the dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) is a species of seahorse found in the subtidal aquatic beds of the bahamas and parts of the united states .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

according to guinness world records , it is the slowest moving fish , with a top speed of about 152 centimetres per hour .

it is most often white in color but can range from tan , brown , yellow and green .

in the wild , it often has small skin growths called cirri that resemble algae .

dwarf seahorse

noaa fisheries . dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) . accessed september 30 , 2014 .
genetic evidence for monogamy in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae . - pubmed - ncbi
information on the dwarf seahorse is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
as “data - deficient , ” meaning that no one has really looked into the dwarf seahorse’s population dynamics .
the dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) is a small seahorse found in the western atlantic ocean . they are also known as little seahorses or pygmy seahorses .
masonjones , h . , s . lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae .
zebra snout seahorse hippocampus barbouri , a beautiful seahorse but one that frequently does poor in captivity .
masonjones hd and sm lewis . 1996 . courtship behavior in the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae . copeia 1996 : 634 - 640 .
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project seahorse is the world’s premier seahorse conservation and research organization . a wealth of information is available at their web site : urltoken
jordan , , gilbert . 1882 .
hippocamous zosterae ( dwarf seahorse )
( on - line ) . fishbase . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .
video :
dwarf seahorse snatches a copepod
check out this up - close - and - personal video showing how these tiny seahorses can be deadlier than sharks .
we set out to catch a modern day unicorn , the dwarf seahorse , as dainty and secretive a creature as you can find anywhere on land or under the sea .
in fact , the center for biological diversity filed a petition in 2011 to list the dwarf seahorse under the endangered species act . federal officials are still considering that petition .
soon after the deepwater horizon oil spill , the center leapt into action to fight dangerous offshore oil drilling that threatens the survival of the dwarf seahorse and countless other animal and plant species . a year later , with pollution still persisting in the gulf and the seahorse in dangerous decline , we filed a scientific petition to federally protect the species . in 2012 , the national marine fisheries service announced that the dwarf seahorse may warrant protection .
dwarf seahorses have 9 - 10 bony rings around their trunk and 31 - 32 rings around their tail .
the small size and specific body ring and dorsal ray counts should be sufficient to allow the dwarf seahorse to be distinguished from the larger congener hippocampus erectus , with which it may co - occur .
full , round belly . a healthy seahorse is a will feed seahorse . while they tend to be fairly thin by nature , any caved in sides is a bad sign .
hi there , i have 9 dwarf seahorses in a 35 gallon bow front . the tank is . . .
vincent , a . 1995 . a role for daily greetings in maintaining seahorse pair bonds .
are humans . dwarf seahorses are extremely popular in the aquarium trade because of their small size . some fisheries off the coast of florida have built their business around the capture of live dwarf seahorses in shallow grass beds for the aquarium trade . tens of thousands of
the marine curio industry also affects wild seahorse populations . for more about this threat , go to
the seed to go on a seahorse hunt was planted during a recent conversation with brian jones of the sea lab , who mentioned that the lab had acquired some dwarf seahorses from another facility and would be putting them on display .
high reproductive rates and a stable population size suggest dwarf seahorses are an important trophic link in halodule seagrass communities ( strawn 1958 ) .
the breeding season for dwarf seahorses runs from february to november . in captivity , these animals have been reported to mate for life .
hermit crabs are not very effective predators in general , but a very large individual might be able to overcome a dwarf seahorse . it’s more likely that the crab was scavenging an already dead seahorse , but stick to very small individuals in your tank . these should be quite easy to collect in the waters inhabited by the pipefish .
, commonly known as the dwarf seahorse , inhabits coastal waters of the western atlantic ocean , including the caribbean sea , the gulf of mexico , and the continental shelf of the southeastern united states ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) .
dwarf seahorses are also collected in florida for the marine ornamental aquarium industry . annual seahorse landings vary widely , but adams et al . ( 2001 ) indicates more than 80 , 000 h . zosterae were collected in florida in 1992 .
masonjones , h . 2001 . the effect of social context and reproductive status on the metabolic rates of dwarf seahorses ( hippocampus zosterae ) .
dwarf seahorses , hippocampus zosterae remains an ever popular , easy to care for aquarium pet . the basics of keeping them are . . .
bright , active eyes . a healthy seahorse will swivel its eyes around in constant search of food .
citation : fedrizzi n , stiassny mlj , boehm jt , dougherty er , amato g , mendez m ( 2015 ) population genetic structure of the dwarf seahorse ( hippocampus zosterae ) in florida . plos one 10 ( 7 ) : e0132308 . urltoken
a pair of dwarf seahorses are entombed in this acrylic paperweight bought in a seashell curio shop . thousands of seahorses meet a similar fate every year .
large species of seahorse , very similar to h . reidi in form and coloration . a subtropical seahorse from the pacific , found on the west coast , possibly as far north as california . outgoing , active seahorse . but very difficult to keep successfully . prone to bacterial illnesses that tend to then infect any other syngnathid inhabitants .
your fears are correct . seahorse should not be kept with reef lobsters . please look at the tankmates article .
breeding interval dwarf seahorses remate within 4 to 20 hours after the young have been released from the brood pouch . this may occur throughout the breeding season .
for those who have never seen a pipefish , it is the closest swimming relative of the seahorse . in fact , pipefish look just as a seahorse would look if you straightened its body out and bent the seahorse head to be in line with the rest of the body . but they share a much more fascinating trait than just appearance .
the trade in dwarf seahorses for both the aquarium and curio trades has historically been concentrated in florida [ 51 , 52 ] . collection of h . zosterae in florida is regulated in the same manner as other near - shore marine fishes and is subject to the restrictions of recreational and commercial fishing licenses issued by the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission [ 51 ] . the results of our analyses , considered alongside observations of the methods of dwarf seahorse collectors , suggest that the impact of the aquarium trade on h . zosterae is likely small and can be sustained by dwarf seahorse populations . implementation of seasonal restrictions on large - scale catches of dwarf seahorses , such as those for the curio trade , could be a useful management tool for curtailing collection during the peak of annual population contraction , which occurs from december to february [ 1 , 52 ] .
staring at a picture of a dwarf , i thought , what a thing , to catch one of these tiny and magical creatures and hold it in your hand . in a lifetime spent prowling ocean waters , i had previously encountered only one live seahorse , which my cousin mike and i caught in a seine in panama city in the 1970s . it was the more common and much larger lined seahorse .
a 10 gallon aquarium is far too small for most seahorse species , and clownfish are not good tank mates for seahorses .
the key to feeding dwarf seahorses dwarf seahorses are one of the only seahorse species that will thrive on a diet consisting solely of enriched brine shrimp . they will , however , appreciate an occasional meal of tiny , wild caught invertebrates – thin meshed “plankton nets , ” ( available from biological supply houses ) drawn through shallow marine waters will yield a wealth of valuable food items . “enriched” brine shrimp are those that have been allowed to feed for a few days before themselves being given to the seahorses . this process increases the shrimps’ nutritional value , and is indispensable if one is to succeed in keeping dwarf seahorses . therefore , brine shrimp intended as seahorse food should be given brightwell aquatic’s phyto - green , or a similar product , for several days .
2003 .
biology of seahorses
( on - line ) . project seahorse . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .
tiger tail seahorse , hippocampus comes , showing the distinctive tail coloration that earned this species it’s name . photo courtesy of debby ng
one issue that new seahorse keepers struggle with is what exactly they need for an aquarium setup to keep seahorses . . . .
the two species highlighted in this article ( please see part i , the atlantic seahorse , published last week ) were chosen because , of all , they are the most likely to do well on diets that are within the means of most aquarists . please do not be tempted to try other species until you are well - experienced with the following animals . i will focus here on points unique to seahorse husbandry – water quality and filtration should be managed as for other marine fishes ( please see related articles posted on this blog ) . dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae
the male seahorse carries fertilized eggs in his
brood pouch
for 9 to 45 days until the young seahorses emerge fully formed .
great info…i’ve always been interested in keeping a seahorse tank , but haven’t had much time . my reef tanks keep me busy enough !
we had a few local hermit crabs as you suggested in the book , but found one eating a seahorse , and so released them just to be on the safe side . could the hermit crab have killed the seahorse ? sorry for so many questions , thank you .
as it stands , dwarf seahorses are the second most popular fish exported from the state for the aquarium trade , with reports of tens of thousands sold live each year . still , collection for the chinese market takes the lion ' s share of all seahorse species internationally . a guide to the identification of seahorses , a 2004 scientific paper about the status of global seahorse populations , states that the asian trade exceeds 50 tons of dried seahorses a year , a stunning amount considering how small even the largest seahorse species are . the international union for conservation of nature , which publishes the iucn red list of threatened species , considers all 30 - plus known seahorse species to be in danger of extinction due to exploitation and habitat loss .
throughout their range , using a variety of gear types and inconsistent sampling frequencies and duration ' s . throughout this section , reported seahorse densities are low , but this has been observed broadly across seahorse species ( foster and vincent 2004 ) and is strongly related to gear specificity in
seahorses ' unique life - history characteristics and habitat specificity make them particularly vulnerable when faced with exploitation and habitat degradation . seahorses have elaborate social and reproductive behaviors , with males giving live birth and partners forming monogamous bonds that are reinforced each morning with a greeting ritual . the imperiled dwarf seahorse is too special to abandon to extinction .
a mated pair ! dwarf seahorses are known to be monogamous , and to mate for life . their elaborate courtship rituals are well documented . and here was a mated pair basically holding hands .
and other seahorse species produce a rapid clicking sound as a form of communication . these clicking sounds have been observed during courtship and copulation , inter - male competition , feeding , and stress produced , for example , by moving a seahorse from one tank into another . dwarf seahorses produce these clicking sounds by stridulation , which is the production of sound through the grinding together of hard , usually bony structures . in this case the skull grinds against the vertebrae . more specifically ,
most of the harvest occurs in the grass beds of south florida , which appear to be the dwarf seahorse ' s last remaining stronghold . the state of florida recently rejected recommendations from a state panel that sought to beef up the rules governing the harvest . the rule change would have cut the number that could be harvested in a day from 400 to 200 per boat , set a limit of 25 , 000 per year for the annual harvest , and prohibited collecting dwarf seahorses anywhere but within this stronghold area . some scientists believe the seahorse populations in other parts of the state have been affected by years of heavy collection and shrimp trawling , nearly wiping them out from some areas .
well that depends on the seahorse you’re interested in . typically the larger and more brightly colored individuals cost more than the smaller and duller colored ones
bloating . while a fat seahorse is a healthy seahorse , they also succumb to infections that cause fluid to accumulate under the skin . it can be difficult to tell the difference in the early stages , but one thing you can do is watch for if it is still eating or not .
while this just a basic overview of what is needed for keeping seahorses , following these three keys will lead to a happy , healthy seahorse tank .
many middle - aged and older aquarists may be familiar with dwarf seahorses , even if they don’t realize it . those of us who grew up in the precomputer age reading comic books are likely familiar with the ads in the back of those comic books offering seahorses for sale . these were dwarf seahorses , and those of us who bought them had live fish arriving in the mail years before the internet began .
the maximum length of a dwarf seahorse is just under 2 inches . like many other seahorse species , it has a variety of color forms , which range from tan to green to almost black . their skin may be mottled , have dark spots , and covered in tiny warts . these seahorses have a short snout , and a coronet on top of their head that is very high and column - like or knob - like in shape . they may also have filaments extending from their head and body .
as early as the mid - 1950s , dwarf seahorses were preserved , dried , and sold to shell dealers for $ 15 . 00 to $ 25 . 00 per 1 , 000 ( strawn 1954 ) .
baum jk , vincent acj ( 2005 ) magnitude and inferred impacts of the seahorse trade in latin america . environ conserv 32 ( 4 ) : 305–319 .
after reading this , are you thinking of setting up your own seahorse aquarium ? stop by our forums to ask any questions you have about keeping seahorses .
dwarf seahorses are precocious and will breed freely in captivity . some seahorse species are reported to be monogamous , but dwarfs definitely like to play the field . i have one large female that mates on a regular basis with at least four different males . their mating dance usually happens early in the morning , and i’ve never seen a pair mate in the afternoon or evening .
dwarf seahorses eat small crustaceans and tiny fish . like other seahorses , they are
ambush predators ,
and use their long snout with a pipette - like motion to suck in their food as it passes by .
vincent , a . 1997 .
nova - kingdom of the seahorse
( on - line ) . pbs . accessed october 13 , 2004 at urltoken .
project seahorse 2003 . hippocampus zosterae . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 2 . < urltoken > . accessed september 30 , 2014 .
seahorse keepers are obsessed with food . live food , dead food , big food , small food . why ? because our seahorses are so dependent on it .
the dwarf seahorse ' s mating ritual is fascinating ,
said mccawley , with the florida fwc . it is
marked by distinct behavior changes and intensity and occurs over 3 - 4 days . the phases include side - by - side vibrating or quivering , showing bright and / or rapid color changes , head pointing , and repeatedly rising together in the water column .
with adults only about an inch tall , the dwarf seahorse is the smallest of the four seahorse species found in u . s . waters . this dainty , curly - tailed fish occurs only in shallow seagrass areas in the gulf of mexico , along the atlantic coast of florida and in the caribbean . unfortunately , this seahorse now faces numerous threats to its existence , and the best available science shows that it ' s in decline . widespread loss of the species ' seagrass habitat due to pollution , damage from boats and trawls and global warming is hurting the minuscule creature — which is further endangered by collection for use in the aquarium trade , as curios , and for prepackaged traditional medicines . after the catastrophic 2010 gulf of mexico oil spill degraded much of its range , this seahorse is more threatened than ever and could disappear forever without the protection of the endangered species act .
strawn k . 1958 . life history of the pigmy seahorse , hippocampus zosterae jordan and gilbert , at cedar key , florida . copeia 1958 : 16 - 22 .
lourie s ( 2003 ) fin - clipping procedure for seahorses . in : project seahorse technical bulletin 3 . fisheries centre , university of british columbia , pp 1–4 .
reidi are available in australia by the only remaining commercial breeders here seahorse australia . urltoken just expensive and only seems to be females at the time of this comment .
is one of the smallest of the many different seahorse species , ranging in size between 2 to 2 . 5 cm . the maximum reported size was a male of 5 . 0 cm ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) . this species of seahorse can be distinguished from other western atlantic seahorse species by the presence of 10 to 13 dorsal and pectoral fin rays ( daswon and vari , 1982 ) . also , dwarf seahorses possess 9 to 10 trunk rings , a high knob - like coronet that lacks spines or projections , knob - like spines on the body , a short snout that is one - third the length of the head , and skin covered in tiny warts ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) .
lourie s , foster s , cooper e , vincent ac ( 2004 ) a guide to the identification of seahorses . traffic north america and project seahorse , washington dc .
the dwarf seahorse , hippocampus zosterae , is a small seahorse common to florida seagrass flats . it is variable in color , often tan and unpatterned , but individuals can also range in color from green to nearly black . the snout is long relative to body size and the coronet ( head projection ) is high and knob - like . the dorsal fin has 11 - 13 fin rays and a dark submarginal stripe that may aid in identification . body ring counts reveal 10 - 14 trunk rings and 31 - 33 tail rings ( hoese and moore 1977 , robins et al . 1986 ) .
chang ch , lin hy , jang - liaw nh , shao kt , lin ys , ho hc . ( 2013 ) the complete mitochondrial genome of the tiger tail seahorse ,
goswami m , thangaraj k , kumar b , chaudhary l , bhaskar sk , gopalakrishnan a , et al . ( 2009 ) genetic heterogeneity of the indian stocks of seahorse (
an ideal “first seahorse” in sharp contrast to larger fishes , dwarf seahorses offer us the opportunity to observe nearly all of their natural behaviors in captivity . due to their small size , they adjust readily to the confines of aquarium life . three pairs in a 15 gallon tank will reward you with a display of activities not often observed among captive seahorses of other species . as a consequence , their captive husbandry is well understood , and many specimens in the trade are commercially produced . this is an important consideration at a time when many seahorse species are in sharp decline ( please see below ) .
the size and shape of the aquarium is also important to seahorse health . 20 gallons per seahorse is the absolute minimum for a pair of seahorses . 40 gallons per pair of the really large species such as h . ingens or h . abdominalis . however , water volume is only one factor when determining the best size seahorse aquarium . seahorses need tall aquariums , as they are vertical swimmers . this is especially true if you plan to breed them . minimum tank size is three times the total adult height of the seahorse . be sure this is after you subtract the depth of your sand bed . a 20 - inch tank with a 6 inch sand bed only gives seahorses 14 inches of usable height .
our results support an isolation by distance model as a contributing driver of population structuring in floridian h . zosterae , in which geographically proximate populations are more genetically similar than those that are farther apart [ 36 ] . these findings implicate a stepping - stone or nearest - neighbor model in the structuring of dwarf seahorse populations , though other organismal and environmental factors are likely influential , including rafting and current patterns [ 39 ] .
overwintering cedar key dwarf seahorses disappear from the grass flats by early august and do not become member ' s of the next year ' s overwintering population . strawn ( 1958 ) suggested that individuals from this population rarely exceeded one year in age .
description and habitat “seapony” might be a more appropriate name for this diminutive creature , which , at an adult length of 0 . 9 inches , is only slightly larger than the smallest known species , denise’s pygmy seahorse ( please see below ) . ranging from florida to the bahamas , the dwarf seahorse may be white , yellow , green or black in color . it dwells in sea grass beds , so much so that the species name , “zosterae” , is drawn from that of the plant with which it is most often associated . northern populations were formerly considered to be a separate species , h . regulus .
driving home , this thought occurred to me regarding the fact that they mate for life : if i were only able to move five feet an hour and i managed to find another of my species in a huge forest of grass , and that one i found was the opposite sex , i ' d probably never let her out of my sight either . especially so if she looked as lovely and delicate as a dwarf seahorse .
was listed in 2000 as vulnerable on the iucn red list of threatened species . one major threat to dwarf seahorses is habitat degradation due to extraction from subsistence , artisanal uses , and large - scale fisheries as well as infrastructure development such as industry , human settlement , and tourism . harvesting for local , national , and international trade and accidental mortality as bycatch in fishing nets are also threats to this population . due to the small size of dwarf seahorses , they are popular in the aquarium trade .
boehm jt , woodall l , teske pr , lourie s , baldwin c , waldman j , et al . ( 2013 ) marine dispersal and barriers drive atlantic seahorse diversification . j biogeogr
i’m often asked which species of seahorse aquarists should get for their first aquarium . this question may sound simple enough , but different species behave differently and have varying levels of care required .
also has a dorsal fin with a submarginal band ( dawson and vari , 1982 ) . dwarf seahorses are found in colors of beige , yellow , green , and black , and may have white speckles or dark spots ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) .
( 1989 ) , observing 0 . 37 animals / m² in 1994 / 1995 combined , again showing that across habitat types , seahorse densities were stable . using otter trawls in deeper areas , thayer
as a testament to their hardiness , most of those early shipments arrived alive and well . because the dwarf seahorse is relatively easy to care for , provided a few basic needs are met , those of us who followed the simple directions that came with them were rewarded with fish that often reproduced and survived for several generations in our care . unfortunately , i’m sure many others did not follow those directions , and those poor fish in their care did not last long .
dwarf seahorses live in shallow waters populated with seagrasses . in fact , their distribution coincides with the availability of seagrasses . they may also be found in floating vegetation . they live in the western atlantic ocean in southern florida , bermuda , bahamas and the gulf of mexico .
dwarf seahorses are the one exception . newly hatched and enriched baby brine shrimp is generally used as a staple . this is because they are more nutritious , still having the egg yoke or being enriched . larger seahorses will not eat baby brine shrimp , its too small .
wilson mj , and acj vincent . 1998 . preliminary success in closing the life cycle of exploited seahorse species , hippocampus spp . , in captivity . aquarium sciences and conservation 2 : 179 - 196 .
, being a smaller species , is expected to live on average one year in the wild and in captivity ( if given proper care ) ( lourie et al . , 2004 ) . the maximum reported lifespan is 1 year for dwarf seahorses ( jordan and gilbert , 1882 ) .
tankmates need to be slow . seahorses are not very fast at catching food ; some will stare at a piece for a good ten minutes before deciding it is edible . highly aggressive , fast tankmates will usually end up stealing all the food . in addition , gregarious , fast moving fish tend to make seahorses nervous and can cause undue stress , which can lead to illness . keep the tankmates slow and small , and your seahorse will be happiest . or don’t keep them at all , as many seahorse keepers discovered they do best only with their own kind . for specific recommendations , see the article on seahorse tankmates .
i was in surfside this weekend and caught a very small seahorse . about an inch long . it is now in a 30 gallon ice chest filled with ocean water from where i caught him… now what… .
dwarf seahorses typically produce at least three generations per year , with four or more generations possible in the southern parts of their range [ 1 ] . most breeding activity occurs between february and october , with breeding timing and juvenile growth both closely associated with day length and regional water temperatures [ 1 , 12 ] . during the summer months , when water temperatures exceed 30°c , male dwarf seahorses may produce up to two broods per month , each containing up to 55 offspring . juvenile development is rapid , with individuals reaching reproductive maturity between two and three months of age .
plays a vital role in the ecosystems in which they live , first as predators that help regulate populations of their marine prey . as prey for other animals , dwarf seahorses help to maintain other species by providing them with a source of food . for example , consumption of small crustaceans by
the dwarf seahorse is found in eelgrass beds around coastal florida , out in the atlantic to bermuda and throughout the caribbean . in fact , their specific name zosterae refers to the genus of eelgrass with which they are most often associated : zostera . while individual specimens are reputed to be tied to one area , and they don’t move around much , their wide dispersal is apparently due to them hanging on when pieces of seagrass break loose and float off with the current to settle down sometimes hundreds of miles away .
the last issue concerning the seahorse environment is water quality . seahorses are messy eaters ; consuming large volumes of high protein , high fat foods . they have an inefficient digestive system , which leaves the aquarist with high protein , high fat poops that break down in the aquarium . for this reason , it is important for the seahorse aquarist to watch their water quality closely , and set up their aquarium to deal with these waste - producing machines .
hello i was wondering what can be done to help the bio cube not get so hot ? i have been looking into a seahorse tank and found the biocube 32 to be suitable and many people seem to use them .
i have not much idea about seahorses but i’d loved to keep them as pets . can anyone suggest me of which kind of seahorse i should get ? i prefer the one that has a long life span . thanks !
dwarf seahorses are small . specimens collected from cedar key seagrass beds by strawn ( 1958 ) ranged from 7 to 38 mm from the knob at the top of the head ( the coronet ) to the tip of the tail . robbins et al . ( 1986 ) indicates large specimens may reach 5 cm .
hello , i’m having difficulty adjusting the flow rate on the 2 different types of filters that i use in my seahorse aquarium . the current if blowing the seahorse around , no matterhow i try to slow it . in the spring i am planning to add pipefish , which also need slower water i believe . i have an undergravel plate already in place , and am thinking to give it a try , do you have any opinion on undergravel filters ?
hi dena – are you prepared for the amount of work and expense keeping seahorses requires ? what did you think of the above questions ? if you think you’re ready to keep a seahorse , i suggest starting with captive bred individuals . i would strongly recommend releasing this one back into the wild as close to where you found it as possible . and then take a look at so you want to set up a seahorse tank as a good starting point .
measuring an inch long when full grown , they are the smallest of the four seahorse species native to the gulf of mexico , and one of the smallest vertebrates on the planet . they are also thought to be slowly disappearing .
tipton and bell ( 1988 ) describe the predation strategy of dwarf sea horses as a
sit - and - wait
ambush strategy . like other syngnathids , h . zosterae is a pipette feeder ( colson et al . 1998 ) , using suctorial force to capture prey with the fused tube - like jaws .
the network visualization and genetic distance map suggest that , with the possible exception of pensacola , some gene flow occurs between sampled locations . as the distances between these locations far exceed the capacity of h . zosterae for active migration , these findings implicate passive dispersal as a common mechanism underpinning genetic connectivity in the species . passive dispersal is likely accomplished through rafting , which has been previously documented in other seahorse species [ 38 , 40 ] , and woodall et al . ’s [ 14 ] reported occurrence of a north american seahorse in european waters was likely the product of a long - range dispersal by rafting . as dwarf seahorses produce benthic offspring and have limited capacity for active dispersal , rafting provides a likely explanation for our findings of genetic intermixing between distant populations [ 1 , 13 ] .
population data for most of the worldâ€™s more than 30 seahorse species is sparse . however , worldwide coastal habitat depletion , pollution , and rampant harvesting , mainly for use in asian traditional medicine , have made several species vulnerable to extinction .
i plan to gift a seahorse to a friend . it would be nice if you could give me me detailed information about the cost involved and also any other things i should keep in mind / may overlook . thanks…loved the article !
additional observations on dwarf seahorse reproduction are provided by strawn ( 1958 ) . microscopic examination of ripe ovaries by the author revealed two clutches of eggs , one of which is comprised of large eggs ready to be transferred to the male pouch , the other of the small , yolked eggs of the successive clutch . the largest clutch size ( mature eggs only ) was 69 eggs , and the largest brood from a male was 55 young . one female usually provided all of the eggs brooded in the male marsupium , and courting males pump their pouches full of water .
our findings indicate significant population structuring among hippocampus zosterae populations in florida . we present strong evidence for the presence of a genetically distinct dwarf seahorse population ( pensacola ) , delineate two recognizable populations ( eastern keys and west coast ) , and suggest the presence of a fourth ( big pine key ) . the consistently high and strongly significant values for the various estimates of genetic differentiation employed in this study support the demarcation of the pensacola sample as markedly genetically differentiated from the rest of the seahorses collected in this study and the consideration of the population as a discrete management unit [ 37 ] . our analyses also lend credence to the suggestion made in previous studies that rafting may serve as a common means of passive dispersal facilitating genetic connectivity between geographically distant seahorse populations [ 2 , 4 , 21 , 38 ] .
range from 5 to 20 milliseconds in length and are between 2 . 65 and 3 . 43 khz . also , as size of the seahorse increases the peak frequencies of the clicking sounds decrease ( colson et al . , 1998 ) .
dwarf seahorses have a complex , four phase courtship ritual that involves color changes , performing vibrations while attached to a holdfast . they may also swim around their holdfast . then the female points her head upward , and the male responds by also pointing his head upward . then they rise up into the water column and intertwine tails .
like other seahorses , dwarf seahorses are ovoviviparous , and the female produces eggs that are reared in the male ' s brood pouch . the female produces about 55 eggs which are about 1 . 3 mm in size . it takes about 11 days for the eggs to hatch into miniature seahorses which are about 8 mm in size .
the tank size you have sounds too small . it sounds like approximately 15 gallons ( 57 ltr ) , and you’re going to want a minimum of a 29 gallon ( 110 ltr ) for most species . unless you’re thinking of keeping dwarf seahorses , which have very different requirements and then the tank would be almost too big .
after a few minutes in one spot , they would both release their grip on their seaweed perch and slowly glide to a new spot . seahorses swim upright , standing in the water with their head straight above their tails . the only means of locomotion comes from a small fin on their back . while jacque cousteau writes in his book the ocean world that this fin can move seventy times a second , it is so ineffective that the dwarf seahorse is considered to be the slowest of all fish , capable of traveling about five feet an hour . indeed , it took the pair several minutes to transit the length of the small aquarium i placed them in . despite that shortcoming , they have been around for along time . the earliest known example of a seahorse from the fossil record is 13 million years old .
dwarf seahorses are amazing animals . i see something new and different each time i look into their tank . i set up the tank right in my office next to my computer , so i can watch them all the time . of course , sometimes that distracts me when i’m writing ! the only drawback is that they need to have small , nutritious live foods all the time . if you can meet this one non - negotiable requirement , give them a try . a colony of dwarf seahorses makes an excellent display in a 2 - to 5 - gallon nano tank and might even get you interested in trying your hand at keeping and breeding other marine fish .
lourie , s . , s . foster , e . cooper , a . vincent . 2004 .
a guide to the identification of seahorses
( on - line pdf ) . project seahorse . accessed october 14 , 2004 at urltoken .
a dwarf’s gestation period is about 10 days at 70 degrees fahrenheit . the male carries up to a dozen or so eggs in his pouch , and each day it swells a bit as the embryos grow inside him . recent studies have shown that a pseudo - placental structure develops , and the lining of the pouch changes during embryonic development .
dwarf seahorses are benthic at birth , settling onto the surrounding substrate and vegetation shortly after they emerge from their father’s pouch [ 1 , 13 ] . adult h . zosterae are poor swimmers and may experience even more limited mobility and a greater risk of predation as a result of their small size . long - range dispersal of h . zosterae is likely restricted to instances of passive dispersal through rafting , which can occur as vegetative holdfasts break loose from the substrate and are carried by ocean currents [ 4 ] . genetic exchanges between non - contiguous seahorse populations are presumed to be rare and restricted to rafting events and limited pelagic dispersal [ 2 , 11 ] . long distance dispersal through rafting has been documented in larger seahorse species , though the success of rafting as a dispersal strategy depends chiefly upon chance and favorable current patterns [ 14 ] .
medium seahorse , tends to be rather shy . may need some coaxing to eat . tends to be neutral colored , yellows but more commonly greys , cream , brown . frequently reported to avoid interaction with humans and “hide” when they are being observed .
teske pr , hamilton h , palsboll p , choo ck , gabr h , lourie sa , et al . ( 2005 ) molecular evidence for long - distance colonization in an indo - pacific seahorse lineage . mar ecol - prog ser 286 : 249–260 .
produces these sounds by the grinding of a bony articulation between the supraoccipital ridge of the neurocranium and the grooved anterior margin of the coronet . when dwarf seahorses lift their head , the ridge of the neurocranium slides under the medial groove of the coronet resulting in the clicking noise that is most likely used as a form of communication . the feeding clicks of
hoese and moore ( 1977 ) indicate individuals are restricted to high - salinity grass flats , but other authors report dwarf seahorses occupy and appear capable of breeding across a broad range of salinities . strawn ( 1958 ) , for example , reported heavy summer breeding following periods of high ( 33 ppt ) and low ( 9 . 7 ppt ) salinity .
so what is a seahorse keeper to do ? variety is the spice of life . while it may take time to convince your seahorse that mysis isn’t the only thing they want to eat , most that eat frozen will learn to eat other shrimp like frozen food , such as krill . with live food , spend the money to get live saltwater shrimp and supplement . you can also enrich food with various supplements such as vibrance or selcon . feeding live shrimp high quality foods to “gut load” for seahorses is another option .
heavy breathing / panting / coughing – seahorses tend to breath heavier than most fish , though rocking back and forth from breathing so hard , or looking though they’re coughing every few breaths is generally a sign of gill parasites or a seahorse being at death’s door .
tissue samples were collected from h . zosterae individuals from eight locations around the florida peninsula during august 2012 and january 2013 ( table 1 ) . field collections were performed through a combination of snorkeling and dip netting . fin clips were taken from the lower corner of the dorsal fin and stored in 95 % ethanol as specified by lourie [ 19 ] and lourie et al . [ 20 ] . fin clips of thirteen dwarf seahorses from indian river , florida , were provided by a collaborating researcher who obtained them from the florida department of fish and wildlife as part of a phylogenetic study of atlantic seahorse diversification [ 2 ] .
the ability of seahorses to change color in many social situations is most likely a form of communication about the state or mood of the seahorse to its mate or other members of its species ( indiviglio , 2002 ) . mates also communicate with nose pointing and body vibrations .
lourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . ( ref . 30915 )
lourie , s . a . , foster , s . j . , cooper , e . w . t . and a . c . j . vincent . 2004 . a guide to the identification of seahorses . project seahorse and traffic north america . 114 pp .
caution : often sold as a tropical seahorse , but much of the water they inhabit is actually subtropical . they seem to do best for most aquarists around 68 - 70f . this species is also one that almost always needs to be kept with it’s own kind only .
hello , i read this article and your name seemed familiar . i realized that i have your seahorse book also . it has been very useful to us . i have experience with many marine fishes and other animals of all kinds but seahorses have always given me more trouble than most , so any information you could send would be appreciated . i found like you that dwarf seahorses do better than some of the larger and more expensive kinds . i am using the product you mentioned in this article , phytogreen , as brine shrimp food . my husband had selco recommended to him – would it be good to used this , or both , also ?
in nature , seahorses spend most of their time eating . this is because their digestive system is very short and not very efficient . they have evolved to be eating machines . unfortunately , they have evolved to be picky eating machines , only recognizing the movement of live food as actual food . thus comes the problem many seahorse keepers face . seahorses not only require frequent feedings of highly nutritious food , they often will only eat living food . which means for many seahorse aquarists at least one extra tank for food and a fairly large food budget .
remember , always buy captive bred ; and if possible , get directly from a breeder to limit the risks both in accurate identification and eliminating the risk from sometimes inadequate care . i strongly recommend looking at a modern guide to buying seahorses for more information on picking your seahorse .
hello randal , frank is no longer affiliated with our blog but feel free to let us know if you have any questions while setting up your new seahorse tank . h . zosterae have become much more difficult to find over the past couple of years and i would definitely recommend only getting captive - bred seahorses . most aquarium - suitable species are available through breeders at this point and are much better both for natural populations and aquarium suitability . if you are looking for more information , i would also recommend the libraries on urltoken and urltoken for seahorse information .
this is a large seahorse , very similar in shape to h . reidi . they behave much like h . reidi and are gregarious , active seahorses . common coloration : yellow with orange dots . commonly be solid yellow , yellow with black or white / light or all black .
lourie , s . a . , a . c . j . vincent and h . j . hall , 1999 . seahorses : an identification guide to the world ' s species and their conservation . project seahorse , london . 214 p . via fishbase , september 30 , 2014 .
we sometimes collect at a bay in nj and often find pipefish which i believe is the northern pipefish . your book and article mentions these as doing well with seahorses . do you think they might live with dwarf seahorses , or do they need colder water . also , we use mainly brine shrimp as live foos . . can pipefish adjust to frozen food ; is brine shrimp enough for them ?
great article . i recently saw a video of a male seahorse giving birth which brought back memories when i was a kid in the 60’s and ordered them from a magazine . i’m thinking about getting some now . what is the name of your book ? thanks for the great info . randal
i have a wild caught seahorse from the carribean , west coast of puerto rico . i will like to know the sex , age ( young or older ) if look healthy and the kind ( species ) to get a mate for her / his . can you help me , please ?
after assembling the tripod and getting set up , i focused on this tiny seahorse , no more than an inch long , and to my surprise , discovered that there were two . not only were there two , but they were holding each other ' s tails and a piece of seaweed .
seahorses are picky eaters , and the need to eat a lot . they mainly eat shrimp , but readily available brine shrimp is not an adequate diet . most captive bred seahorses eat frozen mysis and those unfortunate enough to own wild caught seahorses have to feed live foods . see our seahorse feeding guide .
tiny , newly discovered specialists the pygmy seahorse , hippocampus bargibanti , first described in 1970 , seems to live on only 2 species of gorgonians ( soft corals ) of the genus muricella . so closely does it resemble the coral’s polyps that the individual which led to the first description of the species was not discovered until it was seen on a coral that had been placed in an aquarium several days earlier ! at 0 . 8 inches in length , it was the smallest known species until the discovery , in 2003 , of indonesia’s denise’s pygmy seahorse . adults of this minute creature are a mere 0 . 6 inches long .
let’s imagine the optimum environment for a home seahorse aquarium . what would be included in the way of equipment ( what would be the standard dimension tank without the added expense of a custom built tank ? ) , live rock and and other items in the tank . which species of seahorses are considered the hardest ?


powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina , known as one of the amber snails , is a subspecies of large , carnivorous land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family rhytididae .

powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina

worms - world register of marine species - powelliphanta hochstetteri ( l . pfeiffer , 1862 )
the holotype of powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina . the holotype is the standard against which to measure similarities between related species as well as differences that may lead to recognition of new species .
. 5–7 . —pa yphanta ( powelliphanta ) hochstetteri ( pfeiffer ) . subgenotype . x 1 .
type : helix hochstetteri pfeiffer , mal . bl . , viii , 146 , 1862 ( see pi . 6 , figs . 5–8 ) .
powelliphanta will include all new zealand species previously included in paryphanta except the type of that genus , p . busbyi ( gray , 1840 ) which is confined to the north auckland peninsula .
p . busbyi ( pi . 5 ) has a very thick coating of conchin , as well as an inner limy shell , and specimens are not infrequently found in north auckland pleistocene dune deposits which have weathered down to a strong , limy shell even when all the conchin has gone . all other new zealand paryphantas have a flexible shell composed chiefly of conchin with a much reduced limy layer , so that they generally collapse soon after death . powelliphanta is known in a sub - fossil condition only in limestone caves where replacement of conchin by lime has apparently occurred . empty , “dead” shells of some species of powelliphanta , which are mostly conchin with practically no inner limy shell , such as gagei , fletcheri , rossiana and spedeni , are sometimes so collapsed and distorted when found that they appear worthless as specimens . they can usually be restored , however , by soaking in very hot water , but on no account must they be lifted out until the water is absolutely cold . in most cases , if this is done , it will be found that the shape has been brought back without any alteration in colour . on no account must any of the other coloured species be treated in this way , otherwise the colour will be spoilt .
the australian and tasmanian species of paryphanta ( i . e . , victaphanta and melavitrina , ( iredale , 1933 ) agree with paryphanta busbyi in shell colour , in radula characters , and it is likely that they have the same type of egg , while in new zealand , the genus wainuia has comparable shell colouration . it would appear that the production of limy eggs without cuticle , and the possession of a uniformly dark coloured conchin coating to the shell are primitive features shared by wainuia , p . busbyi and the australian species [ v . atramentaria ( shuttleworth , 1853 ) , v . compacta ( cox and hedley , 1912 ) , m . milligani ( pfeiffer , 1854 ) ] , and that the variously complicated colour patterns , and cuticled eggs of the hochstetteri—lignaria—gilliesi series are specialised characters . to give taxonomic recognition to these differences , which are accompanied by anatomical differences ( murdoch , 1904 ) , the two groups may therefore be separated sub - generically .
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notes on the eggs of new zealand paryphantidae , with description of a new subgenus .
[ read before wellington branch , october 26 , 1944 ; received by the editor , october 26 , 1944 ; issued separately , june , 1945 . ]
, and , in the process , have acquired quite a good range of their eggs . of the latter , most have not previously been described , and as they are of interest , i have compiled a list of measurements and other data concerning the eggs of the various species and subspecies available .
it may be noted that the eggs are not as easily procured as some people imagine . their finding entails a lot of hard work in searching amongst leaf mould , or , as an alternative , they may be obtained by shutting up live captive snails in damp moss in the hope that they will lay . although the latter method is uncertain , it is the way by which most of the specimens have been obtained . if the captives do not lay in a few days , or at the most , in say a fortnight , it is practically certain that no eggs will be obtained from them , and the collector often shuts up snails to no purpose . in odd cases , where laying has occurred after some time in captivity , the eggs are generally not normal , owing no doubt to uncongenial conditions . the usual laying period is late october , november , and early december , but in one case—i . e . , spedeni , new - laid eggs have been taken in march .
the eggs are generally deposited in leaf mould . as i have not obtained many in natural conditions , there are few records of the numbers usually laid together . mrs . i . worthy informs me that she has found eggs of paryphanta busbyi at kaeo in nests of 3 , 5 , 8 and 10 . rhytida eggs are found in larger numbers , viz : r . dunniœ 8 , 9 , 15 , 17 , 19 ( mrs . worthy ) ; r . greenwoodi 9 , 14 , 22 , 25 , 26 ; r . patula , 3 to 9 ; schizoglossa : 4 , 9 , 14 , but generally about 9 . wainui : unfortunately i omitted to take an exact count of those i found , but mr . r . a . prouse , of levin , has found them in nests of 4 , 5 , 9 and 13 .
paryphanta eggs are all large in relation to the size of the shell and animal , but the most remarkable case is that of p . spedeni , a snail which reaches a maximum size of 40 mm . and produces an egg up to the amazing size of 11 . 5 mm . , or . 2875 of its parent ' s major shell dimension—truly this species is the “kiwi” of the family . shape of the eggs is seldom constant ; most are oval , and in one species , unicolorata , they occasionally are completely round .
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without cuticle ( pi . 5 ; fig . 4 ) . all other new zealand paryphanta species have eggs with a glossy membranous cuticle ( pi . 6 , fig . 8 ) , which , when the egg is new laid , is always of a pale buff colour , but which after preservation very seldom keeps its colour . they are very hard to preserve , especially when not treated . the best method of treatment is to puncture a small hole in the side , place in methylated spirits for , say 24 hours , then dry out slowly in a cool place . never dry out quickly , or in a hot room , as the percentage of breakages then would be very high . even when treated as above , quite a number will break . after treatment the eggs alter in colour to brown or palish green .
eggs found in leaf mould , which are not known to be freshly laid , are nearly always either dark brown or badly stained , an effect possibly due to development of the embryo , and to contact with the leaf mould .
the difference in egg structure between paryphanta busbyi and the more southern members of the genus is paralleled by differences in shell shape , structure and colour . in his first paper on the family , powell ( 1930 , p . 32 ) stated : —
“the species of paryphanta in new zealand are covered by two groups , occupying two distinct areas of distribution separated by a gap of about 300 miles . the northern area is represented by p . busbyi , a shell having a uniformly dark greenish - black coating of conchin , while the southern area is represented by seven distinct species and three sub - species , all differing from the northern busbyi in being variously coloured and banded . ”
the number of species and sub - species , of course , has been much added to since the above was written .
alternating and contrasting colours . more important is the paucity of lime compared with conchin in the shell .
distribution : north island of new zealand , in and south of the ruahine range ( possibly once as far north as east cape ) and south island .
( for list , see powell , 1938 , pp . 140 , 141 . )
the sub - genus is named in recognition of the great service rendered to the study of the family by mr a . w . b . powell .
the writer is indebted to mr . j . t . salmon for the fine photographic illustrations accompanying this paper , and to the various collectors who have generously provided material as acknowledged in the table .
—— 1938 . the paryphantidae of new zealand no . iv . rec . auck . mus . , vol . ii , no . 3 , pp . 133–150 .
. 1–3 . —paryphanta ( paryphanta ) busbys ( gray ) . genotype . x 1 .
transactions of the royal society of new zealand , vol . 75 , part i , pp . 57–64 , 2 text figs .
spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
the paryphantidae of new zealand . 3 . further new species of paryphanta and wainuia ( primary title ) records of the auckland institute and museum , 2 ( 1 ) , 29 - 41 ( other title ) a . w . b . powell 1936
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