macrosiphum euphorbiae , the potato aphid , is a sap-sucking pest insect in the family aphididae .

it infests potatoes and a number of other commercially important crops .

macrosiphum euphorbiae

macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( coutin r . / opie ) adults and nymphs
macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( coutin r . / opie ) damage on potato
a novel virus from macrosiphum euphorbiae with similarities to members of the family flaviviridae .
a proteomic analysis of the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae under heat and radiation stress . - pubmed - ncbi
potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae performance is determined by aphid genotype and not mycorrhizal fungi or water availability .
a novel virus from macrosiphum euphorbiae with similarities to members of the family flaviviridae . - pubmed - ncbi
this project aims to improve the control of potatio aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ) in the spring on strawberry .
tomato yellow top virus : its distribution , characteristics and transmission by the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thom . )
potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae performance is determined by aphid genotype and not mycorrhizal fungi or water availability . - pubmed - ncbi
potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , in tomatoes : plant canopy distribution and binomial sampling on processing tomatoes in california .
macrosiphum euphorbiae is only known to use rosa species a primary host ( specifically , for sexual reproduction ) in north - eastern usa . in addition ( there and elsewhere ) macrosiphum euphorbiae reproduces parthenogenetically on rosa species , including cultivated roses . for an aphid species list see our rose aphids page .
potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , in tomatoes : plant canopy distribution and binomial sampling on processing tomatoes in california . - pubmed - ncbi
miner , a . and e . wason 2013 .
macrosiphum euphorbiae
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
( macrosiphum euphorbiae thomas ) : the role of anatomy , epidermal hairs , and foliage composition . j . am . hort . soc . 102 ( 2 ) : 166 - 171 .
to cite this page : miner , a . and e . wason 2013 .
macrosiphum euphorbiae
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
this aphid fits all the requirements of macrosiphum euphorbiae : antennal tubercules high smooth and divergent , femora rather pale with the apices not dark , siph pale with the tips darker and the cauda rather pointed and not constricted . ( e . g . see our macrosiphum page ) it is recorded on gossypium herbaceum by blackman .
reinink , k and f . l . dieleman . 1989 . resistance in lettuce to the leaf aphids macrosiphum euphorbiae and uroleucon sonchi . ann . appl . biol . 115 ( 3 ) : 489 - 498 .
barlow c . a . 1962 . development , survival , and fecundity of the potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , at constant temperatures . the canadian entomologist 94 ( 6 ) : 667 - 672 ( in russian ) .
walker , g . p . 1982 . the dispersion and abundance of the potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae [ thomas ] ) on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum mill . ) . ph . d . dissertation , ohio state university , wooster .
of those aphid species , baker ( 2015 ) lists 18 as occurring in britain : aphis craccivora , aphis fabae , aphis gossypii , aphis nasturtii , aphis sambuci , aphis solanella , aulacorthum solani , brachycaudus helichrysi , brevicoryne brassicae , hayhurstia atriplicis , macrosiphum euphorbiae , macrosiphum stellariae , myzus ascalonicus , myzus persicae , pemphigus fuscicornis , rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon , rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae ssp . tulipaellus and smynthurodes betae .
class insecta , order homoptera , suborder aphidinea , superfamily aphidoidea , family aphididae , subfamily aphidinae , tribe macrosiphini , subtribe macrosiphina , genus macrosiphum .
walker , g . p . , l . r . nault , and d . e . simonet . 1984 . natural mortality factors acting on potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ) populations in processing - tomato fields in ohio . environ . entomol . 13 ( 3 ) : 724 - 732 .
walker , g . p . 1982 . the dispersion and abundance of the potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ) on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum mill . ) . ph . d . dissertation , ohio state university , wooster . ix + 123 pp . ( link to full text )
macrosiphum euphorbiae used in these experiments came from a laboratory colony established from potato fields near quebec city . the aphids were maintained on potato seedlings , solanum tuberosum c . v . norland , at 21 ± 1 °c , 60 % ± 10 % rh under a 16l : 8d photoperiodic regime .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 1984 . macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) . pp . 296 . aphids on the world ' s crops : an identification and information guide . john wiley & sons : chichester , new york , brisbane , toronto , singapore . 466 pages .
the effectiveness of the potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , to transmit potato virus y ( pvy ) to potato has generally been overestimated because tobacco has been used as the indicator host . our results demonstrate that , although apterous m . euphorbiae can acquire pvy from potato and tobacco plants and transmit it to tobacco plants , it does not readily transmit it to potato plants . alatae only transmitted the virus to 4 . 5 % of potato plants . this relative inability to transmit the virus to potato seems independent of potato cultivar . results suggest that the role of the potato aphid in the spread of pvy in potatoes may be negligible .
maelzer , d . a . 1977 . the biology and main causes of changes in numbers of the rose aphid , macrosiphum rosae ( l . ) on cultivated roses in south australia . austral . j . zool . 25 : 269 - 284 .
barlow , c . a . 1962 . the influence of temperature on the growth of experimental populations of myzus persicae ( sulzer ) and macrosiphium euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( aphididae ) . can . j . zool . 40 : 146 - 156 .
la efectividad del áfido , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , para transmitir el virus y de la papa ( pvy ) a la misma , ha sido generalmente sobreestimada debido a que se ha utilizado tabaco como el huesped indicador . nuestros resultados demuestran que a pesar de que las formas ápteras de m . euphorbiae pueden adquirir el pvy de las plantas de papa y tabaco , no lo transmiten fácilmente a las plantas de papa . los individuos alados solo transmiten el virus al 4 , 5 % de las plantas de papa . esta inhabilidad para transmitir el virus a la papa parece ser independiente del cultivar de dicho cultivo . los resultados sugieren que el rol del áfido de la papa en la diseminación del virus y en el cultivo , puede ser insignificante .
macgillivray , m . e . and g . b . anderson . 1964 . the effect of photoperiod and temperature on the production of gamic and agamic forms in macrosiphium euphorbiae ( thomas ) . can . j . zool . 42 : 491 - 510 .
mean time ( x ± sem ) taken by m . euphorbiae gynoparae to reach different odour sources in wind tunnel assays ( n = number of responding males ) . columns with different letters are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
mean time ( x ± sem ) taken by m . euphorbiae males to reach different odour sources in wind tunnel assays ( n = number of responding males ) . columns with different letters are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
zimmermann , e . c . 1948 . macrosiphum solanifoli ( ashmead ) . pp . 113 . in insects of hawaii . a manual of the insects of the hawaiian islands , including enumeration of the species and notes on their origin , distribution , hosts , parasites , etc . volume 5 . homoptera : sternorhyncha . 464 pages .
proportion ( x ± sem ) of m . euphorbiae gynoparae ( n = 48 in each treatment ) that oriented towards ( dotted bars ) or reached ( striped bars ) the different odour sources in wind tunnel assays . columns with different letters , either for orienting to or reaching the source , are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
proportion ( x ± sem ) of m . euphorbiae males ( n = 48 in each treatment ) that oriented towards ( dotted bars ) or reached ( striped bars ) the different odour sources in wind tunnel assays . columns with different letters , either for orienting to or reaching the source , are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
the potato aphid attacks over 200 plants including vegetable and ornamental crops as well as weeds . cultivated food hosts include apple , bean , broccoli , burdock ( gobo ) , cabbage , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , corn , eggplant , ground cherry , lettuce , mustard cabbage , papaya , pea , pepper , potato , strawberry , sunflower , sweetpotato , tomato , turnip , white mustard cabbage and zucchini . ornamental hosts are aster , easter lily , gladiolus , iris and rose . weed hosts , such as lamb ' s quarters , pig weed , ragweed , and shepherd ' s - purse serve as important reservoir hosts for the species .
of north american origin , this aphid has a world wide distribution except for the indian subcontinent . it was first reported in hawaii in 1910 , and is now present on hawaii , kauai , maui and oahu .
aphids feed by sucking sap from their hosts . when aphid populations are large , feeding can cause plants to become deformed and the leaves curled and shriveled ( metcalf , 1962 ) . extensive damage can occur when aphid populations are large throughout the crop . this rarely happens in hawaii because of natural enemies and the use of insecticides .
on lettuce , aphids are a problem for three reasons : they vector virus diseases , they can cause reduced or abnormal growth ( reinink and dieleman , 1989 ) .
on strawberries the presence of honeydew , cast skins or sooty mold makes them unmarketable since the fruit can ' t be washed because this would increase the incidence of disease and decrease shelf life ( trumble et . al . , 1983 ) .
on broccoli , this pest is usually present on the youngest and oldest leaves that have higher concentrations of nitrogen containing compounds .
aphids vector plant viruses , and this activity potentially can result in greater losses than direct feeding damage . the potato aphid vectors over 40 non - persistent viruses and 5 persistent viruses . it is able to vector both p ( prsv - p ) and w ( prsv - w ) strains of papaya ringspot virus . prsv - p manifests on papaya . prsv - w does not infect papaya , but does infect cucurbits and watermelon . prsv - w is also called watermelon mosaic virus 1 ( wmv - 1 ) . this aphid also transmits watermelon mosaic virus 2 ( wmv - 2 ) .
reproduction in hawaii does not involve mating and egg laying . females give birth to live female nymphs . as a consequence of this type of reproduction , populations are composed solely of females and there are no males present .
in temperate regions , these aphids overwinter during the egg stage . these eggs are pale green when first laid and turn shiny black in a few hours . in hawaii , eggs are not produced by aphid females .
immatures are elongated and paler than adults with a light covering of white - gray wax and a dark stripe running down their back .
when full grown , the potato aphid is nearly 1 / 8 inch long . eyes are distinctly red and they have long slender cornicles extending from the abdomen . there are two color types , the pink form and the green form . although the majority of the progeny from a green form parent is green and likewise for the pink form , both color forms are able to parent either color form , ( shull , 1925 ) . adults are usually without wings . winged adults are developed in response to high population densities , decline of the host plant , and changes in environmental conditions . winged individuals may be of either color form .
each unmated female may give birth to 50 or more active nymphs within 2 weeks . a generation develops on potato every 2 or 3 weeks .
aphids cluster in shaded areas on the leaves , stems , and blossoms of plants . the wingless aphids tend to fall to the ground when the plant is disturbed . winged individuals disperse readily between crops .
when population densities are high , winged individuals are produced . these individuals emigrate to new hosts . the production of winged versus wingless individuals is dependent on the day length , parent type ,
generation
and temperature ( macgillivary and anderson , 1964 ) . winged , or alate , aphids are more common when the photoperiod is between 11 - 13 hours a day , the parent aphids are unwinged and the first
generation
of aphids under like environmental conditions , and the temperature ranges from 50û - 70 _ f ( macgillivary and anderson , 1964 ) .
barlow ( 1962 ) reported that potato aphid populations have the capacity to increase in temperatures between 41û and 77û f . the optimum temperature for population increase for the potato aphid is 68û f ( barlow , 1962 ) .
there are several factors that naturally control aphid populations . many aphids are naturally controlled by predators , parasites and pathogens ( hagen and van den bosch , 1968 ) . high temperatures increase mortality ( walker , 1982 ) . heavy rainfall washes aphids off plants ( hughes , 1963 ; maelzer , 1977 ) , however , this mortality factor is small because aphids usually gather on the protected under surface of leaves where they are less likely to be washed off ( walker et . al . , 1984 ) .
research on the characteristics of resistant tomato plants to the pink form of the potato aphid show that plants with long and dense hairs are less desirable under field conditions ( quiros et . al , 1977 ) . the same study showed that susceptible tomato plants had higher sucrose , lower quinic acid , and higher alanine and tyrosine contents and a trend toward higher total free amino - acid concentration , they also were a unique source of 0 - phosphoethanol amine ( quiros et . al , 1977 ) .
butterhead lettuce varieties are usually moderately to highly resistant to the potato aphid ( reinink and dieleman , 1989 ) . they feel this resistance may be passed on through selective breeding to the modern crisphead variety marbello which is a cross of crisphead and butterhead lettuces .
insecticidal soaps offer some control against aphids . applications should be applied at regular intervals for maximum efficacy ( koehler et . al . , 1983 ) . users should carefully consider the use of soaps . excessive use can cause a drop in yield of the crop .
a chemical management program for strawberries was tested by trumble et al . ( 1983 ) . they found that a regular sampling plan of counting the number of aphids per plant may be used to determine when the potential damage levels reach a threshold . if aphid numbers per plant are low ( less than 10 ) , no chemicals are necessary and monitoring should continue ; if they are above the threshold level ( 30 aphids per plant on 30 % of plants in field ) , chemicals should be applied . upon determining their thresholds , they found treatments could be based either on a regular sequential sampling plan or a check for presence / absence .
higa , s . y . and r . namba . 1971 . vectors of the papaya mosaic virus in hawaii . proc . hawaiian entomol . soc . 21 ( 1 ) : 93 - 96 .
hughes , r . d . 1963 . population dynamics of the cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae . j . anim . ecol . 32 : 393 - 424 .
koehler , c . s . , l . w . barclay and t . m . kretchun . 1983 . pests in the home garden . california agriculture . 37 ( 9 / 10 ) : 11 - 12 .
metcalf , c . l . , and w . p . flint . 1962 . destructive and useful insects their habits and control , fourth edition . revised by : r . l . metcalf . mcgraw - hill book company , inc . new york , san francisco , toronto , london . pp . 646 - 647 .
purcifull , d . , e . hiebert and j . edwardson . 1984a . watermelon mosaic virus 2 . cmi / aab descriptions of plant viruses no . 293 ( no . 63 revised ) .
purcifull , d . , j . edwardson , e . hiebert , d . gonsalves . 1984b . papaya ringspot virus . cmi / aab descriptions of plant viruses , no . 292 ( no . 84 revised ) .
shull , a . f . 1925 . the life cycle of macrosiphium solanifolii with special reference to the genetics of color . american naturalist . 59 ( 663 ) : 289 - 310 .
trumble , j . t . , e . r . oatman , and v . voth . 1983 . thresholds and sampling for aphids in strawberries . california agric . 37 ( 11 / 12 ) : 20 - 21 .
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the species is spread in europe , anterior and middle asia , north america . within the territory of the former soviet union , it occurs widely where its hosts - plants grow . the northern border of its area goes along the northern border of main potato - growing zone . in closed ground , the pest is observed in more northern regions . its high harming activity is marked in some of southern regions of russia , in moldova , the south and southwest of ukraine .
potato aphid damages potato , tomato , aubergine , cucumber , lettuce , cabbage , pepper , melons and gourds , and others cultures . it feeds on potato in august - september , on aubergine in july , on tomato july - september . different plant species have characteristic symptoms of damage ; injured leaves of cucumber have yellow net ; tomato leaves have round yellow spots at places of aphid feeding . damaged leaves dry up . fecal masses pollute the leaves . control measures include eradication of weeds , insecticide treatments . duly forecast of pest appearance and number is rather important .
adashkevich b . , stary p . , popov n . 1972 . aphididae ( hymenoptera ) - parasites of aphids on vegetables , melons and gourds , potato . in : zhuchenko a . a . , ed . protection of vegetables ( proc . of moldova institute of water agriculture and vegetables growing ) . kishinev : moldovenyaske . 28 - 35 p . ( in russian ) .
bobryshev f . i . , chmulev v . m . , udovitskii a . s . , zakharov a . i . 1972 . dynamics of aphid migration to potato . in : lisunov v . i . , ed . plant protection against pests and diseases ( proc . stavropol ' skhi ) . stavropol ' : stavropol ' skhi . 102 - 105 p . ( in russian ) .
bozhko m . p . 1976 . aphids of food plants . khar ' kov : vishcha shkola . 134 p . ( in russian ) .
chechuev n . 1973 . aphids on potato in kazakhstan . kartofel ' i ovoshchi 6 : 41 ( in russian ) /
damroze i . p . 1970 . the species composition of aphids on potato in latvian ssr . in : materials vii conference on plant protection . part i . elgava : 75 - 77 ( in russian ) .
d ' yakonov k . p . , romanova s . a . , ledneva v . a . 1994 . new interest to potato aphid . zashchita rastenii 5 : 40 - 42 ( in russian ) .
ivanovskaya o . i . 1973 . ecological - faunistic complexes in west siberia . in : cherepanov a . i . , ed . results of investigations the living nature of siberia . novosibirsk : nauka : 97 - 104 ( in russian ) .
ivanovskaya o . i . 1976 . fauna of aphids on the territory of west siberia . in : zolotorenko g . s . , ed . fauna of helminthes and arthropods of siberia . novosibirsk : nauka . p . 175 - 189 ( in russian ) .
khandybarenko t . t . 1981 . basis of agrobiological measures on seed potato protection against aphids - virus - carrying agents . phd thesis . kiev : ukrainian plant protection institute , 41 p . ( in russian ) .
lytaeva g . k , nemchin f . i . 1972 . dynamics of winged aphids on potato in moldova . in : zhuchenko a . a . , ed . protection of vegetables ( proc . of moldova institute of water agriculture and vegetables growing ) . kishinev : moldovenyaske . 96 - 98 p . ( in russian ) .
nevskii v . p . 1929 . aphids of middle asia . proceedings of uzbekistan experimental plant protection station 16 . tashkent . 58 - 73 p . ( in russian ) .
shaposhnikov g . kh . 1964 . suborder aphidinea . aphids . in : bei - bienko g . ya . , ed . keys to insects of the european part of the ussr . v . 1 . moscow & leningrad : nauka . 612 p . ( in russian ) .
shaposhnikov g . kh . 1972 . order homoptera - homopterous . in : kryzhanovskii o . l . , ed . insects and mites - pests of agricultural crops . v . 1 . leningrad : nauka . 183 p . ( in russian ) .
vasil . ev v . p . , ed . 1973 . pests of agricultural crops and forest plantations . 1 . kiev : urozhai , 303 p . ( in russian ) .
zalene g . 1965 . aphids on potato in lithuanian ssr . in : materials of 5th conference on plant protection . vilnius : newspaper - magazine publishing house , 96 - 98 p . ( in russian ) .
zhukova m . i . 2000 . aphids on potato in byelorussia and control measures . in : sorochinskii l . v . , ed . akhova raslin 4 . minsk : an byelorussia . 16 - 18 p . ( in russian ) .
© 2003 - 2009 project «interactive agricultural ecological atlas of russia and neighboring countries . economic plants and their diseases , pests and weeds»
( see pictures below ) , and often rather shiny . their eyes are reddish , and the antennae are darker towards their tips . their
( see first picture below ) has pale greenish to yellow - brown thoracic lobes , with only the antennae and siphunculi noticeably darker than in the apterae . the second picture below shows a small colony of
micrographs of clarified mounts by permission of roger blackman , copyright awp all rights reserved .
is a vector of about one hundred plant viruses . the species originates from the north - eastern usa where it produces sexual forms and
spread infestations to other plants . it is an especial problem in unheated greenhouses .
we have made provisional identifications from high resolution photos of living specimens , along with host plant identity . in the great majority of cases , identifications have been confirmed by microscopic examination of preserved specimens . we have used the keys and species accounts of blackman & eastop ( 1994 ) and blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) supplemented with blackman ( 1974 ) , stroyan ( 1977 ) , stroyan ( 1984 ) , blackman & eastop ( 1984 ) , heie ( 1980 - 1995 ) , dixon & thieme ( 2007 ) and blackman ( 2010 ) . we fully acknowledge these authors as the source for the ( summarized ) taxonomic information we have presented . any errors in identification or information are ours alone , and we would be very grateful for any corrections . for assistance on the terms used for aphid morphology we suggest the figure provided by blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) .
just sorting out pics , and have happened upon these little lovelies from november , which i ' ve been unable to which i ' ve been unable to put a name . they were on cotton growing in the mediterranean biome at the eden project .
the adult appears to have been killed by an entomophthora fungus giving it the bright orange / red colour .
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grayish green to pink ; antennae longer than body and brown on the apical half ; cornicles cylindrical and very long ; cauda finger - shaped . ( from hypp zoology )
primary ( winter ) host is rose ; secondary ( summer ) hosts include potato and tomato .
the potato aphid attacks over 200 plants including vegetable and ornamental crops as well as weeds . cultivated food hosts include apple , bean , broccoli , burdock ( gobo ) , cabbage , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , corn , eggplant , ground cherry , lettuce , mustard cabbage , papaya , pea , pepper , potato , strawberry , sunflower , sweetpotato , tomato , turnip , white mustard cabbage and zucchini . ornamental hosts are aster , easter lily , gladiolus , iris and rose . weed hosts , such as lamb ' s quarters , pig weed , ragweed , and shepherd ' s - purse serve as important reservoir hosts for the species . - univ . hawaii
garden insects of north america : the ultimate guide to backyard bugs ( princeton field guides ) whitney cranshaw . 2004 . princeton university press .
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contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
, the potato aphid , is native to north america . it is widespread across the united states and canada , and the species has spread from the nearctic region to the palearctic , ethiopian , and neotropical regions . its range has increased to an almost worldwide distribution , and
is a significant crop pest . populations can be found throughout europe , asia , africa , south america , and australia .
( finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 ; stary , et al . , 1993 ; valenzuela , et al . , 2009 )
colonizes over 200 species of host plants throughout temperate and tropical regions . its host plants , such as
and many other crop species can be found mainly in agricultural fields , but also in grasslands and suburban areas such as greenhouses , gardens , and parks .
( le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
is considered to be a medium - sized aphid . the species has winged and wingless forms . apterous ( wingless ) forms typically are 1 . 7 to 3 . 6 mm long , and alate ( winged ) forms are 1 . 7 to 3 . 4 mm long .
is spindle or pear - shaped . it has a soft body ; long , dark antennae ; and a pair of cornicles at the end of its abdomen . its color can vary among shades of green , pink , or magenta , while its eyes are reddish . nymphs resemble smaller adults and often are covered in a grayish - white wax . apterous adults usually appear shinier than nymphs .
( boquel , et al . , 2011 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; stoetzel , 1994 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
grows through four nymphal instars , each lasting from 1 . 5 to 3 days , though development time varies with temperature . total development time from birth to reproductive maturity ranges from about 6 to 12 days . development times in sexually reproductive and parthenogenetic populations are similar .
( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; de conti , et al . , 2011 ; macgillivray and anderson , 1964 )
( where the aphid life cycle includes both parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction ) occur only in north america . anholocyclic populations ( in which female aphids reproduce only by parthenogenesis ) occur throughout the rest of its global range . egg - laying females ( oviparae ) produce a pheromone to attract male mates . the pheromone is produced by a gland on the hind tibia , and the female lifts her legs to release it .
( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; goldansaz and mcneil , 2006 )
( in which individuals undergo both parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction ) are present in north america . in these holocyclic populations , eggs that have overwintered on primary hosts ( usually
produces several wingless , parthenogenetic generations while colonizing its primary host . later , winged females are produced ; the winged offspring colonize secondary host plants in june and july .
. parthenogenesis continues on the secondary host until the fall , at which time males and sexually reproductive females are produced . males and sexually reproductive females return to the primary host plant species , mate , and lay eggs that overwinter . anholocyclic populations ( in which individuals reproduce only by parthenogenesis ) account for the
populations that are distributed throughout the rest of the world . the life cycle in anholocyclic
populations is similar , except for the absence of the sexually reproductive stage . apterous ( wingless ) females of
likely overwinter on primary host plants in warmer regions and later produce alate ( winged ) females that in turn colonize secondary hosts later in the season . one female can give birth to anywhere from a few to 50 offspring in a single day .
( de conti , et al . , 2011 ; lamb , et al . , 2009 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 )
breeding season sexually reproducing populations breed between the end of summer and early fall .
, eggs are laid on a primary host plant to overwinter , which provides a food source for the offspring when they hatch in the spring . adults also provision the eggs . live birth by parthenogenesis is a significant energy investment by the female parent . because these clones join the colony at birth , interaction with the parent may occur ; however , adults provide no parental care .
lives in large colonies . these colonies can grow to large sizes quickly due to live birth by parthenogenesis ( which eliminates the need and time to find a mate ) and the relatively quick maturation time of the offspring . colonies can be established when alate ( winged ) aphids fly from primary to secondary host plants . however , because aphids are notoriously weak fliers , they often move on air currents and thus have little control over the direction of flight . flight and any resulting colonization is largely random . small - scale dispersal can occur when apterous ( wingless ) aphids walk from one plant to another .
( boquel , et al . , 2011 ; narayandas and alyokhin , 2006 ; pompon , et al . , 2010a )
has not been reported , but its range is limited significantly by its poor flight ability . colonization by alate ( winged ) forms is determined mainly by air currents . small - scale dispersal range is determined by the distance that
the main sensory organ in aphids is their antennae . the antennae are used for tactile and chemical detection . to determine whether a plant is a suitable host ,
uses its antennae to feel along the leaves and detect host - specific odors and other chemical cues .
also uses its stylet mouthparts to probe into plants beneath the epidermis . color cues can play a role in host plant selection , and
can detect uv light . in other insects , uv light likely plays a role in flight patterns ; however , the detection of uv light by
likely serves a different purpose , as aphids are weak fliers and instead rely on air currents . changes in uv light have been shown to alter orientation and colonization in
. aphids that are captured or harassed produce an alarm pheromone that alerts other aphids of danger . the alarm pheromone typically elicits evasive behaviors in aphids , such as dropping off the host plant or walking away . in
, alarm pheromones also cause an increase in the parthenogenetic production of winged individuals , while sexually reproductive females produce a pheromone that attracts male mates .
( goldansaz and mcneil , 2006 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; pompon , et al . , 2010a )
feeds on plant phloem . it uses its stylet mouthparts to pierce the plant tissue and access the phloem . this aphid species is highly polyphagous and has been documented as feeding on over 200 species in 20 different plant families , many of them crop species . its most notable host plants include plants in the
individuals ( usually dehydrated alate females ) also have been observed consuming xylem sap for rehydration .
( atamian , et al . , 2013 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; pompon , et al . , 2010b )
are avid predators of aphids . many lady beetle species have been documented preying on
releases an alarm pheromone , as do most aphid species . the alarm pheromone alerts others in the colony of a predation threat and typically elicits evasive behavior such as dropping off the host plant or walking away . additionally , the european red ant ,
. the ants protect the aphids from predators and parasitoids in exchange for honeydew produced by the aphids .
( alvarez , et al . , 2013 ; alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
is a significant crop pest with an almost worldwide distribution . it colonizes over 200 host plant species . its primary host often is cited to be
. these bacteria live within the bodies of aphids and synthesize amino acids that the aphids cannot get from their nutrient - poor phloem diet . the european red ant ,
in a mutualistic relationship . the ants eat the honeydew produced by the aphids ; in return , the ants protect , clean , and transport the aphids .
. many species of wasp parasitoids lay eggs inside aphids , which causes aphid death when the wasp offspring hatch . these wasp species can be used to control aphid populations .
( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; atamian , et al . , 2013 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; francis , et al . , 2010 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; lins , et al . , 2013 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; thi , et al . , 2013 )
, the potato aphid , is described as one of the most harmful aphid species in the world . it feeds on many plant species and causes significant crop damage in
. the aphid also is a vector of many plant diseases , including 40 non - persistent viruses and several persistent viruses ( e . g . , yellow net virus , pea leaf roll virus , and potato leaf roll virus ) . to prevent as much crop damage as possible , substantial research has been and continues to be conducted to find the most effective insecticides , biological control methods , and resistant plants .
( legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
angela miner ( author ) , animal diversity web staff , elizabeth wason ( author , editor ) , animal diversity web staff , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .
living in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .
living in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
living in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .
a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,
incomplete metamorphosis
is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and
complete metamorphosis
is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
( illiger ) , in potato ecosystems of idaho and its predatory potential on the colorado potato beetle and aphids .
alyokhin , a . , f . drummond , g . sewell , r . storch . 2011 . differential effects of weather and natural enemies on coexisting aphid populations .
atamian , h . , r . chaudhary , v . dal cin , e . bao , t . girke , i . kaloshian . 2013 . in planta expression or delivery of potato aphid
boquel , s . , p . giodanengo , a . ameline . 2011 . probing behavior of apterous and alate morphs of two potato—colonizing aphids .
de conti , b . , v . bueno , m . sampaio , j . lenteren . 2011 . development and survival of
francis , f . , f . guillonneau , p . leprince , e . de pauw , e . haubruge , l . jia , f . goggin . 2010 . tritrophic interactions among
lamb , r . , p . mackay , s . migui . 2009 . measuring the performance of aphids : fecundity versus biomass .
le guigo , p . , a . rolier , j . le corff . 2012 . plant neighborhood influences colonization of
) of potential importance on citrus in the united states with illustrated keys to species .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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hummel na 1 , zalom fg , miyao gm , underwood nc , villalobos a .
department of entomology , university of california , davis , davis , ca 95616 , usa . nahummel @ urltoken
insect biochem mol biol . 2009 jan ; 39 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ibmb . 2008 . 09 . 014 . epub 2008 nov 1 .
département de biologie , pavillon vachon , université laval , québec , québec , canada .
adult : large - sized ( 2 . 4 - 3 . 6 mm long ) ; greyish - green to pink ; spindle - shaped with antennae longer than body and brown on the apical half ;
cylindrical and very long ; cauda finger - shaped with 8 - 11 setae .
aphid feeding slow down the growth of seedlings and lead to a decrease in yield .
however , the most dangerous activity of this aphid is the transmission of phytopathogenic viruses , especially the potato virus y ( pyv ) and the beet yellows virus ( byv ) .
winged individuals , apterous individuals and nymphs on the underside of a leaf of potato .
distribution . this aphid is globally distributed , located in all but the coldest terrestrial habitats .
host associations . it has a broad host range , having been recorded from at least 90 families .
economic importance . it is particularly important on solaneous plant species , especially potato , but also attacks many rosaceous plant species . it has been implicated in the transmission of nearly 70 plant viruses .
see also . taxonomy at aphid species file . aphids on the world ' s plants . literature references .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 1994 . aphids on the world’s trees . cab international with the natural history museum , london . viii + 987 pages , 135 figures , 16 plates .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2000 . aphids on the world’s crops , second edition . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . x + 466 pages , 58 figures , 51 plates .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2006 . aphids on the world’s herbaceous plants and shrubs . volume 2 the aphids . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . viii + pages 1025 - 1439 .
chan , c . k . , a . r . forbes , and d . a . raworth . 1991 . aphid - transmitted viruses and their vectors of the world . agriculture canada technical bulletin 1991 - 3e . 1 - 216 pp .
holman , j . 2009 . host plant catalog of aphids , palaearctic region . springer science and business media b . v . 1216 pp .
voegtlin , d . , w . villalobos , m . v . sanchez , g . saborio , and c . rivera . a guide to the winged aphids of costa rica . 2003 . international journal of tropical biology and conservation 51 ( suppl . 2 ) : xi + 228 pp .
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: potato aphids infest a wide range of host plants . some important cultivated hosts include potato , tomato , eggplant , sunflower , peppers , peas , beans , apple , turnip , corn , sweet potato , asparagus , clover , and roses . weeds such as ragweed , lambsquarter , jimsonweed , pigweed , shepherdspurse , and wild lettuce are also common food plants .
: potato aphid infestations are sporadic in occurrence and rarely severe enough to kill plants . damage is caused by both nymphs and adults sucking sap from foliage , especially from the terminal growth . new growth may become stunted and curled . the transmission of tomato and potato diseases , such as mosaics , leaf roll , and spindle tuber , causes more injury to the plants than sucking the sap .
: this soft - bodied , pear - shaped insect varies in color from solid pink to green and pink mottled to light green . it is a rather large aphid , almost 1 / 8 inch long , and has a pair of long , slender
tailpipe - like
appendages known as cornicles . immature aphids are smaller than adults but similar in color and shape . all stages have piercing - sucking mouthparts and feed by sucking sap from plant tissues .
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the green peach aphid and the potato aphid are commonly found on lettuce ; of the two , green peach aphid is the most important . green peach aphids are dark green to yellow and have no waxy covering . the tubercles at the base of the antennae grow toward each other . infestations start on the lower leaves and as aphid numbers grow they move up and over the entire plant .
potato aphids can be found in both pink and green forms . this aphid is larger than the green peach aphid , and the adult has longer cornicles and cauda . potato aphid colonies are composed of both adults and offspring closely clustered together , usually on the youngest leaves . the potato aphid may occur alone , or in colonies with green peach aphid .
large numbers of aphids can stunt seedlings or transplants and can contaminate heads bound for market . green peach aphids can vector several viruses that affect lettuce including alfalfa mosaic , beet western yellows , beet yellow stunt , and turnip mosaic .
the same general predators that attack other aphids also prey on green peach aphids . epidemics of a disease caused by the fungus entomophthora aphidis may kill portions of the green peach aphid population when their numbers are high and relative humidity is high . parasites , including lysiphlebus testaceipes , aphidius matricariae , and aphelinus semiflavus , attack this pest . natural enemies rarely provide adequate control of large numbers of aphids in spring or fall crops .
use biological control and sprays of azadirachtin , insecticidal soaps , or selected entomopathogenic fungi in an organically certified crop .
check all areas of the field twice a week , but especially along the edges , which are usually the first area to become infested . since green peach aphid infestations are clumped , you will need to sample 25 plants per quadrant of a 40 - to 80 - acre field .
if high numbers develop on seedlings , apply insecticide as soon as plants appear stressed . on more mature plants , before heading , do not apply insecticide unless numbers exceed 20 aphids per plant . if a significant percentage of plants are infested just prior to heading , apply insecticide to keep aphids from spreading into the center of the head where they are difficult to control . continue monitoring to see whether another treatment is needed . some populations of green peach aphid may be resistant to certain insecticides in your area ; check with your farm advisor for more information .
the following are ranked with the pesticides having the greatest ipm value listed first & —the most effective and least harmful to natural enemies , honey bees , and the environment are at the top of the table . when choosing a pesticide , consider information relating to air and water quality , resistance management , and the pesticide ' s properties and application timing . not all registered pesticides are listed . always read the label of the product being used .
comments : soil application . placement is critical ; see label for information . do not apply more than 0 . 38 lb a . i . of admire pro / acre per year .
comments : foliar application . allow 7 days between applications with a maximum of 5 applications per season .
restricted entry interval ( rei ) is the number of hours ( unless otherwise noted ) from treatment until the treated area can be safely entered without protective clothing . preharvest interval ( phi ) is the number of days from treatment to harvest . in some cases the rei exceeds the phi . the longer of two intervals is the minimum time that must elapse before harvest .
rotate chemicals with a different mode - of - action group number , and do not use products with the same mode - of - action group number more than twice per season to help prevent the development of resistance . for example , the organophosphates have a group number of 1b ; chemicals with a 1b group number should be alternated with chemicals that have a group number other than 1b . mode - of - action group numbers are assigned by


the corded purg , scientific name pyrgulopsis nevadensis , is an extinct species of freshwater snail with a gill and an operculum , an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family hydrobiidae .

pyrgulopsis nevadensis is the type species of the genus pyrgulopsis .

corded purg

the corded purg is a mollusk indigenous to north america that has gone extinct .
information on the corded purg is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
how can i put and write and define corded purg in a sentence and how is the word corded purg used in a sentence and examples ? 用corded purg造句 , 用corded purg造句 , 用corded purg造句 , corded purg meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
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anagrammer is a game resource site that has been extremely popular with players of popular games like scrabble , lexulous , wordfeud , letterpress , ruzzle , hangman and so forth . we maintain regularly updated dictionaries of almost every game out there . to be successful in these board games you must learn as many valid words as possible , but in order to take your game to the next level you also need to improve your anagramming skills , spelling , counting and probability analysis . make sure to bookmark every unscrambler we provide on this site . explore deeper into our site and you will find many educational tools , flash cards and so much more that will make you a much better player . this page covers all aspects of purg , do not miss the additional links under
more about : purg
index to vols . 1 - 5 . by w . j . mcgee
: v . 5 , p . 281 - 370
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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
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liste d ' espèces animales dont la disparition a été causée par l ' homme .
j ' essaie de faire une liste la plus complète possible , mais je ne garantie pas qu ' elle soit complète , ni qu ' elle soit exacte . elle peut servir comme outil de travail , comme référence pour pousser plus loin vos recherches . mais en aucun cas , elle ne peut servir de référence absolue . rappelez - vous aussi que le statut d ' espèce éteinte n ' est jamais sûr à 100 % .
pyrgulopsis is a genus of freshwater snails with a gill and an operculum , aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family hydrobiidae .
generic characters of the genus pyrgulopsis are : the shell is minute , conically turreted , somewhat elongated , imperforate and unicarinate . the apex is acute . the aperture is ovate . the peritreme is continuous .
the operculum is ovate , thin , corneous and spiral , with polar point well forward and approximating the columella .
the radula is like this : odontophore with teeth are arranged in transverse rows , according to the formula 3 + 1 + 3 . formula for denticles of rhachidian :
the distribution of the genus pyrgulopsis includes western and south - western united states .
snails of species in the genus pyrgulopsis occur in fresh water and in brackish water .
pyrgulopsis is the largest genus of freshwater gastropods in the north america . in 2010 , 133 species were recognized in this genus .
pyrgulopsis pilsbryana ( j . l . baily & r . i . baily , 1952 ) - bear lake springsnail
eastern north american species of pyrgulopsis are considered to be in separate genus marstonia according to the thompson and hershler ( 2002 ) .
pyrgulopsis agarhecta ( f . g . thompson , 1969 ) - ocmulgee marstonia - marstonia agarhecta f . g . thompson , 1969
pyrgulopsis arga ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - ghost marstonia - marstonia arga - f . g . thompson , 1977
pyrgulopsis castor ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - beaverpond marstonia - marstonia castor f . g . thompson , 1977
pyrgulopsis halcyon ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - halcyon marstonia - marstonia halcyon f . g . thompson , 1977
pyrgulopsis hershleri f . g . thompson , 1995 - coosa pyrg - marstonia hershleri ( f . g . thompson , 1995 )
pyrgulopsis ogmoraphe ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - royal springsnail - marstonia ogmorhaphe ( f . g . thompson , 1977 )
pyrgulopsis pachyta ( f . g . thompson , 1977 ) - armored marstonia - marstonia pachyta f . g . thompson , 1977
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a second edition of camden ' s description of scotland containing a supplement of these peers , or lords of parliament , who were mentioned in the first edition , and an account of these since raised to , and further advanced in the degrees of peerage , until the year 1694 .
camden , william , 1551 - 1623 . , dalrymple , james , sir , fl . 1714 .
a moun∣tain in the midst divideth , running on for∣ward from the west sea to the east .
empire , as who begin to be weary of wars , and to acquaint them∣selves with the delightful benefits of peace .
besides a number of islands lying round about . in the south part , these countries are more remarkable than the rest .
whereof a list shall be subjoyned as they now are , and in the order they stand in the rolls of parlia∣ment .
about the year 268 . did set out dioeceses for bishops : so the bishops of
the third , that is about the year of our redemption 1070 , at which time the dioeceses were confined with∣in their bounds and limits .
session of this current parliament , the estate of bishops being the third estate of parliament is abolished . by the fifth act of the second session , presbyterian church government was settled , and the no∣bility which did consist of the great barons or lords , or the lesser barons or free - holders , is divided in two estates ; so that by the third act of the second session of the same parlia∣ment , the three estates are declared to be the lords of parliament , designed the
and hath royal authority and jurisdiction over all the states and degrees , as well eccle∣siastical as lay or temporal .
that is , those who were enobled only by the office which they administred . for the word in the ancient english saxon tongue signifi∣eth ,
hath had dukes , marquesses , earls , viscounts , and barons . as for the title of duke , the first that brought it into
the third , a∣bout the year of salvation 1400 . likeas the honourable titles of marquess and viscount were first brought in by king
by taking of an oath , and are proclaimed by the pub∣lick voice of an herauld . in the year 1621 was instituted the hereditary order of knight baronet , for advancing the plantation of
with precedency of all ordina∣ry knights , lesser barons or lairds ; of which order there is a great number , but the anci∣ent great lairds , chiefs of clans or families , have not generally yielded precedency to them . of a second sort are they , who are termed
and hath the same very power as absolute . it consisteth of three states , of lords
to wit , dukes , marques∣ses , earls , viscounts , and barons : and com∣missioners for cities and burghs . unto whom were adjoyned not long since for every coun∣ty or shire also two commissioners . and by the 11th act of the second session of this current parliament , certain shires , and the stewartrie of
it is appointed and solemnly called by the king at his pleasure , at a certain set time , be∣fore it be holden . when these states above∣said are assembled , and the causes of their as∣sembly delivered by the king , his commissi∣oner , or chancellor , the lords
then the same all joyntly together nominat eight , of the commissioners for the counties , and as many of the commissioners for the free burghs regal , which make up in all the number of thirty two . and then
do admit or reject every bill proposed unto the states , after they have been first imparted unto the king , or his commissioner . being allowed by the whole assembly of the states , they are through∣ly weighed & examined , & such of them as pass by the greater number of voices , are exhibited unto the king , or his commissioner , who by touching them with the scepter , pronounceth , that he either ratifieth & approveth them , or disableth and maketh the same void· but if any thing dislike the king , it is razed out before .
to be chosen out of each estate by it self , for preparing all motions and over∣tures first made in the house , and that the parliament may alter the said committees at their pleasure , or conclude upon matters pro∣poned before them in plain parliament , with∣out committees , and that in the committes , some of the officers of state may be present by their majesties or their commissioners ap∣pointment , who is freely to propose and de∣bate allennerly , but not to vote . by act of par∣liament 1617 , the officers of state are re∣stricted to the number of eight , including the master of requests , beside the chancel∣lor , who by his office is president of the par∣liament . since the restauration of king
there hath been no master of requests , but frequently two secretaries ; and there hath been also debate amongst the lesser offi∣cers of state : and especially between the thesaurer - depute and the others , concerning their precedency ; but at present by order , the thesaurer - deput is ranked after the advo∣cat , and before the justice - clerk .
of the nine , which must be of the ordinar lords . the distinction of half
7 . there is allowed two persons to be conjoyned in each of the three offices of ordinary clerks of session , and so now six clerks , and as many advocats as the senators shall think good . these sit and minister justice , not according to the rigour of law , but with reason and equity , every day ( save only on the
in regard the office of the lords of session are for lifetime , they are set down as fol∣lows .
the president of the session by an act of parliament 1661 . is declared to have prece∣dency of the lord register and advocat , and they to have precedency of the lord thesaurer - deput .
amongst his majesties officers and counsellors , where the lesser officers of state are ranked , and after them the lords of session , according to their admission , and before privy counsellors being barons & gentlemen .
& frequently thereafter . all the space between sessions , being the times of sowing and har∣vest , is vacation and intermission of all suites and law matters . they give judgment accor∣ding to the parliament , statutes , and munici∣pal laws , and where they are defective , they have recourse to the imperial civil law .
from which courts or judges , in re∣gard of hard and unequal dealing , or else of alliance and partiality , they appeal some∣time to the session . these sheriffs are all for
also , to oblige more surely unto them the better sort of gentlemen by their benefits and favours , made in old time , these sheriffs hereditary and and perpetual . but the english kings soon perceiving the inconveniencies thereby ensu∣ing , of purpose changed this order , & appoint∣ed them from year to year . there be civil courts also in every regalitie , holden by their baillies , to whom the kings have graciously granted royalities : as also in free - burghs , by the magistrates thereof .
in which before four judges , or commissars ; actions are pleaded concerning wills & testaments , the right of ecclesiastical benefices , tithes , divorces , and such other ecclesiastical causes . in every other several part almost throughout the kingdom , there sitteth but one judge alone in a place about these matters .
exe∣cuted for some time , ) and he doth deput two or three lawers , who have the hearing and deciding of capital actions concerning life and death , or of such as infer loss of limbs , or of all goods . and by the 16
lord justice - general , the lord justice - clerk , who are both at the kings nomination , and to them are added five of the lords of session , who are supplied from time to time by the king , and are called lords of the justiciary . in this court the defendant is permitted , yea in case of high - treason , to entertain a counsellor or advocat to plead his cause .
moreover in criminal matters , there are sometimes by vertue of the kings commission and authority , justices appointed for the de∣ciding of this or that particular cause .
also the sheriffs in their territories , and magistrats in some burghs , may sit in judge∣ment of man - slaughter ( in case the man - slay∣er be taken within 24 hours after the deed committed ) and being found guilty by a ju∣rie , put him to death . but if that time be once over - past , the cause is referred and put over to the
or his deputs . the same priviledge also some of the nobility and gentry enjoy against theives taken within their own jurisdictions . there be likewise that have such royalities , as that in criminal causes they may exercise a jurisdiction with∣in their own limits , and in some cases recal those that dwell within their own limits and liberties from the kings justice , howbeit with a caution and proviso interposed ,
who had given the author good light . he being one of the three principal clerks of session , was in the year 1608 appointed secretary in place of the lord
did set it o∣pen for us , which had so long time been shut from us .
mean time before we proceed to the de∣scription of particular places , according to the authors project , we must give some short account of the privy council , thesaury and exchequer , being soveraign courts , and omitted by the author . the privy council is constitute by the king ' s commission to decide in matters that concerns the government and publick peace of the nation , wherein the chancellor by his office doth preside , and af∣ter him the president of the council , who hath the same precedency as in
the persons are chiefly named out of the nobility , with the addition of some barons . in the thesaury and exchequer , the lord high the∣saurer doth preceed , but this office is frequent∣ly in commission , as it is at present , and then the lord chancellor is , and uses to be one and chief of the commission , as also the lord
thesaurer deput , and they together with the lords of exchequer nominat by their majesties do order , determine , and dispose of the kings rents , revenues , gifts , and casualities : i have omitted particular lists of them , in regard the commissions to the council , thesaury and exchequer are some times changed , as the king doth think fit ; and that the persons employed in them are emi∣nent , of whom occasion will be to make men∣tion in some part of this treatise , either as noblemen , sheriffs of , or commissioners from shires , or otherwise .
under which one general name alone the writers of the middle time comprised all the rest .
are always most ready for service and sudden invasions . the first place among these that we meet with ,
and in old time marchidun , because it was a town in the marches , where stands a castle , that for natural situation , and towred fortifica∣tons , was in time past exceeding strong . which being surprised and held by the
missed and lamented of his subjects . as for the castle , it was yielded ; and being then for the most part of it lay ' d even with the ground , is now in a manner quite vanished and not to be seen . the territory adjoyn∣ing , called of it the sheriffdom of
who is present she∣riff , and one of the commissioners of the shire to this present parliament . and now hath
in the year 1603 . to take possession of that crown , at which time he was created lord
aforesaid runneth through the midst of a dale , taking name of it , replenished with sheep , that bear wool of great request . a very goodly river this is , which springing more inwardly eastward , after it hath passed , as it were in a straight channel by
where he is exceeding full of salmons , and so falleth into the sea .
merch , which is next , and so named because it is a march countrey , lyeth wholly upon the german sea . in this , first
the first of that name built out of the ground , for the propagation of gods glory , but to the great empairing of the crown - land .
and passing along the ra∣ging ocean , landed here in safety , became renowned for her sanctimony , and left her name unto the place . but this
what the meaning should be of these terms let others guess . in the reign of king
dun∣bar ; and when as he proved by good evi∣dences and writings brought forth , that his father had been pardoned for that fault by the regents of the kingdom , he was answe∣red again , that it was not in the regents power to pardon on offence against the state ; and that it was expresly provided by the laws , that children should undergo punishment for their fathers transgressions , to the end that being thus heirs to their fathers rash∣ness , as they are to their goods and lands , they should not at any time in the haughty pride of their own power , plot any treason against prince or countrey . this title of earl of
doth presently enjoy that dignity ; this viscount is marked in the rolls of parliament 1621 . hard by ,
which he hath extraordinarly improven & beautifyed by planting & inclosing . by the same riveret , some few miles higher ,
slain there with his men about the year 815 . but that he should be that warlike
both the account of the times , and his own death do manifestly con∣troll it . the sheriff ship of this shire , being at the kings disposal , is given to sir
baronet , and one of their majesties privy council , and a member of this present parliament for the shire .
much teene and trouble . here by retiring back off the shores on both sides , is room made for a most noble arm of the sea , and the same well furnished with islands , which by reason of many rivers encountring it by the way , and the tides of the surging sea together , spreadeth exceeding broad :
there is none descended of him that claims the title . upon this river , after you be past
flock hither at their times ( for by report , their number is such , that in a clear day they take away the suns light , ) what a sort of fishes they bring ( for as the speech goeth , a hun∣dred garrison soldiers that here lay for de∣fence of the place , fed upon no other meat but the fresh fish that they brought in , ) what a quantity of sticks and little twigs they get together for the building of their nests , so that by their means the inhabitants are a∣bundantly provided of feuel for their fire ; what a mighty gain groweth by their feathen and oyl , the report thereof is so incredible that no man scartcely would believe it , but he that had seen it . the garrison of the
a peer as hath been said . near to this place was the seat of sir
the sixth , and one of the lords of session ; his grand uncle mr .
the sixth , and one of the lords of session ; and his uncle mr .
also a lord of session . upon the sea - side is the town of
a pict , good leave have he for me , i will not con∣front them with this my conjecture .
affordeth . and as it is the seat of the kings , so is it the oracle also , or closet of the laws , and the very palace of justice . for the high courts of parliament are here for the most part holden ,
for the enacting and repelling of laws : also the session , and the court of the kings ju∣dicators , and of the commissariat , whereof i have spoken already , are here settled and kept .
the second after his restauration , did raise there a fair and stately court and pallace , all of hewen stone . in
did to their great expense , build a stately hall for the meetings of the parlia∣ment , with other rooms adjoyning for the session , and above stairs for the privy coun∣cil and exchequer , with a large closs or yard , to the south of st .
the second on horse - back in brass . and to the south - west , on a rising ground , is a curious and large hospi∣tal , built with the money left by
gold - smith , which doth entertain above an hundred young boys , children of decay∣ed burgesses . this city is well watered with five large fountains on the high and broad street thereof . in this city also , by king
as what variable changes of reciprocal fortune it hath felt from time to time , the historiographers do relate , and out of them ye are to be informed .
had fortified , by reason of many men repair∣ing thither , within a short time from a mean village , it grew to be a big town . again , when
truely seing both these islands be dissevered from the shore , the same reason of the name will hold in both languages . for
where she did much reside , and began to found that monastry . upon the same
in the british tongue soundeth as much as a lake . a sheriff it had in times past by inheritance out of the family of the
the sixth raised from the dignity of a baron , wherein his ancestors had flourished a long time , to the honour of an earl . in the same shire is situat
great grand child to the first earl , doth pre∣sently enjoy the dignity , and is one of the commissioners of the thesaury . near to
for deliver∣ing him out of a danger , greatly enriched . these were earls of
the fifth ( who begat many bastards ) the title & inheritance both came un∣to his son now extinct . hard by is
into which the access by land is very difficult . the places of greater note here∣in are these ;
by right from their ancest∣ors , had the rule of this seneschalsie or stewartrie , for so it is accounted . this vale
for that the per∣son more remote in the second degree , descend∣ing in the first line , is to be preferred before a nearer in a second line , in the succession of an inheritance that cannot be parted .
by his own vertue , at length recovered the king∣dom unto himself , and established it to his posterity . a prince , who as he flourished notably , in regard of the glorious ornaments of his noble acts , so he triumphed as happi∣ly with invincible fortitude & courage , over fortune that so often crossed him . sir
who besides other offices enjoyed by him , is one of the commissioners of the thesaury ; and by a special commission did represent the lord high thesaurer in the last session of this cur∣rent parliament . i cannot pass over in silence his uncle ,
is one of the titles of the present duke . by the same river , near unto the mouth whereof standeth
for fear he should fore - close his way to the kingdom , ran quite through with his sword in the church , & soon obtained his par∣don from the pope , for committing that mur∣der in a sacred place . near unto the mouth , is
and is now in the person of the present earl . moreover , in this vale
of whom i am to write more in place convenient , bare a long time the title of earl .
for to fetch in booties , and in which the inhabitants thereabout on both sides with pleasant pastime and delight∣ful sight on horse - back with spears hunt salmons , whereof there is abundance . what manner of
they go forth in the night by troops out of their own borders , through de∣sart by - ways , and many winding crankies . all the day time they refresh their horses , and re∣creat their own strength in lurking places ap∣pointed before hand , until they be come thither at length , in the dark night where they would be . when they have laid hold of a bootie , back again they return home likewise by night , through blind ways only , and fetching many a compasse about ; the more skillful any leader or guide is , to pass through those wild desarts , crooked turnings , and steep down - falls , in the thickest mists and deepest darkness , he is held in greater reputati∣on , as one of an excellent wit : and so crafty
and wily these are , that seldom or never they for∣go their booty , and suffer it to be taken out of their hands , unless it happen otherwhiles that they be caught by their adversaries following con∣tinually after , and tracting them directly by their footing , according as quick - senting slugh - hounds do lead them . but say they be taken , so fair spoken they are and eloquent , so many sugared words they have at will , sweetly to plead for them▪ that they are able to move the judges and adver∣saries both , be they never so austere and severe , if not to mercy , yet to admiration , and some commiseration withal .
they take in weels and weer - nets , an incredible num∣ber of most sweet and savourie eels , where∣by they make no less gain than others do by their little naggs , which for being well limmed , fast knit , and strongly made to en∣dure travail , are most in request , and bought from hence . among these , the first place that offereth it self by the river
baronet , is heretable she∣riff , and a member for that shire to this cur∣rent parliament . in times past , it had for lord ,
which i know not , to say truth , where to seek . yet that place requireth that it should be that episcopal seat of
his younger brother took him prisoner in battel , and when he had cut out his tongue , and plucked his eyes forth of his head , he cruelly bereaved him both of life and inheritance . but with∣in some few years , when
and is in this tract of high birth , spread into many branches , and of great power . the chief of which linage is the earl of
hath a town also of mer∣chandise , and a well known port by a river of the same name .
but now both sheriffship and stewartry being at the kings disposal , are granted to one person ; which rivers hath many little villages scattered along their banks .
and others of these sirnames , all families of good note . the chief mes∣suage of the stewartry of
butteth upon the same firth so close , that it restraineth the breadth thereof , which hi∣therto lay out and spread at large . the name , if one interpret it , is as much as the
by which a man may guess how commodious and pleasant it is . this territory is watered with
and marriage with the kings sister . but soon after , when the said gale came about , and blew contrary , they were judged enemies to the state :
doth contravert many of the circumstances thereof . ) howbeit the po∣sterity of the lord
recovered the anci∣ent honour of barons , and honourably enjoy it at this day . this family was dignified with the title of earl of
shallow withall , that it can bear none other vessels but small barks and boats .
was in a broil , whiles he took part with the protestants , he was apprehended and beheaded . but the
of a castle bearing the same name . inwardly it mounteth up altogether with high rising hills , at the bottom and foot whereof , along the shore , it is well inhabited . the first earl hereof that i can read of , was
in understanding , that he could not manage his estate , took this title in the right of being guardian .
he hath been twice employed by their majesties , as commissio∣ner to the general assembly , and is of the privy council .
the fifth , book 12 . chap . 5 . anent the genealogy of the
as is said , who is one of the gentlemen of their majesties bed - chamber . the fourth son lord
is the most famous town of merchandise in this tract : for pleasant situation , apple - trees , and other like fruit - trees much com∣mended , having also a very fair bridge sup∣ported with eight arches . near to it is
kings , and that a wrong genealogy of them is printed , with our acts of parliament . i must be allowed to prevent the further course of that mistake , to digress a little beyond my ordinary in privat families , to give a true and brief account of that ancient , great and noble family of the
and that he died in the year 1177 , by the former , and 1178 . by the latter , which
the manu∣script contains many things useful to the history , and is in the hands of the reverend mr .
his grand - father , his seal appended , is also entire : he died in the year 1309 . at the battle of
hath the charter and lands , an ancient baron , nobly de∣scended . there is a charter to the same per∣son of the same lands , but then designed sir
and other great branches descended thereof , de∣serve a particular treatise . i shall only re∣peat ,
robertus senescallus comes de strathern , ne∣pos noster , ioannes senescallus comes de car∣rict , filius suus primogenitus & haeres , & c .
as also with islands , concerning which , many fables have been forged , and those rife among the com∣mon people .
as touching an island here that floateth and waveth too and fro , i list not to make question thereof . for what should let , but that a lighter body , and spongeous withal in manner of a
there be islands full of grass , and covered over with rushes and reeds , that float up and down . but i leave it unto
) the east side of it , which hath a most pleasant prospect into the said lake . but at the confluence where
in a green plain . in one of the tops or heads abovesaid , there standeth up a lofty watch - tower , or keep : on the other , which is the lower , there are sundry strong bul∣warks : between these two tops on the north side , it hath one only ascent , by which hard∣ly one by one can pass up , and that with a labour by degrees or steps , cut out aslope traverse the rock : in stead of ditches on the west side , serveth the river
and on the east a boggy flat , which at every tide is wholly covered over with waters ; and on the north side , the ve∣ry upright steepness of the place , is a most sufficient defence . certain remains of the
departure , for three hundred years , in the midst of their enemies . for in
that it was rendred unto them by composition . of this place , the territory
was given unto that most noble fami∣ly , in regard of the honourable office of the stewart - ship of the kingdom , as who had the charge of the kings revenues . the said
the eight , considering that he bestowed upon him in marriage his neice , with fair lands . by the means of this hap∣py marriage , were brought into the world
divided as well in it self , as it was heretofore from the rest of the world , and to lay a most sure foundation of an everlasting security , for our heirs and the posterity . as for
who above her sex , so embraced the studies of the best li∣terature , that therein she profited and pro∣ceeded with singular commendation , and comparable with the excellent ladies of old time . when
whereof he stood en∣feoffed , was revoked by parliamentary au∣thority , in the year of our lord 1579 . and his uncle by the fathers side ,
pier∣cing far into the land out of the west and east seas , are divided asunder , that they meet not one with the other .
name , which scarcely could be stayed , set out the marches of the empire in this part of the world farther , although with inrodes they other whiles molested and endamnaged them . but after this glorious expedition of
raised the wall three miles long . but see here the very inscriptions them∣selves , as
imp . caes . tit . —io aelio hadriano anton . aug . pio . p . p . leg . ii . aug . per . m . p . iii . d . cix vis .
strengthened this wall another time , and fortified it with seven castles . lastly , the
they made a turff wall , rearing it not so much with stone as with turfs , ( as having no cunning artificer for so great a piece of work ) and the same to no use , between two firths or arms of the sea , for ma∣ny miles in length : that where the fense of wa∣ter was wanting , there by the help of a wall , they might defend there borders from the inva∣sion of enemies : of which work , that is to say a very broad and high wall , a man may see to this day , most certain and evident remains .
obtained a signal victory . ) and almost two miles lower , there is an ancient round building four and twenty cubits high , and thirteen broad , open in the top , framed of rough stone without lime , having the upper part of every stone so tenanted into the nether , as that the whole work still rising narrow by a mutual interlacing and clasping , upholdeth it self . some call this the temple of
a round house of polished stone , erecting a triumphal arch in memorial of a victory : he re - edified also the wall , and strengthened it with seven castles .
their minority , have been at other times com∣mitted . whereas some there be , that would have the good and lawful money of
shire to be described after . the sheriffship of this shire belongs to the earls of
such as the northern nations for the most part are ; who by reason of the rigorous cold of the air , are more rough and fierce , and for their abundance of blood , more bold and ad∣venturous . moreover , beside the position of the climat , this is furthered by the na∣ture and condition of the soil , which riseth up all throughout , with rough and rugged mountains ; and mountainers , verily all men know and confess to be hardy , stout , and strong . but whereas
than this of our ; although ours may also justly challenge unto it self this commendation . among this was the wood
that it was thought there , they were brought thi∣ther within iron grates and cages . but this term and name
we brittain dames have to do with the bravest and best men , and you roman ladies with e∣very lewd base companion secretly .
to which the reader is referred . there is also now in the press , the manuscript of the judicious and learned mr .
shooteth out far into the east . this land yieldeth plenty of corn and forrage , yea and of pit coals : the sea , besides other fishes , affordeth oysters and and shell - fish in great abundance , and the coasts are well bespread with pretty townlets , replenished with stout and lusty mariners . in the south side hereof by
castle , the seat of a noble family , bearing the same sir∣name . the laird of
to succeed her in that dignity . from hence the shore draweth back with a crooked and wiuding tract un∣to
that it should be the chief and mother of all churches in the picts kingdom .
doctors of the civil law , publickly professed here good literature , laid the foundation of an university : which now , for happy increase of learned men , for three colledges and the kings professors in them , is become highly renowned . hard by there loseth it self into the sea
king , when he is to be crowned in his chair , and to lead the vant - guard in his army ; and if any of them should happen by casualty to kill either gentleman or commoner , to buy it out with a piece of money . not far from
heifer , should be quit of man∣slaughter . when his posterity lost this ti∣tle and priviledge , is uncertain ; but it appear∣eth , that king
the kings eldest son to be most pitifully famished to death , which is the highest extremity of all misery . but his son
should be united unto the crown for ever . but the authority of the sheriff of
was a lord of the session , and one of the octavians of the thesaury , & secre∣tary before k .
in the year 1648 , whose honour is not now claimed by any . lieutenant general
his son being deceased without heirs male , the grand . child is married to mr .
the worst emperour , marched with victorious armies in the third year of his warlike expeditions , having wasted and spoiled the nations hitherto . near the out∣let of
the third ; took to him a wife out of that li∣nage : for the women of this race , have for their singular beauty , and well favoured sweet countenance , won the prize from all others , insomuch as they have been the kings most a∣miable paramours . baron
his great grand - child , who was an extraordi∣nar lord of the session , justice general , and chancellor to k .
had been quite extinguished , but that the chief of that house left his wife behind him great with child . the precedency of
nectane king of the picts gave unto god and st . brigid until the day of doom , together with the bounds thereof , which ly from a stone in abertrent , unto a stone near to carfull ,
the first took away the earldom as escheated ; after that , he understood out of the records of the kingdom , that it was given unto his mothers grand - father , and the hirs male of his body . this territory , the barons
president of the council , ranked before the l . privy seal ; it is report∣ed , that being vain of the title of
the sixth was the first , who as great or high commissioner , did repre∣sent the kings person in the parliament 1604 , as distinguished from several noblemen and gentlemen , appointed commissioners by the king under the quarter seal , to meet at the dyet of parliament , and to continue the same to a furder time , and to see the solem∣nities constituting the parliament performed , the first day of its sitting ; which form was constantly observed , till the year 1640 . this earls grand - child
actions there , and several noble and antient families inhabiting it . i return to the cross of
medals have been found , and from that there is a great mercat - road lead∣eth towards st .
dis manibus antonius daimonius cohortis i . legionis xvii . hispanorum heredes . f . c .
the country runneth out in length and breadth , all mangled with fishful pools , and in some places with rising mountains , very commo∣dious for feeding of cattel ; in which also there range up and down wild kine and red deer : but along the shore it is more un∣pleasant in sight , what with rocks , and what with blackish barren mountains . in this part , as
either through friendship , or by dint of sword , planted their seat amongst them which they still hold . of whom , their leader they are to this very day called dalreudini : for in their language ,
the fourth by authority of the states of the king∣dom , enacted a law . but the earls them∣selves have in some cases their royalties , as being men of very great command and au∣thority ,
( betwixt which and it there is a narrow sea , scarce thirteen miles over ) as if it would conjoyn it self .
lying over - against it , there is , in my conceit , some affinity . at this day it is called in the
by so thin a neck ( as being scarce a mile broad , and the same all sandy ) that the mariners find it the nearer way to convey their small vessels over it by land . which i hope a man may sooner believe , than that the
ano∣ther lake running into the east sea , but that certain mountains between kept them with a very little partition asunder . the chiefest place of name in this tract is
are joyned in one these coun∣tries and those beyond them , in the year of our lords incarnation 655 . the
is better known for the dukes thereof , than for any good gifts that the soil yieldeth .
that was heir to the crown . but the punishment due for this wicked fact , which himself by the long sufferance of god self not , his son
suffered most grievously , being condemned for treason and beheaded , when he had seen his two sons the day before executed in the same manner . the third duke of
chanced to be wound∣ed with a piece of shattered launce , & so di∣ed . his son
their bodies be firmly made and well compact , able withal and strong , nimble of foot , high min∣ded , inbread and nuzzeled in warlike exer∣cises , or robberies rather , and upon a dead∣ly feud and hatred , most forward and des∣perat to take revenge . they go attired
they commit such cruel outrages , what with robbing , spoilling and killing , that their savage cruelty hath forced a law to be enacted , whereby it is lawful , that if any person , out of any one clan or kindred of theirs hath trespassed ought , and done harm , whosoever of that clan or linage chance to be taken , he shall either make amends for the harms , or else suffer death for it ; when as the whole clan commonly beareth feud for any hurt received by any one member thereof , by execution of laws , order of ju∣stice , or otherwise . sir
issueth : and first run∣reth amain through the fields , until that spreading broad into a lake full of islands , he restraineth and keepeth in his course . then gathering himself narrow within his banks into a channel , and watering
dread∣ful to see , for the sundry turnings and win∣dings in and out therein , for the hideous hor∣rour of dark shades , for the burrows and dens of wild bulls with thick manes ( where∣of i made mention heretofore ) extended it self in old time far and wide every way in these parts . as for the places herein , they are of no great account , but the earls thereof are very memorable .


xerocrassa molinae is a species of air-breathing land snail , a pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family hygromiidae , the hairy snails and their allies .

this species is endemic to spain , where it is restricted to the islands of columbrete grande ( illa grossa ) and mancolibre ( columbretes islands group ) .

xerocrassa molinae

information on xerocrassa molinae is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
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xerocrassa molinae is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
hygromiidae » xerocrassa molinae , id : 815639 , shell detail « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : amandana molinae ( j . g . hidalgo , 1883 ) - id : 5814000050
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justification : this species is endemic to two columbretes islands and has a very restricted range ( extent of occurrence = 14 km 2 and area of occupancy = 14 km 2 ) . the islands are protected areas and the population is thought to be increasing . currently , there are no major threats to this species , however , fires or stochastic events could affect this species and lead it to extinction . the species is therefore listed as near threatened .
this species is endemic to spain , where it is restricted to the columbretes islands ( castellón province ) to two islands : columbrete grande ( l ' illa grossa ) and mancolibre .
there has been a slight increase in the population of this species since the islands they inhabit have been protected .
this species lives in exposed places on the stems of bushes and under stones .
potential threats to this species include fires , depredation by rats and birds and tourism .
this species is currently abundant on the columbrete islands but the habitat is fragile and a plan of conservation and the inclusion of this species in protected species catalogues is recommended . the specific status of this taxon should be investigate as it is possible that it was introduced to the columbrete islands from the pine islands ( balearic islands ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
hidalgo , j . g . 1883 . description de deux espèces nouvelles d ' helix . - journal de conchyliologie 31 : 56 - 58 , pl . ii [ = 2 ] . paris .
shell horny coloured with transparent dark and whitish bands and dashes ( or whitish with horny transparent spots , or brown with white spots ) , finely striated , last whorl not always rounded at the periphery , umbilicus narrow , aperture inside with a thin lip .
endemic species of columbretes islands . threatened by fires . since the islands have been protected , the number of populations has increased ( martínez - ortí & robles 2003 ) . red list spain 2001 : sensitive to habitat change ( gómez moliner et al . 2001 ) . red list spain 2006 : vulnerable ( verdú & galante 2006 ) .
references : westerlund 1889 : 259 , gómez moliner et al . 2001 : 148 , martínez - ortí & robles 2003 : 135 , puente et al . in verdú & galante 2006 : 387 , urltoken ( 3 - 2008 ) , welter - schultes 2012 : 524 ( range map ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
alberto martinez - ortí departamento de zoologia . facultad de ciencias biológicas . universitat de valència . av . dr . moliner , 50 . 46100 burjassot , valencia spain tel : 0034670342546 amorti @ urltoken
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bank , r . a . ; neubert , e . ( 2017 ) . checklist of the land and freshwater gastropoda of europe . last update : july 16th , 2017 . [ details ]
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the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
we want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .
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