cyanoramphus is a genus of parakeets native to new zealand and islands of the southern pacific ocean .

the new zealand forms are often referred to as kākāriki .

they are small to medium-sized parakeets with long tails and predominately green plumage .

most species are forest species , although several of the subantarctic species live in open grassland .

the genus formerly had a disjunct distribution , with two species found in the society islands and the majority of the genus ranging from new caledonia to macquarie island , but absent from the 4100 km in between .

despite many fossil birds being found in the islands between these two areas being found none of these were of undescribed cyanoramphus species .

like many other species of birds the cyanoramphus parakeets have suffered from changes brought about by humans .

the two species from the society islands , the black-fronted parakeet and the society parakeet , have become extinct as have the subspecies from lord howe island and macquarie island , as well as an undescribed form from campbell island .

one species , the malherbe 's parakeet ( c. malherbi ) , is critically endangered while most other species are endangered or vulnerable .

habitat loss and introduced species are considered responsible for the declines and extinctions .

cyanoramphus

cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae : north i . , south i . , stewart i . and auckland is . ( new zealand )
voice : characteristic parakeet chatter , with variety of softer tur - tur - tur calls . calls are similar to other cyanoramphus species of similar size .
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taylor , r . h . 1985 . status , habits and conservation of cyanoramphus parakeets in the new zealand region . icbp tech . publ . 3 : 195 - 211 .
it has been treated variously ; either as a distinct species ( birdlife australia 2013 ; christidis & boles 2008 ; juniper & parr 1998 ; mcallan & bruce 1988 ; sibley & monroe 1990 ) or as cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii , a subspecies of the red - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) ( christidis & boles 1994 ; del hoyo & collar 2014 ; higgins 1999 ; schodde & mason 1997 ) . a phylogenetic study reported a high degree of genetic divergence between it and other cyanoramphus , thus warranting its treatment as a distinct species ( boon et al . 2001 ) .
oritz - catedral , l . ( 2013 ) . the population and status of green parrot ( tasman parakeet ) cyanoramphus cookii on norfolk island . unpublished report to the director of national parks .
it has been suggested that the lord howe island parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae subflavescens ) be included with the norfolk island green parrot ( christidis & boles 2008 ) , however , further taxonomic investigation is required .
west , r . , tisdall , c . and aviss , m . ( 1995 ) captive management plan antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor ) . threatened species occasional publication , 7 : 1 - 6 .
motte , k . & e . hall ( 1988 ) . report and recommendations on the green parrot cyanoramphus novaezealandiae cookii captive breeding program . report to the australian parks and wildlife service . sydney : taronga zoo .
boon , w . m . , j . c . kearvell , c . h . daugherty , & g . k . chambers ( 2001 ) . molecular systematics and conservation of kakariki ( cyanoramphus spp . ) .
greene , t . c . ( 2003 ) breeding biology of red - crowned parakeets ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) on little barrier island , hauraki gulf , new zealand . notornis , 50 ( 2 ) : 83 - 99 .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . cyanoramphus cookii in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 01 : 36 + 1000 .
greene , t . c . 1999 . aspects of the ecology of antipodes island parakeet ( cyanoramphus unicolor ) and reischek’s parakeet ( c . novaezelandiae hochstetteri ) on antipodes island , october - november 1995 . notornis 46 : 301 - 310 .
oritz - catedral , l . & d . h . brunton ( 2008 ) . clutch parameters and reproductive success of a translocated population of red - crowned parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) . australian journal of zoology . 56 : 389 - 393 .
lane , b . a . , m . r . bezuijen , d . greenwood , g . w . carr & r . ward ( 1998 ) . 1998 recovery plan for norfolk island parrot ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii ) . melbourne : ecology australia pty ltd .
reischek’s parakeets are more abundant than antipodes island parakeets in most habitats . significant differences in diet between the two parakeet species have been observed . strong seasonal and annual dietary differences related to food availability are also apparent . reischek’s parakeets are strong fliers and have been observed flying between islands within the antipodes group . social behaviour is similar to other species of cyanoramphus parakeets , but they have been noted spending considerable periods basking and preening in sheltered areas . like other cyanoramphus species they are strongly territorial around nests , and call loudly and chase intruders from immediate vicinity .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cyanoramphus malherbi . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
boon , w . m . ; kearvell , j . c . ; daugherty , c . h . ; chambers , g . k . 2000 . molecular systematics of new zealand cyanoramphus parakeets : conservation of orange - fronted and forbes ' parakeets . bird conservation international 10 : 211 - 239 .
other synonyms catalan : cotorra front - roja czech : kakariki rudočelý danish : gedeparakit german : ziegensittich english : red - crowned parakeet , red - fronted parakeet , red - fronted , macquarie or lord howe parakeet spanish : perico maorí cabecirrojo , perico maorí rojo estonian : suur - maooripapagoi finnish : uudenseelanninviherkaija french : perruche de sparrman , perruche de sparrman , p . de macquarie ou p . de lord howe hungarian : piroshomlokú kecskepapagáj italian : kakariki fronterossa , parrocchetto fronterossa japanese : aohashiinko japanese : アオハシインコ latin : cyanoramphus [ novaezelandiae , erythrotis , subflavescens ] , cyanoramphus novaezelandiae , cyanoramphus novaezelandiae novaezelandiae , psittacus novae zelandiae lithuanian : raudonkaktė šoklioji papūga maori : kakariki , ka - ka - riki dutch : roodvoorhoofdkakariki , roodvoorhoofdkarakiri norwegian : rødkroneparakitt polish : modrolotka czerwonoczelna portuguese : kakariki - fronte - vermelha russian : краснозобый горный прыгающий попугай , краснолобый прыгающий попугай slovak : kakariki cervenocelý , kakariki červenočelý swedish : rödpannad parakit chinese : 红额鹦鹉 chinese ( traditional ) : 紅額鸚鵡
relatively little is known about breeding for reischek’s parakeets . they appear to nest from october to march within tunnels modified or constructed within the bases of clumps of tussocks or ferns . clutch size in the wild is unknown . it is likely that their breeding ecology and behavior are similar to those of other cyanoramphus parakeets .
hill , r . ( 2002 ) . non - current recovery plan for the norfolk island green parrot cyanoramphus novaezelandiae cookii - may 2002 . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 13 - oct - 2003 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 18 - aug - 2010 .
taylor , j . ( 2014 ) . archived 2014 discussion : red - fronted parakeet ( cyanoramphus novaezelandiae ) , norfolk island parakeet ( c . cookii ) and new caledonian parakeet ( c . saisseti ) are being lumped as c . novaezelandiae : list as near threatened ? . birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums . birdlife international . available from : urltoken .
cyanoramphus auriceps is found throughout much of the north , south , stewart and auckland islands , new zealand , and on several offshore islands . it is generally considered uncommon throughout its range ( heather and robertson 2015 ) , however , it may become abundant on offshore islands and in mainland forests during periods of heavy seed production ( elliott 2013 ) . the population is estimated as being in the tens of thousands ( elliott 2013 ) but trends are unclear ( higgins 1999 ) .
also known as the antipodes green parakeet , this parakeet is a plump bird with a green head and body , but with purplish - blue wing - coverts and some flight feathers ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the forehead and face are a bright emerald green , while the rest of the plumage is a more olive colour , being yellower below ( 4 ) . this bird is the largest of its genus ( 5 ) , and produces a wide range of chattering calls , lower - pitched than other cyanoramphus species ( 2 ) .
reischek’s parakeet is one of two cyanoramphus parakeet species that inhabit the remote antipodes islands . it is a medium - sized , brightly coloured , green parrot with a red crown , that looks very similar to other ‘red - crowned’ parakeets ( e . g . c . novaezelandiae ) . but appearances can be deceiving . genetic studies reveal that crown colour may not be a good indicator of parakeet taxonomy , and that the diminutive orange - fronted parakeet may be the closest relative of reischek’s parakeet . it is common throughout the antipodes islands , particularly in more open areas and coastal fringes close to penguin colonies .
while building and maintaining a resilient population on norfolk island is seen as the priority , to reduce the risk of a single event wiping out the species , it is planned to establish an insurance population of green parrots . phillip island is a small island six kilometres off the southern coast of norfolk island which is part of norfolk island national park and is free of introduced mammalian predators . an initial assessment of the island as a suitable site has established that , due to almost 20 years of rehabilitation work , the green parrot’s former range has sufficient feed trees to accommodate a small population ( a . smith 2014 ) . a plan for the translocation of a small founder population is currently being developed . numerous translocations of closely related cyanoramphus species to predator - free islands have been undertaken in new zealand and have largely been successful ( a . smith 2014 ) .
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23 cm . bright blue - green parrot with diagnostic orange frontal band and orange patch on sides of rump . also has pale lemon - yellow forecrown . female slightly smaller with proportionally smaller bill .
greene , t . , hitchmough , r . , kearvell , j . & van hal , j .
this species is listed as critically endangered because , subsequent to serious declines since the 1800s , it underwent a population crash following rat invasions in 1990 - 2000 , and it now has a very small population that has declined during the last decade .
spp . ) forest valleys in the south island : the hawdon and poulter valleys in arthur’s pass national park and the south branch of the hurunui valley in lake sumner forest park . they are patchily distributed within these valleys ; absent in many parts but in some places can be quite common ( kearvell 2013 ) . they have been translocated to four islands : maud and blumine islands in the marlborough sounds , chalky island in fiordland , and tuhua / mayor island in the bay of plenty . releases of captive - raised birds to the south branch of the hurunui to augment the population in 2015 and 2016 appear to have been successful with released birds having successfully paired and 9 - 10 nests located in 2016 ( j . kearvell
. the population appeared to stabilise at low levels since then , and it is likely that in 2016 the mainland populations remain at an extremely low level of around 100 birds in total ( j . kearvell
translocations to islands began in 2005 , with 46 birds now released onto chalky , 61 on blumine , 68 on maud and 95 on tuhua ( j . c kearvell
2016 ) . these releases all appeared highly successful at first with positive signs of breeding and population establishment - however , population growth has now slowed on all islands and the persistence of these populations appears to still be tenuous ( a . grant
although the population numbered several hundreds prior to 2000 , a prolific increase in the population of rats and stoats within its restricted south island range induced a rapid population decline and the total population has remained well below its previous levels . successful translocations on four islands have boosted the population of this species , but decreases may have continued on the mainland . overall , the global population was estimated at
290 - 690 individuals in early 2013 , with the mainland populations estimated to total 130 - 270 individuals and the island populations totalling 160 - 420 individuals ( j . c . kearvell
2013 ) . obtaining accurate population estimates is extremely challenging for the species , but recent counts indicate that the mainland population may have declined to around 100 birds , and the offshore island populations to around 250 birds in total ( j . c . kearvell
2016 ) . the population has a skewed sex ratio of males to females , probably due to higher predation on incubating females ( kearvell and farley 2016 ) .
the population fell from 500 - 700 birds prior to 2000 , to 100 - 200 by 2004 . increased conservation efforts ( especially predator control ) in its small south island range and a successful translocation of birds to four islands suggest its rapid decline has ceased and some recovery has taken place . however , 2013 estimates suggest further declines on the mainland , and during a three generation ( 14 year ) period the species has still experienced a reduction in the number of mature individuals , which is precautionarily estimated to have been extremely rapid , as latest population estimates include an unknown but potentially significant proportion of non - mature individuals ( translocated birds yet to have bred ) .
it is restricted to nothofagus beech forest , although it may not have been so historically . on maud island it uses areas with a high canopy cover and low understory and ground cover ( ortiz - catedral 2012 ) . it requires mature trees with natural hollows or cavities for nesting . monitoring has revealed that 80 % of nests are in mature living trees , with the remaining 20 % in dead trees ( j . c . kearvell in litt . 2012 ) . of those nests found in mature trees , 68 % are in red beech nothofagus fusca . breeding is linked with the irregular seeding of nothofagus when numbers can increase substantially , and it seems that populations may fluctuate significantly in line with breeding / seeding events ( t . greene in litt . 2016 ) . in mast years , many pairs will lay a second clutch , and some may lay a third clutch , with breeding continuing through the austral winter . first clutches may average more than eight eggs , with second clutches averaging over seven in 2011 . a study on maud island has shown that birds form pairs at around seven years of age , and nest in a variety of natural cavities where beech is unavailable ( j . kearvell in litt . 2011 , 2012 ) . it feeds on seeds , fruits , leaves , flowers , buds and invertebrates ( kearvell 1999 , kearvell 2013 ) .
, with recent population crashes being due to rat irruptions . the species ' s hole - nesting behaviour leads to a reduced ratio of females in the population due to predation of birds on the nest ( elliott
. 2011 ) and in time , this problem may affect other island populations . population growth in island populations , especially on maud island , may also be limited through predation by falcons ( falconidae ) , and displacement of two nesting pairs by introduced common starlings
has now been documented ; the overall impact of this recently - identified threat is uncertain , but may be minimal ( j . c . kearvell
on little barrier island were suffering from psittacine beak and feather disease ( pbfd ) . the virus has been sequenced and appears very similar to the strain found in crimson rosella
, in which the disease is known to be endemic within the captive population . in 2009 , some individuals of
on maud island were showing some symptoms consistent with pbfd . in reaction , testing of the entire captive population has been undertaken , as well as more limited sampling of individuals in all three island populations , as well as other parrot species . results indicate that antibodies for pbfd were detected in
. 2012 , 2013 ) . monitoring for the disease in the captive population continues and the main captive breeding unit has now been declared disease - free ( t . greene
immunosuppression may also be involved , either because of small population size and / or because of post pbfd issues ( j . c . kearvell in litt . 2013 ) .
cites appendix ii ( 1981 ) . hawdon and poulter valleys are located within arthur ' s pass national park and the hurunui south branch is in lake sumner conservation park (
. monitoring of nests will verify whether this is allowing numbers to stabilise and expand . the hawdon population received
control only during plague years , which occur , on average , every four years ( j . c . kearvell
. all three valleys are now part of the
battle for our birds
initiative targeting rats and stoats in south island beech forest sites . the control of
is now continuous , whereas control measures against rats are implemented when populations reach trigger points ( j . c . kearvell
2008 , 2009 ) , and since 2003 only one nest out of 153 has been lost to invasive predators ( j . c . kearvell
since 2003 , the captive facility at isaacs construction wildlife centre , peacock springs ( christchurch ) , has released , in conjunction with department of conservation , a total of over 250 individuals ( j . c . kearvell
. the reintroduction of birds to maud island has been underway since 2007 , and wild - bred birds are now nesting on the island . translocations to tuhua island have been taking place since december 2009 , and in early 2011 it was expected that all birds produced in the next captive breeding season would be released there to provide a sufficient founder population ( j . c . kearvell
. translocations have also been carried out on blumine island ( j . c . kearvell
. 2012 ) . a second captive - breeding group was being set up at mount bruce but has been discontinued due to a lack of capacity ( j . c . kearvell
. 2013 ) . another attempt to set up a second captive breeding population has been initiated with the auckland zoo with the hope that a 5th island population will be started on rotoroa island ( t . greene
2016 ) . a study to assess the genetic diversity of the remnant mainland population , with the aim of ensuring that any new founder populations on islands are as genetically diverse as possible , has been completed ( j . c . kearvell
2013 ) . an analysis of breeding data is also due to be started . a comprehensive testing programme for psittacine beak and feather disease ( pbfd ) in parrots throughout new zealand was initiated ( t . greene
develop a technique to accurately monitor numbers . continue to study the species ' s breeding biology and ecology . stabilise and increase numbers in the mainland valley populations through predator control , and monitor effectiveness . train people in the identification of the species ( j . c . kearvell
. establish further populations on predator - free offshore islands and develop captive breeding programmes to assist with this . closely monitor the threat from pbfd ( j . c . kearvell
. continue research into methods of controlling introduced predators ( j . c . kearvell
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25 cm . small bright green parakeet . yellow - green body ; yellow crown ; red band from forehead to billl ; red patches on flanks ; violet - blue on wing coverts .
this species is thought to have suffered declines in the past to the point that it now has a moderately small population , and as a result it is listed as near threatened . if predator control continues within parts of its range , habitat recovers and remaining forests are protected , it may warrant downlisting in the future .
the population has decreased in numbers in the past and the species is generally uncommon throughout its range , although it may be common on offshore islands and in some mainland forests ( elliott 2013 ) . the population is estimated as being in the tens of thousands ( elliott 2013 ) but trends are unclear ( higgins 1999 ) . trend justification : this species is thought to have been adversely affected by forest clearance , introduced predators and hybridisation . consequently , slow to moderate declines are suspected in the past .
, or , where the two occur sympatrically on small islands it is found in denser unbroken forest .
. breeding occurs mainly in october - december . it feeds on seeds , berries , flowers , and roots . insects taken from trees are a significant part of its diet ( greene 1998 ) . in predator - free areas , the species will often feed on the ground .
and roots . insects taken from trees are a significant part of its diet ( greene 1998 ) . in predator - free areas the species will often feed on the ground .
on solander island . on auckland island , there is an unnaturally high rate of hybridisation between the two species . beak and feather disease virus ( bfdv ) has been identified from birds in the eglinton valley , fiordland ( massaro
cites appendix ii . this species occurs within a number of national parks and reserves where forest habitat is protected , but predators still pose a threat . it is benefiting from efforts to eradicate introduced predators from mainland forests and offshore islands . successful translocations to offshore islands ( mana , long island and motuara island in queen charlotte sound ) have taken place and translocations to mainland sites ( maungatautari , boundary stream ) are underway ( elliott 2013 ) .
ensure that remaining primary forest is not logged . re - vegetate islands that have historically been overgrazed . maintain and / or increase control of invasive predators within mainland forests .
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the red - fronted parakeet is immediately recognisable by its distinctive , brightly coloured plumage . vivid crimson feathers appear on the forehead , crown and behind the eye , earning this bird its alternative common name of ‘red - crowned parakeet’ ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this conspicuous red marking on the head contrasts with the predominantly green colour of the rest of the body , though yellow mutations are occasionally found in the wild ( 5 ) . the underside of the wings are blue - violet , the beak is grey - blue , getting darker at the tip , and the eyes are orange ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this bird has a unique and unusual voice , which is sometimes likened to the bleating of a goat ( 5 ) .
the omnivorous red - fronted parakeet feeds mainly on plant material , including seeds , fruits , flowers , nectar , leaves and shoots , but also on invertebrates and will occasionally scavenge animal carrion ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .
these parakeets live in permanent pairs that frequently join with other pairs and their young , and have been observed to form small flocks in the autumn and winter ( 8 ) . in studies on little barrier island , breeding activity was recorded from november to march , with peak egg - laying in december ( 9 ) . clutches were usually large , ranging from four to nine ( average of seven ) eggs , and female parakeets took total responsibility for their incubation , which lasts from 19 to 23 days ( 5 ) ( 9 ) . hatchlings are covered with a white down that changes to grey within a few days ( 5 ) . fledglings leave the nest after 32 to 49 days ( 9 ) .
historically abundant in mainland new zealand , the red - fronted parakeet is now effectively extinct in this area ( recent sightings are now believed to be cage escapes or releases or vagrants from offshore island populations ) . populations currently remain on offshore islands , including the kermadec islands , three kings , some hauraki gulf islands , kapiti island , stewart island and surrounding islands , chatham islands , snares , antipodes islands , auckland islands , and norfolk island ( self - governing australian territory ) . now extinct on lord howe island and macquarie islands ( 6 ) .
found in a wide variety of habitats , including dense temperate rainforests , coastal forest , scrubland , forest edges and open areas . this bird prefers nesting in hollow limbs , holes or stumps of trees , but , where suitable trees are lacking , will also use holes , burrows and tunnels in the ground , cliffs and tussock grass ( 6 ) .
classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list 2006 ( 1 ) . listed under appendix i of cites ( 3 ) .
the red - fronted parakeet has been upgraded from least concern to vulnerable on the iucn red list due to its apparent extinction from the mainland , leaving only fragmented populations across off - shore islands . european settlement and conversion of forest to farmland probably contributed significantly to this bird’s decline , with clear - felling , logging and burning of forests drastically reducing available habitat . the disappearance of this species from the mainland is also attributed to nest predation from introduced predators , such as rats , cats , stoats and weasels , in addition to competition for food and breeding sites from introduced birds . formerly persecuted for damaging crops and gardens ( 6 ) .
the red - fronted parakeet is fully protected from trade across international boarders by its listing on appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) . a captive breeding programme has also been established on norfolk island for this bird . the ability of this species to breed well in captivity , and its popularity in aviculture collections , is likely to prevent this bird from ever becoming completely extinct . future priorities advocated in the conservation of the red - fronted parakeet include preserving important habitat of remaining populations , carrying out research to determine current population size and trends , and performing predator control measures if found to be appropriate ( 6 ) .
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forbes , h . o . & robinson , h . c . 1897 ,
catalogue of the parrots ( psittaci ) in the derby museum
, bulletin of the liverpool museum , vol . 1 , pp . 5 - 22
gray , g . r . 1862 ,
a list of the birds of new zealand and the adjacent islands
, ibis , vol . 4 , no . 15 , pp . 214 - 252
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 21c4d485 - 7561 - 44d4 - 96f2 - 8036b253a9a5
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zoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
recovery plan required , this species had a recovery plan in force at the time the legislation provided for the minister to decide whether or not to have a recovery plan ( 19 / 2 / 2007 ) .
. department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts , canberra . available from :
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009 ) .
. department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :
survey guidelines for australia ' s threatened birds . epbc act survey guidelines 6 . 2
( department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) , 2010 ) [ admin guideline ] .
the action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson , 2011 ) .
the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .
the norfolk island green parrot is one of 20 birds that the australian government has prioritised resource allocation to support the species recovery effort . this species was prioritisied because it is important to the people of nortfolk island . recovery of the species is achievable ; actions to protect breeding sites have proven successful in the past and will aid its recovery . zoos victoria is actively involved in the recovery of the parrot , as are the norfolk island national park staff and the community . expertise is in place and the australian government and others have committed financial support . management of feral predators like feral cats and rats will not only help the green parrot , but all of the native animals on the island . reducing the impact of feral cats is a key area of focus in the bird action plan , as well as creating safe havens for threatened species .
the threatened species strategy webpage includes information on other projects that may be supporting the species .
the norfolk island green parrot is bright green with a red forehead and forecrown , a red stripe across each eye , a dark blue region on the leading edge of each wing and a small patch of red on either side of the rump . the sexes are similar in appearance , but the female can be distinguished by her smaller size , smaller red forehead and forecrown patches , and a smaller , narrower bill . juveniles are similar to the adults , but green colouring is duller and red colouring is less extensive ( forshaw 1981 ; higgins 1999 ) .
the norfolk island green parrot is confined to norfolk island . its distribution is concentrated in the north - western region of the island around mount pitt , which lies in norfolk island national park . it is believed that breeding is largely confined to suitable habitat in the national park ( hill 2002 ; moore 1985 ; schodde et al . 1983 ; smith 2014 ) .
the extent of occurrence of the norfolk island green parrot is estimated , with high reliability , to be 35 km² ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the species was probably widespread on norfolk island , and present on the nearby phillip island , and perhaps nepean island , before the arrival of european settlers and subsequent clearing of endemic forest ( hill 2002 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) .
the area of occupancy of the norfolk island green parrot is estimated , with medium reliability , to be 8 km² ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the area of occupancy declined following the arrival of european settlers and the species distribution had become concentrated around the mount pitt area by 1908 ( hull 1909 ) .
a captive breeding program implemented from the 1980s ended in 2009 when remaining birds were released ( garnett et al . 2011 ) .
the norfolk island green parrot population was surveyed intensively during 2013 and 2014 and from 1977to 1997 . surveys included ( hermes et al . 1986 ; hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 ; oritz - catedral 2013 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) :
this species occurs as a single , contiguous breeding population ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the abundance of green parrots has undergone episodic fluctuation since human settlement on norfolk island . surveys conducted in winter 2013 confirmed a dramatic decline in the population , with an estimated population of between 46 and 92 individuals compared to an estimated 240 birds in 2010 . however , as the methodologies employed in these two surveys differ , comparison of results is problematic . there were only 10 confirmed records of adult females in winter 2013 with the maximum number of breeding pairs estimated to be unlikely to exceed 23 ( ortiz - catedral 2013 ) .
since the 2013 winter survey an intensive recovery program has been implemented throughout the national park which resulted in 58 chicks successfully fledging in the 2014 calendar year , of which 27 were female ( a . smith 2014 , pers . comm . ) .
the population is estimated to have consisted of about 190 pairs before the arrival of european settlers ( hill 2002 ) . the population declined substantially between 1774 , when the species was first recorded ( hoare 1974 ) , and 1908 , when the distribution had become largely confined to suitable habitat around mount pitt ( hull 1909 ) . in 1937 , a large number of birds were collected by an expedition from the smithsonian institute , and when no individuals were recorded in the two years following the expedition , the species was feared extinct ( hill 2002 ) . however , by the 1950s residents of the island claimed that the species was reasonably common ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ) . the following population estimates have been published :
in 1977–78 , three to five breeding pairs and 17–30 individuals in total ( forshaw 1981 ; schodde et al . 1983 )
in 1988 , four breeding pairs and 32 individuals in total ( hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 )
in 1989–1995 , three to ten breeding pairs , and 25 to 44 individuals in total ( hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 )
in 2006–07 , a minimum six breeding pairs and more than 200–400 individuals ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . )
in 2013 , a population of between 46 and 92 individual birds with only 10 adult females ( oritz - catedral 2013 ) .
historically , the decline in the number of breeding pairs has been attributed to successive years of dry ( and unfavourable ) conditions . only 10 young were produced from known nests in 2005–06 , but the reproductive output of known pairs doubled in the 2006–07 season following increased rainfall in the preceding year ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) . the recent decline can be attributed to predation by cats and rats , a lack of safe nesting hollows and competition for nesting hollows from the introduced crimson rosella ( platycercus elegans ) , common starling ( sturnus vulgaris ) and honeybee ( apis mellifera ) ( a . smith 2014 pers . obs . ) .
norfolk island national park contains most of the suitable foraging habitat and is thought to contain the entire suitable breeding habitat of the norfolk island green parrot ( hill 2002 ) with the exception of one nest site discovered in 2013 on private land adjoining the national park ( a . smith 2014 pers . comm . ) .
the norfolk island green parrot primarily occurs in remnant norfolk island pine ( araucaria heterophylla ) tall closed rainforest , as well as in other native vegetation , eucalypt plantations and adjacent to native forest in orchards and gardens ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ) .
norfolk island national park encompasses 465 ha ( 12 % of norfolk island land ) . this national park has been classified into five habitats : weed infested native forest ( 161 ha , 35 % ) ; dense african olive ( olea europaea subsp . cuspidata ) forest ( 129 ha , 28 % ) ; native forest ( 97 ha , 21 % ) ; dense red guava ( psidium cattleianum var . cattleianum ) forest ( 41 ha , 9 % ) ; and plantation forest ( 32 ha , 7 % ) . native vegetation consists of palm forest , hardwood forest and norfolk island pine forest .
nesting and roosting habitat the norfolk island green parrot usually nests in a hollow or cavity in the limb , trunk or stump of living or dead trees , especially in larger native trees , including ironwood ( nestegis apetala ) , bloodwood ( corymbia spp . / eucalyptus spp . ) , cordyline and norfolk island pine , but now also using tree ferns ; nests are typically within 2 m of the ground ( garnett et al . 2011 ; hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .
the norfolk island green parrot generally roosts in concealed areas , including holes in trees , and thick vegetation such as epiphytes , tussocks , sedges and ferns . it often roosts in nesting sites ( higgins 1999 ) . inexperienced fledglings often roost in exposed sites ( higgins 1999 ) .
the norfolk island green parrot perches in trees when in forest , but may perch on the ground in open habitats , or when feeding on the ground ( higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .
female norfolk island green parrots may begin laying eggs from 10–12 months of age , or even shortly after reaching independence . the age at which males become sexually mature is not known . longevity in the wild is expected to be 7 . 3 years ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . one wild breeding female was thought to be at least nine years old ( lane et al . 1998 ) , whilst the oldest known captive individual was 14 ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) . the generation length of this species is estimated , with low reliability , to be 4 . 6 years ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . the norfolk island green parrot is not known to cross - breed with any other species .
reproduction the norfolk island green parrot breeds in all months of the year with a notable increase in breeding late summer and autumn ( a . smith 2014 pers . comm . ) . average age of first breeding is expected to be approximately 2 . 0 years ( garnett et al . 2011 ) . clutch size has been recorded between 1 - 9 eggs ( dnp 2010 ) however clutches are more commonly around 3 or 4 ( a . smith . 2014 pers . obs . ) . females do all the incubation whilst both males and females share in rearing the chicks . females spend a larger amount of time in the nest feeding , visit the nest site more frequently and stay for longer than males , making them more susceptible to predation ( a . smith 2014 pers . obs . ) .
the norfolk island green parrot exhibits double - clutching ( i . e . it has two nests concurrently at different stages of development ) . as the chicks reach around two weeks of age , the female parrot may leave the nest and commence a new nest , leaving the original nest to be tended by the male ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . thus , pairs can fledge up to four broods of young during a single year . eggs are laid at two - day intervals , and the incubation period ( 21 days ) commences after the second or third egg is laid ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . young birds leave the nest six to seven weeks after hatching , and generally become independent three to five weeks after fledging ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .
in 1987–1998 , a mean of 13 wild nesting attempts per year ( range 1–27 , n = 12 years ) was recorded in norfolk island national park , from a total of 52 known nest hollows ( lane et al . 1998 ) . during this period a mean clutch size of 4 . 9 eggs ( range 1–9 , n = 161 clutches ) was recorded and a mean of 1 . 77 eggs ( range 0–6 , n = 161 clutches , or 35 . 5 % of clutch ) hatched per clutch . during this study , up to four chicks successfully fledged per nest with a total of 46 male and 44 female parrots fledged on the island . of fledged individuals , 18 ( 39 % ) males and eight ( 18 % ) females survived their first year ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . the 1987–1998 figures equate to 4 . 6 males and 4 . 4 females fledging per year , and 1 . 8 males and 0 . 8 females surviving to their first year .
from 2001–07 , a total of 213 young fledged from known nests ( r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) .
the norfolk island green parrot is adversely affected by competition for nesting sites with introduced species , such as common starling , crimson rosella and honeybee ( hill 2002 ) . while in the nest , females brooding eggs and birds tending chicks are vulnerable to predation by feral cats ( felis catus ) and black rats ( rattus rattus ) . inexperienced females may also select nest sites that are easily accessible to predators ( lane et al . 1998 ) .
adult norfolk island green parrots primarily eat seeds , fruits , flowers and leaves of native and introduced trees and shrubs , including norfolk island pine , ironwood , norfolk island palm ( rhopalostylis bauerri ) , bloodwood , cordyline and white oak ( lagunaria patersonia ) ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; higgins 1999 ) . they are reported to prefer the blossum and seeds of bloodwood and wild maple ( elaeodendron curtipendulum ) , but also eat seeds , fruits and bark of introduced species including wild tobacco ( solanum mauritianum ) , red guava , african olive , peach ( prunus persica ) and lantana ( lantana camara ) ( forshaw & cooper 1978 ; lane et al . 1998 ) .
norfolk island green parrots forage in all vegetation strata , depending on the location of seasonally available food items ( higgins 1999 ) . adults prefer to feed in the canopy in forested areas . however , for three to five weeks after fledging , juveniles feed extensively on the ground eating fallen seeds of african olive , norfolk island pine and red guava ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; higgins 1999 ; lane et al . 1998 ) . during the summer months birds have been observed largely feeding in the canopy of trees , whilst in the winter months a large proportion of foraging time appears to be on the ground ( a . smith 2014 pers . obs . ) . they will also feed in modified habitat , disturbed habitat and on exotic plants ( fruit trees ) , especially where native vegetation has been removed ( forshaw & cooper 1989 ; higgins 1999 ) .
the norfolk island green parrot is regarded as sedentary or resident , and occurs in most habitat types throughout the year . adults display little movement before or after breeding ( higgins 1999 ) . this species descends to lower altitudes when fruit trees in orchards and gardens are fruiting ( hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ) . this species is gregarious and it usually occurs in pairs , family parties or small groups ( higgins 1999 ) .
the majority of sightings of parrots outside of the national park are recorded during december and january . it has been suggested that some sightings may be excess males that are forced out of the park ( lane et al . 1998 ) .
distinctiveness there are no other species on norfolk island that are similar to the norfolk island green parrot .
recommended methods various techniques are employed to assess the status of the norfolk island green parrot population including nest inspections , visual and aural surveys , distance sampling and general observations ( a . smith 2014 pers . comm . ) .
nest surveys are also undertaken in addition to the overall population census . predator - resistant nest sites constructed throughout the national park are monitored monthly for signs of nesting activity . active nests are monitored twice weekly ; motion sensor cameras are also used to both record activity and to detect possible interference from other species .
the clearance of suitable forest habitat , particularly hollow - bearing trees such as ironwood , to provide timber and land for agriculture and pine plantations was a major factor in the decline of the norfolk island green parrot ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; hicks & greenwood 1989 ; higgins 1999 ; hill 2002 ; lane et al . 1998 ; r . ward 2007 , pers . comm . ) . the widespread clearance of endemic forest has now ceased on norfolk island ( garnett et al . 2011 ) , and most of the remaining habitat is protected through its inclusion in norfolk island national park or through the listing of vegetation under local government legislation . however , patches of forest continue to be cleared on private land : this threat is being addressed through agreements between conservation bodies and landholders to conserve endemic forest ( hill 2002 ) .


nectophrynoides laevis , the smooth forest toad , is a species of toad in the family bufonidae .

it is endemic to tanzania .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , subtropical or tropical low-altitude grassland and swamps .

a single specimen was collected in 2002 and it was first described in 2004 .

nectophrynoides laevis

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citation : - nectophrynoides laevis . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .
iucn ssc amphibian specialist group 2014 . nectophrynoides laevis . the iucn red list of threatened species 2014 : e . t54840a16949825 . urltoken
this species is named for the latin ' laevis ' meaning smooth and referring to the skin surface .
extensive long term research in this area has identified more than 135 endemic species of plants , two endemic species of birds ( uluguru bush shrike and loveridges sunbird ) , six endemic species of amphibians ( hyperolius tornieri , nectophrynoides laevis , nectophrynoides cryptus , nectophrynoides pseudotornieri , scolecomorphus uluguruensis , probreviceps uluguruensis ) , two endemic species of reptiles ( typhlops uluguruensis , xyeledontophis uluguruensis ) and one endemic small mammal ( myosorex geata ) .
wake m . h . ( 1980 ) , «the reproductive biology of nectophrynoides malcolmi ( amphibia : bufonidae ) , with comments on the evolution of reproductive modes in the genus nectophrynoides » , copeia , 1980 , 193 – 209 .
this toad from the nectophrynoides genus is one of 15 amphibian species in tanzania that have been described for the first time . | frogs and toads | pinterest …
nectophrynoides laevis menegon , salvidio , and loader , 2004 , tropical zool . , 17 : 107 . holotype : bmnh 2000 . 233 , by original designation . type locality :
uluguru south forest reserve , uluguru mountains , morogoro region , eastern tanzania ( 7° 01′ - 7° 12′ s , 37° 36′—37° 45′ e )
.
cannatella d . c . and de sá r . o . ( 1993 ) , « xenopus laevis as a model organism» , syst . biol . , 42 , 476 – 507 .
weisz p . b . ( 1945 ) , «the normal stages in the development of the south african clawed toad , xenopus laevis » , anat . rec . , 93 , 161 – 169 .
species description : menegon m , salvidio s , loader sp 2004 five new species of nectophrynoides noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . trop . zool . 17 : 97 - 121
lamotte m . and xavier f . ( 1972a ) , «les amphibiens anoures à développement direct d’afrique . observations sur la biologie de nectophrynoides tornieri ( roux ) » , bull . soc . zool . france , 97 , 413 – 428 .
gurdon j . b . and hopwood n . ( 2000 ) , «the introduction of xenopus laevis into developmental biology : of empire , pregnancy testing and ribosomal genes» , int . j . devel . biol . , 44 , 43 – 50 .
landström u . , løvtrup - rein u . , and løvtrup s . ( 1975 ) , «control of cell division and cell differentiation by deoxynucleotides in the early embryo of xenopus laevis » , cell differ . , 4 , 313 – 325 .
the species authority is : menegon , m . , salvidio , s . , and loader , s . p . ( 2004 ) . “five new species of nectophrynoides noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . ”
lamotte m . and xavier f . ( 1972b ) , «recherches sur le développement embryonnaire de nectophrynoides occidentalis angel , amphibien anoure vivipare . 1 . les principaux traits morphologiques et biométriques du développement» , ann . embryol . morphogen . , 5 , 315 – 340 .
dettlaff t . a . and rudneva t . b . ( 1975 ) , «the clawed frog xenopus laevis daudin» , in : t . a . dettlaff ( ed . ) , objects of developmental biology , nauka , moscow , pp . 392 – 441 [ in russian ] .
this medium - sized nectophrynoides is known only from the uluguru north forest reserve within the uluguru mountains of eastern tanzania and is considered endangered . its large hands and feet , expanded toe tips , fingers webbed at the base , indistinct parotid glands , and lack of a tympanum make it distinguishable from other species of the genus .
del pino e . m . , steinbeisser h . , hoffmann a . , dreyer c . , campos m . , and trendelenburg m . f . ( 1986 ) , «oogenesis in the egg - brooding frog gastrotheca riobambae produces large oocytes with fewer nucleoli and low rna content in comparison to xenopus laevis » , differentiation , 32 , 24 – 33 .
a medium - sized nectophrynoides with short slender limbs . the dorsum is light , with dark sides . many individuals have a dark mid dorsal stripe . the tympanum is clearly visible . parotid glands are raised with dark edges and are longer than they are wide . toe and finger tips are not expanded and may be rounded or slightly pointed . fingers are webbed only slightly at the base . toes are partially webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
resembling a small n . viviparus in body shape but lacking tympanum , massive parotoids and glands on limbs . it is easily distinguished from n . poyntoni , n . vestergaardi , n . minutus and n . tornieri by the absence of a tympanum . differing from n . wendyae , n . frontierei and n . cryptus in having expanded tips of fingers ( the latter two species occasionally have a weakly discernible tympanum , outlined under the skin ) . n . laevis can be distinguished from n . pseudotornieri by its shorter hindlimbs ( sul / hindlimb = 1 . 20 versus 1 . 12 in n . pseudotornieri holotype ) , the absence of hand webbing , and clearly raised parotoid glands , which are longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye . n . asperginis differs from n . laevis in having rounded finger tips , absence of parotoids , and by being smaller with dark dorsolateral bands ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
a medium - sized nectophrynoides with a broad head , protruding eyes and large hands and feet relative to other members of the genus . the dorsum is light brown with irregular darker brown markings . this species lacks a tympanum . the parotid glands are present , but small and indistinct . they are located in the scapular region and are shorter than the length of the eye . the toe tips are expanded and the tips of some of the digits are truncate . fingers are webbed at the base . toes are partially webbed ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
while vitamin a deficiency is relatively well recognized in amphibians , hypervitaminosis a is also described in the literature . although many studies describing hypervitaminosis a are in amphibians deliberately given excess vitamin a for experimental purposes , this condition can arise in captive amphibians supplemented with too much vitamin a . for example , hypervitaminosis seems to frequently occur in x . laevis that are fed mammalian liver tissue or whole rodent pups , both of which have relatively high vitamin a levels compared to typical invertebrate feeder species [ densmore and green , 2007 ] . the effects of excess dietary vitamin a may affect the skin ( causing ulceration or excess shedding ) and liver ( causing fibrosis or hepatocellular degeneration ) , as well as weight loss [ pessier , 2013 ] .
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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
justification : listed as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .
this species is known only from uluguru south forest reserve , in the uluguru mountains in eastern tanzania . the altitude of this locality is not known , but it is likely to be greater than 2 , 000 m asl .
there is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in april 2002 .
there is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species . it could be a species of montane forest , or montane grassland , or possibly high - altitude swamps . the details of its breeding biology are unknown , but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous , like other member of its genus , with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets .
the threats that this species might face are unknown , although much of uluguru south forest reserve is very remote and faces few threats .
uluguru south forest reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation . targeted searches are required to determine the distribution of this species . further research is also needed into the population status , ecology , threats , and use and trade of this species . it is listed on cites appendix i .
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listed as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .
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smooth forest toad ( channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 110 ) .
known only from the type locality ( uluguru south forest reserve , 2000 m elevation , uluguru mountains , morogoro region , eastern tanzania ) .
channing and howell , 2006 , amph . e . afr . : 110 , provided an account . harper , measey , patrick , menegon , and vonesh , 2010 , field guide amph . e . arc mts . tanzania and kenya : 136–137 , provided a brief account .
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for access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .
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amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 1 . < www . iucnredlist . org >
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this species is known only from uluguru south forest reserve , in the uluguru mountains in eastern tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the male holotype , the only known specimen , measured 24 . 8 mm in snout - vent length ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
this species lacks a tympanum . the dorsum is light gray with irregular dark markings and is smooth with small warts . parotid glands are twice as long as their width . a very small amount of webbing is present on the toes . fingers lack webbing . finger tips are expanded and slightly truncate . a thin dark line runs along the center of the ventral surface . a pale vertebral stripe was present on the single individual collected ; however this is a trait that varies among individuals in other species ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
there is no information on the habitat and ecology of this species . it could be a species of montane forest , or montane grassland , or possibly high - altitude swamps . the altitude of the type locality is also not known , but it is likely to be greater than 2 , 000 m ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
there is no information on its population status as it is known only from a single specimen collected in april 2002 ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the details of its breeding biology are unknown , but it is assumed to be ovoviviparous , like other member of its genus , with internal fertilisation before giving birth to tiny toadlets ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as data deficient since it has only recently been discovered , and there is still very little information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the threats that this species might face are unknown , although much of uluguru south forest reserve is very remote and faces few threats ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
uluguru south forest reserve is the only protected area that this species is known from so far , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
named for the latin ' pseudo ' meaning false or seeming , indicating the species overall similarity to n . tornieri .
this species is known only from the uluguru north forest reserve on the eastern slopes of the northern part of the uluguru mountains , eastern tanzania . it appears to have a very restricted distribution ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the body appears dark brown dorsally . the dorsum is finely marbled with different shades of brown . the sides are slightly darker than the dorsum with more contrasted and extensive marbling . hands and feet are lighter in colour . the belly is creamy with sparse condensation of melanophores mainly on throat and limbs . in the living specimen the dorsum and head were light brown . iris was gold ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
the holotype , a male , measured 25 . 0 mm , and the single paratype , a female , measured 29 mm from snout to urostyle ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
resembling n . tornieri in body shape but substantially larger . easily distinguished from n . tornieri , n . poyntoni , n . vestergaardi , n . minutus and n . viviparus by the absence of tympanum . differing from n . wendyae , n . cryptus and n . frontierei in having expanded tip of fingers ( the two latter species sometimes also have a weakly discernible tympanum under the skin ) . n . laevi s has shorter hindlimbs ( sul / hindlimb = 1 . 20 versus 1 . 12 in n . pseudotornieri holotype ) , lacks hand webbing and has clearly raised parotoid glands , longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye . n . asperginis has rounded finger tips , is smaller with dark dorsolateral bands , and has a more developed webbing ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
this species is known only from tall , submontane rainforest between 1080 and 1345 m ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
there is no information on the population status of this species as it is known from only two specimens , collected in 1996 and 2000 ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
hides under logs during the day and perch on vegetation approximately 1 m off the ground at night ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
reproduction is assumed to be similar to that of other species in the genus with internal fertilization and live birth ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km 2 , all individuals are in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the submontane forest on the eastern slopes of the uluguru mountains has been extensively cleared , mainly due to agricultural encroachment , wood extraction , and expanding human settlements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it occurs in the uluguru north forest reserve , but this area is not generally managed for biodiversity conservation and is in need of improved management . further survey work is needed to determine the current population status of this species ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
the uluguru mountains are one of the blocks within the eastern arc range , and consistently rank in the top three of the blocks in terms of overall species values ; many species are endemic just to this area .
forest habitat on the uluguru mountain range has been reduced from over 300 km 2 to around 220 km 2 over the past 50 years , and is now largely confined to a number of forest reserves – the two largest being uluguru north forest reserve ( 83 . 57 km 2 ) and uluguru south ( 172 . 93 km 2 ) – both of which contain significant biodiversity .
the uluguru mountains are also of critical importance for the provision of water to the ruvu river , especially during the dry season . water flows from the ruvu have been declining over the past 50 years and hence better protection for the remaining forests in the watershed of this river might help reverse this situation and thereby improve the situation for millions of people in dar es salaam .
forty four eastern arc endemic vertebrates are also found in the uluguru mountains . some species are confined to only one or other of these reserves . many of these species are regarded as threatened with extinction .
the two dense forest endemic birds of the ulugurus have been studied to a significant degree in recent years . a census of the uluguru bush shrike in year 2000 indicated there were at least 1 , 200 pairs of this bird , mainly in uluguru north forest reserve , with some in the degraded public land forest outside the reserve . a further survey in 2006 showed that the bird also occurs on the eastern flanks of the uluguru south forest reserve , and hence the bunduki gap is a real conservation issue for the long term survival of this forest dwelling bird .
loveridge’s sunbird is another endemic bird of the uluguru mountains , where it is known from uluguru north , uluguru south and bunduki forest reserves . a census in year 2000 indicated a population range between 21 , 000 and 166 , 000 individuals ( with a median estimate of 37 , 000 individuals ) . as the species is found in all three of the higher altitude reserves on the ulugurus , then maintaining forest connection between them is important .
in 1955 the uluguru north and south reserves were joined by natural forest across the bunduki gap . over the past 50 years this forest has been cleared back to the reserve boundaries , creating a deforested gap of farmland .
a new nature reserve has been proposed that includes the uluguru north , uluguru south , bunduki frs and a strip of land in the bunduki corridor ( 106 . 5 ha ) that joins the three reserves . the total area of the proposed nature reserve is 24 , 115 . 09 ha . this nature reserve , if formally gazetted , would allow the forest vegetation of the bunduki gap to regenerate and re - establish the connection between the forests of the three reserves in the area .
doggart , n . , j . lovett , b . mhoro , j . kiure and n . burgess ( 2005 ) . biodiversity surveys in the forest reserves of the uluguru mountains , tanzania . wcst and tfcg , dar es salaam , tanzania . 200 pages . see
rodgers , w . a . & burgess , n . d . ( 2006 ) . the conservation of the uluguru mountains : learning lessons from the past . miombo 29 : 6 - 9 .
batulaine , g . ( 2007 ) . assessment of baseline ecological and socio - economic factors for forest restoration planning in the bunduki gap , uluguru mountain forests of tanzania . unpublished m . sc . thesis , sokoine university of agriculture .
this website and the report was funded and co - produced by the wildlife conservation society .
this species is named for wendy clarke , wife of the describer , barry clarke ( channing and howell , 2006 ) .
has rounded toes . in addition , the two species can be easily differentiated by their advertisement calls . from
, a species that also has rounded tips on its digits , the parotid gland shape , hind and forelimb ratios , and the dorsal pattern may all be used to discern these two species . from
, the focal species can be differentiated by the latter lacking large glands on the limbs and being smaller in size .
it is unclear if the coloration described by the species authority is in life or in preservative . the dorsal surface of the holotype specimen is primarily various shades of brown . scattered , darker blotches are common . a black stripe is present from the tip of the snout to the end of the parotid glands . a light brown mid - dorsal stripe with a black outline is present . beige coloration occurs on the sides of the head , the upper arms , and the dorsal surface in an upside - down “v” shaped marking , outlined in black . the dorsal glands have concentrations of melanophores on pale pink areas in the pattern of interrupted stripes . the ventral surface is gray with a few melanophores ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
the dorsal pattern varies between specimens . the coloration may be mostly shades of brown , or many darker / black blotches may be present on the dorsal surface of the head , body and legs . dark , possibly interrupted , stripes may also run from the snout to the scapular parotoids or along the vertebral line ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
) in the iringa region of southern tanzania at elevations of 1 , 200 m . the forest is located on the south - eastern slopes of the udzungwa mountains , which is part of the eastern arc mountain chain . the habitat of
is submontane rain forest . the emergent layer reaches 50 m in this area , and the canopy is 30 to 40 m high . this species , as well as
, was common along the mkalazi stream when it was described ( menegon et al . 2004 , menegon and salvidio 2005 ) .
is active during the evening on leaves 60 – 160 cm above the ground . during the day they could be found in hiding places under fallen trees and large pieces of wood ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
is inferred to be an ovoviviparous or lecithotrophic species due to their small clutches of large , yolky eggs ( liedtke et al . 2014 ; menegon et al . 2004 ) . menegon et al . ( 2004 ) reported clutch sizes of 8 and 10 large , yolky eggs in dissected specimens .
. males call near streams and vegetation in the late afternoon or after sunset . the monophasic call consists of high - pitched notes in a series of pulse trains . each pulse lasts for 60 ms , and has a dominant frequency of 2 . 9 khz and a second harmonic is emphasized at 8 . 7 khz . the inter - pulse duration is 80 ms . a single pulse train has a duration of 1 s ( 6 - 8 pulses ) , and the interval between pulse trains is 2 . 5 - 3 . 5 s . the high frequency of the call may help distinguish the call from the noise of low frequency water turbulence .
, which is similar in size and shape , but can differentiated based on toe - tip shape and advertisement call ( menegon et al . 2004 ) .
is a hyper - endemic and very rare frog species from the uzungwa scarp forest reserve ( barratt et al . 2014 ) . it is listed as “critically endangered” on the iucn red list and is threatened by habitat loss . the
population is said to be declining , but this species may already be extinct ( iucn 2015 ) .
” was named in honor of professor john poynton ( menegon et al . 2004 )
barratt , c . , tonelli , e . , menegon , m . , doggart , n . , bowkett , a . , harris , w . e . , howell , k . , ngalason , w . , loader , s . ( 2014 ) . ' ' fragmented habitats and species : the challenges of amphibian conservation in tanzania today . ' '
. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t54842a13323022 . urltoken downloaded on 15 june 2016 .
liedtke , h . c . , müller , h . , hafner , j . , nagel , p . , and loader , s . ( 2014 ) . ' ' interspecific patterns for egg and clutch sizes of african
menegon , m . , salvidio , s . , and loader , s . p . ( 2004 ) . ' ' five new species of
noble 1926 ( amphibia anura bufonidae ) from the eastern arc mountains , tanzania . ' '
melissa headley ( mheadley at rams . colostate . edu ) , colorado state university
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
the species is named in honour of martin vestergaard , a danish zoologist , who first recognised the population as being an undescribed species .
this endangered toad is known only from the west usambara mountains in north - eastern tanzania . it can be distinguished by the presence of the a tympanum and continuous elongate parotid gland , as well as toe tips that are rounded rather than truncate .
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat in the west usambara mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it occurs in the university of dar es salaam ' s forest reserve at mazumbai , but additional protection of the habitat in the west usambara mountains is needed ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
in some parts of the west usambaras its habitat is probably being lost , especially due to agricultural encroachment , commercial logging , wood extraction , and expanding human settlements ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it is assumed that populations are decreasing ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
it is probably terrestrial as some animals were found inside a rotten log ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
in preservative the body appears always bicoloured , with sides darker than dorsum . the pale brown colour appearance is the result of a mixture of a very pale surface together with very small condensations of melanophores . a light maxillary patch is usually present and may be conspicuous . outer edge of parotoid glands is darkened . a clearly raised glandular ridge on outer margin of eyelids is discernible . there is almost always a fine dark mid dorsal vertebral line from snout to urostyle present ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
holotype , a female , measured 24 mm from snout to urostyle . females are larger in size ( menegon et al . , 2004 ) .
this species is known only from the west usambara mountains in north - eastern tanzania . there are records from the shume - magamba forest reserve , the mazumbai forest reserve , and the ambangulu estate ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
all records have been from montane and submontane forest between 1230 and 2000 m , including in the ecotone between forest and ericaceous vegetation . the type series was collected in montane forest dominated by ocotea usambarensis and podocarpus sp . ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
there is little information available on its population status . however , the fact that 23 specimens have been found widely over the west usambara mountains , despite limited survey effort , suggests that it is not uncommon in suitable habitat within its small range ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
reproduction is assumed to be similar to that of other species in the genus with internal fertilization and live birth . one female was found containing 18 embryos ( menegon et al . , 2004 )
the iucn red list ( 2010 ) categorizes this species as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km2 , all individuals are in fewer than five locations , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( menegon and loader , 2004 ) .
protozoa are of little consequence in laboratory rats in recent decades ( national research council , 1991 ; kohn and barthold , 1984 ) .
are nonpathogenic and produce no disease ; however , microscopists must be able to distinguish pathogenic from nonpathogenic species . the presence of nonpathogenic species indicates that the person has been exposed to fecal contamination .
do not always produce symptoms or they may remain after symptoms have resolved . asymptomatic individuals may serve as reservoirs for the infection . detection of a potentially pathogenic protozoan does not necessarily prove that the organism is causing the illness . patients may have diarrhea caused by other organisms , such as
, a urogenital flagellate , is also considered pathogenic , and may cause mild to severe vaginitis and other urogenital problems .
although many people worldwide are infected with e . histolytica , only a small percentage develop clinical symptoms . morbidity and mortality caused by e . histolytica vary , depending on geographic area , organism species ( e . histolytica vs e . dispar ) and the immune status of the patient .
( brumpt 1925 ) , which is noninvasive and does not cause disease . during the past several years , extensive work has been published related to the pathogenesis of
spp . the true role of this organism in terms of colonization or disease and the relevance of organism numbers require additional clarification . in studies of patients with irritable bowel syndrome , there are patients in whom the presence of
there is evidence to indicate there are several subtypes / strains / species , and there may be a relationship between subtype and pathogenicity , only some of which will be responsible for increased intestinal permeability and symptoms .
, group a and group b , associated with different degrees of virulence . group a appears to be more pathogenic and is associated with symptomatic infection . isoenzyme and molecular studies also support the differences between these two groups .
however , it appears there may be both pathogenic and nonpathogenic variants . evidence for two genetically distinct forms has been obtained using polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) - restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of ribosomal genes .
is site - specific and usually cannot survive outside the urogenital system . after introduction , proliferation begins , with resulting inflammation and large numbers of trophozoites in the tissues and the secretions . nutrient acquisition and cytoadherence , immune system evasion and regulation of virulence genes are virulence factors associated with pathogenesis .
it appears that interference with trichomonads ' mucin receptors and proteinases may form a strategy to prevent colonization with this pathogenic flagellate .
some infections with b . coli produce no symptoms , while others cause symptoms with severe dysentery similar to that seen in patients with amebiasis . symptoms usually include diarrhea or dysentery , tenesmus , nausea , vomiting , anorexia and headache . insomnia , muscular weakness and weight loss have also been reported . diarrhea may persist for weeks to months prior to the onset of dysentery . there may be tremendous fluid loss , with a type of diarrhea similar to that seen in cholera or in some coccidial or microsporidial infections .
may penetrate the mucosa with cellular infiltration in the area of the developing ulcer , which may extend to the muscular layer . the ulcers may vary in shape , and the ulcer bed may be full of pus and necrotic debris . although the number of cases is small , extraintestinal disease has been reported ( peritonitis , urinary tract , inflammatory vaginitis ) .
acute malaria is a medical emergency demanding immediate diagnosis and treatment ; quinine or artemisinin derivatives , usually in combination with other antimalarial drugs , are effective .
african trypanosomiasis ( sleeping sickness ) is treated with toxic arsenical drugs ; the west african form responds to eflornithine .
south american trypanosomiasis ( chagas’ disease ) is a chronic condition that is difficult to treat .
leishmaniasis takes various forms ; the most dangerous is visceral leishmaniasis ( kala azar ) . antimonial compounds , antifungal drugs or miltefosine are used for treatment .
amoebiasis , giardiasis and trichomoniasis occur worldwide ; they usually respond to 5 - nitroimidazole drugs such as metronidazole .
, meaning animal , is a phylum comprising some of the morphologically simplest organisms of the animal kingdom . most species are unicellular , eukaryotic and microscopic in size ; most are free - living and motile , but some have commensalistic , mutualistic or parasitic relationships . approximately 10 , 000 of the described living species are parasitic .
infect most vertebrate and invertebrate species and have developed the capacity to adapt to living in most host organs .
, unlike almost all helminths , can replicate ( sexually , asexually or both ways ) within the host ' s body—a phenomenon that largely explains their survival , as well as the overwhelming infections that develop from single exposures .
. those of medical importance include organisms that infect blood and tissue and those capable of causing disease of the intestinal and urogenital tracts . the blood and tissue
, cryptosporidiosis , and trichomoniasis . this latter disease is confined to the urogenital system and is caused by
. the species of ciliate involved was not reported , and although a cutaneous route of infection was suspected , this could not be confirmed .
have been mentioned to occur in amphibians , but lesions are not as well - documented as they are in fish .
, however , appear to be missing some of the organelles you would expect to find in a typical eukaryote .
is an example of a eukaryotic protist that lacks mitochondria , peroxisomes , and has a very underdeveloped endomembrane system .
generates the atp energy it needs through an anaerobic metabolic pathway , located in the cytoplasm of the cell that relies on the use of enzymes that contain iron–sulfur ( fe–s ) cofactors . these
are involved in redox reactions and electron transport pathways that lead to atp synthesis . biosynthesis of the fe–s cofactor in turn , requires the activity of a highly conserved class of proteins known as
is a medically relevant parasitic protozoan that is responsible for diarrheal diseases that affect hundreds of thousands of people and animals worldwide . ingestion of food or water contaminated by
cysts leads to the infection of host organisms . once inside a host , the cyst opens up to release one or two
cycle . the trophozoites populate the intestine of the host , causing a variety of unpleasant symptoms and producing more cysts that are released to continue the cycle of infection and disease .
isc proteins are highly conserved from bacteria to humans . what are the implications of this statement ?
drugs used to treat giardia infections work by entering the cytoplasm of the trophozoite and disrupting atp production . why would such a drug be safe for use in humans and animals ?
( microsporidea now possibly grouped with fungi ) . relationships range from commensal to parasitic . many
poynton and whitaker , 2001 ; green et al . , 2003 ; pessier , 2002
can be transmitted through water and from aquatic vegetation or feeder fish to amphibians .
entamoeba cysts are swallowed and directly colonize the colon . trophozoites can spread to the kidney and liver . oodinium and trichodina are external parasites that affect the skin and gills of aquatic amphibians . ingestion of infected fly larvae is the likely source of plistophora myotropica in wild toads . trypanosoma infects the blood of wild amphibians and has an indirect life - cycle and is unlikely pathogenic .
signs of amebiasis include dehydration , anorexia , and emaciation . feces are loose and bloody ; vomiting may also occur . ascites may be noted with hepatic and renal involvement .
causes the skin and gills to become grayish in color . debilitation occurs in chronic cases . reddened gills and
and other ciliates . animals affected by trypanosomiasis may be asymptomatic or may die acutely .
entamoeba causes lesions of the colonic mucosa , suppurative nephritis , and hepatic abscesses . cysts may be found in the liver and kidney . splenomegaly is seen in amphibians that die acutely from trypanosomiasis . necropsy findings associated with plistophora include muscle atrophy and pale streaks in myofibers .
can be identified by fecal examination ( though difficult and often unrewarding ) , pcr , or colonic wash . skin scrapings and gill biopsies will demonstrate external
mg / kg po sid for 3–5 days ) . aquatic species may be treated with 50
mg / kg po sid ) . trypanosomiasis may respond to a quinine sulfate bath ( 30
min ) or acriflavin baths ( constant 0 . 025 % bath for 5 days ) . copper sulfate has also been used , but this compound can be toxic in some amphibian species and is not recommended (
) . all treatments may not lead to total resolution , but instead a decrease in parasitic burden .
affected animals should be separated from community groups ; they should be handled last , and equipment should not be shared . tanks should be cleaned and sanitized , and water should be changed more frequently . attention to the environment and prevention of reinfection are important considerations . vectors should be excluded from animal facilities (
incoming animals should be quarantined and evaluated for presence of disease and / or pathogenic organisms . food items and aquarium plants should be treated before introduction ( short salt bath followed by thorough rinsing and 1 - to 2 - h acriflavin bath ) . whenever possible , purchase colony - reared animals and food items from reliable sources .
subclinical infections of hemoparasites can confound hematologic and physiologic data . overt protozoal disease can decrease research populations and render data questionable . cryptosporidiosis infection of animal could cause health concerns for humans as well .
are a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide , either in developing or in western countries . some of those able to infect humans by the oral route have long been known to cause disease , but others are only now being increasingly recognized as pathogenic in immunocompromised hosts , especially in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( aids ) . they are very diverse in epidemiology , symptomatology , treatment , and preventive measures .
in immunocompetent hosts most infections are asymptomatic , but overt local or systemic symptoms may be present , which may be severe in some cases . however , protozoal infections are particularly troublesome , sometimes life - threatening , in immunocompromised patients .
, but sometimes more intense manifestations do occur , including abdominal cramps , flatulence , anorexia , vomiting , malabsorption , weight loss , and fever . in aids patients , insuperable chronic watery diarrhea with malabsorption and , eventually , wasting syndrome may be due to some of these parasites .
blood , pus , and mucus in stools are the result of invasion of the intestinal wall and common only in intestinal infection by entamoeba histolytica , which is also able to cause systemic infection , especially liver abscesses , manifested by fever , weight loss , abdominal pain , and hepatomegaly .
spp . and , while intestinal infection is thought to be asymptomatic , parasites in muscle may cause swelling and pain . microsporidia have only recently been recognized as human pathogens in aids and very few cases have been reported in non - aids patients .
to chemotherapy correlates roughly with metabolism and , accordingly , with species . several drugs are active against different
. for some of them , e . g . , diloxanide furoate , the exact mechanism of action is still uncertain . others , e . g . , metronidazole , are broad - spectrum antibiotics , interfering with the dna of susceptible infectious agents .
. most of these drugs are contraindicated in pregnancy and treatment of pregnant women often must be delayed until after delivery .
metronidazole is effective against most flagellates and amoebae and is an alternative choice in the treatment of balantidium coli . other nitroimidazoles ( tinidazole and ornidazole ) have similar activity and less untoward side - effects , including headache , metallic taste , nausea , vomiting , and diarrhea .
emetine and dehydroemetine have considerable side - effects , gastrointestinal and systemic , and are reserved only for extraintestinal amoebiasis . they are not active against e . histolytica in the bowel and diloxanide furoate , tetracycline , paramomycin , or iodoquinol must be added in order to treat simultaneous intestinal infection .
iodoquinol is also effective against dientamoeba fragilis ( sensitive also to paramomycin and tetracycline ) and is used as an alternative drug against balantidium coli . infections due to giardia intestinalis may be treated with quinacrine , metronidazole , or furazolidine . tetracycline is the drug of choice against b . coli and d . fragilis . iodoquinol must be used with great caution , as it may cause myelitis and optic atrophy . this is the reason why it is no longer available in most developed countries .
treatment of protozoal diseases in aids patients is far from satisfactory . there is no effective specific therapy for microsporidia or cryptosporidium spp . , perhaps the most common agent of infection of the bowel in aids . isospora belli and sarcocystis spp . respond poorly , if at all , to antifolates , which include co - trimoxazole , sulfadiazine , and pyrimethamine .
, foodborne and waterborne infections , although surely underestimated , seem rare . good sanitary conditions and personal hygiene are keystones in preventing these infections . protozoal cysts and oocysts differ in sensitivity to adverse conditions ( heat , desiccation , freezing , chlorination ) and some are amazingly resistant .
in countries with poor sanitary conditions , water should be boiled and uncooked vegetables and unpeeled fruits avoided , as they may have been washed with contaminated water . flies and other arthropods may also be vehicles for fecal contamination of food . but even when a visitor takes every possible precaution to avoid these infections , a local food handler , even in the best hotel , may be a cyst passer not aware of the elementary rules of personal hygiene .
for some species there are several possible animal reservoirs , which lessens the effectiveness of preventive measures . even for these species with humans as the only hosts , patients in some institutions , especially those who are mentally handicapped , are a difficult group to control . the occurrence of sexual transmission of some
by oral–anal and oral–genital sex is also considered important and is difficult to control .
and helminths have complex life cycles and have adapted to exist within the hostile environment of one and sometimes several hosts . the distribution of these infectious agents parallels the poor socioeconomic conditions in the developing world . however , with widespread travel , infections due to these agents are being seen more frequently in non - endemic settings . in addition , with the increasing number of immunosuppressed patients ( infected with human immunodeficiency virus [ hiv ] , or after transplant or chemotherapy ) worldwide , disease manifestations can be more frequent , severe , and aggressive . central to the clinician’s approach to the patient with a central nervous system ( cns ) infection with a protozoan or helminthic organism is a thorough travel history , and an increased index of suspicion . once such an infection is suspected , appropriate workup can be initiated .
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