the vundu ( heterobranchus longifilis ) is a large species of airbreathing catfish found widely in rivers and other freshwater habitats of sub-saharan africa , as well as the nile .

it is also called the solomon fish , tsuni , mazunda , sampa , cur , lenda , or certa .

vundu

joachim volz with two vundu catfish that he caught one night in april 2001 .
vundu camp welcomes children aged 10 years and older , but this is flexible .
image - vundu - catfish badge . png | cryptid wiki | fandom powered by wikia
the vundu catfish of lake kariba zambezi . | the united states catfish association forum and community
vundu camp is located on the banks of the zambezi river in the mana pools national park .
jeremy wade is the first person to ever be granted access to fish for the vundu under a dam on africa ' s zambezi river . he has a small window , and catches a massive vundu .
the male vundu shares his tank with a tiger fish as it is the only species of fish at the aquarium that the vundu will not eat and the two species are commonly found together in the wild . ox heart and hake are the vundu ' s favourite meals fed to him at the nzg .
the national zoo ' s 39 year old vundu - unofficially the oldest fish in an aquarium in the world .
situated 3km upstream from vundu , making it well located within the boundaries of the park on the banks on the zambezi .
situated in the heart of mana pools national park underneath a beautiful forest of riverine trees is our little piece of paradise , vundu camp .
the vundu is becoming rare in habitats like lake kariba and should always be released back into their freshwater habitat as their numbers are dwindling .
vundu camp has a total of eight en - suite tents with flushing toilet and hot water showers which enjoy fantastic views over the zambezi .
experience – the activities , the area , the game and the guiding – we rate vundu as one of the finest on the subcontinent . mana pools is a really stunning park ; the game in this area is great ; and the guiding at vundu is absolutely top - notch .
no credit cards or travellers’ cheques are accepted at vundu camp , but cash payments may be made in us dollars , south african rand or gb pounds .
vundu camp comes with few pretences and without the luxury , or safari chic , that most new safari camps and lodges seem to aspire to . however , in terms of the pure safari experience – the activities , the area , the game and the guiding – we rate vundu as one of the finest on the subcontinent . mana pools is a really stunning park ; the game in this area is great ; and the guiding at vundu is absolutely top - notch .
we recommend a 3–4 night stay at vundu camp . the camp offers a wide range of activities , and most travellers could happily spend 2–3 days just walking here .
with a magnificent combination of wildlife and wilderness , bushlife safaris has created the perfect portfolio of safari experiences for you . these include the luxurious vundu camp built on the banks of the zambezi river , little vundu – an intimate camp , the ruwesi canoe trail which is ideal for adventurous travelers and lastly a tented camp set in the wild chitake springs area .
vundu camp comes with few pretences and without the luxury , or safari chic , that most new safari camps and lodges seem to aspire to . however , in terms of the pure
no other catfish in these waters have such a large second dorsal or adipose fin , nor such long barbells , which reach almost to the origin of the pelvic fin , as does the vundu .
vundu camp is a permanent tented camp that is well - known for its breathtaking views of the zambezi river and the constant stream of elephants passing through to eat the pods of the albida trees .
the habitat of the vundu is deep lakes and rivers including the nile , benue rivers as well as in the congo system . heterobranchus longifilis is also found in lake kariba zambezi , tanganyika and edward .
the habitat of the vundu is deep lakes and rivers including the nile , benue rivers as well as in the congo system . heterobranchus longifilis is also found in lake kariba zambezi , tanganyika and edward .
the knowledgeable guides and stunning location within deep , shady riparian forest beside the zambezi river make vundu camp a great spot for birdwatching in zimbabwe . see bee - eater colonies , kingfishers and plenty of raptors .
the camp is very active with animals , with elephants coming down to drink and feed on the green grass along the channel in front of camp . little vundu has excellent fishing right off the banks at camp .
vundu camp has a fabulous location on the banks of the mighty zambezi in zimbabwe ' s mana pools national park with wonderful wildlife viewing on offer and exceptional guiding , an adventurous and unspoiled safari experience awaits you .
currently there are no specimens of this species in scientific collections from lake turkana , but local fishermen have confirmed the presence of the vundu in the northen part of the lake ( seegers et al . , 2004 ) .
with considerable caution , we can recommend vundu camp for mature children over 10 – largely because nick and desiree have their own children , who also spend some time in camp , and so are very understanding of the needs and interests of children on safari .
many tourists and locals who fish for small species of fish often come across the large predatory catfish and drown because of the methods used to catch smaller fish . it involves pulling the fish out of the water with a fishing line , using your bare hands . a vundu could easily overpower a person and pull them in the water and drown them , especially in cases where people don ' t want to lose their catch and tie the fishing line around their body , which is a huge mistake , and ultimately backfires . also , longlines equipped with multiple hooks are hazardous as if a large vundu is on the end of the line , one of the hooks in the boat can stick in you and if the vundu then pulls , you can be pulled in the water .
vundu camp is owned and run by an extremely knowledgeable zimbabwean , nick murray . well - respected within the industry , he is a qualified ' zim - pro ' guide ( meaning he has earned perhaps the most prestigious game - guiding qualification in africa ) .
mana pools is one of africa’s best parks for walking , and vundu focuses squarely on the very best professional guiding . mana’s environment is very open , giving good visibility ; walkers can often get surprisingly close to relaxed bull elephants , as well as packs of wild dogs .
we frequently choose the same zim - pro guides for private trips and mobiles , both in mana pools and elsewhere in zimbabwe . on our last visit in october 2016 nick was out of camp , so we were guided by chester , a freelance guide who has been at vundu since 2013 .
the vundu ( heterobranchus longifilis ) is a species of airbreathing catfish found in the african countries of niger , senegal , egypt , burundi , the democratic republic of the congo , tanzania , uganda , zimbabwe and zambia . it is also called the sampa , cur , lenda , or certa .
another very interesting species that hails from africa . i ' d love to get over there and fish for these guys , but i ' d have a hard time deciding on tagetting vundu , or the ravenous tigerfish that is found in the same water , or maybe the fish in your second picture there , the monster freshwater fish of africa , the nile perch ! they ' ve also go a way of catching members of the doradid family of fish over there , that i need for find out more about . elephant fish have tiny mouths ! but vundu fishing is indeed supposed to be a blast !
we have visited vundu camp many times over the years , and have always found the food to be tasty and filling . our last visit in october 2016 was no exception , and we were particularly impressed with the effort the camp made to cater for guests in camp with gluten and dairy dietary requirements .
at vundu camp is exceptionally good , and stands out even amongst the universally high standards across zimbabwe . while nick himself does much of the guiding here , he also has a few excellent canoe and zim - pro guides who he uses on a freelance basis . nick is acutely aware of the standards of his fellow guides , and at
the vundu ' s dorsal surface is light to dark olive brown , and gets lighter over its mid - body to a light brown colour with an off - white belly and light brown fins . they have ineffective eyesight that is not developed due to their powerful lateral lines and they rely on vibrations and smell when looking for food .
vundu is a small camp with a long - standing reputation . it sits on the banks of the zambezi river in the heart of zimbabwe’s mana pools national park , shaded by a grove of ebony and tamarind trees . an owner - run property , it focuses on offering a variety of activities in a game - rich area of the park .
it ' s perhaps worth noting that nick has been involved in a lot of the research and monitoring of the wild dog packs in the park , so vundu is a particularly good place for seeing this endangered species . indeed , throughout 2016 the camp was used as a base by a bbc film crew who were staying here specifically to get footage of wild dog .
vundu camp has just eight spacious tents which enjoy fantastic views over the river . each tent has a thatched roof , which helps to keep it cool during the hottest months . all tents have an en - suite bathroom with flushing toilet and hot water shower . the camp has a really authentic safari feel , but achieves this without compromising on standards or levels of comfort .
h . longifilis is an uncommon species which inhabits large rivers . most active at night , it feeds on any available food , including invertebrates and insects when small , then fish and other small vertebrates when large . it scavenges off large carcasses and offal from riverside villages . it can live for 12 or more years . the vundu catfish can survive out of water for extensive periods of time .
your day at vundu camp begins with an early riser cup of tea or coffee around the fire , before you set off on your first activity . after a few exciting hours spent in the thick wilderness of the national park , you will return to a full english breakfast and a chance to have a siesta or enjoy the sounds of the bush and view of the river from the comfort of your private terrace .
toko , imorou ( 1 2 ) ; fiogbe , emile d . , koukpode , bruno , kestemont , patrick ( 2007 ) . rearing of african catfish ( clarias gariepinus ) and vundu catfish ( heterobranchus longifilis ) in traditional fish ponds ( whedos ) : effect of stocking density on growth , production and body composition . issn 0044 - 8486 . coden aqclal . 2007 , vol . 262 , no1 , pp . 65–72 .
vundus are found in egypt , senegal , niger , burundi , democratic republic of congo , tanzania , zambia , uganda and zimbabwe . the vundu ' s preferred habitats of deep lakes and large rivers include the benue and nile rivers as well as the congo system . vundus can also be found in lakes kariba , zambezi , tanganyika and edward . interestingly , vundus are only found below the victoria falls - there have been no recorded catch above the falls .
vundu camp has eight chalets , canvas under thatch , situated on the banks of the zambezi river in the magnificent mana pools national park . each spacious room provides great views over the river and is en - suite with running shower and flush toilet . the family room consists of two rooms , both en - suite , separated by a lounge area . the main lounge / dining area is built on stilts and gives guests amazing views over the zambezi river whilst relaxing after the day’s activities .
vundu camp is perfectly placed in the heart of mana pools on the banks of the zambezi in an area renowned for excellent game viewing . the bush around the camp is home to healthy populations of lion and leopard and also wild dog , one of the most sought after animals to spot on safari . the position on the river also makes for wonderful bird watching as well as wallowing hippos and if you ' re lucky , the breath - taking sight of elephants swimming across the river .
according to the african angler web site , vundu on lake nasser often forage close to shore at night , so that ' s when you should be out there after them . it ' s a pretty strong fish that puts up a good fight , so use sturdy gear . canned meat is a good bait , since it ' s oily and gives off an alluring odor to the fish . cast your bait 6 to 10 feet from the shoreline in the shallower water . stay away from the deeper water where your bait may get lost in the weeds .
mana pools has a moderate to sub - tropical climate with three distinct seasons : from november to april is the rainy season . vundu camp is shut over these months . may to july is zimbabwe ' s winter , when the weather is cool and dry , and august to october is summer , when the weather is hot and dry . in terms of game viewing , the dryer months , meaning a higher concentration of game at the permanent water sources , are a superb time to visit . alternatively come for some superb birdwatching at the end of the rains .
vundu are also accused by locals of snatching babies from the banks of rivers and swallowing them whole while the parents wash clothes . this can be attributed to the catfish ' s barbels which allow it to detect chemical traces of its prey . the scent of the soap used to wash the clothes is detected by the catfish which then lures it in to search for the prey and ultimately it goes for the only thing it can swallow if big enough : a child . soap - baited techniques are used in other parts of africa to catch other species of catfish such as the african sharptooth catfish in which its barbels also allow it to pick up chemical traces of its prey and the soap lures them in .
on land , vundu ' s 4wd game drives and walks can range throughout the national park , although most take place in the camp ' s own private ' concession ' . this is a prime area in the heart of the park , covering an area within about 3–4km of the camp . this is classic ' mana ' scenery – with plenty of forested areas , and some of the pools for which the park is noted . it’s very common for a drive and walk to be combined , with everyone hopping out of the vehicle when an interesting track or animal has been discovered . on our last visit we drove in the morning until we found a pack of wild dog , before walking , then crawling , to within a few metres of the pack . we were then able to sit and watch the pack interact with each other , undisturbed by other vehicles or walkers ; a wonderful experience only achievable thanks to the exceptional experience and skill of our guide .
in europe , clarias gariepinus was first introduced in the netherlands in 1976 . the first brood stock originated from the wild from 40 african catfish transferred from the central african republic ( hogedoorn and vismans , 1980 ) . commercial farming of this species started in 1985 in recirculation aquaculture systems ( ras ) .
much later catfish strains from israel and the republic south africa were introduced . these strains were crossed for the production of fingerlings and resulted in the currently cultured “dutch strain” african catfish .
on farmers level brood stock selection is mostly done in a very primitive way . to hold and monitor large populations of different african catfish strains strictly separate for long periods is very costly . the results are , if you are successful , visible after a couple of years and the next problem for the commercial farmer is keeping this advantage for him selve !
another problem for the farmer producing african catfish fingerlings is to show his customer the benefit of an improved strain . improvements in growth and feed conversion ratio of for example 5 % are great achievements in the mind of a researcher , but for a farmer small differences and most probable not spotted without serious farm recordkeeping .
practically spoken the market for african catfish fingerlings is first of all price driven . next to this hatcheries focus on availability , size , uniformity and health status of the african catfish .
most african catfish farmers ( tropics and europe ) are small to medium sized farmers , not well organised , and simply do not have the means and abilities to do serious research on genetic improvements of their stocks . the little research done on african catfish genetics is done by universities but has never been seriously implemented in practice .
african catfish farming is a relatively new industry . in europe it started in the early eighties and in africa only few farmers were active in an extensive way by that time .
the first broodstock came from the wild . in the netherlands for example , wild african catfish was imported from central africa and the first generations the selection was based on growth . my personal opinion is that we were just performing selection of fish which were able to adapt to the intensive way of farming in warm water recirculation systems . soon after the introduction of african catfish from central africa fish was brought in from israel and rsa . in the netherlands the strains were not kept separate and as a result the “dutch african catfish” is a result of 3 strains .
meat quality and dress out percentage are very important parameters for the processing industry . variation is noticed between the strains from different locations in africa . in the tropics the aspect of meat quality and dressing percentage are of less importance because the fish is consumed as a whole ; no filets are taken from the fish and heads and intestines are not wasted .
within the family of clariidae ( siluriformes ) intergeneric hybrids were produced through interbreeding between species from the genera heterobranchus and clarias ( ref . ) . a well - known intergeneric hybrid is a crossbred between the heterobranchus longifillis female and clarias gariepinus male , the so called “hetero - clarias” . due to rearranging of genetic material from both species in the offspring , the intergeneric hybrids show characteristics of both parental species . a well known hybrid is the cross between a heterobranchus longifillis female and a clarias gariepinus male , called heteroclarias ( see figure 5 ) .
in our hatchery in the netherlands we are producing this hybrid for a group of farmers linked to a processing plant . this group is very keen in producing and marketing this type of fish . the filet of heteroclarias is white in comparison with the pink / reddish colour of clarias gariepinus filets and contains 30 % more fat than clarias gariepinus filets , which improves the taste . the gonads of hybrids are almost absent and not active . for this reason the dressing percentage is relatively high compared to clarias gariepinus . the heteroclarias fish filet can be used as an alternative for white filets from marine fish species .
a close up of a heterobranchus longifilis fingerling . please note the adipose fin ( as shown in the hybrid )
as a fingerling producer of heteroclarias we notice big differences in behaviour with the common african catfish . the heteroclarias fingerlings show a wide variation in growth and severe cannibalism is noticed , especially when frequent grading is neglected . next to this the heteroclarias is easily stressed . after an age of 12 weeks , well graded fish show very equal growth and low mortality to the moment of harvesting at 1 . 4 kg .
in the tropics the heteroclarias is considered superior over the clarias gariepinus in growth in pond culture and is considered as better growing fish .
for a fingerling producer hybridisation has a major benifit . the hybrids are infertile and it is not possible for customers to continue breeding with those fish . the pure parent stock is kept on farm and is never shared with other farmers . the pure heterobranchus longifillis strain matures at a age of 2 years , which is very late compared to clarias gariepinus ( 1 year ) .
the purpose of good brood stock maintenance is to harvest good quality eggs and sperm . the brood stock should be individually tagged to have tracability for each batch of offspring and to have the possibility for a breeding programme . th broodstock should be given enough time to recover from spawning and with the individual tagging it is possible to do proper record keeping .
we prefer recirculation systems in a confined area with temperature control if necessary . in the tropics flow through systems can work too , if flushed with good quality bore hole water .
in our farm the productivity of the female ( fecundity ) expressed as % of the body weight is between 5 - 15 % . the egg size tends to increase with the size of the female . in larger fish the number of eggs per gram of eggs is lower than in smaller broodstock . on average we count 500 eggs per gram . the average females we are using in our farm have a weight of 6 kg and produce 300 - 600 gram of eggs ( 150 . 000 - 300 . 000 eggs ) .
a female is selected from one of the broodstock tanks . with a small tube it is possible to sample the eggs out of the ovaries to check if the nucleus has migrated to the side and the egg size has a diameter of 1 mm or above . most farmers do not perform this check , they just select by eye .
in captivity females do not perform final ripening of the eggs without hormonal treatment . the injection of gonadotropin releasing hormone in the form of natural pituitary glands or synthetic products like ovaprim induces the final step of ripening called vitelogenisis . in this final step the eggs are provided with yolk and take up water .
the period between injection with hormones and stripping of the eggs depends on the temperature of the water and the type of hormone used . through trial and error the perfect time for stripping can be determined . too early or to late stripping results in bad egg quality and thus poor spawning results .
too early stripping : very dry egg mass . it is difficult to completely strip the female because the eggs do not flow out . the female often dies because of the stress and internal injuries .
too late stripping : the egg mass is fluid . often the female has released a lot of eggs in the preparation tank already and stripping is very easy .
several hours after stripping we perform final stripping to remove all ripe eggs from the ovaries of the female . this is to prevent that these ripe eggs die inside the ovaries and start to deteriorate . this will harm the fish and can cause death of the broodstock female . the females have to stay in recovery for a couple of days before putting them back to the broodstock tank .
male clarias gariepinus do not release sperm after treatment with hormones like many other fish species . the males have ripe sperm all year round . the fish should be at least 1 year old to have ripe gonads . a lot of variation can be seen between males of the same age in ripeness and size of testis . in practice farmers sacrify males in order to dissect the testis out of the abdomen . by making incisions in the testis tissue the sperm can be collected . as a consequence new male broodstock needs to be added to the broodstock population sacrificing the males is a big constraint on genetic programmes .
some farmers are using operation on the males . after tranquilizing the fish , a small incision is made in the belly of the fish and with a syringe with needle some sperm is taken out of the testis . finally the incision in the belly is stitched using veterinary stitching materialand the male is able to recover in 1 to 2 weeks . during this time the wound closes completely .
unlike the sperm of mammals sperm of fish is not active , but will become active as soon as it is in the water . the sperm is active for less than a minute , so it has to find an egg quickly before all the energy has gone . this is the reason that during the proces of sperm collection all materials , hands and the fish should be dry . although these precautions are taken , the sperm can be activated accidently . the sperm concentration of good males is more than a million per ml !
cryo conservation of sperm has been done on an experimental scale by universities and the method is quite successful . the problem of this method for farmers is that they have to be equipped with a laboratory and should have permanent availability of liquid nitrogen to keep the sperm preserved .
the eggs and sperm are collected in a dry glass or porcelain bowl and a dry small glass or porcelain cup respectively . a simple but effective way of fertilization is to bring the eggs and sperm together in the egg collection bowl , mix it gently before adding water .
in literature adding certain fertilizing solutions during fertilization is reported as being very benificial , because they are thought to extend the life of the sperm in order to improve the fertilisation rate . i prefer not to use any extra fluids because any extra handling can give a problem too .
artificial propagation of african catfish is a relatively simple procedure and many farmers are very skillful in doing it . millions of larvae are hatched weekly in a country like nigeria but until today there still is a shortage of good quality fingerlings and juveniles . reproduction of african catfish is following a certain procedure , but farming the larvae for 1 or 2 months to juvenile stage comes down to the capabilities of the individual farmer .
african catfish hatcheries in general can be very profitable , provided it has a good culture system and dedicated hatchery staff . because many farmers lack knowledge , proper management ideas and / or a properly build hatchery , the results between farmers can vary from 200 eggs needed for 1 juvenile to 5 eggs needed for 1 juvenile ( an african catfish juvenile being a 2 month old fish of approximately 8 grams ) .
in europe african catfish hatcheries are strictly equipped with recirculation systems ( climate conditions do not allow to do otherwise ) . in the tropics hatcheries are either recirculation systems only or a combination of recirculation systems , flow through systems , hapaâ€™s and small ponds .
in many african countries the juvenile production is by far not meeting the demand . this results in high prices and often inferior quality of african catfish fingerlings / juveniles being sold . many african entrepreneurs are attracted to start a hatchery , but only very few succeed . on the long term i personnaly do not believe in small backyard farmers producing some fingerlings but in medium sized operations using recirculation technology well distributed over the country providing people with fingerlings / juveniles of good quality and support people in growing those fish to table sizes fish . what i can see from my experience is that hatcheries in africa but also in europe are considered as the centres of knowledge for other farmers .
in our hatchery design for african catfish we divide the hatchery in different sections . each section provides the optimal environment for a certain life stage of the african catfish .
we prefer a recirculation system with connected to a water purification unit . the tanks , both fish tanks and tanks of the water purification unit , can be build of materials like glass fibre , polyethylene or concrete . the water purification unit consists of a sedimentation tank , a pump tank , a bio tower and a uv - system . the system should be placed in a confined area were the temperature can be controlled . the tanks should be equipped with good drains for easy and quick selection of the broodstock before reproduction . next to this system a number of preparation - recovery tanks should be placed ( around 300 liters ) .
the number of brood stock needed depends on the success rate of the spawning . for example one female can be used for eight spawnings per year ( in theory ) providing 3 , 2 kg of eggs . this equals around 1 . 6 million eggs and with a minimal 10 % survival till juvenile stage this results in a yearly production 160 . 000 african catfish juveniles .
even in the tropics i prefer to import expensive compound feed from a reliable factory in europe instead of using locally produced and often unreliable feeds . i believe a good starting point is essential for a successful development of the offspring .
in our hatchery we try to maximise the life span of the broodstock , since replacements are costly . males can be used 1 ( if the male is killed ) to 4 times ( if the operation procedure is used ) , before it is being replaced by new , younger males . old males ( above 4 years ) tend to develop testis with sponge like tissue and it is containing watery sperm with a low concentration of spermcells . females can be used for a long period and stay in a better condition for a longer time , especially when the females are used maximum twice per year . females reach a higher weight and size than males ( max . 15 kg and 1 . 30 meters ) . growing the next generation of broodstock should be done in a separate system .
the incubation system should be placed in a room with controlled temperature . the temperature must be kept at 30 °c . even in the tropics the water temperatures in the night can drop to 24 °c , which has a negative effect on the growth and health status of the fry .
the uv - c unit reduces bacterial blooms ( cloudy water ) and growth of fungus , which is developping after the eggs have hatched . with the hatching of the eggs a lot of egg fluids are released in the water . together with unhatched eggs this is a fertile medium for bacteria and fungi to grow . together with constant addition of fresh water , the uv - c device stops the bloom of these unfavourable organisms . the system should be build in a way that it is easy accessible in order to do proper cleaning and inspection .
the fertilised eggs are spread over a sieve . the eggs are surrounded by oxygen rich water , which lowers egg mortality . the eggs hatch in around 24 hours with a water temperature of 29 - 30 °c . the larvae fall through the mesh of the mosquito net , while all dead eggs and egg shells are easily removed with the netting . during the first two days the larvae absorb the yolk sac and develop their intestines . after this period the larvae are able to swim freely in search for food . the larvae change in colour from transparent green to brown during this period .
each hatching cycle takes 13 days ( preparation of the system 2 days , 3 days hatching and absorbing yolk sac , 7 days growing the fry , 1 day harvesting and cleaning ) . it is very important that between each cycle the system is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected .
the first feed for african catfish fry is life artemia nauplii hatched on site . from experience we know that the survival rates and growth of fry starting with life artemia is higher than with dry larval feeds or encapsulated artemia .
if dry feed is applied always start with dry feed before feeding artemia nauplii . with glass aquaria you are able to inspect the eating behaviour and the filling of the stomach very well and overfeeding or underfeeding can be avoided . well fed african catfish larvae show full bellies and these fish settle on the bottom of the tank .
in this system the larvae can grow from 0 , 1 gram to approximately 0 , 5 - 1 , 0 gram . the system consists of a plastic tank connected to a biotower and a sedimentation tank . a pump is providing the flow and an uv - c unit provides clean water .
in nigeria these systems are very popular , because they are sold preassembled for a reasonable price and the maintenance on these systems is very simple and low in cost . preferably the systems should be placed indoor , were a temperature can be maintained of 28 °c .
at 0 , 5 to 1 , 0 grams the now called fingerlings are either sold to customers or moved to the juvenile section of the hatchery .
in africa african catfish is sold as fingerling at this size . the fish is large enough to withstand transport in 20 liter polyethylene bags filled with 1 / 3rd water and 500 to 1000 pieces of african catfish fingerlings and 2 / 3rd oxygen . next to this the fish are able to breath atmospheric air using their branchial organ and can therefore be stocked in green water ponds which normally have big oxygen level fluctuations during the day .
this section is suited for growing fingerlings of 1 , 0 gram to juveniles of approximately 8 grams . farmers like this size because they are more robust than fingerlings and mortality rates ( mostly due to cannibalism ) are much lower . these systems should also be placed indoors . temperature can be kept at 28 °c constantly .
the primary reason for the loss of fish during this period is cannibalism . this loss can be reduced by proper grading for shooters , also during the growth period ( see later section for explanation of grading ) . after this stage , when juveniles are growing to consumption size , loss is less than 10 % .
fingerlings growing to juveniles should be fed several times a day in regular intervals . african catfish is also active in the dark .
the secret of the success of many hatcheries lies for a large part in the mangement of grading . african catfish is a carnivorous fish that displays canibalistic behaviour from the moment the african catfish have absorped the yolk sac and start eating . to minimize the effect of canabilism on overall survival of the fish grading must be performed on precize moments during the growth of fry to juvenile .
grading is performed with either large mesh nylon sieves for small fry and fixed or adjustable graders with bars for larger advanced fry and juveniles . grading takes place when transferring the african catfish from one section to the other , but in between the african catfish can be graded at fixed times ( f . e . half way the growth period in that section ) and when shooters are spotted .
light to dark olive brown on dorsal surface , getting lighter over the mid - body to a light brown , off - white belly . fins usually light brown . they can attain size
fishing practice is as for most catfish but , naturally , larger baits and heavier tackle are used . anglers ' bait preferences include ox livers , hearts , kidneys , plucked birds , meat and fish that have been cut down the belly and turned inside out . the smaller specimens will take a spoon and , like their bigger brothers , tend to move down stream using the current and their heavy weight to combat the angler . the further they run the greater the possibility of getting snagged on some underwater obstruction . heavy tackle , to cut short this initial run and keep the battle in open water .
both these fish break the existing record of 78lb , these two great fish must have been a pair foraging together see the pic below .
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the camp has a total of eight spacious thatched chalets , one of which is a large and comfortable family room . each chalet opens out onto the banks of the mighty zambezi river , located just 10 metres away , where guests can sit outside and relax on their terrace , watching impala , warthog and elephant meander by .
in addition to this the family chalet comes with two bedrooms , one twin and one double , which are both en - suite and are separated by a lounge area .
the main lounge and dining area is elevated providing guests with picturesque views of the zambezi river , making it the perfect place to unwind after a full day of activities and a chance to share your safari stories with other guests , relax with a good book or enjoy a board game or two . with the lounge and dining area being open air guests can soak up the sounds of the bush and enjoy a gentle breeze passing through .
expect to come across elephants and hippo , with sightings of leopards , lions and wild dogs too .
an al ’fresco lunch is served at 1pm where the chef will prepare a fresh feast for you . afternoon tea and cake is served at 3pm where you will then head off to another activity . dinner is served upstairs under the shaded riverine trees where a chandelier is set up , which paired with the bright shining stars , create the perfect out of africa ambience .
canoeing down the zambezi river which is a rare opportunity to experience game viewing from a different perspective – a truly memorable experience . ( children policy is 12 years and above )
bushlife safaris began in 1999 when nick and des murray made a decision to make mana pools , a unesco world heritage site , their home .
nick is a hugely experienced and widely renowned professional guide with decades of experience around africa . his most - loved animal is the wild dog , and he is currently studying these intelligent social predators of mana pools , in cooperation with the painted dog conservation group . nick has an uncanny connection with the wild dogs and his walking safaris allow guests to safely observe them at close range .
together with his wife desiree , a licensed professional safari and canoe guide , they make quite the extraordinary guiding team where their passion lies in providing you with a thrilling venture that you will most certainly return for year after year .
we met this month with what we thought would be a typical october , but we were quite mistaken . from very cold , bundled - in - your - jacket mornings to blistering hot 48°c . the rainy season started . . .
summer is well and truly here ! with temperatures reaching 40 degrees celsius we are experiencing warm and sunny weather . the wildlife viewing this month has been fantastic with some incredible . . .
august is the windy month , blowing last years leaves off the trees , where we change from the cool winter to the warm days of spring . we ' ve experienced a few rough . . .
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we offer a choice of game drives in open sided four - wheel drive vehicles , each with roof to shade guests from the sun , nature walks with a professional guide or a morning / afternoon spent canoeing , the opportunity to spend time on the water canoeing down the zambezi is a rare opportunity to experience game viewing from an entirely different view point – a real highlight as it is a unique activity and not many parks offer the opportunity .
the area is teaming with wildlife , with a pair of resident leopards , lion and the distinct sound of their calls most nights , and elephants visiting to feed on the thick vegetation in camp and to have a mud bath in the pan behind camp . mana pools has a healthy population of wild dogs , which are the most endangered of the carnivores in africa .
twin beds with mosquito nets , a fan , an outside seating area . each tent has an
the main lodge offers wholesome , healthy breakfasts and alfresco lunches , served in an open - air dining room . dinners are exceptional as they are served under a canvas of stars , where after enjoying delicious food prepared by a private chef , guests can relax with a nightcap and listen to the sounds of the wild .
portfolio in mana pools , which includes ruwesi canoe trails on the zambezi river and chitake mobile tented camp .
underlying these operations is the bushlife support unit , which unites operators , guides and conservation groups in mana pools to work with the authorities in stopping the poaching of wildlife and protecting this wonderful national park and world heritage site for future generations .
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i ' ve really found your site extremely useful . i have recommended it in all the relevant parts of the book as a first stop so readers can get latest up - to - date info , especially at a time when things are changing so fast . paul murray - author : bradt travel guide to zimbabwe
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urltoken is the best source of independent travel information on mana pools and the zambezi river valley . it covers everything you need to know about travelling to the area . scott ramsay - leisure wheels magazine , south africa
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thanks to some advice from locals , jeremy finally caught the fish that eluded him for years .
jeremy reels in an elusive tapah , a fish he has spent years trying to catch .
jeremy reels in a giant trevally and barracuda , but isn’t convinced they’re the strange fish attacking fishermen near new britain .
jeremy wade doesn’t need the water to reel us in . see what happened when he visited the animal planet office !
jeremy illustrates how you can use a variety of bait and lures to reel in a black bass .
at around 700 pounds and 200 years of age , this greenland shark is one of jeremy’s largest and oldest catches .
jeremy reveals what he did to reel in the biggest catch of his river monsters career .
of all the fish jeremy has reeled in , the lau lau stands out as his most meaningful catch .
jeremy wade reveals how he brought this deep - sea dweller to the surface .
trying to reel in this fish off the coast of indonesia is a battle that pushes jeremy to his physical and mental limits .
jeremy meets with locals to find out what kind of monster fish could be terrorizing the rivers of western nepal .
jeremy was lucky enough to catch a goonch catfish once before , but not so much the second time around .
when jeremy ' s on the hunt for a monster that killed hundreds , he encounters a school of dolphins that may or may not be the friendliest .
jeremy wade is fishing in the zambezi river , looking for a fish capable of pulling a full - grown man in to the water and drowning him . what he finds is a prehistoric - looking fish with crocodile - like teeth .
though it may seem obvious to some , find out why jeremy wade releases fish back into the wild even when they ' re deadly .
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what happens when you stick your arm inside the jaws of a giant paraiba catfish ? blood . watch jeremy learn this first - hand .
karri and her boyfriend michael recall the day a fish flew out of nowhere and left her with broken ribs and punctured lung .
a doctor , who lost his uncle to the depths of the amazon , desperately wanted to identify evidence of the death . so , his best solution ? to catch the killer fish and cut open their stomachs .
jeremy wade catches a piraya , a larger piranha with huge teeth . take it from us , you wouldn ' t want to run in to this fish at night or any other time of day .
with the clear waters of the florida keys working against him , jeremy is forced to reel in a large predator with thin , almost invisible fishing line .


isthmohyla calypsa is a species of frog in the family hylidae .

it is known from the southern cordillera de talamanca in costa rica , cerro pando in costa rica and panama , and the pacific slope in southwestern panama .

it appears to have gone extinct in costa rica .

prior to its description in 1996 , this species was confused with isthmohyla lancasteri , a species now known from lower altitudes only .

isthmohyla calypsa

isthmohyla calypsa in the wild , photo ( c ) marcos guerra , smithsonian tropical research institute .
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isthmohyla calypsa — faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 103 .
isthmohyla calypsa was previously included in isthmohyla lancasteri , but it has been distinguished from that species based on adult and larval morphology , oviposition site ( leaves for i . calypsa vs . attached to submerged vegetation and debris in small pools of slow - flowing streams for i . lancasteri ) , egg and clutch characteristics ( 10 - 36 yellow eggs per clutch for i . calypsa , vs . 70 - 80 chocolate - brown eggs for i . lancasteri ) and vocalizations ( lips 1996 ) .
isthmohyla calypsa is a species of frog in the hylidae family . it is found in costa rica and panama . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers . it is threatened by habitat loss .
this species was previously included in the genus hyla but has recently been moved to the new genus isthmohyla ( faivovich et al . 2005 ) .
the specific epithet calypsa derives from the greek nymph calypso , who hid the hero ulysses . it refers both to the frog ' s camouflage and to the species having been hidden within h . lancasteri ( lips 1996 ) .
7 ) isthmohyla calypsa a treefrog frog covered with spiny tubercles found in a small mountainous area on the border of costa rica and panama where is used to be locally common . at las tablas in costa rica , the species experienced severe chytridiomycosis - related declines between 1993 and 1998 . despite extensive recent survey efforts in costa rica and panama , the species has not been seen recently and is possibly extinct . many other stream breeding species in this genus have also experienced dramatic declines and are now extremely rare frogs .
hyla calypsa lips , 1996 , copeia , 1996 : 617 . holotype : cre 5299 , by original designation , now in lacm . type locality :
finca jaguar ( 1900 m ) , approximately 18 km nne la lucha , coto brus , puntarenas province , costa rica , 8° 55′ n , 82° 44′ w
.
diagnosis : isthmohyla calypsa can be distinguished from all other congeners by the following character combination : highly tuberculate and spiny dorsal surfaces of head , body and limbs ; coloration in life bright metallic green with brown blotches ; dorsal thigh surfaces free of transverse bars ; lack of conspicuous markings on anterior and posterior thighs ; lack of tarsal fold ; chin and throat bright white with a few dark brown spots near the margins ; short , truncated snout ; male prepollex with numerous small black spines ; paired vocal slits in males ; call usually a single ascending note ( sometimes two notes ) ( lips 1996 ) ; male size 26 - 36 mm svl and female size 31 - 41 mm svl ( savage 2002 ) .
in life , the upper surfaces of isthmohyla calypsa are shining metallic green with a few large dark olive green to brown blotches in males . dark mottling is present in females . lips are striped with green and dark brown bars . groin is bright white with some black spots . irregular transverse dark bars are present on dorsal surfaces of limbs . anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh are gray to white , with tiny black spots . the venter is dirty white with numerous black flecks and some large black blotches . iris is cream - colored with irregular brown line around the margin . palms and soles vary from gray - white to pale lemon yellow ; in some individuals , numerous black dots are present on the palms . no other costa rican frog is covered by spines on the upper surfaces of head , body , and limbs ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
justification : listed as critically endangered because of a drastic population decline , estimated to be more than 80 % over the last three generations , inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population , probably due to chytridiomycosis .
this species is known from the southern cordillera de talamanca , on cerro pando on the pacific slope in costa rica and atlantic versant in panama , and on the pacific slope in south - western panama , from 1 , 810 - 1 , 920m asl ( savage 2002 ) .
extensive monitoring has shown that this species has disappeared from its former range . it was formerly locally common in tablas , costa rica , but has disappeared from all known sites since the early 1990s . in 2006 , the costa rican portion of the species range was surveyed , however the species was not found ( joseph vargas pers . comm . 2007 ) . there is no information on the population size or abundance of this species in panama , though this population has probably also declined seriously .
it is found along torrential stream courses in primary humid lower montane forest throughout the year . males are strongly territorial , with small home ranges . eggs ( clutches of 10 - 36 ) are deposited on leaf surfaces of low vegetation above streams ; hatching tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below ( savage 2002 ) .
the observed population decline is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis , since it has taken place within pristine habitats . habitat loss as a result of smallholder livestock farming is also a threat .
this species has been recorded in parque internacional la amistad and might occur in parque nacional volcán barú . further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species . in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis , ex - situ populations might need to be established .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .
will find all uses of
hyl . . .
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. . . hyla
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humid lower montane rainforest of the southern cordillera de talamanca , on cerro pando on the pacific slope in costa rica and atlantic versant in panama on the pacific slope in southwestern panama ( 1500–2100 m elevation ) .
please note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .
for access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .
copyright © 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .
can be distinguished from all other congeners by the following character combination : highly tuberculate and spiny dorsal surfaces of head , body and limbs ; coloration in life bright metallic green with brown blotches ; dorsal thigh surfaces free of transverse bars ; lack of conspicuous markings on anterior and posterior thighs ; lack of tarsal fold ; chin and throat bright white with a few dark brown spots near the margins ; short , truncated snout ; male prepollex with numerous small black spines ; paired vocal slits in males ; call usually a single ascending note ( sometimes two notes ) ( lips 1996 ) ; male size 26 - 36 mm svl and female size 31 - 41 mm svl ( savage 2002 ) .
are shining metallic green with a few large dark olive green to brown blotches in males . dark mottling is present in females . lips are striped with green and dark brown bars . groin is bright white with some black spots . irregular transverse dark bars are present on dorsal surfaces of limbs . anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh are gray to white , with tiny black spots . the venter is dirty white with numerous black flecks and some large black blotches . iris is cream - colored with irregular brown line around the margin . palms and soles vary from gray - white to pale lemon yellow ; in some individuals , numerous black dots are present on the palms . no other costa rican frog is covered by spines on the upper surfaces of head , body , and limbs ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .
larvae are large , measuring 54 mm in total length at stage 37 . larval body is depressed . mouth ventral , nostrils dorsal , eyes dorsolateral . spiracle lateral and sinistral ; vent tube is dextral . tail is long , with low fins . tail tip is rounded . oral disc is small with tiny beaks and 2 / 3 rows of denticles ; a2 with narrow gap above mouth . beaks have medium - sized serrations . two or three rows of small papillae border the mouth , and many additional papillae are present in ventrolateral folds . series of large submarginal papillae present . larval body is olive brown suffused with orange . tail musculature is the same color as body , but with darker gray splotches at the midline and on anterior half of tail . posterior portion of tail has large black spots , especially in larger tadpoles . tail fin is translucent ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ; lips and savage 1996 ) .
) , and lack of transverse barring on dorsal and posterior thigh surfaces ( vs . dorsal and posterior thigh surfaces with transverse bars in
( more robust , rounded tadpole body ; rounded snout ; shorter tail ) . the call of
always has one and sometimes two harmonics , and males frequently overlap calls with neighbors ( lips 1996 ) .
occurs in costa rica and panama , at elevations from 1 , 810 - 1 , 920 m asl . this species is found in humid lower montane rainforests of the southern cordillera de talamanca in costa rica , on the pacific slope of cerro pando in costa rica , the atlantic versant of cerro pando in panama , and on the pacific slope in southwestern panama . it can be found in vegetation over torrential mountain streams ( savage 2002 ) .
is a nocturnal leaf - breeding treefrog that has a prolonged reproductive period from april to december . throughout the year , individuals are present along torrential stream courses . some males call during the dry season , between january to mid - april , though less frequently . males are very territorial and have great calling - site fidelity , often calling from the same spot over a span of years . home ranges are small , usually about 6 square meters . inter - male spacing averages about 1 . 9 m . calls are alternated with the nearest calling neighbor , and are usually made from vegetation 1 to 2 m directly above the stream . single - note calls are short , lasting from 110 to 330 ms , and consist of 11 - 12 pulses with a rise in frequency ( 997 hz on average ) towards the end of the note . dominant frequency for calls is about 2 . 9 khz , with no harmonics . sometimes two - note calls or three - note calls ( rare ) are produced ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .
most females return to the same general area to breed each year . like the males , females also show considerable site fidelity . females , juveniles , and many males all arrive at the breeding stream two weeks before the beginning of the rainy season . juveniles disappear after two days , and females mate only after the first rains . amplexus and oviposition take place near the male ' s calling sites but usually on lower vegetation ; females leave the area after oviposition ( lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .
females lay only one clutch per visit and up to three clutches during breeding season . earlier clutches have more eggs than clutches laid later in the season . clutches consist of 10 to 36 creamy yellow colored eggs . generally eggs are oviposited on the underside of leaf surfaces 130 - 170 cm above the water surface , with only a small percentage of clutches ( 6 % of clutches observed by lips 2001 ) deposited on the upper surfaces of leaves . lips ( 2001 ) also reported that about 22 % of clutches were deposited on vegetation over land rather than directly over water ; however , if the stream had flooded , most of these would have been over water . eggs are large , around 3 . 6 mm in diameter ( range 2 . 8 - 4 . 4 mm ) and are enclosed in jelly capsules of about 5 . 3 mm in diameter . early embryos are chocolate - gray in color and hatch 23 to 56 days after oviposition ( lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .
after hatching , tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below . tadpoles are classified as mountain brook ecomorphs ; they lack a specialized oral disc , and inhabit slow - moving portions of the stream and pools along the stream . tadpoles often hide among the rocks and leaves at the bottom of the stream . in the laboratory , tadpoles metamorphosed in around 270 days after oviposition . metamorphs are around 15 mm in standard length . based on recapture data , adults live at least four years ; sexual maturity is reached during the first year of life ( lips 1996 ; lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .
) , which lay eggs on new frog clutches ; the maggots generally consume the entire parasitized clutch . crickets or other orthopterans also prey on the eggs . of 618 clutches studied between 1991 and 1996 , 65 % did not hatch any tadpoles ; 35 % of those mortalities were due to fly parasitism . clutches laid later in the season suffered significantly higher mortality from fly parasitism ( 9 . 5 % for the earliest clutches , vs . 48 . 5 % for clutches laid in the middle of the season , and 52 . 25 % for those laid at the end of the season ) . desiccation was the most significant cause of mortality for earlier clutches ( lips 2001 ) .
this species appears to be extinct in costa rica but may still be present in panama ( stuart et al . 2008 ) . although relatively abundant in the early 1990s ,
underwent a drastic population decline from 1992 onwards ( lips 1998 ; lips et al . 2003b ) . in 1993 , a dead specimen was found during a survey of a 400 m transect along the headwaters of the río cotón in southwestern costa rica , along with six other species of amphibians ( lips 1998 ) ; chytrid was subsequently confirmed in some of the other dead amphibians from that survey ( lips et al . 2003a ) . over the past three generations , about 80 % of the total population has disappeared from pristine habitat , probably due to chytridiomycosis ( stuart et al . 2008 ) . species distribution modeling has predicted that 100 % of the range for
increased livestock farming may also present a threat to this species ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .
has been recorded from at least one protected area , parque internacional la amistad in costa rica , and it may also occur in parque nacional volcán barú , in panama ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .
derives from the greek nymph calypso , who hid the hero ulysses . it refers both to the frog ' s camouflage and to the species having been hidden within
lips , k . l . , and savage , j . m . ( 1996 ) . ' ' key to the known tadpoles ( amphibia : anura ) of costa rica . ' '
: - - a stream - breeding treefrog from lower central america . ph . d . dissertation .
lips , k . r . ( 1998 ) . ' ' decline of a tropical montane amphibian fauna . ' '
m . a . donnelly , b . i . crother , c . guyer , m . h . wake , and m . e . white , eds . , .
lips , k . r . , green , d . e . , and papendick , r . ( 2003 ) . ' ' chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern costa rica . ' '
lips , k . r . , reeve , j . d . , and witters , l . r . ( 2003 ) . ' ' ecological traits predicting amphibian population declines in central america . ' '
lötters , s . , kielgast , j . , bielby , j . , schmidtlein , s . , bosch , j . , veith , m . , walker , s . f . , fisher , m . c . , and rödder , d . ( 2010 ) . ' ' the link between rapid enigmatic amphibian decline and the globally emerging chytrid fungus . ' '
stuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) .
lynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
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amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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iucn red list category , and details of range , ecology , threats and conservation information for every known amphibian species , can be found on the iucn red list website .
classified as critically endangered ( cr a2ace ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) .
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species description based on lips ( 1996 ) and savage ( 2002 ) . a small treefrog ( males to 36 mm , females to 41 mm ) . females generally appear spinier than males .
the dorsal surface is metallic green mottled with darker drab green or brown blotches . the dorsum is covered in large spinous bumps .
the groin and front and rear surfaces of the thighs are bright white with scattered black spots .
the eye is cream - colored , darkening to brown around the outer edges .
breeding occurs from april to november ( lips 1996 ) . females may breed more than once in a single one reproductive season ( up to three times , lips 1996 ) .
clutches of 10 - 36 eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams ( lips 1996 ) . the eggs are yellow upon oviposition but turn darker as they age ( lips 1996 ) . embryos hatch in 23 - 56 days ( lips 1996 ) .
the tadpole body is oval - shaped with a rather long tail and shallow tail fins ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the coloration is brownish - orange ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the tail has large grey patches that turn smaller and darker towards the tip ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . tadpoles have a disc - shaped mouth that allows them to cling to rocks in streams ( lips 1996 ) .
lips ( 2001 ) characterized temporal variation in reproductive activity and the causes of egg - stage mortality in this species . drosophilid fly infestation was a significant source of egg death , particularly late in the breeding season ( lips 2001 ) .
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attributes / relations provided by ♦ 1 oliveira , brunno freire ; são - pedro , vinícius avelar ; santos - barrera , georgina ; penone , caterina ; c . costa , gabriel . ( 2017 ) amphibio , a global database for amphibian ecological traits . sci . data .
ecoregions provided by world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) . wildfinder : online database of species distributions , ver . 01 . 06 wwf wildfinder
protected areas provided by le saout , s . , hoffmann , m . , shi , y . , hughes , a . , bernard , c . , brooks , t . m . , bertzky , b . , butchart , s . h . m . , stuart , s . n . , badman , t . & rodrigues , a . s . l . ( 2013 ) protected areas and effective biodiversity conservation . science , 342 , 803–805
using this photo for further information about the digital archives of the division of herpetology at the university of kansas biodiversity institute , please contact dr . rafe brown ( rafe [ at ] ku [ dot ] edu ) or another member of the curatorial staff . contact amphibiaweb rafe @ urltoken for more information .
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adult : species description based on lips ( 1996 ) and savage ( 2002 ) . a small treefrog ( males to 36 mm , females to 41 mm ) . females generally appear spinier than males . dorsal : the dorsal surface is metallic green mottled with darker drab green or brown blotches . the dorsum is covered in large spinous bumps . ventral : the ventral surface is white with some scattered black blotches or smaller spots . concealed surfaces : the groin and front and rear surfaces of the thighs are bright white with scattered black spots . eye : the eye is cream - colored , darkening to brown around the outer edges .
breeding season : breeding occurs from april to november ( lips 1996 ) . females may breed more than once in a single one reproductive season ( up to three times , lips 1996 ) . egg : clutches of 10 - 36 eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams ( lips 1996 ) . the eggs are yellow upon oviposition but turn darker as they age ( lips 1996 ) . embryos hatch in 23 - 56 days ( lips 1996 ) . tadpole : the tadpole body is oval - shaped with a rather long tail and shallow tail fins ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the coloration is brownish - orange ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the tail has large grey patches that turn smaller and darker towards the tip ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . tadpoles have a disc - shaped mouth that allows them to cling to rocks in streams ( lips 1996 ) .
habitat : lower montane forest from 1810 to 1920 m . ecology : lips ( 2001 ) characterized temporal variation in reproductive activity and the causes of egg - stage mortality in this species . drosophilid fly infestation was a significant source of egg death , particularly late in the breeding season ( lips 2001 ) . call : a short , single note ( lips 1996 ) . behavior and communication : males guard territories along stream margins ( lips 1996 ) . type locality : finca jaguar ( 1900 m ) , approximately 18 km nne la lucha , coto brus , puntarenas province , costa rica , 8° 55′ n , 82° 44′ w
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a non - hyphal parasitic chytrid fungus that has been associated with population declines in endemic amphibian species in upland montane rain forests in australia and panama . it causes cutaneous mycosis ( fungal infection of the skin ) , or more specifically chytridiomycosis , in wild and captive amphibians . first described in 1998 , the fungus is the only chytrid known to parasitise vertebrates . b . dendrobatidis can remain viable in the environment ( especially aquatic environments ) for weeks on its own , and may persist in latent infections .
is a zoosporic chytrid fungus that causes chytridiomycosis ( a fungal infection of the skin ) in amphibians and grows solely within keratinised cells . diagnosis is by identification of characteristic intracellular flask - shaped sporangia ( spore containing bodies ) and septate thalli . the fungus grows in the superficial keratinised layers of the epidermis ( known as the stratum corneum and stratum granulosum ) . the normal thickness of the stratum corneum is between 2µm to 5µm , but a heavy infection by the chytrid parasite may cause it to thicken to up to 60 µm . the fungus also infects the mouthparts of tadpoles ( which are keratinised ) but does not infect the epidermis of tadpoles ( which lacks keratin ) .
the fungus produces inoperculate , smooth - walled zoosporangia ( zoospore containing bodies ) , which are spherical to subspherical in shape . each zoosporangium ( 10µm to 40µm in diameter ) produces a single discharge tube , which penetrates ( and protrudes out of ) the skin . eventually the plug that blocks the release of immature zoospores is shed and the mature zoospores are released . the zoospores ( 0 . 7µm to 6µm in diameter ) are elongate to ovoid in shape . each possesses a single posterior flagellum , rendering it motile in water ( mazzoni
pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis : authors of a recent study , voyles et al . ( 2009 ) have found that b . dendrobatidis , causes such severe electrolyte imbalances that the frog’s heart stops . the skin of amphibians maintain proper osmotic balance inside the animal and regulate respiration . the authors found that the skin of infected frogs was less adept at transporting sodium and chloride ions . sodium and potassium concentrations in the blood of infected frogs dropped , more so as the infection intensified and the animals’hearts began to beat irregularly and ultimately stopped .
salamanders can act as host reservoirs of chytrid infection in frogs , and vice versa ( davidson et al . 2003 ) .
chytridiomycosis has now been reported from 38 amphibian species in 12 families , including ranid and hylid frogs , bufonid toads , and plethodontid salamanders . although chytridiomycosis is found in a range of species and habitats ( including african frogs in lowland regions in africa ) it has caused population declines of amphibians species confined to montane rain forests ( weldon et al . 2004 ; daszak et al . 1999 ) . the fungus prefers lower temperatures which may explain the high precedence of the fungus in high elevations in the tropics . in culture conditions optimum growth occurred at 23°c , with slower growth occuring at 28°c and ( reversible ) cessation of growth occuring at 29°c ( longcore , pessier , nichols , 1999 , in daszak et al . 1999 ) .
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is diploid and primarily reproduces asexually ( and clonally ) by producing aquatic uniflagellated zoospores in a zoosporangium ( johnson and speare , 2003 ) .
its occurrence solely in keratinised tissues suggests that it uses amphibian keratin as a nutrient . batrachochytrium dendrobatidis will grow for at least one generation on cleaned epidermal keratin or on amphibians that have died of the infection . the fungus may also be cultured in vitro on tryptone agar without the addition of keratin or its derivatives ( daszak et al . 1999 ; longcore , pessier and nichols , 1999 , pessier et al . 1999 , in daszak et al . 1999 ) .
principal source : berger et al . 1999 . chytrid fungi and amphibian declines : overview , implications and future directions . berger et al . 1998 . chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of australia and central america . daszak et al . 1999 . emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines
review : matthew j . parris assistant professor , department of biology university of memphis usa
recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .
has been found to affect at least 93 amphibian species from the orders anura ( frogs and toads ) and caudata ( salamanders ) in all the continents except asia . it is thought to be one of the main causes of the global decline in frog populations since the 1960s , and the dramatic population crashes from the 1970s onwards ( parris and beaudoin , 2004 ) . the chytrid fungus kills frogs within 10 to 18 days ( michigan frog survey , 2003 ) , although it is not known how . it may be physical , affecting respiration by altering the frog’s skin , or the fungus may give off a toxin ( michigan frog survey , 2003 ) . tadpoles are not affected , although the fungus may infect the keratinised mouthparts ( berger
key findings of the the global amphibian assessment has revealed that one - third ( 32 % ) of the world’s amphibian species are threatened , representing 1 , 896 species . threats include viral diseases , habitat loss , drought , pollution , and hunting for food . the biggest single threat appears to be b . dendrobatidis . a search on the database using \
diseases \
as a keyword in \
all \
habitat types , biogeographic realm and countries results in a list of 547 species impacted by diseases ( iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 ) .
is relevant to all control strategies , particularly in the development of preventative measures . the infective unit of the fungus is the zoospore . infection by the fungus ( and thus spread of the disease ) requires water because the zoospore does not tolerate dehydration .
remains viable for up to 3 weeks in tap water , up to 4 weeks in deionised water and even longer in lake water . infection by an extremely small inoculum ( 100 zoospores ) is sufficient to cause a fatal infection ( berger
for a summary under the following headings : improving diagnostics and knowledge of epidemiology , developing trade and quarantine regulations , raising awareness and control options .
the amphibian conservation action plan ( acap ) is designed to provide guidance for implementing amphibian conservation and research initiatives at all scales from global down to local . chapter 4 outlines action steps relating to the detection and control of chytridiomycosis .
informations on batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .
australian department of the environment and heritage , 2004 . chytridiomycosis ( amphibian chytrid fungus disease ) . australia s natural heritage trust .
berger , lee , alex d . hyatt , veronica olsen , sandra g . hengstberger donna boyle , gerry marantelli , kaye humphreys , joyce e . longcore . , 2002 . production of polyclonal antibodies to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and their use in an immunoperoxidase test for chytridiomycosis in amphibians . diseases of aquatic organisms vol 48 213 - 220 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
berger , l . , hyatt , a . d . , olsen , v . , hengstberger , s . g . , boyle , d . , marantelli , g . , humphreys , k . , longcore , j . e . 2002 . production of polyclonal antibodies to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and their use in an immunoperoxidase test for chytridiomycosis in amphibians , dis aquat organ . 48 ( 3 ) : 213 - 220 . ( abstract )
berger , l . , speare , r . , and hyatt . , a . d . 1999 . chytrid fungi and amphibian declines : overview , implications and future directions . declines and disappearances of australian frogs . 23 - 34 .
berger , l . , speare , r . , and kent , a . 1999 . diagnosis of chytridiomycosis in amphibians by histologic examination . summary : this paper outlines techniques for identifying the chytrid fungus . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
daszak , p . , a . strieby , a . a . cunningham , j . e . longcore , c . c . brown and d . porter . , 2004 . experimental evidence that the bullfrog ( rana catesbeiana ) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis , an emerging fungal disease of amphibians . herpetological journal , vol . 14 , pp . 201 - 207 ( 2004 ) summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
deweerdt , sarah . 2001 . coordinating an international monitoring program the declining amphibian populations task force . conservation in practice winter 2001 vol 2 no . 1
garthwaite , r . department of conservation . batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , frog chytrid fungus . department of conservation : waikato .
gascon , c . , collins , j . p . , moore , r . d . , church , d . r . , mckay , j . e . and mendelson , j . r . iii ( eds ) . 2007 . amphibian conservation action plan . iucn / ssc amphibian specialist group . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . 64pp . summary : the amphibian conservation action plan ( acap ) is designed to provide guidance for implementing amphibian conservation and research initiatives at all scales from global down to local . available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 june 2008 ]
johnson , megan l & richard speare , 2005 . possible modes of dissemination of the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the environment . dis aquat org vol . 65 : 181�186 , 2005 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
johnson , m . l . and speare , r . 2003 . survival of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in water : quarantine and disease control implications , emerging infectious diseases 9 ( 8 ) : 922 � 925 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]
johnson , m . l . , berger , l . , philips , l . and speare , r . 2003 . fungicidal effects of chemical disinfectants , uv light , desiccation and heat on the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , diseases of aquatic organisms 57 ( 3 ) : 255 - 260 .
mazzoni , r . , cunningham , a . a . , daszak , p . , apolo , a . perdomo , p . and speranza . , g . 2003 . emerging pathogen of wild amphibians in frogs ( rana catesbeiana ) farmed for international trade , emerging infectious diseases 9 ( 8 ) : 995 - 998 .
michigan frog survey . 2003 . michigan frog survey update . michigan department of natural resources wildlife division natural heritage program .
parker , j . m . , mikaelian , i . , hahn , n . and diggs , h . e . 2002 . clinical diagnosis and treatment of epidermal chytridiomycosis in african clawed frogs ( xenopus tropicalis ) , comp med . 52 ( 3 ) : 265 � 268 . ( abstract )
rollins - smith , l . , reinert , l . k . , miera , v . and conlon , j . m . 2002 . antimicrobial peptide defenses of the tarahumara frog , rana tarahumarae , biochemical and biophysical research communications 297 ( 2 ) : 361 - 367 .
ron , santiago r . , 2005 . predicting the distribution of the amphibian pathogen batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the new world1 . biotropica 37 ( 2 ) , 209 - 221 .
speare , r . and core working group of getting the jump on amphibian disease . 2001 . nomination for listing of amphibian chytridiomycosis as a key threatening process under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 . in : speare , r . and steering committee of getting the jump on amphibian disease . developing management strategies to control amphibian diseases : decreasing the risk due to communicable diseases . school of public health and tropical medicine , james cook university : townsville . 163 - 187 .
speare r , berger l . global distribution of chytridiomycosis in amphibians . summary : this document gives details on the global distribution of the chytrid fungus , and was last updated in april 2004 . available from : urltoken [ accessed 11 november 2000 ] .
usdi ( united states department of the interior ) u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2003 . re : buck springs range management allotment plan
van - ells , t . , stanton , j . , strieby , a . , daszak , p . , hyatt , a . d . and brown , c . 2003 . use of immunohistochemistry to diagnose chytridiomycosis in dyeing poison dart frogs ( dendrobates tinctorius ) , journal of wildlife diseases 39 ( 3 ) : 742 - 745 .
bell , ben d . , scott carver , nicola j . mitchell , shirley pledger . , 2004 . the recent decline of a new zealand endemic : how and why did populations of archey�s frog leiopelma archeyi crash over 1996�2001 ? biological conservation 120 ( 2004 ) 189�199 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
berger , l , r speare , hb hines , g marantelli , ad hyatt , kr mcdonald , lf skerratt , v olsen , jm clarke , g gillespie , m mahony , n sheppard , c williams and mj tyler . , 2004 . effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis . australian veterinary journal volume 82 , no 7 , july 2004 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
berger , l . , speare , r . , daszak , p . , green , d . e . , cunningham , a . a . , goggin , c . l . , slocombe , r . , ragan , m . a . , hyatt , a . d . , mcdonald , k . r . , hines , h . b . , lips , k . r . , marantelli , g . and parkes , h . 1998 . chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of australia and central america , population biology ( proc natl acad sci u s a . ) 95 ( 15 ) : 9031 � 9036 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]
berger , l . , speare , r . , hines , h . b . , marantelli , g . , hyatt , a . d . , mcdonald . , k . r . , skerratt , l . f . , olsen , v . , clarke , j . m . , gillespie , g . , mahony , m . , sheppard , n . williams , c . and tyler . m . j . 2004 . effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis , australian veterinary journal 82 ( 7 ) : 434 - 439 .
bosch , j . , martinez - solano , i . , and garcia - paris , m . 2000 . chytridiomycosis in spain : first european report of declines of wild amphibians associated with chytridiomycosis . summary : this article gives details about the first caseof chytrid fungus in spain . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
carey , c . , cohen , n . and rollins - smith , l . 1999 . amphibian declines : an immunological perspective . developmental and comparative immunology . 23 ( 6 ) : 459 - 472 . summary : this paper discusses the role of disease in amphibian decline , and the immunological response .
commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation ( csiro ) , 2003 . researching frog fungus .
dasak , p . , andrew , a cunningham and hyatt , d alex . , 2003 . infectious disease and amphibian population declines . diversity and distributions 9 , 141�150
daszak , p . , berger , l . , cunningham , a . a . , hyatt , a . d . , green , d . e . , speare , r . , 1999 . emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines . emerg infect dis [ serial on the internet ] . november - december 1999 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]
davidson , e . w . , parris , m . , collins , j . p . , longcore , j . e . , pessier , p . a . and brunner , j . 2003 . pathogenicity and transmission of chytridiomycosis in tiger salamanders ( ambystoma tigrinum ) ,
fellers , g . m . , green , d . e . and longcore , j . e . 2001 . oral chytridiomycosis in the mountain yellow - legged frog ( rana muscosa ) , copeia 4 : 945 - 953 .
hero , jean - marc & clare morrison . , 2004 . frog declines in australia global implications . herpetological journal vol . 14 , pp . 175 - 186 ( 2004 ) summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 . global amphibian assessment . downloaded on 4 may 2006 . summary : the global amphibian assessment ( gaa ) is the first - ever comprehensive assessment of the conservation status of the world s 5 , 918 known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , and caecilians . this website presents results of the assessments , including iucn red list threat category , range map , ecology information , and other data for every amphibian species . available from : urltoken [ accessed 5 november 2006 ] .
johnson , pieter . t . j . , 2006 . amphibian diversity : decimation by dusease . published online before print february 21 , 2006 , 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0600293103 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ]
kingsley d . environment news , 23 april 2002 . summary : this article gives details about the first reports of chytrid fungus in archey s frog . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
lips , karen . r , forrest brem , roberto brenes , john d . reeve , ross a . alford , jamie voyles , cynthia carey , lauren livo , allan p . pessier , and james p . collins . , 2006 . emerging infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a neotropical amphibian community . published online before print february 15 , 2006 , 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0506889103 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ] available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ]
lips , k . r . , green , d . e . and papendick , r . 2003 . chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern costa rica , journal of herpetology 37 ( 1 ) : 215 - 218 .
lips , k . r . , mendelson , j . r . munoz - alonso , a . , canseco - marquez , l . and mulcahy , d . g . 2004 . amphibian population declines in montane southern mexico : resurveys of historical localities , biological - conservation 119 ( 4 ) : 555 - 564 .
morehouse , e . a . , james , t . y . , ganley , a . r . d . , vilgalys , r . , berger , l . , murphy , p . j . and longcore , j . e . 2003 . multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone , molecular ecology 12 ( 2 ) : 395 - 403 .
muths , e . , corn , p . s . , pessier , a . p . and green , d . e . 2003 . evidence for disease - related amphibian decline in colorado , biological conservation 110 ( 3 ) : 357 - 365 .
mutschmann , f . , berger , l . , zwart , p . and gaedicke , c . 2000 . chytridiomycosis in amphibians : first report in europe , berl munch tierarztl wochenschr 113 ( 10 ) : 380 � 383 . ( abstract )
norman , r . undated . chytrid fungus disease in new zealand . massey university institute of veterinary , animal and biomedical sciences . summary : article outlining the first case of chytrid fungus in new zealand . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
parris , m . j . 2004 . hybrid response to pathogen infection in interspecific crosses between two amphibian species ( anura : ranidae ) . evolutionary ecology research 6 : 457 - 471 . summary : b . dendrobatidis differentially affects genotypes between two species of hybridizing leopard frogs ( rana ) . hybrid genotypes are more susceptible to infection , and suffer greater reductions in growth and development from the fungus .
parris , m . j . and beaudoin , j . g . 2004 . chytridiomycosis impacts predator - prey interactions in larval amphibian communities , oceologia ( berlin ) 140 ( 4 ) : 626 - 632 . summary : b . dendrobatidis alters the outcome of natural predator - prey dynamics in a larval amphibian - predator system .
parris , m . j . and d . r . baud . 2004 . interactive effects of a heavy metal and chytridiomycosis on gray treefrog larvae ( hyla chrysoscelis ) . copeia 2004 : 343 - 349 . summary : b . dendrobatidis impacts on hyla larvae may be somewhat ameliorated in a heavy metal ( cu ) aquatic environment . thus , pathogenic effects may be a result of interactions with other aquatic contaminants .
parris , m . j . and t . o . cornelius . 2004 . fungal pathogen causes competitive and developmental stress in larval amphibian communities . ecology 85 : 3385 - 3395 . summary : this paper documents that b . dendrobatidis induces competitive effects in the larval environment between a toad ( bufo ) and treefrog ( hyla ) species .
rollins - smith , l . a . , carey , c . , longcore , j . , doersam , j . k . , boutte , a . , bruzgal , j . e . , and conlon , j . m . 2002 . activity of antimicrobial skin peptides from ranid frogs against batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , the chytrid fungus associated with global amphibian declines . developmental and comparative immunology . 26 ( 5 ) : 471 - 479 . summary : this paper outlines the role of antimicrobial peptides in deterring chytrid infection .
speare r , berger l . chytridiomycosis in amphibians in australia . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 october 2000 ] .
usgs ( u . s . geological survey ) . 2000 . research project : review and classification of visitor impacts to wildlife research methods . u . s . department of the interior : patuxent wildlife research center . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]
waldman , b . , van de wolfshaar , k . e . , klena , j . d . , andjic , v . , bishop , p . , and norman , r . j . de b . 2001 . chytridiomycosis in new zealand frogs . surveillance . 28 ( 3 ) : 9 - 11 . summary : this article gives details about the first case of chytrid fungus in new zealand , including possible means of introduction and spread . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
weldon c , du preez lh , hyatt ad , muller r , speare r . , 2004 . origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus . emerg infect dis [ serial on the internet ] . 2004 dec . summary : available from urltoken [ accessed 14 december 2005 ]
woodhams , d . c . , alford , r . a . and marantelli , g . 2003 . emerging disease of amphibians cured by elevated body temperature , diseases of aquatic organisms 55 ( 1 ) : 65 - 67 .
young , b . e . , lips , k . r . , reaser , j . k . , ibanez , r . , salas , a . w . , rogelio cedeno , j . , coloma , l . a . , ron , s . , la marca , e . , meyer , j . r . , munoz , a . , bolanos , f . , chaves , g . and romo , d . 2001 . population declines and priorities for amphibian conservation in latin america . conservation biology . 15 ( 5 ) : 1213 - 1223 . summary : a discussion of the factors involved in the population declines of amphibians in latin america .
the global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use
next september , stri will join the international scientific community to celebrate a group of researchers who dedicated their careers to the study of the fungus and the preservation of panamanian amphibians , with hopes that soon we will also be able celebrate the successful reintroduction of these charismatic animals to their natural environment .
the panama - based smithsonian tropical research institute ( stri ) is the only dependency of the smithsonian institution located outside the united states and is dedicated to enriching knowledge about the biological diversity of the tropics ( www . stri . si . edu ) .
what began in 1923 as a small field station on isla barro colorado in the former panama canal zone , today represents one of the world’s leading research institutions . stri’s facilities provide a unique opportunity for long - term ecological studies in the tropics and are intensively used by more than 1400 scientists , including panamanians and visitors who come every year from academic and research institutions in the americas and around the world .
the global conservation movement has reached a turning point . we have documented the fast pace of habitat loss , the growing number of endangered and extinct species , and the increasing speed of global climate change . yet while the seriousness of these threats cannot be denied , there are a growing number of examples of improvements in the health of species and ecosystems , along with benefits to human well - being , thanks to our conservation actions . earth optimism is a global initiative that celebrates a change in focus from problem to solution , from a sense of loss to one of hope , in the dialogue about conservation and sustainability .
as human diseases become alarmingly antibiotic resistant , identification of new pharmaceuticals is critical . the cane toad and other members of the bufonidae family produce substances widely used in traditional folk medicine , but endangered family members , like panama’s golden frog , atelopus zeteki , may disappear before revealing their secrets . smithsonian scientists and colleagues catalog the known chemicals produced by this amphibian family in the journal of ethnopharmacology highlighting this largely - unexplored potential for discovery .


manoba major is a moth in the family nolidae .

it was described by hampson in 1891 .

it is found in india , taiwan , japan ( the ryukyu islands , burma , singapore , as well as on borneo , java , vanuatu and new caledonia . the habitat consists of coastal areas near mangroves . the wingspan is about 20 mm . the forewings are fawn with two darker smudges on the costa . the hindwings are fawn , fading to white at the base .

manoba major

wileman & west , 1929 , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) , 3 : 190 ,
, but with the punctate fasciae much more clearly defined , and with blackish medial and subbasal shallowly triangular patches on the costa . the hindwings grade distinctly greyer towards the margin , and there is a grey discal mark . the antennae are very strongly bipectinate . the male genitalia resemble somewhat those of
hampson ( see above ) in having a rather robust uncus , narrow , slightly curved valves and a relatively basal harpe . the aedeagus is slender , rather bulbous basally and with a long , narrow vesica that terminates in a single , large cornutus . the species has been placed erroneously as a synonym of the lithosiine arctiid
indian subregion , taiwan , ryukyu is . , burma , singapore , borneo , ? java ( see below ) , vanuatu , new caledonia ( holloway , 1979 ) .
unusual for the genus , this species has been taken uniquely on the coast near mangrove in brunei .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
turner , a . j . 1944 ,
a revision of the australian nolidae ( lepidoptera )
, proceedings of the royal society of queensland , vol . 55 , pp . 13 - 50
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 04869551 - 6ed0 - 45d6 - 9fda - 7e2154bccc10
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2a3f06a8 - 0c2d - 4bb9 - ab3f - 7b3648610d0b
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4f876d59 - ec13 - 41dd - a4d2 - 6bcfffded472
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 92fcba19 - a305 - 46dd - 9646 - 6c452a99bd3f
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e08fb699 - 543f - 4aee - bd5e - 5db7a9d16a00
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fe614cda - c675 - 44cf - b380 - e40698349a63
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 525667
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urltoken
[ south africa , kwazulu - natal ] , port natal [ durban ] , leg m . becker .
walker f . 1854b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part ii . – lepidoptera heterocera . - — 2 : i–iv , 279–581 .