brachyramphus is a small genus of seabirds from the north pacific .

brachyramphus is from ancient greek brakhus , " short " , and rhamphos , " bill " .

the species are named as " murrelets " ; this is a diminutive of " murre " , a word of uncertain origins , but which may imitate the call of the common guillemot .

the genus contains three species : marbled murrelet , brachyramphus marmoratus long-billed murrelet brachyramphus perdix kittlitz 's murrelet , brachyramphus brevirostris these are unusual members of the auk family , often nesting far inland in forests or on mountain tops .

the long-billed murrelet was considered conspecific with the marbled murrelet until 1998 , when friesen et al. showed that the mtdna variation was greater between these two forms than between marbled and kittlitz 's murrelets .

these species breed in the subarctic north pacific .

they tend to remain coastal in winter , either staying near the breeding grounds , or , in the case of long-billed , migrating to the coast of japan .

two prehistoric species have been described from late pliocene fossils , found in the san diego formation of the southwestern usa : brachyramphus dunkeli and brachyramphus pliocenum

brachyramphus

identifying nesting habitat of kittlitz ' s murrelets brachyramphus brevirostris : old nests lead to a new breeding record / leah a . kenney .
designation of critical habitat for the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) proposed rule ; finding that the revision of critical habitat should not be made .
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presents first breeding record of kittlitz ' s murrelets ( brachyramphus brevirostris ) nesting at adak island , aleutian archipelago , and identifies 14 non - active nests .
day rh , alexander kp , nigro da . ecological specialization and overlap of brachyramphus murrelets in prince william sound , alaska . auk . 2003 ; 120 : 680–699 .
carter ha . at - sea biology of the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in barkley sound , british columbia . ms thesis . university of manitoba . 1984 .
presents first breeding record of kittlitz ' s murrelets ( brachyramphus brevirostris ) nesting at adak island , aleutian archipelago , and identifies 14 non - active nests . 650 07
to cite this page : smart , j . 1999 .
brachyramphus marmoratus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
designation of critical habitat for the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) : proposed rule ; reopening of comment period , notice of availability of draft economic analysis , and amended required determinations .
barbaree ba , nelson sk , dugger bd . marine space use by marbled murrelets brachyramphus marmoratus at a mainland fjord system in southeast alaska . marine ornithology . 2015 ; 116 : 173–184 .
barrett j . the influence of oceanographic and terrestrial attributes on marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) marine habitat selection during the breeding season . m . sc . thesis , simon fraser university . 2008 .
citation : lorenz tj , raphael mg , bloxton td jr ( 2016 ) marine habitat selection by marbled murrelets ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) during the breeding season . plos one 11 ( 9 ) : e0162670 . urltoken
usfws ( u . s . fish and wildlife service ) . recovery plan for the threatened marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in washington , oregon , and california . usfws , portland , oregon . 1997 .
the currently accepted scientific name for the marbled murrelet is brachyramphus marmoratus ( gmelin ) . it is in the family alicidae . there are two recognized subspecies but only b . marmoratus marmoratus occurs in north america [
stenhouse , i . j . , studebaker , s . and zwiefelhofer , d . ( 2008 ) kittlitz’s murrelet brachyramphus brevirostris in the kodiak archipelago , alaska . marine ornithology , 36 : 59 - 66 .
kuletz kj . foraging behavior and productivity of a non - colonial seabird , the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) , relative to prey and habitat . p . d . dissertation , university of victoria . 2005 .
center for biological diversity . ( 2001 ) petition to list the kittlitz’s murrelet ( brachyramphus brevirostris ) as endangered under the endangered species act . center for biological diversity , coastal coalition , eyak preservation council , and lynn canal conservation society .
tesky , julie l . 1994 . brachyramphus marmoratus . in : fire effects information system , [ online ] . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service , rocky mountain research station , fire sciences laboratory ( producer ) . available : urltoken [
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : brachyramphus brevirostris . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : brachyramphus marmoratus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
day , r . h . , kuletz , k . j . and nigro , d . a . ( 1999 ) kittlitz ' s murrelet ( brachyramphus brevirostris ) . in : poole , a . ( ed ) the birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
591 . 5 - - animal behaviour . 591 . 551 - - animals , breeding behaviour . 591 . 563 - - nest - building . 598 . 441 - - alcidae : brachyramphus brevirostris . h5 - - zoology : birds . ( * 3 ) - - arctic regions . ( * 49 ) - - alaska . ( * 495 . 2 ) - - aleutian islands .
burger , a . e . ; manley , i . a . ; silvergieter , m . p . ; lank , d . b . ; jordan , k . m . ; bloxton , t . d . ; raphael , m . g . 2009 . re - use of nest sites by marbled murrelets ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) in british columbia . northwestern naturalist . 90 : 217 - 226 .
nettleship , d . n . , de juana , e . , sharpe , c . j . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . kittlitz ' s murrelet ( brachyramphus brevirostris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) is a federally threatened seabird that requires two fundamentally different habitats for breeding . foraging occurs at sea because murrelets are pursuit - diving seabirds whose primary prey are small schooling fish and large zooplankton . however , coastal , old - growth coniferous forests are used for nesting in much of their range . like many alcids , marbled murrelets do not build nests and instead rely on naturally deposited materials for a nest platform . unlike other alcids , however , in the marbled murrelet a single egg is typically laid directly on a large , mossy limb in the forest canopy . in most cases , only large , old trees have limbs of sufficient diameter for these unusual nests .
the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) is a small pacific seabird listed as threatened under the endangered species act in california , oregon and washington . all population surveying efforts to date have concluded that the listed population exhibits a long - term downward trend . in the past decade , marbled murrelet populations have decreased by 27 % throughout the listed population ' s range with a more alarming 45 % decline in the state of washington . threats to the marbled murrelet include loss of habitat from commercial timber harvest , nest predation , gill - net fishing operations , oil spills , and marine pollution . the usfws is working with other federal , state , and tribal agencies and private landowners and university researchers to recover the marbled murrelet . for more information on this threatened species , please visit the following usfws websites : urltoken urltoken urltoken we strive to make our electronic and information technology accessible to all . please email us at fw1webmaster @ urltoken if you need the text of this video .
marbled murrelets ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) nest predominantly in the canopies of large old - growth conifers , and are listed as threatened in canada and three u . s . states mainly as a consequence of reductions in this habitat owing to logging . we assessed the re - use of nest sites ( nest trees ) by murrelets in british columbia using three types of data : ( 1 ) evidence of return of adults to the same nest site , ( 2 ) evidence of multiple nests within the same tree , and ( 3 ) re - checking known nest trees in subsequent seasons for evidence of re - use . all three methods showed evidence of re - use of nest trees in different years , but there were marked regional differences in the degree of re - use . re - use of nest trees was most frequent in regions with extensive loss of nesting habitat due to logging ( southern mainland coast and east vancouver island ) , and rare in a less disturbed region ( west vancouver island ) . overall , 26 of 143 ( 18 percent ) nest trees climbed showed evidence of multiple nesting in separate seasons . management of nesting habitat should incorporate these results by providing greater protection of habitat in regions where habitat is sparse , and by minimizing predation risk where murrelets more frequently re - use nest sites . because re - use of nest sites is infrequent , managers should aim to provide murrelets with multiple choices for nest sites , such as maintaining large tracts of old - growth forest with many large trees containing potential nest platforms .
the marbled murrelet ( brachyramphus marmoratus ) is a declining seabird that is well - known for nesting in coastal old - growth forests in the pacific northwest . most studies of habitat selection have focused on modeling terrestrial nesting habitat even though marine habitat is believed to be a major contributor to population declines in some regions . to address this information gap , we conducted a 5 - year study of marine resource selection by murrelets in washington , which contains a population experiencing the steepest documented declines and where marine habitat is believed to be compromised . across five years we tracked 157 radio - tagged murrelets during the breeding season ( may to august ) , and used discrete choice models to examine habitat selection . using an information theoretic approach , our global model had the most support , suggesting that murrelet resource selection at - sea is affected by many factors , both terrestrial and marine . locations with higher amounts of nesting habitat ( β = 21 . 49 , p < 0 . 001 ) that were closer to shore ( β = - 0 . 0007 , p < 0 . 001 ) and in cool waters ( β = - 0 . 2026 , p < 0 . 001 ) with low footprint ( β = - 0 . 0087 , p < 0 . 001 ) had higher probabilities of use . while past conservation efforts have focused on protecting terrestrial nesting habitat , we echo many past studies calling for future efforts to protect marine habitat for murrelets , as the current emphasis on terrestrial habitat alone may be insufficient for conserving populations . in particular , marine areas in close proximity to old - growth nesting habitat appear important for murrelets during the breeding season and should be priorities for protection .
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any of various plants having pale flowers with dark centres , esp . t . . .
recent study found that birds from attu i and from gulf of alaska represent two discrete evolutionarily significant units , having been genetically isolated for a very long period # r . monotypic .
bering sea coasts n into chukchi sea and s to gulf of alaska : in russia probably limited to wrangel i , e chukotskiy peninsula in chukchi sea w to cape schmidta and s to n sea of okhotsk ( shelikhov bay and babushkin bay ) and e kamchatka ; in alaska from just e of cape lisburne s to aleutians and e to glacier bay and stikine r ( gulf of alaska ) . winters mainly offshore near breeding area , from e siberia to n kuril is , but recorded as far s as n japan ( hokkaido ) and from aleutians e to glacier bay .
22–23 cm ; 224 g ; wingspan 43 cm . small alcid with short brownish bill , and darkish brown iris ; brown to darkish brown upperparts mottled buff and white ( cryptic sandy . . .
generally silent , apparently even on breeding grounds , possibly as an additional anti - predator . . .
neritic , usually along rocky sea coasts . in summer , associated with coastal ( sometimes inland ) . . .
information extremely limited , only 22 nests known ( 1995 ) . timing of breeding varies markedly through range , with start of laying c . 1 . . .
post - breeding dispersal into bays and fjords of prince william sound occurs late jul and aug . . . .
not globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . total population size poorly known , but believed to be much smaller than that of
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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
shoreline regions of the north pacific ocean : western - japan to kamchatka , russia , eastern - central california to southern alaska .
the general habitat of the marbled murrelet is near coastal waters , tide - rips , bays , and mountains . nesting sites are in higher elevations , exclusively in old growth forests of 175 - 600 years in age ( barring a few ground nests on alaskan islands ) . nest sites are large , moss covered , horizontal branches with an average height of 45 meters . the sites are often a substantial distance from the coast ( peterson , 1961 ; carter and morrison , 1992 ; singer , 1990 ) .
the marbled murrelet is a very small , chubby , sea bird that seems to lack a neck . it has a dark brown to black dorsum and a white venter and throat . the nonbreeding plumage includes a strip of white between the back and the wing , thus the name
marbled
. the breeding plumage is dark brown dorsally ; ventral feathers are white tipped with brown . males and females are of approximately the same size , 9 . 5 - 10
wingspan . bill length is 13 - 18 mm ; wing length ( relaxed ) is 120 - 140mm . the voice of the marbled murrelet is a sharp
keer
or lower
kee .
the marbled murrelet breeds on mountains near the coast . breeding season is from mid - april to the end of august . females have been collected with shelled eggs in their oviducts from april 23 to july 13 . the murrelet has single egg clutches . murrelets may not fledge young until mid - september , based on a 30 - day incubation and a 28 - day rearing period . nesting sites are almost exclusively in old - growth forests , yet some have been found in cavities in subalpine areas , and on the ground on islands . murrelet eggs are yellowish and spotted . the first known nest was found in a rock slide far above the timber line at 1900 ft . on chicago island , alaska , on june 13 , 1931 . ( peterson , 1961 ; carter and morrison , 1992 ) .
during courtship , the murrelet extends its beak upward in display , calls shrilly , paddles rapidly in unison with its mate for several minutes , and then dives repeatedly . once the egg is produced , the male and the female murrelet divide the responsibility of incubating the lone egg in the nest . upon hatching , the nestlings are fed larger prey than that ingested by the parents . the marbled murrelet can fly up to 100 km one way to the sea to look for food for the young . after the rearing period , murrelet fledglings fly to the sea when they leave their nest . marbled murrelets occur in loose aggregations in predictable locations near dependable food sources . groups of one or two birds comprise 63 % of all sightings , but aggregations of 100 - 3197 birds have been reported .
marbled murrelets migrate a relatively small distance southward , less than 1000 miles , in the winter months . members of the gulf of alaska population may overwinter in bays of southeastern alaska and northern british columbia ( carter and morrison , 1992 ) .
an adult murrelet was observed carrying a fish , presumably for a hatchling . murrelets eat primarily fish , including pacific sandlance , pacific herring , and seaperch . they forage for food solitarily or in pairs , sometimes amongst mixed species feeding flocks ( carter and morrison , 1992 ) .
increasing numbers of people are spending considerable sums of money to reach marine bird viewing areas off the coasts of north american states and provinces . these
nonconsumptive pursuits
( barry , 1979 ) contribute significant amounts of money to regional economies . also , there are indirect commercial benefits . marine birds play significant roles in their complex ecosystem . disruption of that ecosystem by the extinction of sea birds could have an adverse affect on the fishing industry . marine bird excrement , ( . 12 - . 24 million tons annually ! ! ) is especially rich in nitrates and phosphates , which phytoplankton , the basis of ocean food pyramids , requires ( berry , 1979 ) .
if additional research finds that the marbled murrelet lives exclusively in old - growth forests and that their numbers decrease proportionally with the decrease in acres of forest , then it could be deemed an indicator species thus a justifiable deterent for further logging operations . the decrease in logging leads to a loss of income and jobs in the logging industry ( carter , morrison ) .
the alaskan population is estimated at 250 , 000 birds , centered in south central and south eastern parts of the state , but extending into bristol bay and along the aleutian islands . this represents the bulk of the north american population . logging efforts are expanding in the areas of the greatest murrelet population . continued logging will produce major declines in murrelet numbers . inland records from british columbia , washington , and oregon suggested the presence of nests in old growth forests , although none had been found prior to 1990 . marbled murrelet numbers in british columbia are an estimated 45 , 000 - 50 , 000 birds , with the highest density on the west coast of vancouver island . the marbled murrelet population of washington is estimated at 5 , 000 , centered in the northern puget sound area . oregon ' s population is estimated at 2 , 000 - 4 , 000 birds , located mostly in the central coastal region . there is also a small population of murrelets , ( 1400 - 1700 birds ) on the north central coast of california .
threats include mainly the loss of old - growth forests ( all locales ) , some mortality from gill nets ( responsible for the annual death of 7 . 8 % of the british columbia population ) , and oil pollution ( alaska and washington ) . very little of the existing old - growth forests are currently protected . one locale of substantial old growth forest in british columbia was expected to decrease 95 % in 50 years due to harvest schedules . four of the five locations where fledglings were found in washington state have been logged . of oregon ' s old growth forests , 44 % is in stands of less than 32 hectares or within 122 meters of a clearcut . this isolation of small patches of forest may decrease reproductive success and increase predation at nest sites . in california , only 4 % of the original acreage of redwood trees is currently protected . this obliteration of habitat could be responsible for the sparse numbers of murrelet in california .
the marbled murrelet is considered endanged in california , and threatened in oregon , washington , and british columbia . its low reproductive rate prevents fast recovery from population decreases . the marbled murrelet is one of the few species of alcids whose known and suspected nesting habitat is not protected by federal refuge designation . several lawsuits have been filed to defer the logging of old - growth forests where murrelets are known or suspected to live . in order to save the habitat of the marbled murrelet there need to be larger forest reserves and / or substantial changes in the logging practices .
tree searches since then have produced 19 nest locations in old growth forests . due to the difficulty of locating the nests of these elusive birds , it is necessary to implement plans for further research before the marbled murrelet becomes an indicator species such as the spotted owl ( carter and morisson , 1992 ) .
closely related species include : ( 1 ) kittlitz ' s murrelet , glacier bay , alaska and north . ( 2 ) least auklet , aleutian islands and bering sea , ranges do not overlap . ( 3 ) cassin ' s auklet , same geographic range . ( peterson , 1961 )
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
body of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .
living in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
ainley , d . g . et al 1993 . beached marine birds and mammals of the north american west coast : a revised guide to their census and identification . u . s . dept . of commerce .
berry , t . w . 1979 . wildlife research report ,
social and economic values of marine birds
. united states dept . of the interior .
carter , h . r . , morrison , m . l . 1992 . status and conservation of the marbled murrelet in north america . western foundation of vertebrate zoology .
peterson , r . t . 1961 . a field guide to western birds . houghton miflin co . boston .
singer , s . w . et al 1990 . discovery an observation of two tree nests of the marbled murrelet . the condor . the cooper ornithological society .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
25 cm . chunky alcid . breeding plumage is dark brown above , heavily mottled below . in winter , dark grey above and white below with white scapulars , dark marks on side of breast , dark ear - coverts and whitish eye - ring . juvenile resembles winter adult but darker scapulars and dusky mottling below .
is paler , has white outer tail feathers and shorter bill . in winter , has whiter face broken by dark eye and slight eye - stripe , nearly complete breast - band and white tips to secondaries .
this species is still abundant , but it is treated as endangered because its population is estimated to have undergone a very rapid reduction , especially in the southern portion of its range , which is expected to continue , owing to a variety of threats .
cosewic ( 2012 ) estimated the total population to number 358 , 200 - 417 , 500 individuals , rounded here to 350 , 000 - 420 , 000 individuals , based on 271 , 000 individuals in alaska ( piatt et al . 2007 ) , 72 , 600 - 125 , 600 in british columbia ( bertram et al . 2007 ) , and 15 , 400 - 23 , 900 individuals in washington , oregon and california ( falxa et al . 2014 ) .
the population was estimated to have declined by c . 11 % in 2000 - 2013 in washington , oregon , and california ( falxa
2014 ) , with a 50 % decrease in alaska in 1972 - 1992 ( piatt and naslund 1995 ) . at - sea surveys over the past 25 years in british columbia suggest declines of c . 1 % per year ( piatt
. 2004 ) , has declined by 22 % between 1978 and 2008 , and is continuing ( cosewic 2012 ) . declines are suspected to be very rapid and on - going due to very low measured productivity rates .
conservation actions underway it is threatened in all range states and province except alaska . detailed conservation recommendations were made in 1990s ( usfws 1992 , ralph et al . 1995 ) . federal land - use in the usa is regulated , areas for management identified and surveyed , and some temporarily removed from logging ( nelson 1997 , raphael 2006 ) . in august 2016 , the usfws released the final determination on critical habitat for the species in the listed range and in january 2010 determined that the species still warrented protection and listing as threatened after numerous challenges by the timber industry . usfws initiated a status review of the species in 2008 , which will also function as a 5 - year status review ( harrison 2008 ) . in canada there has been extensive research , an updated recovery strategy ( environment canada 2014 ) , some ( relatively minor ) habitat protection under the british columbia forest and range practices act , more extensive protection of forest habitat under various land use agreements and a radar monitoring plan developed by the canadian marbled murrelet recovery team ( cmmrt 2003 , cosewic 2012 ) . the canadian marbled murrelet recovery team developed a recovery strategy to be compliant with the canadian species at risk act ( environment canada 2014 ) . this lays out the general strategy for population stability ( population reduction between 2002 and 2032 not to exceed 30 % of the 2002 population and this decline is linked to similar limited decline in available suitable nesting habitat ) . the essential marine and terrestrial action plans required by the species at risk act have not been drafted ( as of 2016 ) and these are not likely to be completed and implemented before 2020 . under the canadian recovery strategy critical nesting habitat requiring protection is defined as 70 % of the 2002 suitable nesting habitat coast - wide , with varying percentages ( 68 - 90 % ) in the six conservation regions in british columbia ( environment canada 2014 ) .
the u . s . department of natural resources ( wdnr ) began developing a marbled murrelet long - term conservation strategy in 2007 ( escene 2007 ) ; the final strategy still has not been released as of 2016 . the northwest forest plan ( 1994 ) is expected to ensure the protection of a large proportion of important habitats in the usa ( raphael 2006 ) .
extensive areas of suitable forest nesting habitat have been set aside in conservancies on the northern and central mainland and in haida gwaii ( formerly queen charlotte islands ) ( cosewic 2012 ) . smaller areas are being protected by other forestry and conservation measures . overall , an estimated 35 % of the 1 , 826 , 828 hectares of suitable habitat in all of british columbia ( based on the canadian marbled murrelet recovery team modeling criteria [ cmmrt 2003 ] ) had been protected under various measures by 2011 ( cosewic 2012 ) . in 1998 , the exxon valdez trustee council protected 179 km
1999 172 : 23 ) . in 2007 , 1 , 569 ha of forested land on the oregon coast was acquired under conservation easement for the species ( amongst others ) , part funded by the new carissa oil - spill funds ( escene 2007 ) . between 1998 and 2002 , 507 marbled murrelets were radio - tracked in british columbia (
edited : geographic range , population justification , rationale , habitat and ecology , countries of occurence , threats , conservation actions proposed , underway and in place , important conservation actions needed and research needed . added references and also added new contributors and a new compiler .
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22694870a112447662 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
this species qualifies as near threatened because it is likely to be undergoing a moderately rapid population reduction owing to logging of the old - growth forests where it nests . future oil exploration could exacerbate these declines .
. based on observations at sea during the breeding season , it might be also breeding in alaska ( sealy and carter , 2012 ) . it was split from marbled murrelet
. in japan , it is rare in eastern hokkaido , where breeding occur historically and it is possible that very small numbers do still breed there ( namba 2013 ) , but commoner on the sea of okhotsk coast , especially near the shiretoko peninsula . there are few areas in russia where the species is considered common : the lower amur river area , particularly between baydukov island and aleksandra bay ; near magadan along the khmitievsky peninsula , tauyskaya bay , and the koni peninsula ; and on the kamchatka peninsula . it appears to be uncommon in the primorye region and on sakhalin island ( where its distribution is patchy ) , and it is rare on the northern coast of the sea of okhotsk .
the global population size has not been accurately quantified , however it is said to number in the ' tens of thousands ( konyukhov and kitaysky 1995 ) . the population in russia has been estimated at < 100 , 000 breeding pairs and < 1 , 000 individuals on migration ( brazil 2009 ) .
there are no data , however logging is likely to be driving a moderately rapid decline in this species .
it breeds in old - growth coniferous forests within 100 km of the coast , wintering in sheltered coastal waters .
like marbled murrelet , this species is under increasing threat from the logging of old growth forests which has accelerated in recent years , particularly on sakhalin island and the kamchatka peninsula . intensive development of the oil industry has occurred on the okhotsk and bering sea shelves , and this constitutes a further potential threat .
conduct surveys to improve knowledge of the breeding and wintering grounds . regularly monitor the population at important sites on both the breeding and wintering grounds . ensure sufficient safeguards are put in place and enforced to prevent pollution in important parts of the at sea range . protect large areas of unlogged forest in important breeding areas .
extension of comment period for the draft environmental impact statement , and incidental take permit application and proposed habitat conservation plan submitted by plum creek timberlands , l . p . for lands in montana , idaho , and washington
availability of a draft environmental impact statement and receipt of an application for the proposed issuance of a permit to allow incidental take of threatened and endangered species on plum creek timber company , l . p . , lands in the i90 corridor , king and kittitas counties , wa
revised critical habitat for the marbled murrelet - proposed rule ; reopening of public comment period .
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funding : funding was provided by the united states forest service pacific northwest research station , washington department of natural resources , national council for air and stream improvement , olympic natural resources center , and the united states fish and wildlife service . the pacific northwest research station contributed to study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , and preparation of the manuscript ( mgr tdb tjl ) . other funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the first management efforts with marbled murrelets recognized their need for large trees . they also acknowledged that > 100 years of logging in coastal forests from british columbia to california had drastically reduced the amount of murrelet breeding habitat [ 1 ] . in the northwest forest plan [ 2 ] , measures were taken to protect unharvested , late - successional , and old - growth forests on federal lands in washington , oregon , and california . unfortunately , despite these conservation efforts decades ago , multiple studies have reported continued population declines [ 3 – 5 ] . there has been much discussion in the scientific literature about whether these declines are due to losses in nesting habitat that have continued on private lands and / or changes to marine habitat . raphael et al . [ 6 ] documented an 8–33 % decline in potential nesting habitat on private lands from washington to california which corresponds with murrelet population declines during that same time period [ 4 ] . nest habitat losses were greatest in washington state , which is where miller et al . [ 4 ] and falxa and raphael [ 5 ] reported the steepest declines in murrelet numbers . additionally , marine conditions have also changed in the last century and since the northwest forest plan . marine factors that have been identified as potential threats to murrelets include overfishing , pollution , unattended fishing gear , human population growth ( and associated disturbance ) , and more recently , climate change [ 1 ] . in the southern portion of their range , peery et al . [ 7 ] examined the relative influence of nesting habitat on reproduction in a declining california population and concluded that marine food and nest predation , rather than availability of nesting habitat , were responsible for the low reproductive output of the population . studies using stable isotopes have indicated that murrelets are foraging on lower trophic levels than historically , and this has contributed to low productivity and population declines [ 8 – 10 ] .
overall , the conservation of marbled murrelets may hinge on protecting not only nesting habitat–the focus of conservation efforts to date–but also on foraging habitat . in an effort to better understand important marine habitats for marbled murrelets , we conducted a study of marine habitat selection by individually - tagged murrelets . studies of habitat selection by individually tagged animals are important for examining habitat selection for conservation planning [ 11 ] . our objective was to model marine habitat selection by marbled murrelets during the breeding season to better understand the relative influence of marine versus terrestrial habitat features on murrelet space use while at - sea . we conducted this study in northwestern washington , the location of the steepest murrelet declines documented to date .
all handling and tagging of marbled murrelets was in accordance with the u . s . fish and wildlife service endangered species 10a1a permit ( permit # te - 070589 - 2 ) and in compliance with the ornithological council guidelines for the use of wild birds in research [ 12 ] . scientific collection permits were obtained annually from washington department of fish and wildlife , and a federal bird banding permit was obtained from the u . s . geological survey , bird banding lab . field studies involved handling a federally threatened seabird , and consequently all sampling and handling procedures were approved by a u . s . fish and wildlife service endangered species 10a1a permit prior to the start of our study , as noted above . permissions to access field sites were provided by united states ( u . s . ) forest service , u . s . park service , washington department of fish and wildlife , washington department of natural resources , washington state parks , and british colombia ministry of forests , lands , and natural resource operations .
we conducted this study in northwestern washington state ( approximately 47° 48′ n , 123° 40′ w ) and southwestern british columbia ( approximately 48° 24′ n , 123° 40′ w ) ( fig 1 ) . we were logistically constrained to capturing birds in u . s . waters , although we radio - tracked murrelets in both u . s . and canadian waters . we used standard techniques to capture murrelets at - sea , which involved locating birds at night from small boats using night - lighting and capturing them in long - handled dipnets [ 13 ] . we captured and tagged murrelets from april to july , 2004–2008 . with the exception of a few individuals that were released without transmitters because of concerns over handling stress , all birds were fit with a vhf transmitter ( 1 . 5 % of body weight ; advanced telemetry systems , isanti , mn ) using a subcutaneous anchor following newman et al . ( 1999 ) [ 14 ] . unlike newman et al . [ 13 ] however , we did not use anesthesia or sutures . murrelets were released at the site of capture within 1 hour .
study area used to examine resource selection by marbled murrelets in northwestern washington and southwestern british columbia , 2004–2008 .
the marine 99 % population - level kernel ( from all radio - tracked murrelets ) is depicted in yellow to green tones , where darker shading indicates areas with a high probability of use and lighter yellow shading areas with a low probability of use by the population of tagged murrelets . black dots represent 5 , 388 marine telemetry locations from all murrelets tracked in this study .
we located radio - tagged murrelets using aerial tracking from fixed wing aircraft . we initiated searches within three days after the first murrelet was tagged in each year . we ended searches after the last known nest had fledged or failed and when significant numbers of transmitters were no longer detectable within our study area , indicating post - breeding dispersal or transmitter battery failure . weather permitting , we conducted tracking flights daily . tracking flights lasted for up to ~ 5 hours until either all birds had been located or the aircraft needed refueling . aerial searches focused on marine areas , but also included terrestrial areas to locate nest sites of breeding murrelets . if an individual murrelet was not located at - sea or on an inland nest for ~ 2–3 consecutive days , we expanded our search area to find the missing bird and generally focused on areas beyond the location that the missing murrelet was last detected .
when a murrelet’s radio signal was detected from the air , pilots circled over the transmitter and used a gps unit to mark the location from which they heard the loudest radio signal . tests with stationary transmitters indicated that location accuracy from aircraft was 385 m on average ( sd = 230 , range 93–685 m ) . we omitted all telemetry locations obtained at night ( defined by civil twilight on each day ) because past research indicates murrelets do not actively feed at night [ 15 ] and we were primarily interested in habitat selection by active and foraging murrelets .
description of parameters considered for examining marine habitat selection by marbled murrelets in northwestern washington , usa , 2004–2008 .
we measured the linear distance from each telemetry relocation to the shore . we also measured water depth ( bathymetry ) at each relocation point because murrelets are thought to forage in shallow water [ 26 ] . human activity can affect marbled murrelet space use at - sea [ 27 – 28 ] and we therefore included indices of marine and terrestrial human footprint for our study area . the marine footprint was obtained from halpern et al . [ 29 ] and the terrestrial footprint from sanderson et al . [ 30 ] . the marine footprint combined 17 factors ranging from fishing activity , pollution , and shipping traffic [ 29 ] . the terrestrial footprint considered three main factors : human population density , light pollution , and transportation infrastructure ( including roads , railways , coastlines , and rivers ) [ 30 ] . both datasets were calculated at ~ 1 km resolution and classified the marine or terrestrial landscape on a scale of 0–100 in the relative influence of human activity .
we included a categorical variable for the average relative wind speed ( or “windiness” ) because murrelets may preferentially foraged in areas of calm water [ 31 ] . we obtained spatial data on estimated wind energy potential ( i . e . , wind power class ) at 500 m resolution from the national renewable energy laboratory [ 32 ] and used this as a proxy for the relative wind speed on waters within our study area . based on this dataset [ 32 ] we classified windiness within our study area as a dichotomous variable ( high or low ) where high winds were associated with areas with a wind power class ≥3 ( areas suitable for wind energy development , with annual average wind speed at heights of 50 m > 6 . 4–7 . 0 m / s ) and low winds in areas with a wind power class < 3 ( areas unsuitable for wind energy development , with annual average wind speed at heights of 50 m < 6 . 4–7 . 0 m / s ) [ 32 ] .
sand lance ( ammodytes hexapterus ) are considered one important prey of breeding marbled murrelets ( [ 16 ] , and references therein ; [ 33 ] ) . they are associated with fine gravel or sandy - bottomed coastal waters and thus marbled murrelets may select sandy bottomed areas over rock or other substrates . we could find no spatial data on bottom types for our study area and so we used the nearest shoreline type as a proxy [ 34 – 35 ] . we obtained spatial data on shoreline composition from the national oceanic and atmospheric administration for u . s . shorelines [ 36 ] and british columbia ministry of forests , lands and natural resource management for canadian shorelines . we then classified the entire shoreline of our study area into two classes , “sand / gravel beach” and “other” shoreline . our class for “sand / gravel beach” included sand and mixed - gravel beaches . our class for “other” included shores classified as rock shoreline ( cliff to level , rocky shores ) , human structures , and vegetated , tidal wetlands .
the availability and proximity of potential nesting habitat has been implicated as an important factor affecting the marine density of murrelets in multiple studies [ 26 , 37 ] . we estimated the proportion of nesting habitat within a 5806 - km 2 circular area centered on each telemetry location , equal in radius to the mean distance traveled to sea for breeding murrelets in our study . we obtained spatial data on suitable nesting habitat for our study area from raphael et al . [ 6 , 26 ] . for the u . s . portion of our study area , raphael et al . [ 6 ] defined nesting habitat primarily using landtrendr data ( landsat - based detection of trends in disturbance and recovery methods ) [ 38 ] and gradient nearest neighbor ( gnn ) models [ 39 ] . for the canadian portion of our study , nesting habitat was defined based on areas classified as old growth management areas by the ministry of forests , lands , and natural resources [ 40 ] . while this dataset does not explicitly model nest habitat for murrelets , it was the most recent and comprehensive layer for potential nesting habitat that we were able to obtain , and has been used in other publications modeling murrelet nesting habitat availability [ 26 ] .
we did not consider distance to nest site as a factor [ 41 – 42 ] because only a few radio - tagged murrelets in our study were confirmed breeders with known nest sites . however , by including the proportion of nesting habitat as a factor , we assumed that the effect of nest site proximity and availability was adequately accounted for in our analysis . also , we did not differentiate between breeders and nonbreeders in our analysis because few murrelets bred ( 13 % ) . because murrelets commonly visit nesting habitat even when not actively breeding [ 43 – 44 ] we did not exclude proportion of nesting habitat from our analysis for non - breeders . we expected that availability of nesting habitat had the potential to influence murrelet marine space use regardless of breeding status . we did not differentiate between males and females in our analysis because past studies have found that marine movements and space use do not vary by sex [ 42 , 45 ] , which is supported by observations of murrelets associating as pairs while at - sea during the breeding season [ 46 ] . we did not consider some factors that had poor support in past studies and which exploratory analyses indicated were not influential in our study , including distance to nearest river [ 26 , 35 ] , distance to kelp beds [ 47 – 48 ] , and underwater slope [ 35 ] .


the rock bunting ( emberiza cia ) is a passerine bird in the bunting family emberizidae , a group now separated by most modern authors from the finches , fringillidae .

the genus name emberiza is from old german embritz , a bunting .

the specific cia is from a local italian name for this bird , from zirlare , " to chirp " .

rock bunting

discovering alpine birds : here rock bunting , here rock bunting , come on . . .
rock bunting , emberiza cia , linnaeus , 1766 , also known as the western rock bunting , eurasian rock bunting or european rock bunting , or as the meadow rock bunting , photographed ríospaso in the principality of asturias , spain ( europe ) .
first rock bunting photo - sun playing havoc with my photo success . . .
rock bunting ( emberiza cia ) is a species of bird in the emberizidae family .
high - pitched rock bunting song with insects , flies and some bird calls in the background .
on my way to looking for the rock buntings [ kill two metaphoric birds with one stone ] . as i was about to enter the ehnbachklamm ( a very tight little gorge ) , i heard my first rock bunting singing in the trees above me .
the corn bunting can be seen all year round - they form flocks in the winter .
cinnamon - breasted bunting , kruger national park , south africa . [ photo trevor hardaker © ]
atuo , f . a . & manu , s . 2013 . territory size and habitat selection of cinnamon - breasted rock bunting emberiza tahapisi in nigeria . ostrich 84 ( 1 ) : 71 - 78 .
is the call on this file of the rockbunting ? i am not shure because there where some other birds like black redstart , goldfinch , common linnet , cirl bunting , i also did see some rock buntings .
although the rock bunting is not especially shy , it lives quite secretively and is easily overlooked . the sharp tsi calls give away its presence but the birds are not easy to locate . the rock bunting loves warm and rocky terrain and occurs mainly in climatically favoured areas in switzerland , where it almost reaches the northern limit of its area of distribution . its main range is in the mediterranean area , in the middle east and in central asia .
rock buntings are resident birds but they are altitudinal migrants , moving to lower levels of mountain sides when it snows .
cinnamon - breasted bunting , hammanskraal , south africa . [ photo peet van schalkwyk © , see also urltoken ]
song , normally from rock or top of tree , a melodic verse with sudden scale changes , and sometimes . . .
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spp . ) , their principal food in most areas . the gyrfalcon is a ptarmigan specialist and its breeding distribution is strikingly similar to that of the rock ptarmigan (
so i headed back down the hill and up the other side of the gorge , towards martinswand and the zirler steinbruch ( quarry ) . it did not take me long to find the next pair to rock buntings , doing just what rock buntings do : sitting on a dead tree , right on a cliff , singing . wonderful .
during the breeding season , the socotra bunting is found in the highland areas of the island , between elevations of 700 and 1 , 200 metres , where it inhabits rocky , grassy slopes and meadows with scattered trees and bushes . in the non - breeding season the bunting migrates down to the flat coastal plains at sea - level ( 2 ) .
this species breeds on steep , boulder - strewn or rocky mountain slopes just above tree line or in glades and alpine meadows just below tree line , although they can be found in coastal regions all the way down to sea level . they can also be identified on the basis of their song . this video captures a male rock bunting singing from a bush :
15–16·5 cm ; 17–29 g . fairly large bunting , with proportionately short wing and long tail . male nominate race in fresh plumage has pale ash - greyish head , . . .
monogamous solitary nester , building a shallow cup of grass , rootlets and fine twigs on a foundation of large twigs , neatly lined with fine grass and rootlets . it is typically placed in a shallow depression in the ground at the base of a grass tuft or rock , on an earthen bank , in a crevice in a small rock face or among scattered rocks in a hollow .
response : this is an adult male rock bunting , emberiza cia , a member of the species - rich passerine family , emberizidae , or sparrows and buntings . in europe , the emberizids are mostly known as buntings whereas they are mostly known as sparrows in the americas , despite the fact that they are only distantly related to the old world sparrows ( family : passeridae ) .
copete , j . l . ( 2018 ) . rock bunting ( emberiza cia ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
breeding in the varied bunting also depends on rainfall . in arizona , when summer rains are delayed , nesting may not begin until august . eggs are polymorphic in color among populations , a rare phenomenon in passerine birds .
wright , d . & jones , p . 2005 . population densities and habitat associations of the range - restricted rock firefinch lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis on the jos plateau , nigeria . bird conservation international 15 ( 3 ) : 287 - 295 .
brandt , m . s . & cresswell , w . 2008 . breeding behaviour , home range and habitat selection in rock firefinches lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis , between the wet and the dry season in central nigeria . ibis 150 : 495 - 507 .
heading out towards the kaiser max grotte ( a cave overlooking innsbruck in the martinswand ) , i picked up yet another rock bunting . it was ridiculous to see how many i was finding of a lifer that has , for all this time , lived just a few minutes walk behind my house . i blame at least part of this on the
i did not expect it so did not find it
psychology . the other part is , quite clearly , my incompetance ; - )
abalaka , j . i . , ottosson , u . , tende , t . and larson , k . 2010 . rock firefinch lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis in the mandara mountains , north - east nigeria : a new subspecies ? abc bull 17 : 210 - 211 .
the corn bunting is often seen perched prominently on a hedge , post or wire , singing its jangling song . in the summer corn buntings prefer open farmland and in winter they may be found in stubbles , root crops , weedy fields and cattle yards or stockyards .
the socotra bunting occurs only on the island of socotra , yemen , where it is known from just a few localities ( 2 ) . located in the north - western indian ocean , socotra island covers an area of 3 , 625 square kilometres ( 5 ) .
abalaka , j . , hudin , n . s . , ottosson , u . , bloomer , p . & hansson , bengt . 2014 . genetic diversity and population structure of the range restricted rock firefinch lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis . conservation genetics doi : 10 . 1007 / s10592 - 014 - 0667 - z .
although the breeding biology of the socotra bunting is not known , it is believed that this species requires specific habitat for nesting , thus restricting it to higher altitudes during the breeding season . it may breed in loose colonies , as clumps of males have been recorded singing together ( 2 ) .
this rare bunting is not thought to be facing any threats at present , but its small distribution and population makes it vulnerable to any future threats ( 2 ) . potential threats include increased livestock grazing in the highlands , which would degrade or destroy suitable breeding habitat for the socotra bunting , and the accidental or intentional introduction of alien species . there are a number of invasive predators already well - established on socotra island , including the feral cat ( felis catus ) , brown rat ( rattus rattus ) and small indian civet ( viverricula indica ) , which may be limiting the population of the socotra bunting ( 2 ) . recent infrastructure developments on the island , including a sea port , airport and roads , have brought positive changes to the local human inhabitants , but threaten the natural landscape and increase the possibility of the introduction of alien species ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
holder , k . and r . montgomerie . 1993c .
rock ptarmigan ( lagopus mutus ) .
in the birds of north america , no . 51 , edited by a . poole and f . gill . philadelphia , pa : acad . nat . sci . phila . and am . ornithol . union . close
and i had heard rumours of a few rock buntings ( zippammer ) about on the
hot
, rocky northern slopes of the inn valley . so i started to ask about , and it seemed that they had been seen by a few different people right by my house , on the slopes above the winefarm in zirl .
racing up the road to try to get a better position , i got to the quarry edge and heard another two rock bunting ( territory three and counting ! ) , but i carried on up to the little bridge over the rocky channel where i had seen the second pair . poor photographs ensued , and maniacal climbing of cliffs with telescopes . i still didn ' t get a great photo , but at least i got to watch the pair feeding on the cliff . as the pair flew up from the cliff , it was interesting to see how the female would fly to the lower branches of an exposed tree , and the male would fly directly to the top of the tree / bush / snag to sing his merry little heart out .
while the socotra bunting is sometimes seen perching in bushes and trees , it spends most of the time on the ground ( 2 ) . birds belonging to the emberizidae family feed mainly on seeds ( 3 ) . their large feet are adept at scratching at the ground to locate food , and their small , conical bills efficiently peel away the seed coat ( 4 ) .
distribution of cinnamon - breasted bunting in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .
status resident . description bird which is brownish all over with black stripes on back . grey head and breast . very conspicuous black lines on head . on bushes or ground . similar species cirl bunting . presence all year round . seeing the species relatively easy , but it may go unnoticed because its density is not high . this bird is not wary of humans . where to watch it sangüesa , lumbier - arbayun , belagua .
abalaka , j . i . & jones , p . j . 2012 . population densities of the rock firefinch lagonosticta sanguinodorsalis and some other estrildine and viduine finches on the jos plateau , nigeria . in : harebottle , d . m . , craig , a . j . f . k . , anderson , m . d . , rakotomanana , h . & muchai . ( eds ) . proceedings of the 12th pan african ornithological congress , 2008 . cape town , animal demography unit .
medium - size but relatively slim bunting , with long , thin tail contributing to more attenuated outline than any other congener . shares rufous - buff ground - color to plumage with five other emberiza , best distinguished by rather small , lead - colored bill , strong head pattern of blackish crown - stripes and complete black surround to ear - coverts on greyish ground , and strongly rufous rump . terrestrial , rarely far from rocks . one call distinctive . sexes dissimilar , some seasonal variation in male .
the government of yemen , together with numerous organisations , are working to preserve the biodiversity of the socotra archipelago . a biodiversity conservation zoning plan was developed in 2000 , which integrates the human population’s development needs with environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources ( 5 ) . this led to the socotra archipelago being designated a unesco biosphere reserve in 2003 , which recognises the island group as a site which innovates and demonstrates approaches to conservation and sustainable development ( 7 ) . such efforts to preserve the natural biodiversity of socotra will no doubt benefit the island’s vulnerable bunting .
a breeding male indigo bunting is blue all over , with slightly richer blue on his head and a shiny , silver - gray bill . but , like all other blue birds , indigo buntings lack blue pigment . their jewel - like color comes instead from microscopic structures in the feathers that refract and reflect blue light , much like the airborne particles that cause the sky to look blue . females are basically brown , with faint streaking on the breast , a whitish throat , and sometimes a touch of blue on the wings , tail , or rump . immature males are patchy blue and brown .
late april to mid june in switzerland , early may to mid july in hungary , mid may in greece , april to mid june in algeria . nest sit , on or close to ground in cleft in rock or between boulders on slope , usually by bush , etc . , generally hidden by vegetation though sometimes exposed , also in wall or earth bank , or low in dense tree or bush . nest , foundation of dry grass , stalks , and roots , occasionally leaves and bits of bark , lined with fine grasses , rootlets , and some hair . 4 - 5 eggs , incubation , 12 - 14 days , by female only .
i had to smile when i read where you eventually found your rock buntings . i think many birders must have had similar experiences . i travelled miles to ' good ' areas to find pygmy owls before i worked out they could equally well be living in the woods behind our chalupa , went whistling in the dark and promptly found them . even better ( worse ? ) i spent days following up old stories of montagues harriers breeding in the area driving for 2 or 3 hours 3 times a week whilst my wife went swimming in our local town only to find them nesting within sight of the swimming pool . i still can ' t understand how i managed to miss seeing them ' by accident ' for several years . den
indigo buntings eat small seeds , berries , buds , and insects . common seed forage includes thistles , dandelions , goldenrods , and grain such as oats ; berries eaten include blueberries , strawberries , blackberries , serviceberries , and elderberries . spiders and insect prey , which form the majority of their diet during summer months , may include caterpillars , grasshoppers , aphids , cicadas and beetles such as canker worms , click beetles , and weevils . the brown - tail moth caterpillar , which is covered with noxious hairs that cause nasty rashes and respiratory problems in people , presents no obstacle to a hungry bunting . on arrival to breeding grounds in spring , indigo buntings may feed on twigs , buds , and leaves of trees including aspen , cottonwood , oaks , beech , elm , maple , and hickory .
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cramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
afghanistan ; albania ; algeria ; andorra ; armenia ; austria ; azerbaijan ; bosnia and herzegovina ; bulgaria ; china ; croatia ; cyprus ; france ; georgia ; germany ; gibraltar ; greece ; hungary ; india ; iran , islamic republic of ; iraq ; israel ; italy ; jordan ; kazakhstan ; kyrgyzstan ; lebanon ; liechtenstein ; macedonia , the former yugoslav republic of ; monaco ; mongolia ; montenegro ; morocco ; nepal ; pakistan ; palestinian territory , occupied ; portugal ; romania ; russian federation ( central asian russia , european russia ) ; san marino ; serbia ; slovakia ; slovenia ; spain ( canary is . - vagrant ) ; switzerland ; syrian arab republic ; tajikistan ; tunisia ; turkey ; turkmenistan ; ukraine ; uzbekistan
in europe , the breeding population is estimated to number 1 , 930 , 000 - 4 , 230 , 000 pairs , which equates to 3 , 860 , 000 - 8 , 460 , 000 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms c . 50 % of the global range , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 7 , 700 , 000 - 16 , 900 , 000 mature individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . trend justification : in europe , trends between 1998 and 2013 show that populations have undergone a moderate increase ( ebcc 2015 ) .
habitat loss as a consequence of agricultural intensification , urbanisation and reforestation led to a decline in the past between 1970 and 1990 ( copete 2016 ) .
conservation actions underway there are currently no known conservation measures for this species within its european range . conservation actions proposed no conservation measures are currently needed for this species within its european range .
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22720894a111134095 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
linnaeus , 1766 – c & s europe e to turkey and levant , and n africa ( morocco e to tunisia ) .
e . j . o . hartert , 1904 – crimea and caucasus and e turkey e to iran , and c asia e to w mongolian altai , and s to n & c afghanistan and n baluchistan ( pakistan ) .
f . moore , 1856 – nw himalayas from pakistan ( w to afghan border ) , baltistan and kashmir e to n india ( kumaon ) , extreme sw china ( sw xizang ) and w nepal .
sunny places on rocky slopes in hills and high mountains , ravines , and in clearings in conifer . . .
outside breeding season feeds mainly on seeds of herbs and other plants , and during breeding period mostly on invertebrates . among . . .
season from late mar or apr to jul–aug , occasionally to mid - sept , peak of egg - laying in most of range during may ; sometimes two . . .
n populations partly migratory , some moving short to medium distance s in cold winters . in s of . . .
not globally threatened . locally common ; rather sparsely distributed . european breeding population estimated at c . 1 , 300 , 000 pairs . large decline recorded during 1970– . . .
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previously treated in much broader versions , which included calcariidae and passerellidae , and earlier also cardinalidae and thraupidae # r .
sometimes split up , with recognition of other genera such as fringillaria , melophus , granativora , miliaria , latoucheornis , schoeniclus , cristemberiza and ocyris ; but phylogenetic studies # r # r show that melophus and latoucheornis ( each with a single species ) and perhaps others belong to the clade represented by “true” emberiza ; relationships among species may be better indicated by use of subgenera , thus avoiding destabilizing of established nomenclature # r .
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carlos fabregat , josep del hoyo , juan sanabria , jesús laborda , mkennewell , éric roualet , greg baker , juan josé bazán hiraldo , pere monistrol , e . pelayo , christian dortu , alexander grimwade .
stanislav harvančík , gilgit2 , lars petersson , arodris , josep del hoyo , carlos fabregat , juan josé bazán hiraldo , oriol soler ferrer , jeel bharat patel , éric roualet , cedric mroczko , paul cools , bernat garcia espluga , juan , james eaton , jens thalund , josé frade , lad , fran trabalon , marco valentini , ken havard , alberto soria , fast flo , paul van giersbergen , michaelp , frédéric pelsy , p . manjunath , josep batlle , phil kindermann , michel carre , rafael merchante , andrew emmerson , theo mamais , skua nature , markus lilje , bmarnell39 , norbert uhlhaas , missoum , zotyesz , aleix comas , juan gonzalez valdivieso , pascal christe , anisarkisyan , paleasi , w . h . schulenburg , ricardo rodriguez , chiefredearth , lluís copete , lior kislev .
mimicry of sylvia undata call 0 : 45 ; 0 : 51 . . .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : emberiza cia . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
image : david álvarez , 4 july 2007 ( with permission , for grrlscientist / guardian use only ) [ velociraptorise ] . canon eos 400d digital , iso : 200 , 300 mm , f / 11 . 0 , 1 / 200 sec .
question : even though this spanish mystery bird comes from a large family , few of its fellow family members reside in europe . why ? can you identify this mystery bird ' s taxonomic family and species ?
based on decreasing species richness , it is likely that the emberizids arose in south america , spread into north america and crossed into eastern asia and expanded westward . this explains the comparative paucity of emberizid species in europe and africa when compared to the americas .
this species has light brown upperparts with darker streaks on its back and an unstreaked rufous coloured rump . the wings are streaked with black , rufous and buff . the head and face have strong contrasty black and white markings that are distinctive ; there are dark stripes on the crown , a dark streak through the eyes and another dark stripe that borders the edge of the cheek . the upper mandible of the beak is darker than the lower mandible , which is pale grey . the tail is long and blunt and has white outer tail corners . its underparts are orange - brown . then throat and upper breast are silvery - white . the sexes are similar although the female may occasionally be paler coloured .
you are invited to review all of the daily mystery birds by going to their dedicated graphic index page .
if you have bird images , video or audio files that you ' d like to share with a large and ( mostly ) appreciative international audience here at the guardian , feel free to contact me to learn more .
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extends across lower middle latitudes of west palearctic , from mediterranean to caucasus , from warm temperate to steppe climatic zones . avoids most humid or wet situations , closed forest , and good agricultural land , preferring sunny semi - arid terrain , often stony or rocky , with more or less spare shrub vegetation , and usually with no more than scattered trees . often on slopes or hillsides , up to 1900 m , and extralimitally in asia above 4000 m , frequenting mountain villages and gardens . occupies open areas at upper forest limits , juniper scrub , subalpine meadows with shrubs and screes , stone - walled cultivated areas , and vineyards on hillsides .
emberiza cia is a widespread resident across much of southern europe , which accounts for less than half of its global range . its european breeding population is very large ( > 1 , 300 , 000 pairs ) , but underwent a large decline between 1970 - 1990 . although the trend of the key population in spain was unknown during 1990 - 2000 , the species was stable across most of its european range , and was probably stable overall . nevertheless , its total population size probably remains below the level that preceded its decline .
seeds , mainly of grasses , and other parts of plants , invertebrates in breeding season . feeds principally on ground among rocks and scrubby vegetation , or in short grass in fields , at woodland edges , etc . , but not infrequently in bushes or tall herbs taking both seeds and insects . mostly picks seeds from ground , but will also stand on stems , sometimes several at a time , to bend them over and reach see - head , reaches over to seed - head from neighbouring perch , or pulls seed - head down while standing on ground . catches flying insects in short sallies just above ground .
this species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 1 , 000 , 000 - 10 , 000 , 000 km2 . it has a large global population , including an estimated 2 , 600 , 000 - 8 , 200 , 000 individuals in europe ( birdlife international in prep . ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern . [ conservation status from urltoken ]
avibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com
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the bar on the top line indicates during which seasons the species can be observed regularly in switzerland . there can be great seasonal fluctuations of numbers . the middle bar indicates the typical migration seasons of a species . the bottom bar indicates the period during which the species normally breeds . as a rule it spans the period from egg - laying to fledging of the young .
querytime : 0 . 0352 s , querycount : 585 , parsetime : 0 . 5371 s , totaltime : 0 . 5723 s , source : cache
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .
british ornithologists ' union checklist ( 7th edition , incl . jan 2009 suppl . ) :
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
you must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .
avibase has been visited 263 , 291 , 342 times since 24 june 2003 . © denis lepage | privacy policy
distribution maps should be very cautiously looked at . they do not provide with precise location but only give an idea of species global distribution . distribution areas are geopolitical ; as a consequence the whole of a country is selected if a species is only located in one single place . for more precise distribution areas please go to iucn site ( see link above ) .
visitors to manchester city centre have just two weeks left to get up close to the cities’ popular pair of peregrine falcons .
the rspb wants to bring back the colour to the roadsides of east riding by returning verges to their former glory .
find out how you can help the birds in your garden in this summer heat .
a small , dark goose - the same size as a mallard . it has a black head and neck and grey - brown back .
a nocturnal bird that can be seen hawking for food at dusk and dawn .
male ring ouzels are particularly distinctive with their black plumage with a pale wing panel and striking white breast band .
there ' s so much to see and hear at minsmere , from rare birds and otters to stunning woodland and coastal scenery .
this is a delightful oak woodland to walk through – especially in spring and early summer .
nature is an adventure waiting to be had . get out , get busy and get wild !
explore the little pools of amazing sea life that are left by the tide on the rocks around our coast .
this nondescript lowland farmland bird is the largest of the buntings and is most usually seen perched on a wire or post . it is a stout , dumpy bird brown which flies off with a fluttering flight and with its legs characteristically ' dangling ' . its dramatic population decline in the uk makes it a red list species .
* this map is intended as a guide . it shows general distribution rather than detailed , localised populations .
1 in 4 uk birds are now on the red list of conservation concern . this is an emergency for uk bird life .
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© the royal society for the protection of birds ( rspb ) is a registered charity : england and wales no . 207076 , scotland no . sc037654
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classification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by valter jacinto - see more .
grzegorz jagodziński added the polish common name
głuszek
to
emberiza cia linnaeus 1766
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jennifer hammock split the classifications by urltoken import from emberiza cia linnaeus 1766 to their own page .
c . michael hogan changed the thumbnail image of
file : emberiza cia martien brand . jpg
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valter jacinto marked
image of emberiza cia
as hidden on the
emberiza cia
page . reasons to hide : low quality
valter jacinto marked
image of emberiza cia
as hidden on the
emberiza cia linnaeus 1766
page . reasons to hide : low quality
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
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the bonelli ' s warblers ( berglaubsänger ) were back in full force with at least 20 individuals calling across the mountain slope . good to have them back !
you put your left leg in , you take your left leg out , you do the hokey pokey and turn around . . .
a black redstart alit briefly when i was in
hunting
position . the green in the background is from the distant fields .
you see , it does help to know what you are looking for in order to find it - pyschologists have been telling us for years , and it finally makes sense .
hi dale , well you are right , it is better to know where these little creatures are , and their habits to be sure to get nice shots of them . i love your black redstart shot . it is well composed and the background is awesome .
. . . first time here . i saw you on the nature blog network page . one of my degrees is in german lit , but i never get to use my german . i enjoy reading about the german and austrian birds and seeing their names in german too ! glad i found your blog !
that is a great comment , den . i love the montague ' s story . thank you for stopping by and leaving a comment !
i found this mocha emerald on the 16th of june . it was rather fresh at that time . its eyes will be brilliant green when it matures . [ image : ©2018 steve b . . .
july often means travel , which sometimes means tourist attractions , which occasionally means exotic or introduced bird species . following me here ? . . .
fall migration is officially on ! after almost 2 weeks of unbearably hot weather a cold front moved in thursday night , bringing cooler winds and southboun . . .
the antennae farm on haggerman rd . was loaded with dickcissels and bobolinks this evening . lighting was great , and birds were cooperative .
☀26c * tuesday 3rd july 2018 * ~ * ryton wood * : although part of ryton wood was lost to sand and gravel extraction in the 1960s , the wood has been returned t . . .
i was cycling sunday long distance to my favorite felda krau 1 ( oil palm plantation ) , when noticed the road kill by the road side . what a pity beautiful w . . .
at this time of the year with plenty of daylight i like to make early morning excursions into bowland . bowland ' s lanes and backroads are very quiet and espe . . .
i got very jealous of the * rose - coloured starling * at ashington the other week but news of numbers building up in central europe and an impending invasio . . .
ha llegado el momento de tomarse un respiro . en realidad , lo llevo haciendo
de facto
desde hace unos meses y ahora os lo comunico : este blog no se actual . . .
a field herper ' s dream is to have the kind of perfect timing where every outing produces cool herps . to be honest , on the first outing of the year i will b . . .
coffee and birding go together like bacon and more bacon . birds and beans coffee is the only brand of coffee that solely sells organic , shade - grown , and . . .
has it been a year already ? ? on a quick note i just rented the nikon d850 here are a few early pine warbler shots from various locations .
after waking from the afternoon siesta , i stepped out of the darkness into the brilliant sunshine bathing the small balcony of my room . it did not look pro . . .
another photo from my new mexico trip . i ' ve also posted another video on youtube . the first couple of photos were from the south end of the wilderness are . . .
hi further to our conversation , there are four aged invoices outstanding . please can you look at these and provide an update regarding payment . thank y . . .
a remarkable discovery of a new spectacular antbird just a stone throw away from where birders come regularly for scarlet - banded barbet . but the site is th . . .
lots of lifers i spent a week’s holiday in beautiful curaçao and spotted lots of birds i’d never seen before , like magnificent frigatebirds , bare - eyed pi . . .
sunday 9 october and news came in of a * siberian accentor * ( * prunella montanella * ) on shetland – the first record for britain . this is not a bird i thought . . .
hey there all . don ' t know if anyone even reads this blog anymore as i kind of stopped this past summer as i wasn ' t birding as much and my camera broke and . . .
* the islands of pilgrims * by nigel blake television allows us to experience the many great nature spectacles in this world , exotic places that we can oft . . .
i held my breath and my heart stopped beating as the lions walked no more than 10 feet ( 3 . 048 meters ) from joan’s truck , just ambling past up . . .
in august , 2012 i guided a five - day abridged version of my absolute birding tour . it was with ron and ben barkley , a farther son duo from the u . s . a . ben is . . .
i published my first blog on this site back when it was blogspot back in 2004 . for the last year and a half i’ve run a little experiment posting my blog en . . .
gastbeitrag von susanne stöger bei schönstem herbstwetter erlebte eine gruppe holländischer und belgischer journalisten das halltal von seiner charmant - rau . . .
wir sind viel gewandert in diesem jahr – die blogeinträge waren etwas weniger , da wir die meisten fotos auf unserer facbookseite veröffentlicht haben . die . . .
* click on any image to see larger file in seperate window * i think the saltee islands off the coast of co . wexford must be one of irelands greatest wi . . .
parrots are one of my favorite groups of birds . it all started with me getting involved in a research project at university studying the cape parrot ( poice . . .
keeping a weather eye on birdguides , i see there are a few red - footed falcons and white - winged black terns filtering into the uk at the moment . i’d dearly . . .
i ' ve moved everything over to the * blogspot address * . there ' s nothing more to see here ! update your link to : urltoken
so , putting paid to the idea of an official whale shark season in utila , there have been more whale sharks sighted in june this year , than in may . so far , . . .
a small community that surprises visitors with its authenticity and natural , gastronomic and cultural diversity . try it out . . .
we will give you 11 reasons that sum up our essence . we want to win you over !
the kingdom of navarre has a lively past and a lot to tell . listen up . . .
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vegetables from the plot , flavoursome meats , wines and pacharán , delicious pinchos . . .
to receive the latest news and to get ideas for trips in the different seasons and over public holidays .
if you are planning to get to know navarre , to enjoy a gastronomic get - away , have a rural weekend break with friends or walk the santiago way . . . here are some options that may coincide with your idea . we hope you find them useful !
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locate your resource on the map and use the search engines to look for timetables , prices , files . . .
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recommended observation points : sangüesa , lumbier - arbaiun , belagua , etc . . .
observation : relativamente fácil , pero puede pasar desapercibida , pues no presenta densidades elevadas . es un pájaro confiado .
description : pájaro de tonos pardos por todo el cuerpo con rayado negro en espalda . cabeza y pecho grises . líneas negras en la cabeza muy conspícuas . sobre arbustos o en el suelo .
opening hours , dates and guide prices . we recommend you confirm with the entity in question .
classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
allaby , m . ( 1992 ) dictionary of zoology . oxford university press , oxford .
thieme , m . l . , abell , r . , stiassny , m . l . j . , skelton , p . , lehner , b . , teugels , g . g . , dinerstein , e . , kamdem toham , a . , burgess , n . and olson , d . ( 2005 ) freshwater ecoregions of africa and madagascar : a conservation assessment . island press , washington , dc .
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team wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet’s species and habitats from destruction .
this species is affected by global climate change . to learn about climate change and the species that are affected , visit our climate change pages .
wildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa
forest : temperate ; shrubland : temperate ; rocky areas ( eg . inland cliffs , mountain peaks ) : ; artificial / terrestrial : plantations
ioc world bird list ( v7 . 1 ) , gill , f and d donsker ( eds ) . 2017 .
occurs across much of sub - saharan africa , from senegal to ethiopia through the drc , tanzania , zambia , angola and malawi to southern africa . here it is uncommon to locally very common in zimbabwe extending into western and northern mozambique , the eastern half of south africa , lesotho , swaziland , eastern botswana and north - western and central namibia . it generally prefers mountainsides , rocky ridges , dolerite and granite outcrops with scattered bushes and trees , bare rocky clearings in woodland , eroded stony slopes and gullies , dry watercourses and deserted borrow pits and quarries .
largely resident , with some populations ( especially in zimbabwe and north - eastern south africa ) undertaking a northerly winter migration from november - may .
it mainly eats seeds and insects , mainly foraging on bare ground among rocks , occasionally plucking food from grass and hawking termite alates aerially . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :
egg - laying season is from october - june , peaking from january - april .
it lays 2 - 4 eggs , which are incubated by both sexes for about 12 - 14 days .
the chicks are fed by both parents on a diet of mostly seeds , leaving the nester after approximately 14 - 16 days .
hockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .
vickery , j . & jones , p . j . 2002 . a new ornithological institute in nigeria . bull . african bird club 9 ( 1 ) : 61–62 .
wilson , j . m . & mcgregor , r . 2002 . house sparrow passer domesticus in nigeria . malimbus 24 ( 1 ) : 41–42 .
wilson , j . m . 2002 . first breeding record of little grey woodpecker dendropicos elachus in nigeria . malimbus 24 ( 1 ) : 42–43 .
wilson , j . m . & sallinen , p . 2003 . first records of didric cuckoo chrysococcyx caprius parasitizing cricket warbler spiloptila clamans . malimbus 25 : 95–96 .
ottosson , u . & waldenström , j . 2002 . a yellow - throated leaflove ( chlorochicla flavicollis ) with extra wing feathers among the primaries . afring news 31 ( 1 & 2 ) : 24–25 .
mcgregor , r . & wilson , j . m . 2003 . a major range extension of locust finch ortygospize locustella in west africa . malimbus 25 : 99–101 .
mcgregor , r . 2004 . ortolan buntings rediscovered in nigeria after a 38 year absence . bull . african bird club 11 ( 1 ) : 30 - 31 .
manu , s . , peach , w . & cresswell , w . 2005 . notes on the natural history of the ibadan malimbe malimbus ibadanensis , a threatened nigerian endemic . malimbus 27 : 33 - 39 .
manu , s . , peach , w . , bowden , c . & cresswell , w . 2005 . the effects of forest fragmentation on the population density and distribution of the globally endangered ibadan malimbe malimbus ibadanensis . bird conservation international . 15 : 275 - 285 .
manu , s . , peach , w . & cresswell , w . 2007 . the effects of of edge , fragment size and degree of isolation on avian species richness in highly fragmented forest in west africa . ibis 149 : 287 - 297 .
stervander , m . , ottosson , u . , hulme , m . & molokwu , m . n . 2005 . little rush warbler bradypterus baboecala new to plateau state , nigeria . malimbus 27 : 46 - 47 .
ottosson , u . waldenström , j . hjort , c . & mcgregor , r . 2005 . garden warbler sylvia borin migration in sub - saharan west africa : phenology and body mass changes . ibis 147 : 750 - 757 .
osinubi , t . & agboola , b . 2006 , sighting of the rufous scrub robin cercotrichas galatotes at foot of fusa hills , jos , plateau state , nigeria . malimbus 28 : 46 - 47 .
wilson , j . & cresswell , w . 2006 . how robust are palearctic migrants to habitat loss and degradation in the sahel ? ibis 148 : 789 - 800 .
molokwu , m n . , ottosson , u . & azi , j . observations at a scarlet - chested sunbird chalcomitra senegalensis nest . malimbus 28 : 45 - 46 .
mwansat , g . s . , chaskda , a . a . ; longtong , g . t . 2006 . a preliminary survey of the aquatic insects of amurum forest reserve . scientia africana 5 : 35 - 37 .
wilson , j . m and cresswell , w . 2010 . northern wheatear oenanthe oenanthe in the sahel of west africa : distribution , seasonal variation in abundance and habitat associations . ostrich 81 : 115 - 121 .
mcgregor , r . , whittingham , m . j . & cresswell , w . 2007 . survival rates of tropical birds in nigeria , west africa . ibis 149 : 615 - 618 .
hellgren , o . , waldenström , j . , peréz - tris , j . , szöllősi , e . , hasselquist , d . , krizanauskiene , a . , ottosson , u . & bensch , s . 2007 . detecting shifts of transmission areas in avian blood parasites – a phylogenetic approach . molecular ecology 16 : 1281 - 1290 .
tobler , m . & naurin , s . 2008 . on the occurrence of the alpine swift apus melba in nigeria . malimbus 30 ( 2 ) : 167 - 168 .