the pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) is a neotropical cuckoo with a long graduated tail and a short crest .

it is one of three species of neoptropical cuckoo which are known to be brood parasites .

pavonine cuckoo

pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) is a species of bird in the cuculidae family .
these long - legged and long - tailed cuckoos have variable breeding habits . three of them are brood - parasitic species , the striped cuckoo ( tapera naevia ) , and the two species of genus dromococcyx , the pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) and the pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) . these three species occur in south america and central america , except the pavonine cuckoo which is only present in ne south america .
the pavonine cuckoo is a medium - sized , long - tailed cuckoo found in the understory of forests of south america . the pavonine cuckoo is known to be a brood parasite , laying its eggs in the nests of other species . but otherwise very little is known of the behavior of this widespread but reclusive species , which is heard far more often than it is seen .
this reed warbler is raising the young of a common cuckoo , the best - known cuckoo .
cuckoo ' s nest
redirects here . for other uses , see cuckoo ' s nest ( disambiguation ) .
in some species the migration is diurnal , as in the channel - billed cuckoo , or nocturnal , as in the yellow - billed cuckoo .
the pavonine cuckoo is rare and difficult to see as it does not move much and remains inconspicuous . it favors terra firme and mature floodplain forests . it is known to range at elevations of up to 900 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in
the african cuckoo was identified as a separate species on the basis of its call .
some species , like the asian emerald cuckoo ( chrysococcyx maculatus ) exhibit iridescent plumage .
, the god of desire and longing , whereas in japan , the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love .
the plumage typically is a dull grayish brown , but some , such as the bronze cuckoos—shining bronze - cuckoo ( chrysococcyx lucidus ) , horsfield ' s bronze - cuckoo ( chrysococcyx basalis ) , and so forth—are brightly colored or iridescent . cuckoo genera differ in the number of primary wing feathers as below .
in this case , raising the cuckoo chick is less of a cost than the alternative—total clutch destruction .
this species is a recent split from fork - tailed drongo - cuckoo surniculus dicruroides . both were previously lumped as
asian drongo - cuckoo
in southeast asia . the square - tailed , however , is the only one to reach palawan , the south - easternmost of the philippine islands . in the rest of the philippines the resident is philippine drongo - cuckoo surniculus velutinus . a final drongo - cuckoo inhabits the moluccas .
payne , r . ( 2018 ) . pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
other species of cuckoo lay
cryptic
eggs , which are dark in color when their hosts ' eggs are light .
quite a number of species of cuckoo , such as the well - known european cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) , practice brood parasitism , laying eggs in the nests of other bird species for rearing . such an instinctual behavior adds to the diversity and wonder of the animal world and has made the cuckoo a well - known bird , especially the unforgettable sight of a small parent bird feeding a very large cuckoo nestling—a nestling that may have ejected the parent bird ' s other eggs or nestlings from the nest .
most species of cuckoo are sedentary , but some undertake regular seasonal migrations and others undertake partial migrations over part of their range .
the cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host ' s , and the cuckoo chick grows faster ; in most cases the chick evicts the eggs or young of the host species . the chick has no time to learn this behavior , so it must be an
karubian , j ; carrasco , l ( 2008 ) .
home range and habitat preferences of the banded ground - cuckoo (
cuckoo chicks start to mimic the cries that their foster parents ' young make from the moment they hatch , a scientist has proved .
stoddard mc , stevens m ( july 2011 ) .
avian vision and the evolution of egg color mimicry in the common cuckoo
.
the cuckoo family gets its english and scientific names from the call of the common cuckoo , which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks . some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls , for example the koels of asia and australasia . in most cuckoos the calls are distinctive to particular species , and are useful for identification . several cryptic species are best identified on the basis of their calls .
. the pavonine cuckoo has multi - toned rufous head and neck with a dusky streak from behind the eye . the rest of the underparts are pale . the throat and breast are unmarked ( no black specks ) . it has a buffy superciliary line from above the eye . the tail is long , broad , and graduated with long and ornate rump feathers and uppertail coverts . it forages on the ground where it extends the wings and tail to flush insects before it chases and catches them . it is similar to the
the cuckoo family gets its english and scientific names from the familiar , two - note call of the common cuckoo , which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks . some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls , for example the koels of asia and australasia . in most cuckoos , the calls are distinctive to particular species , and are useful for identification . several cryptic species have been identified on the basis of their calls .
levaillant ' s cuckoo ( below ) — quite a large cuckoo of arid woodlands— parasitizes mostly turdoides babblers , such as arrow - marked babbler t . jardineii , but also uses chestnut - bellied starling spreo pulcher as a host . these hosts are resident in the dry country but they breed in the wet season , and that is when levaillant ' s cuckoo arrives . after the wet season it is an intra - continental migrant back to the equatorial primary forests .
this article is part of project cucuiformes / idae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each cuckoo , including made - up species .
several koels , couas , and the channel - billed cuckoo feed mainly on fruit ( corlett and ping 1995 ) , but they are not exclusively frugivores . the parasitic koels and channel - billed cuckoo in particular consume mainly fruit when raised by fruigivore hosts such as the figbird and pied currawong . other species will occasionally take fruit as well .
, being around the same size as the channel - billed cuckoo . the subfamily coccyzinae are arboreal and long tailed as well , with a number of large insular forms . the
not globally threatened . a solitary cuckoo , uncommon to rare , not well known , and sensitive to habitat disturbance . its distribution is patchy and discontinuous , though the . . .
the other ani — the yellow - eyed greater ani c . major — and guira cuckoo are only in south america , favoring , respectively , marshy edges and dry brushy country .
antonov , anton ; stokke , bard g . ; moksnes , arne ; roeskaft , eivin ( 2008 ) .
does the cuckoo benefit from laying unusually strong eggs ?
.
about 56 of the old world species and 3 of the new world species are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other birds ( payne 2005 ) . the best - known example is the european common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) . the cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host ' s , and the cuckoo chick grows faster ; in most cases , the chick evicts the eggs or young of the host species . the chick has no time to learn this behavior , so it must be an instinct passed on genetically . the mother still feeds the cuckoo chick as if it were her own , the chick ' s open mouth serving as a sign stimulus for the host to feed it ( campbell 1996 ) .
different species and even populations of cuckoo select different host species , laying eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host . this also seems to have been aided by natural selection , as some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own , leading to those eggs least like the host ' s being thrown out of the nest ( campbell 1996 ) .
in central & south america , squirrel cuckoo piaya cayana is common and do seem
squirrel - like
as they move through the canopy . a very small version is little cuckoo ( left ) . several south american cuckoos are migratory , moving to the equator in the southern winter ( our summer ) . one of these is ash - colored cuckoo c . cinereus . in july 1975 , i discovered this tiny cuckoo on the banks of the amazon river at leticia where it proved to be a first record for colombia ( hilty & brown 1986 ) . it was one of my best personal finds , even though i didn ' t know what it was at the time . i showed the bird to others and together we sorted it out using meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) .
gaines , d . , and s . a . laymon . 1984 . decline , status and preservation of the yellow - billed cuckoo in california . w . birds 15 : 49 - 80 .
cuckoos have played a role in human culture for thousands of years , appearing in greek mythology as sacred to the goddess hera . in europe , the cuckoo is associated with spring , and with cuckoldry , for example in shakespeare ' s love ' s labours lost . in india , cuckoos are sacred to kamadeva , the god of desire and longing , whereas in japan , the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love .
, but there are exceptions . the anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests , although this behaviour is not completely cooperative ; a female may remove others ' eggs when laying hers .
avilés jm , stokke bg , moksnes a , røskaft e , asmul m , møller ap ( november 2006 ) .
rapid increase in cuckoo egg matching in a recently parasitized reed warbler population
.
in the far east are four species of drongo - cuckoo , named for a resemblance to drongos ( genus dicurus ) . this ( right ) is square - tailed drongo - cuckoo . notice it has a shiny plumage like a drongo . here it looks to be consuming a hairy caterpillar . it parasitizes a variety of bulbuls , babblers and tit - babblers . no drongo is known to be a host .
38–40 cm ; 116–163 g . the largest hawk - cuckoo . adult dark morph is brown above , ashy - grey on crown , nape and neck , tail barred brownish grey and black , tipped . . .
laymon , s . a . , and m . d . halterman . 1987 . can the western subspecies of the yellow - billed cuckoo be saved from extinction . w . birds 18 : 19 - 26 .
bogert , c ( 1937 ) birds collected during the whitney south sea expedition . 34 , the distribution and the migration of the long - tailed cuckoo ( urodynamis taitensis sparrman ) . american museum novitates 933 12 p .
they tend to conform to the classic shape , with ( usually ) long tails , short legs , long narrow wings and an arboreal lifestyle . the largest species , the channel - billed cuckoo , also has the most outsized
this is a trick to hide the egg from the host , and is exhibited in cuckoos that parasitize hosts with dark , domed nests . some adult parasitic cuckoos completely destroy the host ' s clutch if they reject the cuckoo egg .
some host species may directly try to prevent cuckoos laying eggs in their nest in the first place – birds whose nests are at high risk of cuckoo - contamination are known to ' mob ' cuckoos to drive them out of the area .
most of the nest - building cuckoos are monogamous , but the anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests . their behavior is not completely cooperative ; a female may remove others ' eggs when laying hers ( payne 2005 ) .
the common cuckoo shown at near right is typically gray male from a population in china . to the far right is a ' hepatic ' ( rufous ) morph female in its first autumn . females of this and other cuculus species often have gray morphs and hepatic morphs . this particular hepatic morph female represents california ' s first and only record of this old world species . long - distance migration can sometimes spin off vagrants on the ' wrong ' side of the pacific . there are a handful of records of common cuckoo and oriental cuckoo c . optatus in alaska , but this one was found by friends ( lois goldfrank , steve gerow ) at watsonville , in nearby santa cruz co . , and lingered from 28 sep–2 oct 2012 .
female parasitic cuckoos sometimes specialize and lay eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host . some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own , leading to those eggs least like the host ' s being thrown out of the nest .
cuckoos are birds of variable size with slender bodies , long tails , pointed wings , down - curved bills , and strong legs . the feet are zygodactyl : the two inner toes pointed forward and the two outer toes pointed backward . cuckoos range in size from the little bronze cuckoo , at 17 grams ( 0 . 6 ounces ) and 15 centimeters ( 6 inches ) , to the channel - billed cuckoo , at 630 grams ( 1 . 4 pounds ) and 63 centimeters ( 25 inches ) .
there are four species of lizard - cuckoos in the caribbean , almost all are single - island endemics and each has a dramatic long and impressive tail , and an equally dramatic long bill . this is puerto rican lizard - cuckoo ( above right ) .
on the other hand , the large forest species of south america often follow swarms of army - ants . these species belong to the genus neomorphus . they are uncommon to rare , and the banded ground - cuckoo ( neomorphus radiolosus ) is evaluated as endangered due to forest destruction .
some hosts do not exhibit egg rejection behavior and the cuckoo eggs look very dissimilar from the host eggs . it has also been shown in a study of the european cuckoos that females will lay their egg in the nest of a host that has eggs that look similar to its own .
the parasitism is not necessarily entirely detrimental to the host species . a 16 - year dataset was used in 2014 to find that parasitized crows ' nests were more successful overall ( more likely to produce at least one crow fledgling ) than cuckoo - free nests . the researchers attributed this to a strong - smelling substance secreted by cuckoo chicks when attacked that repels predators , and commented
interactions that have been clearly classified as ' parasitic ' or ' mutualistic ' might be more complex . perhaps we need to look more closely at these interactions before giving species such tags or labels
.
the roadrunners are fairly common in their habitat . the striped cuckoo is variably common to uncommon while the dromococcyx species are rare and local , as the neomorphus . all are resident in their range . they are sensitive to habitat disturbance , land clearance and overgrazing which destroys the low vegetation , and some species have restricted range .
the majority of cuckoo species , including malkohas , couas , coucals , and roadrunners , and most other american cuckoos , build their own nests . most of these species nest in trees or bushes , but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs . though on some occasions non - parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species , the parent still helps feed the chick .
payne , r . ( 2018 ) . pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the stripped cuckoo is the smallest of this subfamily with a length of 26 - 29 cm . this species frequents the open country with scattered trees , low seasonally wet grasslands , clearing in forest , brush at tropical forest edge and roadsides . it feeds on large insects and caterpillars , and forages alone on the ground . it often sways from side to side and fans the alula , probably to flush insects .
the three cuckoos mentioned represent different subfamilies . the variation among the cuculidae ranges from parasitic songsters that lay eggs in the nests of other birds ( the classic old world cuckoo ) to rangy ground - feeders in the new world to secretive skulkers whose gurgling
water - bottle
calls dominate an african swamp . this diversity supports the feeling among some that these wonderfully strange birds might better be separated into several families .
payne , r . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . large hawk - cuckoo ( hierococcyx sparverioides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
payne , r . , de juana , e . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . lesser cuckoo ( cuculus poliocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the final subfamily [ crotophaginae ] consists of three species of anis ( genus crotophaga ) — all of them all - black birds like the smooth - billed ani ( right ) — and one species in the genus guira , the guira cuckoo ( below ) which is sort - of like a blonde ani . all these birds forage on the ground or in small bushes in small flocks . they are communal birds that often roost together , and are co - operative breeders .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . moluccan cuckoo ( cacomantis aeruginosus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 10 july 2018 ) .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dromococcyx pavoninus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 15 side a track 44 seq . a )
el individuo se manifestó espontáneamente desde el estrato bajo , en un borde de selva marginal secundaria del río paraná con capueras y vegetación cerrada . posado en un gajo visible y bastante confiado , marcaba acústicamente su territorio . el canto de este registro presenta cierta variación con respecto al habitual .
individuo vocalizando de manera espontánea perchando a menos de un metro de altura del suelo en un sector de vegetación arbustiva aledaño a un camino de la isla . todo el sector se encontraba rodeado de bañados .
id accurancy : 95 % . habitat : low montane second growth forest . distance to mic : 20 m . tascam dr - 100mkii reference : 150409 _ 0037
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 16 side a track 2 seq . b )
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
proposed race perijanus ( from sierra de perijá , on n colombia–nw venezuela border ) generally considered inseparable . monotypic .
very patchily from colombia # r # r , venezuela and guyana through e peru and bolivia to brazil ( s to mato grosso , paraná , são paulo and rio de janeiro ) , paraguay and n argentina ( misiones ) ; recorded once in e ecuador ( napo ) # r .
27–30·5 cm ; 40·5–54 g . adult small - headed , thin - necked , dark above , with scaly feathers edged white on outer webs ( frosted appearance ) , crown , face . . .
call a whistled “püü , pee , püü - pe - pe” , first note lowest , last note . . .
lowland tropical evergreen forest , montane evergreen forest , scrub thickets , tangled forests with . . .
brood - parasitic : hosts include species with closed or bag - shaped nests ( tyrannidae , formicariidae ) . eggs white with purplish spots ; 21 mm . . .
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a bird looking around while perched on a low branch above the forest floor .
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most cuckoos reside in forests , but some prefer more open country . most are insect eaters , with hairy caterpillars , which are avoided by many birds , being a specialty .
parasitic female cuckoos are grouped into gentes ( singular
gens
) , that is , populations favoring a particular host species ' nest , with each gens laying eggs that match those of the host species in color and pattern . brood parasites , such as cuckoos , which use multiple host species to raise their chicks , evolve different gentes , each one specific to its host species . this specialization allows the parasites to lay eggs that mimic those of their hosts , which in turn reduces the chances of the eggs being rejected by the hosts . there is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another .
non - parasitic cuckoos , like most other non - passerines , lay white eggs , but many of the parasitic species lay colored eggs to match those of their passerine hosts .
the young of all species are altricial ( newly hatched young are relatively immobile , have closed eyes , lack feathers , and must be cared for by the adults ) . non - parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly , and some new world species have the shortest incubation periods among birds ( payne 2005 ) .
cuckoos are often highly secretive and in many cases best known for their wide repertoire of calls . calls are usually relatively simple , resembling whistles , flutes , or hiccups ( brooke and horsfall 2003 .
although cuckoos are diurnal , many species call at night ( payne 2005 ) .
the following is the systematics of the family cuculidae including coucals and anis as subfamilies within this taxon .
genus cursoricoccyx — fossil ( early miocene of logan county , u . s . ) —neomorphinae
cuculidae gen . et sp . indet . — fossil ( early pliocene of lee creek mine , u . s . : olson 1985 )
genus eocuculus — fossil ( late eocene of teller county , u . s . )
brooke , m . de l . , and j . a . horsfall . 2003 . cuckoos . in c . perrins ( ed . ) , firefly encyclopedia of birds . firefly books . isbn 1552977773 .
corlett , r . , and i . ping . 1995 . frugivory by koels in hong kong . memoirs of the hong kong natural history society 20 : 221 - 222 .
feduccia , a . 1996 . the origin and evolution of birds . new haven : yale university press . isbn 0300064608 .
kaiser , g . w . 2007 . the inner bird ; anatomy and evolution . vancouver , bc : ubc press . isbn 9780774813433 .
olson , s . l . 1985 . section vii . c . cuculidae . in d . s . farner , j . r . king , and k . c . parkes ( eds . ) , avian biology 8 : 110 - 111 .
payne , r . b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford university press . isbn 0198502133 .
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has been thought to be closely related to c . rochii , the two sometimes being treated as conspecific ; dna data , however , do not support a sister relationship between them # r . c . lepidus has been placed in present species , but available evidence does not support that treatment . monotypic .
n pakistan # r and kashmir e through himalayan foothills to khasi and naga hills , n myanmar and n indochina , and across china ( including taiwan and hainan , where seems to be resident # r # r ) to ussuriland , korea and japan . winters in sri lanka and e africa .
22–27 cm ; 40–59 g . adult male slate - grey above , tail and uppertail - coverts contrastingly blackish , tail with white tip and white spots at sides ; bend of wing . . .
loud , husky chattering song , “eat your chóky pepper” , comprising six notes at 1 . . .
forests , both broadleaf and pine , scrub , second growth ; in ussuriland in broadleaf forests of . . .
insects , mainly caterpillars ( geometrids , noctuids ) , also beetles , hymenoptera , mantids .
migratory , entire breeding population apparently moving sw or s to wintering grounds . winters in . . .
not globally threatened . few data on abundance ; common to fairly common locally in nepal . populations depend on maintaining habitat and numbers of its host species . not . . .
usually treated as conspecific with h . bocki . thought to be closer to h . varius , the two forming a clade with h . bocki as sister # r . monotypic .
himalayas from n pakistan and india to nepal , naga hills , manipur and meghalaya , thence e to china ( sichuan , n to lower yellow r valley ) , taiwan , and s to myanmar , thailand and indochina . winters mainly from ne india and thailand s to s & e india , peninsular malaysia , andaman is # r , greater and lesser sundas and philippines .
in breeding season , calls at dawn and at sunset into night ( especially during overcast weather ) , a . . .
deciduous and evergreen wooded areas , especially with oaks ( or oak - rhododendron in nepal ) , also in . . .
insects , mainly caterpillars ( including hairy species ) ; also hemiptera , crickets , grasshoppers , beetles , bugs , roaches , ants and spiders ; . . .
breeds apr–jul in w himalayas , apr–jun in assam ; eggs apr–may in myanmar ( where vocalizes late feb–jun ) . brood - . . .
mainly migratory : most individuals , at least from n of range and over most of china , move s to . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . common or fairly common breeder in many parts of range , notably thailand , nepal and india , and considered abundant in bhutan , but . . .
often subsumed within cuculus but shows notable morphological differences ( e . g . in wing shape and tail - barring ) , and genetic data support this grouping # r .
this article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .
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the other major question is how many families to create out of the diversity in the cuculiformes . sibley & ahlquist ( 1990 ) and sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) settled on five families but the handbook of the birds of the world account ( payne 1997 ) considers these five groups to be subfamilies , and further separates the malkohas and couas as another subfamily , making six subfamilies in all . then the malkohas and the couas are given
tribe
status , thus forming at least seven distinctive groups of cuckoos . i recommend that birders learn all seven groups , and that you search for each as you enjoy birding the world . here are the hbw six subfamilies :
prum et al . ( 2015 ) matched molecular evidence with fossil evidence to construct a phylogeny of modern birds . their evidence showed that the old world subfamily cuculinae diverged from the new world coccyzinae group about 22 million years ago ( mya ) and that the combined clade of old and new world cuckoos diverged from the coucals about 32 mya .
smooth - billed and groove - billed c . sulcirostris anis are very widespread species in the neotropics , and both reach north into the united states in south florida and south texas , respectively . smooth - bills , though , have become quite scarce and hard to find in florida ; groove - bills are interesting because vagrants can turn up widely throughout the u . s . ( i have chased three in california and finally got the third one ) . a recent survey on their u . s . status , plus good identification points , is in mlodinow & karlson ( 1999 ) .
was at intervales np , brazil , on 31 july 2010 . the party of
( at the top ) and the lone bird ( bottom of page ) were both taken at porte jofre , pantanal , brazil , on 21 july 2010 . the
was taken from a blind in kruger nat ' l park , south africa , in july 1996 . the
was at rajah sikatuna park , bohol , philippines on 20 dec 2005 . the drying
at mt . makiling , luzon , philippines , on 10 dec 2005 . dan singer shot the
were taken , respectively , at huzu , china , on 23 june 2004 , and watsonville , california , on 28 sep 2012 . the male
was at kalkapa reserve , ghana , on 29 nov 2013 . both shots of
were of a single male at antwikwaa , ghana , on 3 dec 2013 . the
was in puerto princesa np , palawan , philippines , on 23 dec 2005 . the
was in the hills above the baliem valley , irian jaya , new guinea , in aug 1994 . the
was at the olobogu river grasslands , sulawesi , indonesia , on 1 oct 2011 .
was in shirttail canyon , monterey county , california , on 19 oct 2014 . marc fenner photographed the
above lagartos , costa rica , on the road to monteverde , in april 1990 . kevin j . zimmer photographed the
at el valle , panama , on 29 mar 2010 . sarah hamilton took the photos of
that was netted and banded at the big sur ornithology lab , monterey co . , california , on 4 june 2003 . the
was along the rio cuiba , pantanal , brazil , on 22 july 2010 . the
was amongst a small party at ft . lauderdale , florida , on 21 dec 2006 .
uncredited photos © don roberson . credited photos © blake matheson , dan singer , marc fenner , kevin zimmer , and sarah hamilton of big sur ornithology lab , as credited , and used with permission ; all rights reserved .
payne , robert b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford univ . press , oxford .
beehler , b . m . , and t . k . pratt . 2016 . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics , princeton univ . press , princeton , n . j .
collar , n . j . , and a . j . long . 1995 . taxonomy and names of carpococcyx cuckoos from the greater sundas . forktail 11 : 135 - 150 .
fry , c . h . , s . keith , and e . k . urban , eds . 1988 . the birds of africa . vol iii . academic press , london .
hilty , s . l . , and w . l . brown . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton univ . press , princeton , n . j .
meyer de schauensee , r . 1966 . the species of birds of south america and their distribution . livingston publ . , narbeth , pa .
mlodinow , s . g . , and k . t . karlson . 1999 . anis in the united states and canada . n . am . birds 53 : 237 - 245 .
payne , r . b . 1997 . family cuculidae ( cuckoos ) , pp . 508–607 in handbook of the birds of the world ( del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , & j . sargatal , eds . ) . vol . 4 . lynx edicions , barcelona .
prum , r . o . , j . s . bery , a . dornburg , d . j . field , j . p . townsend , e . m . lemmon , and a . r . lemmon . 2015 . a comprehensive phylogeny of birds ( aves ) using targeted next - generation dna sequencing . nature 526 : 569–573 .
sibley , c . g . , and j . e . ahlquist . 1990 . phylogeny and classification of birds : a study in molecular evolution . yale univ . press , new haven , ct .
sibley , c . g . , and b . l . monroe , jr . 1990 . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale univ . press , new haven , ct . .
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the cuckoos are generally medium - sized slender birds . the majority are arboreal , with a sizeable minority that are terrestrial . the family has a cosmopolitan distribution , with the majority of species being tropical . some species are migratory . the cuckoos feed on insects , insect larvae and a variety of other animals , as well as fruit . many species are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other species , but the majority of species raise their own young .
the chestnut - breasted malkoha is typical of the phaenicophaeinae in having brightly coloured skin around the eye .
in size , but where it exists , it can be either the male or the female that is larger . one of the most important distinguishing features of the family are the feet , which are
, meaning that the two inner toes point forward and the two outer backward . there are two basic body forms , arboreal species ( like the
) which are more heavy set and have long tarsi . almost all species have long tails which are used for steering in terrestrial species and as a rudder during
in the arboreal species . the wing shape also varies with lifestyle , with the more
. the subfamily phaenicophaeinae are the non - parasitic cuckoos of the old world , and include the couas , malkohas , and ground - cuckoos . they are more terrestrial cuckoos , with strong and often long legs and short rounded wings . the subfamily typically has brighter plumage and brightly coloured bare skin around the eye . the
are another terrestrial subfamily of long tailed long legged and short winged cuckoos . they are large heavyset birds with the largest , the
of the cuckoos are generally soft , and often become waterlogged in heavy rain . cuckoos often sun themselves after rain , and the anis hold their wings open in the manner of a
plumage , whereas others have bright and elaborate plumage . this is particularly true of the
plumage . some cuckoos have a resemblance to hawks with barring on the underside ; this apparently alarms potential hosts , allowing the female to access a host nest .
the young of some brood parasites are coloured so as to resemble the young of the host . for example , the
in plumage is uncommon in the cuckoos , being most common in the parasitic old world species .
cuculinae is the most widespread subfamily of cuckoos , and is distributed across europe , asia , africa , australia and oceania . amongst the phaenicophaeinae cuckoos the malkohas and asian ground - cuckoos are restricted to southern asia , the couas are endemic to madagascar and the yellowbill widespread across africa . the coucals are distributed from africa through tropical asia down into australia and the solomon islands . the remaining three subfamilies have a new world distribution , all three are found in both north and south america . the coccyzinae reaches the furthest north of the three subfamilies , breeding in canada , whereas the anis reach as far north as florida and the typical ground - cuckoos the south west united states .
species breeding at higher latitudes migrate to warmer climates during the winter due to food availability . the
, which breeds in new zealand , flies to its wintering grounds in polynesia , micronesia , and melanesia , a feat described as
perhaps the most remarkable overwater migration of any land bird .
within africa , ten species make regular intra - continental migrations that are described as polarised ; that is , they spend the non - breeding season in the tropical centre of the continent and move north and south to breed in the more arid and open savannah and deserts .
this is the same as the situation in the neotropics , where no species have this migration pattern , or tropical asia , where a single species does . 83 % of the australian species are partial migrants within australia or travel to
, including noxious hairy types avoided by other birds . they are unusual among birds in processing their prey prior to swallowing , rubbing it back and forth on hard objects such as branches and then crushing it with special bony plates in the back of the mouth .
, specialised in taking lizards . larger , ground types such as coucals and roadrunners also feed variously on snakes , lizards , small rodents , and other birds , which they bludgeon with their strong bills . ground species may employ different techniques to catch prey . a study of two
ran and pounced on prey . both species also showed seasonal flexibility in prey and foraging techniques .
, although some studies in eastern australia found several species participated in the non - breeding season , but were mobbed and unable to do so in the breeding season .
they snatch prey flushed by the cattle and enjoy higher foraging success rates in this way .
. other species occasionally take fruit as well . couas consume fruit in the dry season when prey is harder to find .
the cuckoos are an extremely diverse group of birds with regards to breeding systems .
and is suspected to occur in the other coucals , perhaps explaining the reversed sexual dimorphism in the group .
( see below ) . most of these species nest in trees or bushes , but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs . though on some occasions non - parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species , the parent still helps feed the chick .
non - parasitic cuckoos , like most other non - passerines , lay white eggs , but many of the parasitic species lay coloured eggs to match those of their passerine hosts .
. non - parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly , and some new world species have the shortest incubation periods among birds .
these species are obligate brood parasites , meaning that they only reproduce in this fashion . in addition to the above noted species , yet others sometimes engage in non - obligate brood parasitism , laying their eggs in the nests of members of their own species in addition to raising their own young . the best - known example is the european
they have two distinct layers with an outer chalky layer that is believed to provide resistance to cracking when the eggs are dropped in the host nest .
cuckoos have various strategies for getting their egg into a host nest . different species use different strategies based on host defensive strategies . female cuckoos have secretive and fast laying behaviors , but in some cases , males have been shown to lure host adults away from their nests so that the female can lay her egg in the nest .
, with each gens specializing in a particular host . there is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another .
parasitic cuckoos that show the highest levels of egg mimicry are those whose hosts exhibit high levels of egg rejection behavior .
. calls are usually relatively simple , resembling whistles , flutes , or hiccups .
and to attract a mate . within a species the calls are remarkably consistent across the range , even in species with very large ranges . this suggests , along with the fact that many species are not raised by their true parents , that the calls of cuckoos are innate and not learnt . although cuckoos are diurnal , many species call at night .
hackett , s . j . ; et al . ( 2008 ) .
a phylogenomic study of birds reveals their evolutionary history
.
payne r . b . ( 1997 )
family cuculidae ( cuckoos )
, pp . 508–45 in del hoyo j , elliott a , sargatal j ( eds ) ( 1997 ) . handbook of the birds of the world volume 4 ; sandgrouse to cuckoos lynx edicions : barcelona . isbn 84 - 87334 - 22 - 9
ellis , d ; kepler , c ; kepler , a ; teebaki , k ( 1990 ) .
hockey , p ( 2000 ) .
patterns and correlates of bird migrations in sub - saharan africa
.
chan , k ( 2001 ) .
partial migration in australian landbirds : a review
.
kaiser , g . w . ( 2007 ) the inner bird ; anatomy and evolution . ubc press . vancouver . isbn 978 - 0 - 7748 - 1343 - 3 .
chouteau , philippe ; raymond fenosoa ( 2008 ) .
seasonal effects on foraging behaviour of two sympatric species of couas in the western dry forest of madagascar
.
bell , h ( 1986 ) .
the participation by cuckoos in mixed - species flocks of insectivorous birds in south - eastern australia
.
smith , s ( 1971 ) .
the relationship of grazing cattle to foraging rates in anis
.
corlett , r ; ping , i ( 1995 ) .
frugivory by koels in hong kong
.
goymann , w ; wittenzellner , a ; wingfield , j ( 2004 ) .
competing females and caring males . polyandry and sex - role reversal in african black coucals ,
robert b . payne , michael d . sorenson , karen klitz ( 2005 ) the cuckoos : cuculidae . oxford university press . p . 127


the dwarf manatee ( trichechus pygmaeus , or mistakenly trichechus bernhardi ) is a possible species of manatee found in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuanã river .

according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposed it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast-running water , and feeds on different species of aquatic plants from the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper , slower-moving waters and the plants found there .

the dwarf manatee reportedly migrates upriver during the rainy season when the river floods to the headwaters and shallow ponds .

based on its small range , the dwarf manatee is suggested to be considered critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .

the dwarf manatee is typically about 130 cm ( 4.3 ft ) long , and weighs about 60 kg ( 130 lb ) , making it the smallest extant sirenians .

it may actually represent an immature amazonian manatee , but it is reported to differ in proportions and colour .

it is , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two .

mutation rates in manatees – if the dwarf manatee is distinct – suggests a divergence time of less than 485,000 years .

daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and one of the world 's foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees .

dwarf manatee

however , the validity of the dwarf manatee as a species is the subject of debate , with some believing it to be an immature amazonian manatee .
dwarf sperm whales are usually solitary , but have occasionally been seen in small pods .
the dwarf sperm whale is the smallest species commonly known as a whale . it grows up to
picture info : picture 1 : marc van roosmalen with juv . female dwarf marmoset callibella humilis picture 2 : dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 3 : marc van roosmalen with dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 4 : callicebus ( hoffmansi ) sp . nov . rio mamuru titi monkey picture 5 : agouti - colored agouti dasyprocta sp . nov . picture 6 : cacajao ( calvus ) sp . nov . rio pauini bald - headed uakary
the amazonian manatee are the smallest ones out there . they are only found in freshwater locations . this is where the debate for the dwarf manatee comes in . they too are only seen in freshwater . they are extremely small so they are termed dwarf to identify them . many researchers feel that they are genetically mutated from the amazonian though and not a distinctly different species .
the manatee has been protected by peruvian law since 1973 , via supreme decree 934 - 73 - ag , prohibiting hunting and commercial use of the manatee .
the manatee consumes approximately 8 % of its body weight in food per day .
there are no national management plans for the amazonian manatee , except in colombia .
there is a debate about there being three or four species of manatees . since it isn’t known for sure , i think it is only right to touch on all four of them here . the manatee species that have been identified are the florida manatee , the west african manatee , and the amazonian manatee . the one that is debated over is the dwarf manatee . some feel they are a separate species while others view them as a smaller version of others out there . only time will tell what the verdict is on that one .
according to van roosmalen’s scientific description of the dwarf manatee , it lives in one of the tributaries of rio aripuanã where it inhabits shallow , fast running water . this distinguishes it from the amazonian manatee which is known to prefer deep and slow moving waters and is found throughout a much larger part of south america . there is also a difference in diet ; both animals feed on aquatic plants but on different species . in addition to this , there is a significant disparity in both proportions and colour . the dwarf manatee weighs about 60 kg as an adult and has a dark , almost black , body adorned with a white patch on the abdomen . the amazonian manatee is much larger than the dwarf manatee and can weigh over 500 kg . this difference has been used by both sides ; those who believe that it is a separate species and those who believe it to be an immature amazonian manatee .
the dwarf manatee ( trichechus “pygmaeus” , or mistakenly trichechus “bernhardi” ) is a possible species of manatee that lives in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuanã river . according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposes it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast running water and feeds on different species of aquatic plants than the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper slower moving waters and the plants found there . based on its tiny range , it has been suggested that the dwarf manatee is critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .
the amazonian manatee lacks nails on its flippers , setting it apart from other manatees .
they are occasionally found overlapping with the west indian manatee along the coasts of brazil .
all three species of manatee—the amazonian manatee , west indian manatee , and west african manatee—and the related dugong are considered vulnerable ( defined as facing a high risk of extinction in the wild ) by the iucn red list of threatened species . this is due to a variety of threats including boat collisions , hunting , habitat destruction , and toxic red tides .
international trade of the amazonian manatee and any of its products is prohibited under appendix i of cites . other local projects and organizations helping to conserve the manatee include projeto peixe - boi / centre for aquatic mammals , mamiraua project and the friends of the manatee association . amazonian manatee hunting has been prohibited since 1973 ; however , its population trend is still decreasing .
the manatee does not have incisors or canine teeth , only cheek teeth ( molars ) .
the dwarf sperm whale was actively hunted by commercial whalers . occasional harpoon kills are still made by indonesian and japanese fishermen . since the dwarf is more coastal than the pygmy , it may be more vulnerable to human activities such as fishing and pollution . insufficient data exist as to whether such activities threaten the species survival .
as the story goes , marc came across the skull of a dwarf manatee and , suspecting it was a new species , searched for it for two years before finding a living specimen . upon locating a couple , he fenced in a portion of the river and studied them in their natural habitat for four months . like its saltwater brethren , the dwarf river manatee lives mostly off aquatic plants but hopes someday to land a lucrative career as a pet in japan . much more info can be found on marc’s site .
5 . the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) lives entirely in freshwater rivers throughout south america in the amazon basin . it is hard to estimate their numbers due to their secretive nature and the murky water where they often live . a fourth dwarf manatee species was described in the mid - 2000s , but this claim was called into question and it is believed to actually be a juvenile amazonian manatee . the main threat to this species is illegal harpoon hunting for subsistence .
see the supplementary material for table 1 : summary of reported data by country for extant manatee populations .
, comes from latin meaning
hair
, referencing the whiskers around the manatee ' s mouth .
the manatee ' s upper lip is modified into a large bristly surface , which is deeply divided .
as of 1977 the population count of the amazonian manatee was estimated to be around 10 , 000 .
i met marc two years ago on a school trip to the amazon rain forest and we traveled down the aripuana tributary where he found the dwarf manatee . unfortunately we didn’t see one , but we did see its teethmarks left behind on the aquatic grass it feeds from = )
the manatee has thick stubby bristles on this mouth . this helps it to uproot foot on the river bed .
maintaining an herbivorous diet , the manatee has a similar post - gastric digestive process to that of the horse .
the amazonian manatee occurs exclusively in freshwater and is the only manatee to do so . it prefers blackwater lakes , oxbows and lagoons . they seem to live most successfully in temperatures of 22 - 30’c ( 72 - 86’f ) .
the manatee has muscular lips which it uses with its front flippers to grab food and pull it into its mouth .
dwarf manatees are typically about 130 cm long , and weigh about 60 kg , making them the smallest extant sirenians . it is overall very dark , almost black , with a white patch on the abdomen . it has been suggested that it actually represents an immature amazonian manatee , but they are reported to differ in proportions and colour . they are , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two . based on mutation rates in manatees – if the dwarf manatee is distinct – this suggests a divergence time of less than 485 , 000 years . daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and the world’s foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees .
mgmvr : my website designer mistakenly named the dwarf manatee after the late prince bernhard of the netherlands like i had done with the new titi monkey callicebus bernhardi in my 2002 review of the genus callicebus . it took a while before i noticed it on my website . i then changed the name into trichechus pygmaeus as in the paper i submitted earlier to nature .
the dwarf sperm whale ( kogia sima , formerly kogia simus ) is one of three extant species in the sperm whale family . they are not often sighted at sea , and most extant information comes from the study of stranded carcasses .
l marino , k sudheimer , da pabst , wa mclellan , and ji johnson ( 2003 ) . magnetic resonance images of the brain of a dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) . journal of anatomy , 203 ( 1 ) : 57–76
still , splitting hairs can only go so far . if the pictured animal is adult , that’s a different manatee , whatever science calls it .
yeah there is a dvd out about this guy and his search for the pygmy manatee . it is real interesting . it is called the species hunter
for more information on the efforts underway to defend the manatee’s discoverer marc roosmalen against the allegedly fictional charges he is facing in brazil , visit urltoken .
the amazonian manatee has the smallest degree of rostral deflection ( 25° to 41° ) among sirenians , an adaptation to feed closer to the water surface .
the amazonian manatee has a large paddle like tail which helps propel it through the water . it moves at 5mph but can reach speeds of up to 15mph .
regardless of whether this is truly is new species or merely an immature version of the amazonian manatee , i certainly agree with christopher collinson’s comments on the tetrapod zoology blog : “ on a side note , why the heck are those dwarf manatees so friggen adorable ? they have way more cutesy factor than any one animal should be allowed to posess , its at least like a million times more than regular old plain jane manatees . ”
i give the chinese about two weeks to discover the incredible , magical , aphrodisiac powers from dried , ground pygmy manatee testicles . these things are f - ed .
the amazon ox manatee is gray and bears a white patch on its chest or several white markings on its chest and abdomen . its body is covered with fine hairs and its upper and lower lips are covered with thick bristles . it has two axillary mammae . the largest manatee recorded was a male 2 . 8m in length .
mgmvr : claims that the holotype skull and mandible of the dwarf manatee that i collected simply represent a juvenile common amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis come from daryl domning , who was the referee for the article on the dwarf manatee . it was therefore rejected for publication by the editors of nature . since then i have seen several solitary ranging specimens of the ‘pretinho’ – as the animal is called in the area of the rio arauazinho , the only clearwater - river in which it seems to occur – that were all adults of about 1 . 3 m long . we even kept alive an adult male my field assistant had captured before . after four months it managed to escape from the coral we had constructed in a bend of the rio arauazinho . this specimen also measured 1 . 3 m and weighed only 60 kg . we fed him with the species’ prime food eleocharis minima , an amphibious grass belonging to the cyperaceae . he only took it in if we had fixed the grass on the sandy bottom of his pan . a specimen of the common amazonian manatee of this size and weight would still have been nursed by its mother and would not have fed on any plant material at all . it soon would have starved to death .
the amazonian manatees of peru have experienced much of their decline due to hunting by human populations for meat , blubber , skin and other materials that can be collected from the manatee .
the discovery of a valid species of pygmy sea cow calls for a review of the latest on the amazonian dwarf manatee debate . in regard to this alleged new species , wikipedia has a good , new ( december 23 , 2009 ) overview of what has occurred since the announced “discovery” of this new species , written possibly by an unknown british or canadian author ( rn1970 ? ) , ( given in plain text below to retain the italicized names , which are critical to the passage ) :
at this time manatees made their first appearance in caribbean and in north america . they evolved in rivers of sa and only at this time spread north to caribbean . at this time they evolved renewable teeth to withstand wear of griding sea grasses . perhaps disappearance of dugongs , manatees filled the vacuum ( domning , sa ;
west indian tuskers
) there are three living species of manatee ( family trichechidae ) and one species of dugong ( family dugongidae ) ( fig . 1 ) ) . the florida manatee ( trechcus manatus latirostris ) is one subspecies of the west indian manatee . the antilian manatee ( trichechus manatus manatus ) is the other west indian subspecies . west indian manatees occupy coastal and estuarine waters throughout the caribbean .
this might not be news for some of you , but for those of you that has missed it : a new species of manatee might have been encountered by dr marc van roosmalen in the brazilian amazon ! not only is this believed to be an entirely new species of manatee ; it is also the smallest living member of the order sirenia , measuring no more than 130 cm as an adult .
probably the most well known group of manatee is the florida species . people come from all over to watch them during the year . this is also the place where many manatees migrate in the winter months as they have to move to warmer bodies of water . it is important to understand that the term florida manatee pertains to those that are there all year as well as many that migrate there .
dwarf sperm whales and pygmy sperm whales are unique among cetaceans in using a form of
ink
to evade predation in a manner similar to squid . both species have a sac in the lower portion of their intestinal tract that contains up to 12 l of dark reddish - brown fluid , which can be ejected to confuse or discourage potential predators .
the dwarf sperm whale is similar in appearance and behavior to its relative , the pygmy sperm whale . identification may be close to impossible at sea ; however , the dwarf is slightly smaller and has a larger dorsal fin . the body is mainly bluish gray with a lighter underside with possible yellowish vein - like streaks . a white false gill is behind each eye . the flippers are very short and broad . the top of the snout overhangs the lower jaw , which is small . dwarves have long , curved , sharp teeth ( none to six in the upper jaw and between 14 and 26 in the lower ) . these teeth led to the species being described as the
rat porpoise
in the lower antilles .
gallican g . j . , r . c . best , and j . w . kanwisher . 1982 . temperature regulation in the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . physiological zoology the university of chicago press 255 - 262 .
today , the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the family kogiidae and genus kogia . the two species were not regarded as separate until 1966 . most taxonomists regard the family kogiidae as belonging to the superfamily physeteroidea , though some consider this taxon to be a subfamily ( kogiinae ) of the family physeteridae .
pazin - guterres , michelle ( 2014 ) .
feeding ecology of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) in the mamirauá and amanã sustainable development reserves , brazil .
. aquatic mammals 40 ( 2 ) : 139–149 .
- manatees are closely related to elephants , - another name for the amazonian manatee is yara , which is a brazilian indian word meaning ‘lady of the water’ . - manatees are believed to be the origin of the mermaid myths .
the similarity in dna as analysed by my geneticist in the netherlands could be explained for as follows . either some gene flow has taken place between the inunguis population of the rio aripuanã and the ancient pygmaeus population that was allopatrically confined to the rio arauazinho during the last glacials of the late - pleistocene and holocene when ocean levels dropped over 100 - 120 m . but during the interglacials males of inunguis theoretically could have mated once - in - a - while with pygmaeus females while foraging during the annual flood in the clearwater floodplain forest ( igapó ) of the lower rio arauazinho . or , during one of the last glacials a population of inunguis got trapped in the rio arauazinho basin and had to drastically change its feeding and foraging habits and dwarf in a time scale of some tens of thousand years at the most . we know that this is possible from a number of other creatures that dwarfed in relatively short periods of time , such as the now extinct homo floresiensis from the isle of flores and the dwarf elephant elephas cretensis from the isle of crete . nobody objects if palaeontologists give extinct creatures species status but many question the validity of new extant species if not backed up by dna genome analysis . this is bad news for nature conservationists with a species protection approach like me . if the dwarf manatee would have been accepted by the scientific community as a full and valid species , announced as such in nature , no doubt the whole rio arauazinho would have been declared a rigidly protected nature reserve . it is sad to witness that because of scientific squabbling over taxonomy , a unique population of maybe not more than one hundred dwarf manatees is going extinct soon after the lower rio aripuanã basin has been declared a ‘sustainable development reserve’ . in nowadays brazil that means a ‘carte blanche’ to destruction .
) are found only in the united states , although a few vagrants have been known to reach the bahamas . their year - round distribution is restricted to peninsular florida because they need warm water to survive the winter . during the non - winter months ( march to november ) , some manatees disperse to adjoining states . along the atlantic coast these states include georgia ( highest manatee use outside of florida ) , south carolina , north carolina , and virginia ; one satellite - tagged manatee traveled as far north as rhode island ( deutsch
the amazonian manatee is a seasonal breeder with a gestational period of 12–14 months and a prolonged calving period . most births take place between december and july , with about 63 % between february and may , during a time of rising river levels in their native region .
13 . if you are a mammal—whether that’s a human , giraffe , whale or rat—then you typically have seven neck vertebrae . only tree sloths and manatees have an irregular number of vertebrae—just six for the manatee . scientists think this may have to do with their slow metabolism .
the gestation period of an amazonian manatee is one year . breeding has been reported to occur throughout the year but reproduction in the central amazon basin is seasonal as nearly all births take place from december – july ( mainly from february – may when the water level rises ) . a female manatee will give birth to one calf every two years . the calf will measure about 30 inches ( 80 cm ) at birth . it will begin to nurse after a few hours by suckling from a teat under the pectoral flippers and will do so underwater .
international trade of this species is prohibited due to its listing on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) . this species has suffered huge losses but is locally abundant in the more remote regions of the amazonian river basin . however , it is very difficult to control hunting in these economically depressed areas and they are still killed for meat ( 3 ) . while numerous federal , state , and local conservation measures are in place to protect the florida manatee ( t . manatus latirostris ) , south america has limited resources for funding comprehensive conservation projects . several effective programs in brazil include surveys by projeto peixe - boi / center for aquatic mammals ( 14 ) , sustainable use research by mamirauá project ( 15 ) , and education / outreach efforts by the friends of the manatee association ( 16 ) . the harbour branch division of marine mammal research and conservation conducts manatee conservation outreach programs in brazil and plays an important role in rehabilitating injured , sick or orphaned individuals ( 12 ) . it is hoped that these measures combined with stronger hunting laws will allow the ancient and wonderful amazonian manatee to recover ( 12 ) ( 13 ) .
3 . warm water is a must for the west indian and west african manatee species . with low metabolic rates and minimal fat protection from cold water , they stick to water that is 60 degrees or warmer . they may look fat and insulated , but the large body of the manatee is mostly made up of their stomach and intestines ! in colder months , they find their way to warm river tributaries or warm water outputs from power plants . in 2010 at least 246 manatees died in florida due to cold stress from the colder - than - normal winter .
seasonal breeding in the amazonian manatee , trichechus inunguis ( mammalia : sirenia ) robin c . best biotropica , vol . 14 , no . 1 ( mar . , 1982 ) , pp . 76 - 78 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken
once known to occur in large herds and have healthy populations ( 2 ) , the amazonian manatee has suffered from extensive hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . it has been sought for meat , oil and fat , and at one time for its hide , which was in demand for use as water hoses and machine belts ( 7 ) . threats now include hunting and accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets . the deforestation of large areas of the forests surrounding this manatee ' s river habitats has also caused soil erosion , degradation of food supplies and the reduction of vegetation in the waterways ( 7 ) .
classified as vulnerable ( vu a1cd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , listed on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) , and listed as endangered by the us endangered species act . ( 5 ) . the amazonian manatee also has a global heritage status rank of g2 ( 5 ) .
the west african manatee continues to decrease in numbers . they are found along africa in the tropical and sub tropical waters . they tend to be losing their natural habitat due to global warming as well as human interactions . conservation efforts there aren’t as great as in the usa though and that is a concern .
regardless of which species a manatee belongs to , they all have certain things in common . they are very gentle creatures as well as very intelligent . they are herbivores and live their entire lives in the water . they must find water that is at least 60 degrees fahrenheit or warmer in order to survive .
the amazonian manatee is a most bizarre - looking aquatic mammal , and was first described as a curious combination of a hippopotamus and a seal ( 6 ) . its body is large , dark grey to black and smooth - skinned , and its forelimbs are modified into flippers like a seal ' s ( 17 ) . it has no hind limbs , and the rear of the body forms a flat , rounded horizontal paddle ( 7 ) . the head is rounded , with nostrils on the upper surface of the snout ( 8 ) . the amazonian manatee is smaller and more slender than the other two manatee species ( west indian manatees trichechus manatus and west african manatees t . senegalensis ) ( 7 ) . it can also be identified by the lack of nails on its flippers , a characteristic referred to in its scientific name , t . inunguis , which literally means ' no nails ' ( 9 ) . a unique feature ( amongst mammals ) of the manatee is the constant replacement of molar teeth ; new teeth enter at the back of the jaw and replace old and worn teeth at the front ( 10 ) . recent evidence suggests that manatees may possess a unique 6th sense that enables them to detect pressure changes through sensory hairs ( 11 ) .
metabolism and respiration of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . g . j . gallivan and r . c . best . physiological zoology , vol . 53 , no . 3 ( jul . , 1980 ) , pp . 245 - 253 . published by : the university of chicago press . article stable url : urltoken
other highly memorable discoveries were those of some large terrestrial mammals whose existence i did not know of until i had close encounters with them while hiking alone through the forest . first spotting of a giant peccary ( pecari maximus ) family silently crossing my trail while i was watching a group of gray sakis in the canopy , or a group of dwarf peccaries ( pecari ? ) bumping literally into my feet while chasing one another through the undergrowth . and , back in camp , asking the locals what the hell the creature was that i had come upon that day…
eventually , however , van roosmalen ' s iconoclastic style bred resentment . in a country where foreigners—especially foreign scientists—are often regarded with suspicion , his pale complexion and heavily accented portuguese marked him as an outsider , even after he became a naturalized brazilian citizen in 1997 . colleagues were irked by van roosmalen ' s habit of failing to fill out the cumbersome paperwork required by the institute before venturing into the field . they also questioned his methodology . for example , says mario cohn - haft , an american ornithologist at inpa , he often based his findings of a new species on a single live , orphaned monkey , whose provenance could not be proved and whose fur color and other traits might have been altered in captivity . louise emmons , an adjunct zoologist at the smithsonian institution , characterizes van roosmalen ' s discovery of a new species of peccary as
not convincing scientifically ,
and smithsonian research associate daryl domning questions his
discovery
of a dwarf manatee on an amazon tributary .
there ' s no doubt at all in my mind that his ' new species ' is nothing but immature individuals of the common amazonian manatee ,
says domning .
this is even confirmed by the dna evidence he himself cites .
evoked brain potentials demonstrate hearing in a manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . theodore h . bullock , daryl p . domning and robin c . best , journal of mammalogy , vol . 61 , no . 1 ( feb . , 1980 ) , pp . 130 - 133 published by : american society of mammalogists article stable url : urltoken
the manatee is a large , cylinder shaped animal where the general coloration is grey , although most amazonian manatees have a distinct white or bright pink patch on the chest . the forelimbs have been modified into flippers and have a flat , rounded , horizontal paddle at the rear . the upper lip has evolved into a large , bristly surface .
11 . manatee brains are smooth ( compared to our own that have the familiar ins and outs of cortical folds ) and the ratio of their brain to their body size is the lowest of any mammal . they may not be as clever as dolphins , but manatees can learn basic tasks , are extremely sensitive to touch and can differentiate colors .
ecology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken
i once read a claim that in this day and age , there cannot be anymore large animals out there to be discovered , besides the stuff lurking around in the deep oceans . and lo and behold , they go and find a manatee , which , if it’s like its larger cousin , is not prone to evading detection . so what else is out there ?
the amazonian manatee’s main threat is hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . they have been sought for their meat , oil and fat , and in the past , its hide , which could be used for water hoses and belts . other threats to this creature include accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets and degradation of food supplies by soil erosion , which is caused by deforestation .
ecology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador . robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson . biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 . published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation . article stable url : urltoken
the dwarf sperm whale prefers deep water , but is more coastal than the pygmy sperm . its favorite habitat appears to be just off the continental shelf . in the atlantic , strandings have been observed in virginia , united states in the west and spain and the united kingdom in the east , and as far south as southern brazil and the tip of africa . in the indian ocean , specimens have been found on the south coast of australia and on many places along the indian ocean ' s northern coast - from south africa to indonesia . in the pacific , the known range includes the japanese coast and british columbia . no global population estimates have been made . one survey estimated a population of about 11 , 000 in the eastern pacific .
we are not sure what the bigger story here is : the discovery of a new species of tiny adorable river manatee or the fact that this happened in july and we just learned about it last week ! anyway , these critters were discovered by a pioneering amazonian biologist by the name of marc van roosmalen and covered by darren naish of tetrapod zoology a few months back . tetrapod is kind of the better researched , actually informative , articulate and all around nerdier version of zooillogix .
the amazonian manatee ( trichechus ininguis ) lives entirely in the amazon river and its tributaries . a third species of manatee , the west african , ( trichechus senagalensis ) occupies the coastal waterways of the west african continent . dugongs ( dugong dugon ) occupy the marine coasts of east africa , the indian subcontinent , malaysia , indonesia and northern australia . a fifth , and largest sirenian of recent times , the stellars sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) , was also a member of the family dugongidae . these enormous sirenians had evolved further to occupy the colder waters along the shores of the eastern pacific ocean . these animals survived off the aleutian islands until 1872 , when the last animal of this species was killed for food , 28 years after being first sighted . although there is only one living species of dugong , ancestors resembling them were diverse and widely distributed in the fossil record . sirenians were most diverse in the miocene ( 5 - 25 mya ) when tropical conditions were widespread .
14 . manatees have no natural predators in the wild but humans have played a large part in making all three species at risk of extinction . about half of west indian manatee deaths are caused by humans , and most are due to boat collisions . manatees are quite buoyant and use their horizontally placed diaphragm and breathing to control their buoyancy . this and their average speed of 3 to 5 miles per hour means that manatees are way too slow to escape from the path of a speeding boat .
in september 2002 , wildlife - researcher dr marc van roosmalen collected a complete skull from a recently killed specimen , but it would take an additional two years before he could finally photograph , film and examine a live specimen in its natural environment . as per usual when a new mammal is “discovered” , the species is only new to the scientific community , not to the locals of the area , and the skull of the specimen collected by van roosmalen came from a manatee that had been killed and eaten by the locals .
. 2003 ) , and another manatee was observed in new york ( long island ) . along the gulf coast west of florida , manatees are occasionally sighted in alabama , mississippi , louisiana , and texas . the source ( florida or mexico ) of the texas manatees is not always clear , but the weight of recent genetic and other evidence suggests most are from the florida subspecies . major freshwater bodies utilized by manatees in florida include lake okeechobee , st . johns river , suwannee river , caloosahatchee river , among others .
despite their size and stubbly snout , manatees seem cute and cuddly to many ocean visitors . these large , slow - moving marine mammals hang out in coastal areas and rivers where florida spring - breakers can easily see them and think that it is a good idea to hop on for a ride . not only is this and other forms of harassment such as hugging the sea creatures illegal ( the west indian manatee is listed as endangered in the united states ) , but it can also impact manatees’ natural behavior , changing the way they interact with humans .
justification : listed as vulnerable because the number of mature individuals is currently estimated to number less than 10 , 000 ( based on combined population estimates for the florida and antillean subspecies ) and is expected to decline at a rate of at least 10 % over the course of three generations ( given a generation time of ~ 20 years ) as a result of both habitat loss and anthropogenic factors . trichechus manatus latirostris : en c1 : the florida manatee subspecies is listed as endangered on the basis of a population size of less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and the population is estimated to decline by at least 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years ) due to anticipated future changes in warm - water habitat and threats from increasing watercraft traffic over the next several decades . trichechus manatus manatus : en c1 : the antillean manatee subspecies is listed as endangered because the current population is estimated at less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and is predicted to undergo a decline of more than 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years for an unexploited population , based on t . m . latirostris data ) without effective conservation actions , due to current and projected future anthropogenic threats ( habitat degradation and loss , hunting , accidental fishing - related mortality , pollution , and human disturbance ) .
the west indian manatee is currently divided into the florida ( t . m . latirostris ) and antillean ( t . m . manatus ) subspecies ( hatt 1934 , domning and hayek 1986 ) . recent mtdna data ( garcía - rodríguez et al . 1998 , vianna et al . 2006 ) indicate three distinctive lineages corresponding geographically with : ( 1 ) florida and the greater antilles ; ( 2 ) western and southern gulf of mexico , central america , and nw south america west of the lesser antilles ; and ( 3 ) ne south america east of the lesser antilles . evidence exists for viable hybridization with t . inunguis near the mouth of the amazon , in guyana , french guiana , and possibly suriname .
marc g . m . van roosmalen ( mgmvr ) : most fun but also most time and energy consuming for me was finding the ‘land of dermis’ , where the relatives of dermis occur – the baby black - capped dwarf marmoset that was delivered on my manaus doorstep april 1996 . with decades of experience in keeping all kinds of primates in halfway houses i knew right away that dermis represented a new species of monkey and , undoubtedly , also a new primate genus . that event instantly took away the scepsis in me as a primatologist that nowadays it would be impossible to find new species of primates hitherto unknown to science . the quest that followed to find the monkey’s distribution somewhere in the huge rio madeira basin had me stumbling into a conan doyle type of ‘lost world’ – the rio aripuanã basin – a hotspot of biodiversity that i soon recognized to be a totally new ecosystem within amazonia , whose fauna and flora had never before been inventoried by naturalists , animal collectors , botanists and ornithologists alike . it took me a number of boat surveys to find callibella humilis , a needle in a haystack as big as france . during innumerable surveys of the local rainforest and through interviews with the locals showing pictures of dermis i happened to identify at least five other hitherto undescribed primates in the area .
during the warm season ( march or april through october or november , depending on latitude and year ) , manatees disperse throughout the coastal waters , estuaries , and major rivers of florida and some migrate to neighboring states , particularly south - eastern georgia . their range constricts dramatically in the winter season ( december to february ) when manatees seek shelter from the cold at a limited number of warm - water sites or areas in the southern two - thirds of florida . these sites include 10 principal power plant thermal outfalls ( seven on the atlantic coast , three on the gulf coast ) and four major artesian springs ( blue spring , springs at the head of crystal river , homosassa spring , and warm mineral spring ) that are frequented by a large proportion of the manatee population during winter .
the next morning , our last on the rio negro , the crew anchored the boat at the base of a cliff , and van roosmalen , vivi and i climbed a steep wooden staircase to a nature camp at the edge of the jungle . with a local guide and his two mangy dogs leading the way , we followed a sinuous trail through terre firma vegetation : primary rain forest that , unlike the igapó we ' d been exploring , sits high enough above the river to avoid submersion during the rainy season . van roosmalen pointed out lianas as thick as large anacondas , and explained how these and other epiphytes ( flora , in this setting , that live on other plants in the forest canopy ) function as giant vessels for capturing carbon dioxide , and thus play a vital role in reducing global warming .
the total surface of leaves in a rain forest is a thousand , maybe even a million times bigger than the monoculture they want to convert the amazon into ,
he told me . farther down the jungle trail , he showed me a dwarf species of palm tree that captures falling leaves in its basketlike fronds ; the decomposing material scatters around the base of the tree and fortifies the nutrient - poor soil , allowing the palm to thrive .
every creature in the rain forest develops its survival strategy ,
he said .
for van roosmalen , the journey into the depths of the brazilian prison system marked the low point of a terrible fall from grace . at the height of his career , just five years earlier , the scientist had been hailed as one of the world ' s most intrepid field naturalists and a passionate voice for rain forest preservation . in his native holland , where he is a household name , he received the country ' s highest environmental honor , the order of the golden ark , from the netherlands ' prince bernhard , consort to queen juliana , in 1997 ; the national geographic documentary species hunter , filmed in 2003 , celebrated his adventurous spirit as he trekked up remote amazonian tributaries in search of rare flora and fauna . van roosmalen claimed to have identified seven never - before - seen species of primates—including a dwarf marmoset and a rare orange - bearded titi monkey—along with a collarless , piglike peccary and a variety of plant and tree species . he had used these discoveries to promote his bold ideas about the amazon ' s unique evolutionary patterns and to give momentum to his quest to carve these genetically distinct zones into protected reserves , where only research and ecotourism would be allowed .
time after time after time , [ van roosmalen has contributed to ] this sense that we ' re still learning about life on earth ,
says tom lovejoy , who conceived the public television series nature and today is president of the h . john heinz iii center for science , economics and the environment in washington , d . c .
listed on appendix i of cites . presently there are no national management plans specific for the species , except in colombia . management plans exist for two protected areas ( pacaya samiria in peru and mamiraua reserve in brazil ) , and two communities in colombia ( puerto narino and mocagua ) have informal local management agreements ( ministerio de ambiente , vivienda y desarrollo territorial and fundacin omacha 2005 ) . amazonian manatees have been recorded from two protected areas in ecuador , two in colombia , four in peru and 23 in brazil . unfortunately , hunting continues even within protected areas . presently , inpa ( instituto nacional de pesquisas da amaznia ) cares for 34 captive manatees including eight calves , 18 juveniles and eight adults ( da silva et al . 2006 ) . cppma currently maintains 31 manatees , mostly orphans . so far , the centro mamiferos marinhos - conselho nacional de seringueiros facility in alter - do - cho ( pa , brazil ) has rescued six orphans ( two of which died ) and a sick adult manatee ( luna 2005 pers . comm . ) .
amazonian manatees are aquatic mammals and live almost entirely underwater . indeed the three manatee species and the closely related dugong are unique in that they are the only plant - eating marine mammals ( 7 ) . they feed entirely on aquatic vegetation near lake edges , such as emergent grasses , water lettuce and floating vegetation . shy and secretive , only their nostrils protrude from the surface of the water to breathe as they search for lush vegetation ( 7 ) . despite being slow grazers they are able to consume up to eight percent of their body weight in one day ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . most feeding occurs during the wet season , when they graze upon new plant growth in seasonally flooded water . during the dry season , individuals return to the main water courses , or to deep flooded backwaters where herds congregate ( 7 ) . here they may not eat for weeks or months due to the lack of food . however , manatees have large fat reserves and slow metabolic rates ; at one third of the usual rate for a mammal of its size . this enables them to survive until the water levels rise again and food becomes more abundant ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . these mammals are active by day and night . they are found individually or in small groups of between four and eight animals ( 7 ) . mothers nurse their calves from a teat behind the flipper , and it is the mothers and calves that form the closest bonds ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . a single calf is born after a gestation period of approximately 13 months . it is dependant on its mother for a considerable time , so interbirth intervals may be as long as three and a half years or more . individuals mature at five or six years of age and members maintain group contact by underwater vocalisations ( 8 ) . the lifespan of this animal is unknown , but individuals have lived past twelve and a half years in captivity ( 7 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
van roosmalen was let out of jail this past august .
in the best light he was naive ,
says a colleague .
in 2000 , time designated van roosmalen a
hero for the planet .
he began his fieldwork in suriname in 1976 . there , amid jaguars , toucans and macaws , he says , you could
feel the breeze of evolution on your neck .
van roosmalen ( in a rio negro village last year ) says he won ' t go back to jail .
before his arrest , van roosmalen ( with vivi last november ) championed rain forest preserves .
you have to see the amazon basin as an archipelago with islandlike areas ,
he argues .
it ' s like the galapagos . each island has its own ecological evolution .
van roosmalen had high hopes that a captive saki monkey he ' d heard of would turn out to be a new species .
at seven o ' clock in the morning on june 15 , 2007 , the bell rang at the front gate of marc van roosmalen ' s modest house on the outskirts of manaus , brazil . for van roosmalen , a dutch - born primatologist and amazon adventurer who had been chosen one of time magazine ' s
heroes for the planet
in 2000 , that was a somewhat unusual event : visitors had lately become scarce . the 60 - year - old scientist was dwelling in semi - isolation , having separated from his wife , become estranged from his two sons , lost his job at a brazilian research institute and been charged with a raft of offenses , including misusing government property and violating brazil ' s biopiracy laws . but things had begun to turn around for van roosmalen : he had been exonerated in three successive trials and had even begun to talk optimistically about getting his old job back . in july , he was planning to travel on a research vessel up the rio negro , the amazon ' s main tributary , with a group of biology students from the united states , his first such trip in years .
van roosmalen buzzed open the compound gate , he told me recently . moments later , he said , five heavily armed federal police officers burst into the garden , bearing a warrant for his arrest . then , as his 27 - year - old brazilian girlfriend , vivi , looked on in horror , van roosmalen says , police cuffed his hands behind his back and placed him in the back seat of a black mitsubishi pajero . van roosmalen asked where they were heading . it was only then , he says , that he learned that he had just been found guilty , in a criminal procedure conducted in his absence , of crimes ranging from keeping rare animals without a permit to illegal trafficking in brazil ' s national patrimony , to the theft of government property . the sentence : 14 years and 3 months in prison .


opistoclanis is a genus of moths in the family sphingidae , containing only one species opistoclanis hawkeri , which is known from china ( yunnan ) , north-eastern thailand , laos and northern vietnam , where it has been recorded at altitudes between 888 and 2,800 meters .

opistoclanis

transferred to opistoclanis by jordan , 1929 , novit . zool . 35 : 62
genus : opistoclanis jordan , 1929 . novit . zool . 35 : 62 . [ bhl ]
clanis hawkeri joicey & talbot , 1921 , entomologist 54 : 106 . type locality : french indo - china [ laos / cambodia / vietnam ] .
china : urltoken ( yunnan ) . in thailand , o . hawkeri flies between late march and early may at the end of the dry season ( i . j . kitching , unpublished data ) .
china ( yunnan , hainan ) , northern thailand , laos ( khammouan province ) and northern vietnam ( inoue , kennett & kitching , [ 1996 ] 1997 ) .
holarctic ; eastern palaearctic region . pleistocene refuge : monocentric - - yunnan refugium .
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if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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type - species : clanis hawkeri joicey & talbot , 1921 . entomologist 54 : 106 . [ bhl ]
type specimens : type ( s ) [ vietnam ] french indo - china : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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adults are on wing from late march to early may at the end of the dry season in thailand .