commonly known as cuckoo wasps or emerald wasps , the hymenopteran family chrysididae is a very large cosmopolitan group ( over 3000 described species ) of parasitoid or kleptoparasitic wasps , often highly sculptured , with brilliant metallic colors created by structural coloration .

they are most diverse in desert regions of the world , as they are typically associated with solitary bee and wasp species , which are also most diverse in such areas .

cuckoo wasp

the cuckoo wasps are classified in the family chrysididae , order hymenoptera . the pacific cuckoo wasp is chrysis pacifica ; the large blue cuckoo wasp is chrysis coerulans .
detailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the cuckoo wasp .
by inserting her ovipositor into the pot of a potter wasp and laying an egg , the cuckoo wasp finds food and shelter for her young .
cuckoo wasps are common in brisbane suburban . they are usually seen flying slowly looking for wasp nest .
strohm e , laurien - kehnen c , bordon s . escape from parasitism : spatial and temporal strategies of a sphecid wasp against a specialised cuckoo wasp .
a cuckoo wasp ( primeuchroeus species ) . note the apparently 3 - segmented abdomen . image copyright wa museum
the scientists combined data from the transcriptome - - showing which genes are active and being transcribed from dna into rna - - and genomic ( dna ) data from a number of species of ants , bees and wasps , including bradynobaenid wasps , a cuckoo wasp , a spider wasp , a scoliid wasp , a mud dauber wasp , a tiphiid wasp , a paper wasp and a pollen wasp ; a velvet ant ( wasp ) ; a dracula ant ; and a sweat bee , lasioglossum albipes .
the name
cuckoo wasp
refers to the fact that these wasps lay eggs in the nests of unsuspecting hosts .
the small cuckoo wasp is commonly found on large gum tree trunks , especially those holes on tree trunk . please check this
the cuckoo wasp’s larvae consume the provisions procured by the solitary wasps for their own young . the name cuckoo wasp derives from this form of larceny . other species of cuckoo wasps directly attack and kill the young of other insects . some sneak down the galleries of ground nesting bees like plasterer bees ( link to march 27 , 2006 ) we met a few weeks ago . once inside , the female wasp lays an egg on the bee’s baby and the cuckoo wasp larva devours the unfortunate victim . one wonders why hard - working solitary bees and wasps tolerate this nonsense from cuckoo wasps . it turns out that at least one species of cuckoo wasp produces an odor that closely resembles the smell of its host . this chemical cloak probably helps the cuckoo wasp sneak into the nest of its victim undetected to perform its nefarious deeds .
) while the nest host collect food for larvae . cuckoo wasp larvae hatch and feed on the food or the host larvae .
the pacific cuckoo wasp parasitizes mason bees . the parasite ' s larva feeds on the bee ' s larva after the bee has spun its cocoon . the large blue cuckoo wasp , a cleptoparasite , lays its eggs in the nests of solitary wasps in the hornet family . the cuckoo wasp larva kills the host larva and eats the caterpillars that have been captured by the host for food .
design by oleg ko
cuckoo wasp ,
microsoft¨ encarta¨ online encyclopedia 2009 urltoken © 1997 - 2009 microsoft corporation . all rights reserved .
there are many cuckoo wasp species and they look very similar . usually they are metallic blue or green in colour and are coarsely sculptured . most species are external parasites of other wasp larvae . females lay eggs in nest of other wasps (
cuckoo wasps family : chrysidiae commonly called cuckoo wasps , the wasps in the family chrysidiae are often beautiful and metallic blue , green or red . some species are thieving parasites ( cleptoparasites ) who lay their eggs in the nests of solitary bee species . the cuckoo wasp larva kills the solitary bee larva and then feeds on the stored provisions within the bee nest . like hive wasps , spider wasps , sphecid wasps , and bees , female cuckoo wasps have modified egg - laying devices which allow them to sting . common cuckoo wasp species are about 1 / 2
long .
a cuckoo in wolves ' clothing ? chemical mimicry in a specialized cuckoo wasp of the european beewolf ( hymenoptera , chrysididae and crabronidae ) by dr . strohm and colleagues and microsoft® encarta® online encyclopedia 2007 were used as resources for this bug of the week . to learn more about cuckoo wasps , please visit the following web sites .
jewel wasp stalked by zebra spider on red mason bee nest box ! . mov
females showed fairly large proportions of both . furthermore , cuckoo wasps had similar proportions of the (
the cuckoo wasps are so called because some species lay eggs in the nests of other solitary wasps and bees in a manner analogous to some cuckoos ( bird order cuculiformes ) , which lay eggs in the nests of other birds . the cuckoo wasp female places her egg in the unfinished and untended nest of another wasp or bee . the nest is later sealed by the owner after she has placed her own egg there along with food for her future larva . the cuckoo wasp larva either eats the other larva or starves it to death by devouring all the food .
in both oviposition strategies , detection of the cuckoo wasp female by the beewolf female might decrease the cuckoo wasp ' s success . first , when encountered in the nest , cuckoo wasps might be carried to the nest entrance by beewolf females and thrown out [ 27 ] . mostly , cuckoo wasps are not severely harmed due to the solidity and strong sculpturing of their cuticle and their ability to adopt a rolled - up defensive posture that protects the most vulnerable parts of the body ( legs , mouthparts , antennae [ 22 , 28 ] ) . nevertheless , the wings are rather unprotected and might be injured by a beewolf female . second , if beewolves females detect signs of the presence of cuckoo wasps they might remove bees from the nest that have possibly been parasitized [ 25 ] . thus , a cuckoo wasp should avoid detection to minimize wastage of time and investment . this means that cuckoo wasp females should avoid detection when they are encountered by a host female in the nest . however , it would probably be even more important for the cuckoo wasps not to leave any detectable traces of their presence when they had entered the nest and oviposited on a paralyzed honeybee .
cuckoo wasps get their name thanks to their parenting strategy . similar to the cuckoo bird , cuckoo wasps lay their eggs in the nests of other bees . when a cuckoo wasp larva hatches , it eats the other bee larvae and then consumes the stores of food left in the nest . because of this behavior , the cuckoo wasp is a parasite to a variety of other bee and wasp species . even the eggs of walkingsticks are not off limits . the adult cuckoo wasp may be an emerald , gold , or garnet color , and has black eyes , wings , and legs . it is tiny compared to other bees , but its dimpled , shimmering body is bright enough to attract attention . adults drink flower nectar and have very small stingers . they tend to curl up when threatened if they are unable to escape . they are active during the summer and can be found in a wide variety of habitats and natural areas , but are often seen visiting flowers .
these social wasp species earn themselves the alternate name of a ‘cuckoo wasp’ , due to their reproductive habits : the females sneak inside the nests of other hymenopteran insects such as mason bees , where an egg is laid from which larvae emerge and proceed to devour the contents of the nest .
cuckoo wasp , common name for a group of mostly small , stinging wasps . cuckoo wasps are brilliant metallic blue , green , or reddish in color . they are parasites that lay their eggs in the nests of bees , wasps , and certain other insects , which are called their hosts . there are approximately 3000 species of cuckoo wasps throughout the world , including about 230 species in the united states and canada . cuckoo wasps are also called gold wasps , ruby wasps , and jewel wasps .
we conclude that h . rutilans females closely mimic the composition of cuticular compounds of their host species p . triangulum . the occurrence of isomeric forms of certain compounds on the cuticles of the cuckoo wasps but their absence on beewolf females suggests that cuckoo wasps synthesize the cuticular compounds rather than sequester them from their host . thus , the behavioral data and the chemical analysis provide evidence that a specialized cuckoo wasp exhibits chemical mimicry of the odor of its host . this probably allows the cuckoo wasp to enter the nest with a reduced risk of being detected by olfaction and without leaving traitorous chemical traces .
three cuckoo wasps from siberian and baltic amber ( hymenoptera : chrysididae : amiseginae and elampina . . .
we observed interactions between cuckoo wasps ( h . rutilans ) and beewolf females in the field in a beewolf nest aggregation on the campus of the university of würzburg . over several years there were about 100 – 500 beewolf nests ( easily detectable due to the characteristic nest mounds ) and 50 – 500 h . rutilans females ( determined by capture - mark - recapture methods [ 55 ] , e . strohm , unpubl . data ) . behavioral interactions between beewolf females and cuckoo wasps at 24 focal nests ( located on an area of about 10 × 5 m ) were recorded for a total of 54 hours . we observed whether beewolf females showed any signs of disturbance or agonistic behavior when a cuckoo wasp was present in the vicinity of their nests . we recorded the following behaviors of cuckoo wasps and beewolf females : 1 . landing of h . rutilans on nest mound . 2 . time it stayed on nest mound ( for stays > 4 sec . ) . 3 . whether the nest was open or closed . 4 . whether the cuckoo wasp entered the nest . 5 . the time the cuckoo wasp stayed in the nest and whether the nest owner was at home or not . 6 . behavior of the cuckoo wasp during its stay outside the nest ( running , sitting hiding , no exact durations were recorded ) . 7 . whether the cuckoo wasp tried to oviposit on a bee when a female returned with prey . 8 . whether and how a female responded to the presence of a cuckoo wasp when returning with prey .
california cuckoo wasps in the family chrysididae ( hymenoptera ) lynn s . kimsey . 2006 . uc press .
the bright , metallic shades of cuckoo wasps make these little jewels easy to spot despite their small stature .
the adult cuckoo wasp ' s back is well armored and with abdomen concave beneath . when disturbed , it curl up into a ball . this is a defense behavior against the attack by angry nest host .
this page contains pictures and information about the cuckoo wasps that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .
these are the cuckoo wasps ( family chrysididae ) in the superfamily chrysidoidea , and the tiphiid wasps ( family tiphiidae ) , scoliid wasps ( family scoliidae ) , and velvet ants ( family mutillidae ) in the superfamily vespoidea . cuckoo wasp s are mostly brilliant metallic - green or - blue in colour and have intricate sculpturing on the exoskeleton . they…
learn about the tarantula hawk ( pepsis species ) , a type of large spider wasp that preys on tarantulas .
herzner g , strohm e . fighting fungi with physics : food wrapping by a solitary wasp prevents water condensation .
as the same compound for beewolves , cuckoo wasps and honeybees are most probably identical since their mass spectra and the retention times are identical . thus , the comparison between beewolf females and cuckoo wasps is not confounded by the incompletely identified alkenes .
cuckoo wasps are only seen occasionally due to their small size and secretive habits . however , in open , sunny habitats they are often abundant on flowers and small shrubs , where they feed on nectar . cuckoo wasps often lurk near the burrows of their hosts , waiting for an opportunity to sneak in and lay an egg . they have a thick , hard cuticle ( outer covering ) that is covered with pits . the cuticle provides protection from stings and strong biting mandibles of host insects , which may attack the cuckoo wasp . in addition , the underside of the abdomen is concave and allows the wasp to roll up into a protective ball , another defensive mechanism . although cuckoo wasps sting , their stinger is very small .
all cuckoo wasps are solitary ( nonsocial ) , external parasites , mostly of full - grown bee or wasp larvae . species of the genus cleptes are parasitic on sawfly larvae ; those of mesitiopterus are parasitic on the eggs of the walkingstick .
tsuneki k . , 1957 - ecological problems centering around the microdistribution of the cuckoo wasp populations . appendix : key to the japanese species of the holonychinae . the insect ecology , 6 ( 14 ) : 11 - 23 . [ in japanese ]
in observation cages in the laboratory , h . rutilans females ( n = 7 ) were observed to enter beewolf nests ( n = 6 beewolf nests ) and oviposit on the couched bees ( n = 4 ) . although in five cases the beewolf female entered the nest while a cuckoo wasp was present and came close to ( less than 2 cm , n = 5 ) or even passed ( n = 3 ) the cuckoo wasp in the burrow , the host female did not show any signs of detection of the brood parasitoid or disturbance . notably , the cuckoo wasp either ran to a distant part of the nest when a beewolf female approached or it remained motionless at the periphery of the nest burrow until the female had passed .
parasitoids feed on the larva of the host and cleptoparasites
steal
the host ' s food . the food - stealing behavior of cleptoparasite species resembles that of the cuckoo bird and gave rise to the cuckoo wasp ' s name . hosts of parasitoid species include bees , sphecid wasps , potter wasps , sawflies , silk moths , and the eggs of stick insects . cleptoparasitic species feed on provisions of sphecid wasp nests , which may include dead spiders , true bugs , aphids , or thrips .
cuckoo wasps can be divided into two chief types based on their lifestyles : parasitoids and cleptoparasites . parasitoids feed on the larva of the host and cleptoparasites
steal
the host ' s food . in both cases the host larva dies . the food - stealing behavior of cleptoparasite species resembles that of the cuckoo bird and gave rise to the cuckoo wasp ' s name . hosts of parasitoid species include bees , sphecid wasps , potter wasps , sawflies , silk moths , and the eggs of stick insects . cleptoparasitic species feed on provisions of sphecid wasp nests , which may include dead spiders , true bugs , aphids , or thrips .
trexler j . c . , 1984 - aggregation and homing in a chrysidid wasp . oikos , 43 : 133 - 137 .
tsuneki k . , 1946 - how to collect the cuckoo wasps . seibutsu , 1 ( 3 ) : 189 . [ in japanese ]
tsuneki k . , 1957 - microdistribution of the cuckoo wasps population . annotationes zoologicae japonenses , 30 ( 2 ) : 86 - 90 .
most cuckoo wasps ( chrysididae ) lay their eggs in the nests of solitary wasps or bees . among the exceptions is an african species that is parasitic on the tsetse fly . tiphiidae and scoliidae are mostly parasites of beetle grubs that live in the soil . the female wasp digs into the soil to locate the grub , stings and paralyzes it , and deposits an egg on it . the wasp larva lives on the outside of the grub .
tano t . , 1969 - wasp collecting journey to the yaéyama group , the ryukyus . life study ( fukui ) , 13 : 72 - 79 .
strohm e , herzner g , goettler w . a
social
gland in a solitary wasp ? the postpharyngeal gland of female european beewolves ( hymenoptera , crabronidae )
theunert r . , 1997 - eine goldwespe als brutschmarotzer einer wegwespe ( insecta : hymenoptera ) . [ a chrysidid wasp as a brood parasite of a pompilid wasp ( insecta : hymenoptera ) . ] . mitteilungen des internationalen entomologischen vereins e . v . frankfurt a . m . , 22 ( 1 - 2 ) : 9 - 10 .
the wasp in the above photos was collected by our friend ben inside his house in brisbane during mid summer . we set it free after we took those photos . please check this
most species are external parasites of wasp and bee larvae ; one subfamily ( cleptinae , one genus , cleptes ) attacks sawfly larvae , another subfamily ( amiseginae ) the eggs of walkingsticks .
the uc davis results also provide a new perspective on lower cretaceous fossil cariridris bipetiolata , originally claimed to be the oldest fossil ant . scientists later reinterpreted it to be a spheciform wasp .
shown above is a beetle grub being fed upon by the larva of a tiphiid wasp . the tiphiid larvae is the smaller insect in the picture . ( r . bessin , 2000 )
] ) . cuckoo wasps also show relatively large amounts of the unsaturated c25 : 1 and c27 : 1 . in contrast to beewolves where individuals had only large proportions of one of these unsaturated compounds ,
in a recognition bioassay in observation cages , beewolf females responded significantly less frequently to filter paper discs treated with a cuticular extract from h . rutilans females , than to filter paper discs treated with an extract from another cuckoo wasp species ( chrysis viridula ) . the behavior to paper discs treated with a cuticular extract from h . rutilans females did not differ significantly from the behavior towards filter paper discs treated with the solvent only .
because their hosts possess stings and biting mandibles , cuckoo wasps have evolved some defences , namely a thick integument and an ability to roll their body into a ball with their legs tucked in . these adaptations account for cuckoo wasps’ distinctive form : the thorax often having cavities for the reception of legs and the abdomen being flat or hollow on the underside and covered above with three convex plates , the third plate commonly bearing teeth on its hind margin .
the scientists discovered that the ancestral aculeate wasp was likely an ectoparasitoid , which attacks and paralyzes a host insect and leaves its offspring nearby where they can attach to the outside of the host and feed from it .
tarbinsky yu . s . , 2000 - the gold wasp of the genus brugmoia ( hymenoptera , chrysididae ) of the tien - shan and adjacent territories . vestnik zoologii , 34 ( 3 ) : 23 - 27 .
as the name ‘cuckoo wasps’ suggests , females lay their eggs in the nests of other insects . among the most common hosts for cuckoo wasps are the various mud - daubing wasps that build their nests around houses , sheds and other human constructions . this accounts for many finds , people either noticing the brightly coloured wasps hovering about walls as they search for a host nest , or finding them after they’ve entered a building and got trapped on the inside of a window pane .
togashi i . , 1993 - hymenopterous insects settling in cottage with a thatched roof in shiramine , ishikawa prefecture ( part 3 ) . eumenid and cuckoo wasps . bull . biogeogr . soc . japan 48 ( 1 ) : 59 - 63
| it ' s a ruby - tailed wasp . ruby - tailed wasps belong to the order hymenoptera , that includes sawflies , bees and wasps . here in the u . k . we have a number of . . .
the map below showcases ( in red ) the states and territories of north america where the cuckoo wasp may be found ( but is not limited to ) . this sort of data can be useful in seeing concentrations of a particular species over the continent as well as revealing possible migratory patterns over a species ' given lifespan . some species are naturally confined by environment , weather , mating habits , food resources and the like while others see widespread expansion across most , or all , of north america .
pelecinid wasp photo courtesy usda . other photos courtesy r . bessin , k . seltmann , and b . newton , university of kentucky the kentucky critter files are maintained by blake newton , department of entomology , university of kentucky . contact : blaken @ urltoken
cuckoo wasps belong to one subdivision ( the tribe chrysidini ) of the world - wide family chrysididae . all members of this family are parasitic on other insects . other than the iridescent chrysidini , though , members of this family are small , dullcoloured insects unlikely to come to one’s attention .
field observations suggest that cuckoo wasps are attacked by beewolves in front of their nest , most probably after being recognized visually . in contrast , beewolves seem not to detect signs of the presence of these parasitoids neither when these had visited the nest nor when directly encountered in the dark nest burrow .
wasp , any member of a group of insects in the order hymenoptera , suborder apocrita , some of which are stinging . wasps are distinguished from the ants and bees of apocrita by various behavioral and physical characteristics , particularly their possession of a slender , smooth body and legs with…
there are hundreds of species of narrow - waisted solitary wasps that live in kentucky . most of them are ant - like in appearance , with narrow waists and thread - like antennae . all solitary wasps have 4 membranous wings except for a few types , such as velvet ants , which do not have any wings . the best way to distinguish a solitary wasp from a social , hive - dwelling wasp is to observe behavior : hive wasps will stay close to their hive and return to it often during their routine ; solitary wasps may have a small burrow or nest that they return to , but it will be much smaller than the hive of a social wasp . in addition , you will rarely see solitary wasps interacting with other wasps , while hive - dwelling wasps will often communicate with one another , often by touching antennae or legs .
spider wasp s ( pompilidae ) usually build nests in rotten wood or in rock crevices and provision them with spiders . the potter , or mason , wasps ( subfamily eumeninae ) of the vespidae build nests of mud , which are sometimes vaselike or juglike and may be found attached to twigs…
like all wasps , solitary wasps have complete metamorphosis with egg , larva , pupa , and adult stages . many large narrow - waisted solitary wasps ( such as mud - daubers , cicada killers , and potter wasps ) build small nests or burrows in which they lay eggs . within this burrow , the wasp encloses an insect or spider that has been stung and paralyzed . when the wasp eggs hatch , the tiny wasp larvae feed on the paralyzed prey items , and receive no further care from the mother . small internally - parasitic wasps , such as ichneumon and braconid wasps , do not build nests or burrows . instead , they hunt for insects , insect larvae , or insect eggs and lay their own eggs inside . when the larvae hatch , they feed and grow inside the host . most solitary wasps are active in summer and fall and overwinter as eggs or pupae .
tarbinsky yu . s . , 1999 - a key and a characteristic of the golden wasp species groups of the genus chrysis l . ( hymenoptera , chrysididae ) from tien shan and adjacent territories . news of the national academy of sciences of kyrghyz republic - 1999 ( 2 ) : 50 - 57 .
although most hymenoptera have wings , there are a few exceptions . the 2mm ichnuemon wasp pictured below is completely wingless . winglessness occurs in at least one species of most of the hymenopteran families , showing biologists that it is fairly common for a group of insects to evolve from winged to wingless over time .
construct cells of mud under bark or among stones . some species construct the nest before capturing the spider ; others capture the spider first , then set it aside until the nest is completed . a single spider and a single egg are placed in the nest . the spider , alive but paralyzed , is eaten by the wasp
among the most exquisite wasps to be found in australia are the cuckoo wasps ( or emerald wasps ) which are almost wholly bright iridescent green , blue or purple . the body surface is deeply and densely pitted , imparting a glittery appearance . some northern hemisphere species have gold or reddish tints and are termed ‘gold wasps’ and ‘ruby wasps’ , respectively .
tarbinsky yu . s . , 2000 - осы - блестянки рода chrysis [ gr . ignita ] ( hymenoptera , chrysididae ) тянь - шаня и сопредельных территорий . [ the golden wasp genus chrysis [ gr . ignita ] ( hymenoptera , chrysididae in tien - shan and adjacent territories ] . tethys entomological research ( almaty , kazakhstan ) ] , 2 : 193 - 204 .
] . some components could not be identified and for some alkenes the position of the double bond and its configuration could not be determined due to the small amounts on the cuticles . however , neither of the unidentified components occurs on beewolf females and cuckoo wasps . thus , they do not confound the similarity between these two groups that are most important to our question . the alkenes listed in one line in table
solitary wasps and parasitic wasps are an important component in a variety of ecosystems : almost all solitary wasp species provide insects or spiders to their larvae , either by laying their eggs in burrows provisioned with prey or by laying their eggs inside insect hosts . most species are very specific about the types of prey that they hunt . mud - daubers , for instance , pack their mud tubes with spiders . wasp species that are internal parasites will usually lay their eggs in only one or two insect species and are specific about which stage in the life - cycle that they attack : some species attack only larvae , some attack only eggs , some attack only adult insects or pupae . most adult solitary wasps feed on nectar . solitary wasps are found in most kentucky habitats , from farms and lawns to forests and stream sides .
spiders captured and paralyzed by the sting of the spider wasp are fed to the young . ( certain wasps other than pompilids also capture spiders for this purpose . ) adult spider wasps are commonly found on flowers and either on the ground or hovering above it in search of prey . the nest , or cell , is made in soil , on rotten wood , or among rocks . species of the north american genus
this dazzling gem of an insect conjures up the image of an exotic species , perhaps living in the depths of some tropical forest far away from the monotone shores of the uk . however , the ruby - tailed wasp is actually a relatively common species in this country : it can be found on warm sunny days from april to august in many back gardens , particularly around stone walls , piles of wood or on waste ground .
we hypothesized that cuckoo wasps either mimic the chemistry of their beewolf host or their host ' s prey . we tested this hypothesis using gc - ms analyses of the cuticles of male and female beewolves , cuckoo wasps , and honeybee workers . cuticle extracts of hedychrum nobile ( hymenoptera : chrysididae ) and cerceris arenaria ( hymenoptera : crabronidae ) were used as outgroups . there was little congruence with regard to cuticular compounds between h . rutilans females and honeybees as well as females of c . arenaria and h . nobile . however , there was a considerable similarity between beewolf females and h . rutilans females . beewolf females show a striking dimorphism regarding their cuticular hydrocarbons with one morph having ( z ) - 9 - c25 : 1 and the other morph having ( z ) - 9 - c27 : 1 as the major component . h . rutilans females were more similar to the morph having ( z ) - 9 - c27 : 1 as the main component .
larvae of cuckoo wasps develop at the expense of the host’s offspring , feeding either on the fully developed host larvae or on the stored food in the host nest ( usually paralysed caterpillars or spiders ) . either way , the host’s larvae die so , strictly speaking , chrysidines are not true parasites . they are more correctly termed ‘parasitoids’ when they feed on and kill the host larvae or ‘cleptoparasites’ ( “clepto“ deriving from a greek word meaning ‘thief’ ) when they feed on the host’s provisions .
tiphiid wasps family : tiphiidae tiphiids are shiny black wasps that are similar in size ( 1 3 / 4
long ) , shape , and behavior to scoliid wasps . like scoliids , tiphiid wasp females hunt in soil for beetle grubs on which they place single eggs . because they kill turf - damaging beetle grubs , some tiphiid wasps species are considered beneficial . you can see a picture of a tiphiid larva feeding on a beetle grub in the life cycle section above .
sphecid wasps family : sphecidae there are many species of sphecid wasps in kentucky . most are shiny black or metallic blue , some with bright red , yellow , or orange markings . the most common sphecid wasps are in the subfamily sphecinae and are called
thread - waisted wasps .
these sphecids have a long , narrow , antlike appearance . most thread - waisted wasps build their nests underground . some sphecids , often called
mud - daubers ,
make mud nests for their larvae which they attach to the sides of rocks and buildings . the cicada killer wasp ( sphecius specious ) is also a type of sphecid wasp . at 1 1 / 2 ,
cicada killers are the largest wasps found in kentucky . they are commonly seen in late summer as they hunt for cicadas which they use to provision their eggs in underground burrows . like many sphecid wasps , cicada killers are able to sting people , but they will not do so unless provoked .
hymenoptera , even those equipped with a sting , are sought as food by other animals . skunks , badgers , field mice , shrews , and other animals attack bee nests for the insects as well as for the honey . the larvae of the wax month ( galleria mellonella ) live in bee nests , where they eat beeswax , thus damaging the nest . the cuckoo bee ( anthophorinae ) , a close relative of the bumblebee , lays its eggs in bumblebee nests , where the larvae are cared for and nourished by bumblebee workers .
these large wasps are called spider wasps because their young feed on paralyzed spiders . they generally are black or brown but some are brightly colored or metallic . spider wasps are common and are often observed searching for spiders on lawns . others can be seen moving quickly along the trunks of fallen trees , flitting their wings . like other stinging wasps ( including hive wasps , bees , and cuckoo wasps ) , female spider wasps have their egg laying device modified into an effective ( and sometimes painful ) stinger . common kentucky spider wasps are about 1
long .
female cuckoo wasps are widely believed to be unable to sting , the sting apparatus being reduced and supposedly non - functional , yet cases are known where people have received painful stings from larger species . a long , thin appendage may sometimes be seen extending from the tip of the female abdomen . this is not a ‘stinger’ but an ovipositor used for inserting eggs into a nest of a host . observations of oviposition are few but one author noted that a female of stilbum cyanurum wet the mud wall of a host nest , softening it , then inserted its ovipositor to deposit an egg .
according to kimsey & bohart ( 1990 ) , four genera of cuckoo wasps occur in australia . stilbum includes just one species , s . cyanurum , which is the largest and most impressive of all . it is distinguished by having a strong , concave , median projection on the rear of the thorax and four downward pointing teeth on each side of the thorax . it breeds in the nests of mud - dauber wasps ( delta and sceliphron ) which are commonly found on the walls of buildings . it may also parasitize the nests of some megachilid bees . this species is found throughout australia and much of the eastern hemisphere . its size varies markedly .
velvet ants family : mutillidae velvet ants are large ( 1
long ) wasps in the family mutillidae . although they are wasps , they are called ants because the females do not have wings . male velvet wasps usually have shiny black wings . velvet ants are covered in dense hair , and most species are bright red or orange with black markings , although some species are metallic green . common velvet ant females place their eggs in the larval and pupal chambers of bee and wasp nests . large velvet ants have very long stingers and are sometimes called
cow killers ,
but they will only sting if grabbed or if stepped on with bare feet .
there are two evolutionary options for h . rutilans femalesto avoid olfactory detection by beewolves . first , cuckoo wasps could mimic the odor of the honeybees that are temporarily couched in the main burrow . second , h . rutilans females might mimic their beewolf host . we consider the imitation of the cuticular compounds of the beewolf host the better alternative , since the host ' s hydrocarbon profile can be found all over the nest walls due to the digging activity ( kroiss and strohm unpubl . data ) and also on the honeybees . this is because in order to prevent the paralyzed bees from molding they are treated by the beewolf females with a secretion from the postpharyngeal gland that is identical to the beewolves ' cuticular hydrocarbons [ 29 - 31 ] .
h . rutilans might employ a combination of strategies to evade detection . if encountered in the nest , they run away or remain motionless . they possibly leave only very small amounts of decisive and traitorous substances in the nest . most notably , the composition of their cuticular hydrocarbons is very similar to that of their host . thus , h . rutilans females seem to be able to avoid detection when directly encountered by a beewolf female in the nest . much more important , however , is the reduction of the conspicuousness of scent marks left in the nest burrow or on the bee during oviposition . this is to our knowledge the first reported evidence for chemical mimicry ( sensu [ 19 ] ) in a parasitoid of a solitary wasp .
flowering plants bring more than beauty to a garden . many beneficial insects , the kind that help reduce pests on our plants , depend on nectar and pollen to provide nutrients necessary for life . we met some of these characters in previous episodes of bug of the week such as the parasitic ichneumon wasp ( need link to april 7 , 2008 ) , the lovely green lacewing ( link to april 10 , 2006 ) , and the flower flies ( link to may 8 , 2006 ) . a constant array of flowering plants in a landscape may help make it more sustainable . a favorite flowering perennial in my landscape is yarrow . this showy member of the aster family has many medicinal uses in addition to being an excellent attractor of pollinators and pest - eating beneficial insects .
during warm months , solitary wasps are commonly found in lawns , gardens , field crops , woodlands , and weedy fence rows . most species fly slowly as they search for prey or visit flowers for nectar . although solitary wasps are less likely to sting than hive - dwelling wasps , some ( like sphecid wasps ) will sting when captured , so it is best to capture them with an insect net and immediately place them in a sturdy container . although solitary wasps usually fly slowly , they are almost always on the move , so it can be difficult to get a good picture . the best technique is to keep your camera focused on a flower that is being visited by lots of insects - within a few minutes , a wasp will probably visit , and you can snap a picture .
in order to assess whether beewolf females respond to the presence of h . rutilans females at all we observed the behavioral interactions outside of the nest . to test whether h . rutilans females employ chemical camouflage inside the nest we conducted to sets of behavioral experiments . first , in observation cages we recorded the interaction of the cuckoo wasps with beewolf females inside the nest burrow . second , we conducted a recognition bioassay by assessing the response of beewolf females towards filter discs treated with different extracts : solvent only , cuticular extracts of another chrysidid , chrysis viridula , and cuticular extracts of h . rutilans . we predicted that beewolf females should ignore the discs treated with solvent only ( negative control ) , they should respond to the discs treated with c . viridula extract ( positive control ) and they should not ( or only weakly ) respond to h . rutilans extracts .
a priori , chemical camouflage and mimicry seem unlikely to evolve in a chrysidid wasp that attacks a solitary host . chemical camouflage , i . e . the acquisition of mimetic compounds from a solitary host by a parasitic species , might be problematic since , in contrast to parasites of social hosts , there is little opportunity to sequester cloaking chemicals . social host species possess large nests and a large number of colony members that might serve as sources for the relevant compounds . brood parasites of solitary brood caring hymenoptera have rarely been studied in detail [ 53 ] . the only example of chemical camouflage in a brood parasite of a solitary species comes from nomada bees . in some species of this genus , females have been reported to acquire mimetic odors by being perfumed by males during mating . females of these species seemed not to elicit aggressive responses when encountered by host females of the genus andrena [ 2 ] . chemical cloaking in chrysidid wasps has not yet been reported .
beewolf females often attacked and evicted h . rutilans when they encountered them in front of their nest . this seems to be the rule for interactions between hosts and chrysidids although linsenmaier [ 37 ] reported that there are also cases where chrysidids do not elicit antagonistic behavior by their hosts . prolonged stays at hosts ' nests as observed in h . rutilans , have also been reported for other chrysidids [ 22 , 37 , 38 ] . staying in vicinity of the host nest might allow the chrysidids to adjust the timing of oviposition to the most suitable stage of the provisioning cycle or to enter the nest in the absence of the host female . that h . rutilans females placed themselves under some cover ( e . g . leaves ) during prolonged stays might , besides the reduction of water loss , represent an attempt to hide themselves from the host females . other chrysidid species also seem to hide near the entrance of a host nest and inspect the nest or brood cell after the host female has deposited provisions and departed for a new foraging flight [ 37 ] . this suggests that , similar to beewolves , most host species might recognize cuckoo wasps visually outside the nest . since most chrysidids are brightly colored ( see e . g . drawings in [ 37 ] ) this is not surprising .
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with some exceptions , chrysidids are generally colored and their structural coloration is due to light interference , and it varies with the viewing angle .
many species are characterized by colors with metallic glares , green , blue , copper , gold , etc . , and some colorations seem to be typical of precise geographic regions .
the lo boscelidiini and the allocoeliini lack any metallic coloration ; their colors are brown , black , reddish and , in the some cases , white .
the amisegini are generally from brown to black , with little metallic glares from green to blue on face and thorax ; the abdomen is generally non - metallic ( metallic in duckeia ) .
the coloration of the cleptini is very variable . some species are completely non - metallic black . cleptes species are generally metallic on head and thorax , the abdomen being non - metallic . typical of almost all the european cleptes is the metallic color of the head and of the thorax ( mainly red in females and green - blue in males ) , with a non - or not completely metallic abdomen .
the chrysidini and the elampini are always colored with metallic colors . in europe the commonest colors are the green - blue on head and thorax , with a copper or golden abdomen . the species of southern spain , n africa and middle east tend to be completely copper - or brass - colored . in tropical asia we observe the diffusion of a pattern with green body and a copper - colored spot on both sides of the second abdominal tergite in species belonging to even distant genera ( the reason is unknown ) , while in the philippines chrysidids are purple with a red - shining head . some hedychridium show a reddish non - metallic abdomen .
in parnopes a clean chromatic distinction based on the geographic distribution is observed . the african and american species tend to be colored of uniform blue , green , purple . in the palearctic species , instead , the abdomen is often different from the rest of the body and generally non - metallic .
white colorations are generally reduced to spots and stripes on mandibles , antennal articles , tegulae , legs , abdominal tergites ; in the species of the loboscelidiini and the elampini they are not observed .
from : kimsey l . s . & bohart r . m . , 1991 - the chrysidid wasps of the world . oxford university press , ix - 652 .
color can be altered from the chemicals used in order to kill , to preserve or to rehydrate specimens .
color has a diagnostic value in many cases , but not always , because each species shows a variability both chromatic and morphologic .
for citation purposes agnoli g . l . & rosa p . , urltoken website , interim version 16 - may - 2012 , url : urltoken
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
in our area , 4 subfamilies with 227 spp . in ~ 30 genera ( most diverse in the west , with 166 spp . in ca alone
) . worldwide , 5 subfamilies with > 3000 described ( ~ 4 , 000 estimated ) spp . in > 80 genera
some species are parasitoids and others cleptoparasites . either way the host larva dies .
the female sting has been modified into an egg - laying tube with highly reduced valvulae and poison gland . as a result , unlike most other aculeates , chrysidids cannot sting and can be easily handled .
a synopsis of the chrysididae in america north of mexico bohart r . m . , kimsey l . s . 1982 . memoirs of the american entomological institute 33 : 1 - 266 .
the chrysidid wasps of the world kimsey l . s . , bohart r . m . 1990 . oxford university press . 652 pp .
agnoli g . l . , rosa p . ( 2012 ) database of chrysididae ( chrysis . net website , interim version 10 - apr - 2012 )
american insects : a handbook of the insects of america north of mexico ross h . arnett . 2000 . crc press .
photographic atlas of entomology and guide to insect identification james l . castner . 2000 . feline press .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
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antennae : ants and bees both have a pair of antennae on the head that senses their surroundings .
head : the head contains the insect ' s compound eyes , antennae , and mandibles .
abdomen : contains various organs including the heart , gut , venom glands , and anus .
legs : ants and bees have three pairs of legs attached to the thorax ( center - body section ) .
note : ants , bees and wasps are part of the hymenoptera order because they share many similarities .
an insect ' s reach is not limited by lines drawn on a map and therefore species may appear in areas , regions and / or states beyond those listed below as they are driven by environmental factors ( such as climate change ) , available food supplies and mating patterns . grayed - out selections below indicate that the subject in question has not been reported in that particular territory . u . s . states and canadian provinces / territories are clickable to their respective bug listings .
site disclaimer | privacy policy | cookies | site map urltoken • content ©2005 - urltoken • all rights reserved • site contact email : insectidentification at gmail . com . the urltoken logo is unique to this website and protected by all applicable domestic and international intellectual property laws . written content , illustrations and photography is unique to this website ( unless where indicated ) and not for reuse in any form . material presented throughout this website is for entertainment value and should not to be construed as usable for scientific research or medical advice ( regarding bites , etc . . . ) . please consult licensed , degreed professionals for such information . by submitting images to us ( urltoken ) you acknowledge that you have read and understood our site disclaimer as it pertains to
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csiro , division of entomology , melbourne university press , 2nd edition 1991 , pp 973 .
- by paul zborowski and ross storey , reed new holland , 1996 , p187 .
an insider look into the things we find most interesting about the fascinating world of bugs .
a method of defense used by some bugs and insects is the ability to create and distribute toxins to hunt prey or to fend off would - be predators . we often describe these organisms as venomous and poisonous interchangeably , but do these terms mean the same thing ? let’s find out in this month’s fact or fake .
respondents to a 2014 orkin survey said that bed bugs are one of their most feared pests . and for good reason – two in three pest control professionals say bed bug infestations are still on the rise , according to a …
if you were stung by a bee during your outdoor activities , how would you rank the pain ? on a scale of one to ten ? from bearable to extremely bad ? no matter how you classify the feeling , everyone’s experience will be different . and while the concept of pain and discomfort is subjective , the schmidt pain index categories the worst of the worst in insect stings for easy comparison .


the wingspan is about 14 mm .

the hindwings are light grey .

athrips helicaula

athrips helicaula is a moth of the gelechiidae family . it is found in south africa , where it has been recorded from the northern cape .
bidzilya o . v . 2010 . a taxonomic review of the genera parapsectris meyrick , 1911 and athrips billberg , 1820 in africa . - esperiana memoir 5 : 341–408 .
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cape verde , st . vincent [ são vicente ] , e . l . mimosa sp . vii . 1872 , leg . weyenbergh .
weyenbergh 1873 . note on the lepidopterous fauna of st . vincente , with description of a new species of gelechia . - entomologist ' s monthly magazine 10 : 121–122 .
the wingspan is about 14 mm . the forewings are white , tinged with brownish and irrorated with blackish except on the costa and veins , which form undefined white streaks . the hindwings are light grey .
janse a . j . t . 1958 . the moths of south africa . vi . gelechiadae - — 6 ( 1 ) : 1–144 , pls . 1–32 .
meyrick e . 1912d . new south african microlepidoptera . - annals of the south african museum 10 ( 3 ) : 53–74 .
povolný d . 1989 . two new species of the genus pseudathrips and some new records on the tribe gnorimoschemini ( lepidoptera , gelechiidae ) fro middle east . - acta universitatis agriculturae brno 37 ( 3–4 ) : 153–162 .
meyrick e . 1914c . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . v . - annals of the transvaal museum 4 ( 4 ) : 187–205 .
meyrick e . 1913b . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . iv - annals of the transvaal museum 3 ( 4 ) : 267–336 .
meyrick e . 1921b . descriptions of south african micro - lepidoptera . - annals of the transvaal museum 8 ( 2 ) : 49–148 .
meyrick e . 1914b . descriptions of south african microlepidoptera . - annals of the south african museum 10 : 243–257 .
janse a . j . t . 1950 . the moths of south africa . v . gelechiadae . - — 5 ( 2 ) : 61–172 , pls . 33–88 .
zeller p . c . 1852b . lepidoptera microptera , quae j . a . wahlberg in caffrorum terra collegit . - — : 1–120 .
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this is a list of moths of the family gelechiidae that are found in south africa . it also acts as an index to the species articles and forms part of the full list of moths of south africa .
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sapphirinidae is a family of parasitic copepods , containing the following genera : copilia dana , 1849 saphirinella claus , 1863 sapphirina j. thompson , 1830 terebellicola m. sars , 1861 vettoria c. b. wilson , 1924

sapphirinidae

citation : baar y , rosen j , shashar n ( 2014 ) circular polarization of transmitted light by sapphirinidae copepods . plos one 9 ( 1 ) : e86131 . urltoken
chae j , nishida s ( 1994 ) integumental ultrastructure and color patterns in the iridescent copepods of the family sapphirinidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) . mar biol 119 : 205–210 .
chae j , nishida s ( 1995 ) vertical distribution and diel migration in the iridescent copepods of the family sapphirinidae : a unique example of reverse migration ? mar ecol prog ser 119 : 111–124 .
planktonic sapphirinidae copepods were found to circularly polarize the light passing through them . circular polarization may be created by unique , multilayered features of the membrane structure found under their cuticle or by organized muscle fibers .
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database . sapphirinidae thorell , 1859 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 128595 on 2018 - 07 - 09
further research is needed to understand the role , if any , of the circularly polarized light transmitted through the body of sapphirinidae copepods . the role of cp light transmission and their sensitivity to cp polarization should be examined both interspecifically , within the sapphirinidae copepods including to examine for sexual dimorphism in the cp domain , and extraspecifically , for example , they may use cp light to avoid detection by predators sensitive to linear polarization . from the perspective of potential predators , it should be noted that stomatopod larvae are active planktonic predators .
the sapphirinidae are well defined by their dorsoventrally flattened bodies and by the presence of elaborate cuticular lenses at least in the female . the caudal rami are also flattened and have 6 small setae distributed around the margin . the form of the caudal ramus is useful as a species - level discriminating character .
the structural mechanism responsible for circular polarization in mantis shrimp and scarabaeidae beetles is well understood [ 9 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 16 ] . in our case , since the strongest cp was obtained at specific input light polarization angles and in a cycle of 90° , it is clear that a part or parts of the sapphirinidae copepod function as λ / 4 retarder plates . at this point , however , we do not fully understand the underlying structural mechanism . two mechanisms are possible : retardance by muscle fibers and / or by the multilayer membrane structure , the latter of which is also involved in sapphirinidae body coloration . these mechanisms may be operating independently , or interacting and augmenting each other .
among the most striking features of the s . metallina male is its iridescence , which is caused by a multilayered - membrane structure in epidermal cells of the dorsal integument [ 17 ] – [ 19 ] . iridescence constitutes one characteristic of the species ' sexual dimorphism , which also includes differences in body size , shape , color , and more . however vassiere [ 20 ] did not find sexual dimorphism in sapphirinidae eye structure although follow - up studies are still required .
muscles are known to be birefringent . the myosin - containing a bands of the sarcomere ( the contractile unit ) are birefringent [ 21 ] , and indeed , light transmitted through vertebrate muscle tissues was demonstrated to undergo phase retardance [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] . sabhah and shashar [ 24 ] demonstrated that muscle tissue changes the transmission of partially linearly polarized light passing through zooplankton . we propose here that the sapphirinidae copepod circularly polarizes part of the linearly polarized light , thus contributing to its circularly polarized appearance .
circularly polarized light , rare in the animal kingdom , has thus far been documented in only a handful of animals . using a rotating circular polarization ( cp ) analyzer we detected cp in linearly polarized light transmitted through epipelagic free living sapphirina metallina copepods . both left and right handedness of cp was detected , generated from specific organs of the animal ' s body , especially on the dorsal cephalosome and prosome . such cp transmittance may be generated by phase retardance either in the muscle fibers or in the multilayer membrane structure found underneath the cuticle . although the role , if any , played by circularly polarized light in sapphirinidae has yet to be clarified , in other animals it was suggested to take part in mate choice , species recognition , and other forms of communication .
genus corina giesbrecht , 1891 accepted as vettoria wilson c . b . , 1924 ( synonym )
genus corissa farran , 1936 accepted as vettoria wilson c . b . , 1924 ( synonym )
genus edwardsia costa o . g . , 1838 accepted as sapphirina thompson j . , 1829 ( synonym )
genus lanowia oliveira , 1945 accepted as saphirella scott t . , 1894 accepted as clausidiidae embleton , 1901 ( synonym )
genus pyromma haeckel , 1864 accepted as sapphirina thompson j . , 1829 ( synonym )
genus sapphirella bjornberg , 1963 accepted as saphirella scott t . , 1894 accepted as clausidiidae embleton , 1901 ( mis spell of original name )
genus sapphiridina haeckel , 1864 accepted as sapphirina thompson j . , 1829 ( synonym )
boxshall , g . ( 2001 ) . copepoda ( excl . harpacticoida ) , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 252 - 268 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
martin , j . w . , & davis , g . e . ( 2001 ) . an updated classification of the recent crustacea . science series , 39 . natural history museum of los angeles county . los angeles , ca ( usa ) . 124 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
copyright : © 2014 baar et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : israeli science foundation grant # 1081 / 10 to ns and by the halperin and shechter foundations . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
ambient light underwater is partially polarized linearly to varying degrees at different depths [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , but circular polarization ( cp ) has been observed occurring naturally only near the water surface [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] . among animals , the production of circularly polarized light is rare , yet was documented in the bioluminescence of photuris lucicrescens and p . versicolor firefly larvae , in reflections from beetles of the scarabaeidae family , in panulirus argus lobsters , and in stomatopods ( mantis shrimp ) [ 5 ] – [ 14 ] .
circularly polarized light reflected by helical microfibril layers in the exocuticle of beetles belonging to the scarabaeidae family is usually left handed [ 5 ] – [ 7 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] . the multilayer structure that is responsible for the circularly polarized light in the scarab beetle plusiotis resplendens can be treated as a three - dimensional diffraction grating . in that sense , while its effect on the polarization state of the light differs , the exocuticle diffracts light much as a multilayer dielectric grating does . indeed , three - dimensional gratings can reflect light that is circularly or elliptically polarized [ 15 ] . in mantis shrimps , cp reflection has been observed in the keel of the male odontodactylus cultrifer and is generated by two optical components . the first , a linear polarizer , is based on the ordered arrangement of dichroic carotenoid astaxanthin molecules . the second component is a quarter - wave retarder , laid at a 45 degree angle to the linear component , which is assumed to comprise oriented calcite crystals [ 9 ] , [ 16 ] . mantis shrimps are also unique in that not only do they present a cp reflection , they can also see cp light [ 8 ] .
sapphirina copepods , which appear transparent to polarization - insensitive eyes , affected the linear polarization of light that passed through them , in the process partially circularly polarizing it . due to the relative abundance of s . metallina , detailed analyses of cp focused on that species ( fig . 1 ) . figs . 1 . b and 1 . c demonstrate qualitatively that s . metallina has polarization activity with the linearly polarized transmitted light . the animal was rotated between two linear polarizers at 45° to each other ( fig . 1 . b ) , and between crossed linear polarizers ( fig . 1 . c ) , until an intensity change was detected . the brightness level at certain locations is about the same in both figs 1 . b and 1 . c and this outcome is a clue that some level of cp exists herein . fig . 1 . d shows the result of the cp detector for depolarized illumination . the circular polarization effect was observed when the incoming light was either linearly polarized ( fig . 2 ) or depolarized ( fig . 1 . d ) .
: the animal between crossed linear polarizers showing only linearly polarization - active structures . such linear polarization activity can arise from change in orientation of polarization , depolarization , or the creation of cp .
: circularly polarized light passing through a copepod , according to its left or right handedness . incoming light was depolarized . arrows indicate areas of relatively strong cp , though not more than 30 % ; dark and bright areas indicate right and left cp , respectively . note that most of these areas , such as eye tubes or posterior parts of carapace , do not show up when placed between crossed linear polarizers ( insert c ) suggesting that the process causing the cp under depolarized illumination , is not mere retardance such as by muscle fibers .
copepod , when incoming light is linearly polarized , as detected by a cp detector .
a modulation depth of 1 . 0 indicates that all measured light is cp , whereas 0 signifies no cp .
: each image is for a different orientation of the entrance polarizer , and therefore , of the illuminating beam , in 20° steps . the orientation for 0° was arbitrarily set . note that cp handedness is not recorded . locations of cp activity correspond with both muscles fibers as illuminated in
: the modulation depth as a function of the input polarization orientation at six locations on the animal is indicated in the figure inset .
when the light striking the copepods was linearly polarized , the orientation of the polarization strongly affected cp . fig . 2 . a shows maps of the modulation depth of the signals as detected by the cp detector . each image is for a different orientation of incoming light polarization in 20° steps . a modulation depth of 1 . 0 indicates that the all measured light was cp , whereas a depth of 0 signifies no cp . the modulation depth as a function of the input polarization angle at six locations on the animal , as indicated on the inset , is depicted in fig . 2 . b . cp levels , which were 30–60 % , were maximal from the cephalosome , from the metasome , and in both lateral sides of the copepod ' s soma . the prominent regions are not identical in figs . 1 . d and 2 . a because the effect of cp of the depolarized light is much weaker ( maximum cp value of 30 % ) than the cp created under linearly polarized illumination ( maximum cp value of 60 % ) .
tem images revealed the structure of the multilayer epidermal membrane ( fig . 3 ) , showing structures that could serve as light retarders . although we are not aware of any direct evidence of birefringence in these layered structures , we do not know of any mechanism other than retardation by birefringence to convert transmitted linear polarization to cp light .
: frontal section of dorsal integument showing the multilayer membrane structure , a honeycomb arrangement , in which the first stack layer is parallel and some of the other layers are rotated on their sides showing a layered pattern .
in addition , in many cases the cp was transmitted from locations where muscle fibers affected the linear polarization ( fig . 1 b–d ) , suggesting retardance activity by these muscles .
circularly polarized light in nature is currently known to be reflected from the cuticle tissues of marine crustaceans [ 9 ] , [ 11 ] and of terrestrial arthropods [ 6 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 16 ] .
in this work we present a case in which the light transmitted through an animals ' body is circularly polarized . the effect was observed , to varying degrees , when the incoming illumination was either linearly polarized or depolarized .
based on evidence from the optically active system in the copepods [ 17 ] , which is responsible for their iridescent coloration , we suggest a model for how circular polarization is produced in these copepods . their dorsal integument comprises a multilayered membrane made of 10–14 membrane pairs laid parallel to each other and to the cuticular plate . viewed as a single structure , their dorsal integument has a regular hexagonal structure , and the gaps between the membrane layers contain a series of hexagonal platelets . platelet thickness varies from 61–83 nm , and its estimated refractive index is 1 . 8 [ 17 ] .
we hypothesize that the crystals in each layer of the multilayer hexagonal platelets are birefringent . if the optical path difference between the fast and the slow axes of the crystal is an odd number of quarter - wave lengths , then the multilayer hexagonal platelets are functioning as a quarter - wave retarder . formally , the plate structure should follow the equation 2π·δ n · z / λ = ( 2 n + 1 ) ·π / 2 , where δ n is the refractive index difference between the fast and the slow axes of the platelets , z is the overall thickness of the multilayer structure , λ is the average wavelength of the light , and n is an arbitrary positive whole number . hence linearly polarized light ( at a 45° angle to the fast and slow axes ) transmitted through the copepods is circularly polarized . note that the graph of the modulation depth of the cp detector signal as a function of the input polarization shows a cycle of π / 2 as is expected from a quarter - wave retarder . also note that most of cyclic signals changed together with almost no phase difference between them , an indication that all the crystals of the hexagonal platelets over the entire body of the copepod are oriented in approximately the same direction . however , we also found that the handedness of the circular polarization along the sides of the dorsal view ( points a–d in fig . 2b , inset ) was opposite that in the central regions ( points e–f in fig . 2b , inset ) . this observation may indicate that the cp mechanism in each of these two regions is different . further experimentation is needed to elucidate the retardance properties of the copepods .
in addition to the current partial understanding of the copepod phase retardance mechanism , the question remains of how non polarized light becomes circularly polarized , even if to a low extent , when passing through the animal ' s body . one possibility is that the incoming light is partially linearly polarized as it is refracted into or within the copepod ( such as by eye tubes ) , especially when the light is arriving from directions that are not orthogonal to the curved body carapace . this partially linearly polarized light can then interact with the platelets to produce cp .
the role of circularly polarized light in the scarab beetle is not known [ 5 ] . stomatopods use polarization in species - specific signals related to mating and defense [ 9 ] . it should be emphasized that some species of mantis shrimp , such as odontodactylus cultrifer , can perceive and respond to cp signals , making them the only organisms with a known ability to sense circularly polarized light [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] .
for cp light detection , we built a system ( fig . 4 ) based on a cokin® circular polarizing filter , half of which was covered from the direction of the incoming light by a λ / 2 retarder ( i . e . , circular polarization handedness switching filter ) with an optical path difference of 280 nm . a step motor rotated this apparatus sequentially to four positions at 90° intervals . at each position , the specimen was photographed via a zeiss stemi 2000 - c polarization insensitive dissecting scope and a nikon single ccd digital camera . to match the retarder filter ( best fit for wavelengths around 560 nm ) , only the green channel of each image was used in further analysis . this approach resulted in four different pictures ( orientations of the λ / 2 retarder at 90° intervals ) of the copepod .
illuminating light passed first through a depolarizer , and then , if needed , it was linearly polarized . after passing through the specimen , depending on handedness , the light was or was not filtered through a rotating 1 / 2 λ retarder that covered half of the field of view . the circularly polarized light was then linearized by a 1 / 4 λ retarder and an analyzer was used to examine it .
circular polarization images were analyzed using a matlab™ code to produce a numerical and visual representation of the differences in the light transmitted through the copepods as the analyzer was rotated . this was done by analyzing the modulation depth of the light signal detected along the rotation of the λ / 2 plate . note that our device is built to detect circularly polarized light , and to verify its reliability , it was tested under laser light ( λ = 543 nm ) in various known polarization states . in addition , the device was tested with a scarab beetle specimen , and a considerable , circularly polarized light signal was detected in the form of a periodic signal , as expected . the modulation depth was defined as ( max−min ) / ( max + min ) , where max and min are the maximum and minimum intensities , respectively .
the pictures of the transmitted circularly polarized light include one for each of the four positions of the input λ / 2 plate . captured for the four different positions of the rotating λ / 2 plate , the pictures represent four sampling points along a single cycle of the output signal . for every image pixel in each of the four pictures , the two values with the maximum intensity difference value ( max−min ) were chosen , and the difference between them was calculated . each result was then divided by the sum of all the difference values ( max + min ) to give a value from 0–1 . defined as the modulation depth of the output cyclic signal , this value represents the percentage of the transmitted light that was circularly polarized from the total transmitted light .
copepods were collected by towing a 200 µm plankton net , just under the sea surface to depths up to 2 m , in the open waters of the gulf of aqaba , eilat , israel ( following [ 25 ] ) . over 20 sapphirina copepods were collected for cp examination . more than half of them were s . metallina ( dana , 1849 ) , and therefore , all further analysis focused exclusively on them .
specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy followed [ 26 ] in detail . freshly collected specimens were fixated in a 2 . 5 % glutaraldehyde solution in a cacodylate buffer at ph 7 . 4 .
fixation and dehydration : samples were fixed in the above for 3–24 h in the cold . then they were rinsed 3 times for 10 minutes each in the same buffer , post - fixed in 1 % osmium tetroxide in the same buffer for 1 h and dehydrated in a graded ethanol series . during dehydration they were stained en bloc in uranyl acetate in 70 % ethanol .
embedding : samples were embedded in araldite resin . embedding was gradual , using two 5 - min rinses in epoxy propane ( propylene oxide ) and then an hour each in increasing amounts of araldite in epoxy propane ( 33 % , 50 % , 100 % ) . blocks were polymerized at 60° in an oven for 24 h .
sectioning : sections of various thicknesses ( 50–80 nm ) were cut using a leica ultracut uct ultra microtome ( leica microsystems , nussloch , germany ) and picked up on 75 - or 100 - mesh copper or nickel grids coated with formvar and carbon . the sections were contrasted with uranyl acetate and lead citrate .
transmission electron microscopy : sections were observed in a jeol jem - 1230 tem ( jeol ltd , tokyo , japan ) operated at 120 kv . digital images were collected with a gatan model 830 orius sc200 ccd camera using gatan ' s digital micrograph ( dm ) software .
we thank steven maccusker for technical support , rina jeger for assistance with tem analysis , viviana ( bracha ) farstey and dvir gur for assistance in species identification and animal related consultation , nishida shuhei for his advice and insights , and the comments of michael land and 2 anonymous reviewers that greatly improved this manuscript .
conceived and designed the experiments : yb jr ns . performed the experiments : yb jr ns . analyzed the data : yb jr ns . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : yb jr ns . wrote the paper : yb jr ns .
sabbah s , lerner a , erlick c , shashar n ( 2005 ) under water polarization vision - a physical examination . in : recent res . devel . experimental & theoretical biol . pandalai sg , editor . 1 : 123–176 .
shashar n , johnsen s , lerner a , sabbah s , chiao cc , et al . ( 2011 ) underwater linear polarization : physical limitations to biological functions . phil trans r soc b 366 : 649–654 .
ivanoff a , waterman th ( 1958 ) elliptical polarization of submarine illumination . j mar res 16 : 255–282 .
shapiro db , hunt aj , quinby - hunt ms , hull pg ( 1991 ) circular polarization effects in the light scattering from single and suspension of dinoflagellates . underwater imaging , photography , and visibility . proc of spie 1537 : 30–41 .
blaho m , egri a , hegedues r , josvai j , toth m , et al . ( 2012 ) no evidence for behavioral responses to circularly polarized light in four scarab beetle species with circularly polarizing exocuticle . physiol & behav 105 : 1067–1075 .
neville ac , caveney s ( 1969 ) scarabaeid beetle exocuticle as an optical analogue of cholesteric liquid crystals . biol rev 44 : 531–562 .
chiou th , kleinlogel s , cronin t , caldwell r , loeffler b , et al . ( 2008 ) circular polarization vision in a stomatopod crustacean . curr biol 18 : 429–434 .
cronin tw , chiou th , caldwell rl , roberts n , marshall j ( 2009 ) polarization signals in mantis shrimps . proc of spie 7461 74610c 1–5 .
goldstein dh ( 2006 ) polarization properties of scarabaeidae . appl opt 45 : 7944–7950 .
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seago ae , brady p , vigneron jp , schultz td ( 2009 ) gold bugs and beyond : a review of iridescence and structural colour mechanisms in beetles ( coleoptera ) . j r soc interface 6 : s165–s184 .
sharma v , crne m , park jo , srinivasarao m ( 2009 ) structural origin of circularly polarized iridescence in jeweled beetles . science . 325 : 449–451 .
wynberg h , meijer ew , hummelen jc , dekkers hpjm , schippers ph , et al . ( 1980 ) circular polarization observed in bioluminescence . nature 286 : 641–642 .
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chiou th , place ar , caldwell rl , marshall nj , cronin tw ( 2012 ) a novel function for a carotenoid : astaxanthin used as a polarizer for visual signalling in a mantis shrimp . j exp biol 215 : 584–589 .
( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) . j mar biol ass u . k . 84 : 727–731 .
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jarry g , henry f , kaiser r ( 2000 ) anisotropy and multiple scattering in thick mammalian tissues . j opt soc am a 17 : 149–153 .
sabbah s , shashar n ( 2006 ) polarization contrast of zooplankton : a model for polarization - based sighting distance . vision res 46 : 444–456 .
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the nauplius eye is elaborate , with large paired cuticular lenses on the frontal margin of the cephalosome ; these lenses are secondarily lost in male copilia . the antennule is typically 5 - segmented and is non - geniculate in the male . the antenna is uniramous and 4 - segmented , terminating in a small claw . the mandible consists of a broad segment drawn out into a tapering , dentate blade . the maxillule is a single lobe with 4 setae . the maxilliped is 3 - segmented in females , 3 or 4 - segmented in the male , and terminates in a claw .
swimming legs 1 to 4 are biramous with 3 - segmented rami , except for the endopod of leg 4 which is often reduced to 2 or just 1 segments . the fifth leg lacks a free segment and is represented by small papilla armed with 2 setae and 1 spine . egg sacs paired , multiseriate .
and copilia species are large members of the epipelagic planktonic community , primarily in tropical and subtropical oceans . their bodies are flattened to slow the rate of sinking and they have adopted transparency as a cryptic strategy . some sapphirina are iridescent and contain reflective platelets of guanine in their integument ( chae , kita - tsukamoto , nishida & ohwada , 1996 ) . sapphirina feeds on salps ( heron , 1973 ) and possibly other gelatinous zooplankton . the males of copilia have reduced mouthparts , have lost their cuticular lenses and probably do not feed as adults . marked reverse diel migrations have been reported in some species of sapphirina from the upper epipelagic zone .
with 1 large terminal toothed element usually with 1 - 2 small setae at its base .
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mclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31
bradford - grieve , j . m . , e . l . markhaseva , carlos rocha , and bernardo abiahy / d . boltovskoy , ed .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
maggie whitson marked
file : haeckel copepoda . jpg
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sapphirina darwinii
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maggie whitson marked
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as trusted on the
sapphirina danae
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maggie whitson added an association between
image of baconia sapphirina and baconia
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baconia lewis 1885
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image of sapphirina and sapphirina
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maggie whitson marked
image of sapphirina and sapphirina
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sapphirina j . thompson , 1830
page .
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copepods , which appear transparent to polarization - insensitive eyes , affected the linear polarization of light that passed through them , in the process partially circularly polarizing it . due to the relative abundance of
has polarization activity with the linearly polarized transmitted light . the animal was rotated between two linear polarizers at 45° to each other (
) , until an intensity change was detected . the brightness level at certain locations is about the same in both
shows the result of the cp detector for depolarized illumination . the circular polarization effect was observed when the incoming light was either linearly polarized (
when the light striking the copepods was linearly polarized , the orientation of the polarization strongly affected cp .
shows maps of the modulation depth of the signals as detected by the cp detector . each image is for a different orientation of incoming light polarization in 20° steps . a modulation depth of 1 . 0 indicates that the all measured light was cp , whereas a depth of 0 signifies no cp . the modulation depth as a function of the input polarization angle at six locations on the animal , as indicated on the inset , is depicted in
. cp levels , which were 30–60 % , were maximal from the cephalosome , from the metasome , and in both lateral sides of the copepod ' s soma . the prominent regions are not identical in
because the effect of cp of the depolarized light is much weaker ( maximum cp value of 30 % ) than the cp created under linearly polarized illumination ( maximum cp value of 60 % ) .
) , showing structures that could serve as light retarders . although we are not aware of any direct evidence of birefringence in these layered structures , we do not know of any mechanism other than retardation by birefringence to convert transmitted linear polarization to cp light .
we hypothesize that the crystals in each layer of the multilayer hexagonal platelets are birefringent . if the optical path difference between the fast and the slow axes of the crystal is an odd number of quarter - wave lengths , then the multilayer hexagonal platelets are functioning as a quarter - wave retarder . formally , the plate structure should follow the equation 2π·δ
is an arbitrary positive whole number . hence linearly polarized light ( at a 45° angle to the fast and slow axes ) transmitted through the copepods is circularly polarized . note that the graph of the modulation depth of the cp detector signal as a function of the input polarization shows a cycle of π / 2 as is expected from a quarter - wave retarder . also note that most of cyclic signals changed together with almost no phase difference between them , an indication that all the crystals of the hexagonal platelets over the entire body of the copepod are oriented in approximately the same direction . however , we also found that the handedness of the circular polarization along the sides of the dorsal view ( points a–d in
, inset ) . this observation may indicate that the cp mechanism in each of these two regions is different . further experimentation is needed to elucidate the retardance properties of the copepods .
) based on a cokin® circular polarizing filter , half of which was covered from the direction of the incoming light by a λ / 2 retarder ( i . e . , circular polarization handedness switching filter ) with an optical path difference of 280 nm . a step motor rotated this apparatus sequentially to four positions at 90° intervals . at each position , the specimen was photographed via a zeiss stemi 2000 - c polarization insensitive dissecting scope and a nikon single ccd digital camera . to match the retarder filter ( best fit for wavelengths around 560 nm ) , only the green channel of each image was used in further analysis . this approach resulted in four different pictures ( orientations of the λ / 2 retarder at 90° intervals ) of the copepod .
israeli science foundation grant # 1081 / 10 to ns and by the halperin and shechter foundations . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
shashar n , johnsen s , lerner a , sabbah s , chiao cc , et al . ( 2011 )
circular polarization effects in the light scattering from single and suspension of dinoflagellates . underwater imaging , photography , and visibility
blaho m , egri a , hegedues r , josvai j , toth m , et al . ( 2012 )
chiou th , kleinlogel s , cronin t , caldwell r , loeffler b , et al . ( 2008 )
wynberg h , meijer ew , hummelen jc , dekkers hpjm , schippers ph , et al . ( 1980 )


poropuntius solitus is a species of freshwater , ray-finned fish in the genus poropuntius .

it was first described by maurice kottelat in 2000 .

this species is found in tributaries to the xe kong river on the eastern half of the bolaven plateau in laos .

its population is decreasing due to overfishing , and proposed efforts to dam the river and its tributaries further threaten the species .

the poropuntius solitus is currently considered an endangered species by the international union for conservation of nature and natural resources .

poropuntius solitus

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poropuntius solitus on fish mapper tsn 689714 ( taxonomic serial number ) retrieved on from the integrated taxonomic information system online database . this is a cached copy . more
poropuntius tawarensis ( m . c . w . weber & de beaufort , 1916 )
poropuntius brevispinus ( v . h . nguyễn & l . h . doan , 1969 )
poropuntius carinatus ( h . w . wu & r . d . lin , 1977 )
poropuntius daliensis ( h . w . wu & r . d . lin , 1977 )
poropuntius exiguus ( h . w . wu & r . d . lin , 1977 )
poropuntius rhomboides ( h . w . wu & r . d . lin , 1977 )
poropuntius fuxianhuensis ( y . h . wang , d . d . zhuang & l . c . gao , 1982 )
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known from the bolaven plateau . roberts ( 1998 ) had described three as trophic morphs of
( i . e . , individuals of the same species that develop different morphologies to adapt to different ecological conditions ) . kottelat ( 2000 ) treated them as different species because he found differences that are not trophic related and are present in juveniles before they develop trophic specialisation , and described a fourth species . this community of four species or morphs on the top of an isolated plateau is a rare biological phenomenon and studies are needed to clear the taxonomy of these species or morphs . the four species / morphs occur together and up to now there are no data linking each to a specific habitat .
known from bolaven plateau with specialised morphology . the taxonomy is not very clear and this is a rare biological phenomenon on top of an isolated plateau . research is needed to clear the taxonomy of these species or morphs . this is also an interesting system for research on evolution .
known at present only from tributaries of the xe kong river on the eastern half of the bolaven plateau , lao pdr . the species has an estimated extent of occurrence of approximately 2 , 500 km² .
populations are inferred to be declining as a result of fishing pressure , and are expected to decline as a result of hydropower dams .
streams with clear , cool and fast water , over stones , rocks , rapids and waterfalls .
this species is threatened by overfishing , dam construction , habitat degradation from agriculture and bauxite mining on the plateau .
no conservation actions are in place . further research is required for this species .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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