megachile albonotata is a bee species in the genus megachile found notably in spain .

chalicodoma albonotata is the pollinator of the orchid ophrys drumana .

megachile albonotata

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
listed as data deficient as there is no information available on the population size , trends , habitat , ecology and threats . research should be conducted in order to determine the status of this species .
this species is distributed from spain to central asia through southern europe , turkey and the middle east ( ascher and pickering 2014 ) .
there is no information available for the population size and trend of this species .
the species is not listed in any national red lists or red data books . there are no conservation actions in place for this species , and it is unknown whether its distribution overlaps with any protected areas throughout its range .
further research should be conducted to determine the population size and trends , habitat and ecology , and threats to the species .
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chalicodoma rufescens pérez , 1879 ( nec friese , 1905 ) , chalicodoma pyrenaica var . rufescens pérez , 1879
suggested citation of this website : kuhlmann , m . et al . ( co - authors as listed in
contributors
) : checklist of the western palaearctic bees ( hymenoptera : apoidea : anthophila ) . urltoken ( yyyy / mm / dd ) .
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .


calliprora sexstrigella is a moth of the family gelechiidae .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california , new mexico and texas .

the wingspan is about 8 mm .

the forewings are dark grey , the basal third light grey and a rather oblique white spot from the middle of the costa , triangularly expanded beneath , sending from the posterior angle a brown subcostal streak to join the next marking , beneath this spot an elongate white mark in the middle of the disc .

there is an angulated white streak from the costa at three-fourths to the tornus , brown on the median third , the lower portion ochreous-tinged and confluent with extremities of a v-shaped white mark preceding it , preceded also by a small whitish dorsal spot .

there is a sinuate brown line from the costa at four-fifths to the apex , and a brown terminal line .

beyond this two pairs of small white black-edged wedge-shaped costal spots mostly in the cilia , the costal cilia otherwise pale grey , at the apex with a black projecting hook , on the termen with dark fuscous subbasal line and suffused dark fuscous on the outer half .

the hindwings are grey , with a streak of pale suffusion in the middle of the disc .

calliprora sexstrigella

this is the same as a moth identified as calliprora sp . ( gelechiidae ) by sangmi lee , here ( additional photos of it appear on the bugguide page for c . sexstrigella here ) . i don ' t believe that it is the same as the moth identified ( correctly , i believe , in that it agrees with chambers ' s description ) as c . sexstrigella here .
calliprora meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 242 ; ts : calliprora pentagramma meyrick
calliprora centrocrossa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 67 ; tl : brazil , parintins
calliprora clistogramma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 281 ; tl : brazil , sao paulo
calliprora erethistis meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 70 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas
calliprora eurydelta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 69 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas
calliprora peritura meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 70 ; tl : brazil , para
calliprora tetraplecta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 68 ; tl : peru , iquitos
calliprora trigramma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 243 ; tl : british guiana , bartica
calliprora platyxipha meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 69 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins
calliprora rhodogramma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 67 ; tl : brazil , manaos , teffé
calliprora pentagramma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 243 ; tl : british guiana , bartica ; mallali
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
sattler , 1973 a catalogue of the family - group and genus - group names of the gelechiidae , holcopogonidae , lecithoceridae and symmocidae ( lepidoptera ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 153 - 282
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
chambers , v . t . 1874 . tineina from texas . the canadian entomologist 6 ( 12 ) : 248
bold - barcode of life data systems - species account with collection map and photos of pinned adults .
dictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .
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the gelechiid moths are one of the major families of micromoths , especially in the temperate latitudes . more than 4 , 500 species have been named and placed in more than 500 genera , and unknown numbers of undescribed species exist . members of the superfamily gelechioidea , these moths are tiny to small ( wingspan 0 . 7 - 2 . 5 cm , mostly 1 - 2 cm ) , mostly nocturnal , somber colored , brown , gray or black , but some are colorfully patterned , especially in tropical regions . hindwings of most species are trapezoidal in shape , with the outer margin concave below the apex . larvae are concealed feeders , usually leaf tiers , forming shelters in new growing tips of trees and shrubs , but many are leaf miners or stem , root , or seed borers .


hypatopa simplicella is a moth in the blastobasidae family .

it is found in north america , including iowa , pennsylvania , ontario , nova scotia , british columbia , quebec , maine and oklahoma .

hypatopa simplicella

hypatopa simplicella dietz , 1910 is elevated from subsp . of 1151 hypatopa [ = blastobasis ] plummerella .
dioryctria simplicella ( brown pine knot - horn ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .
no one has contributed data records for hypatopa yet . learn how to contribute .
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
pistemantukoi
to
hypatopa binotella
.
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
rytömantukoi
to
hypatopa inunctella
.
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
vyömantukoi
to
hypatopa segnella
.
hypatopa binotella , the spotted dowd moth , is a moth in the blastobasidae family .
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recorded in 28 ( 41 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1932 . last recorded in 2018 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018


the mountain brushtail possum , or southern bobuck ( trichosurus cunninghami ) , is a nocturnal , semi-arboreal marsupial of the family phalangeridae native to southeastern australia .

it was not described as a separate species until 2002 .

mountain brushtail possum

the results indicated that the northern mountain brushtail possum from new south wales and queensland was indeed a different species from the southern mountain brushtail possum found in victoria .
the type specimens of the mountain brushtail possum now reside in the australian museum mammal collection .
mountain brushtail possum predators have not been well - reported . they are preyed on by non - native foxes (
measurements such as this one of the head length on this sedated mountain brushtail possum have been used to differentiate two distinct species – the short - eared possum that ranges from central nsw to central queensland , and the mountain brushtail possum that is distributed south from sydney to central victoria .
viggers , k . , d . lindenmayer . 2002 . the other brushtail possum .
mountain brushtail possums are a little larger than the common brushtail possum , weighing between 2 . 5kg to 4 . 5kg . they also have some other features that distinguish them from the common brushtail possum . their ears are slightly smaller and more rounded , and are usually darker in colour .
the mountain brushtail possum ' s diet consists mainly of plant food such as leaves , fruits , berries , flowers , bark , fungi and lichens .
large decaying logs provide important runways for animals like the mountain brushtail possum – and assist them move through the dense ground cover that characterizes tall wet eucalypt forests .
mountain brushtail possums , or southern bobucks , are native to southeastern australia , ranging from victoria to central queensland .
mountain brushtail possums are sometimes described as a destructive pest in southeastern australian pine plantations ( iucn red list ) .
the short - eared possum – a new species recently separated from the mountain brushtail possum by workers supported by the herman slade foundation . differences in ear length , foot length , tail structure and genetic variability distinguish the two species .
lindenmayer , d . , j . dubach , k . viggers . 2002 . geographic dimorphism in the mountain brushtail possum t . caninus : the case for a new species .
mountain brushtail possums may influence vegetation community structure through their herbivory . allergic reactions to ectoparasites on the skin may be one of the main causes of the disease ' rumpwear ' in mountain brushtail possums ( hufschmid , handasyde , and beveridge , 2010 ) .
as a result , the existing species , trichosurus caninus , was renamed the short - eared possum , and the southern population was identified as a new species . the new southern species , trichosurus cunninghamii , retains the common name mountain brushtail possum .
montane ash forests where the mountain brushtail possum occurs are also used extensively for timber and paper production . current clearfelling methods are known to have significant negative impacts on populations of the species .
an adult animal emerging from a tree hollow . an individual mountain brushtail possum may use up to 20 different hollows in 20 different years in any given year ( photo : esther beaton ) .
contact - your local licenced possum specialist . for brisbane and surrounds call peter the possum man on ( 07 ) 3250 1111 .
the mountain brushtail possum occurs in the wet sclerophyll and sub - tropical forests from victoria to central queensland , and for many years has been the subject of detailed ecological studies by dr lindenmayer . the studies showed distinct differences in external body measurements between northern and southern populations of mountain brushtail possum , which led the team to investigate further by extracting dna from blood samples in order to examine genetic differences between the populations .
) , which is found directly to the north of mountain brushtail possums . no sexual dimorphism is apparent ( lindenmayer , dubach , and viggers , 2002 ) .
however , dr david lindemayer , a regular associate of the australian museum , and colleagues from the australian national university recently discovered that the well known mountain brushtail possum , trichosurus caninus , was in fact not one species , but two .
viggers , k . l . and lindenmayer , d . b . ( 2000 ) . a population study of the mountain brushtail possum , in the central highlands of victoria . australian journal of zoology , 48 , 201 - 216 .
the mountain brushtail possum , or bobuck as it is also commonly called , is one of the largest species of arboreal marsupials living in wet sclerophyll forests in south - eastern australia , and cool temperate rainforests patches in nsw and south eastern qld .
mountain brush - tails breed in march - may with occasional births outside this timeframe .
lindenmayer , d . b . , dubach , j . , and viggers , k . l . ( 2002 ) geographic dimorphism in the mountain brushtail possum  the case for a new species . australian journal of zoology , 50 , 369 - 393 .
viggers , k . l . , and lindenmayer , d . b . ( 2002 ) . the other brushtail possum . nature australia spring 2002 , 47 - 55 .
their reproductive cycle is very similar to that of the common brushtail possum . they become sexually mature at around two years of age , but rarely breed in this first year .
if your best efforts of excluding your possum / s fail then further advice and assistance may be your last resort . ecologically - minded possum advice , specialist trapping requirements , and legislative compliant release methods should be employed by licensed professionals for effective possum management .
viggers , k . l . and lindenmayer , d . b . a review of the biology of the mountain brushtail possum . in : goldingay , r . l . and jackson , s . ( editors ) . possums and gliders . csiro publishing , melbourne . ( in press ) .
it is rare these days for a new species of possum to be discovered in australia . the last recorded discovery was of the daintree river ringtail possum , pseudochirulus cinereus , in 1945 .
large wire cage traps baited with apple are used to catch the mountain brushtail possum . green apples are used as the preferred bait – probably because the ethylene used to ripen “granny smith” apples is attractive to animals while they are foraging ( perhaps because is resembles the smell of truffles which animals consume in several seasons of the year ) .
wires rescue hotline received a call from a local club to rescue a possum stuck in an industrial bin used for food scraps . the possum was stuck in the bin and due to depth of the bin unable to get back out .
mountain brushtail possums are found within the tall forest of the great dividing range and along the coast from south - east queensland to new south wales and victoria . they are patchily distributed and prefer to inhabit dense subtropical rainforests , wet sclerophyll and also tall eucalypt forests .
mountain brushtail possums are medium - sized ( 2 . 6 to 4 . 2 kg ) marsupials . they have thick , light gray - brown fur , and long , dark gray , bushy tails . they differ morphologically from their close relatives , short - eared possums (
in the event a possum is accidentally trapped during the process either reopen the closed entry point or remove a tile or raise a sheet of iron on your roof to allow exit . if this fails contact a local licensed reputable possum handler for immediate assistance .
image below shows mum possum shortly after rescue in bens rescue basket on route to leoni , clearly stressed and frightened by her ordeal .
most mountain brushtail possum females give birth to one baby a year . the offspring spend approximately 6 months in the pouch , then 1 to 2 months riding on the mother’s back . males spend the least amount of time with their female partners when the females are carrying young on their back , and are therefore much less involved in the care of offspring . juveniles remain with their mothers until they are approximately 18 months old .
possums communicate with each other in different ways , including using smells , sounds and visuals . some sounds they use are hisses , clicks , guttural coughs and screeching . the noises of the common brushtail possum are very similar to that of the mountain brushtail . they also have a variety of scent glands that provide each other with information such as identity , sex , and whether they are in season . they have around 11 scent - producing glands which are found on their sternum and cloaca , in their mouth and pouch , under their chin , on their ears and in between their digits .
this project is a long - term field - based study of the mountain brushtail possum and aims to provide new insights into the ecology , population dynamics and life history of this long - lived marsupial . the proposed work will have significant implications for the conservation of the mountain brushtail possum , particularly for predicting its response to logging - induced habitat changes and estimating the species prospects for long - term persistence in australian forests designated for paper and wood production . for example , the results of the investigation will help mapping and planning refugial conservation areas for wildlife conservation within wood production forests . this will , in turn , assist the improved integration of wildlife conservation and wood production in multi - use landscapes . the project is based around a trap - recapture study that has been running since 1991 at a 35 ha site at cambarville in the montane ash forests of the central highlands of victoria .
they tend to stay with their mother for much longer than other possum species . lifespan can be as long as 17 years , possibly longer . mountain brushtails live in hollow logs mainly found in old trees , so please think before cutting down that old tree , someone may call it home .
both male and female mountain brushtail possums appear to be long - lived , reaching at least 12 years of age . however , it appears as though fewer males reach that age than females ( martin and handasyde , 2007 ) . they are perhaps the longest lived marsupial ( viggers and lindenmayer , 2002 ) .
hufschmid , j . , k . handasyde , i . beveridge . 2010 . the role of host and environmental factors in the epidemiology of rumpwear in brushtail possums .
the southern animals of this species have olive grey fur . here on the north coast , the mountain brushtail can have a variety of colors , from the common grey colour to golden , black , brown and a combination of all . sexual maturity is reached at about 3 years of age . the female gives birth to normally only one young . pouch life is approximately 120 days , after which the juvenile possum will travel part time on mums back . mortality rate at this stage can be high .
the possum box you placed in your tree as option a may become the new home for your excluded visitor and provides a
win win
solution for all .
both male and female adult mountain brushtail possums have a mean home range size of 6 . 0 hectares , plus or minus 0 . 4 hectares . the home ranges of subadults are significantly smaller . however , this data was gathered in a forest setting . therefore , the home ranges of those populations living in scrub settings is unstudied and unknown ( martin , 2006 ) .
so what can you do to try deterring a resident possum from your home ? mountain brush - tail possums are often responsible for sleepless nights for suburban home occupants during entry , exit and general movements associated with roof and wall cavities . placement of a possum box in a tree around your property is advised as your first option . these are available from produce stores , specialist artificial home constructors or you can make your own ( see this site ) . the exclusion of possums from your home is quite simple requiring a small effort on your own behalf .
mum possum was taken back to the club the following evening and released back in to a large fig tree , joey delighting leoni but sticking her head out of the pouch as mum as released .
both were taken in to care by leoni . mum possum was given re hydration fluid and some native food and it did not take long before she was fast asleep with much movement within her pouch .
mountain brushtail possums are nocturnal , staying in dens during the day and leaving at night to forage . they are sedentary , often remaining in the same small home range for their entire lives . adults form strong pair - bonds and often share the same suite of different dens with their offspring . the home ranges of paired individuals overlap as well , as opposed to non - paired individuals , who remain more exclusive in their home ranges .
mountain brushtail possums breed once yearly , in january and february . offspring remain in the pouch for approximately 6 months and then ride on their mother’s back for another 1 to 2 months . offspring are usually weaned around september . juveniles remain close to their mothers until they are approximately 18 months old . females become sexually mature between 2 and 5 years of age ; males between 2 and 3 years ( martin , handasyde , taylor , and coulson , 2007 ) .
mountain brush - tail possums have proven highly adaptable to urban environments using trees , wildlife corridors , natural gullies , roofs and wall cavities often moving via telegraph poles , cabling and fences for traveling and foraging within close proximity to favored moist forest habitat .
it is a frightening thought as to how many animals may in fact go to the tip or even worse go in to the compactors when the bins are emptied , the operator of the compacter not aware that a live animal such as mum possum is trapped .
possums should not be relocated more than 25 meters from the point of capture after proofing has been conducted . be sure to ask contractors what methods they employ and choose the one which provides a solution for yourself and the best welfare outcome for the possum / s being trapped .
trapping and further management of mountain brush - tail possums should be done in accordance with requirements stipulated by the environmental protection agency and permits are issued to operators after examination as to the knowledge and suitability of the permit holder to actively manage suburban possums . often these permit holders are able to provide proofing measures to exclude further entry .
wires carer ben went on the rescue and had to hop in to the bin himself in order to reach the possum . she was fairly easy to catch due to being extremely stressed and worn out from having most likely spent considerable time trying to get out , it was also discovered that she was in fact a female with a large joey in the pouch .
place the paper back into the space and wait for the resident possum to make his early evening exit . inspect the locality every 10 - 15 minutes to determine when this has occurred and simply block the point of entry with a hard fixture like sheet iron . tightly compressed chicken wire reinforced with expandable building foam available in a can is ideal for hard to reach spaces . in some cases the replacement of a single tile or re - fixing of an iron sheet will solve the problem .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , lack of major threats , and because it is not currently in decline .
this species occurs from ulladulla in southern new south wales , south to wombat forest and mount cole in central victoria . it occurs from sea level up to 1 , 300 m asl ( but usually above 300 m ; martin 2008 ) .
it is a mostly scansorial species , of various tall open and closed forest types . it can occur in exotic pine plantations and is a pest in regenerating pine plantations . the female gives birth to a single young after a gestation period of between 15 and 17 days ; the young have a pouch life of five to six months ( martin 2008 ) . along the snowy river it dens in rocky crevices instead of tree holes or logs .
there are no major threats to this species . clearance of land for agriculture and forestry is a threat in some parts of its range . foxes also can be a problem .
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tail often used to grasp branches but cannot support its own body - weight .
males generally larger & heavier than females & may have reddish fur across shoulders .
males use scent glands under the chin , on the chest & near the anus to mark territory yet lack the characteristic staining of the chest like the common brush - tail as the fluid excreted is clear .
arboreal ( tree - living ) occupying tall , open and closed forest and extending along margins of riparian forests .
nocturnal , spending daylight hours asleep in tree hollows , dead branches , thick ferns , epiphytes or even fallen logs .
natural diet consists of leaves , flowers & fruit of native plants . capable of digesting leaves & fruits often toxic to other species . also eats insects , bird eggs and scavenge meat if available .
communication is via scent markings , deep coughing & hissing noises when encountering other individuals .
threats include ; land clearing & loss of habitat , and in urban areas road - deaths & dog attacks .
females may breed from 2 years of age but are generally more successful after the third and subsequent years .
a further 2 - 5 months is spent riding on the mothers back & suckling from her .
after weaning may persist in the area they are raised for a further 18 - 36 months .
human dwellings provide abundant warm , dry shelters , lots of available food plants from manufactured gardens and opportunity to scavenge from litter and rubbish bins .
hand feeding by residents and leaving domestic pet - food outside can also assist possums .
inspect your roof for signs of obvious signs of entry . access is often gained by broken tiles , lifting corrugated iron sheets , deteriorating timber eaves , loose guttering and poor workmanship by builders .
obvious signs include hair and urine staining . feacal matter may also accumulate directly below the entry point .
inspect the entire roof . possums may utilise more than one location and will look for other localities if the usual access is sealed .
place loosely
scrunched up
balls of newspaper in the entry of probable sites and inspect over a two day period to see which localities are being utilised . the paper will be either pushed out or pulled into the roof space .
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open daily 9 . 00am - 5 . 00pm closed christmas day bedtime for some of our animals is 4 : 30pm .
july 24 is when i celebrate my birthday . my love decided to surprise me early with this stunning bouquet . every day… urltoken
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 38c09756 - aa0c - 49e1 - 8e4b - a70d881c9382
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f2024309 - 4e07 - 4948 - b4f1 - 0208dc7a3691
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 600275
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all possums are territorial . let us make sure that they continue to have a place amongst us .
we urge that all industrial bins which all have lids are actually closed . it is extremely tempting for animals such as possums to take advantage of food left in bins , once inside they are not able to escape .
( lindenmayer , et al . , 2002 ; martin and handasyde , 2007 ; martin , 2006 )
relies on sight , hearing , touch , smell , and taste . its whiskers enhance it ' s perception .
leaves , fungi , lichens , buds , fruit , and sometimes bark . acacia is an integral part of their seasonal diet , with different species of the plant consumed at different times of the year .
) and may also be taken by large snakes or raptors . the main threat to populations is human action – the clearance of land for forestry and agriculture .
( hufschmid , et al . , 2010 ; menkhorst , et al . , 2011 )
is of least concern , according to the iucn , and populations are considered stable .
helen mccreary ( author ) , yale university , eric sargis ( editor ) , yale university , rachel racicot ( editor ) , yale university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
irlbeck , n . , i . hume . 2003 . the role of acacia in the diets of australian marsupials – a review .
martin , j . 2006 . den - use and home - range characteristics of bobucks , trichosurus cunninghami , resident in a forest patch .
martin , j . , k . handasyde . 2007 . comparison of bobuck demography in two habitat types in the strathbogie ranges , australia .
martin , j . , k . handasyde , a . taylor , g . coulson . 2007 . long - term pair - bonds without mating fidelity in a mammal .
menkhorst , p . , d . taggart , m . ellis , r . martin . 2011 .
the iucn red list of threatened species
( on - line ) . accessed april 10 , 2012 at urltoken .
to cite this page : mccreary , h . 2012 .
trichosurus cunninghami
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
a project undertaken at the centre for resource & environmental studies , the australian national university , canberra and managed by david lindenmayer .


protopelicanus cuvierii is a putative fossil waterbird of uncertain affinities .

it was briefly described and figured by georges cuvier in 1822 from late eocene material from montmartre , france , though not formally described and named until 1852 by german botanist and ornithologist ludwig reichenbach as an early pelecanid .

the original material comprised the cranial part of a left scapula and a nearly complete left femur .

the lectotype femur was thought by michel brunet in 1970 to be typical of a pelican .

however , colin harrison in 1979 considered that it belonged to the sulidae , and storrs olson in 1995 thought it might be a pelagornithid .

the femur is held by the muséum national d'histoire naturelle in paris ( no. 7978 ) ; the location of the scapular fragment is unknown .

protopelicanus

from the fossil record , it is known that pelicans have been around for over 40 million years , the earliest fossil pelecanus being found in early miocene deposits in france . prehistoric genera have been named protopelicanus and miopelecanus . the supposed miocene pelican liptornis from argentina is a nomen dubium , being based on hitherto indeterminable fragments .
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where : ile - de - france region , france ( 48 . 9° n , 2 . 3° e : paleocoordinates 47 . 4° n , 1 . 6° w )
when : montmartre reference level zone , priabonian ( 38 . 0 - 33 . 9 ma )
primary reference : g . cuvier . 1804 . memoire sur le squelette presque entier d ' un petit quadrupede du genre des sarigues , trouvé dans la pierre a platre des environs de paris .
paleodb collection 31739 : authorized by emmanuel fara , entered by emmanuel fara on 24 . 05 . 2003 , edited by john alroy , mark uhen , patricia holroyd , philip mannion , matthew carrano and evangelos vlachos
page 73 and 74 : ^ ^ 2 stores l . olson ( 1983b ) include
page 77 and 78 : 156 storrs l . olson ( 1978 ) have rec
page 87 and 88 : 166 stoers l . olson ( ypresian ) of e
page 89 and 90 : 1 ^ ^ storrs l . olson miocene ( probab
page 137 and 138 : 2 . the fossil record of birds j . sp
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feduccia , a . , 1980 : the age of birds . –harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts & london , england , 1980 , ix - 196
feduccia , a . , 1997 : the origin and evolution of birds . –yale university press , new haven , 1996 , x - 420
olson , s . l . , 1975 : paleornithology of st . helena island , south atlantic ocean . –smithsonian contributions to baleobiology : vol . 23 , pp . iv - 49
olson , s . l . , 1985 : the fossil record of birds . 79 - 239 . in farner , d . , king , j . & parkes , k . ( eds . ) , 1985 : avian biology . vol viii . –academic press , new york . 1985 .
olson , s . l . & rasmussen , p . d . , 2001 : miocene and pliocene birds from the lee creek mine , north carolina . 233 - 365 in ray , c . e . & bohaska , d . j . , ( eds . ) 2001 : geology and paleontology of the lee creek mine , north carolina , iii . –smithsonian contributions to paleobiology : nr . 90 , iii - 365
sibley , c . g . & monroe , j . b . l . , 1990 : distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . –yale university press , new haven & london , 1990 . xxiv - 1111 .
peterson , a . p . , 2002 - 2004 : zoonomen nomenclatural data of birds . ( updated : 2004 - 12 - 24 ) –inet : zoonomen nomenclatural data : urltoken ; [ visited : 2005 - 01 - 21 ]
sibley , c . g . & monroe , b . l . , 1990 : distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . –yale university press , new haven & london , 1990 . xxiv - 1111 .
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a pelican is any of several very large water bird s with a distinctive pouch under the beak belonging to the bird family pelecanidae .
along with the darter s , cormorant s , gannet s , boobie s , frigatebird s , and tropicbird s , pelicans make up the order pelecaniformes . modern pelicans are found on all continents except antarctica . they occur mostly in warm regions , though breeding ranges reach 45° south ( australian pelican , p . conspicillatus ) and 60° north ( american white pelican s , p . erythrorhynchos , in western canada ) . birds of inland and coastal waters , they are absent from polar regions , the deep ocean , oceanic islands , and inland south america .
( p . occidentalis ) , small individuals of which can be as little as 2 . 75 kg ( 6 lb ) , 106 cm ( 42 in ) long and can have a wingspan of as little as 1 . 83 m ( 6 ft ) . the largest is believed to be the
( p . crispus ) , at up to 15 kg ( 33 lb ) , 183 cm ( 72 in ) long , with a maximum wingspan of nearly 3 . 5 m ( 11 . 5 ft ) . the australian pelican has the longest bill of any bird they often catch fish by expanding the throat pouch . then they must drain the pouch above the surface before they can swallow . this operation takes up to a minute , during which time other seabirds are particularly likely to
the fish . pelicans in their turn sometimes pirate prey from other seabirds . and that of the latter at 13 , 000 to 18 , 000 . the most common is believed to be the australian pelican ( though some estimates have placed the white pelican at a higher population ) .
, the pelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young , to the point of providing her own blood when no other food was available . as a result , the pelican became a symbol of the
(
a pelican in her piety
or
a pelican vulning ( wounding ) herself
) . another version of this is that the pelican used to kill its young and then resurrect them with its blood , this being analogous to the sacrifice of jesus . thus the symbol of the
( ibts ) is a pelican , and for most of its existence the headquarters of the service was located at pelican house in dublin , ireland .
for example , the emblems of both corpus christi college , cambridge and corpus christi college , oxford are pelicans , showing its use as a medieval christian symbol ( ' corpus christi ' means ' body of christ ' ) .
likewise a folktale from india says that a pelican killed her young by rough treatment but was then so contrite that she resurrected them with her own blood . they placed emphasis on animals and often depicted pelicans in their art .
in october 2006 . according to tourists watching , the pelican strolled to the pigeon and grabbed it into its beak , a 20 minute struggle ensued , which ended with pigeon being swallowed
head first down while flapping all the way down
.
in may 2008 , a woman bore 20 stitches after a pelican rammed into her face and died . the pelican was believed to be diving for fish in the sea off florida .
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the lamniformes ( from the greek word , lamna " fish of prey " ) are an order of sharks commonly known as mackerel sharks ( which may also refer specifically to the family lamnidae ) .

it includes some of the most familiar species of sharks , such as the great white shark and extinct megalodon , as well as more unusual representatives , such as the goblin shark and the megamouth shark .

members of the order are distinguished by possessing two dorsal fins , an anal fin , five gill slits , eyes without nictitating membranes , and a mouth extending behind the eyes .

also , unlike other sharks , they maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water .

lamniformes

( lamniformes : cretoxyrhinidae ) from the niobrara chalk of kansas . bulletin of the new mexico museum of natural history 35 : 185–192 .
fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 . hexanchiformes to lamniformes
the vertebrae had stacks of lines called lamellae around the outside , suggesting the bones once belonged to a broad scientific classification of sharks called lamniformes that includes sand tiger sharks , great white sharks , goblin sharks and others , frederickson said .
compagno , l j . v . 2001 . sharks of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date , volume 2 ; bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao . rome , italy .
hansen bb , cuny g , rasmussen bw , shimada k , jacobs p , heilmann - clausen c ( 2013 ) associated skeletal and dental remains of a fossil odontaspidid shark ( elasmobranchii : lamniformes ) from the middle eocene lillebælt clay formation in denmark . bulletin of the geological society of denmark 61 : 37–46 .
lamniformes have two dorsal fins , neither of which is spined . they also have an anal fin , five gill slits and small spiracles ( in most species ) , which are situated behind the eyes . the eyes have no nictitating membrane , and usually roll back in the case of frontal impact in order to protect them .
lamniformes mackerel sharks most mackerel sharks have long snouts and mouths that stretch behind the eyes . they also feature two dorsal fins and an anal fin . these species range from intertidal areas to open ocean at depths of nearly 4 , 000 ft . embryos of these sharks dine on their younger siblings and fertilized eggs in the womb .
interestingly , lamniformes have a special adaptation . this involves their circulatory system and allows them to retain heat generated by cellular metabolic processes . this is in contrast to other cold - blooded sharks and fish and allows them to spend energy on hunting and travelling rather than on trying to maintain a beable body temperature as the water temperature around them cools .
lamniformes are ovoviviparous . eggs are fertilised and hatched internally . however , this group also displays a phenomenon known as oophagy , which dictates that the first pup to hatch in the oviduct should devour the other unfertilised eggs in the oviduct . this pup is born strong , beable and with trained killer instincts in preparation for its independent life in the open waters .
compagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )
compagno , l . j . v . ( 2001 ) . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . volume 2 . bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 1 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . 269p . [ details ]
lamniformes , also known as mackerel sharks , is one of the most well - known groups as it includes famous species and feared hunters , like the great white shark , basking shark , mako ( shortfin and longfin ) and megamouth . this group has a particularly large mouth , ideal for seizing and immobilising large prey as well as for tearing off chunks of meat from hapless victims . the megalodon , now extinct , was also part of this fascinating group . other members include the goblin and thresher sharks .
lamniformes only live in saltwater , and cannot survive in freshwater rivers or lakes . different species are able to live in the shallower , warmer coastal areas or the deeper , colder waters of the open seas . they also withstand varying temperatures to make them one of the most prolific and abundant known shark groups . the smallest lamnoid is the crocodile shark , which reaches about 1 . 1 metres in length . the largest is the basking shark , growing to an impressive length of approximately 9 . 8 metres .
whether or not omnh 68860 belongs to leptostyrax remains unclear ; however , the unique vertebral morphology and gigantic size indicate the presence of a very large shark during the mid - cretaceous of north america . the mid - cretaceous is increasingly being recognized as an important time in shark evolutionary history , as the fossil record improves and increasingly reveals previously unknown diversity . although lamniformes likely evolved in the jurassic , it is not until the aptian when multiple genera appear together in a single assemblage . similarly , size increased for the entire order , with multiple families containing relatively large species by the late cretaceous [ 29 ] . this increase in size and diversity was likely influenced by the warming trend beginning in the mid - cretaceous ; where midocean temperatures at 30–35°n paleolatitude rise from 13–14°c in the early albian to 28–29°c in the cenomanian [ 30 ] . however , more research is needed to determine the cause of gigantism in lamniform sharks .
despite their rows of ragged teeth and vicious appearance , sand tiger sharks are actually rather docile , usually attacking humans only in self - defense .
sand tiger sharks , also known as gray nurse sharks , have a deceivingly ferocious look . they are large - bodied and display a mouthful of sharp teeth that protrude in all directions , even when the mouth is shut . despite this , they are a docile , non - aggressive species , known to attack humans only when bothered first .
sand tiger sharks are brownish - gray with rust - colored spots on top and white underneath . they have a flattened , cone - shaped snout and a distinctive , oblong tail with a notched , upper lobe that is significantly longer than the lobe below . individuals range in size from 6 . 5 to 10 . 5 feet in length .
their name comes from their tendency toward shoreline habitats , and they are often seen trolling the ocean floor in the surf zone , very close to shore . they are found in warm or temperate waters throughout the world ' s oceans , except the eastern pacific .
sand tigers are the only shark known to come to the surface and gulp air . they store the air in their stomachs , which allows them to float motionless in the water , seeking prey . they are voracious predators , feeding at night and generally staying close to the bottom . their staple is small fish , but they will eat crustaceans and squid as well . they occasionally hunt in groups , and have even been known to attack full fishing nets .
although this species is widespread and is not widely fished for food , it has one of the lowest reproduction rates of all sharks and is susceptible to even minimal population pressure . for this reason , it is listed as vulnerable and is protected in much of its range .
after keigo mitsukuri ; he worked in zoological names with y . iwasaki , 1896 ; imperial university
marine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 30 - 1300 m ( ref . 43278 ) , usually 270 - 960 m ( ref . 43278 ) . deep - water ; 48°n - 55°s , 180°w - 180°e
western atlantic : guyana ( ref . 6871 ) , suriname ( ref . 13608 , 11228 ) and french guiana . eastern atlantic : france ( bay of biscay ) , madeira , portugal , and south africa . western indian ocean : off south africa . western pacific : japan , australia ( south australia , new south wales ) , new zealand ( ref . 26346 ) . eastern pacific : usa ( southern california ) ( ref . 43278 ) .
maturity : l m ? , range 264 - 322 cm max length : 617 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 83323 ) ; common length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . flat , bladelike , elongated snout , tiny eyes without nictitating eyelids , soft , flabby body , slender , very long cusped teeth in long , protrusible jaws , long caudal fin without a ventral lobe ( ref . 247 ) . pinkish - white with bluish fins , becoming brownish grey after death ( ref . 5578 , 11228 ) .
found on outer continental shelves and upper slopes , but rarely in shallow water close inshore ( ref . 247 , 43278 ) . jaws are highly specialized for rapid projection from the head to snap up small animals ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on jacopever , pelagic octopus and crabs ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) . probably slow - moving and neutrally buoyant ( ref . 6871 ) . utilized dried salted ( ref . 247 )
exhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding on other ova produced by the mother ( oophagy ) after the yolk sac is absorbed ( ref . 247 , 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .
) : 3 . 8 - 13 . 7 , mean 8 . 3 ( based on 1037 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 ±0 . 62 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 10 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
three large lamniform shark vertebrae are described from the lower cretaceous of texas . we interpret these fossils as belonging to a single individual with a calculated total body length of 6 . 3 m . this large individual compares favorably to another shark specimen from the roughly contemporaneous kiowa shale of kansas . neither specimen was recovered with associated teeth , making confident identification of the species impossible . however , both formations share a similar shark fauna , with leptostyrax macrorhiza being the largest of the common lamniform sharks . regardless of its actual identification , this new specimen provides further evidence that large - bodied lamniform sharks had evolved prior to the late cretaceous .
citation : frederickson ja , schaefer sn , doucette - frederickson ja ( 2015 ) a gigantic shark from the lower cretaceous duck creek formation of texas . plos one 10 ( 6 ) : e0127162 . urltoken
copyright : © 2015 frederickson et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited
data availability : site data for omnh v1727 are available by request from the department of vert . paleontology at the ( sn ) omnh .
funding : this paper received funding from the open access fund from the university of oklahoma libraries . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the specimens described herein , omnh 68860 , were collected in the duck creek formation of tarrant county , texas ( fig 1 ) . the duck creek is the second lowest formation of the lower cretaceous washita group ( albian ) [ 3 ] . underlying the duck creek is the basal kiamichi formation , which shares a contact with the duck creek defined lithologically by a transition from pebble - conglomerates and breccias to limestone , and faunally by a sharp decrease in gryphaea and schloenbachia [ 4 , 5 ] . the duck creek is conformably overlain by the fort worth formation ; the intervening contact is lithologically inconspicuous but is instead marked biostratigraphically by the appearance of holaster simplex , hemiaster elegans , and exogyra americana [ 5 ] .
a map of albian - age rocks in tarrant county , texas , showing the approximate location of omnh v1727 .
within tarrant county , the duck creek formation is approximately 13 m thick and is comprised of limestone , marl , and chalky marl deposits exposed in the western half of the county ( fig 1 ) [ 4 ] . the duck creek formation is subdivided into two primary units based on lithology , and four primary zones based on fauna . lithologically , the first 7 m above the base of the duck creek are dominated by limestone . above 7 m , limestone beds become increasingly indurated , decrease in thickness , and are further interlaminated by marl or marly limestone [ 4 , 6 ] . biostratigraphic zones consist of three ammonoid faunas including the basal desmoceras zone , followed by the schloenbachia zone and a scaphites zone ; the uppermost faunal zone is marked by the appearance of the brachiopod genus kingena [ 4 ] .
the base of a measured section at v1727 begins within the duck creek formation and correlates both lithologically and faunally with the ammonoid - rich limestone beds as described by winton and adkins [ 4 ] ( fig 2 ) . limestone dominates the measured section from the base to 6 m , where the first thinly - bedded marl deposits occur . despite significant portions of the section being covered by talus , the lithological transition to marl - dominated strata above 6 m is clearly defined and further supported by the appearance of kingena among the talus . the uppermost strata of the measured section consist of weathered , kingena - bearing marl with various echinoid fragments belonging to holaster simplex . these taxa imply the transition to the overlying fort worth formation ; however , no in situ bedforms were observed ; thus , at present , the contact can be inferred but not directly observed .
initially , the three vertebrae discussed herein were collected from a displaced block of limestone resting among marl debris situated above the lower limestone strata of the duck creek formation . further specimens bearing similar dimensions , taphonomic characteristics , and proximity to omnh 68860 were recovered in situ by a private collector within the indurated limestone beds lying just below the kingena - bearing marls approximately 11 . 5 m above the base of section ( fig 3 ; l . hall , personal communication ) . the lithology of the strata containing the shark vertebrae found in situ matches the remaining matrix from omnh 68860 . furthermore , taphonomic similarities shared among all vertebrae indicated that the specimens recovered by the private collector must indeed represent one individual ( discussed below ) . the stratigraphic origin of the shark vertebrae can therefore be confidently placed below the lower kingena - bearing marl and within the indurated limestone of the upper duck creek formation , approximately 10 . 5 m above the base of the section .
the surrounding lithology correlates with the indurated limestone bedforms 10 . 5 m above the base of the measured section ( photo courtesy of l . hall , 2013 ) .
in order to estimate the total body lengths from individual vertebra , we made comparisons with cretaceous sharks that possess a more robust postcranial fossil record . as it is impossible to determine vertebral position in a shark based on isolated vertebrae alone [ 1 ] , we conservatively regard the vertebra with the maximum centrum diameter as the largest vertebra in the entire individual . this ensures that the estimates achieved represent the smallest hypothetical length possible for this specimen . additionally , we assume that the relationship between vertebral size and total body length is consistent between well - represented species and omnh 68860 . this assumption is reasonable because most pelagic sharks have a consistent body form [ 2 ] .
similarly , gottfried et al . [ 7 ] used a different formula to calculate the total body length of individual vertebra in carcharocles megalodon using carcharodon carcharias as a proxy .
no permits were required for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .
omnh 68860 ; three vertebral centra , discovered by members of the paleontology club of the university of wisconsin - milwaukee , and prepared and curated at the sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history in norman , oklahoma . specimens were prepared by k . davies at snomnh using a 10 % buffered acetic acid bath for two of the three specimens . additional vertebrae have also been recovered from the same site , but these specimens were not collected by the authors and are currently in a private collection .
indurated limestone interval of the duck creek formation ( lower cretaceous : washita group ) of north - central texas .
the vertebrae were recovered at omnh locality v1727 , northwest of fort worth , tarrant county , texas ( fig 1 ) . locality data are on file at omnh and are available upon request from qualified investigators .
when discovered , all three vertebrae were disarticulated and were separated by a thin layer of limestone . the centra were recovered in a single vertical stack , with one vertebra situated perpendicular to the other two . all three are approximately the same size and proportions , implying that they represent vertebrae from the same area of the body . the largest , most - rostral vertebra measures approximately 110 mm in diameter , with a width of 34 mm ( fig 4 ) . all three are rostrocaudally biconcave ( amphicoelous ) and roughly spherical in outline , with little to no deformation as a result of crushing . both of the articular surfaces possess well - marked concentric lamellae on each vertebra . as in other lamniform sharks , all three vertebrae have multiple thin , radial lamellae circumventing at high densities around the outer surface of each centra . these lamellae measure up to 1 . 3 mm in diameter and run rostrocaudally with occasional bifurcations ( fig 4 right and left lateral view ) . both articular surfaces possess a well - developed corpus calcareum , with a thickness measuring approximately 6 mm each .
omnh 68860 in ( descending order ) rostral , caudal , ventral , right lateral , dorsal , and left lateral views .
each vertebra possesses readily distinguishable cartilage foramina on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces . the dorsal surface was identified using techniques described by shimada et al . [ 11 ] , where the midline foramina with the smallest inter - pit distance in each centrum are designated the basidorsal cartilage foramina . surprisingly , each of the two prepared vertebrae has multiple dorsal and ventral foramina ( five ventrals , seven dorsals each ) . the two foramina on the midline are generally the largest ; however , most do not extend to contact the corpus calcareum . all foramina are generally square with rounded corners and have a relatively smooth septum traveling into the vertebra . the additional foramina on the dorsal and ventral surface range in size , from 5 . 2–16 . 0 mm wide .
there were no other shark fossils associated with omnh 68860 . however , all three possessed traces of encrusting ostreids on the articular surfaces , indicating that these vertebrae were exposed at the surface for some period of time . further , pyrite has developed near the center of both articular surfaces on the largest vertebra . the smallest of the three vertebrae retains a cast of the next vertebra’s corresponding articular surface , giving this specimen a concavo - convex appearance in lateral view . the three centra also possess a single radial fracture ( 37 mm long in each vertebra ) . the common location of this fracture indicates that breakage occurred prior to the rearrangement of the vertebrae . although it cannot be completely determined whether omnh 68860 represents reworked material , abrasion is minimal , indicating that transportation was not extensive .
using the formulas of shimada [ 2 ] and gottfried et al . [ 7 ] , and the maximum vertebral diameter of 110 mm , the minimum total length of the individual represented by omnh 68860 is calculated to be 6 . 3 and 6 . 6 m respectively . according to these calculations , omnh 68860 would rival the largest cretoxyrhina mantelli specimens ( 6–7 m ) [ 2 ] in total length and approximately equal the length of the largest documented extant great white shark ( carcharodon carcharias ) ( 6 . 4 m ) [ 12 ] .
both omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 represent relatively large mesozoic lamniform sharks ; however neither specimen would be considered extraordinary compared to some cenozoic species . for example , an associated specimen of carcharocles angustidens from the late oligocene has an estimated total body length of 6 . 6 – 9 . 3 m [ 16 ] ; roughly matching that omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 . neither species , however , comes close to the maximum length estimates for the largest lamniform shark , carcharocles megalodon . total length estimates for this species vary depending on the method , but multiple techniques yield a gigantic size ranging from 9 . 2–16 m [ 3 ] .
morphological similarities between the kiowa and the duck creek sharks are further supported by the age of their respective assemblages . resemblances between the early cretaceous marine faunas of texas and kansas have long been recognized [ 17 ] , and more recent studies have indicated that the kiowa fauna correlates with that of the uppermost fredericksburg group and the lower washita group of texas [ 18 ] . the index fossil inoceramus comancheanus is found in the lower duck creek formation and the middle kiowa shale , demonstrating that at least some of the kiowa shale is equivalent in age to the duck creek formation . based on their stratigraphy , the kiowa shale and duck creek have both been placed in the upper albian stage of the lower cretaceous [ 19 ] .
of the two lamniform species found in both formations , leptostyrax macrorhiza tend to be larger . in fact , teeth of this species represent some of the largest known shark fossils from the albian of texas , making it the most appealing suspect for the identification of omnh 68860 . however , these teeth are still generally smaller than those of the late cretaceous cretoxyrhina mantelli , a species with known vertebral proportions similar to those of omnh 68860 [ 15 , 20 ] . however , biostratigraphic evidence suggests that the texas vertebrae are not from c . mantelli , as teeth from this species do not appear in texas until the cenomanian [ 15 ] . further comparisons of omnh 68860 to those vertebrae of c . mantelli from the niobrara formation demonstrate stark differences .
unlike most sharks , c . mantelli has a surprisingly complete fossil record , with multiple specimens preserving both teeth and postcranial material . vertebrae from this species tend to be large , exhibiting typical lamnoid - type centra , with a pair of cartilage foramina for both the neural and haemal arches ( personal observation ) . numerous radiating lamellae are also present that progressively decrease in number caudally down the vertebral column . these vertebrae differ from omnh 68860 in size , shape , and number of the cartilage foramina . specifically these foramina in omnh 68860 do not contact the corpus calcareum , are squarer , and are more numerous than in any published specimens of c . mantelli [ 11 , 20 ] .
another late cretaceous lamniform shark with known postcranial material is cardabiodon ricki . c . ricki was first described based on teeth and vertebrae from the cenomanian of australia [ 21 ] . subsequently , teeth were also described from the cenomanian of kansas [ 22 ] and the turonian of central montana [ 23 ] . superficially , vertebrae from c . ricki are more comparable to the texas specimens than any of c . mantelli ; for example , the vertebrae are more elongate , have a thick corpus calcareum , and small cartilage foramina . however , omnh 68860 can be differentiated in that they have thinner and less densely spaced radial lamellae , square cartilage foramina , and concentric lamellae . these features , plus the absence of cardabiodon teeth from the albian of north america , make it unlikely that the texas specimen belongs to this genus .
aside from leptostyrax macrorhiza , the only other lamniform shark known from both the kiowa shale and the duck creek formation is cretalamna appendiculata . the genus has a relatively long temporal range throughout the cretaceous , with a worldwide distribution [ 24 , 25 ] . in texas , there is an apparent size shift in teeth of c . appendiculata through the early to late cretaceous , where albian teeth tend to be relatively small , but gradually increase until reaching their largest sizes ( up to 30 mm ) in the maastrichtian . these larger late cretaceous specimens are considerably abundant in marine fossil sites [ 15 ] .
reconstruction of the large lamniform sharks from the duck creek formation and kiowa shale .
kuvp 16343 and omnh 68860 are both reconstructed as leptostyrax macrorhiza and modeled after an odontaspidid . this reconstruction was based on dental similarities shared between eoptolamnidae and odontaspididae [ 14 ] . both specimens represent the smallest calculated estimate based on the formula of shimada [ 2 ] . cretalamna appendiculata is reconstructed as a classic lamnid shark based on shared dental patterns between this genus and members of the family lamnidae [ 26 ] .
alternatively , a third lamniform species is recognized in the albian of texas and kansas . carcharias amonensis , an odontaspidid , has been reported from the upper albian paw paw formation and the lower kiowa shale [ 15 , 27 ] . although this species is not known from associated vertebral material , known teeth are relatively small ( 11 mm in maximum height [ 15 ] ) , making this species an unlikely candidate for the vertebrae . given the absolute size and distinct morphology of omnh 68860 , it is highly unlikely that these vertebrae belong to any commonly known shark from the duck creek formation , except possibly leptostyrax macrorhiza .
this discovery has further implications on the ecology of mesozoic oceans . in modern oceans , many large lamniform sharks are apex pelagic predators of marine and nearshore ecosystems . chondrichthyans the size of omnh 68860 would be among the largest predatory animals of the albian oceans , dwarfed only by some of the contemporaneous pliosaurs [ 31 , 32 ] . fossil tooth marks on dinosaurs [ 33 ] , mosasaurs [ 34 ] , plesiosaurs [ 35 ] , teleost fishes [ 36 ] , and turtles [ 37 ] , indicate that large lamniform sharks of the late cretaceous occupied the ecological position of generalist predator and scavenger , much as they do today . the discovery of omnh 68860 highlights an important ecological transition during the albian , where lamniform sharks begin to take on the massive sizes and trophic abilities seen most predominately in later occurring species . further , both omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 represent albian species with minimum total lengths between 6 . 3–8 . 3 m . this suggests that the late early cretaceous was home to some of the largest mesozoic lamniform sharks of north america .
large shark vertebrae were recovered from the lower cretaceous duck creek formation of texas . these vertebrae represent a single animal of approximately 6 . 3 m in minimum total length , making this individual one of the largest documented sharks from the early cretaceous of n . america .
this specimen has unique morphology undocumented in any other cretaceous shark from north america , but shares large size with a contemporaneous vertebra from the kiowa shale of kansas .
we hypothesize that these vertebrae belong to leptostyrax macrorhiza based on their size and co - occurrence in both the duck creek formation and kiowa shale . however , without associated teeth , this identification cannot be confirmed .
the albian oceans contained some of the largest lamniform sharks of the mesozoic , which hypothetically represented an ecological precursor to the large sharks of the late cretaceous and cenozoic .
conceived and designed the experiments : jaf sns jad - f . analyzed the data : jaf sns . wrote the paper : jaf sns .
becker ma , chamberlain rb , chamberlain ja ( 2008 ) large carcharhinoid - type shark vertebrae in the upper cretaceous of new jersey : evidence for an anacoracid origin . northeastern geology and environmental sciences 30 : 118–129 .
, based on the vertebral growth increments . journal of vertebrate paleontology 28 : 21–33 .
scott rw , benson dg , morin rw , schaffer bl , oboh - ikuenobe fe ( 2002 ) integrated albian - lower cenomanian chronostratigraphy standard , trinity river section , texas . us gulf coast cretaceous stratigraphy and paleoecology perkins memorial volume : 277–344 .
winton wm , adkins ws ( 1919 ) the geology of tarrant county . university of texas bulletin 1931 : 1–122 .
bullard fm ( 1931 ) the geology of grayson county , texas . university of texas bulletin 3125 : 1–71 .
perkins bf , albritton cc jr . ( 1955 ) the washita group in the valley of the trinity river , texas . fondren science series 5 : 1–27 .
. in : klimley ap , ainley dg , editors . great white sharks : the biology of
huxley th ( 1880 ) on the application of the laws of evolution to the arrangement of the vertebrata and more particularly of the mammalia . proceedings of the zoological society of london 1880 : 649–662 .
bonaparte cljl ( 1838 ) selachorum tabula analytica . nuovi annali della scienze naturali , bologna ( 1 ) 2 : 195–214
berg ls ( 1958 ) system der rezenten und fossilen fischartigen und fische . berlin : deutscher verlag wissenschaften . 310 p .
shimada k ( 1997 ) gigantic lamnoid shark vertebra from the lower cretaceous kiowa shale of kansas . journal of paleontology 71 : 522–524 .
kriwet j , klug s , canudo ji , cuenca‐bescos g ( 2008 ) . a new early cretaceous lamniform shark ( chondrichthyes , neoselachii ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 154 : 278–290 .
welton bj , farish rf ( 1993 ) the collector’s guide to fossil sharks and rays from the cretaceous of texas . lewisville , texas : before time . 204 p .
st . john op ( 1887 ) notes on the geology of southwest kansas : kansas state board of agriculture , 5th biennial report : 132–152 .
cobban wa , reeside jb jr . ( 1952 ) correlation of the cretaceous formations of the western interior of the united states : geological society of america , bulletin , 63 : 1011–1044 .
scott rw ( 1970 ) paleoecology and paleontology of the lower cretaceous kiowa formation , kansas . the university of kansas paleontological contributions 52 : 5–94 .
from the niobrara chalk in kansas . journal of vertebrate paleontology 17 : 642–652 .
siverson m ( 1999 ) . a new large lamniform shark from the uppermost gearle siltstone ( cenomanian , late cretaceous ) of western australia . transactions of the royal society of edinburgh : earth sciences 90 : 49–66 .
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lamniform shark based on an associated specimen from kansas . transactions of the kansas academy of science 115 : 125–133 .
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, from upper cretaceous niobrara chalk of kansas . journal of vertebrate paleontology 27 : 584–602 .
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distribution : marine ; all oceans . upper lobe of caudal fin greatly elongate , caudal fin almost one - half of total length ; third to fifth gill openings over origin of pectoral fin . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) .
the list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .
rather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .
but we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .
unless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .
this list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .
in the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .
when subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .
type genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .
type species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .
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) , about 40 inches long , cape cod ; and upper and lower teeth from front part of mouth of a larger specimen from new jersey , about natural size . from bigelow and schroeder . drawings by e . n . fischer .
the large size of the second dorsal fin , and of the anal as well ( which is about equal to the first dorsal instead of much smaller ) is of itself enough to distinguish this species from all other gulf of maine sharks . the fact that the first dorsal fin is located but little in front of the pelvics , and that the trunk seems crowded with fins of equal size , is a useful field mark . we may also point out that the pectoral fins are not much larger than the other fins—triangular rather than sickle - shaped ; that the upper lobe of the tail is nearly one - third as long as head and body together and notched near its tip , with the lower lobe about one - third as long as the upper lobe ; and that the head is flat above , the snout short , conical with rather sharp tip . the teeth also ( alike in the two jaws ) are diagnostic , being long , narrow , sharp - pointed , and smooth - edged , with one ( rarely two ) small spurs (
denticles
) on either side near the base .
most of the sand sharks that are caught in the northern part of their american range , from delaware bay to cape cod , are immature , of perhaps 4 to 6 feet . but adults up to 8 or 9 feet long are reported there from time to time , especially from the vicinity of nantucket , where a commercial shark fishery yielded many of them in
the early 1920 ' s . and large ones , alone , have been reported from north carolina , southward . the greatest recorded length is 10 feet 5 inches , from southwestern florida . and the sand shark does not mature sexually until perhaps 7 feet long , or more . a weight of 250 pounds is recorded for one 8 feet 10 inches long , showing how much lighter a fish this is , length for length , than various other sharks .
light gray - brown above , darkest along back , snout , and upper sides of pectorals , paling on the sides to grayish white on lower surface ; sides of trunk rearward from pectorals variously marked with roundish to oval spots , of which there may be upwards of 100 , varying in color from yellowish brown to ocher yellow . the rear margins of the fins are edged with black on some specimens , but not on others .
the eggs of the sand shark are hatched within the parent and are retained there until the resultant young are ready for independent existence , but there is no placental connection between mother and developing embryo . it has recently been discovered that while a ripe female contains a large number of eggs , only two embryos develop as a rule , one in each oviduct ; they are nourished ( at least largely ) by swallowing the unfertilized eggs [ 30 ] with which the stomach of the embryo becomes greatly distended . females with large embryos have so far been reported only from florida and from louisiana , whereas others taken near woods hole have contained eggs only , making it likely that the small specimens that are so common along southern new england have come from a more southerly birthplace .
coastal waters on both sides of the atlantic ; maine to florida and brazil in the west ; mediterranean , tropical west africa , canaries , and cape verdes in the east ; also south africa ; represented in argentine waters and in the indo - pacific by close relatives .
in august 1947 we saw a large one at the surface pursuing a striped bass , that was being hauled aboard a fishing boat on a hand line , in the eastern side of cape cod bay , where fishermen tell us that this is not an unusual happening . but this appears to be the northern boundary to their occurrence in any numbers , or with regularity . true , they are recorded at cohasset , on the southern shore of massachusetts bay , where we caught one about 4 feet long , years ago in boston bay , and at lynn , mass . but so rarely does it stray north of cape ann that it has been reported only
twice from casco bay , and once from st . andrews , new brunswick , near the mouth of the bay of fundy , its most northerly known outpost , where one was taken in a weir in 1913 .
in new england waters the sand shark occurs only as a summer visitor . the winter home of those that summer along the northeastern united states is not known , nor has any increase been noted in florida waters ( where they are taken at all times of year ) coincident with their winter disappearance from the northern part of their range . like various bony fishes they may move offshore , and perhaps southward , to escape winter chilling .
there were commercial fisheries for the sand shark around nantucket during the first quarter of the present century , but these were short lived , reputedly because of exhaustion of the local stock . and the sand shark is of no commercial importance on the new england coast at present . westward from cape cod it is of some interest to anglers , who catch considerable numbers , both as objects of special pursuit , for it takes almost any natural bait readily , or incidentally while surf casting for better fish . but it is not plentiful enough in the gulf of maine to be worth fishing for .
there is no record of attacks by sand sharks on human beings in north american waters , though bathers often come close to them . our own experience bears this out ; in fact , it is looked upon as a harmless nuisance on the new england coast wherever it is plentiful enough to be familiar . but its relative ( or relatives ) of east indian waters have a more sinister reputation .
[ 30 ] for an account of the embryos , see springer , copeia , 1948 , no . 3 , pp . 153 - 156 .
two dorsal fins , without spines ; anal fin present ; five gill slits , last two may be above pectoral fin ; spiracles usually present , small and behind eyes ; eyes without nictitating membrane ; mouth extending well behind eyes .
greek eulanein , elasmos = metal beaten out + greek brangchia = gills . ref . 45335 .
greek , lamna , - es = shark + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .
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carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .
carroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698
frickhinger , k . a . , 1995 : fossil atlas – fishes . –mergus – publishers for natural history and pet books , hans a . baensch , malle , germany , 1 - 1088 .
long , d . j . , 1992 : sharks from the la meseta formation ( eocene ) , seymour island , antarctic peninsula . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 12 , # 1 , pp . 11 - 32
long , j . a . , 1995 : the rise of fishes : 500 million years of evolution . –johns hopkins university press , baltimore & london , pp . 1 - 223
mould , b . , 1995 - 1997 : the nomenclature and distribution of the recent elasmobranchii . –inet : urltoken
nelson , j . s . , 1994 : fishes of the world . –john wiley & sons inc . , new york , 1994 , xx - 600
williams , g . s . , 1999 : a listing of fossil sharks and rays of the world . –inet : gainesville ' s creek fossils : urltoken
new fossils unearthed in texas suggests that sharks during the early cretaceous were much larger than previously thought . the top image shows the estimated body size of a shark fossil found in a 100 - million - year - old deposit in kansas . the middle shark ' s size . the bottom shark is another known shark species that trawled the ancient oceans .
a giant shark the size of a two - story building prowled the shallow seas 100 million years ago , new fossils reveal .
the massive fish , leptostyrax macrorhiza , would have been one of the largest predators of its day , and may push back scientists ' estimates of when such gigantic predatory sharks evolved , said study co - author joseph frederickson , a doctoral candidate in ecology and evolutionary biology at the university of oklahoma .
the ancient sea monster was discovered by accident . frederickson , who was then an undergraduate at the university of wisconsin - milwaukee , had started an amateur paleontology club to study novel fossil deposits . in 2009 , the club took a trip to the duck creek formation , just outside fort worth , texas , which contains myriad marine invertebrate fossils , such as the extinct squidlike creatures known as ammonites . about 100 million years ago the area was part of a shallow sea known as the western interior seaway that split north america in two and spanned from the gulf of mexico to the arctic , frederickson said .
while walking in the formation , frederickson ' s then - girlfriend ( now wife ) , university of oklahoma anthropology doctoral candidate janessa doucette - frederickson , tripped over a boulder and noticed a large vertebra sticking out of the ground . eventually , the team dug out three large vertebrae , each about 4 . 5 inches ( 11 . 4 centimeters ) in diameter . [ see images of ancient monsters of the sea ]
you can hold one in your hand ,
but then nothing else will fit , frederickson told live science .
after poring over the literature , frederickson found a description of a similar shark vertebra that was unearthed in 1997 in the kiowa shale in kansas , which also dates to about 100 million years ago . that vertebra came from a shark that was up to 32 feet ( 9 . 8 meters ) long .
by comparing the new vertebra with the one from kansas , the team concluded the texas shark was likely the same species as the kansas specimen . the texan could have been at least 20 . 3 feet ( 6 . 2 m ) long , though that is a conservative estimate , frederickson said . ( still , the texas shark would have been no match for the biggest shark that ever lived , the 60 - foot - long , or 18 m , megalodon . )
by analyzing similar ecosystems from the mesozoic era , the team concluded the sharks in both texas and kansas were probably leptostyrax macrorhiza . previously , the only fossils from leptostyrax thatpaleontologists had found were teeth , making it hard to gauge the shark ' s true size . the new study , which was published today ( june 3 ) in the journal plos one , suggests this creature was much bigger than previously thought , frederickson said .
still , it ' s not certain the new vertebrae belonged to leptostyrax , said kenshu shimada , a paleobiologist at depaul university in chicago , who unearthed the 1997 shark vertebra .
it is also entirely possible that they may belong to an extinct shark with very small teeth so far not recognized in the present fossil record ,
shimada , who was not involved in the current study , told live science .
for example , some of the largest modern - day sharks are plankton - feeding forms with minute teeth , such as the whale shark , basking shark and megamouth shark .
either way , the new finds change the picture of the early cretaceous seas .
previously , researchers thought the only truly massive predators of the day were the fearsome pliosaurs , long - necked , long - snouted relatives to modern - day lizards that could grow to nearly 40 feet ( 12 m ) in length . now , it seems the oceans were teeming with enough life to support at least two top predators , frederickson said .
as for the ancient shark ' s feeding habits , they might resemble those of modern great white sharks , who
eat whatever fits in their mouth ,
frederickson said . if these ancient sea monsters were similar , they might have fed on large fish , baby pliosaurs , marine reptiles and even full - grown pliosaurs that they scavenged , frederickson said .
follow tia ghose on twitter and google + . follow live science @ livescience , facebook & google + . originally published on live science .