993 , pp . 585 - 9 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
jammes f , lecomte p , de almeida - engler j , bitton f , martin - magniette ml , et al . ( 2005 ) genome - wide expression profiling of the host response to root - knot nematode infection in arabidopsis . plant j 44 : 447–458 .
adesiyan so , odihirin ra , 1978 . root knot nematodes as pests of yams ( dioscorea spp . ) in southern nigeria . nematologica , 24 ( 1 ) : 132 - 134
anamika , sobita simon , 2010 . new report on occurrence of root - knot disease in beta vulgaris . current nematology , 21 ( 1 / 2 ) : 71 - 73 .
fademi oa , 1984 . influence of rate and time of carbofuran application to control root - knot nematodes in upland rice . international rice research newsletter , 9 : 22 - 23 .
martinez de ilarduya o , moore ae , kaloshian i . the tomato rme1 locus is required for mi - 1 - mediated resistance to root - knot nematodes and the potato aphid .
nematodes are roundworms that occupy a vast array of ecological niches and have many different lifestyles . of the more than 25 , 000 species of nematodes on earth , only a handful are known to feed on plants in the northeastern us . the species of greatest concern to vegetable growers in the region is the northern root knot nematode ( nrkn ) , meloidogyne hapla . unlike the southern root knot nematode ( m . incognita ) and a few other species found primarily in the southern us , nrkn is capable of surviving the freezing temperatures of northern winters .
) . soyabean ( glycine max ) is another legume severely damaged by root knot nematodes and in brazil yield can be reduced by over 55 % in the presence of m . incognita (
rodriguez - kabana , r . and king , p . s . ( 1980 ) — use of mixtures of urea and blackstrap molasses for control of root - knot nematodes in soil .
vovlas n , simões njo , sasanelli n , santos mcvdos , abrantes imde o , 2004 . host - parasite relationships in tobacco plants infected with a root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne incognita ) population from the azores . phytoparasitica , 32 ( 2 ) : 167 - 173 . urltoken
citation : baldacci - cresp f , chang c , maucourt m , deborde c , hopkins j , lecomte p , et al . ( 2012 ) ( homo ) glutathione deficiency impairs root - knot nematode development in medicago truncatula . plos pathog 8 ( 1 ) : e1002471 . urltoken
- alone = 24 , 302 eggs / gram dry root vs . mx + mp = 11 , 911 eggs / gram dry root ; data not presented in table ) .
khan mw , dabaj kh , 1980 . some preliminary observations on root - knot nematodes of vegetable crops in tripoli region of libyan jamahiriya . libyan journal of agriculture , 9 : 127 - 136
reddy ddr , 1975 . pathogenicity and control of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) infecting chick pea . mysore journal of agricultural sciences , 9 ( 3 ) : 434 - 439
galls and egg masses of root - knot nematodes on fibrous roots ( left ) . galls on sweetpotato roots are often much smaller and difficult to see ( w . martin , aps ) .
bhattarai kk , xie qg , mantelin s , bishnoi u , girke t , navarre da , kaloshian i . tomato susceptibility to root - knot nematodes requires an intact jasmonic acid signaling pathway .
although many spring - planted vegetables such as beets , carrot , english pea , lettuce , potato , radish , and others are susceptible to root - knot nematode , they can be grown in infested soil and suffer only minor damage because nematodes are inactive at low soil temperatures ( 60°f ) . however , these same vegetables can suffer extensive damage when planted in the late spring , summer , or fall when soil temperatures are more suitable for nematode activity ( 70–85°f ) . other common garden vegetables grown during mid - to late summer , such as tomato , pepper , cucumber , squash , eggplant , and okra also are highly susceptible to root - knot nematode .
the presence of developing nematodes in the root stimulates the surrounding tissues to enlarge and produce the galls typical of infection by this nematode . mature female nematodes then lay hundreds of eggs on the root surface , which hatch in warm , moist soil to continue the life cycle .
ali ss , 1986 . root - knot nematode problem in cardamom and its management . proceedings of the second group discussions on the nematological problems of plantation crops , april 24 - 25 , 1986 . central coffee research station , balehonnur , karnataka , india , pp . 10 - 12 .
the primary damage to yams ( dioscorea species ) by m . incognita is in the reduction in quality and marketability of the tubers due to the extensive surface galling caused by the root knot nematodes (
chen cm , chen p , yao g , 1991 . study on root - knot nematodes on tobacco and their control . sichuan plant protection , no . 1 / 2 , 75 - 78 .
lehman ps , cochran cr , 1991 . how to use vegetable cultivars to control root - knot nematodes in home gardens . nematology circular no . 189 . florida department of agriculture and consumer services .
sirca s , urek g , karssen g , 2003 . occurrence of the root - knot nematodes meloidogyne incognita and m . hapla in slovenia . plant disease , 87 ( 9 ) : 1150 .
root tissue response of two related soybean cultivars to infection by lectin - treated meloidogyne spp .
the formation of these galls damages the water - and nutrient - conducting abilities of the roots . galls can crack or split open , especially on the roots of vegetable plants , allowing the entry of soil - borne , disease - causing microorganisms . root knot nematode galls are true swellings and can’t be rubbed off the roots as can the beneficial , nitrogen - fixing nodules on the roots of legumes . root knot nematodes can feed on the roots of grasses and certain legumes without causing galling .
three to four days before nematode inoculation , extract root - knot nematode eggs from infected tomato roots . before starting egg extraction , wash the work area thoroughly with hot water to avoid contamination . also wash in hot water a blender , two buckets , a wire mesh support , a rubber mallet , three sieves of 425 , 90 and 25 μm aperture , a graduated cylinder and scissors .
several vegetable varieties are resistant to root - knot nematodes and will produce a good crop even in the presence of nematodes . the effectiveness is increased when combined with crop rotation . by alternating root - knot resistant and susceptible vegetables within a given portion of the garden from one year to the next , the overall nematode problem can be reduced by preventing a build - up of high populations . this practice will reduce the risk of serious damage to the susceptible vegetables . table 1 lists vegetable varieties having resistance to the most widespread and prevalent root - knot nematode . many of these varieties , especially the tomatoes , can be purchased at local lawn and garden centers or can be purchased through online retailers . others are more difficult to obtain and may have to be ordered directly from the producer .
figure 2 . healthy onion bulb ( right ) and bulb infested by stem and bulb nematode .
nematode communities and island biogeography theory : inputs from the caribbean islands and indian ocean islands . .
• grow resistant varieties . look for an “n” on the seed packet which indicates nematode resistant .
addition of organic amendments . chicken manure is very effective reducing nematode egg masses by 56 % .
first reported the development of a transgenic plant conferring nematode resistance by expressing dsrna . by targeting two
transcripts from expressed sequence tag ( est ) data for 32 nematode parasites . these efforts identified 31
chen cm , li hy , lii dy , 1986 . the study on root - knot nematodes of common turmeric ( curcuma domestica valet ) . herald of agricultural sciences , 1 : 16 - 22 .
below ground , the symptoms of root - knot nematodes are quite distinctive . lumps or galls ranging in size from 1 to 10 mm in diameter , develop all over the roots . in severe infestations , heavily galled roots may rot away , leaving a poor root system with a few large galls .
crop rotation : rotating onion , carrot , or lettuce with a nonhost crop such as sweet corn and other grain crops , if economically possible , will be effective in controlling the northern root - knot nematode . sudangrass is a nonhost to this nematode and when incorporated as a green manure will further suppress the soil population of this nematode . current crop rotations on organic soils are of limited value as most crops grown , including potatoes , beans , celery , lettuce , onion , and carrot are susceptible .
nematodes are too small to see without a microscope . often you become aware of a nematode problem by finding galled roots on a previous crop . however , you also can use a simple bioassay to detect root knot nematodes in garden soil . melons seeded in pots in moist soil collected from the garden will develop visible galls on the roots in about 3 weeks when pots are kept at about 80ºf if root knot nematodes are present . as a comparison , melons planted in heat - sterilized soil won’t develop galls .
sen k , das gupta mk , 1976 . occurrence of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) on some plants in sriniketan ( west bengal ) . science and culture , 42 : 112 - 115
galano , c . d . , r . m . gapasin and j . l . lim . 1996 . efficacy of paecilomyces lilacinus isolates for the control of root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne incognita ( kofoid and white ) chitwood ) in sweet potato . annals of tropical research 18 : 4 - 12 .
3 nematode interactions unit , rothamsted research , ltd . , harpenden , herts al5 2jq , united kingdom
“currently , no predators are commercially available for augmentative releases for nematode control in vegetable production systems . ”
crop rotation . non - host crops or resistant crops can be planted when nematode population is high .
nematodes , nematodes , nematodes ! considering the nematode family constitutes one of the most abundant animal life on this planet , it should come to no surprise that nematode infestations are common . for fighting root knot nematodes with beneficial nematodes , the best time to apply the beneficials would be about 10 - 14 days before transplanting anything into the soil . many of the recommendations for chemical nematode control involve organophosphates or carbamates ( both effect nerve impulse transmission ) and specialized equipment . i would recommend utilizing an integrates pest management approach instead of chemicals . utilizing host plants which do not support nematode life , crop rotation , and choosing nematode resistant varieties are all steps you can take to rid yourself of those buggers once and for all .
) . in north america , losses to tobacco from root knot nematodes , mainly m . incognita , have been estimated to range from 1 % to 14 % annually in areas where control measures are the norm (
esfahani mn , ahmadi a , 2010 . field observations on the reaction of medicinal plants to root - knot nematodes in isfahan , iran . international journal of nematology , 20 ( 1 ) : 107 - 112 .
freire fdas co , ponte jjda , 1976 . root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , associated with plant parasitism in the state of bahia ( brazil ) . boletim cearense de agronomia , 17 : 47 - 55
only few populations of other nematode species from argentina have been characterized in detail ( doucet , 1989 ; lax and doucet , 2001 ; vovlas et al . , 2007 ) and no studies on root - knot nematodes from this country have been undertaken , which constitutes a disadvantage for agricultural management and for understanding meloidogyne species variability around the world . the goals of this study are : i ) to characterize a population of root - knot nematodes from a production zone in tupungato ( mendoza , argentina ) ; ii ) to contribute to the understanding of the species variability using morphological , morphometric , biochemical , molecular , and reproductive traits as well as host range ; and iii ) to provide data on the identification of root - knot nematodes infecting tomato cultivars from argentina .
above - ground symptoms exhibited by sweetpotato plants due to root - knot nematode include poor shoot growth , leaf chlorosis and stunting . galling of rootlets and severe cracking of storage roots on some varieties or formation of small bumps or blisters on other varieties are important below - ground symptoms in sweetpotato . there may also be brown to black spots in the outer layers of flesh which are not evident unless the storage root is peeled .
drain the pouches and evaluate the root systems by counting the egg masses under an illuminated desk magnifier .
with both assays further evaluation of nematode infection and calculation of the number of eggs / root system and eggs / gram of fresh root can be performed . for the tomato assays , individual roots are weighed and eggs extracted as described for inoculum preparation ( section 3 ) . when processing large number of plant samples , individual root systems could be macerated using a blender for egg extraction . the number of eggs should be counted in at least three aliquots and the eggs / gram of fresh root system calculated . for the pouch assays , the root system is pulled off the paper insert , weighed , and eggs extracted .
colombo a , cataldi s , marano g , genna g , 2008 . soil solarization and phenamiphos to control the root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita in sicily . redia [ ix congress of the italian society of nematology ( sin ) , florence , italy , 22 - 24 november 2007 . ] , 91 : 97 - 102 .
assess the population level and damage potential based on soil sampling or the history of injury in previous crops . because root knot nematodes feed and multiply on many weed species , weed control is an important aspect of their management .
shen bk , sun sy , dai ys , 1990 . studies on root - knot nematodes of trees , ornamental plants , and forest weeds . journal of nanjing forestry university , 14 ( 3 ) : 37 - 42 .
tzortzakakis ea , conceição ilpmda , santos mcvdos , abrantes imde o , 2011 . root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in greece . hellenic plant protection journal , 4 ( 1 ) : 25 - 30 . urltoken
mcsorley , r . , dickson , d . w . , de brito , j . a . 1994 . host status of selected tropical rotation crops to four populations of root - knot nematodes . nematropica 24 : 45–53 .
growing a crop on which the nematode pest can’t reproduce is a good way to control some nematodes . for example , the sugarbeet cyst nematode attacks only a limited number of crops including cole crops ( broccoli , brussels sprouts , cabbage , and cauliflower ) and related crops and weeds . growing nonsusceptible crops for 3 to 5 years reduces the sugarbeet cyst nematode population to a level where you can grow susceptible crops again . unfortunately , rotation isn’t as easy for controlling root knot nematodes , because so many vegetable crops and weeds are hosts of the pest .
you will need to repeat fallowing when you begin to see root injury again , as nematodes can build up to damaging levels even in a single season . a good way to conduct a fallowing program is to split the garden into thirds and fallow one - third every year or two on a rotating basis . if you intend to grow woody plants in a nematode - infested area , consider fallowing the soil for 4 years before planting . table 4 gives an example of a rotation / fallowing plan that would be useful for root knot nematode control .
unfortunately , not all nematodes are recovered with the extraction methods currently available and this applies particularly to nematodes in the egg stage . when relatively small samples are processed , some nematodes may be missed when population levels are low . the absence of root - knot nematode in these extractions does not necessarily mean that the nematode is not present in the field . in this case , use information about the soil texture , previous cropping history and previous occurrence of nematode damage to decide whether the negative result is accepted or whether the block should be re - sampled .
mullin ba , abawi gs , pastor - corrales ma , kornegay jl , 1991 . root - knot nematodes associated with beans in colombia and peru and related yield loss . plant disease , 75 ( 12 ) : 1208 - 1211
ponte jjda , 1968 . contributions to the knowledge of the host plants and control of root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , in the state of ceara . boletim da sociedade cearense de agronomia , 9 : 1 - 26
caillaud mc , dubreuil g , quentin m , perfus - barbeoch l , lecomte p , et al . ( 2008 ) root - knot nematodes manipulate plant cell functions during a compatible interaction . j plant physiol 165 : 104–113 .
often , the most damaging nematodes in the southeastern united states and the tropics are root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) . these nematodes are pests of nearly all major crops and are therefore widespread . damage can be directly observed by examining the roots , because root - knot nematodes produce galls or knot - like swellings along the plant roots ( figure 4 ) . these galls cannot not be easily removed because they are part of the plant root tissue . in contrast , nodules caused by beneficial nitrogen fixing bacteria can be easily removed . another method to distinguish nematode galls from nodules is to slice them in half and expose to air , which will cause nitrogen - fixing nodules to appear pink or red if the bacterial colony is active , or green or brown if the colony is inactive .
the cycle of development of nematodes begins with the egg where the development of the first larval phase is completed . after molting , a second age larva with a well - developed stylet leaves the egg . the nematode can infest the plant root system only at this phase . larvae from soil penetrate the root tissue growth area directly in front of the root cap . to penetrate the root , the larvae pierce a cell with the stylet and secrete the enzymes that cause cell wall degradation . these enzymes are produced in the esophageal glands (
root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) have gained importance due to their widespread distribution , their host range and damage potential ( hussey & janssen , 2002 ) . a recent survey on root - knot nematodes in europe by wesemael et al . ( 2011 ) showed that out of the 90 species described so far , 23 have been found in europe . furthermore , this survey showed that three species , namely meloidogyne . . . [ show full abstract ]
potential role of aqueous extract of some weeds against egg hatching and juvenile mortality of root - . . .


paracrocidura is a genus of shrews .

they are mammals in the family soricidae .

the vernacular name large-headed shrews is sometimes collectively applied to the genus , but has also been applied to the species crocidura grandiceps .

the genus contains the following species : grauer 's large-headed shrew ( paracrocidura graueri ) greater large-headed shrew ( paracrocidura maxima ) lesser large-headed shrew ( paracrocidura schoutedeni )

paracrocidura

how can i put and write and define paracrocidura in a sentence and how is the word paracrocidura used in a sentence and examples ? 用paracrocidura造句 , 用paracrocidura造句 , 用paracrocidura造句 , paracrocidura meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
how can i put and write and define paracrocidura schoutedeni in a sentence and how is the word paracrocidura schoutedeni used in a sentence and examples ? 用paracrocidura schoutedeni造句 , 用paracrocidura schoutedeni造句 , 用paracrocidura schoutedeni造句 , paracrocidura schoutedeni meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
revised by hutterer ( 1986 c ) . a study of 16s rrna sequences placed paracrocidura in one clade with crocidura ( querouil et al . , 2001 ) . however , unique external and cranial features distinguish the species of paracrocidura from all other genera .
comments : revised by hutterer ( 1986c ) . a study of 16s rrna sequences placed paracrocidura in one clade with crocidura ( querouil et al . , 2001 ) . however , unique external and cranial features distinguish the species of paracrocidura from all other genera
species named for schouteden include schouteden ' s swift , a shrew
paracrocidura schoutedeni
, a butterfly
bebearia schoutedeni
among many others .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , it occurs in a number of protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this central african species is largely limited to the congo basin . it has been recorded from southern cameroon , gabon , congo , the democratic republic of the congo , and central african republic . records south of the congo river are isolated populations in gallery forest . it has not been recorded to the east of the oubange river .
the natural history of this species is not well known . it appears to have only been recorded from lowland tropical moist forest .
there are no major threats to this species as a whole . it is presumably locally threatened in parts of its range by general habitat loss and degradation .
this species has been recorded from korup national park in cameroon , and is presumably present in several additional protected areas .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t41383a115182800 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )
justification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is probably not much greater than 20 , 000 km² , and the extent and quality of its habitat are probably declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable under criterion b1 .
this central african species has been recorded from the albertine rift region of democratic republic of the congo , rwanda , burundi and uganda . it has an elevational range of between 850 and 2 , 680 m asl .
many of the records of this species are from montane tropical moist forest , including both primary and secondary forest . it has been recorded from areas of montane swamp at 2 , 200 m asl in burundi , and from patches of mixed forest and bamboo habitat in other parts of its range .
there has already been considerable habitat loss within the lower elevations of this species range . presumably this is largely the result of logging operations , and the general conversion of land to agricultural use . habitat loss at kibira , burundi , seems to have been quite severe in recent years with approximately 25 % of forest now cleared or degraded ( julian kerbis pers . comm . ) .
kasangaki et al . ( 2003 ) recorded the species from the bwindi impenetrable national park in southwestern uganda . it is also knonw from the ruwenzori national park in uganda , and kibira national park in burundi . there is a need to prevent further loss of suitable habitat within the range of this species . additional studies are needed into the species distribution and population status .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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