woolly aphids ( subfamily : eriosomatinae ) are sucking insects that live on plant fluids and produce a filamentous waxy white covering which resembles cotton or wool .

the adults are winged and move to new locations where they lay egg masses .

the nymphs often form large cottony masses on twigs , for protection from predators .

they occur throughout the northern hemisphere .

many of the numerous species of woolly aphids have only one host plant species , or alternating generations on two specific hosts .

the woolly apple aphid , eriosoma lanigerum is a widespread pest of fruit trees , feeding principally on apple , but also , pears , hawthorn , ash , alders , elms and oaks .

in flight they have been described as looking like " flying mice " , and are given nicknames like " angel flies " , " fluff bugs " , " fairy flies " , and " ash bugs " " snow bugs " , " fluffer fairy " , " poodle fly " , " fluffy gnats " .

eriosomatinae

morphological phylogeny of gall - forming aphids of the tribe eriosomatinae ( aphididae : eriosomatinae ) .
another significant difference with other species of eriosomatinae is the shape and position of rectal bladder . in
les according to the 3 tribes of eriosomatinae and the out - groups . e genbank accession n
evolutionary relationships of pemphigus and allied genera ( hemiptera : aphididae : eriosomatinae ) and . . .
look at wing venation for further clues in distinguishing among these . below is a pemphigus ( eriosomatinae ) for comparison .
honeydew from root aphids ( aphidae : eriosomatinae ) is an important part of the diet of the subterranean ant lasius nearcticus . new york , usa
type genus : eriosoma leach , 1818 ; origin of priority for family - group names not recorded in database . first use as eriosomatinae by baker , a . c . , 1920 .
many woolly aphids are in subfamily eriosomatinae . however , there are several exceptions ( and according to andrew jensen ,
there are examples of wax - covered aphids in almost all subfamilies .
) :
. . . in addition , in all higher - level phylogenetic studies of aphididae that have been conducted , neither aphid data ( vondohlen & moran 2000 ; ortiz - rivas et al . 2004 ; ortizrivas & mart ınez - torres 2010 ) nor buchnera data ( nov akov a et al . 2013 ) supported the eriosomatinae as a monophyletic clade . its monophyly was also not corroborated in the morphological cladistic study ( zhang & chen 1999 ) and molecular phylogenetic analyses of eriosomatinae ( zhang & qiao 2008 ; li et al . 2014 ) . the subfamily eriosomatinae has been traditionally recognized as a monophylum based on the synapomorphy of sexuales apterous , dwarfish and lacking rostrum ( heie 1980 ; zhang et al . 1999a ) . . . .
. . . in addition , in all higher - level phylogenetic studies of aphididae that have been conducted , neither aphid data ( von dohlen & moran 2000 ; ortiz - rivas et al . 2004 ; ortizrivas & mart ınez - torres 2010 ) nor buchnera data ( nov akov a et al . 2013 ) supported the eriosomatinae as a monophyletic clade . its monophyly was also not corroborated in the morphological cladistic study ( zhang & chen 1999 ) and molecular phylogenetic analyses of eriosomatinae ( zhang & qiao 2008 ; li et al . 2014 ) . the subfamily eriosomatinae has been traditionally recognized as a monophylum based on the synapomorphy of sexuales apterous , dwarfish and lacking rostrum ( heie 1980 ; zhang et al . 1999a ) . . . .
) , except of eriosomatinae , which were not studied in this respect . the existing differences concern mainly the lengths of particular segments of the tract . due to the lack of filter chamber , the adhering of the loops of crenated intestine to the ventral wall of the stomach may play the role of osmoregulation , as hypothesized for the pea aphid ( rhodes et al .
eriosomatinae , the gall - forming aphid subfamily , traditionally consists of 3 tribes , eriosomatini , pemphigini , and fordini . however , the phylogenetic relationships among these tribes remain controversial , which has made it difficult to conduct further investigation regarding the evolution of galls and host alternations in this group . we analyzed the molecular phylogeny of the subfamily eriosomatinae , combining sequences from 2 mitochondrial genes ( coi and coii ) and 2 nuclear genes ( ef - 1 alpha and lwo ) . the reconstructions were implemented based on single - gene and multigene datasets through 3 different reconstructing algorithms , respectively ; analyses with 5 different out - groups were also conducted . results revealed a large paraphyletic clade , in which there were 4 out - groups clustering between eriosomatini and the other 2 tribes . however , the monophyly of the 3 tribes was well supported by the obtained trees , respectively .
. . . but the relationships among genera were not well supported with the position of the north american melaphis poorly resolved . using the mitochondrial coi and coii and the nuclear ef - 1a and lwo , li et al . ( 2014 ) constructed the relationships of subfamily eriosomatinae , sampling six genera of the melaphidina aphids . their results supported the monophyly of melaphidina , but the relationships among the melaphidina genera were only well supported by the bayesian posterior probabilities ( pp ) without strong bootstrap support ( bs ) . . . .
as a conclusion , it must be stated that the alimentary tract of apterous viviparous female of anholocyclic population of g . utricualria consists of all anatomical organs typical of aphid subfamily eriosomatinae and constitutes a continuous tube . it is unlikely that g . setulosa may have differently built alimentary tract , since existing data on its foregut and hindgut fully agree with that of presented study on g . utricularia . however , taking into account complicated life cycle and heteroecy of geoica spp , . there is essential need for further studies to confirm whether the situation of geoica spp . ( and also various morphs of species in this genus ) is similar to that of g . utricularia or to that described by ponsen .
the analysis of b . aphidicola genes that follow an evolutionary pattern that agrees with the molecular clock hypothesis [ 12 , 13 ] can be used to estimate the divergence time between pairs of aphids . this is possible because two aphid species , acyrthosiphon pisum and schizaphis graminum belonging to two tribes of the subfamily aphidinae , have an estimated divergence time calibrated from their fossil record of 50 to 70 my [ 14 ] . in addition , using molecular data from complete b . aphidicola genomes available , pérez - brocal and coworkers calculated the divergence time of aphids belonging to subfamilies eriosomatinae ( baizongia pistaciae ) and lachninae ( cinara cedri ) [ 15 ] . based on morphological traits , the subfamilies eriosomatinae and lachninae have traditionally been considered very divergent . in fact , most phylogenetic hypotheses based both on morphological and molecular data consider the lachninae as a sister group of the aphidinae [ 11 , 16 ] . however , the position of this subfamily remains controversial , as recent phylogenies based on molecular sequences located the subfamily in a basal position [ 17 – 19 ] . here , we follow a genomic approach to deepen the evolutionary analyses and propose a phylogeny of the three subfamilies of aphids based on the genome sequence of their primary endosymbionts b . aphidicola . in addition , in order to detect if there is any selective effect related to the specific role of the genes , we also gave a closer look to the acceleration pattern of each functional category .
this species is widely distributed and are quite often encountered in yards . yet details of its life history are , as far as my literature searches can tell me , mostly undescribed : when does the switch to sexual reproduction happen ? how does the foundress feed or is she fed by her kids ? how and where do they overwinter ? how many asexual generations are completed within a year ? what kinds of predators and parasites plague the colonies ? some the species’ close kin ( other wooly and gall - forming insects in the subfamily eriosomatinae of the aphididae ) have ant - like life histories , forming solider castes within the colony . grylloprociphilus seems less specialized , but without detailed life history studies , we can’t say more .
since the establishment of the symbiosis between the ancestor of modern aphids and their primary endosymbiont , buchnera aphidicola , insects and bacteria have coevolved . due to this parallel evolution , the analysis of bacterial genomic features constitutes a useful tool to understand their evolutionary history . here we report , based on data from b . aphidicola , the molecular evolutionary analysis , the phylogenetic relationships among lineages and a comparison of sequence evolutionary rates of symbionts of four aphid species from three subfamilies . our results support previous hypotheses of divergence of b . aphidicola and their host lineages during the early cretaceous and indicate a closer relationship between subfamilies eriosomatinae and lachninae than with the aphidinae . they also reveal a general evolutionary pattern among strains at the functional level . we also point out the effect of lifecycle and generation time as a possible explanation for the accelerated rate in b . aphidicola from the lachninae .
existing literature data report the lack of stomach and crenated intestine in the aphid species geoica setulosa ( passerini , 1860 ) , a representative of subfamily eriosomatinae . this odd anatomical feature seemed remarkable , due to the presence of fully developed intestine in closely related genera and mutualistic relationship with ants of this genus . the study aimed at repeated anatomical research of geoica utricularia ( passerini 1856 ) , in order to confirm what seemed to be a generic feature . standard histological methods were applied , with addition of oblique light microscopy , fluorescence microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy . the results indicated the existence of a fully developed intestine , with broad sac - shaped stomach and loops of the crenated intestine . the general anatomy of the alimentary tract of g . utricularia resembles that of other representatives of the tribe fordini . also well - developed rectal gland is present , most probably playing a role in modifying the carbohydrate composition of excreted honeydew .
our phylogenetic analysis supports the presence of one clade clustering b . aphidicola bbp and bcc , and another clade consisting of b . aphidicola bap and bsg . this result is consistent with a panorama of a rapid evolutionary radiation of the main subfamilies of aphids , during the early cretaceous ( 144 - 100 mya ) , which seems concordant with previous proposals [ 3 ] . in addition , our evolutionary molecular data from b . aphidicola point out that aphids belonging to subfamilies eriosomatinae and lachninae share a common ancestor more closely related than compared to the members of subfamily aphidinae . if true , our data refute the traditional phylogenetic reconstructions that placed aphidinae and lachninae as a monophyletic group [ 11 ] . however , we do not have evidence to conclude whether , within the subfamily lachninae , tribes feeding on conifers are ancestral or more recent than those living on herbaceous angiosperms , since our analysis does not resolve which strain ( and thus which host aphid ) is basal compared to the others . to solve this point , it would be necessary to sequence the genome of a greater number of b . aphidicola strains , including members of the different tribes from the subfamily lachninae ( work in progress ) . this would allow us to establish the date of divergence between those tribes and , thus , try to relate this fact to the change of vegetal host in either direction .
regarding synonymous substitutions , when pairs of strains of b . aphidicola were compared based on the average number of synonymous substitutions per site ( ) , a greater accumulation was observed in the b . aphidicola bbp strain compared to bacteria from aphids of the subfamily aphidinae ( b . aphidicola bap and bsg ) , while the smallest value is found between the b . aphidicola bap and bsg strains [ 15 ] . however , if the temporary factor is considered , the rates of synonymous nucleotide substitutions per site and million years are greater in the endosymbionts from the aphidinae ( b . aphidicola bap and bsg strains ) , registering the b . aphidicola bcc strain the smallest values . these results demonstrate that the synonymous substitution rate in b . aphidicola is a variable character , yet the explanation for these divergent patterns is not obvious . as stated elsewhere [ 7 , 14 , 44 ] , these differences can be attributed to differences in the host’s life cycle , as well as ecological factors such as host - alternation and variations in the effective population size showed by the two members of the aphidinae subfamily compared to the other two aphid lineages . additionally a differential mutation rate per generation cannot be ruled out . for example , endosymbionts from aphids with short generation times can accumulate more synonymous mutations per million years ( case of the aphidinae ) than those with longer generation times , such as the eriosomatinae and the lachninae . future studies are required to understand the evolutionary processes driving these patterns .
in our efforts to understand the biology of soldier - producing aphids , we attempted to maintain them in the laboratory using a chemically defined artificial diet . the ability of 16 species from the subfamilies eriosomatinae and hormaphidinae , most of which are soldier - producing species , to survive on the artificial diet was examined . some species neither fed nor grew on the diet , whereas other species accepted the diet , grew to some extent , and managed to produce a small number of short - lived offspring . although they performed poorly on the diet in general , aphid performance was correlated with the stage in the life cycle and the developmental stadium in that aphids of the gall generation tended to accept the diet and survive on it , whereas aphids of the non - gall generation did not . also , old insects tended to perform better on the diet than young nymphs . notably , only one species , tuberaphis styraci , a gall - forming aphid that produces 2nd instar sterile soldier , showed good performance on the diet . insects collected from galls ( generation g0 ) survived on the diet , grew well , and produced many progeny . three successive generations ( g1 , g2 and g3 ) were produced on the diet . developmental period , adult body size , and age of first reproduction were almost constant through g0 , g1 and g2 whereas fecundity , adult longevity and daily offspring production declined as the generations proceeded . these results are comparable to previous studies in which pest aphids have been maintained on similar artificial diets for several generations . therefore , it is suggested that the artificial - diet rearing system will provide a useful tool to investigate various biological aspects of the soldier - producing eusocial aphid , t . styraci .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
aphid species file ( version 5 . 0 / 5 . 0 ) home search taxa key help wiki
display . you can modify these specifications at any time by clicking the
change items displayed
button in the header .
if you want your changes to be preserved for future sessions , you should login . to do this , click on the logo in the upper left corner .
nomenclatural details : original name . with precedence over myzoxilinae amyot & audient - serville from which it takes the date of priority , 1843 ( iczn article 40 . 2 )
börner . 1944 . in brohmer . fauna von deutschland : ein bestimmungsbuch unserer heimischen tierwelt . fifth edition 218
eastop & van emden . 1972 . in van emden [ ed . ] . aphid technology 13 > > note : = pemphiginae
nieto nafría , mier durante & g . remaudière . 1997 . revue française d’entomologie nouvelle série 19 ( 3 - 4 ) : 82 , 88 > > note : kirkaldy 1905 : 418 ( 1843 )
zhang , guangxue , qiao & xiaolin chen . 1999 . in zhang , guangxue [ ed . ] . fauna of agricultural and forestry aphids of northwest , china : insecta homoptera aphidinea 121
nieto nafría , mier durante & pérez hidalgo . 2011 . in nieto nafría & favret [ ed . ] . registers of family - group and genus - group taxa of aphidoidea ( hemiptera sternorrhyncha ) 56 > > note : kirkaldy 1905 ( 1843 )
li , xingyi , jiang & qiao . 2014 . turkish journal of zoology 38 : 285 - 297
copyright © 2018 . except where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution - sharealike 4 . 0 international license .
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
formerly a separate family , eriosomatidae . tree of life places many ( all ? ) of the included genera in family pemphigidae .
many , but by no means all , root aphids belong to this subfamily . as of 4 / 12 / 10 , the only non - eriosomatine root aphids on bugguide are these aphis ( aphidinae ) :
subfamily hormaphidinae includes two species that cause galls on witch hazel . the manzanita leaf gall aphid is in subfamily tamaliinae .
( the following information is based on bugguide ' s images and may be modified based on future observations . )
the asian woolly hackberry aphid ( calaphidinae : shivaphis celti ) has red eyes , banded antennae , and distinctively patterned wings .
the woolly beech aphid ( phyllaphidinae : phyllaphis fagi ) forms woolly masses on the undersides of beech leaves ( primarily european varieties ) . we do not have adult images for this species yet .
the balsam twig aphid ( mindarinae : mindarus abietinus ) produces white fluff on fir twigs . adults have only a thin , light coating of this material .
alleyne , e . h . and f . o . morrison . 1977 . some canadian poplar aphid galls . the canadian entomologist 109 ( 3 ) : 321 - 328 . [ should help sort out some of the unidentified poplar galls ]
borror and delong ' s introduction to the study of insects norman f . johnson , charles a . triplehorn . 2004 . brooks cole .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
all content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .
in all aphid species , the ectodermal part of the anterior region of the alimentary tract consists of the stylet bundle , pharynx , foregut and oesophageal valve . the pharynx consists of the pharyngeal duct , valve and pump ( ponsen
) . the midgut is the endodermal part of the alimentary tract consisting of the stomach , crenated intestine and descending intestine . the midgut is responsible for production and excretion of enzymes and the absorption of nutritional substances . in this part of the alimentary tract , often the so - called filter chamber develops ( ponsen
) . it is an adaptation to feeding on the phloem sap , and it takes part in regulation of the osmotic pressure due to the high concentration of sugars in the sap ( rhodes et al .
) . in various groups of aphids , where the filter chamber is present , it is developed variously , e . g . in the subfamily lachninae , the proximal part of the midgut is coiled inside the chamber , creating loops ( klimaszewski and wojciechowski
) . despite the high diversity of the structure of the filter chamber , it is known that foregut and hindgut are connected , so showing the continuity of the tract . in species without the filter chamber , the coiled segments of hindgut adhere the stomach , e . g .
) . the wall of the descending intestine is internally made up of epithelium , whose cells are adapted to resorption of water , amino - acids and minerals and ends with rectum .
) . there is no filter chamber . the very short ectodermal part of the posterior region of the alimentary tract consists of a rectum , epidermal invagination and an anal opening .
and secondary host being the roots of various grasses . their life cycle is two years , and on their primary host , they live in galls ( heie
) . in central europe , the anholocyclic population occurs , with parthenogenetic way of reproduction throughout the year . there are , however , data concerning
consists of a foregut , which is closed at its posterior end , and a blindly starting descending intestine ( fig .
) . it seemed to be odd , taking into account the necessity for constant resorption of vast quantity of protein - poor food ( cristofoletti et al .
) . these species have even the anal plate developed into a trophobiotic organ ( modified anal plate ) , enabling proper positioning of the honeydew droplet ( figs .
alimentary tract of g . utricularia : a extracted from the body ; b schematic reconstruction ; c location within the body ; f foregut , ov oesophageal valve , st stomach , al abdominal loop , di descending intestine
alimentary tract of g . utricularia : a , b longitudinal section through head and thorax ; c transverse section through salivary glands ; d location of stomach within the body ; f foregut , sg salivary glands , ov oesophageal valve , st stomach , di descending intestine
alimentary tract of g . utricularia : a cleared specimen in oblique light microscopy ; b view in clsm , rhodamine - b stained ; c , d cleared specimens in fluorescent microscopy , rhodamine - b stained ; sg salivary glands , ov oesophageal valve , st stomach , al abdominal loop
alimentary tract of g . utricularia : a frontal section through the body ; b longitudinal section through thorax and abdomen ; c , d longitudinal section through posterior part of the abdomen ; sg salivary gland , st stomach , al abdominal loop , di descending intestine , hg hindgut , rb rectal bladder , rg rectal gland , ei epidermal invagination , r rectum , ap anal plate
) , to verify data on the reported lack of the stomach and crenated intestine .
was used because it is more common and abundant , and both species differ only slightly in their morphology and biology . in
, where there are two rows of long setae . the purpose of these setae ( in both species ) is to keep the droplet of honeydew until it is collected by worker ant . their host plants , life mode and relations with ants are in their anholocyclic range very similar and significantly overlap .
the material was collected in october and november 2014 on moist meadows in the vicinity of piekary śląskie , in southern poland . in total , 32 individuals , apterous viviparous females of anholocyclic population on secondary host of
in order to analyse the anatomical structure of the digestive system of g . utricularia , the paraffin method was applied . the material was collected into eppendorf microtubes containing 70 % ethanol for keeping and preserving collected specimens . next , insects were dehydrated in increasing concentration of ethanol ( 90 , 96 , 100 % ) . in order to ensure transparency , specimens were kept in methyl benzoate for one night . then , material was consecutively transferred to benzene , benzene with paraffin ( in proportions 2 : 3 and 1 : 2 ) , paraffin i ( melting point : 56 °c ) and finally to paraffin ii ( melting point : 60 °c ) , where it was kept over night . after this process , material was immersed in paraffin ii . the bars obtained were sectioned into 5 µm strips , which were stuck on slides in a 0 . 5 % gelatine solution at temperature 50–52 °c . then , the slides were dried in 37 °c .
slides were next deparaffined in xylene and treated with a series of ethanol solutions ( 100–60 % ) . they were rinsed in distilled water , stained with ehrlich’s acid hematoxylin for about 20 min , rinsed again and differentiated with xylidine ponceau . after this process , preparations were treated with series of ethanol solutions ( 60–100 % ) , rinsed twice in xylene and embedded in canadian balm or dpx .
this process was applied to 15 individuals of g . urticularia . histological preparations were prepared : cross - sections from six individuals and longitudinal sections from nine individuals . in total , 49 microscopic slides were made , including 26 preparations of cross - section and 23 of longitudinal section . the cross - section series were also used to reconstruct the course of alimentary duct and in some cases the number and shape of cells .
the specimens of g . utricularia were put into a droplet of 30 % ethanol , on the microscopic glass , and with the mounting needles , the whole alimentary tract was extracted from the body . the extracted organs were preserved in glycerol and mounted , to make all the anatomical structures visible at the stereomicroscope . a total number of 13 preparations were made using this technique .
the documentation was prepared using nikon eclipse e6000 , with measurements made by lucia net program . the pictures of translucent specimens were taken under stereomicroscope equipped with monochromatic camera axio cam programmed with axio vision .
in order to investigate localization and structure of gastric tract in g . utricularia , specimens were examined with oblique light microscopy , fluorescence microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy ( clsm ) . before the examination , collected specimens were fixated overnight in cold 4 % pfa ( paraformaldehyde ) and subsequently underwent dehydration in graduated ethyl alcohol series , then optical clearing in methyl salicylate .
for fluorescent and clsm imaging , specimens were prior to dehydration treated with 30 % hydrogen peroxide for 24 h and thereafter stained with rhodamine - b before clearing in methyl salicylate . the staining with rhodamine - b was applied for visualizing elastic tissues in clsm ( shelley
) . all reagents used in procedures had analytical grade purity . fluorescent and oblique light imaging was performed with carl zeiss stereo lumar . v12 stereomicroscope and clsm with olympus fv1000 confocal system . acquired images were processed in fiji open source image processing package ( smolla et al .
begins with the external mouthparts and runs through the body cavity without any break or separately located organs . it ends at the anal orifice located above the dorsal edge of the anal plate ( figs .
a ) is a thin straight tube , about 27 μm long , with the diameter of 0 . 01–0 . 02 μm . in the prothorax , it runs between the two main salivary glands ( fig .
c ) , which are built of ca . 20 cells . they are in shape of fan , bottle or other and comprise one or two nuclei located in central or in basal position in the cell , which is typical of exocrine glands ( fig .
a–c ) . their diameter is 0 . 08–0 . 12 μm . the wall of the foregut is made up of one layer of small flat epithelial cells , without any folds into its lumen . in the thorax , the foregut joins the stomach , by invagination into the cavity of stomach ( figs .
the midgut is the longest part of the alimentary tract and consists of the stomach , crenated and descending intestine .
the stomach begins in the second segment of thorax ( mesothorax ) ( figs .
d ) and extends towards the abdomen , slightly dorsally within the body . in longitudinal section , it has a shape of ventro - dorsally flattened bag ( figs .
b ) , constricting gradually along its length . in its widest part , it has a diameter of 0 . 24–0 . 30 μm , and its length varies from 0 . 43 to 0 . 49 μm . the stomach is made up of two types of cells . the anterior part of stomach is built up of elongated , cone - shaped or finger - shaped cells , adhering to each other with lateral membranes at the cell bases ( figs .
a , b ) . their free tips , directed towards the cavity of stomach , broaden the internal surface of the stomach . the cytoplasm of these cells comprises visible granules , which altogether indicates their secretive function .
b ) are flat and hexagonal in shape and possess oval nuclei . the stomach narrows and opens into the crenated intestine , which runs distally ; then , it loops towards the head ( figs .
a ) , adhering the ventral surface of the stomach , and again loops towards the end of abdomen and opens into the descending intestine .
the descending intestine is a straight tube with thin walls , running through abdomen , and its wall is made up of flattened epithelial cells throughout its length ( b , c ) . at its distal end , the descending intestine is broadened , and a well - developed rectal bladder is formed ( fig .
c , d ) . it is positioned dorsally and has a roundish bubble shape , with a few secretive cells in its cavity . these cells are fan - shaped and secrete into the bladder ( fig .
d ) . the rectal bladder opens into the epidermal invagination . it is a straight tube opening with the anal orifice .
( von heyden 1837 ) , another representative of erisomatinae . the presence of doubled nuclei in some of the cells in salivary glands is not surprising , since it was proved to occur also in other aphid families ( ponsen
) , the rectal bladder consists of a ring of cells of polygonal shape , surrounding the hindgut near the rectum . it concerns only females of
spp . , because the presence of rectal bladder was not confirmed in males of this genus .
the role of rectal bladder is not sufficiently recognized . it is probably homologous with malphigian tubules ( ponsen
) , which have disappeared during the evolution of aphids . its possible role is that it takes part in regulation of the honeydew composition ( dixon
) , which contains carbohydrates , especially disaccharides : raffinose and melecitose , synthesized in aphid intestine , and their presence may play role in mutualistic relation of aphids and ants . in particular , the most attractive of ants is the honeydew rich in melecitose ( fisher and shingleton 2001 ) . aphids producing honeydew with 30–70 % of melecitose ( e . g .
stroyan 1950 ) are more often ant attended than those not having melecitose in their honeydew ( e . g .
( koch 1854 ) , with lower amount of melecitose in its honeydew . taking into account the high level of myrmecophily of both
spp . , the presence of well - developed rectal bladder may serve the purpose of regulating the composition of honeydew .
we wish to thank m . b . ponsen ( agricultural university wageningen ) for his kind response and all valuable suggestions and corrections made on the first version of the manuscript . we also thank two anonymous referees for their valuable comments and suggestions on the manuscript .
all applicable international , national and / or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed .
blackman rl , eastop vf ( 2006 ) aphids on world’s herbaceous plants and shrubs . wiley , chichester , p 1439
depa ł , wojciechowki w ( 2008 ) ant - root aphid relations in different plant associations . pol j entomol 77 : 151–163
dixon afg ( 1998 ) aphid ecology . chapman & hall , london , pp 8–23
fischer mk , shingleton aw ( 2001 ) host plant and ants influence the honeydew sugar composition of aphids . funct ecol 15 : 544–550
ponsen mb ( 1987 ) alimentary tract . in : minks ak , harrewijn p ( eds ) aphids . their biology , natural enemies and control . volume a . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 79–97
, and its bearing on the evolution of filter chambers in the aphidoidea . wagening agric univ pap 91 ( 5 ) : 1–61
ponsen mb ( 2015 ) a histological description of the salivary gland system of some aphid species of the adelgidae and aphididae . wagening agric univ pap 06 ( 1s ) : 64
shakesby aj , wallace is , isaacs hv , pritchard j , roberts dm , douglas ae ( 2009 ) a water - specific aquaporin involved in aphid osmoregulation . insect biochem mol 39 ( 1 ) : 1–10
shelley wb ( 1969 ) fluorescent staining of elastic tissue with rhodamine b and related xanthene dyes . histochemie 20 ( 3 ) : 244–249
smolla m , ruchty m , nagel m , kleineidam cj ( 2014 ) clearing pigmented insect cuticle to investigate small insects’ organs in situ using confocal laser - scanning microscopy ( clsm ) . arthropod struct dev 43 ( 2 ) : 175–181
völkl w , woodring j , fischer m , lorenz mw , hoffmann kh ( 1999 ) ant - aphid mutualisms : the impact of honeydew production and honeydew sugar composition on ant preferences . oecologia 118 ( 4 ) : 483–491
this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license (
) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made .
copyright © 1999 - 2018 john wiley & sons , inc . all rights reserved
enter your email address below . if your address has been previously registered , you will receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password . if you don ' t receive an email , you should register as a new user
urltoken 250 thumbnails , size 75 , user ' nosha ' , sorted by date photographed .
urltoken photos by user ' listentoreason ' , with default photo number , size , and sorting options ( can change ) .
our privacy policy has been updated . take a look . follow @ flickrhivemind welcome to flickr hive mind . if you log into flickr you will see your private photos and larger thumbnails .
three distantly related arthropod groups have converged on a most remarkable social lifestyle . these are gall thrips ( thysanoptera : phlaeothripidae ) , gall aphids ( sternorrhyncha : hormaphididae , pemphigidae , and a few aphididae ) , and snapping shrimp ( decapoda : alpheidae ) , groups in which specialized soldier or defender morphs have evolved in the defense of a static and critical resource , often a nest site that doubles as food source . all three taxa exhibit a range of social structures , the most striking of which involve a morphological division of labor into soldiers and nonsoldier forms . thrips and aphid soldiers have appendages that are enlarged and thickened relative to those of nonsoldiers in the same colony ; these are often armed with spines . similarly , snapping shrimp soldiers bear enlarged chelae . these social groups do not exhibit parental care or much general social interaction ; rather , sociality centers on defense of a valuable and largely irreplaceable resource : the colony domicile . for this reason , this form of sociality is termed
are evident . some social aphids , for example , engage in nest hygiene , expelling honeydew globules that accumulate as a result of the way these insects feed on sap and excrete excess water .
) is produced by a foundress that induces development of a hollow gall on young stem or leaf tissue of the host plant . her brood colony will develop within the safety of the hollow gall , feeding on the plant tissue from within . if the gall is breached , however , the defender morphs will emerge and patrol the surface , aggressively attacking any intruder they encounter . these species are beset by a host of predacious insects such as syrphid fly larvae ; gall thrips also face severe pressure by usurping kleptoparasitic thrips species that kill the foundress and make the gall their own . the domicile of snapping shrimp consists of crevices in sponges , a resource that is less ephemeral than galls but also highly susceptible to usurpation . all of these domiciles represent a valuable , if not critical , commodity that is not easily replaced if lost .
mortality stemming from predation and nest usurpation is likely the most important ecological pressure in the evolution of defender morphs , though it is important to point out that kin selection , in the case of thrips and aphids , may play a role as well . soldier - producing thrips species , which like all members of the order thysanoptera are haplodiploid , often exhibit high levels of inbreeding . aphid colony mates are clonally produced by the foundress , a mode of asexual reproduction called ‘parthenogenesis’ that is found in virtually all aphids and related groups . in social species of both thrips and aphids , there is , accordingly , a high degree of genetic relatedness between colony mates : an average of 0 . 75 in social thrips colonies , and 1 . 0 in colonies of social aphids . this may favor kin selection in these groups , in which indirect fitness – realized through the successful reproduction of relatives – more than compensates the loss of direct fitness that results from altruistic sacrifice ( soldier morphs reproduce less and have a greater chance of dying as a result of colony defense ) .
aphids with morphologically different life stages that exploit taxonomically different host plants are typically difficult to assign to the correct species .
( elm ) species , as the primary host , to identify species and associate the different life stages , thereby using them as a diagnostic tool . using sequence data already available from adult specimens , a phylogeny was produced and the unknown morph sequences clustered with
, confirming the species identity . the authors then described in detail the morphology of the secondary morph , allowing inclusion in future identification keys .
) communities in order to associate adult and larval life stages from tropical lowlands of nepal . although adult taxonomy is well developed and identification is possible ( albeit by taxonomic experts ) , new species are being discovered and the relation of the root - feeding larvae , which have limited morphologically characterising features , to the adults aboveground is unknown . these authors used more in - depth phylogenetic analyses to align sequences to species since intraspecific variation can make this difficult when using absolute methods of sequence divergence and especially for unknown , large assemblages of species . combined mitochondrial and nuclear gene trees ( using maximum likelihood ) and statistical parsimony , whereby populations are subdivided into subgroups , and population aggregation analysis , which combines populations that are uniform for a particular character state , percentage differences (
- distance ) and amova and species delimitation methods for estimating species boundaries from the tree were used to assign species membership . this resulted in 24 species of which 19 could be associated with adults and identified using linnaean names ( nearly 93 % of unknown larvae were identified to species ) . the
sequences , which has implications for gene marker choice in such studies . as for the aphid study , the use of these techniques for determining species and then searching for diagnostic morphological characters of both larvae and adults is advocated . in terms of relating this to species biology , the species assemblages found above - and belowground can depend upon larval mortality , which varies both spatially and temporally ; in particular , larvae and adults were often not found in the same season , which can confound attempts to associate larvae with adults . with a sampling scheme that takes these factors into account , it may be possible to use such dna - based taxonomy to further investigate spatiotemporal patterns and geographic variation .
host - plant resistance is not new to agriculture , but has been applied for at least 200 years . among the earliest successes were resistance to hessian fly ,
, and references therein ) . host - plant resistance is likely to become increasingly important given the continuing homogenization of agricultural landscapes . until the advent of the green revolution , crops were diverse and often hidden in heterogeneous landscapes that consisted of trees , woodland , or other natural and derived habitats . monocultures have eroded landscape diversity and resulted in a loss of habitat for natural enemies , which often increases the vulnerability of crops (
) . agricultural expansion , declining agricultural diversity , and declining crop genetic diversity have demanded a greater focus on intrinsic plant protection . this has coincided with an increasing emphasis on plant molecular biology since the 1990s , largely driven by advances in the molecular tools available to science , including molecular breeding and transgenic technologies .
indicates that for cpb , potato aphids , and tuber moths , the number and proportion of scientific publications related to hpr and insect - plant interactions have generally increased over the past 35 years . during the 2000s , research into conventional hpr and transgenic approaches to plant protection dominated all other management approaches ( cpb 31 % , tuber moths 38 % , and aphids / viruses 24 % of all papers published from 2000 to 2011 ) , including all research on pest natural enemies and biological control . for tuber moths , significant advances have been made in the use of pheromones and granulosis viruses for protection of stored potatoes (
f ) , but for field crops hpr remains the main focus of research . interestingly ,
suggests that research into conventional and transgenic resistance may be mutually competitive in terms of attention or funding opportunities . in the early 2000s , research into transgenics reached its peak ; however , more recently there has been a shift to research of natural induced responses to insect attack and plant biochemical defenses .
it is worth noting that aphids , the masters of phase polyphenism , exhibit yet another form of polyphenism . some aphid species facultatively produce a behaviorally and morphologically distinct soldier caste . since its original description (
abbot et al . , 2001 ; carlin et al . , 1994 ; pike and foster , 2008
foster and rhoden , 1998 ; fukatsu et al . , 2005 ; rhoden and foster , 2002 ; schutze and maschwitz , 1991
) . little is known about proximate mechanisms that induce soldier formation . positive correlations have been found between soldier proportion and colony size (
) , inferring proximate cues that already act during embryonic stages and gradually separating developmental pathways in first instar nymphs .
jhas can be broadly categorized into two groups : the terpenoid compounds , such as methoprene , hydroprene and kinoprene ; and phenoxy jhas , like fenoxycarb and pyriproxyfen . jhas have been found effective especially against adult stages of dipteran and homopteran insects but not against lepidopteran insect pests . as jhas are especially effective against adult stages of the insects , their poor efficacy against lepidopteran crop pests may be because most of these pests cause the damage as larvae (
terpenoid jhas , such as methoprene and kinoprene , have been used successfully against mosquito larvae , scales , and mealybugs . phenoxy jhas cause morphogenetic effects , ovicidal action , and sterility on treated insects . fenoxycarb offers effective control against fire ants , fleas , and sucking insect pests of crops . it is highly effective against sucking pests , such as apple wooly aphid ,
) . pyriproxyfen has been used for controlling aphids , whiteflies , and psyllids causing damage to crops . it has been used for control of locusts ,
most of the bpu compounds have been found very effective against lepidopteran insect pests . diflubenzuron has been found effective against a wide range of lepidopteran pests and locusts (
) . flucycloxuron is effectively used as an acaricide against spider mites . flufenoxuron and novaluron are particularly effective against apple codling moth ,
kanno et al . , 1981 ; yarom et al . , 1988 ; patel et al . , 2010
) . the basis of classical biocontrol is the “enemy release hypothesis . ” according to this hypothesis , the exotic species become pests in new environments by escaping the influence of those natural enemies that suppress their populations in their native range . thus , classical biocontrol reestablishes the top - down control by reintroducing the natural enemies of the pest into its new range (
van driesche and bellows , 1995 ; crawley , 1997 ; keane and crawley , 2002 ; hajek , 2004 ; naranjo et al . , 2015
thus , classical biocontrol primarily describes the releases of insect predators , parasitoids , and pathogens to control other insect pests and insect herbivores to control weeds . this form of biocontrol is appropriate when insects that spread or are introduced ( usually accidentally ) to areas outside of their natural range become pests mainly because of the absence of their natural enemies . the same strategy has also been called “importation” by
( homoptera : mgarodidae ) in california in the late 1800s . likewise , ash whitefly (
, which was introduced in june 1898 . although , the predator did not control soft green scale ,
, which was its specific target , in july 1951 , it controlled various mealybugs infesting fruit crops , coffee , ornamental plants , etc . , in south india . the predator is now effective in suppressing mealybug infestations on citrus , guava , grapes , mulberry , coffee , mango , pomegranate , custard apple , ber , etc . , and green shield scale on sapota , mango , guava , brinjal , and crotons in karnataka (
( native of eastern united states ) , was accidentally introduced to india from england . it soon spread to all of the apple - growing areas of the country and started causing severe damage . for the control of woolly aphid , exotic aphelinid parasitoid ,
( native of north america ) , was introduced from the united kingdom to saharanpur ( uttar pradesh , india ) . however , the parasitoid failed to establish itself because of the intense activity of a ladybird beetle ,
, a native of the caribbean region and central america , was introduced into india in 1995 . first reported from kerala , it soon spread to all of the southern states , causing serious damage to several plants . it started attacking more than 253 plant species belonging to 176 genera and 60 families . however , serious damage was caused to avocado , banana , cassava , guava , papaya , and mango in addition to several ornamental and avenue trees . as a result , exotic aphelinid parasitoids ,
causing a perceptible reduction in the pest population . although the parasitism levels due to both parasitoids vary from 29 % to 70 % and exceed 90 % during some parts of the year , the former is performing better than the latter and has established itself in kerala , karnataka , and several parts of andhra pradesh , where it was previously absent (
despite having many beneficial aspects , classical biocontrol is currently not being encouraged because negative environmental effects may arise through ill - considered introductions of exotic natural enemies . many introduced agents have failed to control pests ; for example , more than 60 predators and parasitoids have been introduced into the northeastern part of north america with little effect on the target gypsy moth ,
( lymantriidae ) . some introductions have strengthened the pest problems whereas others have become pests themselves . exotic introductions generally are irreversible , and nontarget species can suffer worse consequences from efficient natural enemies than from chemical insecticides , which are unlikely to cause total extinctions of native insect species . there are documented cases of introduced biocontrol agents wiping out native invertebrates . several endemic hawaiian insects ( target and nontarget ) have become extinct largely as a result of biocontrol introductions (
although initial classical biocontrol was predominantly focused on control of introduced pests with the goal of reestablishing host / natural enemy associations that keep pests in check in their areas of origin , the strategy has now also been applied against native pests ( e . g . , see
is used when an exotic natural enemy is introduced against a native pest . however , the introduction ( importation , augmentation , and release ) of exotic natural enemies against exotic pests with which they did not coevolve is termed
such new associations are supposed to be very effective at controlling pests because the pest has not coevolved with the introduced enemies . unfortunately , the exotic species that are most likely to be effective biocontrol agents because of their ability to utilize new hosts are also those most likely to be a threat to nontarget species . an example of the possible dangers of neoclassical control is provided by the work of jeffrey lockwood , who campaigned against the introduction of a parasitic wasp and an entomophagous fungus from australia as control agents of native rangeland grasshoppers in the western united states . the potential adverse environmental effects of such introductions include the suppression or extinction of many nontarget grasshopper species with probable concomitant losses of biodiversity and existing weed control and disruptions to food chains and plant community structure . the inability to predict the ecological outcomes of neoclassical introductions means that they are highly risky , especially in systems where the exotic agent is free to expand its range over large geographical areas .


the blind electric ray ( typhlonarke aysoni ) is a little-known species of sleeper ray in the family narkidae , endemic to new zealand .

it is found on the bottom , typically at a depth of 300 – 400 m ( 980 – 1,310 ft ) .

reaching 38 cm ( 15 in ) in length , this species has a thin , nearly circular pectoral fin disc without visible eyes , and a short tail with a single dorsal fin .

its pelvic fins are divided in two , with the anterior portion forming a limb-like appendage ; in males the claspers do not extend past the disc margin .

a weak swimmer , the blind electric ray likely pushes itself along using its pelvic fins .

it is known to feed on polychaete worms , and can defend itself with an electric shock .

reproduction is aplacental viviparous .

the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) does not have enough information to assess the conservation status of this species .

blind electric ray

benthobatis yangi , a new species of blind electric ray from taiwa . . . : ingenta connect
well , the blind electric ray isn’t technically blind ( as neither was the blind shark ) … it just has tiny eyes that aren’t really visible , instead being beneath the surface of their skin .
the blind electric ray is a very small poorly - known electric ray with the typical round body shape , small fleshy tail , one dorsal fin , and almost useless eyes . more
learn about the blind electric ray with the fins united initiative . | learn about : rays | pinterest | shark habitat
thick and flabby with a rudimentary tail , the oval electric ray seems virtually incapable of swimming .
notice of an electric ray new to the fauna of new zealand , belonging to the genus astrape .
blind electric ray typhlonarke aysoni can give an electrical shock and has almost useless eyes . this poorly - known ray uses electroreceptors to
see .
this numbfish has one dorsal fin and lives at great depths ( 200 - 900 m ) .
the blind electric rays are two species of poorly - known electric rays of the genus typhlonarke , belonging to the sleeper ray family , narkidae . the group is known for producing electric shocks for defense . both species are deep - sea rays endemic to the waters off new zealand . more
greek , typhlops = blind + greek , narke = numbness ( ref . 45335 )
by blind electric ray may 3 , 2005 share this 2 . grundies buy grundies mugs , tshirts and hoodiesyour underpants . . . my grundies are soiled by mh jun 6 , 2003 share this 3 . more
tetronarce cowleyi , sp . nov . , a new species of electric ray from southern africa ( chondrichthyes : to . . .
the blind electric ray is dark brown in colour , and is potentially vulnerable to fisheries activity since its known distribution coincides with major trawl fishery grounds . however , recent marine sanctuaries around new zealand provide some safe havens . more
juvenile speciman of the marbled electric ray , torpedo marmorata risso , 1810 founded in the neum bay . photo by a . gajić .
species has led to uncertainty regarding the extent of the oval electric ray ' s distribution . both species are found off the eastern coast of
continental slope , blind electric ray genus that remains poorly understood . revue / journal title bulletin of marine science issn 0007 - 4977 coden bmrsaw source / source 2003 , vol . 72 , no3 , pp . 923 - 939 ( 1 p . more
head indistinguishable from disc ( e . g . , stingrays like the bat ray )
- 2 dorsal fins ( the first closer to pelvis ) , electric organ ( e . g . , the electric rays )
, endemic to australia ) , the other composed of the electric rays ( narcinidae ) and the shortnose electric rays ( narkidae ) .
garrick , j . a . f . ( 1951 ) .
the blind electric rays of the genus typhlonarke ( torpedinidae )
. zoology publications from victoria university college ( 15 ) .
atlantic torpedo ray may be up to 1 . 82 m ( 6 ft . ) in length
now , the specific blind electric ray we’re talking about today is typhlonarke aysoni . there’s another two : the brazilian blind electric ray ( benthobatis kreffti ; endemic to brazil ) and the taiwanese blind electric ray ( benthobatis yangi ; endemic to taiwan ) . typhlonarke aysoni is endemic to… you can’t guess it , can you ? it’s not in the common name , like it seems to always be when it comes to these guys . yet , i get to share waters with these guys - yup , they’re endemic to new zealand ! they’re usually found around cook strait ( and on the continental shelves and slopes that are southward from there ) , anywhere from 100 - 900 meters ( 328 - 2 , 952 ft ) deep . also known as the “blind legged torpedo” ( i can’t help but giggle at that name ) or “numbfish , ” this deep - watered ray has an interesting genus name , “typhlonarke , ” that explains its common names . “typhlops” is greek , translating to “blind” and “narke” is also greek , roughly translating to “numbness” or “paralysis . ” and while it may be electric ( zap ! ) the organs capable of producing their electric discharge varies between 8 volts and 220 volts . no worries , though - at that depth , they pose no threat to you . they do pose a threat to their prey ( like polychaete worms , for example ) , though .
most electric rays bury themselves under sand during the day and come out at night to feed . if prey is encountered , the ray will stun the creature with electricity . then , the ray will guide the food with its pectoral fins to its mouth , which is located under its body .
yeah . freaky , huh ? it leads to them having pretty bad eyesight either way , but i wouldn’t completely label them as “blind . ”
de carvalho , m . r . , l . j . v . compagno and d . a . ebert , 2003 . benthobatis yangi , a new species of blind electric ray from taiwan ( chondrichthyes : torpediniformes : narcinidae ) . bull . mar . sci . 72 ( 3 ) : 923 - 939 . ( ref . 75959 )
in addition to stunning potential prey and dissuading prospective predators , the electric organs of electric rays may also be used to detect prey and to communicate with each other .
rays range in size from just a few inches to over 22 feet wide . the smallest ray is the short - nose electric ray , which is the size of a pancake ; it is only 4 inches ( 10 cm ) across and weighs about 1 pound ( 0 . 5 kg ) . the biggest ray is the manta ray which is over 22 feet ( 6 . 7 m ) wide and weighs many tons ( thousands of pounds ) . most rays are in - between these two extremes . more than half of all ray species are over 20 inches ( 50 cm ) long . in fact , rays are some of the largest fish in the sea !
largely unknown . blind electric rays of both species have been trawled from 46 to 800 m , but are most common between 300 to 400 m . the flabby disc and rudimentary tail suggest blind electric rays are very poor swimmers and they probably push themselves along the bottom with their well developed pelvic appendages . diet includes polychaete worms . reproduction is probably ovoviviparous . litter size is up to 11 . size at birth is 9 to 10 cm . maximum size 35 cm total length .
uncertain due to confusion with t . aysoni . blind electric rays have been recorded off east coast north island south of east cape , south island , stewart island , chatham rise ( mernoo bank and chatham islands ) and snares shelf to 49s .
its mid - length . electric organs visible through skin of ventral surface , elliptical and about
the bluespotted ribbontail ray taeniura lymna is a very common , timid ray with an oval - shaped disc and two venomous tail spikes toward the tip of its tail . it grows to be 2 . 25 ft ( 0 . 7 m ) long .
hamilton , a . ( july 1902 ) .
notice of an electric ray new to the fauna of new zealand , belonging to the genus astrape
. transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute 34 : 224–226 .
the mouth of the australian coffin ray ( hypnos monopterygium ) is enormous , allowing it to gulp prey half the size of its body .
the following terminology was used to describe shark behaviour and to assess the effects of the electric field .
example of interaction with a change of direction ( proxy for a reaction to the electric deterrent ) .
example of interaction during which a shark approached within 0 . 5 m of an activated electric deterrent .
( greatest transverse width of electric organ at level of third gill slit or its mid - length ) .
all living creatures produce electricity - even humans - but electric rays have two special kidney - shaped organs that generate and store electricity like a battery . large atlantic torpedo rays can generate enough power to produce a shock of about 220 volts , while smaller rays , like the lesser electric ray ( narcine brasiliensis ) can only muster a shock of about 37 volts .
greek , benthos = depth of the sea + greek , batis , - idos = a ray ( raja sp . ) ( ref . 45335 )
the primary threat to the taiwanese blind electric ray is shrimp trawling throughout its limited distribution , where it is taken as bycatch . shrimp trawl fisheries operate along the southwestern coast of taiwan island and may range down to depths of 500 m ( d . ebert pers . obs . 2007 ) . fine mesh nets are used in this fishery , thus it is unlikely that the species can avoid or escape the nets , which may also be causing habitat damage .
for sharks , and carvalho ( 1999a , 1999b ) for electric rays . compared to other elasmobranchs , elec -
kalmijn a ( 1971 ) the electric sense of sharks and rays . journal of experimental biology 55 : 371–383 .
smith ed ( 1973 ) electric anti - shark cable . civil engineering and public works review 68 : 174–176 .
of extant batoids , but their highly specialized electrogenic organs — combined with the fact that the oldest known batoid fossils are very guitarfish - like — would seem to argue against this interpretation . the electric rays appear to fall into two suborders , the first composed of the torpedo rays ( torpedinidae ) and the short - tailed electric ray ( hypnidae — represented by a single species ,
kalmijn a ( 1974 ) the detection of electric fields from inanimate and animate sources other than electric organs . in : fessard a , editor . handbook of sensory physiology vol iii / 3 . berlin : springer - verlag . 147–200 .
rays and skates have a long gestation period and produces relatively few young ( compared to other fish ) . the growth of ray populations , therefore , is slow .
manta ray manta birostris is the largest ray . this graceful swimmer is up to 29 . 5 ft ( 9 m ) wide . mantas eat microscopic plankton , small fish , and tiny crustaceans . they funnel the food into their mouth while they swim , using two large , flap - like cephalic lobes which extend forward from the eyes .
justification : this small endemic electric ray has a very limited known distribution in the waters of the outer shelf in depths of less than 300 m off southwestern taiwan , province of china . the taiwanese blind electric ray ( benthobatis yangi ) is taken as bycatch in the local shrimp trawl fishery , which uses nets of very fine mesh , likely preventing any capture avoidance . the level of bycatch is not known , however the species is generally retained by the fishing vessels and discarded on landing . the species may also be discarded at sea . although little information has been gathered on its biology and ecology , the high level of endemicity suggests that this species is threatened by incidental fishing mortality . given that intense shrimp trawl fisheries operate throughout this species’ limited range , it is assessed as vulnerable on the basis of suspected declines as a result of continuing , high levels of exploitation .
at long last , season 11’s blind auditions came to a close on the voice tonight , with coaches adam levine , miley cyrus , alicia keys and blake shelton filling the last few spots of their teams before heading into the fiery battle round .
disc of the oval electric ray is ovoid in shape , tapering smoothly towards the rear , and has a very thick margin . the eyes are minute and located 2–3 mm ( 0 . 079–0 . 12 in ) beneath the surface of the skin ; though not visible externally , their positions are marked by small white patches . the
citation : huveneers c , rogers pj , semmens jm , beckmann c , kock aa , page b , et al . ( 2013 ) effects of an electric field on white sharks : in situ testing of an electric deterrent . plos one 8 ( 5 ) : e62730 . urltoken
lesser electric rays may bear only 2 pups at a time , while atlantic torpedo rays can deliver as many as 60 pups at a time .
- 2 dorsal fins ( the first closer to pelvis ) , no electric organ ( e . g . , the guitarfish , banjo shark )
compagno , l . j . v . and p . c . heemstra ( may 2007 ) .
electrolux addisoni , a new genus and species of electric ray from the east coast of south africa ( rajiformes : torpedinoidei : narkidae ) , with a review of torpedinoid taxonomy
. smithiana , publications in aquatic biodiversity , bulletin 7 : 15–49 .
depending on the species , electric rays may eat fishes , worms , and crustaceans . adult atlantic rays consume eels , flounders , and small sharks .
atlantic torpedo rays ( torpedo nobiliana ) , for example , live along the coastlines of canada , the united states , united kingdom , and south africa . but they also have been found in the open ocean at depths of approximately 450 m ( 1 , 475 ft . ) . blind electric rays ( typhlonarke aysoni ) have been discovered in waters as deep as 900 m ( 2 , 950 ft . ) .
with age , the nerves got worse . eight years ago , i had a stressful eye operation that triggered the worst bout of
nerves
in my life . i started waking up in the middle of the night with my heart pounding and obsessive thoughts about going blind .
. the skin is completely smooth . the oval electric ray is dark brown above , lightening towards the disc margins and on the underside . the area around the mouth and nostrils , and the underside of the pelvic appendages , are white . this species can grow to 36 cm ( 14 in ) long , but most do not exceed 30 cm ( 12 in ) .
this study indicates that the behavioural response of white sharks and the level of risk reduction resulting from the electric field is contextually specific , and depends on the motivational state of sharks . the electric field we tested had an effect on white shark behaviour up to two metres from the efs and reduced the incidence of predatory strike , but did not deter or repel this species in all situations nor did it repel all individuals . given that the static bait experiments showed that the electric field did not reduce the likelihood of baits being taken , the effects observed in the seal decoy study are likely to be situation - specific . the large discrepancy in the findings from the present study compared to those of smit and peddemors [ 29 ] also highlights the need for future studies to focus on testing the effects of electric fields at different distances from the efs . an accurate map of the electric field produced by different voltage strengths would also aid in determining the electric current levels eliciting behavioural response and the distance from which white sharks can be expected to first detect and react to the electric field . finally , the study was undertaken on white sharks and further study should include other elasmobranch species , as the behavioural responses to electric fields are known to vary across species [ 22 ] .
white bars represent trials with the electric field source ( efs ) turned off ; black bars represent trials with the activated efs ; standard error bars are shown .
histograms of the minimum distance between white sharks and the electric field source ( efs ) when it was turned off ( white ) and on ( black ) .
smit cf , peddemors vm ( 2003 ) estimating the probability of a shark attack when using an electric repellent . south african journal of statistics 37 : 59–78 .
typhlonarke tarakea is a poorly known electric ray , endemic to new zealand . it is apparently rare , however , its distribution and status is uncertain due to confusion with the similar t . aysoni . t . tarakea is potentially vulnerable to fisheries activity since its known distribution coincides with major trawl fishery grounds , but insufficient information is available to assess the species beyond data deficient at this time .
a new species of electric ray of the genus benthobatis alcock , 1898 is described on the basis of five specimens from the continental slope off tungkang , southwestern taiwan . benthobatis yangi , n . sp . , is distinguished from all other species of the genus by a unique combination of characters , including a dark brown to purplish–black dorsal and ventral coloration with irregular creamy blotches ventrally , a narrow nasoral region , a small mouth with slender jaws and shallow circumoral groove , a second dorsal fin with a more broadly rounded apex and more convex posterior margin compared to the first dorsal fin , an interdorsal distance greater than the distance between second dorsal and caudal fins , a narrow and not posteriorly arched suprascapula , size at sexual maturity , and a relatively high number of caudal vertebral centra , and consequently , total vertebral centra . benthobatis yangi is known from adults and juveniles of both sexes . it is only the fourth valid species of benthobatis , and only the second species from the vast indo - pacific region . benthobatis is a continental slope , blind electric ray genus that remains poorly understood .
a new species of electric ray of the genus benthobatis alcock , 1898 is described on the basis of five specimens from the continental slope off tungkang , southwestern taiwan . benthobatis yangi , n . sp . , is distinguished from all other species of the genus by a unique combination of characters , including a dark brown to purplish - black dorsal and ventral coloration with irregular creamy blotches ventrally , a narrow nasoral region , a small mouth with slender jaws and shallow circumoral groove , a second dorsal fin with a more broadly rounded apex and more convex posterior margin compared to the first dorsal fin , an interdorsal distance greater than the distance between second dorsal and caudal fins , a narrow and not posteriorly arched suprascapula , size at sexual maturity , and a relatively high number of caudal vertebral centra , and consequently , total vertebral centra . benthobatis yangi is known from adults and juveniles of both sexes . it is only the fourth valid species of benthobatis , and only the second species from the vast indo - pacific region . benthobatis is a continental slope , blind electric ray genus that remains poorly understood .
. rays live mostly on or near the sea bed . different ray species are found in habitats ranging from close to shore to the extreme depths of the ocean ( over 10 , 000 feet = 3 , 000 m deep ) .
like sharks , rays lack a swim bladder and use their oily liver to maintain buoyancy ( other fish use an air - filled bladder to help them float ) . when a ray stops swimming , it sinks down to the sea bed .
rays have a flattened body shape and an elongated tail . the pectoral fins are large and connected to the body to form the ray ' s
disc .
the shape of the disc differs from species to species and may be circular , oval , wedge - shaped or triangular . some body shapes are adapted for living on the sea bed ; others are adapted for almost constant swimming . the ray ' s distinctive tail also varies from species to species . it ranges from stubby ( on the shorttailed electric rays ) to incredibly long ( e . g . , over 10 feet ( 3 m ) long on the whip - like sting rays ) .
elasmobranchs can detect minute electromagnetic fields , < 1 nvcm –1 , using their ampullae of lorenzini . behavioural responses to electric fields have been investigated in various species , sometimes with the aim to develop shark deterrents to improve human safety . the present study tested the effects of the shark shield freedom7™ electric deterrent on ( 1 ) the behaviour of 18 white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) near a static bait , and ( 2 ) the rates of attacks on a towed seal decoy . in the first experiment , 116 trials using a static bait were performed at the neptune islands , south australia . the proportion of baits taken during static bait trials was not affected by the electric field . the electric field , however , increased the time it took them to consume the bait , the number of interactions per approach , and decreased the proportion of interactions within two metres of the field source . the effect of the electric field was not uniform across all sharks . in the second experiment , 189 tows using a seal decoy were conducted near seal island , south africa . no breaches and only two surface interactions were observed during the tows when the electric field was activated , compared with 16 breaches and 27 surface interactions without the electric field . the present study suggests that the behavioural response of white sharks and the level of risk reduction resulting from the electric field is contextually specific , and depends on the motivational state of sharks .
i didn ' t get shocked this time but another time i was shocked and it felt like i sprained my ankle . ouch ! electric rays can thrust forward quickly to attack prey or to defend themselves from predators . they can discharge an electrical jolt up to 220 volts and 30 amps . their electric discharge can stun their prey or painfully shock a diver .
. . . a litter size of 1–2 with a size at birth of > 96mm tl has been observed in the recently described brazilian blind torpedo benthobatis kreffti ( rincon et al . 2001 ) and a litter size of two in the western numbfish narcine lasti with size at birth probably close to 80mm tl ( carvalho and séret 2002 ) . the taiwanese blind numbfish b . yangi is known only from a limited number of specimens detailed in its original description while the dark blindray b . moresbyi is known only from five specimens ( carvalho et al . 2003 ) . there remains numerous undescribed species within the family , including the deepwater narcine sp . . . .
digitally recorded video footage from each trial obtained from the underwater camera was reviewed , and independently and ‘blindly’ coded . coding refers to recording the number of approaches and interactions , and estimating the minimum distance between the shark and the efs during each interaction . the coder was termed ‘blind’ as they did not participate in the trials and had no prior knowledge of whether an electric field was being produced when coding videos of each trial . the observer data recorded during the trials were used to identify sharks responsible for each approach .
electric rays belong to the superorder batoidea , which includes stingrays , skates , guitarfishes , and sawfishes . like their relatives the sharks , batoids have skeletons made of tough connective tissue called cartilage .
bratton b , ayers j ( 1987 ) observations on the electric discharge of two skate species ( chondrichthyes : rajidae ) and its relationship to behavior . environmental biology of fishes 20 : 241–254 .
jordan lk , mandelman jw , kajiura sm ( 2011 ) behavioral responses to weak electric fields and a lanthanide metal in two shark species . journal of experimental biology and ecology 409 : 345–350 .
out of the five response variables used to assess the effects of the electric field , the time it took to take the bait , number of interaction per approach , and the minimum distance between sharks and the efs were significantly affected by the electric field ( table 2 ) . additionally , the random factor ( individual sharks ) was also significantly different for all parameters ( table 2 ) .
rincon , g . , stehmann , m . f . w . and vooren , c . m . 2001 . results of the research cruises of frv ' walther herwig ' to south america . lxxiv . benthobatis kreffti n . sp . ( chondrichthyes , torpediniformes , narcinidae ) , a new deep - water electric ray from off south brazil and the third species of the genus . archive of fishery and marine research . 49 ( 1 ) : 45 - 60 .
sharks were still capable of taking baits ∼230 cm away from the efs , but the number of interactions within two metres of the efs decreased when it was activated . such a reduction in the number of interactions towards a stimulus placed two metres away from the efs has previously been observed in other species ( e . g . , galapagos sharks ( carcharhinus galapagensis ) ( robbins , unpublished data ) . although behavioural effects two metres from the efs were observed in both studies , white sharks were observed less than 0 . 5 m from the efs on several occasions ( e . g . , video s10 ) , and galapagos sharks consumed sardines ( sardinops sagax ) two metres away from an efs ( robbins , unpublished data ) . scalloped hammerhead sharks ( sphyrna lewini ) and leopard sharks ( triakis semifasciata ) were affected by a strong pulsed electric field , but were also able to swim through the electric field and into voltage gradients greater than 30 v / m [ 32 ] . four species of small benthic rays and sharks , fiddler ray ( trygonorrhina fasciata ) , eagle ray ( myliobatis australis ) , yellowback stingaree ( urolophus sufflavus ) , and spotted catshark ( asymbolus rubiginosus ) , have been observed to approach a bait positioned next to the same electric field as used in the present study [ 51 ] . these studies confirm that electric fields can affect the behaviour of sharks , but that some rays and sharks , including white sharks , are able to be in close proximity to the efs and consume baits close to electric fields .
ray , t . c . , king , l . j . , & grandin , t . ( 1988 ) . the effectiveness of self - initiated vestibular stimulation in producing speech sounds in an autistic child . journal of occupational therapy research , 8 , 186 - 190 .
while several studies have investigated the behavioural response of elasmobranchs to electric fields [ 22 ] , [ 32 ] , most were conducted under laboratory conditions . a field study that tested the efficiency of a personal electric deterrent on white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) concluded that the probability of an attack was reduced from about 0 . 70 in power - off mode to about 0 . 08 in power - on mode [ 29 ] . limited information about approach distance and number of approaches was presented , which would have allowed for a better understanding of the behavioural response of white sharks to electric deterrents . additionally , the product tested ( sharkpod™ ) during this previous study is no longer available and has been replaced by the shark shield™ ( shark shield pty ltd , adelaide , australia ) product range . while the waveform and voltage difference between the electrodes produced by the shark shield™ is not different from that of the sharkpod™ , the electrode configuration differs between the two products . this results in differences in the maximum electric field produced and the distribution of the electric field relative to the body of the person using the device . the electrodes of the shark shield freedom7™ trail behind the leg of the user ( fig . 1 ) , while in the case of the sharkpod™ , one electrode is placed on the scuba tank with the other electrode on the ankle of the diver . as a result , the electric field source of the shark shield freedom7™ is located behind the person wearing the device compared to being centred on the diver when wearing a sharkpod™ . prior to this study , the shark shield freedom7™ had not been independently and scientifically tested , and there remains a need to assess how different electrode configurations and locations of the electric field source may impact the efficiency of the electric deterrent .
the bait was consumed on 91 out of 116 trials ( 78 % ) , with the electric field not significantly affecting the likelihood of the bait being consumed ( poisson exact test : p = 1 . 00 ) . out of the 18 identified sharks that interacted with the bait , 14 ( 78 % ) consumed the bait , with 13 ( 72 % ) consuming the bait in the presence of the electric field . six sharks consumed the bait on several occasions , with one shark consuming the bait a total of 23 times including 14 times when the electric field was being produced . sharks responsible for consuming the baits could not be identified on 15 occasions ( 16 % ) .
the only previous study testing in situ behavioural responses of white shark to an electric field found an 80 % reduction in the probability of a shark taking the bait [ 29 ] . this result contrasts with the results from the current study , which did not find any differences in the proportion of baits consumed . because the electric pulse and waveform produced during the previous and present study were the same ( shark shield pty ltd , pers . comm . ) , the disparity between these results is likely due the different configuration of the electrodes and position of the bait . smit and peddemors [ 29 ] attached the bait between the electrodes producing the electric field , whereas this study placed the efs ∼230 cm away from the bait , similar to the way a diver would wear the product tested . further testing should assess the impact that distance between the efs and a bait has on the probability of the bait being consumed . this should be investigated against an accurate map of the electric field produced by the efs to estimate the field strength at which white sharks first detect the field and at which they display a retreat response . this is yet to be carried out in situ , but studies in laboratory conditions have measured the minimum electric field strength that elicits a behavioural response for several shark species [ 13 ] , [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] , [ 32 ] . the mean maximum field strength tolerated by hammerhead and leopard sharks before they displayed a retreat response was 18 . 50±13 . 27 and 9 . 64±10 . 28 vm –1 , respectively [ 32 ] . both are higher than the threshold of 3–7 vm –1 suggested by smith [ 27 ] who investigated the use of an electric field to produce an electric barrier , supporting the idea that behavioural responses to electric fields varies between species [ 22 ] , and that findings for one species should not be generalised to others .
the objective of this study was to assess the behavioural effects of the electric field produced by the shark shield freedom7™ ( hereafter referred to as the ‘electric field source ( efs ) ’ ) on white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) . this species was selected because it is responsible for the most unprovoked attacks and fatalities [ 30 ] , [ 33 ] . white sharks demonstrate considerable plasticity in swimming patterns depending on their habitats and likely hunting strategies [ 34 ] . in response to this , we tested the effect of the electric field on white sharks in two different situations and locations : around a static bait at the neptune islands off south australia , and breaching on a towed seal decoy at seal island , false bay in south africa .
electric rays were used by the ancient greeks as a kind of anesthetic , the electricity supposedly numbing the pain of operations and childbirth — in fact , the greek work for these rays is narke , from which we get our word ' narcotic ' .
kalmijn a ( 1978 ) electric and magnetic sensory world of sharks , skates , and rays . in : hodgson e , mathewson r , editors . sensory biology of sharks skates , and rays . arlington , va : office of naval research . 507–528 .
there were two potential analytical biases inherent in the data we collected : 1 ) temporal correlation ( lack of temporal independence ) due to the potential habituation of individual sharks or changes in their motivation through time , and 2 ) pseudo - replication due to instances where the same shark interacted with the bait within and across trials . sharks may have become habituated to the electric field , or sharks that consumed the bait , may have become less likely to respond to the electric field due to the positive reinforcement provided by the bait .
this is a deepwater electric ray with a known bathymetrical distribution of 400 to 600 m depth at bottom water temperatures from 8 to 9°c . it feeds mainly on polychaetes and isopod crustaceans , which it unearths from the sediment . maximum size is around 26 cm total length ( tl ) . matures at 14 to 15 cm tl ( males ) and 20 to 21 cm tl ( females ) . ovoviviparous ; number of young one or two per litter ; size at birth 0 . 96 cm tl . may breed year - round since different gestation stages were found in a single capture , but gestation time and reproductive periodicity unknown .
ninety - eight of the 189 tows were performed with the efs turned off and 91 with the efs turned on . due to logistical difficulties including electrodes wrapping around the equipment , poor visibility , and lack of light penetrating through the water surface , video footage was obtained from 169 tows . eighty - six videos were taken with the efs turned off and 83 with the efs turned on during which 61 interactions ( 43 with efs on , 18 with efs off ) between a shark and the decoy were recorded . interactions visible from the surface accounted for 29 of the 61 interactions observed . the number of interactions per tow across all experiments was 0 . 32 and decreased from 0 . 44 to 0 . 20 when the electric field was produced . the strongest effects of the electric field were recorded for breaches , with no breaches observed when the electric field was produced compared with 16 breaches when the efs was off . the number of surface interactions per tow decreased from 0 . 28 to 0 . 02 when the electric field was produced ( fig . 6 ; table 4 ) .
the proportion of underwater interactions was expected to increase when the efs was activated as a result of sharks aborting their predatory behaviour . the number of breaches and surface interactions decreased when the efs was turned on , but it did not affect the number of underwater interactions . this suggests that white sharks either aborted their breaches outside of the range of the camera or did not initiate a breaching approach . on most days , the visibility was estimated to be less than 5 m indicating that sharks would have to be affected by the electric field further away than 5 m . this contradicts the results obtained from the static bait experiments , which indicate that the electric field did not affect white sharks further than a distance of two metres . the electric field might not reduce the consumption of bait two metres away from the efs , but white sharks might detect the electric pulse from further away and prior to initiating the predatory attack . they might decide not to initiate a breaching approach , which would explain the reduction in breaches and surface interactions and the lack of associated increased number of underwater interactions .
schematic representation of ( a ) the experimental set - up used to test the effects of an electric field during static bait trials at north neptune island , and ( b ) the experimental set - up used with the towed seal decoy at seal island off south africa .
ray skillman auto mall has been the go - to dealership group in the indianapolis , carmel , and greenwood area since 1980 . for over 30 years we have been offering quality new and used vehicles to meet the needs of local drivers , and our trusted service department can help keep your current vehicle running great for years to come . stop by or schedule a test drive today !
white sharks may have become acclimatised to the electric field because of habituation to the electric field , or conditioning to the positive rewards resulting from consumption of the bait . for example , a shark that took the bait within the electric field may be more likely to take subsequent baits , because the discomfort caused by the electric field may not have been strong enough to counteract the reward . such temporal correlation and decrease in the effectiveness of an electro - magnetic field has previously been observed in several species [ 48 ] , [ 49 ] . this potential bias was examined but there was no strong decrease with time in the number of approaches per trial , interactions per approach , minimal distance , time to first appear , or time to take the bait . the lack of temporal correlations has also been observed in other species [ 22 ] , [ 50 ] . it is likely that the small number of food rewards provided and the alternation of positive and negative reinforcements from the efs being randomly activated for each trial prevented habituation from occurring and inducing any temporal effects in the study . the proportion of unidentified sharks ( 30 . 6 % ) may have impacted our ability to detect a decreasing response of individual sharks to the pulses . the issue of habituation or conditioning might have also occurred with the towed seal decoy . however , given the low number of interactions recorded when the electric field was present , the likelihood of habituation is low .
proportion of breaches / tow ( white ) , surface interactions / tow ( light grey ) , underwater interactions / video ( dark grey ) , and total number of interactions recorded ( surface and on video ) / video ( black ) when the electric field source was turned off or on .
a new species of torpedo ray , tetronarce cowleyi , sp . nov . , is described from specimens collected from the southeastern atlantic ocean . the new species is placed in the genus tetronarce based on a uniform dorsal coloration and absence of papillae around the spiracles . the new species is distinguished from its closest congeners , the north atlantic tetronarce nobiliana bonnaparte , 1835 , and . . . [ show full abstract ]
finally , the effects of the electric field were tested by comparing the distributions of the minimum distance recorded for each interaction using a kolmogorov - smirnov ( k - s ) test [ 42 ] and by comparing the proportion of interactions within 2 m using the minlike two - sided poisson exact test from the exactci r package .
the behavioural responses observed in the present study varied across individuals , with some sharks less affected by the electric field than others . the reason for this variation is unknown and may be a combination of motivation , different natural feeding histories , dominance hierarchies , individual experiences , or behavioural syndrome ( consistency of responses across situations ) . intra - specific variability was also noted for hammerhead and leopard sharks , as seen by the large standard deviations of the maximum voltage gradient and the difference in the voltage gradient required to elicit head twitches [ 32 ] . the electric deterrent tested produced a behavioural reaction in some sharks , but cannot be relied on to prevent shark attacks in all situations .
each trial was observed by two people and lasted 15 minutes or until a shark took the bait . the status of the efs ( on or off ) was randomised by a coin toss before each trial . the efs was tested to ensure that electric impulses were being produced prior to and following each trial during which the efs was switched on .
rays and sharks are a type of fish that have no bones , only cartilage . some parts of their skeleton , like their vertebrae , are calcified . cartilage , a strong fibrous substance , is softer than bone ; our nose and ears are made of cartilage . even the ray ' s skull is flattened . rays belong to the group of fishes called elasmobranchii , which also includes the sharks , skates , and ratfish . the elasmobranchii are all fish that have no bones , only cartilage .
next up was wedding singer nicholas ray , who said going into his audition that he really hoped to join team adam . it was immediately clear why he felt that way , because his rendition of “i’ve got the music in me” was a little theatrical and showed off his falsetto . he didn’t really stand out on this night of incredible performances , but he definitely had a lot of power behind his voice . levine loved the falsetto ending , but it wasn’t quite enough to get a chair turn .
there was no significant difference in the number of approaches per trial when the electric field was produced ( glmm ( poisson , identity ) : t 105 = 0 . 87 , p = 0 . 39 ) ( fig . 4 ) . the number of interactions per approach , however , increased from 1 . 33±0 . 08 when the efs was turned off to 2 . 20±0 . 20 when the efs was turned on ( glmm ( poisson , log ) : t 163 = 3 . 66 , p < 0 . 001 ; table 3 ) . this suggests that the sharks did not approach the bait more often when an electric field was produced , but interacted with the bait more often within each approach ( fig . 4 ) .
huveneers c , rogers pj , semmens j , beckmann c , kock aa , et al . . ( 2012 ) effects of the shark shield™ electric deterrent on the behaviour of white sharks ( carcharodon carcharias ) . final report to safework south australia . sardi publication no . f2012 / 000123–1 . sardi research report series no . 632 . adelaide : sardi - aquatic sciences .
welcome to ray skillman westside auto mall mazda ! we are located at 5309 w pike plaza rd . in indianapolis , and are a trusted and convenient mazda dealership for carmel and greenwood drivers . our dealership has a wide selection of new mazda vehicles as well as many pre - owned models for you to choose from . our knowledgeable and friendly sales staff will be ready to assist you in finding your ideal vehicle , and our financing experts specialize in securing auto loans for drivers with bad credit or no credit history .
[ schema type =
organization
orgtype =
localbusiness
url =
urltoken
name =
ray skillman westside mazda
description =
street =
5309 west pike plaza road
city =
indianapolis
state =
in
postalcode =
46254
country =
united states
email =
changeme @ urltoken
phone =
317 - 293 - 8060
logo =
https : / / urltoken / wp - content / themes / dealerinspiredealertheme / images / logo . png
]
the efficacy of the electric field in repelling white sharks from attacking a towed seal decoy was assessed by comparing the number of breaches , surface interactions , underwater interactions , and total number of interactions standardised by the number of replicates ( i . e . , the number of tows or number of videos ) using the minlike two - sided poisson exact test from the exactci r package [ 40 ] . a binomial distribution based on the probabilities of breaches and surface interactions occurring with the efs activated was also used to estimate the probabilities of the observed number of breaches and surface interactions occurring when the efs was off . the proportion of aborted breaches and investigations coded and the proportion of underwater interactions with a reaction to the electric field were tested using the same minlike two - sided poisson exact test .
forty - nine of the 116 trials were performed without an electric field and 67 with an applied electric field . a total of 314 approaches and 527 interactions by 18 different white sharks were observed . identification of white sharks was not possible for 132 approaches ( 42 % ) and 179 interactions ( 34 % ) . sharks interacted with the bait in up to 27 trials ( 6 . 89±1 . 6 , mean ± standard error ) . the number of approaches per identified shark ranged from 1 to 40 ( 10 . 11±2 . 5 ) , while the number of interactions per identified shark ranged from 1 to 71 ( 19 . 33±4 . 9 ) . during a single trial , the maximum number of approaches , interactions , and interactions per approach was 12 , 29 , and 18 , respectively .
the number of breaches per tow , surface interactions per tow , and total number of interactions recorded were significantly less with the electric field being emitted compared to when the efs was turned off ( poisson exact test : p < 0 . 001 for each test ) . the number of underwater interactions per video , however , did not change significantly whether the efs was turned on or off ( poisson exact test : p = 1 . 00 ) . based on the probability of occurrence estimated when the efs was off ( 0 . 16 and 0 . 28 for breaching and surface interaction , respectively ) , the probability of no breach , or two or less surface interactions occurring with the activated efs was < 0 . 001 . it is therefore unlikely that the lack of breaches and small number of surface interactions observed with the electric field was due to chance alone .
at ray skillman westside auto mall mazda , we carry the most up - to - date inventory of mazda coupes , sedans , and suvs as well as a large mix of pre - owned vehicles . so whether you are in the market for a brand - new car or need a reliable used model , you can count on getting a quality vehicle from our lot . additionally , our pre - owned vehicles go through a rigorous inspection before being made available for sale , and we also offer certified pre - owned mazda models , which come with additional warranty coverage to give you extra security in your purchase .
sharks first approached the bait within a short period ( 80±11 seconds ) . this was not affected by the electric field , with no significant difference in the time it took sharks to first be sighted whether the efs was turned off ( 77±21 seconds ) or on ( 82±12 seconds ) ( glmm ( gamma , inverse ) : t 49 = −0 . 17 , p = 0 . 87 ; table 3 ) ( fig . 4 ) . sharks took , on average , 197±23 seconds from the start of a trial to consume the bait . although the electric field did not affect the time it took sharks to be first sighted , sharks took twice as long to take the bait when the efs was turned on ( 244±32 seconds ) than when it was turned off ( 122±24 seconds ) ( glmm ( gamma , inverse ) : t 61 = −2 . 58 , p = 0 . 01 ; table 3 ) ( fig . 4 ) .
our study assessed the behavioural effects of the electric field produced by the shark shield freedom7™ . the study was performed in two locations and tested two distinct approach and behavioural situations to assess whether the response to the shark shield™ was consistent across behaviours . the electric field did not affect the proportion of static baits consumed , but significantly decreased the number of breaches , and surface interactions on a towed seal decoy . while the differences observed could be due to location or the different white shark populations [ 46 ] , it is more likely related to the behavioural states being tested and associated energetic costs . since rapid swimming is necessary to leave the water , the energy required for a breach is higher than that expended during inquisitive behaviour [ 47 ] . considering the energetic cost of breaching , white sharks might be less likely to breach if they can sense any factor that could reduce their chance of being successful or which appears different to natural situations . on the other hand , a white shark might still be inquisitive around a static bait , regardless of the electric field because such approach requires similar energy expenditure to normal swimming . the inquisitive nature of the shark during the static bait trials is supported by the number of times the same white sharks were observed attempting to consume the bait ( e . g . , one white shark approached the static bait in 27 different trials , and another individual had 18 interactions in one trial ) .
ponciano seoane hoped to have a better fate than ray , singing “home” by phillip phillips . “i’m trying to keep a level head , ” seoane said heading into his audition with the knowledge that there were only a couple spots left . “pretty , ” shelton remarked after the first few seconds . levine and cyrus turned right away . seoane had a gorgeous tone , and both coaches wanted him to fill their final spots . “you feel everything you’re singing , ” levine said , praising seoane’s introspection . cyrus seemed to understand that she wasn’t winning this one , but she still tried to fight for seoane . he ultimately became the last member of team adam .