hagfish , the class myxini ( also known as hyperotreti ) , are eel-shaped , slime-producing marine fish ( occasionally called slime eels ) .

they are the only known living animals that have a skull but no vertebral column , although hagfish do have rudimentary vertebrae .

along with lampreys , hagfish are jawless ; they are the sister group to vertebrates , and living hagfish remain similar to hagfish from around 300 million years ago .

the classification of hagfish had been controversial .

the issue was whether the hagfish was a degenerate type of vertebrate-fish that through evolution had lost its vertebra ( the original scheme ) and was most closely related to lampreys , or whether hagfish represent a stage that precedes the evolution of the vertebral column ( the alternative scheme ) as is the case with lancelets .

recent dna evidence has supported the original scheme .

the original scheme groups hagfish and lampreys together as cyclostomes ( or historically , agnatha ) , as the oldest surviving class of vertebrates alongside gnathostomes ( the now-ubiquitous jawed vertebrates ) .

the alternative scheme proposed that jawed vertebrates are more closely related to lampreys than to hagfish ( i.e. , that vertebrates include lampreys but exclude hagfish ) , and introduces the category craniata to group vertebrates near hagfish .

hagfish

6 . hagfish are ancient . the only known fossil hagfish , which is 330 million years old , looks very similar to modern hagfish .
pacific hagfish hatch into fully functional , small hagfish . there is no parental involvement after egg - laying .
probably diverged from hagfish approximately 530 million years ago . hagfish can go several months without eating . one adult pacific hagfish can fill a seven - liter bucket with slime in minutes .
kogot , a biochemist , displays a sample of synthetic hagfish slime recreated from alpha and gamma proteins of the pacific hagfish .
a mature pacific hagfish female will produce between 20 - 30 eggs per reproductive cycle . there is no known reproductive season or cycle length for hagfish .
the discovery of sophisticated eyes in a fossilized hagfish has dethroned the modern blind hagfish as the only observable so - called intermediate form in eye evolution .
similarly , hagfish slime is not necessarily all about lubrication during knotting . there is evidence that hagfish sometimes actively hunt other fish , and in this case the slime helps the hagfish clog the gills of their prey and kill it .
hagfish are normally deep - sea dwellers , scavenging on—and sometimes living in—dead bodies .
as discussed by hagfish expert dr . douglas fudge , associate professor of integrative biology , university of guelph , in “fun with silly string & hagfish” at urltoken .
use golgi labelling of hagfish retina to investigate the connectivity of different cell classes .
wicht h , northcutt rg . retinofugal and retinopetal projections in the pacific hagfish ,
wicht h , northcutt rg . ontogeny of the head of the pacific hagfish (
hagfish , they say , bite through tough flesh by tying themselves in knots .
hagfish have guts , but they also absorb nutrients through their skin and gills .
of course , in its natural environment on the seafloor , the hagfish has other uses for this secret weapon . ( read seven reasons why hagfish are amazing . )
8 . hagfish can go months without eating . hagfish have slow metabolisms and can survive months between feedings . they can also absorb nutrients across their skin and gills .
controversy has long surrounded the interrelationship between hagfish , lampreys and jawed vertebrates . one view is that hagfish are basal , having diverged before lampreys split from gnathostomes , whereas an alternative view is that hagfish have degenerated from a lamprey - like ancestor , with hagfish and lampreys forming an agnathan clade , the cyclostomes ( round mouths ) (
as for their status as a delicacy , fudge says he’s never tried hagfish meat .
according to thaler , the pacific northwest has a pretty active hagfish fishery . this particular shipment of hagfish was bound for south korea , where they are considered a delicacy .
support for cyclostome monophyly ( i . e . hagfish and lampreys as a clade )
extant hagfish display the vertebrate characteristic of delaminating neural - crest - like cells 142 , but this does not distinguish whether hagfish are basal or a sister group of lampreys .
. first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois .
pacific hagfish produce large amounts of mucilaginous slime , and can tie and untie knots in their body to evade predators . the primary predators of pacific hagfish are harbor seals (
the idea that some features of hagfish biology are best viewed through the point of view of hagfish feeding makes sense to chris glover at athabasca university in alberta , canada .
pacific hagfish have two pair of primitive , yet effective , rasps on the tongue used primarily for grasping . after establishing a firm hold on a food source , the hagfish ties and unties a knot within its own body to generate a ripping force . pacific hagfish feed on a variety of dead or dying organisms , including fish and mammals , but also probably include marine invertebrates in their diet . male hagfish may eat hagfish eggs .
our studies examining reproductive cycles in hagfish are a good start in our understanding of the growth and reproduction of atlantic hagfish . these data along with future extensive studies on hagfish reproduction are needed in our understanding to prevent the exploitation of the atlantic hagfish off the new england coastline so that the fishery and the resource can be managed for the long term .
the hagfish is preyed upon by some marine mammals and large sea living invertebrates . most animals do however stay away from the hagfish since they risk being suffocated by the slime .
pacific hagfish are crucial for eliminating dead and dying organsims , and the effect of large - scale removal on the ecosystem could be significant as hagfish are important for recycling nutrients .
hagfish slime isn ' t actually slime—it ' s more like a gel made of filaments .
pacific hagfish are not currently exhibited . this information is supplied for use as a reference .
evolutionists have long seen hagfish as a living transitional form in the story of eye evolution .
discovery of complex eyes in an ancient hagfish fossil robs evolutionists of their supposed intermediate form .
now in light of new discoveries in the fossil record , evolutionists must abandon the hagfish as the last living candidate for an intermediate , evolutionary form of eyes . why ? because careful study of fossilized hagfish reveals hagfish once had nicely developed eyes ! evolutionists must regroup and imagine that hagfish and lampreys shared an even more ancient eyeless ancestor for which there is no living or fossil evidence at all . thanks to the vision of ancient hagfish , what evolutionists once thought they could demonstrate using hagfish blindness has changed in the proverbial blink of an eye .
. 4 . ( a ) gonadal developmental stages identified in the medium hagfish ( 35–45 cm ) . ( b ) gonadal developmental stages identified in large hagfish ( 45–55 + cm )
. development of a northwest atlantic hagfish fishery . a final report national marine fisheries service .
the idea suggests that body knotting is no mere hagfish party trick . instead , the ability to tie itself in knots is a vital component of the hagfish ' s feeding behaviour .
) . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) – a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois .
their bodies , too , are simple , resembling tubes . hagfish are also largely blind .
recent studies on estimates of population density of atlantic hagfish indicate that hagfish populations are high in certain areas in the gulf of maine . however , a decline in abundance and a decrease in catch per unit effort with intense fishing activity has been reported for pacific hagfish ( eptatretids ) off the coast of california and for atlantic hagfish within the gulf of maine . thus , there is an urgent need for basic research on the reproductive biology and ecology of hagfish .
hagfish are not easily eaten or attacked by other animals . this is because the hagfish secretes a sticky slime that stops the predator in catching the hagfish and consuming it . the sticky slime is called as mucus which reacts with water to form a micro fibrous slime . this makes the hagfish body to be slippery and it also confuses the predator . by making themselves into a knot position the hagfish get rid of their slime and then return back to their original position
the most common species of hagfish is myxine glutinosa , but there are about 60 identified species , including the pacific hagfish , eptatretus stoutii , which is also known as the slime eel .
interpretation of the molecular–genetic differences will be greatly assisted once the entire genome of a hagfish is available . in the meantime , the identification of hagfish opsin genes might resolve the phylogenetic positioning .
, with the exception that the hagfish eye is arranged bilaterally . behaviourally , the hagfish seems to be almost blind , and its weak response to light is unaffected by removal of its eyes
little is known about hagfish embryology or juvenile hagfish due to the remarkably low numbers of hagfish embryos available for study . no fertilized hagfish embryos of eptatretus have been collected for study since 1905 ( gorbman , 1997 ) . developing eggs in their natural environment have never been observed ( gorbman , 1997 ) . in addition , there is little known about how the hagfish feed , grow , or sexually mature ( martini , 1998 ) . due to these and other factors , it is imperative that further research be conducted to understand the basic reproduction and ecology of hagfish .
currently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish on the east coast . since there is little or no information on age determination , age and time of reproduction , seasonality of reproduction and growth of atlantic hagfish , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource .
hagfish - it would probably scare people off a little bit !
laughs tim winegard .
south koreans drink in front of hagfish before it is broiled at a seafood restaurant in seoul .
so what happens to the sea if there are too few hagfish ? no one is sure .
forster , m . e . ( 1990 ) confirmation of the low metabolic rate of hagfish .
mallatt , j . and paulsen , c . ( 1986 ) gill ultrastructure of the pacific hagfish
the hagfish is a jawless fish . modern hagfish are blind , and their eyes are missing so many parts that they hardly qualify as eyes . but ancient hagfish , scientists recently learned , had complex eyes like a lamprey’s . this discovery means that hagfish can no longer be used as an example of an intermediate evolutionary step in eye evolution . image by pbsouthwood , via wikimedia commons .
holmberg k , öhman p . fine structure of retinal synaptic organelles in lamprey and hagfish photoreceptors .
the metabolism of the hagfish is remarkably slow and up to seven months can pass between meals .
“ atlantic hagfish ” , sea and sky . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken
chapter 2 . reproductive neuroanatomy and gnrh in the primitive vertebrate order myxiniformes ( hagfish spp . )
immunohistochemical detection of gonadotropin - like material in the pituitary of brown hagfish ( param . . .
morphology and kinematics of feeding in hagfish : possible functional advantages of jaws . - pubmed - ncbi
evidence supporting the presence of gth in the hagfish is not conclusive . matty et al . ( 1976 ) identified only limited abnormalities in the testes and ovaries of 150 hypophysectomized hagfish during a 7 month study . gametogenesis appeared to be unaffected by hypophysectomy suggesting that the hagfish gonad was independent of hypophysial gonadotropic control . however , patzner and ichikawa ( 1977 ) observed a decrease in the number of follicles containing spermatocytes and only a few follicles containing spermatides in hypophysectomized hagfish when compared to sham operated hagfish . these results suggested that the development of the hagfish gonad was under hypophysial gonadotropic control .
once a month for 18 months , 200 - 300 hagfish will be caught off the new england coast . total length , body weight , egg size and gonadal weight of hagfish will be recorded . forty hagfish will be subsampled for brains and gonads . gonads will be prepared for histological evaluation .
currently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish on the east coast . a decline in abundance and a decrease in catch per unit effort with intense fishing activity has been reported for pacific hagfish ( eptatretids ) off the coast of california and for atlantic hagfish within the gulf of maine . since there is little or no information on age determination , age and time of reproduction , seasonality of reproduction and growth of atlantic hagfish , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource .
. thus , the hagfish ‘eye’ seems not to subserve vision ; instead , it seems more likely to function as a circadian organ , similar to the gnathostome pineal complex ( which hagfish lack ) .
here at benthic labs , we are hagfish crazy ! there aren’t many like us as hagfish are widely considered to be the most disgusting animals on earth . don’t believe us ? see for yourself !
hagfish feed on other fishes that are living as well as death fishes . the feeding of hagfish is quite different from other types of creatures . the hagfish enters the fish body through the mouth , gills or anus and start eating the prey after feeding they exit the corpse . this different eating habit hagfish can live for months without feeding . they also prey on small fish , crabs , and shrimps . the hagfish eat only the soft parts of the prey and leaves the bones and skin .
an east coast fishery for atlantic hagfish , myxine glutinosa , started in 1992 . the landings for hagfish off the coast of maine and massachusetts have ranged from one to three million pounds each year during 1996 - 1999 . however , there is little known about reproduction and the reproductive success in hagfish .
a hagfish has no jaws , and its slime serves as a valuable form of self - defence .
but despite their small size , a single hagfish has hundreds of kilometres of slime thread inside it .
instead , scientists hope to make proteins like the ones found in hagfish slime artificially in the lab .
no - one has made a spool of hagfish thread yet , but scientists are working on it .
, has been tentatively included with the hagfish , but lacks the distinctive tentacles of all other species .
“hagfish are slime - spewing monsters ! that ' s part of what makes them so wonderful . ”
scientists and some fishermen fear that , without solving the mystery of hagfish reproduction , the us and other countries could unwittingly follow korea and japan in blotting out their hagfish populations . ( there’s some concern that this already might be underway in new england , where hagfish catches collapsed after their 2000 peak . )
for these hagfish in oregon , though , it looks like they’ve hit the end of the road .
hannah waters , “14 fun facts about hagfish , ” smithsonian , october 17 , 2012 , urltoken .
in asia , over fishing has led to a significant decrease in the local hagfish population and asian fisheries have therefore begun to show an interest in the hagfish populations in the atlantic . while this might be beneficial for local economies along the atlantic coasts , it could also pose a threat to the atlantic hagfish population . care and caution must be exercised unless we wish to see the atlantic hagfish population go the same way as the asian one . as mentioned above , studies indicate that the hagfish female only produces a low number of eggs each breeding period and hagfish are therefore extra sensitive to over - fishing .
estimated life span of pacific hagfish in the wild is 40 years , and 17 years in captivity .
biologists have known for decades that hagfish will sometimes tie their long rope - like body into a knot . an illustration of a knotted hagfish even made it onto the cover of scientific american in 1966 .
this developmental progression is explained most parsimoniously if we assume that lampreys inherited their eyes from an ancestor that they had in common with hagfish , and that this hagfish - like larval eye is present in the larva but transforms to a vertebrate - like eye in the adult , and thus that lampreys arose from a hagfish - like ancestor . alternatively , it is possible that extant hagfish correspond to an arrested form of lamprey development , and that hagfish are effectively a neotenous sister group to lampreys ( box 1 ) .
when studied , hagfish females have produce up to 30 yolky one inch long eggs with tough shells . if this low number is true for all hagfish , it means that it might take a long time for a hagfish population to recover when harmed , e . g . by over - fishing or pollution .
in most parts of the world hagfish is viewed as a useless by - catch , but there are a few countries in south east asia where hagfish is appreciated on the dinner table . nearly 5 million pounds ( 2 268 000 kg ) of hagfish meat is for instance consumed in south korea each year .
author’s note : october 15 th is hagfish day , a holiday created by urltoken to remind people that even the ugliest creatures need our conservation efforts . whether you decide that the best way to celebrate hagfish day is by eating a hagfish or by not eating one is up to you . i won’t judge .
we know very little about hagfish reproduction , and no - one has ever gotten hagfish to breed in captivity - amazing as that sounds ,
says douglas fudge , who heads the guelph research project .
other examples of simplicity are : that the semicircular canals of the labyrinth number just one in hagfish , but two in lampreys and three in jawed vertebrates 140 , and that the hagfish heart is not innervated .
that ' s right — a new study has shown that hagfish can absorb nutrients through their skin and gills . and once inside a carcass , the hagfish is surrounded by a high concentration of dissolved nutrients .
other members of the team are trying to make threads using genetically engineered bacteria , bypassing the hagfish entirely .
professor collin said the researchers studied a very primitive fish , the hagfish , to discover the missing link .
while the recent hagfish slime ordeal may seem surreal to the average bystander , thaler wasn’t all that fazed .
hagfish do not have a larval stage , in contrast to lampreys , which have a long larval phase .
hagfish secrete their mucus from lines of slime glands that run the length of their body . “there’s really no place where you can bite a hagfish without having slime come shooting out at you , ” fudge says .
fernholm , b . and holmberg , k . ( 1975 ) the eyes in three genera of hagfish (
view image of an inshore hagfish ( eptatretus burgeri ) ( credit : nature production / naturepl . com )
view image of a pacific hagfish ( eptatretus stoutii ) ( credit : brandon cole / naturepl . com )
view image of an atlantic hagfish ( myxine glutinosa ) ( credit : florian graner / naturepl . com )
but first , the experts need to work out how to increase the slime production . it ' s unlikely that we will ever see massive hagfish farms . hagfish don ' t seem to respond well in these conditions .
correction : this story initially identified hagfish as invertebrates because they don’t have vertebrae . verge commenter bennyfactor pointed out that hagfish are in fact considered “odd” or “degenerate” vertebrates . he’s correct , and the story has been updated .
the hagfish needs the salinity in its habitat to be stable , because these fishes have virtually no osmoregulation and are therefore highly vulnerable to salinity changes . the hagfish is the only known vertebrate with body fluids isosomotic with seawater . this means that the body fluids of the hagfish have the same total osmotic pressure or osmolality as seawater .
, but because of their slow metabolism , hagfish may go for up to seven months without eating any food .
1 . hagfish are scaleless with soft skin . the skin of the hagfish has been described as covering its body like a loosely fitting sock . colors vary with the species , and range from pink to blue - gray .
extant hagfish are placed in the family myxinidae within the order myxiniformes ( hyperotreti ) and subphylum or class myxini .
john bocskay , “the good , the bad , and the hagfish , ” sweet pickles and corn , urltoken .
prediction 1 : the phototransduction cascade components of tunicate ocelli should be homologous with those of hagfish and lamprey photoreceptors .
identify the g protein of ciona intestinalis photoreceptors and compare it with those of hagfish , lampreys and jawed vertebrates .
measure the electrical light responses and light adaptation of hagfish photoreceptors , and compare these with cone and rod responses .
ota kg , kuraku s , kuratani s . hagfish embryology with reference to the evolution of the neural crest .
this study presented a remarkable breakthrough in the investigation of hagfish embryology that provided unequivocal evidence for neural crest cells .
bullock th , moore jk , fields rd . evolution of myelin sheaths : both lamprey and hagfish lack myelin .
more than 99 % of living vertebrates possess opposable jaws ,
says clark . but hagfish do not .
view image of some of the slime from a pacific hagfish ( credit : brandon cole / naturepl . com )
gross as the goo may be , the highway hagfish catastrophe highlights a nagging problem . hagfish serve an important ecological role : by gnawing apart animal carcasses like dead whales , hagfish are crucial to keeping sea floors clean and ocean ecosystems in balance . so we want to make sure to keep them around . there’s just one problem . much about hagfish existence mystifies scientists—and has for centuries , making it hard to know whether their numbers are shrinking . and that happens to explain why 7 , 500 pounds of oregonian hagfish came to be cruising down highway 101 last week .
us fishermen used to freeze their hagfish catches at sea before shipping them across the pacific . but as asian hagfish populations have dwindled into nothingness , koreans will pay a lot more for live hagfish that can be grilled fresh on demand . so pacific northwest fishermen have taken to capturing , and transporting , their slimy quarry to port alive ( pdf , p . 7 ) . though volumes are still relatively small , the returns on hagfish landing have climbed steadily .
hagfish are found in temperate seas in both hemispheres , but hagfish has not been found in the red sea . a majority of the species live in rather cold environments where the water is at least 20 meters ( 66 feet ) deep . when hagfish live in warmer parts of the world , they are normally only found in really deep waters . hagfish can survive at remarkable depths and have been found 1700 metres ( 5600 feet ) down into the ocean .
hagfish are referred to as “living fossils” as they strongly resemble fossils of their 300 million year old ancestors . this does not mean that hagfish have stopped evolving , rather that their body plan and strategy is still very successful today .
hagfish appear to have branched off from the chordates before the vertebral column appeared ( lee 2002 ) . a single fossil of hagfish shows that there has been little evolutionary change in the last 300 million years ( marshall 2001 ) . there have been claims that the hagfish eye is significant to the evolution of more complex eyes ( uq 2003 ) .
the inshore hagfish , eptatretus burge , is listed on the iucn red list as near threatened . this hagfish species is commonly found in the western north pacific off the coasts of southern japan , south korea , northern , and northwestern taiwan . in these geographic locations hagfish is a native ( endemic ) species . they are very heavily fished in the china sea for their skin and for food . approximately five million pounds of hagfish meat is eaten yearly in korea .
another hagfish species that may occur in california is the black hagfish ( eptatretus deani ) ; it is found in deeper water , is darker in coloration ( purplish black ) , and has a shorter head in proportion to the body .
an adult hagfish can secrete enough slime to turn a large bucket of water into gel in a matter of minutes .
frank , t . 2004 . disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks . noaa ocean explorer . retrieved may 31 , 2008 .
while the recent hagfish slime ordeal may seem surreal to the average bystander , thaler wasn ' t all that fazed .
munz , f . w . and morris , r . w . ( 1965 ) metabolic rate of the hagfish ,
some living hagfish have light - detecting , pigmented eyespots , but they do not have the equipment to resolve images .
it is possible that the role of ‘long - branch attractions’ might have been underestimated in previous molecular phylogenies of hagfish .
there is insufficient evidence to determine whether the hagfish eye has degenerated from a lamprey - like ancestor or is basal .
delarbre c , gallut c , barriel v , janvier p , gachelin g . complete mitochondrial dna of the hagfish ,
hagfish reproduction is poorly understood , but evidence has been found indicating sequential hermaphroditic periods thought to arise from population pressures .
hagfish are often called “slime eels” . however they are in the class agnatha along with lampreys . this class of animals incorporates jawless fish . there are 76 species of hagfish the world over and approximately 100 species in the class agnatha .
very little is known about hagfish reproduction . only one of the 76 species has been successfully bred in captivity . hagfish are thought to be hermaphroditic with a sex ratio of 100 : 1 in favour of females observed in many species .
view image of hagfish are some of the most unusual fish alive ( credit : visuals unlimited / naturepl . com )
other pressures might have led hagfish to lose their backbone - like structures , says barley .
predation springs to mind . to escape predators , hagfish have become adept burrowers and display unusual anti - predator ' coiling ' behaviour .
coiled like sleeping snakes in the bottom of live tanks at carvalho ' s waterfront dock , the hagfish are peaceful .
atlantic hagfish are considered an important species in the gulf of maine for the following reasons as summarized by martini et al . ( 1997 ) : 1 ) hagfish play a significant role in the benthic ecosystem throughout the gulf of maine ; 2 ) hagfish have both important direct and indirect effects on commercial fisheries in the gulf of maine , and 3 ) atlantic hagfish are targeted by american and canadian fishermen to meet the south korean demand for “eelskin” used to manufacture leather goods .
hagfish have no jaws . in fact , hagfish are in a very primitive division within the entire chordate classification scheme . while they have a skull , they have no vertebral column . recent literature suggests that hagfish might rather be classified as non - vertebrates . while chordates , they are often put into the sub - phylum craniata . despite the classification , and where scientists place them , hagfish are remarkable aquatic animals . in total there are about 60 species in 5 genera .
if hagfish did once have a primitive spine - like structure , they must have lost it a very long time ago . in 1991 a palaeontologist described a 300 - million - year - old fossil found in illinois , which looks remarkably like a living hagfish . as far as external appearances go , hagfish have hardly changed through that vast expanse of time .
as a deep - sea ecologist , andrew thaler says hagfish are common visitors anywhere there’s free food , like whale carcasses .
a sketch by bashford dean of a hagfish caught on the line . in the slime that surrounds it lies five eggs .
too few hagfish could also be bad for the food chain . while hagfish eat huge quantities of deep - sea worms , they also serve as tasty meals for seals and other marine mammals ( which apparently don’t mind a mouthful of slime ) .
dirtsailor2003 , ' slime eels ! ! ! ! aka hagfish , ' via flickr . cc by - nd 2 . 0
a hagfish usually swims slowly along the seafloor in a snake - like fashion although it may have occasional bursts of speed .
hagfish have one of the animal kingdom ' s gooiest secret weapons : they shoot gill - clogging slime at their enemies .
josh kogot , michelle kincer and ryan kincer demonstrate the elasticity of the slime secreted from a pacific hagfish in a lab .
the hagfish ‘eye’ and retina are very simple , and resemble the pineal organ of vertebrates ( see main text ) . furthermore , during lamprey metamorphosis , the eye develops from a simple hagfish - like form to a vertebrate - like adult form .
kuraku s , kuratani s . time scale for cyclostome evolution inferred with a phylogenetic diagnosis of hagfish and lamprey cdna sequences .
. the occurrence and distribution of gnrh in the brain of atlantic hagfish , an agnatha , determined by chromatography and immunocytochemistry .
the tough and soft skin of the hagfish is also a popular commodity and is used to make wallets , purses , handbags , boots and similar items . the skin is normally market under the name “eelskin” or “eel skin” , not hagfish skin .
( pacific hagfish ) are found in cold marine waters of the antitropical north and south pacific ocean on muddy sea floors .
pacific hagfish are found typically on muddy bottoms to depths of 633 meters , but can also be found occasionally on rocky bottoms . they are more common at shallower depths , from 40 to 100 meters . pacific hagfish may make small migrations from shallow waters in the fall into deeper water . although this is unconfirmed , it is consistent with seasonal migrations in other hagfish .
hagfish have slime glands along their body - length which allow them to produce a slimy solution that aids in deterring predators . sometimes hagfish have been called slime eels because of this ( even though they are not related to the true eels ) . hagfish are able to get themselves out of the slime they produce by tying themselves in a knot and squeezing away the slime .
the obvious question here is , what’s up with all that mucous ? do hagfish hate modern highway infrastructure or harbor some sort of vendetta against priuses ? apparently , the hagfish uses slime for self - defense against predators or alternatively , for hunting prey .
the fish leather market began to flounder when it became apparent that many pacific hagfish had inferior skins . buyers looked to the east coast , whose hagfish skins were of higher quality . the atlantic - side fishery now supplies 80 percent of the market .
hagfish represent the oldest extant craniates and are an important link between invertebrates and vertebrates . however , key elements of the reproductive system have not been elucidated in hagfish . there is new evidence from our recent studies that atlantic hagfish may have a seasonal reproductive cycle . these data include seasonal changes in gonadotropin - releasing hormone , gonadal steroids , . . . [ show full abstract ]
scientists believe hagfish slime or similar proteins could be turned into tights or breathable athletic wear , or even bullet - proof vests .
hagfish eggs are approximately one inch long , and encased in a tough shell . these eggs are large for a fish , and a female can therefore not produce very many . despite the low number of eggs laid , hagfish exist in large numbers , with populations of up to 15 , 000 occurring in a relatively small area . this suggests that hagfish have a low mortality rate .
in a truly sci - fi scenario , thousands of mucus - spewing hagfish—destined for dinner plates in asia—coated a road in oregon .
it is estimated that hagfish may live 40 years in the ocean and 17 years in a protected environment such as an aquarium .
identify the ciliary opsin ( or opsins ) of hagfish and determine its ( or their ) phylogenetic relationship to other ciliary opsins .
a jawless fish within the chordate phylum ( agnatha is greek for ‘no jaw’ ) . the two extant groups are hagfish and lampreys
holmberg , k . and öhman , p . ( 1976 ) fine structure of retinal synaptic organelles in lamprey and hagfish photoreceptors .
” disgusting hagfish and magnificent sharks ” , tammy frank , noaa ocean explorer . retrieved on 2008 - 03 - 28 . urltoken
pacific hagfish hatch from an egg in fully functional form without any intermediate larval stage . determining the sex of pacific hagfish below 35 cm in length is difficult as a copulatory organ is absent . despite over a century of searching , only 200 fertilized eggs of
table 1 : list of predatory fish species , recorded and observed in video footage , whose gills were clogged by hagfish slime .
some people call hagfish the
vultures of the sea
, because they seem to get most of their food by scavenging .
after plenty of careful observation , uyeno , clark and their colleagues think they can explain how hagfish get the job done . what ' s more , their idea might go a long way towards explaining many of the hagfish ' s other unusual biological features .
that is speculative for now . but if it ever does come to pass , one day a hagfish could save your life .
10 . hagfish slime could be the fiber of the future . hagfish slime contains tens of thousands of very thin ( 100 times smaller than a human hair ) protein threads . the threads are extremely strong , and when stretched and dried out they resemble spider silk . like spider silk , scientists think hagfish slime could be woven together to produce super - strong fabrics . potentially , hagfish slime could be used to create material with the strength of nylon or plastic , and applications range from bulletproof vests to artificial tissues .
there’s still much and more we don’t know about hagfish and their slime , but the closer you look , the more weirdness you’ll find . hagfish can tie themselves into knots , they sometimes take up residence in dead bodies , and their hearts beat without oxygen .
the obvious question here is , what ' s up with all that mucus ? do hagfish hate modern highway infrastructure or harbour some sort of vendetta against priuses ? apparently , the hagfish uses slime for self - defence against predators or alternatively , for hunting prey .
the hagfish is famous for its ability to emit mucus and even its scientific name is derived from the greek word for slime . one single hagfish can fill a milk jug with slime in no time . the slime is probably a way for the hagfish to fend of predators , since the slime can be used to form a protective slime - cocoon . if a fish tries to eat the cocoon , the slime can clog its gills and make it suffocate . if you try to chew hagfish slime , it will expand .
. . . commercial interest in the hagfish has increased as traditional fishery stock harvests have receded in some regions . while attention has recently turned to the hagfish as a potential source of edible meat and skin , there are no regulations on hagfish harvesting throughout america ' s eastern seaboard at present ( powell et al . , 2005 ) . as fascinating as hagfish may be in their abstract and conceptual role in supplying missing pieces to the vertebrate evolutionary puzzle , there are important practical reasons to study them , too . . . .
the largest species of hagfish can reach about 4ft ( 1 . 2m ) , though most are around 1ft ( 30cm ) long .
to protect hagfish populations in the face of all the unknowns , several us states have made moves ( pdf , p . 7 ) to monitor their fairly unregulated hagfish fisheries . in the meantime , they might want to think about some tiny seat belts , too .
hagfish are also known as slime eels , thought they are not eels . they belong to the class agnatha , fish without jaws .
the largest hagfish , eptatretus goliath , can grow to more than four feet , while the smallest species reach only several inches long .
to wipe its slime away , the hagfish will tie itself into a knot and work the knot from its head to its tail , scraping off the slime as it goes . if its nostril fills with slime , the hagfish will “sneeze” to clear out the clog .
we show hagfish diverging either before the divergence of lampreys or else after lampreys separated from the line that would become the jawed vertebrates .
a system of sensory organs resembling taste buds , called schreiner organs , are found throughout the epidermis . the distribution of these organs is more extensive than taste buds in nearly any vertebrate , giving hagfish the ability to sense prey in dark and muddy habitats . this sensory system has no direct homologue in vertebrates and seems specific to hagfish . hagfish also have well - developed nasal organs used in olfaction .
you can argue quite strongly that hagfish are ' designed to dine ' ,
says glover .
i think that uyeno and clark have provided robust evidence that the loose skin of hagfish certainly does appear to be a critical component facilitating the knotting behaviour .
when they ' re comfortable , they curl up ,
chu said , gently drawing a net through the mass of hagfish .
hagfish have no external sex organs , which means they probably don’t do internal fertilization ( but then again , they might be like coelacanths , which pull it off without the usual equipment ) . but we’re not sure ; attempts to observe mating in captivity have proven similarly futile . one hagfish authority compares hagfish to giant pandas , in that they refuse to get it on in captivity , reported the wsj .
“ [ hagfish ] are primitive jawless fishes with an eel - like body , ” deep sea ecologist andrew david thaler told gizmodo . “you can immediately tell you’re dealing with a hagfish if , rather than a jaw , it has a horrifying tooth - lined rasping opening where its mouth would be that looks like something out of hr geiger’s sketchbook . also , if there’s slime , it’s a hagfish . ”
dean’s hagfish egg collection came from monterey bay fishermen who spent a summer dangling baited lines from rowboats . in their alarm at having been hooked , the hagfish released slime , encasing them as they struggled on the line . stuck within those gobs of slime were the eggs .
“but our research suggests hagfish did not degenerate from lamprey - like ancestors , but are instead the remnants of an earlier sister group . ”
hagfish originally had good eyes and lost them , but this is not reverse evolution because eye complexity did not evolve in the first place .
prediction 5 : if hagfish are monophyletic with lampreys , then they might represent a form with arrested development , rather than a degenerate form .
groups . pacific hagfish have changed little over the past 330 million years , and closely resemble the first craniates . the evolutionary path leading to
but glover says it is less clear whether there are clear links between body knotting and some of the other strange features of hagfish biology .
a modern hagfish , the pacific hagfish eptatretus ( top ) , shows some of the diagnostic features of the group : the tentacles surrounding the snout , the left oesophagocutaneous opening ( in the rear of the gill openings ) , and the series of large , ventrolateral slime glands . the earliest known fossil hagfish , myxinikela , from the late carboniferous of illinois , had a much stouter body shape but clearly shows the tentacles .
only little information is known about the reproduction of hagfish . at present the sex ratio of hag fish is found to be 100 : 1 favor of females . in some species of hagfish they have both the ovaries and testes and the female gonads do not function until the individual has attained the particular lifecycle stage . the female hagfish lay 20 to 30 eggs which are yolky and the eggs do not have a larval stage
if there’s one thing you really don’t want scattered across a highway , it’s live hagfish . but last week , five vehicles collided on an oregon highway , flinging 7 , 500 pounds of hagfish—also known as “snot snakes” and “slime eels”—across the blacktop , and making a very unusual mess .
the hagfish family , myxinidae , is the only family in the order myxiniformes ( also known as hyperotreti ) , which itself is the only order in the class myxini . thus , hagfish is variously used for any of the three taxonomic levels ( itis 2003 ; nelson 1994 ) .
because of their inaccessibility , hagfish reproduction and early development have escaped observation . the reproductive patterns of most species of hagfish are unknown . to date , no one has been able to successfully reproduce any hagfish species in captivity . there is limited information on reproduction in one hagfish species in japan . the japanese hagfish , e . burgeri , is the only known species of hagfish that has a regular annual reproductive cycle and undergoes an annual migration ( ichikawa et al . , 2000 ; kobayashi et al . , 1972 ; nozaki et al . , 2000 ) . a study by martini et al . ( 1997 ) suggested that atlantic hagfish have limited reproductive potential based on the small number of eggs produced ( less than 30 per female ) , about 25 % of the animals examined did not have visible gonadal tissue and the small number of males ( less than 6 % of the population ) , gravid females ( less than 1 % ) and postovulatory females ( less than 5 % ) .
currently , there are no regulations governing the harvesting of hagfish along the east coast . discard rates of hagfish from the fishery reach up to 50 to 60 % ( noaa / nmfs ) ( martini , 1998 ) . since there has been little or no information about the life history of hagfish including growth rate , age determination , reproductive biology , life span , and larval size at hatching , the level at which a sustainable fisheries for this species can be maintained is unknown . in order for fisheries management to manage its hagfish stocks and develop a sustainable commercial hagfish fishery , an information base is needed for optimum use of the hagfish resource ( barss , 1993 ) . to address these issues , the new england fishery council has begun the process of developing regulations in 2003 although it will likely take a few years to develop a fisheries management plan .
this is the part where we talk about hagfish : a wormlike creature , neither vertebrate nor invertebrate , that survives by secreting a special kind of fibrous slime that effectively closes up attackers ' gills ; a single hagfish can produce quarts of the stuff . when hagfish are hungry — they can survive for as long without food as a bedbug — they are fond of burrowing into the bellies of their victims and consuming them from the inside out . if a fisherman is unlucky enough to pull up hagfish in his or her net , the other fish in the catch will be ruined . how does a hagfish clear away excess slime ? it quite literally ties itself into a knot , which moves along its horrible length .
it ' s actually a thin film of hagfish proteins . this skin collapses , forming a short fibre . she twirls it between her fingers .
scientists have been studying hagfish for centuries - darwin even took notes on them . but there are many basic facts they still don ' t know . we are still in the dark on how they reproduce and how to tell how old a hagfish is . bony fish usually have otoliths , which act like tree rings , and are used as a way of telling how old they are - but hagfish don ' t have these .
actually , thaler adds , “slime” isn’t even really the right word . ( see
hagfish slime could be eco - friendly fabric .
)
these fish are affected by the trash and chemicals that we put into the ocean . pacific hagfish are a crucial part of the cycle of life as they eliminate dead and dying organisms . there could be a significant impact on the ecosystem should there be a large scale removal of hagfish .
scientists have demonstrated that they can use mild conditions to convert artificial hagfish slime into one of the stiffest protein - based fibres ever reported . 1
molecular–genetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes has provided strong support for the notion that hagfish and lampreys are sister taxa 56 , 135 – 139 .
prediction 4 : the hagfish retina should not contain bipolar cells , and its photoreceptors should synapse directly onto the projection neurons ( ganglion cells ) .
examine the phylogenetic relationship between cyclostome genes ; in particular , examine the relationship between the opsin genes to estimate the stage at which hagfish diverged .
that realisation encouraged uyeno to reassess what drove the evolution of the other unusual features of hagfish biology , in a paper published in june 2016 .
the hagfish has been called the nastiest and most disgusting creature in the sea . in south korea , it’s called dinner . check it out :
the condition of hagfish eyes has proved particularly influential in scenarios of eye evolution . in contrast to lampreys , which possess a sophisticated eye with a lens , iris and eye muscles , hagfish eyes lack such structures and , unlike almost all other vertebrates , including lampreys , the retinal epithelium of hagfish is devoid of pigment granules . this condition has been interpreted to reflect a rudimentary intermediate evolutionary grade in the gradual assembly of the vertebrate eye .
there has been long discussion in scientific literature about the hagfish being classified as vertebrates versus invertebrates . given their classification as agnatha , hagfish are seen as an elementary vertebrate in between prevertebrate and gnathostome . they tend to be classified either under the subphylum vertebrata or as an invertebrate within subphylum craniata .
because it is so deficient in necessary parts , “it has been postulated that the hagfish eye reflects a failure in eye development to proceed beyond that of an earlier stage in vertebrate eye evolution , ” gabbott’s team writes . 10 they recall the commonly accepted contribution of the hagfish to evolutionary understanding :
d . bardack . 1991 . first fossil hagfish ( myxinoidea ) : a record from the pennsylvanian of illinois . science 254 : 701 - 703 .
hanson , c . a . and sidell , b . d . ( 1983 ) atlantic hagfish cardiac muscle : metabolic basis of tolerance to anoxia .
hagfish with complex eyes were designed by a wise creator god , but they have degenerated like so many other things in this sin - cursed world .
) , with rather poorly organized outer - segment membranes . in each of these respects the hagfish eye resembles the pineal organ of non - mammalian vertebrates
the resulting paired lateral photoreceptive organs would have resembled the ‘eyes’ of extant hagfish , lacking any image - forming apparatus and subserving non - visual functions .
as late as 2006 , a new member was added to the hagfish family myxinidae when the goliath hagfish was scientifically described by mincarone & stewart and given the name eptatretus goliath . eptatretus goliath was described from a specimen caught at a dept of 811 metres ( 2 , 661 feet ) at the head of the hauraki canyon off the northeast north island in new zealand . the species was named goliath since it was a true giant in the world of hagfish ; the specimen measured an astonishing 127 , 5 cm ( approximately 50 inches ) . this makes eptatretus goliath the largest known species of hagfish .


the fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) , previously known as the fairy warbler , is a species of bird in the family acanthizidae native to new guinea and queensland .

fairy gerygone

fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) is a species of bird in the acanthizidae family .
fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) occurrence records from continental australia suitable for species distribution modelling .
the fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) is a species of bird in the acanthizidae family .
vanderwal , j . ( 2013 ) . fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) - occurrence records filtered for species distribution modelling . centre for tropical biodiversity & climate change , james cook university . [ data files ] urltoken gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) / occurrences
murphy , s . ( 2002 ) . why do male fairy gerygones gerygone palpebrosa burst into song on hearing predators or loud noises ? sunbird 32 : 62 - 66 .
this dataset includes observations of fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) that are sourced from the atlas of living australia ( ala ) database . rather than raw observations , these have been filtered such that they are assumed to be suitable for species distribution modelling exercises . the cleaning process included :
the white - throated gerygone is found in open eucalypt woodlands and forests and in vegetation along watercourses .
until relatively recent years , fairy gerygone was not known to occur south of the gin gin - childers region . whether it has spread southward or was overlooked in the past is not known ; this is one of several essentially tropical species which appears to be extending its range south . in the sunshine coast littoral scrubs , it occurs side by side with mangrove gerygone . more rarely in the hinterland , it may be in the same habitat as brown gerygone , which is absent from the coastal scrubs .
gregory , p . ( 2018 ) . fairy gerygone ( gerygone palpebrosa ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
gerygone , the gerygones or peep - warblers , is a genus of bird in the acanthizidae family . the . . .
the fairy gerygone , g . palpebrosa differs from the white - throated gerygone in that it does not have the white tail tips , and some males have a black chin and / or throat . it also only overlaps in the queensland part of the white - throated gerygone ' s range , from tropic of capricorn to northern cape york . the smaller weebill , smicrornis brevirostris , can resemble young white - throated gerygones , but does not have a red eye , lacks the white throat and forehead and is generally paler above , with a shorter , paler bill .
ford j ( 1986 ) phylogeny of the acanthizid warbler genus gerygone based on numerical analyses of morphological characters . emu 86 : 12–22 .
the white - throated gerygone ranges from south - eastern australia through queensland and across northern australia to the kimberley region , western australia .
this fairy gerygone was singing today at mudjimba on the sunshine coast . there are six pairs of this species in a 3 - km stretch of coastal vine scrub in the vicinity . i ' ve also seen the bird elsewhere along the coast including noosa national park and coolum . occasionally in turns up in the hinterland - at ninderry , kenilworth and bli bli - but it does not appear to be resident there .
the white - throated gerygone mates for life . it builds an oval or pear shaped nest of bark bound with spiders ' silk , which is hung in the outer foliage of trees .
10–11·5 cm ; 8 g . medium - small gerygone with distinctive male plumages . male nominate race has forehead , side of head and throat to upper breast black , crown . . .
citation : nyári ás , joseph l ( 2012 ) evolution in australasian mangrove forests : multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the gerygone warblers ( aves : acanthizidae ) . plos one 7 ( 2 ) : e31840 . urltoken
despite ford ' s ( 1986 ) pioneering attempt to analyze gerygone phylogenetically , the conservative morphology of the group has inhibited development of a comprehensive phylogenetic framework . this in turn has complicated interpretations of biogeographic patterns . a recent phylogenetic study of the largest radiation of australasian songbirds , the meliphagoidea [ 8 ] , was the first molecular analysis of acanthizids that included gerygone . the eight species of gerygone analysed there comprised a monophyletic group , which , together with the monotypic fernwren oreoscopus gutturalis , was basal to all other acanthizids . support for the monophyly of the eight species was high but relationships within the genus were not well resolved .
complex evolutionary and biogeographic scenarios in the history of gerygone are clearly apparent from our results . they identified g . chrysogaster and g . mouki as a sister clade to the rest of gerygone , consistent with an australo - papuan center of diversity for the group . the geographic distributions of these two taxa correspond to australo - papuan tropical lowland ( irian ) and subtropical - montane rainforest ( tumbunan ) avifaunas [ 3 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 49 ] .
picture of an australian brood parasite and its host : ( a ) little bronze - cuckoo nestling ( left ) and egg ( right ) ; ( b ) large - billed gerygone nestling ( left ) and egg ( right ) .
the white - throated gerygone is a very small grey brown bird with a white throat and spot on forehead , distinctive bright yellow underparts and a white - tipped tail . it has a red eye . most often heard during breeding season , it is not obvious at other times .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : gerygone palpebrosa . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
g . cinerea was consistently recovered by all loci as not closely related to other ingroup species , rendering gerygone paraphyletic ( figure 1 , 2 ) . analysis of our 13 - locus dataset placed this species among the three outgroup members , and specifically with the species we used of acanthiza ¸ a . apicalis .
the white - throated gerygone mates for life . it builds an oval or pear shaped nest of bark bound with spiders ' silk , which is hung in the outer foliage of trees . breeding season : september to november ; longer in north of range . clutch size : 2 to 3 incubation : 12 days time in nest : 15 days
the most novel relationship that we recovered is the exclusion from gerygone of g . cinerea , which clearly belongs in acanthiza ( figure 2 and 3 ) . based on plumage and biogeography , ford ( 1986 ) suggested that g . cinerea was closely related to g . chloronota . we conclude that g . cinerea should be assigned to acanthiza vigors and horsfield , 1827 , and so be known as a . cinerea ( salvadori , 1876 ) .
the species tree inferred from all 13 loci mirrored closely the consensus among the underlying gene trees and the analysis of the concatenated and partitioned dataset . topologies obtained throught the best and * beast algorithms were congruent . again , gerygone was not monophyletic and the sister species relationships of g . chrysogaster / g . mouki , and g . igata / g . modesta were strongly supported ( figure 2 ) . similarly , the three mangrove specialists were not a monophyletic group , and their constrained monophyly constitutes a significantly worse likelihood under the au test . the majority of nodes in the species tree received strong support ; however , several low - to - moderately supported nodes prevailed , especially in the recently evolved clades sister to g . magnirostris .
thus , gerygones colonized mangroves on several occasions and those that occur in mangroves are not each other ' s closest relatives within the genus gerygone . this lends further support for case - by - case exploration of the rich australo - papuan mangrove avifauna . phylogeographic analysis of diversity within and among the three gerygones adapted to mangroves and their closest relatives especially g . fusca , will bring additional insights to levels of intraspecific genetic diversity , influence of geographic barriers , and the history of any hybridization events . contrasting these molecular findings with data based on morphology , plumage , song and ecological niche will broaden our understanding of historical biogeography within this group . in particular , it should clarify the importance of the mangroves of australia and new guinea in the evolution of the region ' s avifauna and its ecological diversity .
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warblers ( aves : acanthizidae ) . plos one 7 ( 6 ) : 10 . 1371 / annotation / 2e9dfd8d - 413c - 47bd - 84c2 - d7df5db7859c .
editor : robert c . fleischer , smithsonian institution national zoological park , united states of america
copyright : © 2012 nyári , joseph . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : csiro ecosystems science ( ces ) , atlas of living australia provided funding for laboratory work , consumables and travel within australia . the university of kansas biodiversity institute provided funding for laboratory consumables , sequencing fees and data analysis . the american museum of natural history frank m . chapman memorial fund provided funding for laboratory consumables and sequencing fees . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
several molecular phylogenetic studies have now documented the importance of island radiations in diversification of continental avifaunas [ 9 ] – [ 11 ] . they have led to the conclusion that islands are not necessarily evolutionary dead ends , but rather that they can be sources of biological diversity for mainland groups through back - colonization events . by analogy , the role of mangrove forests as ecological islands for closed - canopy - dwelling birds , especially during australia ' s long history of aridification [ 12 ] , might also be tested .
complementary gene sequence contigs derived from all 13 loci for all taxa were aligned using clustalx 2 . 0 . 7 [ 25 ] , and scrutinized further by eye in mesquite 2 . 74 [ 26 ] . separate data matrices of 19 taxa ( 16 ingroup and 3 outgroup ) were assembled for each of the 11 nuclear loci , while the two mitochondrial genes ( nd2 and nd3 ) were combined in a single dataset . subsequent analyses examined individual loci and a partitioned dataset through model - based phylogenetic algorithms under both maximum likelihood ( ml ) and bayesian analysis ( ba ) approaches . modeltest 3 . 7 [ 27 ] was used to determine the most appropriate model of sequence evolution via the akaike information criterion ( aic ) .
additionally , a species tree was estimated from the joint distribution of individual gene trees via the program best 1 . 6 [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] . the dataset was again partitioned by locus , each with an appropriately specified model of evolution . we assigned default settings for the parameter values of the bayesian search , as recommended by the authors : flat priors , inverse gamma distribution with values of α = 3 and β = 0 . 003 for priors of population size , and a uniform distribution with bounds of 0 . 5 and 1 . 5 for priors of the mutation rates . two runs with four separate chains ( one heated and three cold ) were run simultaneously for 10 8 generations , sampling every 1000 generations . a consensus topology from the two separate runs was obtained after discarding an initial burn - in of 50 % of the sampled topologies . additionally , we also used the species tree reconstruction options in the program * beast 1 . 6 [ 34 ] , [ 35 ] using the same set of model parameterizations and number of generations as for the best run .
alignment of sequence data derived from all thirteen loci was straightforward , resulting in a total of 8124 base pairs ( bp ) . overall sequence length ranged from 279 bp to 1350 bp for nuclear loci , whereas the two mitochondrial genes were 1041 bp and 351 bp in length ( table 2 ) . among the nuclear loci , mameal - 23 , musk , and tgfb2 were the most variable ; however , mameal - 16 , cdc132 and fib5 had the highest percentage of informative sites ( table 2 ) . the two mtdna protein - coding genes nd2 and nd3 had no insertions , deletions , or anomalous stop - codons . base composition was typical of avian mtdna ( table 2 ) , consistent with true mitochondrial origin as opposed to nuclear pseudogenes [ 40 ] . information content in the two mitochondrial loci was significantly higher than in the nuclear loci : out of the total number of variable sites , nd2 and nd3 had over 70 % and 64 % parsimony informative sites , respectively ( table 2 ) .
phylogenetic estimates of gene trees obtained via bayesian and maximum likelihood analysis of individual loci .
locus acronyms follow table 2 and references therein . nodal support is indicated by circles , where the upper half corresponds to bayesian posterior probabilities ( bpp ) and the lower half depicts ml bootstrap values ( mlbv ) . bpp support values greater than 95 % are given in bold above branches , and indicated by dark upper half - circles . mlbv greater than 80 are in bold below branches , and indicated by dark lower half - circles . support values below these thresholds are in regular font and depicted with an open circle half . values below 50 % bpp and 50 mlbv are denoted by double dashes or not at all where both algorithms failed to recover that value at a node . the mitochondrial protein coding genes nd2 and nd3 have been combined in a single partition , indicated as “mtdna” . mangrove specialists are highlighted in bold .
all gene trees indicated clearly that the three mangrove - inhabiting species g . magnirostris , g . tenebrosa , and g . levigaster , do not form a monophyletic group . strong support was evident in all gene trees for two sister species relationships , one between g . chrysogaster and g . mouki , and the other between g . igata and g . modesta . the mtdna dataset further indicated strong support for sister species relationships between g . chloronota and g . palpebrosa ( also supported by fib5 ) , between g . inornata and g . albogularis ( also supported by musk , hmg2 , al16 ) , and between g . fusca and g . levigaster ( also supported by rag2 , tgfb2 , hmg2 , cdc132 ) .
extended taxon sampling included in the analysis of g . cinerea within the acanthizidae . all samples are listed in gardner et al . ( 2010 ) and include genbank accession numbers from multiple sources used in building a multilocus dataset for testing relationships within the meliphagoidea .
conceived and designed the experiments : an lj . performed the experiments : an . analyzed the data : an . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : an lj . wrote the paper : an lj .
ford j ( 1982 ) origin , evolution and speciation of birds specialized to mangroves in australia . emu 82 : 12–23 .
schodde r , mason ij ( 1999 ) the directory of australian birds . collingwood : csiro publishing .
schodde r , mason ij , gill hb ( 1979 ) the avifauna of the australian mangroves : a brief review of composition , structure and origin . in : clough bf , editor . structure , function , and management : mangrove ecosystems in australia . australian institute of marine science and australian national university press . pp . 141–150 .
schodde r ( 2006 ) australia ' s bird fauna today – origins and evolutionary development . in : merrick jr , archer m , hickey gm , lee msy , editors . evolution and biogeography of australasian vertebrates . new south wales : australian scientific publishing . pp . 413–458 .
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jønsson ka , bowie rck , moyle rg , christidis l , filardi ce , et al . ( 2010 ) historical biogeography of an indo - pacific passerine bird family ( pachycephalidae ) : different colonization patterns in the indonesian and melanesian archipelagos . journal of biogeography 37 : 245–257 .
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recorded at dawn ; campsite twelve mile lagoon , lakefield np . background : white - throated honeyeater ( 0 : 07 ) ; yellow honeyeater ( 0 : 02 , 3 calls ) ; rainbow lorikeet ( 0 : 28 ) ; blue - faced honeyeater ( from 0 : 38 onwards ) .
recording at dawn in iron range np . a lot of species in the background ( some in the front ) , for instance :
yellow - spotted honeyeater ( song ) at 0 : 06 ; white - eared monarch ( buzzing call ) from 0 : 20 ; little shrikethrush at 0 : 24 ; dusky myzomela ( call ) at 0 : 29 ( can be heard more often ) ; lovely fairywren ( song , faint recording ) at 0 : 27 ; graceful honeyeater ( ' plik ' song ) at 0 : 39 .
there ' s an unknown bird calling at 0 : 10 and 0 : 59 , possibly also graceful honeyeater . a possible yellow - breasted boatbill ( short shong ) at 0 : 44 , although lovely fairywren might also be possible .
recording was modified slightly : amplifying , some noise removal , high pass filtering ( < 1000 hz ) , some low pass filtering ( > 5500 hz to muffle insects a bit ) ; interval shortened at 0 : 19 .
the usual quiet
tip tip
feeding calls from mid - stratum , generally by a pair or family group feeding together .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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two views of a foraging female in a tree , the second one repeated in slow motion .
john o ' malley , holger teichmann , lindsay hansch , aviceda , nick athanas , rhonda hansch .
this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 31b7981a - a45e - 46a6 - 9702 - 67dfb17cb744
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 366f0a2c - af42 - 4ce9 - aa57 - 1a68b692798a
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : de1db06a - 1a36 - 4e91 - a835 - 916d91274032
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 361284
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male of northern race personata - & apos ; black - throated warbler & apos ; .
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( a . b . meyer , 1899 ) – yapen i and n new guinea ( e to n coast of se peninsula to the kumusi r ) .
rand , 1941 – s new guinea from morehead r e to fly r .
e . p . ramsay , 1878 – se new guinea e from upper fly r .
gould , 1866 – ne queensland ( cape york peninsula s to mitchell r and townsville area ) , in ne australia .
often located by quiet but insistent , rather nasal “tt tt” contact note . song , by male . . .
edges of tropical rainforest and ecotone between that and other habitats , vine thickets ( e . g . at 40 . . .
insectivorous ; no details of items . seen mostly singly , in pairs or in small parties of up to five individuals , probably family groups . . . .
birds in breeding condition in oct ( at end of dry season ) in new guinea ; breeding recorded in jul–may in australia . nest reported as . . .
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( w new guinea , w papuan islands and aru is . . sw of new guinea . )
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open the advanced search popout and ensure you are on the ‘search terms’ tab . two query rows should be displayed by default .
in the empty value field in the 1st query row enter the search term ‘rain’ .
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other names description similar species behaviour diet calls reproduction distribution / habitat . . .
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taxonomy : psilopus olivaceus gould , 1838 , new south wales , australia . three subspecies recognized ( source : handbook of the birds of world )
* cinerascens sharpe , 1878 - se new guinea ( around port moresby area and gulf coast ) , and ne australia ( n & c cape york peninsula ) . * rogersi mathews , 1911 - n australia from western australia ( roebuck bay ) e to se corner of gulf of carpentaria . * olivacea ( gould , 1838 ) - e australia from base of cape york peninsula s ( extending inland to w slopes of great dividing range ) to se & sc victoria ; scattered records in extreme e coastal south australia .
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this small bird can be occasionally seen in the thickly vegetated areas on the eastern part of the douglas campus . the male has a blackish throat with a white stripe , then yellow underparts , female yellow underparts , both sexes are brownish - green on the back . legs and feet black , eyes red , bill grey . photograph courtesy ian montgomery , urltoken
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ctx _ ver = z39 . 88 - 2004 & rft ; _ val _ fmt = info % 3aofi % 2ffmt % 3akev % 3amtx % 3adc & rfr ; _ id = info % 3asid % 2fands & rft . title ; = catchment restoration / coommonderry swamp / habitat restoration & rft . identifier ; urltoken ; = atlas of living australia & rft . description ; = the project will protect and enhance coommonderry wetlands by removing environmental weeds and re - establishing native vegetation within the catchment on both public and private lands . & rft . creator ; = anonymous & rft . date ; = 1970 & rft ; _ rights = & rft . type ; = dataset & rft . language ; = english
the project will protect and enhance coommonderry wetlands by removing environmental weeds and re - establishing native vegetation within the catchment on both public and private lands .
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it is found in australia , indonesia , and papua new guinea . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests .
this article was sourced from creative commons attribution - sharealike license ; additional terms may apply . world heritage encyclopedia content is assembled from numerous content providers , open access publishing , and in compliance with the fair access to science and technology research act ( fastr ) , wikimedia foundation , inc . , public library of science , the encyclopedia of life , open book publishers ( obp ) , pubmed , u . s . national library of medicine , national center for biotechnology information , u . s . national library of medicine , national institutes of health ( nih ) , u . s . department of health & human services , and urltoken , which sources content from all federal , state , local , tribal , and territorial government publication portals ( . gov , . mil , . edu ) . funding for urltoken and content contributors is made possible from the u . s . congress , e - government act of 2002 .