papilio cresphontes , the giant swallowtail or in its larval phase the orange dog or orange puppy , is a swallowtail butterfly common in parts of north america and marginally into south america .

in the united states and canada it is mainly found in the south and east .

with a wingspan of about 10 – 16 cm ( 3.9 – 6.3 in ) , it is the largest butterfly in canada and the united states .

papilio cresphontes

andrew brower marked
giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes )
as trusted on the
papilio cresphontes
page .
p . cresphontes adult , larva and pupa . - papilio cresphontes - bugguide . net
species papilio cresphontes - eastern giant swallowtail - hodges # 4170 - bugguide . net
papilio cresphontes dorsal wing view ( photographed by robert a . behrstock : urltoken )
papilio cresphontes . ventral wing view ( photographed by b . bouton : urltoken )
distribution of papilio cresphontes in the united states . ( map found at : urltoken )
giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) , adult . point pelee national park , ont . j . cossey
c . michael hogan marked
distribution
as hidden on the
papilio cresphontes cramer 1777
page .
c . michael hogan marked the classification from
irmng
as preferred for
papilio cresphontes cramer , [ 1777 ]
.
for five years straight , we were beyond excited to see the giant swallowtail butterfly ( papilio cresphontes ) gracing our northern garden .
this page is no longer being updated . for an updated version of this material , see : giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) .
figure 15 . prepupa of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 1 . adult giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , dorsal view . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 2 . adult giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with wings closed . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 4 . full - grown larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 16 . laterial view of a chrysalis of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 17 . dorsal view of a chrysalis of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 6 . three - day - old larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 7 . five - day - old larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 12 . a mating pair of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with the female above . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
a couple of these amazing butterflies have returned to the garden since their release . i’m hoping to find more papilio cresphontes eggs in the near future , and start this amazing adventure again…
figure 20 . sea torchwood , amyris elemifera l . , a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 21 . hoptree , ptelea trifoliata l . , in bloom ; a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 23 . mature larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with everted osmeterium . head is to the left . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 10 . front view of larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , in snake - like
striking
pose . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 18 . hercules - club , zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . , a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 19 . lime pricklyash , zanthoxylum fagara [ l . ] sarg . , a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
schaus ' swallowtail ( papilio aristodemus , - rare , s . florida only ) has narrower pale band .
figure 13 . dorsal view on an egg of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , on hercules club , zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
crocker rl , simpson bj . 1979 . mexican orange , choisya dumosa ( rutaceae ) , a potential ornamental is host for orangedog , papilio cresphontes ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) . southwest entomologist 4 : 11 - 13 .
figure 5 . newly hatched larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , with partially - eaten egg shell . head is to the right . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 9 . larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , in snake - like
striking
pose . head is to the right . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 14 . lateral view on an egg of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , on hercules - club , zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 11 . frontal view of larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , showing the osmeterium everted and possibly resembling the forked tongue of a snake . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 3 . young larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , ( illustrating bird dropping mimicry ) on ptelea trifoliata leaf . head is to the top . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
figure 8 . mature larva of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , showing the greatly swollen thorax that resembles a snake head . the larva ' s head is to the right . photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
if you live in the southeast , perhaps you’ve seen one of these beauties floating through your gardens . it’s the giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) , the largest butterfly in the united states . with a wingspan that can measure over 6 inches , this is one butterfly that will definitely catch your attention !
figure 22 . hoptree , ptelea trifoliata l . , with fruit ; a host of the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer . note the typical wafer - shaped fruit from which hoptree derives one of its common names ,
wafer ash .
photograph by donald hall , entomology and nematology department , university of florida .
susan d . finkbeiner , robert d . reed , robert dirig , and john e . losey . 2011 .
the role of environmental factors in the northeastern range expansion of / papilio cresphontes / cramer ( papilionidae ) ,
journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 2011 , 65 ( 2 ) : 119 - 125 .
here in central texas , some of the best known butterflies are those in the swallowtail family — they are large , beautiful , and quite mesmerizing as they flutter around the garden or into the woodlands . two of my favorite species use the same host plant , the wafer ash , or hop tree ( ptelea trifoliata ) . they are the giant swallowtail ( papilio cresphontes ) , seen at the end of this post , and the two - tailed swallowtail ( papilio multicaudata ) , the latter bearing a remarkable resemblance to the eastern tiger swallowtail .
the third stage of the pailio cresphontes butterfly life cycle is its most unspectacular without vibrant colors , deceptive disguises , or brilliant beauty . but inside this bland shell , one of nature’s most astonishing magic tricks is well underway :
the giant swallowtail , papilio cresphontes cramer , is a striking , wonderfully
exotic
- looking butterfly that is very abundant in florida . the adult butterfly is a welcome visitor to butterfly gardens and to general landscape plantings . the larval or caterpillar stage can be considered a pest due to its habit of feeding on the foliage of most citrus species . a few
orangedogs
, as the larvae are commonly called , can quickly defoliate small or young plants . however , larvae can be tolerated on large dooryard citrus trees in order to enjoy the soon - to - develop magnificent adult butterfly stage .
eisner t , pliske te , ikeda m , owen df , vazquez l , perez h , franclemont jg , meinwald j . 1970 . defense mechanisms of arthropods . xxvii . osmeterial secretions of papilionid caterpillars ( baronia , papilio , eurytides ) . annals of the entomological society of america 63 : 914 - 915 .
flight season : two generations have been recorded at its northern limit , the second being the more common . it flies from late may into july and again from late july into early september . at point pelee there is a partial third brood later in september , but cresphontes is most commonly seen in august ( wormington , 1983 ) .
field notes : larvae are not usually too difficult to find on new growth of citrus trees in phoenix and tucson . always try to locate new growth to find eggs and caterpillars . normally , i wouldn ' t recommend rearing swallowtails in a closed container ( with the other exception of p . indra ) except , p . cresphontes larvae usually have dry frass and don ' t get sick if you consistently remove frass and host daily .
adult : adult giant swallowtails are large butterflies with a forewing span of 11 . 7 to 17 . 5 cm ) ( avg . 14 cm ) for males and a span of 13 . 5 to 18 . 8 cm ( avg . 14 . 7 cm ) for females . the dorsal wing surfaces of the butterfly are black with a striking diagonal yellow bar across the forewings . the ventral wing surfaces are primarily yellow . the giant swallowtail is very distinct from all other swallowtails found in florida , except for the endangered schaus ' swallowtail , papilio aristodemus ponceanus , which is confined to the florida keys . the giant swallowtail can be distinguished from the schaus ' swallowtail by the yellow - filled
tails
( schaus ' swallowtail tails are all black ) , and the small , brick - red patch just interior to the blue median band on the ventral hind wing .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en
to save server resources and increase performance on the site for users performing data searches , your session will time out if you stay idle for more than 10 minutes . to start a new session just click here . please do not use browser navigation options , such as the reload or back buttons from this page . if you haven ' t been idle for more than 10 minutes , please try your query again . you may receive this message if we have recently recovered from a problem with our site . if you continue getting this message in under 10 minutes , please email us at explorer @ urltoken
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
the giant swallowtail is widely distributed throughout the american continent . its range extends from southern new england across the northern great lakes states , into ontario , through the southern portions of the central plains to the rocky mountains . the species ranges southward to florida and the caribbean , into the southwestern united states , and on through mexico to central and south america . the giant swallowtail is very common throughout the entire state of florida . it is active throughout the year in southern florida , and is common in northern florida , except in january and february .
larva : the five larval instars differ in appearance but they all share a resemblance to bird droppings . younger instars are more realistic bird - dropping mimics due to their smaller size . mature larvae usually rest on stems or leaf petioles ( hagen 1999 ) , but younger larvae often rest in plain view on the upper surfaces of leaves where bird droppings would be expected .
the younger instars are predominantly black or brown with a white saddle , while the older instars are mottled dark brown with a posterior that is white or cream - colored . younger instars also have setae ( hairs ) on prominent knobs . setae are lacking and knobs are reduced in older instars .
adult butterflies sip nectar from many flowers and are common , but spectacular , visitors to butterfly gardens . identified nectar sources include azalea , bougainvillea , japanese honeysuckle , goldenrod , dame ' s rocket , bouncing bet , and swamp milkweed . they may also sip liquid from manure . adult males patrol flyways through pine woods or citrus groves searching for females . flight is very strong and leisurely , and the butterflies may glide long distances between wing beats . courtship and copulation occur in the afternoon .
mated females usually lay their eggs singly on the upper surface of leaves of host plants . the 1 to 1 . 5 mm spherical eggs are cream to brown and typically have an irregular coating of an orange secretion that is reminiscent in appearance of orange peel . larvae progress through five instars . larval feeding usually takes place during the night .
larvae may pupate on small twigs on the host plant on which they were feeding or they may travel a short distance to a vertically - oriented structure , such as a fence or other plant . the brownish chrysalis is typically oriented at 45° to the pupation substrate , its posterior end attached directly to a silken pad on the substrate by its velcro - like cremaster , and its anterior end attached via a thin silken thread to the substrate . at least two , and probably three , generations occur each year in florida .
the larva is the well - known
orangedog
and is considered a minor pest of sweet orange , ( citrus × sinensis ( l . ) osbeck ( pro sp . ) . host plants of the larvae besides sweet orange include native members of the citrus family ( rutaceae ) including northern pricklyash ( zanthoxylum americanum mill . ) , hercules - club ( zanthoxylum clava - herculis l . ) , lime pricklyash ( zanthoxylum fagara [ l . ] sarg . ) , hoptree ( ptelea trifoliata l . ) , sea torchwood ( amyris elemifera l . ) , mexican orange ( choisya dumosa [ torr . ] a . gray ) , and a variety of exotic rutaceae including gasplant ( dictamnus albus l . ) and white sapote ( casimiroa edulis llave & lex . ) . plant names are from the usda plant database ( 2009 ) , wunderlin and hansen ( 2003 ) , or wunderlin and hansen ( 2008 ) .
mechanical control . homeowners may find that just a few larvae of the giant swallowtail can defoliate small , potted or planted citrus plants . larvae should be hand - picked from these small plants so that blossom and fruit yield are not drastically reduced . mature dooryard trees are large enough to withstand some defoliation .
chemical control . mature commercial citrus trees can withstand infestation by many larvae . however , nursery stock and young grove trees can be protected with bacillus thuringiensis and synthetic insecticides when necessary , as described in the florida citrus pest management guide for chewing insects ( see
orangedog
) .
cech r , tudor g . 2005 . butterflies of the east coast : an observer ' s guide . princeton university press . princeton , new jersey . 345 pp .
daniels jc . 2003 . butterflies of florida : field guide . adventure publications , inc . cambridge , minnesota . 256 pp .
gerberg ej , arnett jr . rh . 1989 . florida butterflies . natural science publications , inc . baltimore , maryland .
glassberg j , minno mc , calhoun jv . 2000 . butterflies through binoculars : florida . oxford university press . new york , new york . 256 pp .
hagen rh . 1999 . prolegs of papilionini ( lepidoptera : papilionidae ) : alternative solutions to the problem of attachment . pp . 237 - 251 . in byers gw , hagen rh , brooks rw . entomological contributions in memory of byron a . alexander . natural history museum , university of kansas , lawrence , kansas , usa .
kimball cp . 1965 . arthropods of florida and neighboring land areas . vol . 1 . division of plant industry , florida department of agriculture , gainesville , florida . 363 pp .
leslie aj , berenbaum mr . 1990 . role of the osmeterial gland in swallowtail larvae ( papilionidae ) in defense against an avian predator . journal of the lepidoptera society 44 : 245 - 251 .
minno mc , butler jf , hall dw . 2005 . florida butterfly caterpillars and their host plants . university press of florida . gainesville , florida . 341 pp .
minno mc and emmel tc . 1993 . butterflies of the florida keys . scientific publishers . gainesville , florida . 168 pp .
minno mc and minno m . 1999 . florida butterfly gardening : a complete guide to attracting , identifying , and enjoying butterflies of the lower south . university press of florida . gainesville , florida . 210 pp .
opler pa , krizek go . 1984 . butterflies east of the great plains . an illustrated natural history . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland . 294 pp .
scriber mc , tsubaki y , lederhouse rc . 1995 . swallowtail butterflies : their ecology & evolutionary biology . scientific publishers . gainesville , florida . 459 pp .
usda . ( 2009 ) . plant database . usda national resources conservation service . urltoken ( 8 april 2009 ) .
wunderlin rp and hansen bf . 2003 . guide to the vascular plants of florida . 2nd ed . university press of florida . gainesville , florida . 787 pp .
wunderlin rp , hansen bf . ( 2008 ) . atlas of florida vascular plants . institute for systematic botany . urltoken ( 8 april 2009 ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
adult :
black with a yellow x on the front wing and basal and subapical bands on the hind wing . usually easily distinguished from p . thoas by the lower three spots in the outer row on the front wing being much larger than the rest and running ( at the top ) into a distinct offset in the second row . [ in p . thoas the lower four or five spots in the outer row are fairly even in size , tapering gradually down in size upward ; not running into an offset in the second row at the third spot . ]
larvae feed on leaves of plants in the citrus family ( rutaceae ) , including citrus ( citrus spp . ) , pricklyash ( zanthoxylum spp . ) , hoptree ( ptelea trifoliata ) , rue ( ruta graveolens ) , etc . adults take flower nectar from a variety of herbaceous plants and shrubs
1 . egg . 2 . egg and first instar caterpillar . 3 . caterpillar . 4 . caterpillar in defensive posture . 5 . caterpillar ready to pupate . 6 . pupa . 7 . adult .
pinned adult image plus description , biology , larval and adult food , us distribution map ( butterflies and skippers of north america , nearctica . com )
a new heraclides swallowtail ( lepidoptera , papilionidae ) from north america is recognized by the pattern on its neck . kojiro shiraiwa , qian cong , nick v . grishin . 2014 . zookeys 468 : 85 - 135 .
simon & schuster ' s guide to insects dr . ross h . arnett , dr . richard l . jacques . 1981 . fireside .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
or with prickly ash growing around towns in the midwest , florida . ( basically , anywhere in the united states where citrus or prickly ash is established . )
suitable lab host plants : most any species of citrus will work in the lab . potted rue is often sold in nurseries and works well .
how to find eggs : focus exclusively on host plants with new growth . this can be found either at the tips of branches or suckers coming out of the trunk of the tree .
how to find caterpillars in the field : look for isolated host plants ; host plants with new growth .
post - hibernation strategies : expose post - diapause pupae to warmer temperatures ( room temperature ) long - day photoperiod ; high humidity . ( mist spray pupae daily once your bring them out of the cold or refrigerator . )
avoiding diapause techniques : provide larvae with healthy host plant and expose larvae to long - day conditions .
disease prevention : change out host plant and remove frass every four to six days in an open bucket and every day using a closed container .
year - round resident in eastern north america and southern california and arizona , with migratatory presense in the regions between ( scott 1986 ) . habitats are woodland to citrus groves . host plants include many species , but mostly in one family , with most known hosts from rutaceae . hosts are usually trees or herbs . eggs are laid on the host plant singly . individuals overwinter as pupae . there are a variable number of flights based on latitude with the approximate flight time may15 - sep15 in the northern part of the range and jan1 - dec31 in the southern part of their range ( scott 1986 ) .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
only 1 or 2 butterfly eggs out of 100 live to become adult butterflies .
giant swallowtail butterflies are one of the largest species in the us . they are found in states east of the continental divide as well as in the southern part of the western us .
these butterflies lay eggs on plants in the citrus family ; orange , grapefruit , kumkuat , etc . along with trees that come to mind when we think of the word ‘citrus’ , they eat plants such as hercules’ club , hop tree , and prickly ash .
they , like black swallowtail butterflies , also lay eggs on rue . if you have both black swallowtail and giant swallowtail butterflies laying eggs on rue , it can be handy to know that giant swallowtail eggs are orange / rust in color while black swallowtail eggs are cream / white in color .
when raising these caterpillars , remember that they rarely , if ever , move from citrus leaves to rue . they normally will starve to death . they simply do not recognize rue as food after eating citrus .
the caterpillars are called ‘orange dogs’ because of their occurrence on orange trees . it is one of the few butterflies that have a separate name for the caterpillar . there are several moths that have two names , like the ‘hickory horned devil caterpillar’ and ‘regal moth’ as names for the same moth .
the young caterpillars look much like wet bird droppings . older caterpillars looks like dry bird / lizard / critter poop . of course one of the best reasons to look like poop is the fact that few critters eat bird poop .
the osmeterium of the giant swallowtail caterpillar is red . when the caterpillar is disturbed , it quickly bends backward , extends its osmeterium , and touches whatever is touching it . the osmeterium has an odorous liquid on it .
before pupating , caterpillars empty their digestive tracts . swallowtail caterpillars tend to have a ‘frass dump’ ( the last expelled excrement of a caterpillar before it pupates ) that is runny and somewhat pudding textured .
swallowtail caterpillars prepare to pupate by attaching themselves by making a silk pad and button on an object . it crawls onto the pad and attaches its anal prolegs into the button . it then makes a silk girdle by touching its head down to the object , side to side , many times over . each time it leaves a strand of silk . the strands together make a strong girdle that holds the butterfly caterpillar .
when the caterpillar pupates , its old cuticle simply slips under the girdle and slips off the caterpillar . the ‘skinned’ caterpillar is the chrysalis .
diagnosis : the largest butterfly found in canada ( wingspan : 83 to 113 mm ) , the giant swallowtail has broad dark brown wings crossed on the upperside by a diagonal band of bright yellow spots . the underside is yellowish and the tail is broad with a yellow spot in the centre .
subspecies : the race of the butterfly reaching southern canada has been referred to as subspecies pennsylvanicus , but it is only weakly differentiated from the nominate subspecies and is not currently recognized .
range : a common and widespread tropical species , it ranges from central america northward through the eastern u . s . to the canadian border . in canada , it is a resident species in southwestern ontario , but strays have been taken in winnipeg , montreal , and one specimen near windsor junction in southern nova scotia . in 1992 , a stray was recorded in the ottawa area for the first time following high winds resulting from a hurricane in the southern u . s .
early stages : the larva is called the
orange dog
in the u . s . , where it can be a pest in citrus orchards . it is brown with a light cream saddle in the middle and a large cream patch on the tail , resembling a large bird dropping . it has been recorded on hop tree ( ptelea trifoliata ) and northern prickly - ash ( zanthoxylum americanum ) in ontario . both plants are common at point pelee , where the larvae can be found .
abundance : it is considered sporadic and rare in canada , except in southwestern ontario , where it can be commonly encountered at point pelee , pelee island , and a few other locations where the foodplants grow .
habits : the giant swallowtail flies in open woodlands and nearby fields . it is such a large butterfly that it continually vibrates its wings while feeding at flowers so that it does not tilt the blossom .
© 2002 . this material is reproduced with permission from the butterflies of canada by ross a . layberry , peter w . hall , and j . donald lafontaine . university of toronto press ; 1998 . specimen photos courtesy of john t . fowler .
photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
these caterpillars almost killed my little satsuma tree , but they are so cool that i couldn ' t bear to disturb them .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en
urltoken
( kansas : sedgwick county . residential house , 37° 40 ' 40 . 06
n , 97° 10 ' 27 . 94
w . in garden . september 19 , 2011 .
adult diagnosis : the giant swallowtail butterfly is the largest butterfly species of canada and the united states with a wingspan within the ranges of 10 to 16 cm . the wings are colored black or blackish brown and feature yellow banding on both the fore and hind wing dorsally . on the ventral side , the wings are mainly yellow with black venation . each hind wing tail features a yellow - orange colored eye , the eye can also appear reddish yellow . another single blue band can be distinguished above the eye . distinction between males and females is very difficult as both sexes are similar , however , females feature longer wing spans than males as adults .
adult natural history : adult swallowtails take in nectar from multiple floral sources for example , goldenrods and azaleas . males patrol pine woods during the afternoon in search of mates to court or copulate with . can also be found patrolling citrus groves for the same reasons . they can glide long distances before needing to beat their wings again . the following video shows the length of their glide before having to flap again .
mates copulate facing away from each other so that the genitals face each other . females oviposit caramel colored eggs usually on the topsides of leaves . giant swallowtail caterpillars visually appear much like large bird droppings on plants . if predators are not fooled by their appearance , the caterpillars can extend their v - shaped osmeterium and release a foul odor to drive away predators .
the migration pattern is similar to that of monarch butterflies , giant swallowtails from the north migrate southwards during the cold seasons .
distribution : the giant swallowtails is spread throughout north america including parts of canada and as far south as central and parts of south america . in the united states , sights have been reported mostly in the south central and south eastern parts of the united states and appearing all year round in florida .
habitat : adults can be found in pine forests and in floral gardens for northern inhabitants . southern adults prefer to live in citrus groves along with the aformentioned habitats .
diet : adults feed on the nectars of many flowers including those of goldenrods , azaleas , bourgainvilla , swamp milkweed , etc . larvae preferrably feed on the leaves of citrus trees and plants .
stokes , donald , lillian stokes , and ernest williams . stokes butterfly book : the complete guide to butterfly gardening identification , and behavior . 1st ed . new york : little , brown and company , 1991 .
latimer , jonathan p . , and karen s . nolting . butterflies . 1st ed . new york : houghton mifflin company , 2000 .
schappert , philip . a world of butterflies : their lives , behavior , and future . 1st ed . ontario : firefly books ltd , 2005 .
wichita state university generated on 2011 . this website is continuously updated . comments can be sent to mary liz jameson . designed by bioadventures .
if is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .
enter your log in email address and well send you a link to reset your password .
sorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .
on the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .
enter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .
doctype html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en
many swallowtail caterrpillars are bird poop mimics in their early instars , but the giant swallowtail keeps it up through the entire series of larval stages . that means a
mature
bird poop roughly 5 centimeters long . when this photo was taken , it was a bit over 3 centimeters long . ( note that many caterpillars besides swallowtails also mimic bird poop . )
october 17th . the caterpillar is suspended by a silken
belt
and button of silk at the tip of the abdomen .
october 18th . the transformation . still images animated at three speeds : 15 frames per second ; 2 frames per second ; and 3 seconds per frame .
october 18th . key images from the video . 2 : 10 pm . no apparent changes externally except that the prolegs are shrunken .
2 : 40 pm . shortly before this photo , the caterpillar had straightened out and begun to vibrate , presumably to detach the old skin from the new one . in this photo , you can see that the prolegs have moved posteriorly as the skin at the hind end has shriveled . the white bands on the side are tracheal linings being drawn out and back .
2 : 40 pm . the old skin behind the head has just begun to split . you can just see a bit of the chrysalis emerging .
2 : 41 pm . more of the chrysalis is visible , and the thoracic legs are being pulled further back .
2 : 43 pm . the head is now almost free and the old skin is about to slip under the silken support loop .
2 : 43 pm . someone ( i wish i could remember who - it was a long time ago ! ) described the process of sheeding the skin as equivalent to a woman removing her pantyhose without using her hands .
2 : 44 pm . head , antennae , and wings are now visible .
2 : 46 pm . wriggling to attach the cremaster ( tip of the abdomen ) to the button of silk under it . at the same time , allowing the cast larval skin to fall away .
2 : 46 pm . at this point , note how little of the abdomen is in contact with the stem . that ' s about to change .
2 : 52 pm . activity has slowed down , but over several hours , the shape will change subtly .
3 : 28 pm . the wings have grown larger and the body is arched backwards a bit . also , the abdomen has broadly molded itself to the stem , an element of the developing twig mimicry .
october 21st . the chrysalis has matured and hardened , slightly changing shape and color . note how . . . . . . the abdomen appears broadly attached to the stem ( but isn ' t , really ) ; . . . there are green specks resembling lichen or algae ; and , . . . the surface itself is craggy like a dead bit of twig .
finally , note how the tip ( head end ) appears broken off with dark
annular rings
at the center . as good as this broken twig mimicry is , imagine if i had provided a more mature common rue woody stem !
november 18th . no changes in the chrysalis . one month since transformation from caterpillar . looks like it will overwinter .
i realigned the specimen to better show the wings , antennae , and legs .
note how the dark upper surface scales influence the perceived color of the yellow scales on the underside .
too cold for it to survive outside and representing the growing repopulation of connecticut with this southern species , it will be placed in the uconn research collection for study .
the empty chrysalis . the old skin split between the antennae and the forewings .
all photos copyright stanley e . malcolm , 2014 . permission for non - commercial purposes is generally allowed after contacting stan ( stan
at
performance - vision . com ) . commercial use at higher resolution is available for a reasonable fee .
we planted 3 potential host plants for giant swallowtails caterpillars : common rue , wafer ash , and northern prickly ash . then , it happened…
unlike milkweed - obsessed monarchs , the giant swallowtail female will lay eggs on a wide range of host plants . their butterfly life cycle also takes up to 2 months , so the odds are stacked against northern gardeners wanting to raise them with fewer generations and more plants to search !
we didn’t have enough space to add full - grown citrus trees , so we stuck with some smaller host options . we planted a waferash tree , a slow - grower that tops out at 20 feet . we also planted common rue , and a northern prickly ash .
the eggs of the giant swallowtail are pretty easy to find compared to other butterfly species that resort to trickery and camouflage to keep their eggs safe .
the giant swallowtail female deposits orange - peel colored eggs on the surface of green leaves , which means you shouldn’t need to get out the old magnifying glass to confirm identity .
brenda of brenda’s butterfly habitat shared that zanthoxylum americanum ( northern prickly ash ) was the giants’ host plant of choice in her michigan garden .
we found five caterpillars on our plants , before searching for and finding two eggs . four of the caterpillars also had an orange hue :
this could be a normal color variation or they could have been in different developmental stages . ( unfortunately , we did not find them right away like with the tiger swallowtails we raised last season . )
we also made a fatal mistake with the two eggs we brought in . whenever you bring in eggs of any butterfly species , make sure they’re properly protected from ravenous caterpillars 😢
a third line of defense is the red horns ( osmeterium ) that emerge from the head of the caterpillar when it feels threatened . the osmeterium emits a pungent odor , that is supposed to make them unpalatable to predators , like ants .
i stroked one across its back , and picked up another that was looking for a fresh cutting…neither action was enough for them to ‘release the red cracken’ .
did you notice the dangerous thorn next to the back of the caterpillar photos above ? i was going to offer the caterpillars our rue plants without the thorny barriers , but decided to try serving this because i need to cut it back to avoid getting gouged when mowing the back yard .
that will fit inside a floral tube or other cutting container . before you grab the stem ,
if you’re replacing cuttings , set the new cutting container next to the old one so the caterpillars can crawl over to their new home and caterpillar food source .
as the caterpillars grow , so do their appetites . however , they haven’t been as ravenous as munching monarch caterpillars . even with 5 big caterpillars in close quarters , they peacefully coexist :
however , if a caterpillar forms its chrysalis in an inconvenient place it can be moved . check out the info on removing swallowtail chrysalides in our overwintering swallowtails post .
swallowtail butterflies ( in general ) have surprisingly fragile wings . this new butterfly lost a tail briefly fluttering around the mesh cage . thankfully , this doesn’t affect their flight :
swallowtails males are said to have thicker , more vibrant yellow wing markings , but there seems to be a lot of variation that makes sexing them from a dorsal view difficult , at best . for a positive male id , see if you can find claspers on butterflies you are raising .
please read the comments section below for more info about raising giant swallowtail butterflies .
i have 3 giant caterpillars on a small toothache tree ( prickly ash ) that i intentionally purchased with them on it a couple of weeks ago . i also have a hop tree . my property is a monarch way station and pollinator garden . i have host plants for many species of butterflies . the giant is one i have desired for a long time but never had in my garden . my question is will they overwinter in chrysalis in northwest georgia ? my sun porch will be heated all winter due to my citrus trees i bring inside . will they emerge due to the warm sun porch or should i take the trees outside with the chrysalis ? they caterpillars have gotten pretty big but i must confess that i don’t know how big they will get when they are ready to go into chrysalis . they were very small a couple of weeks ago . i consider myself an expert with monarchs but am at a loss with the giant swallowtail . monarchs are emerging daily and i am tagging and releasing them after testing for parasites . will the giants stay on my back porch this winter ?
hi gail , if you keep them in a heated porch with lots of sun , they will probably eclose much earlier than they should . check out this post for more info :
so sad , i had 3 in chrysalis last night and today they are gone . i have one left so i brought the pot inside . bird ?
hi teddi , sorry to hear this . yes , there are birds that eat chrysalides , lizards , mice :
i just found 2 giant swallowtail caterpillars in my orange tree . the tree also has a bad case of woolly mold . i would like to save the caterpillars while treating the mold . where do i begin ?
hi victoria , i would just feed them with the least - affected sections of the tree . for your tree , i would contact a local arborist and see what they suggest…
i just noticed i have at least ten of these caterpillars on my citrus tree i just brought inside recently . they are pooping all over the place , my plant is only 4 ft tall , think they will kill it ?
hi anthony , butterfly host plants typically grow back just fine . my concern would be that one host tree isn’t enough to feed that many caterpillars…
i hope you see this and respond quickly , as i have a big dilemma . a giant swallowtail laid eggs on a lemon tree , and now there are ten large caterpillars . problem is , soon that lemon tree will go into a sunroom for the winter , and the owner of the sunroom does not want swallowtail butterflies to take care of . we live in the northeast . we bought rue and planted it outside , and just transferred the caterpillars to the rue plants , along with a bunch of the lemon tree leaves , hoping they would adjust to the rue and make their chrysillis and overwinter on the rue . i just read that they rarely will eat rue after eating citrus , and they will starve . is that true ? what to do now ? help ! !
hi jane , i have never tried to switch them to rue before so you will have to see what happens . we feed ours northern prickly ash , which is a gst host plant native to your region :
hi there i transferred my giant swallowtails from prickly ash to rue . . it took about a day but they eventually started to eat the rue and thrived . . 2 turned into a chrysalis today right on the rue plant . now to wait until the spring ! ! note : this summer i transferred black swallowtails from dill to queen annes lace and they turned into amazing butterflies . still have 4 that had a brown chrysalis install of the green ones that emerged . apparently these want to overwinter . we will see monica t
hi , i’m in south florida and was happy to see giant swallowtail caterpillars all over my wild lime tree . my concern is lizards because i caught one eating a gulf fritillary caterpillar a few days ago . i brought the other cats inside but hate to bring in the giant swallowtail cats unless necessary .
hi karen , even if you bring in just a few you are making a difference . predators are part of a successful butterfly garden and you can’t ( and shouldn’t ) save them all if you want to support a healthy ecosystem . good luck with your caterpillars !
thanks tony , well 4 of 7 survived . the 2 raised on the wild lime leaves wouldn’t eat the rue but the younger ones switched over fine . however , the adults made their chrysalis’ yesterday on the rue , not the branches i added . one already fell . how long until it hardens enough to rehang and would you use contact cement ?
just saw your previous answer to this . . thanks ! no more yet but wish someone would have told me how opposite these are to monarchs or gulfs so i wouldn’t have been such a wreck . they barely eat or move in comparison : )
hi karen , i have not had to rehang a swallowtail chrysalis before but have heard that contact cement works . if you use it , please report back with experience…good luck !
i have a pupating gsw whose bottom - end silk has dislodged . he’s on his side , mostly hovering . should i set him upright with tape or something ? if so , when is it safe to do so ? ( he jerks right now , if i try to touch his silk girdle . )
hi katrina , i would wait to do anything until it pupates and the chrysalis hardens . here’s more info :
in my attempt to attract the monarch butterfly , of which i have only spotted one this year in my garden , i planted rue , fennel , and dill . although the numbers are not impressive we were so delighted this year that we have released 13 black swallowtails and 5 giant swallowtails !
we have never seen a giant before but the majority of the eggs and caterpillars were found on our rue plant more than the dill or fennel . we are fortunate to have a nursery less than a mile away that has everything i need for my butterfly garden . they also allowed a lady to install a screened in butterfly area and we have been able to gain much knowledge from her over the year .
hi tony , i was so happy to see you getting into the swallowtails . i have been raising monarchs here in florida but have expanded to cloudless sulfurs ( they love the cassia plants ) , gulf fritillaries and zebra longwings ( love the passion vine for nectar and host ) and polydamus swallowtail which loves my pipevine as a host plant . have dozens of babies , gave up trying to bring them all in . i enjoy your posts and all the great information you provide . i will say , i am seeing less monarchs this year , but have done my best to contribute to the population ! judy
hi tony ( and butterfly fans ) , i am hoping to find a source for some northern prickly ash saplings . . 2 or 3 i would hope . i live in northern va . i would like to try to raise a few giant swallowtails . i haven’t seen any nearby but i know that some have been raised in this general area .
i have successfully raised some eastern black swallowtails on parsley or dill inside . last year i had some dill outside ( that i was trying to raise for myself ) that were decimated by black swallowtail cats . initially i was angry at the invasion but then i was happy–it didn’t last though–my carolina wren discovered the bonanza of cats the next week and stripped the dill of cats in one morning to feed her brood . i was angry all over again for losing the cats . ( since i was raising the dill for myself i hadn’t brought in the cats . ) then i decided that i was feeding the birds year round so i had to accept the circle of life . this year i planted parsley and dill for the butterflies but to date no eggs or cats…sigh .
i have started a couple good sized milkweed patches in the yard for monarches . i have seen one lone male around them but again no females to date . no eggs or cats either . i just ordered 10 monarch eggs / cats ( no choice which i get ) . i will be raising them inside . i hope i will get a female or two to lay eggs outside in the patches . i have common , swamp ( white and pink ) , tropical , hairy balls and butterfly weed in my milkweed patches .


azteca andreae is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics of south america , most notably in french guiana .

they are most notable for their predatory skills and strength .

they are ambush predators that are able to capture and eat other insects much greater than their own size .

azteca andreae

azteca andreae ant mound in panama . is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics
azteca andreae ant mound in panama . is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics , video
azteca andreae ant mound in panama . is an arboreal ant species found in the tropics | stock video | colourbox
in this study , we investigated the predatory behavior of the ant azteca andreae which is associated with the myrmecophyte cecropia obtusa .
the claws of azteca andreae are shaped like hooks and fit neatly into fibrous loops on the undersides of its home plants ' leaves .
a recent plos one paper by dejean et al documents a novel predatory behavior of azteca andreae . rather than waste words explaining it , here’s a video :
in guiana , symbiosis between azteca ants and the cecropia tree ( or trumpet tree ) is frequent . however , a surprising discovery has been made : one species of ant ( azteca andreae ) uses the
velcro
principle to cling on firmly . . .
predation and aggressiveness in host plant protection : a generalization using ants from the genus azteca .
images : 1 ) azteca andreae ants aligned on a leaf , and capturing a moth . / pnas . 2 ) scanning electron micrographs of hook - shaped a . andreae claw , along with top and bottom surfaces of leaves to which they cling . / pnas .
pcr primers for polymorphic microsatellite loci in the plant - ant azteca ulei cordiae ( formicidae : dolichoderinae ) .
azteca andreae ’s strategy of lying in wait is just one such technique . a related species azteca bequaerti hides in special hollows produced by their host where it listens for the vibrations of a landing insect and swarms it en masse . even more elaborately , allomerus decemarticulatus creates elaborate traps by building layers over tree branches that look like parts of the tree but are actually hiding places for ant ambushers .
does exogenic food benefit both partners in an ant - plant mutualism ? the case of cecropia obtusa and its guest azteca plant - ants .
morais hc . 1998 . azteca cf . lanuginosa ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : biologia , comportamento de predação e forrageamento em cerrado . urltoken .
( a ) to evaluate the number of azteca andreae workers per centimeter of leaf margin , we took pictures of the workers ambushing from beneath the cecropia obtusa leaves while cautiously placing a ruler 1–2 cm away from the leaf margin so as not to perturb them . ( b ) to evaluate the strength of the workers , we used different weights glued to pieces of thread and placed the free end of the thread near an ambushing major worker . here , three azteca andreae workers are biting the end of a piece of thread glued to a 10 - cent euro coin ; only one ( arrow ) is really holding onto the coin ( 4 . 11 g ) .
a . andreae colonies live in trees , and individual ants line the underside edges of leaves , jaws open and outstretched . when an insect lands , the ants seize its legs , holding it down until other ants dismember the pinioned prey .
in regards to the predatory behavior of
a . decemarticulatus
, similar behaviors have been observed in other ant species , such as symbioses with plants ( like in
pseudomyrmex ferruginea
) , cultivating a fungus ( like in leafcutter ants ) , and sneaking up to and ambushing larger prey ( like in
azteca andreae
, another species studied by dejean ) . however , most remarkably ,
allomerus decemarticulatus
seems to incorporate each of these advanced behaviors to make a powerful apparatus for tricking impressively large prey .
the study was conducted on three a . andreae colonies for each compared tree species , and here , too , the tests consisted in dropping prey onto the upper surface of the leaves from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin .
the ants keep their grip best while on cecropia obtusa leaves , where the surface loops are pronounced . the two species seem to have co - evolved : a . andreae provides defense against plant - munching bugs , and c . obtusa helps the ants get a predatory grip .
to compare cases of successful capture by a . andreae hunting workers according to different leaf structures , we conducted a study on c . obtusa , c . palmata and v . latifolia , with the latter serving as a control case . indeed , among the plants on which we noted a . andreae workers in the process of hunting , the leaves of v . latifolia are relatively large ( up to 20 cm in length and 8 cm in width ) , their upper side is very smooth and the underside much less downy than those of the two compared cecropia .
in the brazilian rainforest , a grasshopper lands on a leaf and seals its fate . it was after a quick meal , but this leaf belongs to the cecropia obtusa plant and it employs hidden bodyguards – ants . underneath its leaves , thousands of azteca andreae ants lie in ambush , poised at the edges with their jaws outstretched . as soon as the grasshopper lands , the ants rush out from their hiding places , seize it by the legs and pull it spread - eagled . the leaf turns into a medieval torture rack , with the ambushers holding the victim while their nestmates bite , sting and dismember it .
azteca andreae workers occasionally hunt by patrolling their host tree foliage , but early in the morning – or , more frequently , at the end of the day and at night – they ambush prey by placing themselves side - by - side beneath the leaf margins with just their wide - open mandibles visible from above ( fig . 1c ) . after noting that they frequently occupy all of the leaf margins of their host trees , we evaluated the number of ambushing workers by multiplying the density of the workers by the total length of the leaf margins ; for example , for the 10 leaves of a c . obtusa tree , we estimated that there were 4 . 4 workers per cm or ca . 8350 workers ( see fig . 2a ) .
because we observed a . andreae workers capturing an 8 - cm - long locust weighing 9 . 2 g - or ca . 7 , 100 times the weight ( 0 . 0014 g ) of a hunting worker - on their host c . obtusa , we hypothesized that the cecropia leaf structure could play a role in the capture of such a large prey . we therefore surveyed what kind and sizes of prey a . andreae workers can capture , studied the c . obtusa and c . palmata leaf structure , compared the workers ' strength when holding onto different weights in five situations , and compared the successfulness of workers at capturing locust nymphs when hunting on c . obtusa , c . palmata and vismia latifolia ( clusiaceae ) , with the latter serving as a control case .
the tests consisted in dropping 1 cm , 1 . 5 cm , 2 . 5 cm and 3 . 5 - cm - long nymphs of the locust species tropidacris collaris onto the upper surface of c . obtusa , c . palmata or v . latifolia leaves where groups of 12–15 a . andreae workers were hunting . these prey were dropped from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the leaf margins .
( a ) a carton nest on a cecropia obtusa . ( b ) underside of a young c . obtusa leaf with numerous ambushing a . andreae workers placed side - by - side along the leaf margin . a black hymenoptera is spread - eagled near the principal vein . ( c ) a sphingid moth was captured during the night and was still struggling when we photographed it in the morning . ( d ) detail of the position of ambushing workers .
the incredible tactics of the azteca ants were discovered 16 years ago , but the secret behind their prodigious grip has only just been revealed by a team of french and spanish scientists led by alain dejean . they watched the entire hunting sequence by luring large moths to the leaves using ultraviolet light , or by dropping grasshoppers onto them . at the slightest touch , the closest workers attacked the prey and drove it towards others lying in wait , which collectively flipped it underneath the leaf and stretched it out .
the layers are made out of the hairs of its host tree bound together with a fungus that the ants farm . they are pitted with tiny holes that the ants hide in . when a victim lands , the ants launch a grisly surprise attack , rushing out from their holes and grabbing the victim by the legs . as with a . andreae , the victims of a . decemarticulatus are stretched out and eaten . in the rainforest , even a harmless looking leaf or branch can hide a painful death inside or beneath it .
( a ) scanning electron micrograph of the hook - shaped claws of a . andreae workers . ( b - c ) photomicrographs of unstained , 50 µm sections of cecropia obtusa ( b ) and c . palmata ( c ) ; the upper side of the lamina is on the top . d - g - scanning electron micrographs of the upper side ( d–e ) and underside ( f–g ) of the lamina of c . obtusa ( d–f ) and c . palmata ( e–g ) . long , thin trichomes characterize the underside of the leaves of both species , but with major differences in densities ; whereas the upper surface of the leaves has short , wide trichomes – here , too , at different densities . scale bars , 100 µm .
we monitored 12 c . obtusa during 22 non - consecutive days and verified twice each day , at dusk and early in the morning , what prey were captured by the a . andreae workers . we thoroughly inspected the underside of the foliage , the trunk and the surface of the nests in order to note what prey were spread - eagled , and / or in the process of being slowly retrieved or cut up ( generally on the nest ) . we gathered the most frequent and the largest prey for identification . the largest prey were weighed individually ; whereas , for the most frequent prey , we gathered up to 30 individuals to obtain a mean weight ( ±se ) . we then calculated the ratio between the weight of the captured prey and the mean weight of a hunting worker .
we used nymphs of the locust species tropidacris collaris from four size ranges : 1 cm , 1 . 5 cm , 2 . 5 cm and 3 . 5 cm . these nymphs move in groups of up to 150 individuals of the same size and are therefore good candidates for such studies . the tests were conducted when groups of 12–15 a . andreae workers were hunting on c . obtusa , c . palmata or v . latifolia . for each size class of prey , we compared the number of workers involved in hunting using an anova to be sure that during the tests on one plant species the number of workers involved in hunting was not greater than for the two other plant species . in all of the cases , the difference was not significant ( p = 0 . 41 ; p = 0 . 88 ; p = 0 . 63 and p = 0 . 97 for tests conducted on locust nymphs of 1 cm , 1 . 5 cm , 2 . 5 cm and 3 . 5 cm , respectively ; n = 30 cases in all situations ) .
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
citation : dejean a , leroy c , corbara b , roux o , céréghino r , orivel j , et al . ( 2010 ) arboreal ants use the “velcro® principle” to capture very large prey . plos one 5 ( 6 ) : e11331 . urltoken
copyright : © 2010 dejean et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this study was funded by the programme amazonie ii of the french centre national de la recherche scientifique ( project 2id ) and the programme convergence 2007 - 2013 , région guyane from the european community ( project dega ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
except for myrmecophytic acacia , piper and macaranga that produce protein - rich fbs and whose mutualistic plant - ants do not hunt , other plant - related products such as carbohydrate - rich efn , fbs and hemiptera honeydew are comparatively poor in protein and amino acids [ 3 ] , [ 7 ] – [ 10 ] . so , many arboreal ants have developed innovative ways of meeting these needs . some species economize nitrogen as their workers have a thin cuticle and non - proteinaceous venom [ 11 ] ; others rely on micro - symbionts to recycle nitrogen [ 12 ] – [ 14 ] , while still others consume a part of their attended hemiptera that thus do not proliferate [ 6 ] .
by monitoring 12 c . obtusa during 22 non - consecutive days , we noted that the colonies captured on average 16 . 66±0 . 76 prey greater than 8 mm in length per day ( n . b . smaller prey , not registered as they were too rapidly mastered and retrieved , were very numerous ) . the prey included a wide range of flying and jumping insects ( see table 1 ) , the largest of which , a 10 . 5 - cm - long tropidacris collaris locust , weighed 18 . 61 g or 13 , 350 times the weight of a hunting worker .
different captured prey , their weight ( or mean weight ± se ) and the ratio with the mean weight of a hunting worker ( ca . 0 . 0014 g ) .
because the capture of such large and powerful prey was unexpected , we experimentally verified the workers ' strength by placing the free ends of threads glued to different weights in front of individuals ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf . tested individually , the workers immediately bit the end of the thread , and had enough grip to hold onto loads up to 8 . 0 g or 5 , 714 times their weight ( figs . 2b and 3 ) .
we noted a significantly higher number of successful cases when we tested workers situated on the very downy underside of c . obtusa leaves than when either on the rough upper side of these leaves or on experimental sheets of supple plastic ( figs . 3a and 4 ) . the surface of the selected plastic does not allow ant claws to grip , so that the workers adhere thanks to their adhesive pads . indeed , the velvet - like surface found on the underside of the c . obtusa leaves ( fig . 4 ) seems determinant in the workers being able to hold onto such weight . this is shown by the fact that ambushing workers from colonies associated with c . obtusa were significantly more effective than those from colonies associated with c . palmata ( fig . 3b ) , the underside of whose leaves is much less downy ( fig . 4 ) .
( a ) from the upper side and the underside of c . obtusa leaves , and from a sheet of supple plastic ( kruskal - wallis test for 0 . 75 g : h 3 , 300 = 12 . 4 ; p = 0 . 002 ; for 0 . 125 g and 0 . 250 g : h 3 , 300 = 74 ; p < 0 . 0001 ; dunn ' s post hoc test for multiple comparisons : different letters indicate significant differences at p < 0 . 01 ) . ( b ) from the underside of c . obtusa vs . c . palmata leaves ( wilcoxon signed rank test : z = 2 . 37 ; p < 0 . 02 ) .
“velcro” , which has become a generic term derived from the french words ‘ velours ’ ( for velvet ) and ‘ crochet ’ ( for hook ) , is a “hook - and - loop” fastener inspired by burdock seeds that are dispersed because they stick to mammal fur . another case of a natural velcro involved in an insect - plant interaction was recently described for the cone - shaped cells on the rough surface of flower petals that permit bumblebees to grasp the flowers while gathering nectar and pollen , and so to save energy by not having to beat their wings to stay on the flowers [ 21 ] .
published information on the maximum size and weight of the prey captured by arboreal ants is sparse . oecophylla longinoda workers can capture large insects 20 to 50 times their weight , with this ratio exceptionally reaching 580 for a small bird captured and transported after it had fallen to the ground [ 22 ] . allomerus workers use their gallery - shaped trap to capture insects up to 1800 times their weight [ 16 ] .
in conclusion , many ant species have adapted their predatory behavior to the constraints of their arboreal life . this study illustrates a three - fold context wherein a coordinated group hunting effort complements the workers ' hook - shaped claws combined with the structure of the leaves of their host plant . consequently , they use a very effective group ambushing technique permitting them to easily capture numerous insect prey , including large and powerful items , while protecting their host tree .
to evaluate the number of workers ambushing at one time , we took pictures of the workers ambushing from beneath the cecropia obtusa leaves while cautiously placing a ruler 1–2 cm away from the leaf margin so as not to perturb the ants ( fig . 2a ) . to study prey capture , using four different colonies , we dropped prey ( 1 . 5 - cm - long tettigonid grasshoppers ) onto the upper surface of the leaves from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin ( 50 cases ) . although they were intact and so able to jump , 49 out of the 50 tested grasshoppers were captured , and then retrieved .
using a microscale ( mettler® ae 260 ) , we individually weighed 300 hunting workers randomly gathered from three colonies ( 100 individuals from each colony ) , resulting in an average worker weight of 1 . 393±0 . 05 mg ( ±se ) , so ca . 1 . 4 mg . they consisted of medium - to large - sized individuals .
pieces of the central lobe of the multi - lobed c . obtusa and c . palmata leaves were collected and immediately fixed in faa ( 5 % formalin , 5 % acetic acid and 50 % ethanol ) before being stored in 70 % ethanol . cross - sections , 50 µm thick , were obtained using a vibrating microtome ( leica vt 1000s , rueil - malmaison , france ) . unstained sections were observed using an inverted microscope ( leica dmirbe , rueil - malmaison , france ) . images were acquired with a ccd camera ( color coolview , photonic science , robertsbridge , uk ) . for scanning electron microscope ( sem ) photography , pieces of leaves were dehydrated in 80 , 90 and 100 % ethanol and were critical point - dried with liquid carbon dioxide . the dried materials were attached with double - sided tape onto metal stubs , grounded with conductive silver paint and sputter - coated with gold / palladium . observations were made using a scanning electron microscope ( hitachi c450 ) operated at 15 kv , and photographs were taken with illford 125 iso film .
to determine more precisely how much weight a single worker is able to hold onto , we glued one of the ends of pieces of thick thread onto different weights . the experiment consisted in taking a weight between the thumb and index finger and cautiously placing the free end of the thread near a major worker ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf ( see fig . 2b ) and rather isolated from its nestmates so that it would not immediately recruit other workers . we considered the experiment to be valid when the workers could hold onto the tested weight for at least 5 seconds . if nestmates came to help the worker prior to the end of the 5 - second period , the experiment was not taken into consideration .
because our data were structured due to the fact that we used three individuals per tree species and each tree was used repeatedly ( 10 times ) , we used the generalized linear mixed model ( glmm ) on r 2 . 8 . 1 ( r development core team , 2008 ) with the “glmer” function of the “lme4” package by bates and maechler . the glmm was run on the rate of successful capture of prey with the binomial distribution option ( binary results such as failure or success of capture ) , using the tree species and the size of the prey as fixed effects , and replicates as a random effect .
we are grateful to andrea yockey - dejean for proofreading the manuscript , to vivien rossi for advice concerning the statistics , and to the laboratoire environnement de petit saut ( hydreco ) , french guiana , for its logistical help .
conceived and designed the experiments : ad . performed the experiments : ad cl bc or rc jo rb . analyzed the data : ad cl bc or rc jo rb . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : ad cl . wrote the paper : ad . performed the histology : cl .
wilson eo , hölldobler b ( 2005 ) the rise of the ants : a phylogenetic and ecological explanation . proc natl acad sc , usa 102 : 7411–7414 .
moreau cs , bell cd , vila r , archibald b , pierce ne ( 2006 ) phylogeny of the ants : diversification in the age of angiosperms . science 312 : 101–104 .
rico - gray v , oliveira p ( 2007 ) the ecology and evolution of ant - plant interactions . ( chicago : the university of chicago press ) . 320 p .
dejean a , corbara b , orivel j , leponce m ( 2007 ) rainforest canopy ants : the implications of territoriality and predatory behavior . funct ecosyst communit 1 : 105–120 .
styrsky jd , eubanks m d ( 2007 ) ecological consequences of interactions between ants and honeydew - producing insects . proc r soc london b 274 : 151–164 .
heil m , mckey d ( 2003 ) protective ant - plant interactions as model systems in ecological and evolutionary research . ann rev ecol syst 34 : 425–453 .
davidson dw ( 2005 ) ecological stoichiometry of ants in a new world rain forest . oecologia 142 : 221–231 .
feldhaar h , straka j , krischke m , berthold k , stoll s , et al . ( 2007 ) nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont
russell ja , moreau cs , goldman - huertas b , fujiwara m , et al . ( 2009 ) bacterial gut symbionts are tightly linked with the evolution of herbivory in ants . proc natl acad sc , usa 106 : 21236–21241 .
( passifloraceae ) through aggressiveness and predation . biol j linn soc 93 : 63–69 .
dejean a , solano pj , ayroles j , corbara b , orivel j ( 2005 ) arboreal ants build traps to capture prey . nature 434 : 973 .
( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : biologia , comportamento de predação e forrageamento em cerrado .
whitney hm , chittka l , bruce tja , glover bj ( 2009 ) conical epidermal cells allow bees to grip flowers and increase foraging efficiency . curr biol 19 : 948–953 .
federle w , baumgartner w , hölldobler b ( 2004 ) biomechanics of ant adhesive pads : frictional forces are rate - and temperature - dependent . j exp biol 207 : 67–74 .
do these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !
the ants lie in wait on the underside of a leaf . workers drive the moth towards these edges , where the ambushers grab them .
you must log in to access this functionality . you may create an account , or log in anonymously , here .
guerrero , delabie & dejean , 2010 pdf : 54 , figs . 1 - 2 ( w . q . m . )
antweb content is licensed under a creative commons attribution license . we encourage use of antweb images . in print , each image must include attribution to its photographer and
from urltoken
in the figure caption . for websites , images must be clearly identified as coming from urltoken , with a backward link to the respective source page . see how to cite antweb .
antweb is funded from private donations and from grants from the national science foundation , deb - 0344731 , ef - 0431330 and deb - 0842395 . c : 0
long before velcro was invented , a species of south american ant used its own natural form of the wonder material to hunt .
it ' s
like natural velcro that is reinforced by the group ambush strategy of the workers , allowing them to capture prey of up to 13 , 350 times the mean weight of a single worker ,
wrote researchers in a study published june 25 in plos one .
in the new study , the researchers held weighted threads in front of the ants . instinctively , the ants bit and held . without losing its grip , the average worker could hold on to 8 grams , or some 5 , 700 times its body weight . in proportional terms , that ' s like a house cat holding on to a humpback whale . passing insects don ' t have a chance .
another , less gruesome example of velcro - like plant - insect interaction was recently described between bumblebees and flower petals , which have microscopic loops that enable bees to hang upside - down with little effort .
citation : arboreal ants use the “velcro® principle” to capture very large prey .
by alain dejean , céline leroy , bruno corbara , olivier roux , régis céréghino , jérôme orivel , raphaël boulay . public library of science one , vol . 5 no . 6 , june 25 , 2010 .
brandon keim ' s twitter stream and reportorial outtakes ; wired science on twitter . brandon is currently working on a book about ecological tipping points .
use of and / or registration on any portion of this site constitutes acceptance of our user agreement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) and privacy policy and cookie statement ( updated 5 / 25 / 18 ) . your california privacy rights . the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of condé nast . ad choices .
guerrero , et al . 2010 : 54 , figs . 1 - 2 ( w . q . m . )
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are properly credited .
( cecropiaceae ) , and sometimes on the foliage of surrounding trees . these two
tree , we estimated that there were 4 . 4 workers per cm or ca . 8350 workers ( see
were ambushing in great number . the larger insects were successfully captured only when they were seized at the leaf margins (
) . this was confirmed by experimentally dropping 1 . 5 - cm - long grasshoppers onto leaves ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin . the vibrations triggered an alarm in the three to ten closest workers that collectively attacked the prey and drove it toward ambushing nestmates that then seized it and immediately flipped it under the leaves before spread - eagling it during 4 to 10 minutes . meanwhile , new workers had replaced those involved in the prey capture by placing themselves side - by - side along the leaf margin . once they had killed or stunned the prey , the ants collectively retrieved it by moving slowly toward the leaf petiole , and then toward the carton nest . some grasshoppers were partially carved up on the spot .
during 22 non - consecutive days , we noted that the colonies captured on average 16 . 66±0 . 76 prey greater than 8 mm in length per day ( n . b . smaller prey , not registered as they were too rapidly mastered and retrieved , were very numerous ) . the prey included a wide range of flying and jumping insects ( see
) , the largest of which , a 10 . 5 - cm - long
locust , weighed 18 . 61 g or 13 , 350 times the weight of a hunting worker .
winged termites ( isoptera , rhinotermitidae ) ( 0 . 4±0 . 01 cm )
tropidacris collaris ( orthoptera , acrididae ) ( 8 . 1±0 . 2 cm )
tinacris albipes ( orthoptera , acrididae ) ( ca . 6 . 5 cm )
because the capture of such large and powerful prey was unexpected , we experimentally verified the workers ' strength by placing the free ends of threads glued to different weights in front of individuals ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf . tested individually , the workers immediately bit the end of the thread , and had enough grip to hold onto loads up to 8 . 0 g or 5 , 714 times their weight (
) . the surface of the selected plastic does not allow ant claws to grip , so that the workers adhere thanks to their adhesive pads . indeed , the velvet - like surface found on the underside of the
) seems determinant in the workers being able to hold onto such weight . this is shown by the fact that ambushing workers from colonies associated with
, served as a control case . we experimentally dropped the locust nymphs onto leaves ca . 2 . 5 cm from the leaf margins , and noted that both the tree species and the size of the locust nymphs had a significant effect on the ability of the ants to successfully catch the prey ( p < 0 . 001 in all cases ;
) . this permits a limited number of workers to hold onto large insects until their nestmates are able to help to spread - eagle these prey . this is particularly true for
workers and the velvet - like structure of the underside of the leaves combine to act like natural velcro® and is reinforced by the group ambush strategy of the workers . as a result ,
workers can capture powerful prey up to 13 , 350 times their weight ( i . e . , equivalent to a 934 . 5 - ton catch by a group of men each weighing 70 kg ) , while the host plant benefits from protection from even the largest defoliating insects .
. this behavior does not depend on the structure of the leaf blades of the host tree . indeed ,
) . because prey of that size or smaller are the most frequently captured , they likely constitute the basis of the protein obtained by the colonies .
this study and the preliminary surveys that permitted us to develop the appropriate experimental protocols were conducted between 2005 and 2009 along forest edges in zones situated around the field station at petit saut , sinnamary , french guiana ( 5° 03′ 39″ n ; 53° 02′ 36″ w ) .
) , so that the nests are periodically rebuilt as the host tree grows . in french guiana ,
that develops on white sands ( m . f . prevost , pers . comm . ) .
) . to study prey capture , using four different colonies , we dropped prey ( 1 . 5 - cm - long tettigonid grasshoppers ) onto the upper surface of the leaves from ca . 5 cm in height at ca . 2 . 5 cm from the margin ( 50 cases ) . although they were intact and so able to jump , 49 out of the 50 tested grasshoppers were captured , and then retrieved .
to determine more precisely how much weight a single worker is able to hold onto , we glued one of the ends of pieces of thick thread onto different weights . the experiment consisted in taking a weight between the thumb and index finger and cautiously placing the free end of the thread near a major worker ambushing on a vertical part of a leaf ( see
) and rather isolated from its nestmates so that it would not immediately recruit other workers . we considered the experiment to be valid when the workers could hold onto the tested weight for at least 5 seconds . if nestmates came to help the worker prior to the end of the 5 - second period , the experiment was not taken into consideration .
wilson eo , hölldobler b . the rise of the ants : a phylogenetic and ecological explanation .
moreau cs , bell cd , vila r , archibald b , pierce ne . phylogeny of the ants : diversification in the age of angiosperms .
rico - gray v , oliveira p . ( chicago : the university of chicago press ) ; 2007 . the ecology and evolution of ant - plant interactions . 320
dejean a , grangier j , leroy c , orivel j . predation and aggressiveness in host plant protection : a generalization using ants of the genus
dejean a , corbara b , orivel j , leponce m . rainforest canopy ants : the implications of territoriality and predatory behavior .
styrsky jd , eubanks m d . ecological consequences of interactions between ants and honeydew - producing insects .
fischer r c , richter a , wanek w , mayer v . plants feed ants : food bodies of myrmecophytic
heil m , mckey d . protective ant - plant interactions as model systems in ecological and evolutionary research .
heil m , baumann b , krüger r , linsenmair ke . main nutrient compounds in food bodies of mexican
feldhaar h , straka j , krischke m , berthold k , stoll s , et al . nutritional upgrading for omnivorous carpenter ants by the endosymbiont
russell ja , moreau cs , goldman - huertas b , fujiwara m , et al . bacterial gut symbionts are tightly linked with the evolution of herbivory in ants .
de souza dj , bézier a , depoix d , drezen j - m , lenoir a .
dejean a , djiéto - lordon c , orivel j . the plant - ant
dejean a , solano pj , ayroles j , corbara b , orivel j . arboreal ants build traps to capture prey .
whitney hm , chittka l , bruce tja , glover bj . conical epidermal cells allow bees to grip flowers and increase foraging efficiency .
wojtusiak j , godzinska ej , dejean a . capture and retrieval of very large prey by workers of the african weaver ant ,
federle w , baumgartner w , hölldobler b . biomechanics of ant adhesive pads : frictional forces are rate - and temperature - dependent .
this hunting strategy is all the more amazing when you consider that the ants weigh just over a milligram each while their prey – including grasshoppers and moths – can weigh up to 10 grams . ants are famously strong and they obviously hunt in large numbers , but even so , holding down a struggling insect that outweighs them by around 10 , 000 times can’t be easy . it’s the equivalent of a team of humans holding down three struggling blue whales .
but the ants and their host plant work together . the claws of the ants hook into the velvety , downy underside of c . obtusa ’s leaves in the same way that velcro fastens using miniature hooks and loops . the plant provides biological hitching posts that its bodyguards can anchor themselves to and the ants are far stronger on their host plant than on any other .
to test the workers’ strength , dejean dangled threads with weights at the end of them in front of their open jaws . he found that each worker can hold onto 8 grams , around 5 , 700 times her own weight . as a unit , they can manage far more .
the workers also seemed to be particularly strong on the downy underside of the leaves than on the rough upper surface , or on a sheet of smooth plastic . and they were especially mighty on their host plant . when dejean tested them on a closely related tree with a less downy underside they couldn’t hold onto as much weight . the downy underside is the key – it provides something for the ants’ claws to fasten onto .
these ants are one of the many hundreds of ant species that form lasting relationships with plants , defending them from plant - eaters in exchange for shelter and food . but all of them have a problem . plant nectar is typically poor in proteins and nitrogen , and while some plants pay their bodyguards with special protein - rich food packages , most plant - defending ants must get these nutrients in other ways .
some rely on thriftiness , by producing workers with very thin shells and venoms that don’t contain any protein . some rely on bacteria and others farm sap - sucking bugs that they gently nip from time to time . and yet others solve the problem by hunting for fresh meat . foraging in the forest canopy is difficult so these tree - top predators rely on ambush techniques that make the most of prey that approaches them .
use on websites and for limited audiences in social media , apps , or live performances .
flying downwards from philodendron leaves on the trunk of a rainforest tree in the ecuadorian amazon . shot using a quadcopter .
portrait of mother and two sons , costa rica . shot on red epic for high quality 4k , uhd , ultra hd resolution .
soccer ball in goal net with slowmotion . slowmotion football ball in the net .
stage lights and different shapes art gallery . series 3 + version from 1 to 26 + orange - blue - purple and white color series
over 10 , 966 , 582 royalty - free video clips with 81 , 204 new stock clips added weekly .
céline leroy , jean - françois carrias , bruno corbara , laurent pélozuelo , olivier dézerald , olivier brouard , alain dejean , régis céréghino .
epiphytism imposes physiological constraints resulting from the lack of access to the nutrient sources available to ground - rooted plants . a conspicuous adaptation in response to that lack is the phytotelm ( plant - held waters ) of tank - bromeliad species that are often nutrient - rich . associations with terrestrial invertebrates also result in higher plant nutrient acquisition . assuming that tank - bromeliads rely on reservoir - assisted nutrition , it was hypothesized that the dual association with mutualistic ants and the phytotelm food web provides greater nutritional benefits to the plant compared with those bromeliads involved in only one of these two associations .
scott c warren , kislon voïtchovsky , hen dotan , céline m leroy , maurin cornuz , francesco stellacci , cécile hébert , avner rothschild , michael grätzel .
charge transport in nanoparticle - based materials underlies many emerging energy - conversion technologies , yet assessing the impact of nanometre - scale structure on charge transport across micrometre - scale distances remains a challenge . here we develop an approach for correlating the spatial distribution of crystalline and current - carrying domains in entire nanoparticle aggregates . we apply this approach to nanoparticle - based ? - fe ? o ? electrodes that are of interest in solar - to - hydrogen energy conversion . in correlating structure and charge transport with nanometre resolution across micrometre - scale distances , we have identified the existence of champion nanoparticle aggregates that are most responsible for the high photoelectrochemical activity of the present electrodes . indeed , when electrodes are fabricated with a high proportion of these champion nanostructures , the electrodes achieve the highest photocurrent of any metal oxide photoanode for photoelectrochemical water - splitting under 100 mw cm ( - 2 ) air mass 1 . 5 global sunlight .
predation success by a plant - ant indirectly favours the growth and fitness of its host myrmecophyte .
alain dejean , jérôme orivel , vivien rossi , olivier roux , jérémie lauth , pierre - jean g malé , régis céréghino , céline leroy .
food - web structure in relation to environmental gradients and predator - prey ratios in tank - bromeliad ecosystems .
olivier dézerald , céline leroy , bruno corbara , jean - françois carrias , laurent pélozuelo , alain dejean , régis céréghino .
céline m leroy , alexandra e maegli , kevin sivula , takashi hisatomi , nicolas xanthopoulos , eugenio h otal , songhak yoon , anke weidenkaff , rosendo sanjines , michael grätzel .
latio ( 2 ) n photoanodes for solar water splitting were prepared by electrophoretic deposition and demonstrated the best photocurrents ever reported for this material . further important enhancement of the performance was obtained by the use of a sputtered in ( 2 ) o ( 3 ) overlayer .
ant species identity mediates reproductive traits and allocation in an ant - garden bromeliad .
céline leroy , bruno corbara , laurent pélozuelo , jean - françois carrias , alain dejean , régis céréghino .
determining the sources of variation in floral morphology is crucial to understanding the mechanisms underlying angiosperm evolution . the selection of floral and reproductive traits is influenced by the plants abiotic environment , florivores and pollinators . however , evidence that variations in floral traits result from mutualistic interactions with insects other than pollinators is lacking in the published literature and has rarely been investigated . we aimed to determine whether the association with either camponotus femoratus or pachycondyla goeldii ( both involved in seed dispersal and plant protection ) mediates the reproductive traits and allocation of aechmea mertensii , an obligatory ant - garden tank - bromeliad , differently .
emission - photoactivity cross - processing of mesoporous interfacial charge transfer in eu3 + doped titania .
céline marie leroy , hong feng wang , alexandre fargues , thierry cardinal , véronique jubera , mona treguer - delapierre , cédric boissiere , david grosso , clement sanchez , bruno viana , fabienne pellé .
periodic mesoporous eu ( 3 + ) doped titania materials were obtained through the eisa ( evaporation induced self assembly ) process . eu ( 3 + ) ions , entrapped within the semi - crystalline walls of the highly porous framework , appear to be advantageous during the probing of surface photochemical reactions . its emission intensity is very sensitive to the presence of physisorbed molecules , in gas or liquid phase , that reside within the pores . in particular , strong fluctuations in intensity of the ( 5 ) d ( 0 ) ? ( 7 ) f ( 2 ) transition were observed under uv light exposure on the time scale of tens of seconds . the emission modulation dynamics show a strong correlation with the crystallinity of the titania matrix . correlation of the emission with the photocatalytic activity of the semiconductor for photodegradation of an organic molecule is observed . a model is proposed to describe the involved mechanisms .
olivier brouard , anne - hélène le jeune , céline leroy , régis céréghino , olivier roux , laurent pélozuelo , alain dejean , bruno corbara , jean - françois carrias .
alain dejean , bruno corbara , céline leroy , jacques h c delabie , vivien rossi , régis céréghino .
specific , non - nutritional association between an ascomycete fungus and allomerus plant - ants .
mario x ruiz - gonzález , pierre - jean g malé , céline leroy , alain dejean , hervé gryta , patricia jargeat , angélique quilichini , jérôme orivel .
dynamics of the association between a long - lived understory myrmecophyte and its specific associated ants .
jérôme orivel , luc lambs , pierre - jean g malé , céline leroy , julien grangier , thierry otto , angélique quilichini , alain dejean .
a temporary social parasite of tropical plant - ants improves the fitness of a myrmecophyte .
alain dejean , céline leroy , bruno corbara , régis céréghino , olivier roux , bruno hérault , vivien rossi , roberto j guerrero , jacques h c delabie , jérôme orivel , raphaël boulay .
arboreal ants use the
velcro ( r ) principle
to capture very large prey .
alain dejean , céline leroy , bruno corbara , olivier roux , régis céréghino , jérôme orivel , raphaël boulay .
céline leroy , alain jauneau , angélique quilichini , alain dejean , jérôme orivel .
epiphytic plants in general and bromeliads in particular live in a water and nutrient - stressed environment often limited in nitrogen . thus , these plants have developed different ways to survive in such an environment . we focused on aechmea mertensii ( bromeliaceae ) , which is both a tank - bromeliad and an ant - garden ( ag ) epiphyte initiated by either the ants camponotus femoratus or pachycondyla goeldii . by combining a study of plant morphology and physiology associated with aquatic insect biology , we demonstrate that the ant species influences the leaf structure of the bromeliad , the structure of the aquatic community in its tank , and nutrient assimilation by the leaves . based on nitrogen and nitrogen stable isotope measurements of the a . mertensii leaves , the leaf litter inside of the tank and the root - embedded carton nest , we discuss the potential sources of available nitrogen for the plant based on the ant partner . we demonstrate the existence of a complex ant - plant interaction that subsequently affects the biodiversity of a broader range of organisms that are themselves likely to influence nutrient assimilation by the a . mertensii leaves in a kind of plant - invertebrate - plant feedback loop .
aechmea mertensii is a tank - bromeliad that roots on ant - gardens initiated by the ants camponotus femoratus and pachycondyla goeldii . its leaves form compartments acting as phytotelmata that hold rainwater and provide habitats for invertebrates . in this article , we aimed to determine whether the association with either c . femoratus or p . goeldii influenced the vegetative traits of a . mertensii , invertebrate diversity and nutrient assimilation by the leaves . transmitted light , vegetative traits and phytotelmata contents were compared between the two a . mertensii ant - gardens . camponotus femoratus colonized partially shaded areas , whereas p . goeldii colonized exposed areas . the bromeliads rosettes had a large canopy ( c . femoratus ant - gardens ) , or were smaller and amphora shaped ( p . goeldii ant - gardens ) . there were significant differences in leaf anatomy , as shaded leaves were thicker than exposed leaves . the mean volumes of water , fine particulate organic matter and detritus in c . femoratus - associated bromeliads were three to five times higher than in p . goeldii - associated bromeliads . moreover , the highest invertebrate diversity and leaf delta ( 15 ) n values were found in c . femoratus - associated bromeliads . this study enhances our understanding of the dynamics of biodiversity , and shows how ant - plant interactions can have trophic consequences and thus influence the architecture of the interacting plant via a complex feedback loop .
an efficient protocol for isolating melanised chaetothyrialean anamorphic fungi associated with plant - ants .
mario x ruiz - gonzález , jérémie lauth , céline leroy , alain jauneau , hervé gryta , patricia jargeat , alain dejean , jérôme orivel .
because of their ecological characteristics , slow growth rates and the presence of contaminants , chaetothyriales fungi associated with structures built by tropical plant - ants can be difficult to isolate with standard procedures . here , we describe an easy - to - use protocol for obtaining pure cultures by using cotton as a first substrate . we have further found by means of fluorescent stains that nuclei concentrate either in young hyphae or in the tips of the hyphae .
alain dejean , frédéric petitclerc , olivier roux , jérôme orivel , céline leroy .
jove visualize is a tool created to match the last 5 years of pubmed publications to methods in jove ' s video library .
we use abstracts found on pubmed and match them to jove videos to create a list of 10 to 30 related methods videos .
in developing our video relationships , we compare around 5 million pubmed articles to our library of over 4 , 500 methods videos . in some cases the language used in the pubmed abstracts makes matching that content to a jove video difficult . in other cases , there happens not to be any content in our video library that is relevant to the topic of a given abstract . in these cases , our algorithms are trying their best to display videos with relevant content , which can sometimes result in matched videos with only a slight relation .
scientists from the smithsonian institution describe the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , or guyanemorpha spectabilis , from guyane ( french guiana ) . as its name suggests , the newly discovered species stands out among its dull relatives in the western hemisphere , with its great size and beautiful coloration . the study was published in the open access journal zookeys .
this surprising large and colorful pseudomorphine came as a shock to me , as all other species of the tribe in the western hemisphere are quite dull brown , dark reddish , or blackish with no , or little , color contrast on the upper surface ,
explains the author dr . terry l . erwin .
in the world of entomology this new species can be only compared in its rare characteristics to the olinguito , a new carnivore species which charmed the world and just recently described by kris helgen in zookeys ,
he added .