synchirus gilli , the manacled sculpin , is a species of sculpin native to the eastern pacific ocean where it occurs along the coast from alaska to southern california .

this species grows to a length of 7 centimetres ( 2.8 in ) tl .

this species is the only known member of its genus .

synchirus gilli

greek , syn , symphysis = grown together + greek , cheir = hand ( ref . 45335 )
named after theodore gill , u . s . ichthyologist ( ref . 6885 )
eastern pacific : sitka , alaska to san miguel island , southern california , usa .
maturity : l m ? , range 5 - ? cm max length : 7 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2850 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 9 - 10 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 20 - 21 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 20 - 21 . caudal fin rounded . pelvic fins small .
found in bays , tide pools and among kelp ( ref . 2850 ) . previously thought as rare species , but relatively common in some areas , especially kelp beds ( ref . 2850 ) . feeds on small crustaceans ( ref . 6885 ) . can cling to bottoms or pilings with its pectoral and pelvic fins ( ref . 2850 ) .
eschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h . hammann , 1983 . a field guide to pacific coast fishes of north america . boston ( ma , usa ) : houghton mifflin company . xii + 336 p . ( ref . 2850 )
) : 6 . 4 - 12 . 8 , mean 9 . 3 ( based on 242 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00708 ( 0 . 00295 - 0 . 01699 ) , b = 3 . 14 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 34 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 5 ±0 . 50 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 25 of 100 ) .
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nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .
full author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , héctor espinosa - pérez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
found in bays , tide pools and among kelp ( ref . 2850 ) . previously thought as rare species , but relatively common in some areas , especially kelp beds ( ref . 2850 ) . feeds on small crustaceans ( ref . 6885 ) . can cling to bottoms or pilings with its pectoral and pelvic fins ( ref . 2850 ) .
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robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .
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nelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .
page , l . m . , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , n . e . mandrak , r . l . mayden , and j . s . nelson . 2013 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . seventh edition . american fisheries society , special publication 34 , bethesda , maryland .
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eastern north pacific : unalaska island and gulf of alaska to southern california , u . s . a .
7 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2850 ) )
environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 8 - 8 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .
non - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .
locally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .
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© 2012 - 2018 . encyclopedia of puget sound is published by the puget sound institute at the uw tacoma center for urban waters .
occurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed
abundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .
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dorsal spines ( total ) : 9 - 10 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 20 - 21 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 20 - 21 . caudal fin rounded . pelvic fins small .
source : fishbase . eschmeyer , w . n . , e . s . herald and h hammann . 1983 . ( ref . 2850 )
found in bays , tide pools and among kelp ( ref . 2850 ) . previously thought as rare species , but relatively common in some areas , especially kelp beds ( ref . 2850 ) . feeds on small crustaceans ( ref . 6885 ) . can cling to bottoms or pilings with its pectoral and pelvic fins ( ref . 2850 ) . environment : demersal ; marine . climate : temperate ; 59°n - 32°n
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recommended citation : author , date . page title . in klinkenberg , brian . ( editor ) 2017 .
[ efauna . bc . ca ] . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . [ accessed :
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garrha brachytricha is a moth in the oecophoridae family .

it was described by turner in 1927 .

it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from tasmania .

the forewings are ochreous-pink , inclining to pale brick-red .

garrha brachytricha

this is the place for brachytricha definition . you find here brachytricha meaning , synonyms of brachytricha and images for brachytricha copyright 2017 © urltoken
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machimia brachytricha turner , 1927 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasm . 1926 : 147
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turner , a . j . 1927 ,
new and little known tasmanian lepidoptera . part ii
, papers and proceedings of the royal society of tasmania , vol . 1926 , pp . 119 - 164
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 134a1467 - 090a - 49ed - 8b2c - be56f7cb116e
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 904134ab - c62d - 4a02 - 8abb - c7948b287a0c
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 38dd9672 - b7c5 - 4b8a - 9c3c - a76eb14a7b7f
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 361141
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heliocausta achroa turner , 1896 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 20 : 4
heliocausta acosmeta turner , 1896 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 20 : 4
machimia agglomerata meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 12 ) : 375
machimia alma meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 6 ) : 174 ; tl : victoria , gisborne
machimia amata meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 6 ) : 175 ; tl : west australia , waroona
heliocausta arrhodea turner , 1917 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 41 : 113
hoplitica atripunctatella turner , 1896 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 20 : 7
australia ( victoria , s . australia , e . australia ) . see [ maps ]
hoplitica cholodella meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 507
machimia coccinea turner , 1917 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 41 : 59
hoplitica costimacula meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 502
machimia cylicotypa turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 111
machimia defessa meyrick , 1920 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 12 ) : 376
euryplaca demotica meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 489
hoplitica eugramma lower , 1894 ; trans . proc . r . soc . s . aust . 18 : 93
cryptopeges icasta turner , 1941 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 66 : 406
heliocausta idiosema turner , 1917 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 41 : 113
machimia interjecta turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 116
hoplitica leucerythra meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 501
heliocausta limbata meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 471
machimia mesogaea turner , 1916 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 41 ( 2 ) : 371
hoplitica metriopis meyrick , 1888 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 2 ( 4 ) : 941
machimia micromita turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 107
machimia mitescens meyrick , 1914 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 6 ) : 174 ; tl : queensland , townsville
euryplaca ocellifera meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 488
machimia ochra turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 109
coesyra paraderces meyrick , 1889 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . ( 2 ) 3 : 1659
machimia phaeoporphyra turner , 1939 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasmania 1938 : 92 ; tl : tasmania , derwent bridge
machimia phoenopis turner , 1916 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 41 ( 2 ) : 371 ; tl : n . australia , port darwin ; queensland , brisbane ; mt tambourine ; toowoomba
machimia platyporphyra turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 111 ( emend . )
hoplitica pseudota lower , 1901 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 25 ( 2 ) : 85
machimia pyrrhopasta turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 114
machimia rubella turner , 1939 ; pap . proc . r . soc . tasmania 1938 : 92 ; tl : tasmania , derwent bridge
hoplitica rufa meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 504
machimia rufescens turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 108
hoplitica rufimaculella turner , 1896 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 20 : 7
hoplitica sericata meyrick , 1883 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 7 ( 4 ) : 497
heliocausta spatiosa meyrick , 1921 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 13 ) : 387
machimia submissa turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 108
machimia umbratica turner , 1946 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 70 ( 3 - 4 ) : 108
coesyra zonostola meyrick , 1884 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 9 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) : 772
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
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descriptions of australian micro - lepidoptera . xi & xii . oecophoridae - ( continued )
zeller , 1855 nachtrag zu den im 9ten bande bescriebenen arten ds genus cryptolechia linn . ent . 10 : 145 - 168
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takapsestis orbicularis is a moth in the drepanidae family .

it is found in india .

the wingspan is about 42 mm .

the forewings are dull cinereous , speckled with blackish , most thickly in the terminal area .

there is a blackish spot at the base on the submedian fold .

the inner line is black , before one-third , evenly outcurved and sinuate on vein 1 , preceded by two indistinct dark parallel lines .

the basal area is limited by a thicker curved wavy line and the outer line is black , concave outwards from the costa to vein 4 , on which it is bent , then oblique inwards to the submedian fold , and vertically sinuous to the inner margin , followed immediately by a dark parallel line and at a distance by a dark wavy line .

the subterminal line is pale grey between blackish shades , met by a curved black streak from the apex and there is a black terminal festoon .

the stigmata is pale with black outlines and the orbicular is large and rounded , while the reniform is narrow , inwardly oblique and with a dark linear centre .

the orbicular is filled up with dull yellowish .

the hindwings are fuscous with darker veins .

takapsestis orbicularis

how can i put and write and define takapsestis orbicularis in a sentence and how is the word takapsestis orbicularis used in a sentence and examples ? 用takapsestis orbicularis造句 , 用takapsestis orbicularis造句 , 用takapsestis orbicularis造句 , takapsestis orbicularis meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
adults are similar to
takapsestis orbicularis
, but the double antemedial lines of the forewings are straighter and the double postmedial lines are highly angled outwards beyond the cell .
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acta zoologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae 47 ( 1 ) , pp . 113 , 2001
sp . n . ; the new species are related to their nearest allies . the majority of the known species are new to the fauna of korea . with 42 original figures .
acta zoologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae 47 ( 1 ) , pp . 1525 , 2001
plant protection institute , hungarian academy of sciences , h - 1525 budapest p . o . box 102 , hungary , e - mail : h2405koz @ urltoken
species of the world increases to 23 . distribution records and zoogeographical considerations are given . the new species represent a link between the palaearctic , oriental and ethiopian regions . the records gave a new insight into the species richness of this genus in the world .
acta zoologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae 47 ( 1 ) , pp . 2785 , 2001
lászló , gy . m . , g . ronkay * and l . ronkay * *
* h - 1137 budapest , szt . istván krt 4 , hungary , e - mail : gronkay @ urltoken
* * department of zoology , hungarian natural history museum , h - 1088 budapest , baross u . 13 , hungary , e - mail : ronkay @ urltoken
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demopsestis yoshimotoi ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
epipsestis wernyi ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
epipsestis witti ( laszlo , g . ronkay & l . ronkay , 2007 )
horipsestis kisvaczak ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
neotogaria baenzigeri ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
neotogaria thomaswitti ( laszlo , g . ronkay & l . ronkay , 2007 )
parapsestis cinerea ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
parapsestis dabashana ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
parapsestis hausmanni ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
parapsestis implicata ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )
parapsestis wernyaminta ( laszlo , g . ronkay , l . ronkay & witt , 2007 )


it is endemic to penang island , malaysia .

records from elsewhere represent other species ; the mainland records are referable to ansonia malayana and ansonia jeetsukumarani .

its natural habitats are rocky streams in rainforests .

ansonia penangensis

information on the penang stream toad ( ansonia penangensis ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
figure 1 . ( e ) natural habitat of ansonia penangensis ( photo : evan quah s . h . ) .
figure 1 . ( a ) ansonia penangensis ( usmhc 0001 ) from penang hill , penang , west malaysia ( b ) ventral view of a . penangensis ( usmhc 0001 )
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ansonia penangensis — inger , 1954 , fieldiana , zool . , 33 : 239 . inger , 1960 , fieldiana , zool . , 39 : 476 .
ansonia penangensis is a species of toad in the family bufonidae . it is endemic to malaysia . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and rivers .
bufo ( ansonia ) penangensis — mocquard , 1890 , nouv . arch . mus . natl . hist . nat . paris , ser . 3 , 2 : 160 .
( c ) tadpole of a . penangensis clinging onto rock in stream of fast flowing stream
peter paul van dijk , jeet sukumaran , indraneil das , norsham yaakob , leong tzi ming , yodchaiy chuaynkern 2004 . ansonia penangensis . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t164782a115305123 . urltoken
( d ) partially metamorphosed froglet of a . penangensis ( all photos : evan quah s . h . ) .
van dijk , p . p . , sukumaran , j . , das , i . , yaakob , n . , tzi ming , l . & chuaynkern , y . 2004 . ansonia penangensis . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 21 july 2007 .
bufo penangensis — boulenger , 1882 , cat . batr . sal . coll . brit . mus . , ed . 2 : 287 .
there is much confusion surrounding the status of this species relative to ansonia malayana . populations that have been assigned to this species on the isthmus of kra and from fraser ' s hill in malaysia are considered here to refer to a . malayana , a position which is supported by grismer ( 2006 ) ( who treats a . penangensis as endemic to penang island ) . however , it is not clear that these two species are distinct from each other , and further taxonomic work is needed . records of a . penangensis from sumatra , indonesia , are now assigned to a . glandulosa .
similar to other species of ansonia that show very limited and specific ranges ( grismer 2006a , b ; wood et al . 2008 , matsui et al . 2009 ) , a . penangensis is endemic only to penang island . earlier reports by berry , 1975 of this species occurring sympatrically with a . malayana is erroneous . berry , 1975 never listed any vouchered specimens that were deposited at any museums or institutions . exhaustive searches have not yielded any evidence of the presence of a . malayana on penang island .
ansonia penangensis stoliczka , 1870 , j . asiat . soc . bengal , 39 : 152 . syntypes : location not designated ; zsic 2717 - 18 , 3585 - 86 considered syntypes by chanda , das , and dubois , 2001
2000
, hamadryad , 25 : 102 - 103 , who discussed them . sclater , 1892 , list batr . indian mus . : 27 , listed only 3585 - 86 and questioned whether they were actually syntypes . type locality :
on penang , two near the great water - fall ( above alexandra bath ) , and two in a narrow gorge about half way up the penang hill
, malaysia .
natural history : all individuals were collected between 1900 - 2100 h , following periods of afternoon precipitation . all specimens were found on the ground amongst leaf litter near a trail in evergreen forest with a thin canopy and gaps in the canopy , approximately 300 m from a river ( figure 1e ; n 05 . 44º , e 100 . 28º , 263 m elevation ) . tadpoles were found , clinging onto the rocks in fast flowing portions of the river ( figure 1c ) . these observations are similar to the remarks made by boulenger ( 1912 ) and flower ( 1899 ) who noted the tadpoles of a . penangensis can be found in swift - flowing hill - streams . a partially metamorphosed froglet was also observed ( figure 1d ) . the tadpole and the partially metamorphosed froglet were not collected , but these findings indicate breeding by a . penangensis in this river .
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justification : listed as vulnerable because it is known from only a single location .
this species is known only from penang island , malaysia . its altitudinal range is not known .
there is very little information . the collection of tadpoles on penang hill in 2004 represents the first records of the species in over 100 years ; this absence of records might be a reflection of inadequate surveying effort .
the forest habitat at the type locality is well protected ; other potential threats are presently unknown .
the hill forests on penang hill are currently protected as a catchment area for georgetown , and the lower reaches are within the penang botanical gardens . nonetheless , the population status of this species requires careful monitoring , given that it is known only from a single location .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
peter paul van dijk , jeet sukumaran , indraneil das , norsham yaakob , leong tzi ming , yodchaiy chuaynkern . 2004 .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t164782a115305123 .
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as endemic to penang island ) . however , it is not clear that these two species are distinct from each other , and further taxonomic work is needed . records of
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penang stream toad ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 39 ) .
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new & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region
ป้ายกำกับ : 2011 , amphibia - caudata , anura - frog , author : l . l . grismer , bufonidae , herpetology - frog ; reptile snake , malaysia , redescription , rediscovery , zootaxa
wuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .
[ botany • 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | ดาดดารารัศมี • a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand
begonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai ดาดดารารัศมี | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .
chamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .
great - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .
endocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .
aristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .
bagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .
the hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .
nipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 ニッポノサウルス | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .
begonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .
[ herpetology • 2011 ] myron karnsi & m . resetari • . . .
[ herpetology • 2011 ] a reptile survey in a dry dec . . .
[ herpetology • 1995 ] 6 new brookesia | b . ambreens . . .
[ herpetology • 2006 ] 3 new rhampholeon | r . beradu . . .
[ herpetology • 2002 ] lipinia nitens ( peters , 1871 ) . . .
[ ichthyology • 2008 ] 5 new puntius ( teleostei : cyp . . .
[ ichthyology • 2005 ] puntius tiantian & p . didi • . . .
[ ichthyology • 2008 ] puntius reval • a new barb ( t . . .
on this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
anomaloglossus meansi : a new species of cryptic forest frog from the wokomung and ayanganna sky islands of southern guyana .
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canon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4
plants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .
i ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .
necps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden
this is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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a leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family cicadellidae .

these minute insects , colloquially known as hoppers , are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass , shrubs , or trees .

their hind legs are modified for jumping , and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones .

they undergo a partial metamorphosis , and have various host associations , varying from very generalized to very specific .

some species have a cosmopolitan distribution , or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions .

some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas .

the family is distributed all over the world , and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family , with at least 20,000 described species .

they belong to a lineage traditionally treated as infraorder cicadomorpha in the suborder auchenorrhyncha , but as the latter taxon is probably not monophyletic , many modern authors prefer to abolish the auchenorrhyncha and elevate the cicadomorphs to a suborder clypeorrhyncha .

members of the tribe proconiini of the subfamily cicadellinae are commonly known as sharpshooters .

leafhopper

the following leafhopper is a very common type of leafhopper known officially as graphocephala coccinea but common names include : “candy - striped” leafhopper , “red - banded” leafhopper , “scarlet and green” leafhopper and “red and blue” leafhopper . this is a very common type of leafhopper in north and central america .
adult female wasp , anagrus spp . , is a parasite of leafhopper eggs .
relationship of the white apple leafhopper typhlocyba pomaria mcatee and the rose leafhopper edwardsiana rosae ( l . ) , on apple in the hudson valley region of new york
. general information on leafhopper biology with links to other sites containing more detailed information .
control of the potato leafhopper ( empoasca mali le b . ) and prevention of “hopperburn”
systematics of the leafhopper genus draeculacephala ball ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) - bugguide . net
checklist of leafhopper species : 1758 - 1955 [ s . h . mckamey ] .
early - instar potato leafhopper with piercing - sucking mouthpart , or stylet ( st ) .
when it comes to getting rid of them , it doesn’t matter what type of leafhopper you have , because the remedies will work on all species . if you have leafhopper damage , it means you have some type of leafhopper and the remedies below will get rid of them !
adult potato leafhopper ; note the six white spots located on top of the head behind the eyes .
the leafhopper vectors of phytopathogenic viruses ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) . taxonomy , biology , and virus transmission
this page contains general information on leafhopper biology with photos and links to keys and a list of specialists .
the white apple leafhopper attacks apple , cherry and prune but has also been found on peach and hawthorn . it does not usually damage pear , although the rose leafhopper has been noted in sizable numbers on this crop .
note : there are more leafhopper species worldwide than all species of birds , mammals , reptiles and amphibians combined .
late - instar potato leafhopper with wing pads ( wp ) and specialized legs ( sl ) used for jumping .
this web site provides general information on leafhopper classification , evolution , behavior , ecology , conservation , and pest status .
leafhopper offers web based solutions for your business or organisation , including solar , web design and support and it training .
potato leafhopper resistance in alfalfa : recent improvements , p . 101 . in proceedings , 36th north american alfalfa improvement conference
leafhoppers are one of the most abundant groups of plant feeding insects in the world with leafhopper and planthopper species outnumbering that of all species of birds , mammals , reptiles , and amphibians combined ! many species are host specific with their names indicating their preferred host ; e . g . rose leafhopper , grape leafhopper , potato leafhopper , etc . leafhoppers are wedge shaped and vary in color depending on species . their name references leafhoppers ' affinity for hopping off of leaf surfaces when disturbed .
glasshouse leafhopper is a small 3mm long , pale green sap - feeding insect which can jump of leaves and fly short distances .
safer® brand offers a variety of leafhopper control products to help control and eliminate this garden pest and revive your plants . please check out our leafhopper control products for more details about how they work and how , when , and where they should be applied .
ross , h . h . , and cooley , t . a . , 1969 , a new nearctic leafhopper of the genus
glasshouse leafhopper can cause a pale mottling on the foliage on a wide range of glasshouse and garden plants , including tomato and fuchsia .
ross , h . h . , and hamilton , k . g . a . , 1970 , phylogeny and dispersal of the grassland leafhopper genus
young , d . a . , jr . , and beirne , b . p . , 1958 , a taxonomic revision of the leafhopper genus
raatikainen , m . , and vasarainen , a . , 1976 , composition , zonation and origin of the leafhopper fauna of oat fields in finland ,
in kent leafhopper works closely with the kent and medway social enterprise network , kentcan , case kent and the kent equality cohesion council council and many others .
after several weeks or months of feeding and several moltings , they will develop into adults . the length of time for development depends upon the species of leafhopper .
as with other cold - blooded organisms , potato leafhopper development is dependent on environmental temperatures . potato leafhopper development ceases when temperatures drop below a lower developmental threshold of 45°f ( 7 . 6°c ) , and the rate begins to decline when temperatures consistently exceed an upper developmental threshold of 86°f ( 30°c ; hogg 1985 ) .
called f . whitcombi , the leafhopper was named after the author ' s
extraordinary
mentor , colleague and friend , dr . robert whitcomb .
among many other accomplishments ,
in the fields of microbiology and ornithology , mr . hicks points to whitcombs '
major contributions
to leafhopper taxonomy and ecology .
parasitic wasps lay their eggs inside the leafhopper ' s body eventually killing the host insect . lure parasitic wasps to your garden by planting nectar or pollen producing plants .
this is a different type of leafhopper that attacks cannabis plants . although it looks very different , it acts exactly the same and makes the same type of damage .
white apple leafhopper is native to north america and occurs throughout the fruit growing areas of the united states and canada , but its pest status varies from region to region .
leafhopper directors have a wealth of knowledge and expertise with many years practical experience in setting up and running business and social economy organisations with links to national and regional organisations .
dietrich , c . h . 1994 . systematics of the leafhopper genus draeculacephala ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) . transactions of the american entomological society 120 : 87 - 112 .
blocker , h . d . , and reed , r . , 1976 , leafhopper populations of a tallgrass prairie ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) : collecting procedures and population estimates ,
genung , w . g . , and mead , f . w . , 1969 , leafhopper populations ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) on five pasture grasses in the florida everglades ,
glandular - haired alfalfa varieties with > 50 % resistance offer a valuable trait to potato leafhopper ipm programs . it is important to note that although alfalfa varieties bred for resistance to the potato leafhopper no longer demonstrate visual hopperburn , this does not necessarily indicate that there is no yield or quality damage to the alfalfa ( kindler et al . 1973 , shockley et al . 2002 ) . under moderate to heavy potato leafhopper infestations , glandular - haired varieties still benefit from timely scouting and insecticide treatment when leafhopper populations have exceeded thresholds established for susceptible alfalfa varieties . the first crop of seeding - year stands of glandular - haired varieties should be treated for potato leafhopper using the same economic thresholds established for susceptible alfalfa ( lefko et al . 2000b ; tables 1 and 2 ) , although rice et al . ( 1999 ) recommend increased economic thresholds for resistant alfalfa stands in subsequent crops and years .
insecticidal soaps ( potassium salts of fatty acids ) penetrate the soft outer shell of the leafhopper , causing its cells to
leak
and resulting in the death of the insect .
leafhoppers are one of the largest families of plant - feeding insects . there are more leafhopper species worldwide than all species of birds , mammals , reptiles , and amphibians combined . leafhoppers feed by sucking the sap of vascular plants , and are found almost anywhere such plants occur , from tropical rainforests , to arctic tundra . several leafhopper species are important agricultural pests .
leafhopper can customise its support and solution to meet your enterprise ' s needs . whether you are an individual , a small business or a large enterprise we are here to help .
the current pest management strategy in alfalfa for the potato leafhopper is to monitor the pest throughout the season with a sweep net and treat with foliar insecticide when economic threshold populations are reached ( degooyer et al . 1998 , cullen et al . 2012 ) . a fully developed integrated pest management ( ipm ) program is composed of multiple strategies for a given pest or pest complex in a cropping system incorporating host plant resistance , biological , cultural , and physical controls when available and chemical control when necessary ( pedigo 1999 ) . several integrated management strategies have been developed for the potato leafhopper in alfalfa . for example , alfalfa cultivars bred for resistance to the potato leafhopper were first available to farmers in 1997 ( miller 1998 ) . despite advances in pest management for potato leafhopper in alfalfa , it continues to be considered the most important economic pest of alfalfa through much of its range . as the market value of alfalfa hay has nearly doubled over the past decade ( gould 2012 ) , the potential for economic loss from potato leafhopper has also increased . thus , a more thorough understanding of potato leafhopper biology and ipm is a timely subject . in this pest profile , we summarize knowledge of potato leafhopper life history , ecology , scouting procedures , and management options in alfalfa .
nakamura , k . , ito , y . , miyashita , k . , and takai , a . , 1967 , the estimation of population density of the green rice leafhopper ,
lacewings , lady beetles and parasitic wasps will appear shortly after the leafhoppers invade your garden . they can be purchased at any time during the growing season when a leafhopper infestation is present .
parasitic wasps and predatory flies can help control leafhoppers . other predators include birds , lizards , spiders and lacewings . these insects are great partners to help control leafhopper infestations in your organic garden .
maramorosch , k . ; harris , k . f . ( eds . ) . 1979a . leafhopper vectors and plant disease agents . academic press , new york . xvi + 654 pp .
young , d . a . , jr . 1957c . the leafhopper tribe alebrini ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) . proc . u . s . natl . mus . 107 : 127 277 .
as well as early identification errors , the relationship between the potato leafhopper and crop damage was originally not well understood . although the effect of potato leafhopper on alfalfa was noted as early as 1907 , plant damage symptoms known as alfalfa “yellows” were initially attributed to abiotic factors such as weather and soil nutrient deficiency . greenhouse experiments at the university of wisconsin agricultural research station confirmed that alfalfa “yellows” was caused by the potato leafhopper ( granovsky 1928 ) . in potatoes , farmers and researchers originally believed that potato leafhoppers were the vector for a pathogen leading to the characteristic yellowing of leaves ( dudley 1920 ) . although closely related to some known insect vectors of phytoplasma infecting agriculturally important plants ( galetto et al . 2011 ) , there are no known records of disease transmission to plants by potato leafhopper .
throughout the summer , insect population growth and plant vigor are regulated by abiotic factors such as precipitation and temperature . on moisture - stressed alfalfa , development time of potato leafhopper eggs , nymphs , and adults slows , mortality increases , and fecundity decreases ( hoffman et al . 1990 , 1991 ) . however , hopperburn seems to appear more frequently during summer droughts ( hoffman et al . 1991 ) . this may be due to an additive effect of leafhopper feeding and drought stress on alfalfa ' s physiological response ( schroeder et al . 1988 ) . moreover , drought stress interspersed with bouts of rain throughout the summer may increase potato leafhopper performance , which has been proposed as a theory that could explain discrepancies in leafhopper population growth in field observations versus laboratory studies ( huberty and denno 2004 ) .
the potato leafhopper is a polyphagous insect herbivore that can achieve pest status in many agricultural crops throughout the united states . however , it is most frequently a pest of economic concern in alfalfa fields in the midwest and northeast united states . owing to the migratory nature of the potato leafhopper , intensity of infestation cannot be predicted from year to year throughout its geographic range . although models have been developed to aid in predicting development of migrant source populations from southern states ( taylor and shields 1995b ) , these have not been incorporated into management . this lack of incorporation is likely owing to the fact that timing of initial migrant arrivals is not a reliable predictor of infestation or damage severity ( maredia et al . 1998 ) . the most valuable management recommendation is to establish a regular scouting program for the potato leafhopper and to apply foliar insecticides if and when economic threshold populations are found . in addition , in geographic regions that experience economically damaging potato leafhopper populations more consistently , farmers should consider planting leafhopper - resistant alfalfa cultivars .
grass intercrop . lamp ( 1991 ) showed that alfalfa–oat mixtures have fewer potato leafhopper adults , both per area as well as per alfalfa stem . several forage grass–alfalfa mixtures have had similar effects on potato leafhopper density . alfalfa stands containing 9 % forage grass , either smooth bromegrass ( bromus inermis leyss ) or orchardgrass ( dactylis glomerata l . ) , had 4–37 % reduction in potato leafhopper densities compared with alfalfa monocultures ( roda et al . 1997 ) . degooyer et al . ( 1999 ) similarly observed significantly fewer leafhoppers in alfalfa stands intercropped with smooth bromegrass or orchardgrass compared with alfalfa monocultures . these patterns may be due to higher leafhopper emigration out of plots containing grass ( roda et al . 1997 ) , as well as inability of potato leafhoppers to reproduce on monocots such as grass ( lamp et al . 1994 ) .
the white apple leafhopper is the most common leafhopper found on apple in the pacific northwest . until it became a pest of significance in washington in the mid - 1970s , specific control measures were rarely needed . resistance to organophosphates is the most likely cause of increased populations . since about 2000 , it has again become an uncommon pest in most orchards , likely because of the shift away from pesticides toxic to its primary parasite .
dietrich , c . h . 2004 . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily evacanthinae with a review of neotropical species and notes on related groups ( hemiptera : membracoidea : cicadellidae ) . systematic entomology 29 : 455 - 487 .
if immediate control is necessary , use fast - acting insecticides like pyrethrins or azadirachtin to suppress leafhopper populations . insecticides can offer you immediate control and enough of a knockdown that beneficials may be introduced later for more lasting control .
the potato leafhopper is a tiny insect—barely half the size of a grain of rice—with a bright lime green color that helps it blend in against plant leaves . despite its unassuming appearance , this little pest causes big . . .
heavy potato leafhopper infestations on soybean can lead to plant stunting , smaller seed size , and decreased yield ( yeargan et al . 1994 ) . these negative impacts are more severe on seedling soybeans , whereas larger plants can better tolerate potato leafhopper feeding ( hunt et al . 2000 ) . yield loss from potato leafhopper damage is more severe when the plant is under moisture stress ( yeargan et al . 1994 ) . however , heavy infestations are not common on soybeans ( ogunlana and pedigo 1974 ) , except when nearby alfalfa fields are harvested ( poston and pedigo 1975 ) . economic thresholds for soybeans vary by plant age : early vegetative stages can be treated when there are two leafhoppers per plant , flowering fields can be treated when there is one leafhopper per trifoliate leaf , and while pods are developing , fields should be treated when there are two leafhoppers per trifoliate leaf ( krupke et al . 2013 ) .
hopperburn is the term used to describe symptoms associated with potato leafhopper feeding injury to host plants . hopperburn symptoms ( fig . 4 ) always include stunted plant growth . in addition , various leaf symptoms include tip - wilting and chlorosis in alfalfa , but leaf curling and marginal necrosis in other host plants , ultimately leading to premature leaf - drop ( backus et al . 2005 ) . theories regarding toxins in saliva have been proposed since the earliest years of potato leafhopper research . however , more recent research has shown that feeding injury is actually caused by varying plant responses to the complicated feeding behaviors of the potato leafhopper ( as well as its relatives in the e . fabae complex ) .
dietrich , c . h . and d . a . dmitriev . 2007 . revision of the new world leafhopper genus neozygina dietrich & dmitriev ( hemiptera : cicadellidae : typhlocybinae : erythroneurini ) . zootaxa 1475 : 27 - 42 .
zahniser , j . n . , and dietrich , c . h . 2008 . morphology - based phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae and related groups ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) . systematics and biodiversity 6 : 1 - 24 .
jones , j . r . , and l . l . deitz . 2009a . phylogeny and systematics of the leafhopper subfamily ledrinae ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) . zootaxa 2186 : [ 1 ] - 120 . [ available online ]
foliar insecticides registered for potato leafhopper control on alfalfa are effective against nymphs and adults . pyrethroids are the most commonly recommended and used insecticides for control of potato leafhopper . there are a limited number of insecticide active ingredients in the organophospate chemical class registered for potato leafhopper control in alfalfa . in addition , insecticide premix products are registered that combine two insecticide classes ( e . g . , organophosphate + pyrethroid ; chlorantraniliprole + pyrethroid ; neonicotinoid + pyrethroid ) . because potato leafhopper populations vary from year to year , and field to field , populations within a given year cannot be predicted , and fields must be monitored weekly to accurately determine damage potential before insecticides are applied . other pests and beneficial insects in the alfalfa field should also be considered before application of these broad - spectrum insecticides . for example , insecticides that control potato leafhopper at economic thresholds can also kill beneficial insects such as honey bees . to reduce hazards to honey bees in alfalfa , applicators can notify beekeepers before using insecticides , apply between 4 p . m . and nightfall , when bees are least likely to be foraging , and refrain from spraying alfalfa when in bloom ( cullen et al . 2012 ) .
nault , l . r . , and bradfute , o . e . , 1979 , com stunt : involvement of a complex of leafhopper - borne pathogens , in : k . maramorosch and k . harris ( eds . ) ,
observations regarding alfalfa host plant resistance to potato leafhopper date back to 1928 , when granovsky ( 1928 ) noted that “hairier” medicago spp . demonstrated greater tolerance to leafhoppers before exhibiting hopperburn . laboratory studies have shown greater potato leafhopper mortality and reduced reproduction on glandular - haired medicago spp . as well as leafhopper preference for smooth - stem alfalfa varieties in choice tests ( shade et al . 1979 , brewer et al . 1986 , ranger and hower 2002 ) . both physical and chemical traits associated with glandular - haired alfalfa have been reported as resistance mechanisms : entrapment of the first instars in trichome exudates ( ranger and hower 2001 ) and adult settling deterred by compounds in the exudate ( ranger et al . 2004 ) .
dietrich , c . h . , and d . a . dmitriev . 2003 . reassessment of the leafhopper tribes koebeliini baker and grypotini haupt ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 96 : 766 - 775 .
dietrich , c . h . 2004a . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily evacanthinae with a review of neotropical species and notes on related groups ( hemiptera : membracoidea : cicadellidae ) . syst . entomol . 29 ( 4 ) : 455 - 487 .
optimum timing for control of the first generation is when most of the overwintering eggs have hatched but before the majority of the nymphs are in the last two instars , when they are harder to kill . a somewhat arbitrary target timing for this point in the leafhopper ' s phenology is when about 10 % of the population is in the fourth and fifth instars , with 90 % still in the first , second , and third instars . this is usually at or slightly after petal fall . the first cover spray , applied at the standard codling moth timing , will also reduce leafhopper populations somewhat , as will carbaryl when used as a fruit thinning material . in general , however , first cover timing is too late for optimum leafhopper control .
zahniser , j . n . & dietrich , c . h . ( 2010 ) phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) based on molecular and morphological data with a revised family - group classification . systematic entomology , 35 , 489–511 .
zahniser , j . n . and dietrich . c . h . 2010 . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) based on molecular and morphological data with a revised family - group classification . systematic entomology 35 : 489 - 511 .
viraktamath , c . a . 1998a . a revision of the leafhopper tribe paraboloponini ( hemiptera : cicadellidae : selenocephalinae ) in the indian subcontinent . bull . natur . hist . mus . , entomol . ser . 67 ( 2 ) : 153 - 207 .
zahniser , j . n . ; dietrich , c . h . 2008a . phylogeny of the leafhopper subfamily deltocephalinae ( insecta : auchenorrhyncha : cicadellidae ) and related subfamilies based on morphology . syst . & biodiv . 6 ( 1 ) : 1 - 24 .
this article summarizes the knowledge to date on biology of the potato leafhopper , empoasca fabae ( harris ) , including its distribution , development , migration , agricultural host plants , and mechanics of injury to host plants . damage to alfalfa , potatoes , soybeans , and snap beans , and treatment guidelines , are summarized . particular attention is given to integrated pest management options in alfalfa , the host plant most frequently incurring economically damaging populations of potato leafhopper . alfalfa scouting and economic thresholds are discussed along with cultural controls and host plant resistance .
although pinebarren smokegrass is still relatively well - distributed in the pine barrens , the pine barrens themselves have already been seen to suffer the effects of a warming climate . various human activities could also pose a further threat to the leafhopper ' s host and the its habitat .
dietrich , c . h . , and d . a . dmitriev . 2006 . review of the new world genera of the leafhopper tribe erythroneurini ( hemiptera : cicadellidae : typhlocybinae ) . bulletin of the illinois natural history survey 37 ( 5 ) : 119 - 190 .
because they drink the juices of fruits and vegetable plantings , they can cause a variety of symptoms and problems . leaves may appear yellowed and curled or have brown tips . using a product like safer® brand fruit and vegetable insect killer will help you keep your garden leafhopper free !
the best way to prevent a leafhopper infestation ( or any bug infestation really ) is to catch them as soon as possible . leafhoppers will suck sap moisture out of cannabis leaves most often when it’s dry , because they get thirsty , so that’s a good time to check .
chen , f . y . & dai , w . ( 2015 ) bicoloratum dai and li , a new synonym of the leafhopper genus scaphoideus uhler ( hemiptera , cicadellidae , deltocephalinae ) , with description of two new species . zootaxa , 3985 ( 2 ) , 275–283 .
dietrich , c . h . , r . f . whitcomb , and w . c . black , iv . 1997 . phylogeny of the grassland leafhopper genus flexamia ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) based on mitochondrial dna sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 8 : 139 - 149 .
nielson , m . w . 1968b . the leafhopper vectors of phytopathogenic viruses ( homoptera : cicadellidae ) : taxonomy biology , and virus transmission . . u . s . dep . agric . tech . bull . 1382 : [ i - ii ] , 1 - 368 .
nault , l . r . , madden , l . v . , styer , w . e . , triplehorn , b . w . , and heady , s . e . , 1984 , pathogenicity of com stunt spiroplasma and maize bushy stunt mycoplasma to its leafhopper vector ,
elissa m . chasen , christopher dietrich , elaine a . backus , eileen m . cullen ; potato leafhopper ( hemiptera : cicadellidae ) ecology and integrated pest management focused on alfalfa , journal of integrated pest management , volume 5 , issue 1 , 1 march 2014 , pages a1–a8 , urltoken
this key will enable any leafhopper found in australia and neighbouring regions to be identified to subfamily or tribe . checklists of species in each country are provided for each group and identification keys are provided to enable identification to genus for those groups that are sufficiently well known for this to be possible .
the wild glandular - haired medicago spp . were integrated into breeding programs that eventually led to the first line of commercially available alfalfa cultivars with host plant resistance in 1997 ( miller 1998 ) . however , in the field , glandular - haired alfalfa cultivars have had varying levels of success . lefko et al . ( 2000b ) found that established stands of resistant alfalfa could tolerate greater than twice the potato leafhopper pressure as established susceptible stands , but this was not the case for the first cutting of seeding - year stands . established resistant stands also had greater yield ( sulc et al . 2001 ) as well as higher forage quality over susceptible cultivars when leafhopper pressure was high ( sulc et al . 2004 ) . however , under low potato leafhopper pressure , resistant alfalfa stands have no yield benefit and sometimes express a yield drag ( hogg et al . 1998 , hansen et al . 2002 ) .
leafhopper damage is characterized by light - colored speckling on plant leaves caused by the leafhoppers sucking sap and plant juices from within the plant tissue . left unchecked , this gradual feeding reduces the plant ' s vigor over time , browning the leaves . damage caused by leafhoppers is usually not severe enough to seriously harm mature plants ; however , young plants or new growth can be stunted and / or deformed by leafhopper feeding . transmission of disease is a concern with select species of leafhoppers and the honeydew produced by some can aid in the propagation of fungal diseases ; e . g . beet leafhoppers vector curly top virus .
mckamey , s . h . 2000a [ not dated , with periodic revisions ] . checklist of leafhopper species 1758 - 1955 ( hemiptera : membracoidae : cicadellidae and myserslopiidae ) with synonymy and distribution [ catalogue of the homoptera , fascicle 6 , abridged ] . online : urltoken [ pdf version ] ; urltoken [ html version ] .
the potato leafhopper feeds by inserting its piercing - sucking mouth parts ( stylets ; fig . 5 ) into host plant tissues , rupturing and ingesting nutrients from all types of mesophyll , parenchyma , and phloem cells , depending on the host plant ( backus et al . 2005 ) . unlike other leafhoppers , potato leafhoppers do not produce a true salivary sheath that encases the stylets during feeding . instead , the naked stylets repeatedly probe plant tissues , mechanically lacerating cells and simultaneously injecting watery saliva into the tissues . the watery saliva is composed of digestive , hydrolyzing , and cell wall - degrading enzymes , and to date , has not been found to contain any nonenzymatic “toxin . ” instead , hopperburn is caused by a combination of mechanical and salivary mechanisms ( ecale and backus 1995a ) , so it is termed a “saliva - enhanced wound response . ” unique to this species of leafhopper , the symptoms of feeding injury on different host plants are related to three different tactics of potato leafhopper stylet probing ( backus et al . 2005 ) .
a survey was conducted in the 2001 growing season to examine the leafhopper diversity and abundance among trees of 17 red maple ( acer rubrum ) clones . yellow sticky traps were used to qualify and quantify the number of aerial leafhoppers from 1 may 2001 until 4 september 2001 . a total of 45 species from eight different leafhopper subfamilies , for a total of 6055 individuals , were considered in this study . the mean number of leafhoppers collected , mean species richness , diversity and evenness were significantly lower on traps of trees for ‘october glory’ than for the other clones . yet , none of the leafhopper species dominated the weekly samples . species similarity among clones ranged from 56 to 90 % . no two clones had complete similarity . ‘franksred’ and trees of a controlled cross between ‘october glory’ × ‘autumn flame’ shared the highest degree of species similarity , while clones from pa , usa and ri , usa were the least similar . the development of new clones did not create new pest problems , but suppressed populations of damaging pests , and maintained the diversity of low abundance species .
whitcomb r . f . , kramer j . , coan m . e . , hicks a . l . ( 1987 ) ecology and evolution of leafhopper—grass host relationships in north american grasslands . in : harris k . f . ( eds ) current topics in vector research . current topics in vector research , vol 4 . springer , new york , ny
actually , it is exactly the ecology factor that could make it or break it for the
charismatic
new leafhopper . not only is pinebarren smokegrass , which the insect inhabits , a threatened species , but it is known that the rest of the leafhoppers from the genus flexamia , with a few exceptions , are each dependent on a very specific plant .
scouting for potato leafhoppers in alfalfa is standardized through the use of a 15 - inch - diameter sweep net . university extension recommendations are to monitor alfalfa fields weekly beginning mid - june or when potato leafhopper migrants have arrived in the area by taking five sets of 20 sweeps at various locations in a w - shaped pattern throughout the alfalfa field ( university of wisconsin - extension 2010 ) . adult potato leafhoppers may be found at the bottom of the sweep net , while nymphs can be found along the rim of the sweep net as well as throughout the net ( university of wisconsin - extension 2013 ) . insecticide recommendations are based on the average potato leafhopper number per sweep calculated from total samples taken across the field , including nymphs and adults ( cullen et al . 2012 ) . because taller alfalfa can tolerate more potato leafhopper feeding , established economic thresholds depend on the average height of the alfalfa stand . when scouting for potato leafhoppers , it is important to avoid taking sweep net samples at field edges , as potato leafhopper populations are typically higher along field margins and this is not representative of population density throughout the field ( emmen et al . 2004 ) . it is also important to avoid taking sweep samples while it is raining or when dew is present on the plants , and if possible , avoid sweeping when winds are > 10 miles per hour , as this reduces the sweep net sample efficiency ( cherry et al . 1977 ) .
leafhopper adults ( 1 / 4 inch long ) are slender , wedge - shaped insects that fly or disperse rapidly when disturbed . depending on species they may be green , brown or yellow in color and often have colorful markings . nymphs do not have wings and are generally lighter in color than adults . both adults and nymphs run sideways and are good jumpers .
leafhoppers are common and abundant insects worldwide . they are currently placed among two families : myerslopiidae , with only two genera , and the enormous family cicadellidae , which , with more than 22 , 000 described species and 2600 genera , ranks among the 10 largest insect families . phylogenetic analyses suggest that leafhoppers may have given rise to treehoppers , and it seems likely that additional families of leafhoppers will be recognized once the evolutionary relationships are better understood . indeed , a number of previously recognized leafhopper
families
( including eurymelidae , hylicidae , ledridae , and ulopidae ) are currently placed within cicadellidae . as noted below , numerous leafhopper species are considered serious plant pests , and those that vector plant diseases inflict untold economic loses in agricultural crops .
because leafhoppers are indirect pests , they should only be controlled when necessary . it is difficult to set treatment thresholds for white apple leafhopper since no fruit size , fruit quality , or return bloom reduction due to leafhopper damage has been observed . other factors must be taken into account when deciding whether control is needed . since the major form of biological control occurs during the egg stage , this mortality is already accounted for when nymphal populations are assessed . if the trees are very young , excessive damage to the relatively small leaf canopy could retard growth . in vigorous , mature trees with a high leaf - to - fruit ratio , moderate to heavy leafhopper damage will probably have little effect . similarly , if the crop is very light , more foliar damage can probably be tolerated than if the crop load is heavy . the potential for drought because of light soils , inadequate irrigation schedules , or extremely hot , dry weather could also serve as a reason to consider controlling leafhoppers or other indirect pests . if substantial foliar damage by mites or leafminers has already been incurred , further damage by leafhoppers should probably be avoided .
common name glasshouse leafhopper scientific name hauptidia maroccana plants affected many glasshouse vegetables and ornamental plants including tomato , peppers , aubergine , cucumber , fuchsia , pelargonium and streptocarpus . outdoor plants , such as polyanthus , foxglove and nicotiana are also attacked main symptoms coarse pale spotting on upper leaf surface . leafhoppers may be seen on the underside of leaves most active april to september but all year round in glasshouses
andrew hicks from the museum of natural history at the university of colorado and his team discovered a previously unknown leafhopper species in the new jersey pine barrens , located just east of the megalopolis that extends from new york city to washington , dc . this was the first time an insect has been reported from the state - listed threatened pinebarren smokegrass , muhlenbergia torreyana . the study can be found in the open - access journal zookeys .
dr . jaco le roux hopes to establish the number and identity of the leafhopper species introduced to hawaii so he can assess the threat that it poses to our local flora and fauna . this research effort includes molecular systematics and phylogeography of invasive leafhoppers and those from putative source regions . these data could potentially also assist in identifying native range regions where productive biological control agents are likely to be found , should this prove a viable control option .
like other types of foliar damage , that caused by leafhoppers may reduce leaf photosynthesis , which in turn can affect the tree ' s ability to set , size or mature a crop of fruit . however , no effect on fruit size or fruit quality has been found under washington conditions , even when extremely high leafhopper populations were present . in addition , no reduction in return bloom or set was noted following a single season of heavy damage with a peak of 3 nymphs per leaf , although only one cultivar , oregon spur red delicious , has been studied . it is assumed that multiple seasons ' damage could eventually deplete the tree ' s reserves , making effects of feeding damage more apparent , but this has not been studied . as with other indirect pest damage , factors such as tree vigor , tree age , drought stress , and damage by multiple pests could exacerbate the effect of leafhopper damage .
harvest timing . if economic thresholds are reached within 7 d of a planned harvest , early harvest is advised , rather than an insecticide spray ( undersander et al . 2004 ) . early harvest helps alfalfa stands to avoid further potato leafhopper feeding damage . in addition , potato leafhopper population dynamics can be influenced by harvest operations ( pienkowski and medler 1962 , simonet and pienkowski 1979 , cuperus et al . 1986 ) . cuperus et al . ( 1986 ) showed that greater populations of nymphs and adults were correlated with taller stubble or lodged growth left behind after harvest . cuttings at stubble height of 2–5 cm ( 1–2 inches ) with no remaining leaves or succulent stems can reduce populations up to 95 % in the next growth cycle ( simonet and pienkowski 1979 ) . these effects are due to high nymph and egg mortality from their lack of mobility and exposure to hot , drying conditions ( simonet and pienkowski 1979 ) and adult dispersal post harvest to neighboring fields ( poston and pedigo 1975 ) .
the potato leafhopper ' s diverse host plant list of more than 200 plant species includes alfalfa ( medicago sativa l . ) , soybean ( glycine max l . ) potato ( solanum tuberosum l . ) , and peanut ( arachis hypogaea l . ) , as well as roadside , weedy , and forest plants ( lamp et al . 1994 ) . as the key economic pest of alfalfa in the north central and northeast united states , yield losses have been documented up to $ 66 / ha ( $ 27 / acre ; lamp et al . 1991 ) .
a second parasitoid is a wasp in the family dryinidae ( probably aphelopus sp . ) , which is a parasitoid of both nymphs and adults . it develops internally in leafhopper nymphs , then appears on the adults as a pouch on the abdomen . this parasitoid has been collected from cherry and apple orchards in the mid - columbia area of oregon , although it may be much more widely distributed . while substantial rates of parasitism have been reported , the potential of this parasitoid species as a biological control agent is unknown . despite extensive examination of leafhoppers in washington , this parasitoid species has not been found .
snap beans ( phaseolus vulgaris l . ) are regularly infested by potato leafhoppers , and under intense feeding , this can result in complete leaf drop , whereas at moderate pressure , plant stunting and yield loss may occur ( gonzalez and wyman 1991 ) . duration and timing of infestation are important when making management decisions ; infestation on younger plants causes more significant yield loss than the equivalent pressure on older plants ( gonzalez and wyman 1991 ) . economic thresholds for green beans vary by plant age : for seedlings , the threshold is set at 0 . 5 potato leafhoppers per sweep , and for the third trifoliate to bud stage , the threshold is set at one per sweep . for dry beans , the thresholds are 0 . 5 potato leafhoppers per plant at the unifoliate stage and one potato leafhopper per trifoliate leaf once the plants have reached the trifoliate stage ( flood and wyman 2005 ) . neonicitinoid seed treatments are also commercially available and have been largely successful at controlling a suite of snap bean pests , including potato leafhoppers , especially for roughly the first 30 d of plant growth ( nault et al . 2004 ) . however , when potato leafhopper populations are exceptionally high , growers should still be mindful of scouting for economic threshold populations later in the summer .
interestingly , the three feeding tactics of e . fabae - complex species are mixed - and - matched on different host plants in relation to the degree of susceptibility or resistance of the plant . some genotypes of resistant snap bean cause less of the most - damaging tactics of feeding ( lacerate - and - flush and lacerate - and - flush ) to be performed , while more of the less - damaging tactic , lance - and - ingest ( serrano et al . 2000 , backus et al . 2005 ) . in addition to genetic mechanisms of resistance or susceptibility , drought or desiccation can enhance hopperburn symptoms because water and carbon transport are impaired after potato leafhopper feeding .
the results of studies performed by roda et al . ( 1997 ) and degooyer et al . ( 1999 ) show that potato leafhoppers are typically reduced in alfalfa–grass stands but that is not the case for every harvest . moreover , even when the population is reduced , it is not always reduced below economic threshold , so it is still important to monitor the population and use other management strategies when necessary . there is a great deal of variability in the response of potato leafhopper to the presence of grass in alfalfa stands , in part owing to the relative proportion of grass to alfalfa as well as the spatial arrangement of the grass in the alfalfa stand ( roda et al . 1997 ) .
members of the cicadellidae range in length from 2 to 32 mm and characteristically have four rows of enlarged , spine - like setae on the hind tibia . in this regard , they resemble treehoppers , which have up to three such rows of setae on the hind tibia , but most treehoppers have a posterior pronotal process that is absent in leafhoppers . among all insects , only cicadellids produce minute granules called brochosomes . these intricately shaped structures form in a specialized region of the malpighian tubules . the brochosomes are secreted and applied ( using the legs ) to the body as a hydrophobic coating . this curious anointing behavior is usually observed after each molt . members of the small leafhopper family myerslopiidae are peculiar flightless insects that have leathery forewings and vestigial ocelli .
white apple leafhoppers have piercing - sucking mouthparts and cause damage to leaves by piercing mesophyll cells and removing their contents . the resulting damage appears as a white or yellowish - white stippling of the leaves . leafhopper damage may superficially resemble mite feeding , but the individual spots are usually larger and there is no bronzing . damage can be so extensive that injured leaves appear nearly white . spur leaves in particular can be heavily damaged . initially , feeding tends to be concentrated near the midrib , then eventually covers most of the interveinal spaces of the leaf blade . leafhoppers generally prefer more mature leaves and will not infest shoots tips until the leaves have hardened off . both nymphs and adults feed on leaves , but most damage is probably done by the nymphs .
established economic thresholds are based on research done by cuperus et al . ( 1983 ) . they concluded that treatment was economic when 0 . 15 potato leafhoppers per sweep were present on 2 - inch alfalfa and when 0 . 42 potato leafhoppers per sweep were present on 7 - inch alfalfa . these conclusions have been adapted to current university recommendations of roughly one - tenth of a leafhopper per sweep per inch height of alfalfa growth ( table 1 ; fick et al . 2003 , townsend 2002 , university of wisconsin - extension 2013 ) . some university extension recommendations suggest a dynamic economic threshold based on varying costs of insecticide treatment ( rice et al . 1999 ; table 2 ) or fluctuating alfalfa hay market prices ( danielson and jarvi 2006 ) . under these threshold guidelines , as the treatment cost increases or the alfalfa hay market price decreases , a greater density of potato leafhoppers is required to cause economic yield loss equivalent to the treatment cost , and therefore the threshold is increased . hutchins and pedigo ( 1998 ) calculated economic injury levels for potato leafhopper on alfalfa , with an emphasis on management for nutritional value based on type of animal for which the feed is intended . incorporating variables of insect injury on forage quality characteristics ( hutchins and pedigo 1990 ) and different animal nutrition needs , they determined that the economic injury level is lowest for alfalfa hay intended for sheep or horses , medium for a beef or dairy cows , and highest for beef steer . however , economic thresholds were not calculated based on these economic injury levels , and thresholds based on livestock nutrient needs have not been adopted in practice .
second generation white apple leafhopper populations can greatly exceed the first , often surprising producers and consultants by the size of a late season infestation . adults are quite mobile , and during the first generation flight they can move into and rapidly reinfest a block that was treated for first generation nymphs . if a clean orchard is surrounded by infested ones , then second generation nymphs should be sampled . because of a prolonged egg hatch in the second generation , multiple stages occur at any one time , making control of this generation less likely to be satisfactory than that of the first generation . however , if picker annoyance reduction is the primary concern , then it may be more appropriate to control this generation . insecticide applications should be made before adult populations begin to rise sharply , which usually occurs in mid - to late august .
each year , the first potato leafhopper populations arriving in the north are largely female - biased ( medler and pienkowski 1966 ) and occur sometime in may ( maredia et al . 1998 ) . arriving females are typically mated ( medler and pienkowski 1966 ) and will oviposit for the duration of their lives ( delong 1938 , decker et al . 1971 ) . field studies indicate a female - biased sex ratio near 4 : 1 through most of the season , until it approaches 1 : 1 toward the end of the growing season ( medler and pienkowski 1966 , decker et al . 1971 , flinn et al . 1990 , emmen et al . 2004 ) . development from egg to adult can occur in as little as just over 2 wk or can take > 4 wk , depending on temperatures , which gives rise to three to five overlapping generations during summer months in the northern united states ( delong 1938 , hogg and hoffman 1989 ) .
the primary biological control agent of leafhoppers in the pacific northwest is an egg parasitoid , anagrus sp . ( probably a . epos ) , a mymarid wasp ( see section on anagrus ) . it attacks both overwintering and summer eggs of white apple leafhopper . in overwintering eggs , parasitism levels of up to 25 % have been found in the wenatchee area . the level of parasitism appears to be generally related to the intensity of pesticide use ( primarily that for codling moth ) the previous season , but no single application timing or material has been identified . research in michigan indicates that more than 90 % of the overwintering generation of eggs can be parasitized in unsprayed orchards so broad - spectrum pesticides undoubtedly suppress parasitoid populations . levels of parasitism found in conventionally managed orchards are generally too low to prevent substantial populations from developing . anagrus could potentially play a role in biological control of leafhoppers if broad - spectrum chemicals are reduced or removed from the spray program .
potato leafhoppers have five nymphal instars ( fig . 1 ) . instars can be distinguished by color , size , and presence of external wing pads . the first instar is pale white with red eyes , and extremely small . subsequent instars gain more of the vibrant yellow - green color typical of adults . wing pads ( fig . 2 ) begin developing in the third instar . sizes of the instars range from 1 mm for first instars to 3 mm ( in length ) for fifth instars ( hutchins 1987 ) . developmental time is more rapid in warmer temperatures and ranges from 9 to 18 d to complete all five instars ( hogg 1985 ) . all nymphal stages resemble the adult body shape in that the head segment is wider than the abdomen , which gives the body a wedge - shaped appearance . potato leafhopper nymphal movement is distinct from adults in that nymphs scuttle sideways . however , both nymphs and adults are able to use specialized legs ( fig . 2 ) for jumping .
on alfalfa , adult potato leafhoppers use the lacerate - and - sip tactic , which is also thought to be the most injurious , mostly on stems and petioles . adults insert their stylets perpendicular to the stem and proceed to arc the stylets back and forth , essentially cutting multiple channels through the vascular bundle ( all types of phloem cells ) for 1–2 min before removing the stylets , taking a couple of steps forward and repeating the action . the wounded but still living vascular cells then undergo saliva - enhanced wound responses over the next several days that result in temporary blockage of nutrient movement up the phloem ( nielsen et al . 1990 ) that is ultimately healed , but permanent blockage of xylem cells ( ecale and backus 1995b ) . both types of blockage cause systemic decreases in photosynthesis and decreased transport of sugars to growing areas of the plant , leading to both leaf chlorosis and plant stunting in all host plants ( backus et al . 2005 ) . potato leafhopper nymphs on alfalfa feed on both stems and leaves ; on leaves , their feeding is similar to adult feeding on nonalfalfa host plants ( see later text ) .