myrmecia midas is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus .

this species is native to australia .

myrmecia midas is distributed mainly across the coastline of several eastern australian states .

it was first described by clark in 1951 .

workers are typically 13-15 millimetres long , with the queens bigger at 18-19 millimetres and males are smaller .

the head and thorax are a red colour , gaster black , and the mandibles , antennae , and the legs are brownish red .

myrmecia midas

the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmecia midas for further details
polarized light use in the nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia midas . - pubmed - ncbi
the study site for the nocturnal ant myrmecia midas . the field site was located on the macquarie university campus . the four nests were located within 100 m of each other .
freas ca , narendra a , lemesle c & cheng k . 2017 polarised light use in the nocturnal bull ant myrmecia midas . royal society open science 4 : 170598 [ pdf ]
freas ca . wystrach a , narendra a & cheng k . 2018 . the view from the trees : nocturnal bull ants , myrmecia midas , use the surrounding panorama while descending from trees . frontiers in psychology 9 : 16 . [ pdf ]
jayatilaka p , raderschall ca , narendra a & zeil j . 2014 . individual foraging patterns of the jack jumper ant , myrmecia croslandi . myrmecological news 19 : 75 - 83 .
ramirez - esquivel f , zeil j & narendra a . 2014 . the antennal sensory array of the nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia pyriformis . arthropod structure and development 43 : 543 - 558
raderschall ca , narendra a & zeil j . 2016 . head roll stabilisation in the nocturnal bull ant myrmecia pyriformis : implications for visual navigation . journal of experimental biology 219 : 1449 - 1457
narendra a & ribi wa . 2017 . ocellar structure is driven by the mode of locomotion and activity time in myrmecia ants . journal of experimental biology 220 : 4383 - 4390 . [ pdf ] featured inside jeb
narendra a , greiner b , ribi wa & zeil j . 2016 . light and dark adaptation mechanisms in the compound eyes of myrmecia ants that occupy discrete temporal niches . journal of experimental biology 219 : 2435 - 2442 . featured inside jeb
experiments were conducted from april 2015 to october 2016 on four m . midas nests located at the northern end of the macquarie university campus in sydney , australia ( 33°46′11″s , 151°06′40″e ) . all testing was conducted on nests that were located within a 100 m area ( fig . 1 ) . the area ' s vegetation consisted of stands of eucalyptus trees with largely barren understories interspersed with grassy areas . myrmecia midas nests were located at or close to the base of a tree ( 25 . 6±4 . 36 cm mean±s . d . , n = 20 ) , and a portion of the nest ' s nightly foragers ( ∼30 % ) travelled straight up the nest tree while the remaining foragers travelled to one of the surrounding trees ( observations : c . a . f . , three m . midas nests ) . we used headlamps with red filters to observe the ants at night , and forager behaviour suggests they were not affected by this light . working with this ant species requires no animal ethical approval within australia . all collection and testing procedures were non - invasive and we witnessed no adverse effects either in the tested individuals or in their nests during or after testing . all displacement collection and testing procedures occurred during the evening or morning twilight .
here , we investigated the compass cues used by a nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia midas clark 1951 . first , we determined their daily activity schedule . next , we tested whether foragers use a home vector to orient in the absence of familiar landmark information , by displacing foragers to unfamiliar locations . we then asked how ants weight their home vector and terrestrial cues by creating a conflict between the two cue sets . to explore the possibility that foragers navigate using cues beyond the surrounding landmarks , we displaced foragers locally near the nest with the surrounding landmark panorama obscured . finally , we compared the navigational knowledge of ants when they had to travel different distances ( 0 . 3–14 . 0 m ) from the nest to reach their foraging tree .
nightly foraging activity pattern of m . midas foragers . the observation period began on 2 april 2016 with sunset at 18 : 49 h . bars indicate outgoing foragers ( blue , n = 171 ) and incoming foragers ( red , n = 169 ) . the black line indicates the number of individuals actively foraging away from the nest site during this period . data are shown in 10 min bins .
myrmecia midas appear to detect and use both path integration and the surrounding terrestrial landmarks to navigate at low light levels during twilight . our results suggest that vector cue strength is weighted by vector length , as only at the longest observed vector lengths did foragers orient successfully in unfamiliar surroundings . the lack of orientation to smaller ( 2–5 m ) home vectors in the presence of unfamiliar terrestrial cues and the very weak orientation at the maximum observed natural vector ( 12 . 8–14 . 0 m ) coupled with the lack of orientation to all vector lengths ( 2–14 m ) when in the presence of conflicting familiar terrestrial cues indicates that vector cues may be weakly integrated during orientation and can be overridden by stronger terrestrial cues or that these foragers do not path integrate over short distances . additionally , terrestrial visual cues appear critical to successful homeward orientation , as blocking these cues in local environments results in foragers no longer being oriented to the nest direction . finally , our results show that a portion of m . midas ' foraging force lacks the ability to navigate back to the nest site using landmark cues over short distances , and that these ants may be unable to extrapolate beyond the nest site panorama even over short distances if they have only experienced the terrestrial panorama immediately surrounding the nest site .
circular distributions of individual m . midas foragers ' headings during the long - vector 1–2 m inbound condition . histograms show raw data of exit orientation under the filter with the individual ' s initial orientation and reorientation with the forager ' s exit orientation under the filter . the triangle denotes 45° in each distribution . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector direction . n , number of individuals ; ø , mean vector ; r , length of the mean vector .
the overnight and morning inbound testing conditions were chosen so as to mirror the typical inbound activity patterns of this species , with foragers being released during the pre - dawn twilight when motivation to return to the nest should be high . our 15 min delay conditions were chosen as this holding period allows time for the forager to feed in the collection tube while still being tested during twilight , as the navigational abilities of nocturnal myrmecia have been shown to suffer after twilight ends ( narendra et al . , 2013a , b ) .
we carried out a 24 h observation at one m . midas nest on 2 april 2016 to establish the species ' activity pattern . we set up a 60 cm diameter reference marker around the nest entrance and filmed ants departing and entering the nest with an hd c920 webcam ( logitech international ) . a lamp covered with a red filter was placed 50 cm away from the nest entrance . filming was carried out for a 24 h period from 1 h before sunset . astronomical data were obtained from calculations in the astronomical almanac ( urltoken ) .
circular distributions of individual m . midas foragers ' headings during the inbound conditions . histograms show raw data of exit orientation under the filter with the individual ' s initial orientation and reorientation with the forager ' s exit orientation under the filter . the triangle denotes 45° in each distribution . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector and mean direction . ( a ) orientations for nest 1 during the 4–6 m inbound condition . ( b ) orientations for the 1–2 m inbound condition . n , number of individuals ; ø , mean vector ; r , length of the mean vector .
solitary foraging ants have a navigational toolkit , which includes the use of both terrestrial and celestial visual cues , allowing individuals to successfully pilot between food sources and their nest . one such celestial cue is the polarization pattern in the overhead sky . here , we explore the use of polarized light during outbound and inbound journeys and with different home vectors in the nocturnal bull ant , myrmecia midas . we tested foragers on both portions of the foraging trip by rotating the overhead polarization pattern by ±45° . both outbound and inbound foragers responded to the polarized light change , but the extent to which they responded to the rotation varied . outbound ants , both close to and further from the nest , compensated for the change in the overhead e - vector by about half of the manipulation , suggesting that outbound ants choose a compromise heading between the celestial and terrestrial compass cues . however , ants returning home compensated for the change in the e - vector by about half of the manipulation when the remaining home vector was short ( 1 - 2 m ) and by more than half of the manipulation when the remaining vector was long ( more than 4 m ) . we report these findings and discuss why weighting on polarization cues change in different contexts .
observations of forager activity at the nest indicate that a portion ( ∼30 % ) of m . midas foragers do not travel farther than 30 cm to reach their foraging tree . to determine the navigational knowledge of these foragers , we displaced outbound full - vector ants 5 m away from the nest , either directed toward the nest entrance ( nest - side condition ) or directed toward the tree ( tree - side condition ; see fig . 2 b ) . foragers were collected on their outbound trip as they reached the base of the foraging tree . these individuals were fed , held for 15 min , and then released on the goniometer at one of the displacement sites . foragers ' orientations at 20 cm were determined at nests 1 , 2 and 3 . after testing , individuals were marked and returned to the nest .
circular distributions of individual m . midas foragers ' headings during outbound conditions . histograms show raw data of exit orientation under the filter and the reorientation after exiting the filter . the triangle denotes 45° in each distribution . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector and the mean direction . ( a ) orientations for nest 1 during the 4–6 m outbound condition . ( b ) orientations for nest 2 during the 4–6 m outbound condition . ( c ) orientations for nest 1 during the 1–2 m outbound condition . closed circles indicate individuals that continued on to the forging tree after testing . open circles represent foragers that retreated once the filter was placed overhead and these individuals returned to within 30 cm of the nest entrance after testing . n , number of individuals ; ø , mean vector ; r , length of the mean vector .
circular histograms of initial headings of individual m . midas foragers at 20 cm in nest - tree experiments . nest location for both conditions was set at 0 deg . histograms show orientation data in 15 deg bins . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector direction and the filled triangle designates the true nest direction . outbound foragers travelling up the nest - tree were collected at the tree base and displaced 5 m from the nest site either ( a ) on the nest side of the tree ( nest - side condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = −0 . 04 , p = 0 . 101 ) or ( b ) with the tree in between the nest site and the displacement site ( tree - side condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 143 , p = 0 . 639 ) .
circular histograms of initial headings of individual m . midas foragers at 20 cm in unfamiliar location experiments . nest direction indicated by path integration was at 0 deg and the actual nest site direction was at 180 deg . histograms show orientation data in 15 deg bins . the arrow in each histogram denotes the length of the mean vector and the direction of the average orientation . the filled triangle in each histogram indicates the true nest direction and the open triangle indicates the vector direction . ( a ) foragers were collected during their morning inbound trip and displaced to a site 100 m away ( inbound 100 m condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 085 , p = 0 . 225 ) . ( b ) foragers were collected during the outbound trip , at the base of the foraging tree , 2–5 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released 100 m from the nest site ( outbound 15 min delay 100 m condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = −0 . 139 , p = 0 . 906 ) . ( c ) foragers were collected during their outbound trip , held for 12 h , and displaced to a site 100 m away ( outbound overnight delay 100 m condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 083 ; p = 0 . 240 ) . ( d ) foragers were collected during the outbound trip with the longest observed vectors ( 12 . 8–14 . 0 m ) , held for 15 min and displaced to a site 100 m away ( outbound long vector 15 min delay condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 2 . 361 , p = 0 . 009 ) . n , number of individuals in each condition ; ø , mean vector ; r , length of mean vector .
circular histograms of initial headings of individual m . midas foragers at 20 cm in local displacement experiments . nest direction indicated by the home vector was at 270 deg and the actual nest site direction was at 0 deg . histograms show orientation data in 15 deg bins . the arrow denotes the length of the mean vector direction . in all off - route conditions , the filled triangle indicates the true nest direction and the open triangle indicates the vector direction . ( a ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of the foraging tree , held for 15 min and then released at the base of the tree on their foraging route ( outbound 15 min delay on - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 351 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( b ) inbound foragers were collected during their morning inbound trip and displaced to a site 5 m away ( inbound off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 703 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( c ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of the foraging tree 2–5 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released at the 5 m displacement site ( outbound 15 min delay off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 580 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( d ) foragers were collected during their outbound trip , held for 12 h and then displaced to a site 5 m away ( outbound overnight delay off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 554 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( e ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of their foraging tree 14 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released at the 5 m displacement site ( outbound long vector 15 min delay off - route condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = 0 . 618 , p < 0 . 001 ) . nest direction indicated by path integration was at 270 deg and is marked with an open triangle . ( f ) outbound foragers were collected at the base of their foraging tree 2–5 m from the nest entrance , held for 15 min and then released at the 5 m displacement site with the surrounding landmarks blocked from the forager ' s view ( landmark blocking 15 min delay condition ; v - test at 0 deg ; v = −0 . 04 , p = 0 . 631 ) .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
holotype , worker , dorrigo , new south wales , australia , froggatt , w . w . , anic32 - 006507 , australian national insect collection .
paratype , 1 worker , tambourine mtn , queensland , australia , hacker , h . , anic32 - 006513 , australian national insect collection .
paratype , 4 workers , dorrigo , new south wales , australia , heron , w . , anic32 - 012805 , australian national insect collection .
clark , j . 1951 . the formicidae of australia . 1 . subfamily myrmeciinae : 230 pp . csiro , melbourne . [ ( 31 . xii ) . 1951 . ] pdf
this page was last modified on 19 august 2015 , at 14 : 39 .
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clark , 1951 pdf : 55 , figs . 34 , 35 ( w . q . )
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these vision - based navigational abilities have been widely studied in diurnal ants , which are active when visual cues are easy to distinguish ( wehner et al . , 1996 ; fukushi , 2001 ; beugnon et al . , 2005 ; cheng et al . , 2009 ; bühlmann et al . , 2011 ) . nocturnal foragers have the challenge of navigating during twilight or at night when ambient light levels drop significantly and visual cues become increasingly difficult to detect ( warrant , 2008 ; warrant and dacke , 2011 ) . yet , little is known about navigation in ant species that forage at low light intensities .
we displaced full - vector foragers in three conditions . in the first , we collected inbound homing ants at the base of the tree during the morning twilight as they travelled down the foraging tree ( inbound 100 m condition ) . in the second condition , we collected individuals during their nightly outbound trip at the base of the foraging tree , held them for 15 min with a small amount of honey and released them at the distant displacement site ( outbound 15 min delay 100 m condition ) . in the third condition , we collected outbound foragers during the evening twilight , offered them a small amount of honey and stored them overnight ( 11–12 h ) . these foragers were tested in the morning twilight ( outbound overnight delay 100 m condition ) . after testing and marking , foragers were returned to the nest site . foragers ' orientations did not differ between nests and results were pooled across all four nests .
additionally , we determined whether the length of the home vector itself affected the ability to orient using path integration . for this test , we studied a subset of ants from nest 1 and nest 3 that foraged on a tree 14 . 0 and 12 . 8 m from the nest entrance , respectively , which were the maximum observed foraging distances at any nest at this site , distances we term long vector . we again collected outbound foragers at the base of the foraging tree , but only during the evening twilight . foragers were held for 15 min , and given a small amount of honey , then released at the 100 m displacement site ( outbound long vector 15 min delay 100 m condition ) , where we recorded their initial orientations . tested foragers were marked and returned to the nest site . foragers ' orientations from the two nests were pooled .
next , we asked how ants weight path integration and landmark cues while returning home to the same four nests . we addressed this by capturing ants at the base of their foraging tree under identical collection conditions to the unfamiliar displacements and then displacing them locally . we first tested foragers in a control condition without creating a conflict between the home vector direction and the local landmarks . for this , we released outbound ants during the evening twilight after a 15 min holding period on the goniometer at the base of their foraging tree ( outbound 15 min delay on - route condition ) . we then tested a separate group of foragers with conflicting terrestrial landmarks and the home vector by displacing foragers away from the nest site and perpendicular to the foraging route . the displacement site was 90 deg clockwise from the individual ' s foraging tree with respect to the nest location and 5 m from the nest entrance ( fig . 2 a ) .
schematic diagram of the experimental setup . ( a ) diagram of collection and displacement conditions for the experiments on cue conflict . ( b ) diagram of collection and displacement conditions for the nest - tree foragers .
foragers were tested in three separate conditions , similar to the procedures for testing the use of path integration . in the first condition , incoming foragers were collected during the morning twilight at the base of their foraging tree ( inbound off - route condition ) and then tested . in the second and third conditions , foragers were collected on their outbound trip as they reached one of the foraging trees 2–5 m from the nest ; foragers were either held for 15 min ( outbound 15 min delay off - route condition ) and then tested or held until morning twilight ( outbound overnight delay off - route condition ) and then tested . at the testing site , under all conditions the forager ' s initial orientation was recorded using the goniometer at 20 cm . after testing , individuals were marked and returned to the nest entrance . we analysed foragers ' initial orientations toward both the true nest direction and the vector from path integration . orientations were pooled across all four nests .
again , we determined whether the length of the home vector itself affected the weighting of the home vector . for this test , we studied a subset of ants ( n = 30 ) from nest 1 that foraged on a tree 14 . 0 m from the nest ( outbound long vector 15 min delay off - route condition ) . we collected outbound foragers at the base of the foraging tree , but only during the evening twilight . foragers were held for 15 min , given a small amount of honey , and then released at a displacement site 90 deg clockwise from the foraging tree with respect to the nest and 5 m from the nest entrance ( fig . 2 a ) . at the release site , we recorded initial orientations , and then tested foragers were marked and returned to the nest site .
next , we asked whether foragers successfully orient to the nest direction after local displacement in the absence of familiar terrestrial landmark cues . for this test , we collected outbound foragers at the base of their foraging tree 2–5 m from nest 1 , nest 3 or nest 4 during the evening twilight ( landmark blocking 15 min delay ) . foragers were held for 15 min , offered a small amount of honey , and then released at a displacement site 90 deg clockwise from the foraging tree with respect to the nest and 5 m from the nest entrance ( fig . 2 a ) . at the release location , a 38 cm high plastic sheet was used to block the landmark cues below 50 deg . the plastic sheet was erected into a 55 cm diameter circle around the goniometer . this sheet was raised 5 cm off the ground to allow any potential scent cues to reach foragers at the centre of the goniometer . after releasing the forager onto the goniometer , we recorded the orientation of animals at 20 cm . after testing , individuals were marked and returned to the nest .
for statistical analysis , a minimum of 30 foragers were collected for each condition . in each testing condition , foragers were collected as they were discovered and assigned a condition within that experiment group randomly . data were analysed with circular statistics ( batschelet , 1981 ; zar , 1998 ) using the statistics package oriana version 4 ( urltoken ) . watson and wheeler f - tests were used to compare mean vectors between testing conditions . a rayleigh ' s test was conducted on each displacement condition , to test whether the data met the conditions of a uniform distribution ( p > 0 . 05 ) . we used a v - test , with α set at p = 0 . 05 , to determine whether the initial orientation of ants at the release site was significantly towards the nest direction or to the home vector . during displacement tests where foragers did not orient to the nest direction , v - tests were conducted across all 15 deg sections of the goniometer to test whether foragers were oriented to directions other than the nest . all data are available upon request .
the onset of foraging activity occurred just before sunset , with most foragers heading out from the nest in the evening twilight ( fig . 3 ) . a small number of foragers left the nest after twilight ended . foragers began returning during the evening twilight , with some individuals carrying insect prey . foragers returned throughout the night , and a burst of incoming foragers arrived at the nest during the morning twilight and just after sunrise . activity was greatly reduced after this burst , and activity ceased completely after 1–2 h from sunrise .
ants released on the goniometer would initially remain motionless while within the tube . after emerging from the tube and onto the wooden goniometer board , ants typically scanned the environment along the horizontal axis and then headed off in a chosen direction . the nest - tree distance varied between nests ( fig . 1 ; nest 1 , 2 m ; nest 2 , 2 . 5 m ; nest 3 , 4 m ; nest 4 , 5 m ) , and we found no difference between nests in forager orientation to a home vector .
ants with home vectors ranging from 2 to 5 m when displaced to distant locations did not successfully orient in the direction indicated by their path integrator under any collection condition . foragers ' initial orientations met conditions of a uniform distribution and they were not significantly oriented in the direction of their home vector at 0 deg ( fig . 4 a–c , table 1 ) . foragers from all three conditions were not oriented in any direction on the goniometer , even when using v - tests ( p > 0 . 05 , orientation data binned at 15 deg ) . further observations of individuals with 5 m vectors after distant displacement indicate that they do not continue in this initial direction but loop back to the release point , a behaviour indicative of systematic search .
in contrast , ants that travelled long distances to their nest - specific tree ( nest 1 and 3 ) and were then displaced to the distant site within 15 min of capture were significantly orientated toward their home vector and away from the true nest location when analysed using a v - test . yet , forager orientations also met the conditions of a uniform distribution when analysed using a rayleigh ' s test , indicating random initial headings and no orientation . as results from nest 1 and nest 3 did not differ ( v - test , p < 0 . 05 ; rayleigh ' s test , p > 0 . 05 ) and had similar mean vectors ( watson and wheeler f - test , p > 0 . 05 ) , they were pooled ( table 1 , fig . 4 d ) . at the end of each experiment , foragers were returned to the nest vicinity , and all foragers immediately searched for and entered the nest .
for local on - and off - route displacement tests , full - vector ants were displaced either back at their foraging tree or off - route ( fig . 2 a ) . outbound forager orientations when displaced back on - route after 15 min were non - uniform and were directed towards the nest ( outbound 15 min delay on - route condition ; fig . 5 a , table 1 ) . the orientation of full - vector ants , displaced ( 5 m off - route ) to create a conflict between the vector and local landmark cues , was non - uniform . these ants were significantly oriented toward the nest ( fig . 5 b–d ) and not toward the home vector at 270 deg ( inbound off - route condition , v - test , v = 0 . 776 , p = 0 . 22 ; outbound 15 min delay off - route condition , v - test , v = 0 . 844 , p = 0 . 34 ; outbound overnight delay off - route condition , v - test , v = −0 . 771 , p = 0 . 779 ) . in all local displacement conditions , mean vector did not significantly differ between conditions ( watson and wheeler f - test , p > 0 . 05 ) .
the orientation of long - vector foragers , accumulating 14 m vectors to their nest - specific tree ( nest 1 ) , then displaced locally with a 90 deg cue conflict within 15 min of collection ( outbound long vector 15 min delay off - route condition ) was also significantly non - uniform and oriented toward the true nest direction and not the vector at 270 deg ( table 1 , fig . 5 e ) . different holding durations did not have an effect on the heading directions in all off - route conditions ( watson and wheeler f - test ; p > 0 . 05 ) .
the initial orientation of foragers displaced locally without access to familiar landmark cues within 15 min of collection met the conditions of a uniform distribution , and ants were not significantly oriented in the direction of their nest at 0 deg ( table 1 , fig . 5 f ) .
full - vector ants , when displaced 5 m either side of the nest ( fig . 2 b ) , did not orient significantly toward the nest direction . their initial orientation had a uniform distribution at both displacement sites ( nest - side condition , fig . 6 a ; tree - side condition , fig . 6 b ; table 1 ) . foragers from both conditions were not oriented in any direction or toward any other tree ( v - tests , p > 0 . 05 ) . at the end of the experiment , foragers were returned to the nest vicinity , and all foragers immediately searched for and entered the nest .
in the current study , we show that nocturnal ants with short home vectors of ≤5 m when displaced to distant unfamiliar locations did not orient toward the fictive nest . but ants with longer home vectors of 12 . 8–14 . 0 m weakly oriented toward the fictive nest , suggesting vector length influences cue strength . additionally , when foragers were displaced locally with conflicting vector and landmark cues , they oriented exclusively using landmark cues and ignored any potential home vector regardless of vector length . when the landmark panorama ( up to 50 deg elevation ) around the displacement site was obscured , foragers could no longer orient to the nest direction , suggesting terrestrial cues are critical to homeward orientation . finally , we found that the nest - tree forager subset did not orient to local landmark cues when displaced , and these animals appear to have reduced navigational knowledge compared with their nest mates that travel away from the nest to forage .
conceived and designed experiments : c . a . f . , a . n . , k . c . collected data : c . a . f . drafted and revised paper : c . a . f . , a . n . , k . c .
this research was supported by the australian research council through a discovery grant to k . c . and a . n . ( dp150101172 ) and a future fellowship to a . n . ( ft140100221 ) .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
r soc open sci . 2017 aug 30 ; 4 ( 8 ) : 170598 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rsos . 170598 . ecollection 2017 aug .
freas ca 1 , narendra a 1 , lemesle c 1 , cheng k 1 .
department of biological sciences , macquarie university , sydney , new south wales 2109 , australia .
pmid : 28879002 pmcid : pmc5579118 doi : 10 . 1098 / rsos . 170598
schematics of the polarization filter and experimental set - up . ( a ) diagram of the polarization filter . during the forager ' s outbound trip to the foraging tree , a polarization filter was placed over the forager with the polarization e - vector rotated ±45° of the ambient e - vector . this filter apparatus was used in a previous study [ ] . ( b ) diagram of measurements collected during polarization filter test . measurements were made using a compass application on a smartphone . initial orientation routes were measured from the nest entrance ( a ) to when the polarization filter was centred over the forager ( b ) . initial route directions ( a ° ) were calculated with the tree direction from the nest as 0° . the magnitude of angle a has been artificially enlarged in this diagram for clarity , with angle a averaging 4 . 42° across all conditions during testing . exit orientations were measured from the centre of the polarization filter ( b ) to the exit location of the ant on the filter ' s edge ( c ) . route directions under the filter ( b ° ) were calculated from the forager ' s initial route direction . reorientations were measured from the forager ' s exit location from the polarization filter ( c ) to the forager ' s path 50 cm after exiting the filter ( d ) . reorientation route directions ( c ° ) were calculated from the under - filter route direction .
r soc open sci . 2017 aug ; 4 ( 8 ) : 170598 .
i am interested in how animals navigate in their natural habitats , the information content in the environment they use , the sensory structures they have and the central processing units that allow them to memorise , integrate and recall information .
my research has largely focused on ants to take advantage of the inter - and intra - specific variation in size , in locomotion , in tasks and also in the different ecological and temporal niches they occupy .
i have a keen interest in photography and love to experiment with macro - photography when time permits . some of my pictures are here .
phd in biological sciences ; 1 book ; 47 publications ; 3 australian research council fellowships ; 10 research grants .
2016 . macquarie research and development grant ( with lead ci frances kamhi ) , macquarie university , australia . ( $ 50k )
palavalli - nettimi r and narendra a . 2018 . does size affect orientation usage celestial cues . insects sociaux . [ in press ]
palavalli - nettimi r and narendra a . 2018 . miniaturisation decreases visual navigational competence in ants . journal of experimental biology . doi : 10 . 1242 / jeb . 177238
ramirez - esquivel f , ribi wa and narendra a . 2017 . techniques to investigate the anatomy of the ant visual system . journal of visualized experiments 129 : e56339 . [ pdf ]
narendra a , kamhi jf & ogawa y . 2017 . moving in dim light : behavioural and visual adaptations in nocturnal ants . integrative and comparative biology 57 : 1104–1116 [ pdf ]
ramirez - esquivel f , leitner ne , zeil j & narendra a . 2017 . the sensory arrays of the ant , temnothorax rugatulus . arthropod structure and development 46 : 552 - 563 [ pdf ]
narendra a & ramirez - esquivel f . 2017 . subtle changes in the landmark panorama disrupts visual navigation in a nocturnal bull ant . philosophical transactions of the royal society b 372 : 20160068 . [ pdf ]
freas ca , narendra a & cheng k . 2017 . compass cues used by a nocturnal bull ant ,
card a , mcdermott c & narendra a . 2016 . multiple orientation cues in the trunk trail forming ant , iridomyrmex purpureus . australian journal of zoology 64 : 227 - 232 .
narendra a , ramirez - esquivel f & ribi wa . 2016 . compound eye and ocellar structure for walking and flying modes of locomotion in the australian ant , camponotus consobrinus . scientific reports 6 : 22331
schultheiss p , raderschall ca , narendra a . 2015 follower ants in a tandem pair are not always naïve . scientific reports 5 : 10747
ogawa y , falkowski m , narendra a , zeil j , hemmi jm . 2015 . three spectrally distinct photoreceptors in diurnal and nocturnal australian ants . proceedings of the royal society b 282 : 20150673
stürzl w , grixa i , mair e , narendra a & zeil j . 2015 . three - dimensional models of natural environments and the mapping of navigational information .
zeil j , ribi wa & narendra a . 2014 . polarization vision in ants , bees and wasps . in polarized light and polarization vision in animal sciences ( ed . horváth g ) . springer series in vision research ( eds . collin s & marshall j ) . details here .
cheung a , collett m , collett ts , dewar a , dyer f , graham p , mangan m , narendra a , philippides a , stürzl w , webb b , wystrach a & zeil j . 2014 . still no convincing evidence for cognitive map use by honeybees . proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa 111 : 4396–4397
zeil j , narendra a & stürzl w . 2014 . looking and homing : how displaced ants decide where to go . philosophical transactions of the royal society b 369 : 20130034


the rufous-tailed hummingbird ( amazilia tzacatl ) is a medium-sized hummingbird that breeds from east-central mexico , through central america and colombia , east to western venezuela and south through western ecuador to near the border with peru .

the larger escudo hummingbird from isla escudo de veraguas in panama is commonly considered a subspecies of the rufous-tailed hummingbird .

this is a common to abundant bird of open country , river banks , woodland , scrub , forest edge , coffee plantations and gardens up to 1,850 m ( 6,070 ft ) .

rufous - tailed hummingbird

is identical to the rufous - tailed hummingbird , except for its larger size . since the
colorful rufous - tailed - hummingbird - i love the colors of this one . | humming birds | pinterest | hummingbird , colorful birds and bird
the specific plants that rufous - tailed hummingbirds obtain nectar from would not be able to survive without the birds to pollinate them . some examples of plants pollinated by rufous - tailed hummingbirds include :
jackson , j . , w . bock , m . hutchins , d . olendorf . 2002 . rufous - tailed hummingbird . pp . 465 in
rufous - tailed hummingbirds ( along with many other hummingbird species ) have such high metabolic rates that they often go into torpor during the night to conserve energy .
rufous - tailed hummingbirds may nest in loose colonies . they have been observed stealing nest materials from their neighbors .
the hummingbirds do differ from race to race . the handleyi race is larger and heavier than the average rufous - tailed hummingbird . it is also a slightly darker bronze - green . the fuscicaudata race is smaller than an average rufous - tailed hummingbird . the jucunda race has a longer bill in relation to its size with narrow margins in the outer rectrices .
only occurs on the caribbean island
escudo de veraguas
in panama , confusion with the mainland rufous - tailed is unlikely .
the rufous - tailed hummingbird ( amazilia tzacatl ) - also known as rieffer ' s hummingbird - is a common central and south american hummingbird that can be found in the open country , along river banks and the forest edge , in woodland and scrub , as well as plantations and gardens up to 1850 m ( 6000 ft ) .
id 90 % . the hummingbird was perched facing away from me in dark , dense vegetation , so i never got a good look at it . the size of the bird , its bill , and back colors ( in poor light ) looked like either a snowy - bellied hummingbird or rufous - tailed hummingbird . song had none of the nasal quality of snowy - bellied , and is ( to me ) identical to the rufous - tailed in xc47068 . recording was normalized to - 6 db .
rufous - tailed hummingbirds may form very loose nesting colonies . they are generally more sedentary in humid regions and are diurnal or crepuscular , depending on the region .
although there is little research on the lifespans of hummingbirds , researchers estimate an average hummingbird lives 3 to 5 years . the longest recorded living female was a broad - tailed hummingbird , found in colorado at age 12 . in captivity , they can survive about 10 years .
rufous - tailed hummingbirds feed on nectar and arthropods . hummingbirds extract nectar from plants with their hollow , extensile tongues that are forked at the tip . they feed on a wide variety of plants including
immature rufous - tailed hummingbirds are darker and grayish towards the belly . the feather - edgings on the face and crown often have a bronzy edge . the upper mandible of younger individuals is often black .
males and female the rufous - tailed hummingbirds differ slightly in physical appearance . the males are larger , weighing 5 . 5 g . male rufous - tailed hummingbirds also have longer bodies . the maximum length of a male rufous - tailed hummingbird is about 11 cm . they have a straight bill , which is medium sized , fleshy red with a dark tip , and an upper mandible that is blackish . the upper parts of the male ' s body , the flanks and belly , are golden green to bronze - green . the throat is a glittering golden green and sometimes has a turquoise gleam in certain light . the belly is ashy gray to grayish - brown . the tail has traces of bronze - green and copper .
rufous - tailed hummingbirds are polygynous . hummingbirds only have contact with the opposite sex for a few moments during fertilization . males are very territorial and often claim an area of flowers as their own during mating season .
females usually lay two eggs per clutch . incubation lasts 15 to 16 days . young leave the nest when they are between 18 and 22 days old . young rufous - tailed hummingbirds are fed by the female for 58 days .
rufous - tailed hummingbirds live primarily in central - east , possibly northeast mexico to central panama . the northernmost populations most likely migrate to the pacific and caribbean coast of mexico for the winter months ( guerrero and yucatan ) . the migratory patterns of rufous - tailed hummingbirds in other parts of central america are unknown . however , seasonal movements occur from colombia through ecuador . also , several individuals of this species have been recorded in southern texas in the summer and autumn .
other synonyms catalan : colibrí amazília tzacatl czech : kolibrík rezavoocasý , kolibřík rezavoocasý danish : brunhalet amazilie german : braunschwanzamazilie , braunschwanz - amazilie english : dusky - tailed hummingbird , reiffer ' s hummingbird , rieffer ' s hummingbird , rufous tailed hummingbird , rufous - tailed hummingbird , rufous - tailed or escudo hummingbird spanish : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia colirrufa , amazilia de cara rufa , amazilia rabirrufa , amazilia rubirrufa , amazilia tzacatl , colibrí cola canela , colibrí cola rojiza , colibrí colirufa spanish ( colombia ) : amazilia colirrufa , amazilia colirufo spanish ( costa rica ) : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( spain ) : amazilia tzacatl spanish ( honduras ) : amazilia rubirrufa , colibrí colirufa spanish ( mexico ) : colibrí cola canela , colibrí cola rojiza spanish ( nicaragua ) : amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( panama ) : amazilia colirrufa spanish ( peru ) : colibri de cola rufa spanish ( venezuela ) : amazilia colirufa , diamante colirrufo finnish : ruostepyrstökolibri french : ariane à ventre gris , ariane à ventre gris ou a . de handley , ariane de rieffer , colibri à ventre gris hungarian : rozsdásfarkú amazília italian : amazilia codarossiccia , colibrì codarossiccia japanese : haibaraemerarudohachidori japanese : ハイバラエメラルドハチドリ latin : amazilia [ tzacatl or handleyi ] , amazilia fuscicaudata , amazilia tzacati , amazilia tzacatl , amazilia tzacatl tzacatl , amazilis fuscicaudata , amazilis tzacatl , trochilus tzacatl lithuanian : rusvauodegė amazilija dutch : roodstaartamazilia , roodstaartkolibrie norwegian : rusthalekolibri polish : szmaragdzik brazowosterny , szmaragdzik brązowosterny russian : гобакская амазилия , коричневохвоетая амазилия , рыжехвостый колибри - амазилия slovak : kolibrík hrdzavochvostý swedish : roststjärtad kolibri , roststjärtad smaragd , roststjärtsmaragd chinese : 棕尾蜂鸟 chinese ( traditional ) : 棕尾蜂鳥
rufous - tailed hummingbirds are common or very common in most of their range . the birds have been able to adapt to man - made habitats and are therefore found around agricultural , suburban and urban areas . they are listed as appendix ii by cites .
formerly considered a separate species , the larger escudo hummingbird from isla escudo de veraguas in panama is now mostly treated as its subspecies .
nesting is fairly specialized for rufous - tailed hummingbirds . their favorite sites to build nests are on horizontal branches in smaller trees and shrubs . the nests are usually 2 to 5 meters off the ground . sometimes the nests are built in the fork of a branch .
is a medium - sized hummingbird . it has a distinctly rufous - colored tail , from which its named is derived , and a bright pink bill . like other hummingbirds , it feeds on nectar and small insects . it can be highly territorial over feeding areas . the
is perhaps the most common species of hummingbird at forest edge and in gardens and cultivated areas from southern mexico south to northwestern south america .
the hummingbird society . date unknown .
frequently asked questions
( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
the male ' s throat is green , in the female ' s is edged whitish . the crown , back and flanks are green tinged golden . the abdomen is pale greyish . the vent and rump are rufous . the slightly forked tail is also rufous but with a dusky tip .
female rufous - tailed hummingbirds are smaller than the males and have slightly different coloration . females have a mass of around 5 . 2 g and their body length is usually about 8 cm . there is a grayish sub - terminal bar on the throat feathers and they have a white belly .
weller , a . a . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . rufous - tailed hummingbird ( amazilia tzacatl ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
annenberg / cpb . 2001 .
hummingbird
( on - line ) . fun facts about hummingbirds . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
there has been co - evolution between hummingbirds and the flowers they feed upon . hummingbird flowers have very distinct characteristics that serve to attract hummingbirds . they also have other characteristics to insure that pollination occurs . many flowers are specially adapted to allow pollen to be deposited on hummingbirds in such a way that the pollen will reach another flower . this is a critical step in the process of plant reproduction . hummingbird beaks are also specially adapted to feed from hummingbird flowers .
gates , l . , t . gates . 2003 .
hummingbird behavior
( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
hummingbirds are important to humans because of their role in pollination . rufous - tailed hummingbirds often pollinate important crops such as banana and coffee . also , since these birds eat insects , they can play a very active role in pest control . they are also important in ecotourism and are popular amoung birdwatchers .
this medium - sized hummingbird averages 10 - 12 cm ( or 4 - 4 , 8 inches ) in length and weighs about 5 . 2 g ( or 0 , 2 oz ) .
sometimes done in a sputtering series . the notes sung include one or more shrill notes that rise and accelerate . the male hummingbird ' s song is whistled in a deliberate rhythm . for example :
other synonyms catalan : colibrí amazília tzacatl czech : kolibřík rezavoocasý danish : brunhalet amazilie german : braunschwanzamazilie english : rufous - tailed hummingbird , rufous - tailed hummingbird ( rufous - tailed ) spanish : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia colirrufa , amazilia de cara rufa , amazilia rabirrufa , amazilia rubirrufa , amazilia tzacatl , colibrí cola canela ( grupo tzacatl ) , colibrí cola rojiza , colibri colirrufo , colibrí colirufa spanish ( colombia ) : amazilia colirrufa spanish ( costa rica ) : amazila rabirrufa , amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( spain ) : amazilia tzacatl [ tzacatl group ] spanish ( honduras ) : amazilia rubirrufa , colibrí colirufa spanish ( mexico ) : colibrí cola canela ( grupo tzacatl ) , colibrí cola rojiza , colibri colirrufo spanish ( nicaragua ) : amazilia rabirrufa spanish ( panama ) : amazilia colirrufa ( grupo tzacatl ) spanish ( peru ) : colibri de cola rufa spanish ( venezuela ) : amazilia colirufa finnish : ruostepyrstökolibri french : ariane à ventre gris , ariane à ventre gris ( nominal ) , ariane à ventre gris [ tzacatl ] hungarian : rozsdásfarkú amazília italian : amazilia codarossiccia , colibrì codarossiccia japanese : haibaraemerarudohachidori , haibaraemerarudohachidori ( tzacatl guru - pu ) japanese : ハイバラエメラルドハチドリ , ハイバラエメラルドハチドリ ( tzacatl グループ ) latin : amazilia tzacatl , amazilia tzacatl [ tzacatl group ] , amazilia tzacatl tzacatl , trochilus tzacatl lithuanian : rusvauodegė amazilija dutch : roodstaartamazilia , roodstaartamazilia ( tzacatl groep ) , roodstaartkolibrie norwegian : rusthalekolibri , rusthalekolibri ( tzacatl gr . ) polish : szmaragdzik brazowosterny , szmaragdzik brązowosterny russian : гобакская амазилия , коричневохвоетая амазилия , рыжехвостый колибри - амазилия slovak : kolibrík hrdzavochvostý swedish : roststjärtad kolibri , roststjärtad smaragd [ tzacatl group ] chinese : 棕尾蜂鸟 chinese ( traditional ) : 棕尾蜂鳥
the rufous - tailed hummingbirds primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , herbs , shrubs and epiphytes , favoring heliconias and bananas . they use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .
hummingbirds have one of the highest basal metabolic rates of any birds due to their very small size , their type of flight , and the amount energy needed to sustain their flight . the average hummingbird metabolic rate is 1600kcal / kg / day .
rufous - tailed hummingbirds are found primarily on the edges of humid evergreen forest , banana or coffee plantations , human habitations , and clearings . these birds are not usually found inside the dense forest but often in second growth and semi - open areas . these thicket - rich regions are found in south america and are in gallery forest and montane zones . the elevation at which these birds occur vares from region to region . their altitudinal distribution is correlated with the flowering periods of food plants . in costa rica and panama through the subtropical belt , rufous - tailed hummingbirds are found in lower montane zones , from sea - level up to 1200 m . in colombia and the islands of panama their habitat consists of primary forest as well as bushy coastal habitats , even beaches . in the andes , the hummingbirds can be found up to 2500 m , occasionally even higher . some races in southwest colombia range from the lowlands into the subtropical zone with wet , open forest up to 2500 m .
the main cause of mortality for hummingbirds is predation of eggs and chicks in the nest . predation on adult hummingbirds is uncommon . this is due to the agility hummingbirds possess in flight . some known predators of hummingbird eggs , chicks and adults include : domestic cats (
has a generally green body ; the green of the throat and breast of the male is more glittering . it also has a bright pink red bill ( with a black tip ) and a bright rufous tail . it is one of several similar in appearance to several other species of
as is the case with other hummingbird species , the chicks are brooded only the first week or two , and left alone even on cooler nights after about 12 days - probably due to the small nest size . the chicks leave the nest when they are about 20 - 26 days old .
incubation lasts 15 to 16 days and is only done by the female . young leave the nest when they are between 18 and 22 days old . once hummingbirds fledge , they wait for their parents in a distinct spot that is usually not far from the nest . they do not follow their parents around as they forage , but rather wait to recieve food . once the female fills her crop with nectar , small insects and spiders she returns to feed her young . the young rufous - tailed hummingbirds are fed this way for 58 days . males do not provide any parental care .
they may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .
pacha quindi ( quechua for “land of hummingbirds” ) is one of the most spectacular places i have ever visited and when i say it has changed my life i´m not exaggerating . pacha quindi is set deep in a beautiful cloud forest and holds the record in number of hummingbird species recorded . it is also a home to many other fascinating birds . . .
pacha quindi reserve is a treat to any nature enthusiast . for the truly rugged hiker here is over 20km of well maintained cloud forest trails with beautiful vistas . just as special is the easily reachable hummingbird garden what doesn ' t just have feeders , but is stocked with flowering trees and shrubs which attract birds which normally don ' t use feeders . there is . . .
hummingbirds have a unique form of flight that is somewhat insect like . the speed of a hummingbird ' s flight depends on the size of the bird . the average number of wing flaps is around 53 per second in normal flight . they are able to fly in all directions including forward , side to side , and even backwards . they are able to accomplish this through their highly modified and muscular bodies . also they are able to control the angle between their body axis and the axis of wing rotation . they also have a very unique ability to hover .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened . it is endemic to isla escudo de veraguas in the caribbean , off the coast of bocas del toro , panama ( s . olson per g . graves in litt . 1996 ) . it was glimpsed occasionally in march 1958 , and five specimens were collected during five days in march 1962 ( s . olson per g . graves in litt . 1996 ) .
partners in flight estimate the total population to number 0 . 5 - 4 . 99 million individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) . the subspecies handleyi was formerly treated as specifically distinct and threatened , however more recent surveys have found the species to be abundant , albeit within an extremely small range ( s . olson per g . graves in litt . 1996 ) .
the subspecies handleyi has been observed feeding on the flowers of low bushes in coastal areas ( wetmore 1968 ) .
the small size of isla escudo de veraguas makes the subspecies handleyi inherently susceptible to extinction . there are many potential threats , including hurricanes , fire , establishment of non - native species and development for tourism .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .
( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; jackson , et al . , 2002 )
the average wingspan for all hummingbirds is somewhere between 2 and 2 . 4 cm . the males often have larger wingspans than females .
( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; ridgway , 1892 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 )
range wingspan 2 to 2 . 4 cm 0 . 79 to 0 . 94 in
breeding occurs at different times of the year throughout their range . in the northern parts of central america , nesting can occur from december through september . in mexico , breeding season is from march through august . in costa rica , breeding is guided by the dry season and peaks in january through may . along the pacific slope , breeding occurs from may through november . along the caribbean slope breeding occurs in october through january . breeding in south america and panama occurs in january through april .
materials used for nest construction include plant down , yellowish - brown to grayish - brown fibers , cobwebs and pieces of dead leaves . the exterior of their nest is decorated heavily with bits of lichen and sometimes moss . these materials are usually formed into a compact cup nest . if a nest is destroyed or lost , construction of a new nest may start within a week .
( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 )
these birds can be highly aggressive and territorial at rich clumps of flowers . intruders such as larger hummingbirds , butterflies , and euglossine bees are sometimes attacked with a diving flight .
( jackson , et al . , 2002 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 )
we do not have information on home range for this species at this time .
, followed by a pause . males sing most during the early morning from dawn to sunrise . they sing on scattered perches near flowers or in small loosly assembled groups near flowers .
the male hummingbirds use song to claim their territories . if another male attempts to enter , usually a loud chatter will be sung by the territory owner . intruders such as larger hummingbirds , butterflies , and euglossine bees are sometimes attacked with a diving flight .
. they also feed on a number cultivated tree species , especially banana and coffee trees . they feed on small insects and spiders by taking them from leaves and branches , a method called gleaning . they are very territorial when feeding , and intruders are attacked with diving flights .
due to their high metabolic rates , hummingbirds require a large amount of food in order to survive . they may need to eat several times their body weight in nectar in one day .
( del hoyo , et al . , 1999 ; grant and grant , 1968 )
holly borchardt ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
found in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude , in areas with a mediterranean climate . vegetation is dominated by stands of dense , spiny shrubs with tough ( hard or waxy ) evergreen leaves . may be maintained by periodic fire . in south america it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo .
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals . ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
rainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
living in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .
hummingbirds . net . date unknown .
about hummingbirds
( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
birds - n - gardens . com . 2002 .
all about hummingbirds
( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
baker , c . 2003 .
costa rica , birds
( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
, vol . 8 - 11 , 2nd edition . farmington hills , mi : gale group .
ritchison , g . 2003 .
avian energy balance & thermoregulation
( on - line ) . accessed april 05 , 2004 at urltoken .
del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , j . sargatal . 1999 .
to cite this page : borchardt , h . 2004 .
amazilia tzacatl
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
closely related to a . castaneiventris , but not , as claimed , to a . yucatanensis and a . rutila . race handleyi has been treated as a distinct species on basis of being “considerably larger and heavier” and “slightly darker bronze - green above” ( hbw ) , but considered disqualified by zone of morphometric intergradation with nominate in bocas del toro archipelago ; genetic evidence also unfavourable to species status # r , and material in usnm shows no colour difference in plumage ; however , difference in size exceptional ( effect size for wing length 11 . 1 , score 4 ) , while narrow zone of intergradation scores 2 , so species status almost achieved . validity of race fuscicaudata has been questioned , but supported by morphometric characters . form a . bangsi is a hybrid of present species and a . rutila . five subspecies recognized .
– e mexico ( s veracruz , n oaxaca ) s to wc panama ( w darién ) .
( fraser , 1840 ) – n & w colombia ( cauca and magdalena valleys ) and w venezuela ( w lara , w táchira ) .
( heine , 1863 ) – lowlands and w slope in w colombia ( chocó ) and w ecuador ( s to w loja ) .
weller & schuchmann , 1999 – andes of sw colombia ( upper r guiza , in nariño ) .
( unsexed ) 7 g . male has bill straight , medium - sized , fleshy red with dark tip , . . .
song quite variable , typically a phrase of 2–4 thin high - pitched notes that is repeated , e . g . “tsee . . .
edges of humid evergreen forest , clearings , plantations of bananas or coffee , human habitations ; . . .
nectar and arthropods . found in all strata from near the ground to the more open sides of tree crowns ; frequently gathers in some numbers . . .
almost year - round . in n middle america , nesting records dec–sept ; in mexico , mainly mar–aug , correlated with moulting period . . .
in humid regions generally more sedentary than in arid areas ; more or less all year round . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . common to very common in most of range , e . g . canal zone of panama . less abundant in regions with tropical dry forest , dense . . .
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as currently constituted , this genus is not monophyletic # r ; more thorough sampling of taxa required before a clearer picture can be presented . in hbw , species currently placed herein were spread out over six genera , with additional recognition of agyrtria , polyerata and saucerottia , and relocation of some species in leucippus and hylocharis .
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calls given while perched in secondary woodland , near a dense patch of psychotria flowers .
multiple amazilia tzacatl at feeders , chasing other hummingbirds including at least one heliodoxa jacula and a male discosura conversii .
recording clipped from a longer dawn song session and edited using audacity . longer unedited . wav file available upon request .
humid secondary shrubbery in transition to dry valley . reference : lxxixa 591 - 600 ( amatza1 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
its range stretches from east - central mexico , through central america and colombia , east to western venezuela and south through western ecuador to near the border with peru .
the bill is almost straight , colored red with a black tip . the upper bill may appear all black .
many native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .
they also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .
males establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .
the female is responsible for building the cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location , typically about 1 - 6 m high in a tree , shrub or bush . she lines the nest with soft plant fibers and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing . the nest is typically found on a low , thin horizontal branch .
the average clutch consists of two white eggs , which she incubates alone for about 15 to 19 days , while the male defends his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the young are born blind , immobile and without any down .
the female alone protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly partially - digested insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . the female pushes the food down the chicks ' throats with her long bill directly into their stomachs .
its call sounds like a low chut . the male ' s is a whistled tse we ts’ we or tse tse wip tseek tse .
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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : amazilia tzacatl . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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is slightly forked ( not square - tipped ) , and the upper surface of the central rectrices is mostly green is mostly green . the undertail coverts are the same color as the belly . also , the color of the belly in the southern ( yucatan ) subspecies of
) is cinnamon buff ; this subspecies occurs in the yucatan peninsula and and in guatemala and belize .
, which is known from only a few sites in the magdalena valley in colombia . the
adult male : upperparts ( including the wing coverts ) green , except for chestnut - brown lores , uppertail coverts , and rectrices . remiges black with a slight purple sheen . throat , upper breast and sides green ; on some individuals , feathers of the throat and foreneck have narrow dull white edges , producing a scalloped effect . lower breast gray , belly and tibia white , undertail coverts chestnut - brown .
adult female : similar to male , but lower breast paler gray . throat and foreneck have a scalloped appearance ( more pronounced than in males ) , due to narrow dull white feather edges .
juvenile :
lower breast and sides washed somewhat with cinnamon ;
also the feathers of the lower back and rump are narrowly tipped with chestnut - brown .
the preformative molt is complete , as is the definitive prebasic molt . molt occurs year - round in costa rica , but peaks from april - november .
juvenile and hatching year ( hy ) / second year ( sy ) females have a black maxilla ; feathers of the upperparts are tipped with cinnamon ; the throat feathers are edged whitish creating a scaled appearance ; and the belly and vent are washed with buff - yellow . after hatching year ( ahy ) females are similar except that the upperparts lack the cinnamon feather tips .
hy / sy males has a black maxilla , which gradual turns red on the basal 75 % .
bill : distal half of the maxilla , tomia , and tip of mandible dull black . rest of bill red , brighter at base .
total length : 9 cm ( ridgely and greenfield 2001 ) , 9 . 1 cm ( hilty and
wing length , males : mean 58 . 8 mm ( range 56 . 3 - 60 . 9 mm , n = 10 )
wing length , females : mean 55 . 8 mm ( range 53 . 8 - 60 . 1 mm , n = 10 )
tail length , males : mean 33 . 2 mm ( range 31 . 1 - 34 . 8 mm , n = 10 )
tail length , females : mean 32 . 5 mm ( range 31 . 0 - 34 . 6 mm , n = 10 )
culmen ( from base ) , males : mean 22 . 7 mm ( range 21 . 1 - 24 . 9 mm , n = 10 )
culmen ( from base ) , females : mean 23 . 6 mm ( range 23 . - 24 . 8 mm , n = 10 )
wing length , males : mean 68 . 1 mm ( range 67 . 5 - 68 . 7 mm , n = 4 )
tail length , males : mean 40 . 6 mm ( range 40 . 0 - 41 . 5 mm , n = 4 )
culmen ( from base ) , males : mean 24 . 5 mm ( range 24 . 4 - 27 . 6 mm , n = 4 )
culmen ( from base ) , females : 25 . 8 mm ( n = 1 )
= 12 ; hartman 1954 ) ; female , mean , 4 . 72 g ( s . d . ±0 . 10 ,
= 10 ; hartman 1954 ) ; mean 5 g . s . d . ±0 . 3 ,
summary of the extent of the breeding , wintering , migration and year - round range of this species in the western hemisphere , including canada , u . s . a . and mexico :
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costa rica jade tours is a local tour company in beautiful manuel . . .
costa rica jade tours is a local tour company in beautiful manuel antonio . we offer the best activities and tours to help make all your vacation dreams come true . contact us so we can help you discover the most exciting adventures and exotic treasures from this spectacular land . you may never want to leave !
jason came to pick us up for our birding tour and it was pouring . he said this meant the birds will be seeking shelter and not be out for us to see . we decided to drive to rain maker with him anyways in hopes that the rain would stop . it just kept on raining though . so he said we would . . .
this bbc wildlife magazine and national geographic published destination offers a 2 hour guided tour by the owners . $ 40 per person . tour start times : 8am , 10am , 1pm , 3pm . reservation required . free coffee .
my photography group spent a day at the nature pavilion , photographing dozens of tropical bird and animal species . this is a special place ! the owner does a marvelous job of attracting wildlife to the viewing areas . if you visit costa rica , and are at all interested in viewing and / or photographing dozens of different birds , including hummingbirds , you must include the . . .
greetings from paradise ! thanks for taking the time to write up this review and rank the nature pavilion as a top destination not to be missed ! it was a pleasure meeting you and the entire group as we photographed the beautiful birds from the covered viewing areas . thanks again for your support ! dave & dave
see all 386 reviews of dave & dave ' s costa rica nature . . .
, banana , and coffee flowers ( greenberg et al . 1997 ) . since nectar is low in protein , they also feed on small insects ( remsen et al . 1986 ) . this species is also a common visitor to human - made feeders filled with a sugar - water mixture .
) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
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the cracidae are a neotropical family of 50 species of galliform birds , many of which are threatened . through a literature review , we evaluated current knowledge of cracid food habits and established general dietary patterns . diet has been relatively well documented for 17 species , anecdotal information is available for 19 species , and no information is available for 14 species . fruit is the . . . [ show full abstract ]
aunque las especies exóticas pueden tener efectos negativos sobre los organismos nativos , en algunos casos pueden proveer recursos abundantes . el uso de estos recursos puede tener importantes implicaciones para los patrones de uso de hábitat , movimientos y dinámica poblacional de los animales nativos . en este trabajo describimos la dieta de una población de penelope perspicax , una especie . . . [ show full abstract ]
abundance and endemism in the cauca guan ( penelope perspicax ) : ecology or his - tory ? - in general , species with restricted distributions tolerate a narrow range of conditions and tend to have low densities . the cauca guan ( penelope perspicax ) is a cracid endemic from colombia . between octo - ber 2002 and september 2003 we conducted monthly surveys in the santuario de fauna y flora otún quimbaya . . . [ show full abstract ]
field estimates of incubation periods of brood parasitic cowbirds ( molothrus spp . ) indicate that they are unusually short given the sizes of their eggs . as a consequence , cowbirds usually hatch before host young , even though cowbird eggs are frequently larger . field - estimated incubation periods , however , have an inherent uncertainty because of intermittent attendance by incubating birds , and . . . [ show full abstract ]
in general , species with restricted distributions tolerate a narrow range of conditions and tend to have low densities . the cauca guan ( penelope perspicax ) is a cracid endemic from colombia . between october 2002 and september 2003 we conducted monthly surveys in the santuario de fauna y flora otún quimbaya ( sffoq ) . here we present the habitat use by the cauca guan , its density in the central . . . [ show full abstract ]