the andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) is one of the rarest flamingos in the world .

it lives in the andes mountains of south america .

until 2014 it was classified in genus phoenicopterus .

it is closely related to james 's flamingo , and the two make up the genus phoenicoparrus .

the chilean flamingo , andean flamingo and james 's flamingo are all sympatric , and all live in colonies ( including shared nesting areas ) .

andean flamingo

and andean flamingo ) , andean flamingos live in the most diverse set of habitats .
there are six species of flamingo , according to the integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) : greater flamingo , lesser flamingo , chilean flamingo , andean flamingo , james ' ( or puna ) flamingo and american ( or caribbean ) flamingo .
this entry was posted in archive , south america , waterbirds and tagged andean flamingo , chilean flamingo , puna flamingo . bookmark the permalink .
estimated population of the andean flamingo is 33 , 927 birds with a decreasing trend .
archived 2014 discussion : andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) : downlist all to least concern ?
description : the andean flamingo is the third south american flamingo with the james ' s flamingo and the chilean flamingo . the species is listed as vulnerable due to human disturbances , egg - collecting and habitat loss . this flamingo is closely related to the james ' s flamingo . both are very rare .
close - up of an andean flamingo feeding in the shallow waters of salar de atacama in chile .
despite the long history of impacts and steady population decline , the andean flamingo has been declared endangered as recent as september 2010 . the andean flamingo is now protected under the endangered species act of 1973 .
6 responses to archived 2014 discussion : andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) : downlist all to least concern ?
alkaline wetlands constitute the andean flamingo’s prime foraging habitat . ( photo : marcio cabral de mora – flickr )
this response was prepared by members of the gcfa , an international initiative coordinating flamingo and wetland research and conservation activities throughout the andean and puna flamingo distribution range .
the andean flamingo ( phoenicopterus andinus ) is one of the three flamingos occurring in the high andes of south america . it is the largest and easiest to identify in all age stages . it is also the rarest of the flamingos of living in the high andean . in fact , the andean flamingo is regarded as the world’s rarest flamingo .
archived 2014 discussion : andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) : downlist all to least concern ? | birdlife ' s globally threatened bird forums
young andean flamingos are grey in colour before they develop the pink adult plumage .
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
urltoken
title =
arkive species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus )
> < img src =
urltoken
alt =
arkive species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus )
title =
arkive species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus )
border =
0
/ > < / a >
range : the andean flamingo is found in restricted range in the high andes , from s peru , through bolivia to n chile and nw argentina .
( andean flamingo ) is found in the chilean andes of south america , which includes southern peru , north - central chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina .
the initial decline in the andean flamingo’s population appears to have started as early as the mid 20th century . egg harvesting to sell as food was intensive then , with thousands taken annually from the breeding colonies in chile . these breeding colonies included other species of flamingos , but it was only the andean flamingo that appeared to have been the most affected , if indeed the egg extraction was one of the causes that led to the andean flamingo’s population decline . egg collection for local consumption still continues at lower scale .
the lesser flamingo is the most numerous of all flamingo species , with an estimated population of 1 . 5 to 2 . 5 million individuals .
do you know of or are you a part of an organisation that work to conserve the andean flamingo , then please contact us to have it featured on our endangered world .
andean flamingos are found in southern peru , north - central chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina .
the second most numerous flamingo species is the greater flamingo . exact numbers of these birds are difficult to assess because of their extensive range and migration patterns .
in the 2014 breeding season in argentina , a nesting colony of 180 puna flamingo nests in laguna grande , catamarca , was abandoned because of human disturbance caused by unregulated tourism activities , and a colony of 600 andean flamingo nests in laguna blanca , catamarca , was abandoned because of human disturbance caused by people taking flamingo eggs for local consumption .
while the andean flamingo is most commonly found in the andean wetlands , high in the mountainous regions near chile , argentina , peru . while they may be localized to these areas , the andean flamingos are highly migratory , and can travel up to seven hundred miles in a single day . while it is migratory , it can usually be found in an area containing high quantities of plankton and invertebrate life .
the size of volcano flamingo flocks can reach thousands of birds . total population estimates are 34 , 000 for the andean flamingo , 100 , 000 for the james’s flamingo , and 200 , 000 for the chilean flamingo . in a world where remnant populations of charismatic species often teeter at hundreds to a few thousand in the wild , these estimates may at first seem encouraging . however , the international union for conservation of nature classifies volcano flamingos as “near threatened” ( andean and chilean ) and “vulnerable” ( james’s ) on its red list .
the james ' flamingo has the most restricted range of all flamingo species . they are found in southern peru , northeastern chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina .
for the first time , biologists from four south american countries have done a simultaneous census of the high - altitude lakes where two little - known flamingo species live year - round . their reports confirm fears of a precipitous decline in one species , the andean flamingo , over the last 25 years .
the high andean flamingos undertake continuous migrations between the south american wetlands of argentina , bolivia , chile and peru to forage and to search for breeding sites . the populations of these flamingos have been subject to a drastic reduction and fragmentation of their habitats . according to the iucn , the global conservation status of the andean flamingo ( phoenicopterus andinus ) is “vulnerable” and that of james’s flamingo ( phoenicopterus jamesi ) is “nearly threatened” .
we would like to comment on the proposal by birdlife international to downlist the three flamingo species of southern south america , the andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) and chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) , to the category of least concern according to iucn criteria . we appreciate that this assessment is based on the recognition that data now available are rigorous , accurate , and reliable , and we also appreciate the opportunity to comment on this proposal .
the flamingo ' s characteristic pink colouring is caused by the beta carotene in their diet .
on bonaire , flamingoes are legally protected . never harass , frighten or harm a flamingo .
three flamingo species live in the wetlands of southern south america : the chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) is the most widespread throughout the southern cone , while the andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) and puna flamingo ( p . jamesi ) are found primarily in the wetlands of the high plateau or altiplano in the andes mountains of argentina , bolivia , chile , and peru . however , they can also be found in lowland wetlands that are critical for their survival , especially during winter months .
another interesting component in the eating habits of all flamingos is they tend to follow the scavenging methods of whatever flock they are currently flying with . for example , the chilean flamingo tends to hunt in deeper waters than the andean , but if an andean flamingo comes upon a flock of the chileans , they will adopt the exact eating methods of their chilean counterparts , working as a team , and almost inherently knowing how to dive deeper than the species would normally .
we believe that the information available and our knowledge of the conservation status of the puna and andean flamingo populations and wetland habitats does not warrant the downlisting of these species to least concern according to iucn criteria . the status of the andean flamingo is of sufficient concern that the usfws has included it as one of the few foreign species listed under the us endangered species act as of september 2010 . furthermore , we believe the status of the puna flamingo should be reevaluated given the population treneds and demographic concerns and threats mentioned above to determine if listing as vulnerable is warranted .
andean flamingos have been exploited by humans rarely in the past , probably because they tend to live and breed in remote , bleak areas .
diet : the andean flamingo feeds mainly on diatoms ( bacillariophyceae ) , algae of genus surinella , and aquatic invertebrates . it feeds by wading with head lowered into the water , in order to filter the water with its highly specialized bill .
captive flamingo populations and opportunities for research in zoos . c . e . king . 142 - 149
andean flamingos breed in december and january , variation may be related to rainfall patterns . andean flamingos begin breeding once they have become fully colored adults , usually at three to six years old . flamingos breed colonially , with up to thousands of individuals , sometimes in mixed - species groups with
andean flamingos are found in the lakes and lagoons of the andes mountains . they are highly gregarious birds and form flocks containing thousands of individuals .
because the andean flamingo’s recent addition to the endangered species list , there have been few implemented plans to protect it . the more immediate protection measures include finding ways to solve the problems of mining activities , egg collecting , poaching , and uncontrolled ecotourism .
the movements of the greater flamingo population living in carmarque in southern france have been closely monitored since 1977 .
flamingo specialist group : past , present and future activities . a . r . johnson . 200 - 205
reproduction : the andean flamingo breeds in huge colonies containing thousands of birds . it may breed in mixed colonies with one or both other south american species . the nest is a mud mound , a truncated cone in shallow water with a bowl at top .
listing three foreign bird species - andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) , the chilean woodstar ( eulidia yarrellii ) , and the st . lucia forest thrush ( cichlherminia lherminieri sanctaeluciae ) - from latin america and the caribbean as endangered throughout their range ; final rule
the park contains more than 30 species of mammals , including wild llamas , vicuna , foxes , alpacas , chinchillas , and andean and pampas cats .
with their long legs and necks and distinctive pink plumage , flamingos are the epitome of avian elegance . but dr . conway considers the two mountain species to be the most beautiful of the six . the head , neck and breast of the andean flamingo have a wine - red hue , and it is the only flamingo with yellow legs . the james flamingo ' s back is draped with long scarlet plumes in the breeding season , and its breast is streaked with carmine .
an andean flamingo nest is made mostly of collected mud ovoid’s , where the birds collect the mud in their curved beaks , and stamp it down into roughly circular areas . the flamingo will then build a large “moat” around the nested area . it is unknown why they do this , but it is speculated that the moat area is for protection against ground dwelling snakes .
the andean flamingo has the classic , familiar look of the flamingo , with long legs , a long neck , and a prominent , aquiline beak . this large filter - feeding bird stands 1 meter to 1 . 4 meters tall , and boasts a wingspan of up to 1 . 6 meters . average weight is 4 kilograms . festively coloured in pink and white , the andean flamingo’s plumage is set off by yellow legs , a yellow and black beak , and black primary flight feathers on the wings . their cry is a loud , goose - like honk which is given with the head thrown back and the tail raised .
andean flamingos have the typical flamingo form with long , thin legs and neck . the average andean flamingo stands 1 to 1 . 4 meters tall with a wingspan of 1 to 1 . 6 meters , and a weight of 1 . 5 to 4 . 1 kg . plumage is light pink , with the head , neck , and upper breast a darker red . the curved bill is yellow and black . they have three - forward pointing toes , lacking their fourth toe . juvenile andean flamingos are grey before they develop their light pink plumage . these are the only species of flamingo with yellow legs and a red spot between the nostrils . they also have very deep bills and stiff lamellae on the lower jaw to help filter fine particles for consumption and keep other larger particles out .
the andean flamingo’s movements are poorly known , but they move according to water levels and food availability . during winter , they may perform altitudinal movements , leaving the altiplano and reaching lower areas where the food is abundant . they usually move at night and in flocks .
literature cited : marconi , p . m . and a . l . sureda . 2008 . high andean flamingo wetland network : evaluation of degree of implementation of priority sites - preliminary results . pp . 36 - 40 . in : childress , b . , arengo , f . and bechet , a . ( eds . ) 2008 . flamingo , bulletin of the iucn - ssc / wetlands international flamingo specialist group , no . 16 , december 2008 . wildfowl & wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk .
the beaks of the andean flamingo are a black and yellow color , yellow closest to the face , descending into black as you get closer to the tip of the beak . the beak is hooked , to aid in hunting at the bottom of shallow waters , and filter feeding .
the introduction of fish to some lakes may seriously affect the distribution of the chilean flamingo as well as the greater and caribbean flamingos , since they all feed primarily on invertebrates . other flamingo species are not affected because of different food sources .
protection / threats / status : the andean flamingo suffers population decline due to habitat loss , variations of water levels with mining activities , heavy egg - collecting in the mid - 20th century , human disturbances and erosion of nest - sites . currently , this species is listed as vulnerable .
lauca ' s wetlands are home to more than 100 bird species , including the flamingo , giant coot , white owl , andean geese , and nandus ( a flightless south american bird resembling the emu ) . three species of flamingo throng the shores of lake chungaraat 12 , 000 feet ( 3 , 660 meters ) , one of the world ' s highest lakes . birders from around the world flock to lauca .
the lifespan andean flamingos in the wild is unknown . they are believed to live for twenty to thirty years . in captivity some flamingos have lived to 60 years old .
andean flamingos are highly gregarious , forming large flocks of tens of thousands of birds . the only typical form of aggression is between males when mate guarding . andean flamingos move among ponds and lagoons throughout the year , in search of food . they may tend to occur at lower elevations during the winter . they are active during the day .
conservation efforts : various nature reserves and flamingo reserves have been established to protect crucial feeding and breeding grounds for this species . egg collecting has been successfully reduced by official action , though it still occurs . the united kingdom houses a self - renewing captive population of these birds should reintroduction ever become necessary . efforts are under way to create more protected areas and to educate locals in the ecological value of the andean flamingo .
the andean flamingos are monogamous , and it is speculated that they take mates for lifelong periods . mated pairs have been spotted and tagged together for several years at a time .
andean flamingos have a loud honking call that is similar to that of a goose they also communicate using a wing salute , stretching up their neck and flipping up their tail .
the andean flamingo possesses the typical elegant flamingo body shape , with long legs and a long , curved neck ( 5 ) . the body is pale pink , with bright upperparts and a noticeable patch of black on the wing ( 2 ) . the legs are yellow and the large , curved bill is yellow and black ( 2 ) . young birds are grey in colour before they develop the pink adult plumage ( 2 ) .
the andean flamingo is one of the least commonly found flamingos in the world today . it is the only flamingo found to have three toed feet , and legs that are yellow in coloration . their beak is a black and yellow color , and it has the curved features that all pictorial representations seem to have . while they are fairly common in the andes and wet - lands of peru , they are presently vulnerable to extinction .
the greater flamingo has the most widespread distribution of all flamingo species . populations are found in northwest india , the middle east , the western mediterranean , and africa . limited numbers of this species can be found over much of northern europe and eastward to siberia .
lesterhuis , a . j . , clay , r . p . and del castillo , h . ( 2008 ) status and distribution in paraguay of the chilean flamingo ( phoenicopterus chilensis ) . pp : 41 - 45 . flamingo 16 : 41 - 45 .
andean flamingos breed in colonies containing thousands of individuals , during december and january . they produce one chalky white egg that is laid on a mud mound in shallow water . both parents
andean flamingos breeding at laguna brava , la rioja , argentina . e . h . bucher , j . m . chani , and a . l . echevarria . 119 - 120
what a flamingo eats depends on what type of beak it has . lesser , james ' and andean flamingos have what is called a deep - keeled bill . they eat mostly algae . greater , chilean and american flamingos have shallow - keeled bills , which allow them to eat insects , invertebrates and small fish .
they are very shy birds , so they will always walk away when approached . if you see a flamingo and you would like to photograph it , do not approach it . the distance will never become smaller since for every step you take the flamingo will take two . the best way to photograph a flamingo is to use a telephoto lens . if you are in luck and you spot a flamingo close to the road , do not get out of the car . stay in the car and take the picture from there .
a . longevity . experts have not yet determined how long flamingos live . at the philadelphia zoo , one flamingo lived 44 years .
andean flamingos are considered vulnerable and are difficult to breed in captivity . northern chilean populations were severely decimated by a drought . they are now protected by being listed by the convention on international trade in endangered species , and the convention on migratory species . a separate and self - sustaining population of andean flamingos is being kept at the wildfowl and wetlands trust in the united kingdom .
location : the andean flamingo is confined to the mountains of south america – mostly in chile , peru , argentina , and bolivia . as noted , it lives only above the 2 , 300 meter mark and below 5 , 000 meters , requiring alkaline lakes or salt lakes with shallow , diatom - rich water for its survival .
3 . tongue . a flamingo’s large , fleshy tongue is covered with bristlelike projections that help filter water and food particles through the lamellae .
a new threat to the andean flamingo is borax mining , which occurs heavily in its range . though borax is largely harmless to humans , it destroys much of the birds’ reproductive capacity and causes growing flamingos to develop deformed skeletons . bulldozing lake beds destroys food supplies , and mining activity in general disturbs the birds and ruins their habitat .
threats : the andean flamingo’s decline began with massive collection of eggs from the world war ii era through the 1980s . the eggs were used as a food supply by the region’s burgeoning population , but greatly impacted the flamingos , sending their population into a sharp decline . there was an average population of 100 , 000 prior to the egg collection era , but this human nest robbing cut the flamingo’s numbers to a third of what they once were . today , the flamingo’s population may be stable or even slightly increasing . sadly , egg collection is not even justified by poverty , since the local people are well - nourished and have an ample supply of llama meat , which is considerably more nutritious than flamingo eggs ; they are a delicacy , not a necessity .
b . coloration . 1 . feather color varies with species , ranging from pale pink to crimson or vermilion . a . caribbean flamingos have the brightest coloration : crimson or vermilion . b . the chilean flamingo is pale pink . 2 . feather coloration is derived from carotenoid pigments found in a flamingo’s food . 3 . male and female flamingo coloration is the same . 4 . newly - hatched chicks are gray or white . 5 . juveniles are grayish , taking approximately one to two years to obtain full adult coloration . 6 . parents lose their pink coloration while raising young if they are still feeding chicks through the adult’s molting period . 7 . coloration of flamingos’ legs and feet varies according to species from yellow to orange or pink - red . the andean flamingo is the only species that has yellow legs and feet . long legs and a long , curved neck are characteristics of all flamingo species .
recently the andean flamingo has been dropping in numbers and so it is now classified as vulnerable . it is hoped that early intervention though is going to help them be able to get their numbers back up soon and be taken off of that list . there are some efforts out there to help with the future for these and other flamingos .
scientists recognize six kinds of flamingos , and two others are also found in the western hemisphere . the caribbean flamingo is the one seen in the bahamas and the galapagos islands ; the chilean flamingo is widespread from peru to the coasts of argentina and tierra del fuego , and some populations also breed in the high andes lakes . the greater flamingo , which is found from africa and the mediterranean to kazakhstan and india , is the largest of its kind . the smallest and most abundant species is the lesser flamingo , which numbers in the millions in africa ' s rift valley .
the andean flamingo is a forager , meaning it will eat anything that it can properly digest . its total diet is not fairly varied , including the diatoms , algae , and small particles . they are also known to eat some underwater plants , mostly the vascular varieties , but they are known to also gorge themselves on the smaller plankton species .
andean flamingos use filter feeding to capture small particles at the sediment / water interface . they have narrow and deep lower mandibles which allow them to capture small particles , most commonly diatoms ( in the family
flight : the andean flamingo flies with neck , head and legs outstretched . it needs a short run before to take off , to gain the necessary speed while wings are flapping when the wind is absent . the flight is swift and direct , with rapid wingbeats sometimes interspersed with short glides . when in flock , they often fly in v - formation .
mining activities pose a current threat to the andean flamingo . mining companies have established themselves adjacent to the flamingos’ nesting sites and feeding sites . flamingos have been reported to abandon their nesting sites even when mining was initiated after the establishment of nesting colonies when the birds were expected to be engaged in a breeding attempt and were less likely to leave the colonies .
the andean flamingo is protected by its listing on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) and appendix i of the convention on migratory species ( cms ) ( 4 ) . a self - sustaining captive population of andean flamingos exists at the wildfowl and wetlands trust at slimbridge in the uk ( 5 ) . these birds provide useful research subjects into behavioural aspects of this species . flamingos are an emotive bird and as such can act as important flagship species for the conservation of the world’s highly delicate wetland ecosystems ( 5 ) .
breeding : breeding occurs from december through february , in large colonies – as might be expected from this social bird . only a single egg is laid by each female , and many young flamingos do not survive until adulthood . the egg is placed on a mound of mud , surrounded by shallow water . flamingo chicks are self - sufficient by ten months and ready to breed in three to six years . the andean flamingo lives for around 45 years in the wild if it does not succumb to hunting or predation .
andean flamingo phoenicoparrus andinus is currently listed as vulnerable under the a criterion , and puna flamingo p . jamesi and chilean flamingo phoenicopterus chilensis are listed as near threatened under the a criterion . p . andinus was suspected to be declining at a rate of 30 - 49 % over 10 years . p . jamesi was suspected to have declined by 20 - 29 % over the past 48 years ( three generations ) , while p . chilensis was suspected to be declining at a rate of 20 - 29 % over 10 years . these negative trends were suspected on the basis of past declines and ongoing threats , primarily egg - harvesting , hunting , disturbance and habitat degradation .
flamingo science : current status and future needs . k . l . bildstein , g . a . baldassarre , and f . arengo . 206 - 211
rocha , o . & p . marconi . 2012 . monitoring of 2011 - 2012 breeding colonies and populations of andean flamingos ( phoenicoparrus andinus y p . jamesi ) in argentina and bolivia . unpublished report to cms .
a . size . 1 . the greater flamingo is the tallest flamingo , standing 110 to 130 cm ( 43 - 51 in . ) and weighing up to 3 . 5 kg ( 7 . 7 lb . ) . 2 . the lesser flamingo is the smallest flamingo , standing 80 cm ( 31 . 5 in . ) and weighing only 2 . 5 kg ( 5 . 5 lb . ) . 3 . males reach full size between one - and - a - half and two years . 4 . male flamingos are slightly larger than females , weighing more and having longer wingspans ; however , visual sex determination of flamingos is unreliable . 5 . the wingspan of flamingos ranges from 95 to 100 cm ( 37 - 39 in . ) for the lesser flamingo to 140 to 165 cm ( 55 - 65 in . ) for the greater flamingo . the caribbean flamingo has a wingspan of 150 cm ( 59 in . ) . there are five species of flamingos . two species belong to the genus phoenicopterus . p . ruber is divided into two subspecies , p . r . ruber and p . r . roseus .
the flamingo ' s most characteristic habitats are large alkaline or saline lakes or estuarine lagoons that usually lack vegetation . lakes may be far inland or near the sea .
flamingos are generally non - migratory birds . however , due to changes in the climate and water levels in their breeding areas , flamingo colonies are not always permanent .
dr . conway described the flamingo survey as ' ' a first step to a collaborative conservation program for the andean altiplano and puna wildlife communities . ' ' other unusual animals found in this barren landscape include burrowing rodents called viscachas and giant coots . he said the flamingo populations should be monitored at least once every two years and that researchers needed to determine why mortality among chicks had been unusually high . ' ' many chicks die even under the best conditions , ' ' he said , adding that the water level in the salars was influenced by mining activities .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto the andean flamingo’s call resembles goose’s calls , a loud honking sound often given in flight . a feeding flock usually produces a low gabbling . we can also hear deep grunts during displays , postures and movements . they give nasal , raspy calls at colonies . on the other hand , the voice plays an important role in mutual recognition between adults and chicks .
at 20 , 800 feet ( 6 , 340 meters ) , the peak of the snow - covered , dormant volcano parinacota , in northern chile , commands a view of peru , bolivia , and chile ' s high andean altiplano .
abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates in caribbean flamingo feeding areas at los olivitos refuge , western venezuela . e . e . esté and c . l . casler . 87 - 94
furthermore , for both andean and puna flamingos , the vast majority of chicks are being produced at 2 - 4 breeding sites ( laguna colorada in bolivia and salar de tara , salar de atacama , salar de surire in chile ) . during the 2010 breeding season , 80 % of andean flamingo chicks came from laguna colorada in bolivia , a site where productivity has been highly variable in the past 10 years ( rocha et al . 2009 ) . though other satellite breeding areas have been recorded in the past 5 years , these are not used consistently and do not produce the numbers of chicks that are produced at the main sites mentioned above .
a . distribution . 1 . all flamingos are found in tropical and subtropical areas . 2 . populations of chilean flamingos are found in central peru , both coasts of southern south america ( mainly in the winter ) , argentina , uruguay , paraguay , and southern brazil . stragglers have been reported on the falkland islands . 3 . the lesser flamingo is primarily an african species . populations are found in eastern , southwestern , and western africa . also , a sizable population nests in india . stragglers can be found as far north as southern spain . 4 . the james’ flamingo has the most restricted range of all flamingo species . they are found in southern peru , northeastern chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina . 5 . andean flamingos are found in southern peru , north - central chile , western bolivia , and northwestern argentina . 6 . populations of caribbean flamingo are limited to yucatan , parts of the west indies , bahamas , galapagos islands , and the northernmost tip of south america . 7 . the greater flamingo has the most widespread distribution of all flamingo species . populations are found in northwest india , the middle east , the western mediterranean , and africa . limited numbers of this species can be found over much of northern europe , eastward to siberia .
habitat : the andean flamingo frequents salt - lakes at high elevation , usually between 3500 and 4500 metres , but it can be seen lower and higher too . this species is absent from lakes with hardened sediments at the bottom . it breeds on islands and islets with soil of soft clay sediment or sand . these islands are usually along the shores of high - elevation salt - lakes , or in centre .
zoological society of san diego , 2005 .
san diego zoo ' s animal bytes : flamingo
( on - line ) . accessed october 10 , 2005 at urltoken .
the chilean flamingo is scarce or absent in lakes with fish . it is present , usually in large numbers , where there are no fish with which to compete for food .
the chilean flamingo is the most numerous of the south american flamingos . estimated total population is not more than 200 , 000 individuals , and the population is in a decline .
andean flamingos lay just one egg at a time . the egg is a pinkish white color , and is incubated by both parents for 27 - 31 days . the average egg is around seven centimeters long and weighs approximately 113 - 141 grams .
in a landscape as harsh and vast as the altiplano , long - term , continuous monitoring of anything is difficult . enter the power of technology . we are using remote photography to create a cadre of digital witnesses in places inhospitable to humans . cameras set to synchronously capture images at “flamingo” and “no flamingo” lakes will observe the arrival , persistence , and departure of flamingo flocks . they will enable us to make direct estimates of flamingo numbers and locations . we can then correlate these data with lake characteristics such as algal density and salinity . the information being collected by our digital observers will help us to unlock some of the tightly held secrets of the altiplano’s pink - feathered inhabitants— and not a moment too soon .
he added that the chilean flamingo had more catholic tastes . ' ' it has around 13 teeth to the inch and feeds largely on brine shrimp and other small invertebrates . ' '
current population estimates for the three species are 38 , 675 for the andean flamingo , 106 , 000 for the puna flamingo , and 282 , 752 for the chilean flamingo ( marconi et al . 2010 ) . the grupo conservación flamencos altoandinos ( gcfa ) obtained the first reliable estimates for the first two species in 1997 by conducting a simultaneous comprehensive census throughout the distribution range . since then , subsequent censuses indicate population trends appear to have remained stable , although these are measured over a the time interval of the past 13 years , which is less than a generation length according to the iucn definition . prior population estimates were based on extrapolations of rough counts at a limited number of sites and are not considered reliable . population estimates for chilean flamingos continue to be based on extrapolations from limited counts .
) may take eggs or newly hatched young . large , predatory birds may also sometimes take young flamingos . humans have also been known to hunt flamingos and collect their eggs . andean miners once believed that the fat of flamingos was a cure for tuberculosis .
two adorable flamingo chicks were born this month at the smithsonian ' s national zoo in washington , d . c . the baby birds were the 100th and 101st flamingo chicks to hatch at the zoo ' s bird house . since flamingo chicks have a higher survival rate if they are hand - reared , zookeepers are keeping the babies out of the spotlight for now . when they are older , the birds will join the zoo ' s flock of flamingoes outside , according to smithsonian officials . [ related gallery : world ' s cutest baby wild animals ]
the caribbean flamingo is found throughout the caribbean ( cuba , the bahamas , the yucatan , turks and caicos ) , the galapagos islands , and the northern part of coastal south america .
the proposed action plan seeks to protect the high andean flamingos and their habitats , fostering research activities towards the improvement of the knowledge of these species , habitat management , and would also promote the cooperation and information exchange among signatories . in addition , the plan would also serve as a consolidation instrument of the conservation endeavors that are already in place to promote high andean wetlands conservation , such as those executed by the grupo de conservación de flamingos altoandinos ( gcfa ) , and the commitments agreed under the ramsar convention on wetlands .
andean and james flamingos feed side - by - side on tiny diatoms and nematodes that abound in the shallow lagoons , using their plunger - like tongues to pump the saline water and bottom mud through comb strainers ( or lamellae ) in their beaks . but there is apparently little competition between the two species . dr . conway measured the ' ' teeth ' ' in the beak combs and counted 23 to the inch in andean flamingos and 54 to the inch in james flamingos , suggesting that they filter foods of difference sizes .
high andean flamingos have experienced direct threats from egg collection for market consumption , a practice that was more common during the mid - twentieth century up until the early 1980s . indirect threats coming from human disturbances , particularly unregulated mining activities have resulted in the erosion of nest - sites , water contamination , and a reduction in water availability . in addition to these threats , climate change has been associated with the increasing retreat of mountain glaciers in the andes . this unprecedented retreat would probably affect water supply at andean wetlands in the near future .
andean flamingos live in highland salt lakes of the andes mountains from 2 , 500 to 4 , 950 m above sea level , but usually occuring between 3500 and 4500 meters elevation . their habitat mainly consists of large alkaline or saline lagoons with soft sediment bottoms . these habitats are often characterized by relatively sparse vegetation . in winter these flamingos may move to lower elevations in search of food . of the three types of flamingos living in the andes ( chilean flamingo ,
the way the andean flamingo ingests its food is both interesting and amazing . their bill allows them to take in the larger sea creatures that they commonly eat , while expelling water without swallowing it . their most common food source is known as the diatom , a nutritious form of plankton that frequents the bottom of lakes and rivers . the bill filters out all of the unnecessary or unwanted minerals , such as the rocks that tend to float around in the lakes .
the largest of the andean flamingos is native to the wetlands and shallow alkaline lakes of the high andes mountain range , from southern perú to northwestern argentina and northern chile . in the summer , they live in salt lakes and migrate to the lower wetlands for the winter .
the andean flamingo reaches sexual maturity at anywhere from three to six years of age , about the same amount of time it takes them to achieve their full pink coloration . the breeding period is usually in december , to january , when the migration has ended , and the birds have settled to their winter habitat . the breed like a colony and a group may have flamingos from up to four different species . the smallest breeding colonies observed are no smaller than fifty .
102–110 cm ; 2000–2400 g . head , neck and upper breast tinged wine red ; red spot between nostrils ; only flamingo with yellow legs and feet . lacks hind toe . on . . .
an overview of the greater flamingo ringing program in the camargue ( southern france ) and some aspects of the species’ breeding biology studied using marked individuals . a . r . johnson . 2 - 8
evidence of seasonal sex ratio manipulation in the greater flamingo . g . bertault , m . raymond , f . rousset , f . cézilly , and a . r . johnson . 20 - 25
del hoyo , j . , boesman , p . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . andean flamingo ( phoenicoparrus andinus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
a . food preferences and resources . 1 . blue - green and red algae , diatoms , larval and adult forms of small insects , crustaceans , molluscs , and small fishes make up the main diet of flamingos . 2 . a flamingo’s pink or reddish feather , leg , and facial coloration comes from a diet high in alpha and beta carotenoid pigments , including canthaxanthin . the richest sources of carotenoids are found in the algae and various insects that make up the staples of a flamingo’s diet . 3 . the shape of a flamingo’s filtering bill determines its diet . a flamingo will either have a shallow or deep - keeled bill . a . lesser , james’ , and andean flamingos have deep - keeled bills and feed mainly on algae and diatoms . b . greater , caribbean , and chilean flamingos have shallow - keeled bills and feed on insects , aquatic invertebrates , and small fishes . caribbean flamingos eat larval and pupal forms of flies and brine shrimp as their main food . 4 . slight differences in diet and habits prevent competition among flamingos that share close feeding grounds .
many of the issues presented in 2011 by the gcfa continue to be valid in january 2014 . we have recent information that continues to document ongoing threats to the 3 flamingo species in southern south america .
marconi , p . m . and a . l . sureda . 2010 . simultaneous survey of shorebirds in the network of wetlands of importance for flamingo conservation . final report to birdlife international and canadian wildlife service . marconi , p . , a . l . sureda , f . arengo , m . s . aguilar , n . amado , l . alza , o . rocha , r . torres , f . moschione , m . romano , h . sosa , e . derlindati . 2010 . fourth simultaneous flamingo census in south america : preliminary results . in : lee , r . , arengo , f . , and bechet , a . ( eds ) in press . flamingo , bulletin of the iucn - ssc / wetlands international flamingo specialist group , no . 18 , wildfowl & wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk .
c . appendages . 1 . legs . a . adult flamingos’ legs are long and spindled . the legs are longer than the flamingo’s body , measuring between 80 and 125 cm ( 31 . 5 - 49 in . ) depending on the species . b . the ankle is located about halfway up the leg . c . the knee is located close to the body and is not externally visible . 2 . feet . a . the chilean , greater , and lesser flamingos have three forward - pointing toes and a hallux , or hind toe . b . andean and james’ flamingos have three toes and no hallux . c . webbing between the toes aids the bird in swimming and stirring up food . d . coloration of the feet and legs is the same . 3 . wings . a . the wingspan of flamingos ranges from 95 to 100 cm ( 37 - 39 in . ) on the lesser flamingo to 140 to 165 cm ( 55 - 65 in . ) on the greater flamingo . the caribbean flamingo has a wingspan of 150 cm ( 59 in . ) . b . there are 12 principal flight feathers located on each wing . these black feathers are visible when the wings are extended . 4 . neck . the neck is long and sinuous . a flamingo has 19 elongated cervical ( neck ) vertebrae allowing for maximum movement and twisting .
if a flamingo were to stop eating food containing carotenoids , its new feathers would begin growing in with a much paler shade , and its reddish feathers would eventually molt away . molted feathers lose their pinkish hue .
in 1956 , the caribbean flamingo numbers were estimated at only 21 , 500 . since then , the population has increased to a current estimate of 850 , 000 to 880 , 000 birds and a stable trend .
marconi , p . , sureda , a . l . , arengo , f . , aguilar , m . s . , amado , n . , alza , l . , rocha , o . , torres , r . , moschione , f . , romano , m . , sosa , h . and derlindati , e . ( in press ) 4th simultaneous flamingo census in south america : preliminary results . flamingo 18 .
b . habitat . 1 . the flamingo’s most characteristic habitats are large alkaline or saline lakes or estuarine lagoons that usually lack vegetation . lakes may be far inland or near the sea . 2 . a variety of habitats are used by flamingos : mangrove swamps , tidal flats , and sandy islands in the intertidal zone . 3 . the presence or absence of fish may have a great influence on the use of lakes by some flamingos . a . the chilean flamingo is scarce or absent in lakes with fish . it is present , usually in large numbers , where there are no fish with which to compete for food . b . the introduction of fish to some lakes may seriously affect the distribution of the chilean flamingo as well as the greater and caribbean flamingos , since they all feed primarily on invertebrates . other flamingo species are not affected because of different food sources .
andean flamingos reach heights between 1 and 1 . 4 m ( 3 . 25 - 4 . 60 ft ) , they have a wingspan between 1 and 1 . 6 m ( 3 . 25 - 5 . 25 ft ) and they weigh up to 4 kgs ( 8 . 8 lbs ) .
american flamingos live in the west indies , yucatán , in the northern part of south america and along the galapagos islands . chilean , andean and james ' flamingos live in south america , and the greater and lesser flamingos live in africa . greater flamingos can also be found in the middle east and india .
the lesser flamingo is primarily an african species . populations are found in eastern , southwestern , and western africa . in addition , a sizable population nests in india . stragglers can be found as far north as southern spain .
behaviour : the andean flamingo is a “filter - feeder” , feeding on food particles from water , by passing food and water over the highly - specialized bill equipped with filtering structure as all flamingos . it feeds mainly on diatoms , algae of genus surinella , taking the food between the sediment at the bottom and the water just above it . it may perform upending in deeper lakes . it walks slowly and stops sometimes . usually , they feed in pairs or small groups , and are several metres apart , patchily scattered over the lake .
e . flight . 1 . to take off , a flamingo runs several steps , begins flapping its wings , and lifts into the air . when landing , the procedure is reversed : the bird touches down and then runs several paces . 2 . a flamingo flies with its head and neck stretched out in front and its legs trailing behind . 3 . flight speed of a flock of flamingos can reach 50 to 60 kph ( 31 - 37 mph ) . 4 . flamingos have been known to fly 500 to 600 km ( 311 - 373 mi . ) each night between habitats . a flamingo flies with its head and neck stretched out in front and its legs trailing behind .
conservation organizations such as the flamingo specialist group is actively trying to inform the public on the vulnerability of flamingos . they produce an annual newsletter to tell readers the current status of several species . recently , this group has joined sides with the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) in order to create an action plan for the flamingos . the populations of all species of andean flamingos is monitored though simultaneous multi - national census . also local outreach programs are being implemented in the most sensitive regions used by flamingos during an annual life cycles .
long - term survey of chilean flamingo breeding colonies on mar chiquita lake , córdoba , argentina . e . h . bucher , a . l . echevarria , m . d . juri , and j . m . chani . 114 - 118
the numbers of the other species , the james flamingo , are close to estimates from the 1970 ' s , but conservationists are concerned that the fragile ecosystems shared by both birds are threatened by increasing human disturbance , particularly from mining and unregulated tourism .
our goal is to implement a long - term regional conservation strategy that will ensure the functional integrity of the wetlands that are crucial for these birds’ survival . this requires regional , cross - boundary collaboration among a variety of institutions in the flamingo range countries .
in addition to developing an action plan , signatories are committed to assess its implementation at regular meetings , and report any advancement on the conservation of these species to the secretariat . overall , activities under the mou are oriented towards the effective protection of the high andean flamingos through the conservation of the habitats upon which they depend throughout their entire life - cycle .


amphibalanus is a genus of barnacle of the family balanidae that includes species formerly assigned to balanus .

it contains the following species : amphibalanus amphitrite ( darwin , 1854 ) † amphibalanus caboblanquensis ( weisbord , 1966 ) ( extinct ) † amphibalanus caribensis ( weisbord , 1966 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus cirratus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus eburneus ( gould , 1841 ) † amphibalanus halosydne ( zullo & katuna , 1992 ) ( extinct ) † amphibalanus hopkinsi ( zullo , 1968 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus improvisus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus inexpectatus ( pilsbry , 1916 ) amphibalanus peruvianus ( pilsbry , 1909 ) † amphibalanus playagrandensis ( weisbord , 1966 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus poecilotheca ( kruger , 1911 ) † amphibalanus reflexus ( zullo , 1984 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus reticulatus ( utinomi , 1967 ) amphibalanus rhizophorae ( ren & liu , 1989 ) amphibalanus salaami ( nilsson-cantell , 1932 ) amphibalanus subalbidus ( henry , 1973 ) amphibalanus thailandicus ( puspasari , yamaguchi & angsupanich , 2001 ) amphibalanus variegatus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus venustus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus zhujiangensis ( ren , 1989 )

amphibalanus

balanus amphitrite or amphibalanus amphitrite ? a note on barnacle nomenclature . - pubmed - ncbi
reply to clare and høeg 2008 . balanus amphitrite or amphibalanus amphitrite ? a note on barnacle nomenclature .
amphibalanus improvisus on a mytilus galloprovincialis shell . collected in 2001 , black sea , balaklava bay , preserved in alcohol
amphibalanus improvisus on a mytilus galloprovincialis shell . collected in 2001 , black sea , balaklava bay , preserved in alcohol
introduced species remark in japan ( nation ) : amphibalanus amphitrite is reported to foul ' sluice systems ' in japan ( chavanich et al . 2010 ) . [ details ]
variety amphibalanus amphitrite var . stutsburi darwin , 1854 accepted as fistulobalanus pallidus ( darwin , 1854 ) ( harding 1962 considered balanus amphitrite var stutburi is synonym to balanus pallidus ( = fistulobalanus pallidus ) )
a recent revision of balanomorph barnacles ( pitombo , 2004 ) has transferred balanus improvisus to the genus amphibalanus . the name change is now widely accepted , but some literature sources and internet databases have used the genus name balanus .
the shell of balanus crenatus appears not notched on the top , calcareous base lacks the star - like pattern and its operculum is centred . the carina of amphibalanus eburneus is not lower than the rostrum , the scuta are cross - striated , cuticle is more resilient on plates rather than on the radii . the main band in the middle of the tergoscutal flap of amphibalanus amphitrite is above the micropylar opening . more morphological detail on differences in the balanus amphitrite complex are given in henry and mclaughlin ( 1975 ) .
amphibalanus eburneus , known as the ivory barnacle , is native to the western atlantic from the southern gulf of maine to venezuela . it is widely introduced around the world and has invaded the northeast atlantic , the indian ocean , northwestern pacific and the northeastern pacific . in 2000 , an established population was reported for the first time in us pacific waters , in the colorado lagoon , long beach , california . based on its broad tolerances , this species has the potential to expand its range on the pacific coast . amphibalanus eburneus fouls cultured oysters and may compete with other benthic invertebrates for space .
in a recent revision of the balanidae based on morphological systematics , the much studied fouling species balanus amphitrite was renamed amphibalanus amphitrite . here , the case is made for retaining the former nomenclature . taxonomists are urged to exercise caution before introducing new formal taxonomies , which should ideally be based on several independent lines of evidence .
the reticulated barnacle , amphibalanus reticulatus , was first described from southern japan and is native to the indo - pacific region . it has been introduced by shipping to tropical and subtropical waters of the eastern pacific , both sides of the atlantic , and the eastern mediterranean . it prefers saline ( 30 - 40 psu ) , subtidal habitats in warm seas and can be found on a wide range of hard surfaces , including ships ' hulls , docks , pilings , mangroves , rocks , oysters , and other shellfish . amphibalanus reticulatus can have economic impacts through the frequent fouling of ships ' hulls and marine structures and is thought to compete with other barnacle species for settlement space .
introduced species remark in swedish exclusive economic zone ( eez ) : amphibalanus improvisus is a frequent fouler of power plants in its native and introduced range ( nauman and cory 1969 ; vuorinen et al . 1986 ; zvyagintsev et al . 2003 ) . in sweden , estimated costs of power plant fouling by a . improvisus were 1 . 5 - 5 . 5 million dollars per year ( gren et al . 2009 ) . [ details ]
alien species the origin of the bay barnacle amphibalanus improvisus is unclear , and therefore referred to by many scientists as cryptogenic . it is a typical fouling species that distributes itself by clinging to ship hulls . in belgium , living bay barnacles were first reported in 1895 . there were even specimens found in archaeological materials dating back to the 17th century . this barnacle can compete with local species for food and space , but it can also influence the occurrence of algae , as seen in the baltic sea . [ details ]
the bay barnacle , amphibalanus improvisus , is native to the atlantic and gulf coasts of north america ranging south through the caribbean and south america . it has been introduced to the west coast of north america , the sea of japan , europe and the mediterranean , black and caspian seas . it is characteristic of brackish estuarine habitats and is tolerant of varying salinities , being found in water ranging from 0 - 40 psu . economic and ecological impacts have not been reported for a . improvisus on the west coast ; however , it is a dominant fouling organism and is known to grow on a variety of surfaces including ships , boats , harbor structures , and fishing gear .
alien species the striped barnacle amphibalanus amphitrite is a cosmopolitan barnacle that naturally occurs in almost every tropical and subtropical sea . it is a typical fouling species that can reach different places by attaching itself to ship’s hulls . the first specimen in belgium was found in 1952 in farmed oysters in the port of ostend . it took till february 1995 till the striped barnacle was commonly found along the belgian coast . it was thought that the cold winter temperatures would kill off the species in the belgian regions , but this did not happen . the barnacle today ( 2011 ) is a common inhabitant in the port of ostend . the species thrives well in areas with a certain degree of physical stress or pollution . [ details ]
pitombo , f . b . ( 2004 ) . phylogenetic analysis of the balanidae ( cirripedia , balanomorpha ) . zoologica scripta 33 ( 3 ) : 261–276 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
darwin , c . ( 1854 ) . a monograph on the sub - class cirripedia with figures of all the species . the balanidae , ( or sessile cirripedia ) ; the verricidae , etc . , etc . , etc . the ray society , london . i - viii + 1 - 684 , pls . 1 - 30 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
lutaenko , k . a . ; furota , t . ; nakayama ; s . ; shin , k . ; xu , j . ( 2013 ) . atlas of marine invasive species in the nowpap region . beijing : nowpap dinrac ( northwest pacific action plan , data and information network regional center ) . 189 pp . [ details ]
webber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; lörz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) webber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; lörz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) pitombo , f . b . ( 2004 ) . phylogenetic analysis of the balanidae ( cirripedia , balanomorpha ) . zoologica scripta 33 ( 3 ) : 261–276 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) henry , d . p . ; mclaughlin , p . a . ( 1975 ) . the barnacles of the balanus amphitrite complex ( cirripedia , thoracica ) . zoologische verhandelingen . 141 : 1 - 254 . 22 plates . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
blackmore , g . ; rainbow , p . s . ( 2000 ) . barnacles as biomonitors of trace metal availabilities in hong kong coastal waters 1998 update . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the tenth international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china v . hong kong university press , hong kong . 385 - 409 . [ details ]
introduced species abundance in trinidad and tobago ( nation ) : southward ( 1975 ) and bacon ( 1976 ) found it largely confined to ships and man - made structures in bonaire and trinidad . [ details ]
introduced species abundance in gulf of mexico ( iho sea area ) : this could represent an isolated specimen collected from a ship . [ details ]
introduced species abundance in jamaican part of the caribbean sea : southward ( 1975 ) and bacon ( 1976 ) found it rare and local in jamaica . [ details ]
introduced species remark in united states part of the north atlantic ocean ( marine region ) : a . amphitrite is one of the most abundant fouling barnacles in warmer harbors of the u . s . ( moore and frue 1959 ; carlton 1979 ) , and worldwide ( zevina 1988 ; jones 1992 ; shkedy et al . 1995 ) [ details ]
gittings , s . r . 2009 . cirripedia ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 827–836 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
marchini , a . ; ferrario , j . ; sfriso , a . ; occhipinti - ambrogi , a . ( 2015 ) . current status and trends of biological invasions in the lagoon of venice , a hotspot of marine nis introductions in the mediterranean sea . biological invasions . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) meinkoth , n . a . 1981 . field guide to north american seashore creatures . the audubon society . alfred a . knopf . new york . 799 p . [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) pitombo , f . b . ( 2004 ) . phylogenetic analysis of the balanidae ( cirripedia , balanomorpha ) . zoologica scripta 33 ( 3 ) : 261–276 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
leung ty . & jones ds . ( 2000 ) . barnacles ( cirripedia : thoracica ) from epibenthic substrata in the shallow offshore waters of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the tenth international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china v . hong kong university press , hong kong . pp 105 - 127 . [ details ]
introduced species population trend in dutch part of the north sea : in dutch waters it seems to sporadically appear and disappear and does not seem to be established there ( wolff 2005 ) . [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
introduced species abundance in sea of japan ( iho sea area ) : this barnacle is now abundant in the region , especially in brackish waters . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of finland ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of finland , a . improvisus was classified as having some habitat impacts ( zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in sea of japan ( iho sea area ) : in the caspian sea and in russian harbors on the sea of japan , a . improvisus was an important component of fouling on harbor structures ( kashin et al . 2000 ; zaitsev and ozturk 2001 ; zvyagintsev 2003 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of bothnia ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of bothnia , a . improvisus was classified as having some habitat impacts , by fouling eelgrass and algae ( bostrom and bonsdorff 1997 and raberg and kautsky 2007 , cited by zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in swedish exclusive economic zone ( eez ) : in skagerrak , sweden , it was the dominant organism fouling the hulls of recreational boats , probably because it was more tolerant of hydrodynamic stress than the native blue mussel , mytilus edulis , which dominated static fouling plates ( berntsson and jonsson 2003 ) . in sweden , estimated costs of hull fouling by a . improvisus are 23 - 56 million dollars per year ( gren et al . 2009 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in baltic sea ( iho sea area ) : in the baltic sea , where it is the only barnacle species present , filter - feeding by a . improvisus is thought to affect food webs by diverting planktonic production to the benthic biomass ( olenin and leppakoski 2000 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in baltic sea ( iho sea area ) : in the baltic sea , a . improvisus is reported to affect the recreational quality of shorelines by fouling rocks and littering beaches with its sharp shells . on the other hand , its large filter - feeding biomass increases the clarity of the water ( olenin and leppakoski 2000 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of finland ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of finland , a . improvisus was classified as having moderate ecosystem impacts ( zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of riga ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of riga , a . improvisus was classified as having some habitat impacts ( zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species vector dispersal in gulf of california ( iho sea area ) : ships : general early shipping could also explain a 1889 collection from the gulf of california , mexico ( henry and mclaughlin 1975 ) . [ details ]
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
image courtesy of prof . christiane maria rocha farrapeira , universidade federal rural de pernambuco - ufrpe , brazil
this is some default tab content , embedded directly inside this space and not via ajax . it can be shown when no tabs are automatically selected , or associated with a certain tab , in this case , the first tab .
fofonoff pw , ruiz gm , steves b , simkanin c , & carlton jt . . national exotic marine and estuarine species information system . urltoken . access date :
like most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .
continuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .
we’d value your feedback on the tool . our survey takes only five minutes to complete .
a . improvisus is a small sessile crustacean , typical for the shallow fringe of sea ( less than 10 m deep ) , occurring in marine and brackish environments . a . improvisus has been dispersed by shipment out . . .
a . improvisus is a small sessile crustacean , typical for the shallow fringe of sea ( less than 10 m deep ) , occurring in marine and brackish environments . a . improvisus has been dispersed by shipment outside its natural distribution area , which is considered to be the western atlantic . it was first recorded as invasive in europe and california in the middle of the nineteenth century , with further distribution records to the pacific and australasia ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) . its success worldwide has been attributed to the fact that it is euryhaline and eurythermal , able to self - fertilize , establish and mature rapidly , has a high reproductive capacity and long settlement period , and utilizes a wide range of food . the species damages man - made constructions and ships , causing substantial economic expense , and threatens biological diversity , competing with local species for food as well as space . a . improvisus is included in alert lists in the baltic and pacific ( australia ) . the potential of becoming established from warm temperate to tropical and polar regions has been indicated .
in some germanic languages the species common name means “brackish water barnacle” , reflecting the ability of the barnacle to live in water with lower salinity , such as estuaries . the english common name “bay barnacle” indicates the ability of the species to live in inlets and enclosed bodies of water .
has a low , cone - shaped or semi - globe shape . it may be cylinder - shaped in crowded populations , but according to
the calcareous shell is made up of white to greyish plates . walls never ribbed or folded longitudinally . uneroded calcareous shells have a smooth surface and may be covered by a thin yellowish epidermis , which is often more resilient on the radii . the radii are narrow and oblique and do not completely cover the alae that is nearly horizontal . the carina is lower than the rostrum . the operculum situated off centre , so that terga are close to the carina . the operculum is rounded at the rostral end . in water the opening is narrow and diamond shaped with partly - erect tergoscutal flaps . in juveniles ' opening (
) a white ground is crossed by five black bands of speckles , whereas adults display the same dark bands , but the ground colour is white speckled with purple .
base of the shell calcareous , flat and thin . canals inside run radially to the place ( approximately centre of the basal plate ) where cyprid antennas were attached ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; leppäkoski , 1999 ) forming a star - like pattern .
a . improvisus normally grows to around 10 mm in diameter , the largest specimens reaching 23 mm ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) .
the shells can remain in place long after the animal that constructed and inhabited it is dead .
noted that some of the records in the tropics may relate to the variety “assimilis” , which is a distinct , tropically distributed species of the “amphitrite” group . unlike
a . improvisus is considered to be native on the east coast of north america . in its native range it is distributed from the gulf of st . lawrence in quebec province , canada ( brunel et al . , 1998 ) southward to florida ( pollock , 1998 ) .
further south , the species is found in the gulf of mexico and caribbean region ( henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ) , and on the brazilian coast ( in estuarine areas in northeast brazil ; farrapeira , 2010 ) . in the southwest atlantic a . improvisus was found in uruguay and argentina by darwin ( 1854 ) .
reviewed the species from uruguay and argentina as cryptogenic . it was also listed as cryptogenic in brazil by neves and da
is generally considered as non - native in the east pacific . on the west coast of america its range is from british columbia down to central california (
) with occasional records of sporadic occurrence in southern california as far south as san diego bay . presently it is found in california , oregon and the state of washington (
data on distribution on the west coast of mexico , western colombia , peru and ecuador is based on old collection records ( darwin , 1854 ; henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ) and needs to be reviewed ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) .
from a few places in england and one locality in scotland . at the present time its distribution in the uk remains restricted to estuaries (
) including the thames , severn , daugleddau , conwy , ribble , forth , dart and tamar .
) and dundalk , dublin and cork harbours ( crisp and southward , unpublished survey ) .
noted that populations in the uk estuaries are fluctuating ; e . g . in the thames
in continental europe , a . improvisus is known from estuarine and brackish waters in the baltic and north sea . in the baltic weidema ( 2000 ) states the northernmost limit of distribution as the northern quark , 63°n and the easternmost point at about 25°e in the gulf of finland . in norway the species is found in several localities between oslo fjord and stavanger , but not north of this ( sneli , 1972 ) . along the southern coastline of the north sea , it is common in brackish waters of the netherlands ( gittenberger et al . , 2010 ) .
a . improvisus is found in the caspian , black and aral sea from many littoral locations and is considered as a non - native , well established species there , being very widespread .
didn ' t find it in the aegean sea , but included the species in the checklist of cirripedia for all parts of the mediterranean sea .
early findings of a . improvisus from african coasts ( broch , 1927 ; gruvel , 1912 ; nilsson - cantell , 1938 ) need to be reviewed . henry and mclaughlin ( 1975 ) suggested that specimens found by stubbings ( 1967 ) from west coast of africa are a . improvisus rather than balanus amphitrite as the author had described . bishop ( 1951 ) recorded a . improvisus from three localities in west africa . some authors such as jones et al . ( 2000 ) included the west coast of africa to the cape of good hope in current habitat of the species , but recent reports from south africa don ' t list the species ( griffiths et al . , 2009 ; 2011 ) .
in western pacific the species is considered established in the russian part of the sea of japan .
a . improvisus is a fouling agent in japanese ports , from where there are detailed records . there are records from malaysia and the east china sea , but data on distribution and spread in the region are still limited . several occurrences have been noted from australian ports , but the claims were not confirmed ( wiltshire et al . , 2010 ) . in new zealand this species seems to be established .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
kotta et al . , 2006a ; darwin , 1854 ; hoek , 1876 ; broch , 1924 ; gislen , 1950 ; barnes and barnes , 1962 ; bassindale , 1964 ; polk , 1976 ; hayward et al . , 1990 ; sandrock et al . , 1991 ; jansson , 1994 ; brattegard et al . , 1997 ; olszewska , 1999 ; reise et al . , 1999 ; goulletquer et al . , 2002 ; leppakoski et al . , 2002 ; müller , 2004 ; gollasch and nehring , 2006 ; reise et al . , 2006 ; daisie , 2009 ; dziubinska and szaniawska , 2010 ; jazdewski and grabowski , 2011 ; noel , 2011
bousfield , 1954 ; branscomb , 1976 ; brunel et al . , 1998 ; pollock , 1998 ; carlton et al . , 2011
buchinsky , 1885 ; neu , 1935 ; derzhavin , 1956 ; sayenkova , 1956 ; tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ; brayko , 1982 ; brayko , 1985 ; zevina and poltarukha , 1999 ; aladin et al . , 2002 ; gomoiu et al . , 2002 ; grigorovich et al . , 2003 ; zenetos , 2005 ; daisie , 2009
tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; kawahara , 1963 ; utinomi , 1966 ; utinomi , 1968 ; utinomi , 1970 ; huang , 1994 ; iwasaki and kinoshita , 2004 ; otani , 2004 ; iwasaki , 2006 ; liu , 2008 ; seo and lee , 2009 ; doi et al . , 2011
foster and willan , 1979 ; cranfield et al . , 1998 ; ahyong and wilkens , 2011
bishop , 1951 ; jones et al . , 2000 ; ahyong and wilkens , 2011
kawahara , 1963 ; utinomi , 1966 ; utinomi , 1968 ; utinomi , 1970 ; iwasaki and kinoshita , 2004 ; otani , 2004 ; iwasaki , 2006 ; doi et al . , 2011
henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ; kaplan , 1988 ; davidson et al . , 2008
polk , 1976 ; kerckhof and cattrijsse , 2001 ; vandendriessche et al . , 2003 ; müller , 2004
järvekülg , 1979 ; leppakoski , 2002 ; põllumäe et al . , 2006 ; simm and põllumäe , 2006
gruet et al . , 1976 ; goulletquer et al . , 2002 ; müller , 2004
relini et al . , 1976 ; relini et al . , 1998 ; galil , 2011
järvekülg , 1979 ; leppäkoski , 1999 ; barien , 2002 ; zaiko et al . , 2007
waardenburg , 1827 ; hoek , 1876 ; bishop , 1947 ; wolff , 2005 ; gittenberger et al . , 2010
broch , 1924 ; sneli , 1972 ; brattegard et al . , 1997 ; reise et al . , 1999 ; hopkins , 2002
panov et al . , 1999 ; panov et al . , 2002 ; orlova et al . , 2006
derzhavin , 1956 ; sayenkova , 1956 ; tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; turpaeva and simkina , 1963 ; birshtain et al . , 1968 ; brayko , 1982 ; brayko , 1985 ; zevina and poltarukha , 1999 ; aladin et al . , 2002 ; gomoiu et al . , 2002 ; grigorovich et al . , 2003 ; daisie , 2009
reise et al . , 1999 ; southward , 2008 ; macho et al . , 2010 ; noel , 2011
gislen , 1950 ; barnes and barnes , 1962 ; jansson , 1994 ; leppäkoski and olenin , 2000 ; gren et al . , 2009
most sources suggest ( newman and ross , 1976 ; zullo and miller , 1986 ) that a . improvisus originates on the north atlantic coast of america . paleontological records support this theory ( carlton and zullo , 1969 ) . the species is known in fossil records from florida ( newman , 1979 ) , whereas examination of late cenozoic barnacle faunas from numerous pacific coast localities has failed to uncover a . improvisus . newman ( 1954 ) also noted the absence of this species in indian mound material at brooks island , san francisco bay , although balanus glandula was common on mollusc shells now frequented by a . improvisus . some fossil records may indicate ( tavora et al . , 2005 ) that south america is the source area , but they need to be reviewed ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) .
in the americas , according to a recent review on barnacle invasions ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) , a . improvisus and a . amphitrite constituted the majority of invasion events in the first 100 years after 1853 . in 1853 a . improvisus was first found in san francisco bay ( carlton and zullo , 1969 ) , where it is supposed to have arrived on ship hulls during the gold rush . the ships were often abandoned , providing a good opportunity for colonisation by fouling organisms from the atlantic . a . improvisus spread along the coast from california ( carlton , 1979 ) and reached british columbia in 1955 ( rivera et al . , 2011 ) .
may have been introduced to south american coasts on spanish ships as early as the sixteenth century . the suggestion is supported by
) consider it to be a non - indigenous species and noted the lack of verified fossils in the eastern atlantic and mediterranean . they suppose that
reached europe with trading vessels from america and started colonisation of the baltic in the middle of the nineteenth century , spreading through human activities . now it is regarded as a pest and is given as one of the 100 worst alien species in europe (
, becoming extinct in northeast atlantic waters during the last glaciation and then being re - introduced by human activities as the earliest transatlantic voyages took place between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries .
considered the species as an emigrant from america . in ireland it is only estimated to have arrived before 1950 (
was found in oslofjord , and until 1969 it was only found in this fjord .
a . improvisus has invaded the black and caspian seas . the first record from the black sea dates back to 1844 ( gomoiu et al . , 2002 ) , but the species may inhabited the basin much earlier : derzhavin ( 1956 ) indicates than it could have been transported on ships from ancient greece and phoenicia . the start of invasion and spread in the caspian sea is well - recorded ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) . it arrived in the caspian sea in 1955 ( sayenkova , 1956 ; grigorovich et al . , 2003 ) , presumably through the volga - don canal from the asov and the black sea . in summer 1956 the species could be found everywhere in the basin ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) and now it is a dominant fouling organism ( aladin , et al . , 2002 ) .
there are few recent records from the mediterranean , and it is unknown whether a . improvisus is established here ( zenetos et al . , 2005 ) . the first record may be from 1972 ( streftaris et al . , 2005 ) or 1976 from off - shore platforms in the adriatic sea ( relini et al . , 1976 ) . in a recent review by galil ( 2011 ) the species is not mentioned in the list of alien crustaceans of the mediterranean sea .
in the russian part of the sea of japan a . improvisus is now considered established ( zvyagintsev , 2003 ; ovsyannikova , 2008 ) . the first record as an exotic species was in 1969 when it was found on man - made installations ( zevina and gorin , 1971 ) in the peter the great bay . however , the species might have inhabited the waters well before detailed scientific research was started here in the 1960s .
colonised the western pacific , probably through human introduction . in japan it was first recorded in 1952 (
the species is recorded from several locations in north and central western pacific ( jones et al . , 2000 ) , but little is known about the pattern of its spread and invasiveness in the region .
in the southwest pacific the species was first reported in western australia by bishop in 1951 , who suggested that a . improvisus had become established in one of the australian ports during the 1940s . however , later allen ( 1953 ) could not substantiate this claim when investigating fouling of submerged surfaces on the eastern australian coast . in a review , jones ( 1992 ) didn ' t include this species as present in australian waters , but australia appeared as a location in a later review ( jones et al . , 2000 ) . recently the species has been reported from ships ' hulls in australian ports , but there are no records of its having become established ( wiltshire et al . , 2010 ; ahyong and wilkens , 2011 ) in these waters .
in new zealand , a . improvisus was initially observed on an oil platform which had been transported from japan to new zealand ( foster and willan , 1979 ) in 1975 , and the species is now reported as established .
rivera et al ( 2011 ) modelled the potential for high - latitude marine invasions of a . improvisus along western north america . according the author ' s calculations , there is a potential of habitat extension from the modern frontier in british columbia ( port alberni ) to the prince william sound and aleutian islands reaching 61 - 61 . 5º n . if global warming is considered , the north habitat border may shift as far as 68 . 5 - 69 . 0º in america , creating a possibility of invasion of the species on much of the southeast coast of alaska . in europe ( norway ) the northern border may shift to 65 . 5 or in case of potential effect of global warming to 71 - 71 . 5º n .
findings of the species in australian ports indicates a possibility of a wider invasion in the region .
rivera et al . ( 2007 ) noted that uniform warming of 2°c may nudge northward some of the northern hemisphere limits of a . improvisus but would decrease its tropical coverage and lead to a global decrease in suitable habitat .
) . vertical distribution can vary , generally reflecting the difference in tidal range at each location , usually 0 - 80 cm .
the species can often be found on ship hulls , sluices and oil platforms . on ships it tolerates places with strong water flow ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) .
within the habitat range the species tends to colonize all available substratum suitable for a cyprid larva settlement . many authors noted an ability of a . improvisus to live on a wide range of hosts .
a . improvisus is often found attached to bivalve shells and dead molluscs . on sandy beaches of the northwestern black sea it colonised almost all bivalve shells at 2 - 10 m depth ( vinogradov , 1956 ) . in the baltic it has been found on mytilus edulis ( laihonen and furman , 1986 ) and mya arenaria ( olszewska , 2000 ) . in the southern baltic a . improvisus is the only representative of the cirripedia which grows on the mussel mytilus trossulus , which is the dominant element of the bottom fauna in this area . the sporadic occurrence of this barnacle on another baltic bivalve species , the cockle cerastoderma glaucum , has also been noted ( olszewska , 1999 ) .
in september 1999 the species was found on shells of the soft - shell clam mya arenaria on the beach near brzezno ( gulf of gdansk ) . the presence of a . improvisus on m . arenaria could be further evidence of the tendency of barnacles to colonise all available habitats , even if they are not always optimal ( olszewska , 2000 ) .
in the caspian sea it uses an endemic bivalve didacna sp . ( riedel et al . , 2006 ) . in brazil it attaches directly to living oysters and mussels , as well as on stones and empty shells on the muddy sediment ( farrapeira , 2010 ) . in the sea of japan it settles on the native bivalve corbicula japonica , which may live in freshwater , and on the oyster crassostrea gigas , but also on seagrass and macroalgae ( ovsyannikova , 2008 ) .
) . in south america farraepeira ( 2009 ; 2010 ) has reported it on numerous organisms .
in british populations of a . improvisus , furman et al . ( 1989 ) noted high levels of polymorphism and heterozygosity in most estuarine populations except for a small isolated conwy population , where self - fertilisation and inbreeding is possible . factors determining the genetic differentiation in british populations are water currents and water traffic , but not salinity .
analyses of isozyme patterns by furman ( 1990 ) revealed a high degree of genetic similarity amongst populations in the british isles and the baltic , the west coast of sweden , and north america . the results indicate that populations of a . improvisus cluster by geographical and salinity patterns . less heterozygote deficiency was observed in the baltic , showing higher stability and outcrossing here . johannesson and andre ( 2006 ) analysed genetic data from 29 species inhabiting the low saline baltic sea and found that essentially only a . improvisus seemed to be panmictic over the baltic sea–north sea salinity gradient due to high dispersive capacity .
gamfeldt et al . ( 2005 ) hypothesised that increasing genetic diversity within species enhances ecosystem processes such as success of larval settlement of a . improvisus . possible mechanisms that explain this pattern may be facilitation of gregarious response through the presence of founder genotypes , ensuring genetic complementarity to increase future reproductive potential . the study of settlement pattern of the species indicates that changing intraspecific genetic diversity could have community - scale consequences for larval recruitment and space occupancy .
barien ( 2002 ) assessed cytogenetic damage in a . improvisus ( aneugenic effects ) inhabiting the baltic sea at butinge oil terminal , showing the high genotoxicity level in the zone of sewage effluent from palanga town and mazeikiai oil refinery . extensive cytogenetic injuries in gonadal cells of a . improvisus indicated the potential long - term hazards of pollutants to ecological health and integrity of this aquatic species .
although hermaphroditism is universal in sessile barnacles , only a few species are known to be facultative self - fertilisers . furman and yule ( 1990 ) tested the ability of a . improvisus to self - fertilise . individuals were observed to carry well - developed ovaries and well - developed testes at the same time . fertilisation took place and the eggs developed to larvae in both isolated and communal individuals . self - fertilisation appears to take place somewhat later than cross - fertilisation . these laboratory results on self - fertilisation are supported by field observations , in which isolated individuals were found with fertilised egg masses . a . improvisus can thus be added to the list of facultatively self - fertilising cirripedes . the ability to self - fertilise is especially advantageous for individuals of a species such as a . improvisus , which often has sparse and isolated populations ( weidema , 2000 ) .
) . eggs form in the mantle cavity . egg size is about 180 µm , and contrary to other species , there is little geographic variation in this size (
) and gives several generations in a year . embryos are brooded in an ovisac inside the mantle cavity . development to hatching takes about 21 days at 18°c (
larvae hatch as nauplii , and a new brood can be released every 5 - 6 days ( gamfeldt et al . , 2005 ) . there are six nauplius stages of which the first may be non - feeding , the others feeding in plankton , and a non - feeding cypris stage ( barnes and barnes , 1965 ) . nauplius larvae show strongly positive phototaxis , which decreases in the last nauplius stage ( lang et al . , 1979 ) . both eggs and nauplii of a . improvisus are smaller than those of most other barnacle species ( barnes and barnes , 1965 ; ross et al . , 2003 ) . development through the six nauplius stages takes about one week in the laboratory ( o ' connor and richardson , 1996 ; dahlstrom et al . , 2000 ) , but this depends on temperature .
the last naupliar stage moults into the cyprid larvae , which settle on hard substrate and transform into barnacles . cyprid larvae are most prone to settling when they are 3 - 4 days old ( sjogren et al . , 2008 ) . settlement increases in the presence of extract from adult conspecifics , and significantly more cyprids settled at 5 and 10 ppt than at other salinities between 2 and 35 ppt ( dineen and hines , 1992 ) . the same authors noted that surface effects were less obvious as age of cyprids increased .
settlement may also be influenced by light ( larvae are positively phototrophic ) , quality of the substratum and flow velocity ( smyth , 1946 ) . de wolf ( 1973 ) noted that number of cyprids increases soon after low water and decreases during the period of high water . intensity of the flow also influences the settlement : cyprids can attach when velocity of the flow is 0 . 25 m / sec , but not more than 0 . 56 m / sec . the ability of the cyprids to prefer rough surfaces over smooth ones to settle in depressions is well known ( shalaeva , 1997 ; rainbow , 1984 ) . dahlstrom et al . ( 2004 ) noted that surface wettability may act as a determinant in the settlement of a . improvisus that prefer hydrophobic surfaces in the laboratory conditions .
chemical hormonal substances may influence the settlement of a . improvisus larvae . thus , dahlstrom et al . ( 2000 ) observed that settlement of cyprid larvae may be affected by surface active adrenoceptor compounds . zega et al . ( 2007 ) found that , neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin can regulate the settlement process of cyprid larva of a . improvisus . dopamine significantly stimulated settlement of 2 - and 4 - day - old cyprids , while serotonin exerted an inhibitory effect , regardless of cyprid age .
described a reproductive peak in north carolina in winter ( water temperature 5 . 5 - 11°c ) with a maximum in january , when temperature was about 7°c . in the uk , nauplii are released from may to late september and settlement is recorded from may to september (
) larva release was noted in the first half of summer . in the black sea (
) in may ( water temperature 16°c ) and august - september ( water temperature 20°c ) . in these periods , larvae of
constituted nearly half of all meroplankton . larvae disappeared from plankton when water temperature reached 25°c .
in the sea of japan ( korn , 1991 ) the larvae of a . improvisus are found in plankton from june with 2 - 3 abundance peaks from august to october . at a depth of 1 m the number of the larvae reaches 800 / m 3 considerably exceeding that of other species and indicating a successful acclimatisation of the barnacle in the new region .
nasrolahi et al . ( 2006 ) studied effects of salinity on larval stage survival . with increasing salinity , larval size decreases and development time to cyprid larva increased ( 8 - 25ppt takes 7 days , above 36ppt – 9 days ) . larval survival was highest at 12ppt ( 60 % ) , against 14 % at 36 ppt .
) the species has three settlement and three survival peaks . similarly , along the swedish west coast the species may have three generations in one summer season (
generally , the species has a longevity of one year , but occasionally individuals can live for just over two years .
a . improvisus reaches maximum size in 2 - 3 weeks ( elfimov et al . , 1995 ) . tarasov and zevina ( 1957 ) observed that on natural substrata biomass does not exceed 1 . 5 kg / m 2 and density 10 , 000 - 11 , 000 / m 2 . on ships , the biomass can reach 5 - 8 kg / m 2 and on stationary constructions up to 15 , 000 kg / m 2 with density 50 , 000 / m 2 ( brayko , 1982 ) . tarasov and zevina ( 1957 ) showed that density changes depending on depth . thus , on metallic constructions in the caspian sea , at 0 - 0 . 5 m depth the density was 55 , 000 - 57 , 000 / m 2 , whereas it was just 24 , 000 - 28 , 000 / m 2 at 1 - 5 m depth .
other factors affecting size and density of subtidal a . improvisus populations were investigated in chesapeake bay , usa ( branscomb , 1976 ) . populations were affected by both biotic and physical factors . the flatworm stylochus ellipticus , the predominant predator on barnacles , and the bryozoan , victorella pavida , the major spatial competitor , were major factors in summer . in winter a combination of high winds ( 25 knots ) and low air temperature ( - 9°c ) were the major eliminating factors .