the european corn worm or european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) , also known as the european high-flyer , is a pest of grain , particularly maize .

the insect is native to europe , originally infesting varieties of millet , including broom corn .

the european corn borer was first reported in north america in 1917 in massachusetts , but was probably introduced from europe several years earlier .

since its initial discovery in the americas , the insect has spread into canada and westward across the united states to the rocky mountains .

european corn borer caterpillars damage the ears of corn , as well as the stalks , by chewing tunnels , which cause the plants to fall over .

biological control agents of corn borers include the hymenopteran parasitoid trichogramma spp. , the fungus beauveria bassiana and the protozoa nosema pyrausta .

bt corn , a variety of genetically modified maize , has had its genome modified to include a gene from the bacillus thuringiensis ssp. kurstaki .

as a result , the corn variety produces a protein that kills lepidoptera larvae , in particular , european corn borer .

immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance , dimboa that serves as a natural defense against a wide range of pests and is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the european corn borer .

european corn borer

european corn borer larvae feed on several crops species including corn , cotton , and grain sorghum .
( left ) european corn borer adult male on corn leaf . image by dennis calvin . ( right ) european corn borer adult females . image by faruque - uz zaman .
ostrinia nubilalis ( hbn . , 1796 ) – pyrale du maïs , european corn borer
european corn borer is a significant pest of corn in south dakota . the caterpillars tunnel into corn stalks resulting in broken stalks and secondary infection by fungi . there have been few reports of european corn borer damaged fields in the past decade ; however , the transition to non - bt corn in other states has been followed by fields with heavy european corn borer infestation . although bt corn can successfully manage european corn borer , farmers planting non - bt hybrids should scout cornfields for potentially damaging populations .
ygcb – the yieldgard ® corn borer gene offers a high level of resistance to european corn borer , southwestern corn borer and southern cornstalk borer ; moderate resistance to corn earworm and common stalk borer ; and above average resistance to fall armyworm . yieldgard ® , the yieldgard corn borer design and roundup ready ® are registered trademarks used under license from monsanto company .
good decisions for managing european corn borer depend on several biological and economic factors . in regions where intensive management of corn production occurs , european corn borer is usually not the only pest . learn more about pest management models .
check out our economic threshold calculator to determine the most economical time to spray for european corn borer .
in northern south dakota , where european corn borers are univoltine , corn is more susceptible to economic losses because caterpillar feeding occurs throughout the season . in areas where bivoltine european corn borer are more prevalent , the first generation of european corn borer causes more injury than the second generation because first generation caterpillars feed during more sensitive corn growth stages .
note : the european corn borer most likely arrived in the united states during the early 1900’s in imported corn which was used to make brooms .
figure 1 . male ( right ) and female ( left ) european corn borer moths . photo courtesy of adam sisson .
univoltine and bivoltine european corn borer populations can occur within the same field . this phenomenon is typically observed in central south dakota .
figure 4 . adult female european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( hübner ) . photograph by john l . capinera , university of florida
european corn borer damages corn when the boring disrupts the plant vascular tissues and interferes with the internal transfer of water , sugars , and nutrients . additionally , some infectious diseases can establish after borer damage . finally , stalk and ear shank strength can be compromised , and severe lodging and ear drop can result . read more about how corn is damaged by the european corn borer .
rice me , pilcher cd . 1998 . potential benefits and limitations of transgenic bt corn for management of the european corn borer . american entomologist 44 : 75 - 78 .
figure 1 . eggs , soon after being laid , of the european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( hübner ) . photograph by usda .
figure 3 . window pane and shot hole injury caused by early instar european corn borer caterpillars . photo courtesy of eugene e . nelson .
hx1 – contains the herculex® i insect protection gene which provides protection against european corn borer , southwestern corn borer , black cutworm , fall armyworm , lesser corn stalk borer , southern corn stalk borer , and sugarcane borer ; and suppresses corn earworm . hxx – herculex® xtra contains both the herculex i and herculex rw genes . herculex® insect protection technology by dow agrosciences and pioneer hi - bred . herculex® and the hx logo are registered trademarks of dow agrosciences llc .
caffrey dj , worthley lh . 1927 . a progress report on the investigations of the european corn borer . usda bulletin 1476 . 154 pp .
figure 5 . newly laid ( above ) and ready to hatch ( below ) european corn borer egg masses . photo courtesy of john gavloski .
figure 2 . mature larva of the european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( hübner ) . photograph by john l . capinera , university of florida .
the european corn borer , an introduced species , has been an important pest of corn in the midwest since the 1920 ' s . besides feeding on all types of corn , european corn borer also attacks and damages hundreds of crop and weed species ( e . g . , peppers , apples , soybean , cotton , foxtails , pigweeds , ragweeds , smartweeds , etc . ) .
figure 3 . adult male european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( hübner ) , pinned specimen . photograph by john l . capinera , university of florida .
european corn borer ( ecb ) is a common pest of corn in ohio that may cause economic losses during the growing season . european corn borer infestations differ over time and among geographic regions in the state . where ecb is active , the development of borers in corn stalks interferes with the flow of nutrients in the host plant , enhances infection by stalk diseases , causes stalk breakage and ear drop , and reduces corn yield .
baker wa , bradley wg , clark ca . 1949 . biological control of the european corn borer in the united states . usda technical bulletin 983 . 185 pp .
bt corn hybrids that target european corn borer are very effective for management of this pest . for farmers not planting bt hybrids , scouting for caterpillars is recommended . moths are attracted to the tallest corn plants , so begin scouting cornfields that were planted earlier for egg masses ( figure 5 ) , leaf feeding , and caterpillars . for areas with univoltine european corn borer , scout corn from v8 through r1 stages . for areas with bivoltine european corn borer , scout for the first generation during v8 through v14 and for the second generation between r1 and r2 . if you observe significant feeding injury or caterpillar abundance in your cornfields , please contact sdsu extension .
a donor organism may be a bacterium , fungus or even another plant . in the case of bt corn , the donor organism is a naturally occurring soil bacterium , bacillus thuringiensis , and the gene of interest produces a protein that kills lepidoptera larvae , in particular , european corn borer . this protein is called the bt delta endotoxin . growers use bt corn as an alternative to spraying insecticides for control of european and southwestern corn borer .
hudon m , leroux ej . 1986b . biology and population dynamics of the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) with special reference to sweet corn in quebec . ii . bionomics . phytoprotection 67 : 81 - 92 .
see ohio state university extension bulletin 545 , control of insect pests of field crops , for those insecticides labeled for european corn borer , or for all insecticides labeled on corn . bulletin 545 can be accessed at urltoken .
nault ba , kennedy gg . 1996a . timing insecticide applications for managing european corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) infestations in potato . crop protection 15 : 465 - 471 .
figure 4 . european corn borers caterpillar tunneling into ear shank . photo courtesy of iowa state university , department of entomology .
hudon m , leroux ej . 1986c . biology and population dynamics of the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) with special reference to sweet corn in quebec . iii . population dynamics and spatial distribution . phytoprotection 67 : 93 - 115 .
bt corn has become popular in recent years . this is genetically modified corn in which genetic material from a toxin produced by the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis var . kurstaki is inserted into corn . the expression of the genetic material makes the plant toxic to corn borers and related insects , but not to other animals . widespread planting of bt corn has greatly reduced the abundance of european corn borer ( burkness et al . 2001 , hutchinson et al . 2010 ) .
first found in north america near boston , massachusetts in 1917 , european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( hübner ) , now has spread as far west as the rocky mountains in both canada and the united states , and south to the gulf coast states . european corn borer is thought to have originated in europe , where it is widespread . it also occurs in northern africa . the north american european corn borer population is thought to have resulted from multiple introductions from more than one area of europe . thus , there are at least two , and possibly more , strains present . this species occurs infrequently in florida .
note : refer to the european corn borer computer decision management software available in your local ( kentucky ) county cooperative extension office and / or ask them for a copy of ent - 49 for further information .
nault ba , kennedy gg . 1996b . sequential sampling plans for use in timing insecticide applications for control of european corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) in potato . journal of economic entomology 89 : 1468 - 1476 .
hudon m , leroux ej . 1986a . biology and population dynamics of the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) with special reference to sweet corn in quebec . i . systematics , morphology , geographical distribution , host range , economic importance . phytoprotection 67 : 39 - 54 .
european corn borer is not only a major pest on all types of corn , but it also causes losses in several other crops . for some crops subjected to unusually high infestations , the economic losses can amount to hundreds of dollars per acre . see what other crops are affected .
nault ba , kennedy gg . 1996c . evaluation of colorado potato beetle ( coleoptera : chrysomelidae ) defoliation with concomitant european corn borer ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) damage on potato yield . journal of economic entomology 89 : 475 - 480 .
pepper cultivars differ in their susceptibility to corn borer . hot pepper cultivars are most resistant , and most green bell peppers are susceptible .
in south dakota , european corn borer can have either one or two generations per year depending on location . in northern south dakota , european corn borer typically has only one generation per year ( univoltine ) . moths of univoltine populations begin flying in mid - june , with peak populations occurring in mid - july . eggs are laid on the underside of corn leaves from june to july depending on seasonal temperatures , and hatch within one week . caterpillars initially feed on leaf tissue , but will eventually tunnel into corn stalks . late instar ( or late stage ) caterpillars overwinter in stalk residues and pupate the following spring .
transgenic or bt corn - field corn producers may choose to manage corn borers through the use of hybrids with a corn borer toxin that is genetically built into the plant . these genetically modified corn hybrids contain a gene derived from a naturally occurring bacterium , bacillus thuringiensis , which produces a protein that is toxic to corn borers . this eliminates the need for the application of a corn borer insecticide . this technology allows producers who regularly experience problems with corn borers to use this as a tool to effectively manage this insect . it reduces the need for laborious scouting for this pest , although producers should spot check areas within bt corn fields to determine the effectiveness of this management strategy . obviously , scouting should not be eliminated as a result of bt corn plantings . other above and below ground insects may be present during the season and bt corn provides little to no protection against these .
originally found near boston , massachusetts in 1917 , this destructive pest is now common across much of the country . learn how to identify and get rid of european corn borers here .
( left ) ecb larvae on a corn ear . ( right ) ecb larva tunneled into corn stalk . images by eric bohnenblust .
the european corn borer passes the winter as full - grown larva in corn stalks and other plant refuse such as weed stems . the mature larva is about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) long , creamy to grayish in color , and marked by rather inconspicuous rows of small , round , brown spots running the length of its body .
hudon m , leroux ej , harcourt dg . 1989 . seventy years of european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) research in north america . in russell ge . ( ed . ) . agricultural zoology reviews . vol . 3 . intercept , wimborne , dorset , uk .
the european corn borer ( ecb ) typically overwinter as fully grown larvae lodged in the stem or cob of the host plant , though they can also be found in other host plants such as large - stemmed grasses and various vegetables . pupation occurs in early sp . . .
first generation - early planted corn is most likely to develop problems with first generation borers because moths are attracted to the tallest , greenest corn for egg laying . during june and early july when the corn is over 18 inches ( 45 cm ) in extended leaf height , look for the characteristic
shot hole
leaf feeding damage in the whorl of the corn . corn shorter than this normally has high levels of a plant aglucone , dimboa , which acts as a antifeedant and prevents borer establishment . if you do find signs of corn borer activity , sample to ascertain the extent of infestation .
sparks an , chiang hc , triplehorn ca , guthrie wd , brindley ta . 1967 . some factors influencing populations of the european corn borer , ostrinia nubilalis ( hübner ) in the north central states : resistance of corn , time of planting and weather conditions part ii , 1958 - 1962 . iowa agricultural experiment station research bulletin 559 . 103 pp .
beneficial insects , such as ladybugs and lacewing larvae , will consume a large number of borer eggs .
note : second generation borers are considered to be the most damaging to corn .
this is a very serious pest of both sweet corn and grain corn , and before the availability of modern insecticides this insect caused very marked reductions in corn production . young larvae feed on tassels , whorl and leaf sheath tissue ; they also mine midribs and eat pollen that collects behind the leaf sheath . sometimes they feed on silk , kernels , and cobs , or enter the stalk . older larvae tend to burrow into the stalk and sometimes the base of the corn ear , or into the ear cob or kernels . feeding by older larvae is usually considered to be most damaging , but tunneling by even young larvae can result in broken tassels . the presence of one to two larvae within a corn stalk is tolerable , but the presence of any larvae within the ear of sweet corn is considered intolerable by commercial growers , and is their major concern . european corn borer is considered to be the most important sweet corn pest in northern production areas , and second - generation borers are the principal source of ear damage . heavily tunneled stalks of grain corn suffer from lodging , reducing the capacity for machine harvesting . lodging is not a serious threat to sweet corn . boring by corn borers also allows several fungi to affect corn plants .
genetically modified foods are foods derived from gmo crops . for example , corn produced through biotechnology is being used in many familiar foods , including corn meal and tortilla chips . in addition , corn is used to make high fructose corn syrup , which is used as a sweetener in many foods such as soft drinks and baked goods . while the fda ( u . s . food and drug administration ) regulates genetically modified foods , it considers bt - corn to be nutritionally equivalent to traditional corn .
management of ecb has changed significantly over the past few years , shifting to the use of bt - corn hybrids , which provide virtually 100 % protection against ecb infestation . these products are used as preventive measures against ecb . transgenic corn hybrids are available containing a bt corn borer gene alone or more commonly in combination with a bt gene for control of corn rootworm larval root feeding . currently , there are three transgenic families from different companies with the bt - corn borer gene : agrisure , herculex , and yieldgard . hybrids from these families with the bt - corn borer gene provide excellent control of ecb . when using any of these transgenic corn hybrids whether with the transgenic cb trait alone or in combination , growers need to follow certain epa regulations that include the use of a 20 % refuge . growers should see their seed dealers for all the requirements and guidelines to follow when planting transgenic hybrids .
extensive use of this technology could result in resistance to the toxin developing in the corn borer population . to reduce the probability of this happening , corn without the bt - like gene should also be grown in bt corn areas . this non - bt corn will act as a refuge for some of the corn borers , thus preserving the genetic diversity that is now in the corn borer population . if these refuge are not included in plantings of bt corn , the technology may be short lived or seed companies will constantly have to introduce new genes , if available , or stack genes to combat this situation . with this in mind , producers should develop resistance management strategies that reduce this risk . contact your state cooperative extension service for resistance management plans . in general , it is suggested that at least 20 % of the acreage in an area be grown in non - bt corn .
a major pest of corn , the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) will also feed on over 300 different garden plants including peppers , snap beans , potatoes , tomatoes , apples and gladiolus . damage to corn is caused by the young larvae which chew leaves and tassels . later they tunnel all parts of the stalks and ears , resulting in reduced plant vigor , broken stalks , poor ear development and dropped ears . other crops are damaged primarily by the tunneling of the stalks , pods or stems by the larvae .
techniques other than adult capture can be used to estimate borer phenology . plant phenology can be used to predict corn borer development . thermal summations are also highly predictive . moths seek shelter during the daylight hours in dense grass and weeds near corn fields . flushing moths from such habitats gives an estimate of population densities . eggs can be sampled by visual examination , but this is a very time - consuming effort .
host plant resistance . extensive breeding research has been conducted , and resistance has been incorporated into grain corn , especially against corn borer populations with only a single annual generation . a principal factor in seedling resistance to young larvae is a chemical known as dimboa , which functions as a repellent and feeding deterrent . it has proven difficult to incorporate the known resistance factors into sweet corn without degradation of quality .
biological control . biological control has been attempted repeatedly in sweet corn and other vegetables susceptible to european corn borer attack . bacillus thuringiensis products can be as effective as many chemical insecticides , but often prove to be less effective than some . most single - factor approaches , with the exception of newer formulations of bacillus thuringiensis , have proven to be erratic . release of native trichogramma spp . ( hymenoptera : trichogrammatidae ) , for example , provides variable and moderate levels of suppression .
in crops other than corn , the pattern of damage is variable . european corn borer larvae damage both the stem and fruit of beans , pepper , and cowpea . in celery , potato , rhubarb , swiss chard , and tomato , it is usually the stem tissue that is damaged . in beet , spinach , and rhubarb , leaf tissue may be injured . entry of borers into plant tissue facilitates entry of plant pathogens . the incidence of potato blackleg caused by the bacterium erwinia carotovora atroseptica , for example , is higher in potato fields with stems heavily infested by corn borers . direct damage by corn borers to potato vines , however , results in negligible yield loss .
in southern south dakota , european corn borer can have up to two generations per year ( bivoltine ) . bivoltine moths begin flight in mid - may and eggs are laid on the underside of v6 - v9 corn leaves . these caterpillars will also feed on corn leaves and tunnel into stalks . pupation occurs within corn stalks and emerging adults begin laying eggs on the underside of leaves , leaf collars , and on ear husks during tasseling ( vt ) and silking ( r1 ) . eggs hatch roughly a week later , and caterpillars tunnel into the stalks and ear shanks where they feed on developing kernels . late instar caterpillars overwinter in stalk residues and pupate the following spring .
the first generation occurs in late may to late june . early planted corn has greatest potential for damage . the second generation occurs in late june to august . late planted corn is most attractive to this generation . a third generation occurs in late july and overwinters in the corn stems .
yield loss associated with european corn borer is due to caterpillar feeding , as adult moths do not injure corn . newly hatched caterpillars feed on leaf collars and sometimes migrate towards the tassels to feed on pollen . young caterpillars often feed on the leaf surface and midribs , often referred to as “window pane” injury ( figure 3 ) . midway through development caterpillars will feed within the whorl , creating “shot hole” type injury that becomes visible when the leaves unfurl ( figure 3 ) . near the end of development , caterpillars will tunnel into corn stalks , ear shanks , and into the ears .
fully grown corn borer larvae ( 3 / 4 – 1 inch long ) are extremely destructive flesh - colored caterpillars with a reddish or dark brown head and several distinct spots on the top of each abdominal ring or segment . the adult borer is a night - flying yellowish - brown colored moth ( 1 inch wingspan ) with dark wavy bands across its wings .
corn borer larvae will feed on many crop or weed species that have suitable stems or fruit sufficiently large for a boring larva . evidence of corn borer infestation on corn plants appears a few days after first generation egg hatch . early damage is characterized by small pin holes in the leaves and fine sawdust - like frass ( excrement ) scattered over the upper surface of damaged leaves . another typical symptom is a noticeable amount of chewing damage and frass in the whorl of the plant . when larvae enter stalks , they leave visible , small , round holes with wet frass exuding from the holes . stalk feeding can weaken the stalk to the point of breaking . damage to field corn resulting from first generation corn borer larvae is seldom great enough to warrant insecticide application . activity of the second generation larvae , which appear from mid - july through august , is similar to the spring generation with several exceptions . second generation larvae commonly move to the tassel area , causing infested tassels and the upper portion of the plant to break . some larvae also enter the shanks and ears . weakening of shanks often results in dropped ears that cannot be harvested . greatest field corn losses from second generation corn borer appear to occur on either late - planted or late - maturing varieties . field corn planted before may 20 is generally not damaged by the second - generation while corn planted later than may 20 is much more susceptible to damage because these plants are still attractive hosts .
there are many reports that weather influences european corn borer survival . heavy precipitation during egg hatch , for example , is sometimes given as an important mortality factor . low humidity , low nighttime temperatures , and heavy rain and wind are detrimental to moth survival and oviposition . however , during a 10 - year , 3 - state study , sparks et al . ( 1967 ) reported no consistent relationship between weather and survival .
second generation - because of the difficulty in readily detecting second generation borers and their damage , concentrate sampling efforts on fields that are late planted and / or actively pollinating during the period of peak egg laying . check with your local extension personnel , as to when it is necessary to start sampling . windshield
splatter
of corn borer moths while driving county roads after dusk will alert one to the flight , mating , and egg laying of corn borer moths in an area .
bt - corn is a type of genetically modified organism , termed gmo . a gmo is a plant or animal that has been genetically modified through the addition of a small amount of genetic material from other organisms through molecular techniques . currently , the gmos on the market today have been given genetic traits to provide protection from pests , tolerance to pesticides , or improve its quality . examples of gmo field crops include bt - potatoes , bt - corn , bt - sweet corn , roundup ready soybeans , roundup ready corn , and liberty link corn .
native predators and parasites exert some effect on european corn borer populations , but imported parasitoids seem to be more important . among the native predators that affect the eggs and young larvae are the insidious flower bug , orius insidious ( say ) ( hemiptera : anthocoridae ) ; green lacewings , chrysoperla spp . ( neuroptera : chrysopidae ) ; and several ladybird beetles ( coleoptera : coccinellidae ) . insect predators often eliminate 10 to 20 % of corn borer eggs . avian predators such as downy woodpecker , dendrocopos pubescent ( linnaeus ) ; hairy woodpecker , dendrocopos villosus ( linnaeus ) ; and yellow shafted flicker , colaptes auratus ( linnaeus ) have been known to eliminate 20 to 30 % of overwintering larvae .
with the widespread use of bt corn hybrids , ecb populations have been reduced to very low levels in corn and are more likely to be found in other host crops . only those fields not planted with a bt hybrid are at risk . no - till fields with high residue are susceptible , along with frequent corn crops in the rotation .
note : ladybugs will consume almost 60 borer eggs a day . stink bugs , damsel bugs , spiders and hover fly larvae feed on young caterpillars .
in new england , european corn borer and pepper maggot are the most common insect pests of pepper fruit . in many locations , peppers picked at the green stage are only marginally affected by ecb , but those left in the field long enough to ripen fall prey to ecb , then to soft rots . during the 2012 season , the umass ipm team worked with several growers to see if releases of trichogramma could increase their yield of healthy bright red and yellow fruit .
trichogramma ostriniae are tiny parasitic wasps that seek out and kill the egg masses of the european corn borer ( ecb ) . the use of these wasps in commercial sweet corn fields in massachusetts has resulted in the reduction or elimination of foliar insecticide sprays , saving time , labor , pesticides , and fuel , reducing soil compaction , and maintaining and improving ear quality . the good news is that trichogramma wasps can also be used to control ecb in peppers . trichogramma reduces fruit infestation , resulting in fewer culls and potentially greater success with high - quality , high value , ripe red peppers .
adult moths are approximately ½ inch in length with triangular wings . female moths have yellow - brown wavy markings on their wings while males are slightly smaller and darker in color ( figure 1 ) . european corn borer caterpillars are light tan to pink in color and are approximately 1 inch in length when fully mature . distinguishing characteristics of the caterpillars include dark brown head capsules , dark spots on each body segment , and three pairs of true legs with four pairs of abdominal prolegs ( figure 2 ) .
the pupal stage of the corn borer is rarely visible . pupae remain inside the host plant , and adults emerge in late spring and in july . the pupae are smooth , light to dark brown in color , and 1 / 3 to 5 / 8 of an inch in length .
early planted corn is taller and attractive to ovipositing female moths , so late planting has been recommended , but this is useful mostly in areas with only a single generation per year . if a second generation occurs , such late planted corn is heavily damaged .
cultural practices . destruction of stalks , the overwintering site of larvae , has long been recognized as an important element of corn borer management . disking is not adequate ; plowing to a depth of 20 cm is necessary for destruction of larvae . mowing of stalks close to the soil surface eliminates greater than 75 % of larvae , and is especially effective when combined with plowing . minimum tillage procedures , which leave considerable crop residue on the surface , enhance borer survival .
sampling for first - brood injury should be initiated when corn is in the whorl stage and early shot - hole foliar injury is evident . sampling should be based on inspection of a series of 20 plant samples from five or more locations in a field . notes should be taken on the proportion of the stand exhibiting whorl injury . the whorls of at least two plants from each sample of 20 plants should be dissected to determine the number of larvae per injured plant and the predominant stage of ecb larvae development . sampling second - brood corn borer is more difficult than first brood , since detection of early larvae on corn in the tassel stage or later is complicated by the size of the corn plant .
begin scouting first generation larvae once moths have been detected in pheromone traps and corn has reached the six - leaf stage . ( usually late may to early june in central missouri ; seven to ten days earlier in the southeastern counties ) . scout earliest planted corn fields first .
with the widespread use of bt corn hybrids , ecb populations have been reduced to very low levels in corn and are more likely to be found in other host crops . only those fields not planted with a bt hybrid are at risk . no - till fields with high residue . . .
insecticides . liquid formulations of insecticide are commonly applied to protect against damage to corn , particularly from the period of early tassel formation until the corn silks are dry . recommendations vary from a single application prior to silking , to weekly applications . liquid applications are usually made to coincide with egg hatch in an effort to prevent infestation . if corn borers are present in a field , however , the critical treatment time is just before the tassels emerge , or at tassel emergence from the whorl . this plant growth period is significant because the larvae are active at this time and more likely to contact insecticide . a popular alternative to liquid insecticides is the use of granular formulations , which can be dropped into the whorl for effective control of first generation larvae because this is where young larvae tend to congregate . insecticide is more persistent when applied in a granular formulation . in grain corn , insecticide applications for suppression of second generation corn borers can be made outside the corn fields in areas of thick grass , or action sites , where adults tend to aggregate . this approach has not been assessed for sweet corn . for borer suppression on potato , a single application of insecticide timed to coinide with the presence of first instar larvae provides optimal yield .
yield losses due to corn borer can be attributed to a combination of stalk injury by first - or second - brood larvae , ear drop due to second - brood injury to shanks and ears , and enhancement of stalk rot due to microbial infection of injured stalks . in general , if one larva tunnels and completes its development per stalk , the assumption is that a 5 % yield reduction may be expected . the severity of ear drop and stalk breakage depends on the incidence and location of borer cavities and environmental conditions favoring plant infections by microbial agents .
leaf feeding typically does not cause serious injury to corn . however , tunneling into stalks and ear shanks ( figure 4 ) can result in significant yield losses . tunnels can result in stalk breakage and reduce water and nutrient transport by corn plants . furthermore , tunnel entrances can permit secondary infections of mycotoxin - producing fungi .
the european corn borer ( ecb ) typically overwinter as fully grown larvae lodged in the stem or cob of the host plant , though they can also be found in other host plants such as large - stemmed grasses and various vegetables . pupation occurs in early spring and adults emerge in early june to july . larvae initially feed on the leaves and work their way to the whorl of the plant . pinholes or shot holes are signs of borers already moving into the plant . depending on the strain of ecb , growing conditions and the growing region , populations can go through one or two full generations and , in some cases , a partial third generation in a single season .
hutchinson , w . d . , e . c . burkness , p . d . mitchell , r . d . moon , t , w leslie , s . j . fleischer , m . abrhahamson , k . l . hamilton , k . l . steffey , m . e . gray , r . l . hellmich , l . v . kaster , t . e . hunt , r . j . wright , k . pecinosvsky , t . l . rabaey , b . r . flood , and e . s . raun . 2010 . areawide suppression of european corn borer with bt maize reaps savings to non - bt maize growers . science 330 : 222 - 225 .
1st generation : field corn controls should be considered if 50 % of the plants show
shot hole
or
window pane
feeding damage and larvae are present . treatment may be justified for popcorn and seed corn fields if 25 % or more of the plants are infested . once larvae have bored into the stalks , treatment will not be effective .
however , if a new food product developed through biotechnology does not contain substances that are significantly different from those already in the diet , it does not require premarket approval . products that are genetically engineered to provide pesticide traits , such as resistance to the corn borer , are also subject to regulation by the environmental protection agency . currently , genetically modified foods in the united states do not require special labeling to notify consumers .
several microbial disease agents are known from corn borer populations . the common fungi beauveria bassiana and metarhizium anisopliae are sometimes observed , especially in overwintering larvae . the most important pathogen seems to be the microsporidian nosema pyrausta , which often attains 30 % infection of larvae and sometimes 80 to 95 % infection . it creates chronic , debilitating infections that reduce longevity and fecundity of adults , and reduces survival of larvae that are under environmental stress .
overwintering larvae pupate in the spring , emerging as moths in late may and early june . female moths are pale yellow - brown with irregular darker bands running in wavy lines across their wings ; male moths are distinctly darker and usually smaller . mating takes place in early june ( first generation ) and in late july and early august ( second generation ) in dense grassy areas around corn fields . female moths generally lay their eggs on the underside of corn leaves ( often along the leaf midrib ) , leaf sheaths , and / or ears , depending on the generation , in masses of 15 to 30 eggs overlapping like scales of a fish . tall , lush , early planted corn is the preferred oviposition site for the first generation moths ; whereas second generation moths target actively pollinating corn , which is usually planted late . after 5 to 6 days , the eggs develop what appears to be black spots , which are actually the head capsules of young borer larvae . once the black head is visible , hatching is imminent .
check plants for egg masses and signs of borer feeding . examine closely the lower surface of leaves and at the ear . when an egg mass is found , record the hatching stage according to following : white , cream , black head , hatched .
second generation borer attack may result in stalk or tassel breakage and / or boring into the ear shanks , which may cause ears to drop off . larvae may bore into the ears where they feed on the kernels and cob , resulting in yield losses , as well as avenues for attack from secondary insects and pathogens ( e . g . , ear rots ) . no matter where they may attack the plant , second generation borer damage can result in grain losses , harvesting problems , and poor grain quality .
the bt delta endotoxin was selected because it is highly effective at controlling lepidoptera larvae , caterpillars . it is during the larval stage when most of the damage by european corn borer occurs . the protein is very selective , generally not harming insects in other orders ( such as beetles , flies , bees and wasps ) . for this reason , gmos that have the bt gene are compatible with biological control programs because they harm insect predators and parasitoids much less than broad - spectrum insecticides . the bt endotoxin is considered safe for humans , other mammals , fish , birds , and the environment because of its selectivity . bt has been available as a commercial microbial insecticide since the 1960s and is sold under many trade names . these products have an excellent safety record and can be used on many crops until the day of harvest .
fifteen to 35 white eggs are laid in masses on the underside of corn leaves , often near the midrib . the individual eggs overlap each other much like fish scales . prior to hatching , the mass darkens .
first generation borers are usually present during june in the whorl of corn plants . as the larvae feed and grow , some may be found tunneled into the midrib of leaves . this damage can cause leaves to break at the point of borer entry . as the borers feed on the leaves , they typically produce a characteristic random or
shot hole
damage pattern . these holes become apparent as the leaves grow out of the whorl . by the time the first generation borers are half grown , they will have moved down the stalk and bored into it , leaving behind their sawdust - like excrement called frass at the stalk entry hole . the boring damage may weaken the plant enough to cause subsequent stalk breakage later in the season , typically occurring below the ear . or it may cause corn to become stunted , resulting in yield reductions caused by the inability of the plant to transport water and nutrients through its damaged stalk . after boring into the stalk , the larvae usually feed inside the plant until they reach maturity and pupate . stalk entry and tunneling by corn borer may predispose the plant to pathogens which may lead to stalk rots later in the season . they emerge as adults during july and early august beginning the second generation .
the number of generations varies from one to four , with only one generation occurring in northern new england and minnesota and in northern areas of canada , whereas three to four generations occur in virginia and other southern locations . in many areas generation number varies depending on weather , and there is considerable adaptation for local climate conditions even within strains . european corn borer overwinters in the larval stage , with pupation and emergence of adults in early spring . diapause apparently is induced by exposure of last instar larvae to long days , but there also is a genetic component . moth flights and oviposition usually occur during june - july and august - september in areas with one to two generations annually . in southern locations with three generations , moth flights and oviposition typically occur in may , late june , and august . in locations with four generations , adults are active in april , june , july , and august - september .
the larvae are dirty white , often having a pinkish tinge . the skin is smooth and free of hairs . there are numerous dark spots scattered over the sides and top of the body . the head is dark brown to black . it is the larval ( borer ) stage that causes damage to crops .
larvae of the first brood pupate in the stalks and emerge again as adult moths in late july and early august . these adults prefer to deposit their eggs on late - planted corn . the larvae hatching from this generation are referred to as the second brood ; they will overwinter as late - instar larvae in corn stubble . larvae will feed on the surface of the leaves before tunneling into the corn stalk where the predominant feeding occurs ( fig . 3 ) . injury caused by the second brood includes stalk breakage , ear drop due to infestation of shanks , and infestations of the ear ( fig . 4 ) . larvae of the second brood are also susceptible to adverse weather , predators , and parasites . the overwintering larvae are very susceptible to insect , avian , and mammalian predators that become active during the late fall , winter , or early spring .
example : a field that is shedding pollen has 60 % of the plants infested with larvae and / or egg masses . the number of actual larvae observed averages 2 per plant . the number of egg masses averages 1 / 4 per plant . for 1 / 4 egg mass / plant , an average of 1 borer would survive per plant ( assuming survival of 4 borers / egg mass ) . therefore , two live borers plus one borer from egg masses equals 3 borers / plant . anticipated yield is 150 bu / a and the crop is valued at $ 2 . 75 per bushel . the cost of the insecticide and application is $ 12 . 00 and 65 % control can be expected . would it pay to apply the insecticide ?
assessment of second - brood injury in early september with an emphasis on evaluation of stalk quality and ear shank infestation ( fig . 5 ) will provide relevant information on the need for scheduling timely harvest of corn stands that may be susceptible to significant ear drop or stalk breakage if harvest is delayed .
during late july and early august adults mate in grassy areas ( e . g . , roadsides , waterways , weed patches , etc . ) . egg masses , which will produce second generation borers , are laid in corn during late july and throughout august . newly hatched larvae typically move from the leaves to protected areas of the leaf axils and sheaths to feed on pollen and plant tissue . second generation borers normally concentrate their attack in the ear zone , roughly the middle third of the plant . after undergoing several molts , the larvae bore into the corn plant as did the first generation borers .
ecb overwinters as late instar or stage larvae in corn stalks . in the early spring , the overwintering larvae pupate and then emerge as moths that prefer to deposit their egg masses on the underside of leaves of mid - whorl stage corn . each egg mass appears like a small mass of fish scales and may include 15 to 20 eggs ( fig . 1 ) . the eggs hatch into early - instars that initially feed on foliage , causing window - pane injury , and on the tender central whorl , which subsequently leads to shot - hole injury in the emerging foliage ( fig . 2 ) . as the larvae become third - and fourth - instars ( about 1 / 2 - inch long ) , they tunnel into the mid - ribs and stalks . there they complete their larval development as fifth - instars and transform into pupae from which adult moths will emerge in midsummer . this larval generation , which occurs in the spring on whorl - stage corn , is called the first brood . during the period of larval development , significant proportions of larvae perish due to natural elements such as heavy rains or predation by beneficial insect predators . although 15 to 20 larvae may emerge from a single egg mass , it is rare to find one or more mature larvae in a corn stalk or adjacent stalks to which larvae may have migrated .
fully grown larvae pass the winter concealed in corn stubble or other plant parts on which they have been feeding . pupation takes place in late spring with the adult moths appearing in may and june . when mature , the females begin laying clumps of white eggs on the undersides of the lower leaves of host plants . ( adult females may lay up to 500 eggs over their short lifetime . ) under ideal conditions , these first generation eggs hatch within 3 - 7 days . tiny caterpillars begin feeding on host plants and complete their development in 3 - 4 weeks . pupation occurs deep inside the corn stalks and second generation moths emerge and begin laying eggs in early summer . produces 1 - 3 generations per year depending upon the climate .
larvae : pinkish tan body , boring into corn , and leaves . adults : small , tan , night fliers about 1 / 2 inch in length that hold their wings in a delta shape at rest . females have a thick body and light colored wings , whereas the males have darker tan - to - brown wings and a thinner body . click here for an identification key .
burkness , e . c . , w . d . hutchinson , p . c . bolin , d . r . bartels , d . f . warnock , and d . w . davis . 2001 . field efficacy of sweet corn hybrids expressing a bacillus thuringiensis toxin for management of ostrinia nubilalis ( lepidoptera : crambidae ) and helicoverpa zea ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . journal of economic entomology 94 : 197 - 203 .
life table studies conducted on corn borer populations in quebec with a single annual generation perhaps provide insight into the relative importance of mortality factors ( hudon and leroux 1986c ) . these workers demonstrated that egg mortality ( about 15 % ) was low , stable and due mostly to predators and parasites . similarly , mortality of young larvae , due principally to dispersal , dislodgement , and plant resistance to feeding was fairly low ( about 15 % ) but more variable . mortality of large larvae during the autumn ( about 22 % ) and following spring ( about 42 % ) was due to a number of factors including frost , disease and parasitoids , but parasitism levels were low . pupal mortality ( about 10 % ) was low and stable among generations . the factor that best accounted for population trends was survival of adults . dispersal of moths and disruption of moth emergence by heavy rainfall are thought to account for high and variable mortality ( 68 to 98 % , with a mean of 95 % ) , which largely determines population size of the subsequent generation . overall generation mortality levels were high , averaging 98 . 7 % .
first brood rescue treatment may be needed when 75 % or more of stand is infested and larvae are susceptible to treatment , that is , they have not tunneled into the stalk . second brood rescue treatment is warranted when egg masses or early larvae are found on 50 % or more of plants . abundant activity of ecb adults along field edges indicates a need for inspection for egg masses or early larvae in corn . however , in a year of heavy second - brood activity , the problem may be forecasted by observation of an abundant summer flight of adults .
do bt - corn hybrids differ only in that they possess the genetic code to produce the bt protein ? not exactly . to add a trait to a crop plant , the gene must be inserted along with some additional genetic material . this additional genetic material includes a promoter sequence that , in part , determines how the new trait is expressed in the plant . for example , the promoter may cause to protein to be expressed in certain parts of the plants or only during a particular period of time . there is a marker gene that allows plant breeders to easily determine which plants have been transformed . herbicide and antibiotic tolerance promoters are commonly used to identify transformed plants . there may also be a plasmid or vector sequence that allows for rapid multiplication of the gene of interest in a bacterial host prior to insertion in the crop plant .


aaadonta pelewana is a species of snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family endodontidae .

it is found in palau , where it was known from peleliu and koror .

if it is still extant , it is threatened by the destruction and modification of its tropical moist lowland forest habitat .

aaadonta pelewana

have a fact about aaadonta pelewana ? write it here to share it with the entire community .
have a definition for aaadonta pelewana ? write it here to share it with the entire community .
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : aaadonta pelewana g . a . solem , 1976 - id : 5732000085
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
you must first create a username and login before you can post a comment about this entry . .
a database of
missing
and recently extinct species of plants and animals .
sign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .
have a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .
simply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .


the great basin redband trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii ) is one of three redband trout subspecies of the rainbow trout in the western united states .

the great basin redband trout is native to drainages in south central oregon east of the cascade range , extreme north east california and extreme north west nevada .

they occur in seven isolated drainages — the upper klamath lake basin , fort rock basin , harney-malheur basin , catlow basin , warner lakes basin , goose lake basin , and the chewaucan basin .

great basin redband trout

no children of northern great basin redband trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss newberrii ) found .
love your website . great pictures & great commentary . looking forward to future posts !
read the final report for the six year great basin redband trout genetic assessment ( which received funding by wnti in 2012 ) .
us fish and wildlife service . 2000 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; 12 - month finding for a petition to list the great basin redband trout as threatened or endangered . federal register 54 : 14932 - 14936 .
in september 1997 , the u . s . fish and wildlife service received a formal petition to list the great basin redband trout as threatened or endangered throughout its range in southeastern oregon , northeastern california , and northwestern nevada . after a review of all available scientific and commercial information , we found that listing this species was not warranted ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 2000 ) . currently , we consider the great basin redband trout a species of concern and are continuing to monitor its status .
redband trout are subspecies of the rainbow trout and exist in two well - defined geographic regions . the columbia river redband trout is found in montana , washington , and idaho , and the great basin redband trout is found in southeastern oregon and parts of california and nevada . the redband trout is similar in appearance to the rainbow trout but has larger , more rounded spots and parr marks that remain into adulthood . they generally grow larger than 10 inches . redband trout that live in streams tend to have profuse large spots over their bodies and fins ( except pectoral ) and frequently have an orange cutthroat mark under the jaws . they have a rosy red stripe along lateral line to a brick red lateral band ( especially in spawning males ) and tints of yellow or orange along the ventral region . gill covers can also be brilliant red .
redbands are a primitive form of rainbow trout and the northern great basin of oregon and california is home to a great diversity of these fish . during a trip that i had made during 2006 i had caught one of unique varieties of redband trout that are found in this area and my goal for this trip was to catch the rest of them . beyond that i had decided that over the summer i would try to do the california heritage trout challenge , where you have to catch six different types of trout in their native stream in california . with three of the fish that i was targeting located in california , i figured that this would give me a great jump on it as long as everything went as planned .
the klamath basin creek ; the most difficult stream that i have ever fished . . .
thurow , r . f . b . e . rieman , d . c . lee , p . j . howell and r . d . perkinson . 2007 . distribution and status of redband trout in the interior columbia river basin and portions of the klamath river and great basins . pp . 28 - 46 in redband trout : resilience and challenge in a changing landscape ( r . k . schroeder and j . d . hall , eds ) oregon chapter , american fisheries society .
read more about the conservation strategy for interior redband trout in california , idaho , montana , nevada , oregon and washington ( nov 2016 ) .
this video is one i put together after my dad’s and my trip to oregon in search of the native redband trout subspecies . this fish is considered to be one of the eight subspecies of the native northern great basin redband trout . each one of these beautiful native redbands was a glimpse of god’s extravagance . please enjoy . chewaucan basin redband trout fly fishing fremont - winema national forest , or - - august 11 , 2016 special thanks to : - sammy ' s fly shop - tying all the flies and trip planning - temple fork outfitters - the awesome 3 wt rods - gopro - the awesome hero 3 + camera “joy“ by rend collective ( no copyright infringement is intended ) questions or orders ? visit our website : urltoken call sammy at : 720 - 443 - 7576 email sammy at : orderflies @ urltoken
the potential range of all forms of redband trout included freshwaters west of the rocky mountains , extending from northern california to northern british columbia , canada . despite their broad distribution , local extirpations ( extinct locally but exists elsewhere ) and important declines have occurred . redband trout have more limited distribution and fewer strongholds than historically . degradation and fragmentation of habitat , and the introduction of non - native species are primary factors that influenced the status and distribution of redband trout .
the photos below of columbia river redband trout are provided courtesy of the washington department of fish and wildlife . the columbia river redband trout is native to the columbia river drainage east of the cascade mountains . their known distribution extends upstream as far as barrier falls on the snake , spokane , pend oreille , and kootenai rivers . there is considerable variability in the life history of columbia river redband trout , including fish that migrate to the ocean and those that migrate solely within fresh water .
overall the trip was a great success ; i managed to catch seven new varieties of trout and one new char . one top of that i got three fish for the california hertiage trout challenge . fishing licenses and gas were expensive as usual and the roads and roadwork in northern california sucked , but the fishing more than made up for it .
the fish to target for the day was the mccloud river redband , which are native to the mccloud river drainage in the mount shasta area of california . we broke camp in the klamath basin early and made our way to the spring fed streams on the southeastern slopes of mount shasta that are a refuge for the mccloud river redband .
from hosmer lake , we headed southeast into the fort rock basin to search for its native trout . we arrive at the banks of the creek that was supposed to have the best population of redbands right as the sun went down and set up camp for the night .
the photo below was taken in rock creek ( upper klamath basin ) during an oregon department of fish and wildlife restoration project . photo credit : dave hering , national park service .
click here to read the 2015 status and conservation of interior redband trout in the western united states , north american journal of fisheries management , 35 : 1 , 31 - 53 , doi : 10 . 1080 / 02755947 . 2014 . 951807 .
this blog is all about fly fishing for native trout . on it i cover trip reports , fishing tactics , conservation , the latest news about native trout species and much more . this site provides a companion to my web page urltoken . gary
on the next cast , if that is the right word i caught a klamath basin redband on my dropper . after this the fish seemed to be aware of my presence so i moved little ways upstream to another small pool where i got another bull trout and redband . above this spot the vegetation formed an impassible barrier so i made my way back to the trail . since i had caught the fish that i came for and the sun was begining to fall i decided to forgo anymore fishing and hiked back out to the trailhead where we had setup camp . this was without a doubt the hardest stream that i have ever fished , but with the bull trout and redbands that i caught it was well worth the effort .
redband trout conservation and restoration is necessary to ensure the long - term persistence of self - sustaining populations across the species’ native range . maintenance of multiple inter - connected populations of redband trout across the diverse habitats of their native range and preservation of the diversity of their life history strategies ( fluvial and adfluvial forms ) will be important . conserving and restoring healthy populations of non - anadromous redband trout may also be critical to the persistence or restoration of some steelhead stocks . although the relationship between the two forms is not well understood there is evidence that some progeny of non - anadromous forms migrate to sea and some progeny of steelhead remain in freshwater . steelhead confined above barriers adopt a non - anadromous life history appropriate to the habitats available . it has been reported that steelhead progeny in very cold streams can residualize and adopt a non - anadromous life history and that these fish retained the ability to produce anadromous offspring . if sympatric redband trout have the potential to rebuild steelhead populations , that has application for the recovery of unique populations of steelhead eliminated by human - caused barriers .
since 2007 , the western native trout initiative has contributed over $ 648 , 887 to 16 projects benefiting redband trout , including catalyzing and leading the effort to complete the first - ever range - wide assessment and status review mentioned above . other funded projects have been diverse –everything from genetic analysis , telemetry surveys , culvert renovation , levee removal , road relocation , fish ladders , fish screens , streambank stabilization , and large watershed improvement projects .
three life history patterns have been identified for redband trout ( excluding the anadromous form known as steelhead ) : ( 1 ) stream resident , ( 2 ) fluvial ( migrate between larger and smaller streams ) , and ( 3 ) lake resident adfluvial ( migrate between the lake and stream system ) . stream resident ( fluvial ) populations of redband trout spend their entire life cycles in flowing waters and spawn in the headwaters of the streams they inhabit . the abilities of individuals to express all these life histories is often tied to climatic cycles , with fluvial life histories expressed during wet cycles and reversing to resident life history during dry cycles . spawning is often in the spring ( march to june ) , though they may reproduce at most any time of the year except summer . in the fall , redband migrate to over - wintering areas within their streams . they eat mainly streamside and benthic ( bottom dwelling ) macroinvertebrates in smaller stream habitat but also consume other fish when they occupy larger streams , rivers or lakes . adfluvial populations consist of trout that spend most of their life cycles in lakes and reservoirs , before returning to stream headwaters and tributaries within their native basin to spawn . when lacustrine habitats such as lakes and marshes are available and migratory corridors connect it with surrounding streams , adfluvial populations of redband trout flourish . this adfluvial form is much larger and more fecund than the fluvial form . adfluvial juveniles typically migrate downstream after one to three years to mature in lakes .
while i had failed to catch any redbands at this creek , i don ' t like going on these trips with out backup plans for streams that treat me like this . this trip was no execption so it was on to my second choice chewaucan basin stream , which ended up being much more productive than the first one . in fact i was rewarded with a chewaucan basin redband on my dry fly on the first cast . the fishing at this stream was amazing and every likely spot seemed to hold a fish with some going 12
to 15
. the water temperature at this stream was also some of the warmest that i have ever seen trout in , a testament to the adaptations of these fish to the extreme climate of the high desert of oregon .
six states , four federal agencies , five tribal governments and one non - governmental organization signed a rangewide conservation agreement for interior redband trout in july 2014 , agreeing to work together to conserve and protect habitat for this unique trout . the conservation agreement for interior redband trout is an example of the power of a partnership among state and federal fish and wildlife agencies and tribal nations that has been ongoing since 2009 . western native trout initiative is proud to have been involved in the partnership , convening 13 workshops to complete a comprehensive status review for redband trout in partnership with the state fisheries agencies of california , idaho , montana , nevada , oregon , washington , u . s . fish and wildlife service , u . s . forest service , bureau of land management and 11 tribal nations , as well as representatives from private companies . the project was funded through a grant from the national fish habitat action plan and matching funds from the partnering organizations through the western association of fish and wildlife agencies . when the entire project was complete , the final results involved the expertise of upwards of 95 biologists and arcgis technical experts and 15 data entry personnel . protecting this fish is a big job and we congratulate all our partners !
behnke , r . j . 1992 . native trout of western north america . american fisheries society . monograph 6 . bethesda , md . 275 pp .
the northern basin and range ecoregion covers the very large southeastern portion of the state , from burns south to the nevada border and from the christmas valley east to idaho . it is largely a high elevation desert - like area dominated by sagebrush communities and habitats .
topics of interest welcome and overview hunting & fishing information american recovery & reinvestment act avian influenza barred owls bats birds bull trout climate change coastal cutthroat trout culvert replacement dry forest ecosystems ecosystem services experience nature federal programs assessment fire grants gravel mining gray wolf invasive species jr . duck stamp lamprey marbled murrelet new carissa plant conservation pollinators portland harbor salmon spotted owl stream habitat surrogate species west nile virus
so i decided to just scout the creek out until it heated up a bit . i hiked both upstream and downstream about a 1 / 2 mile and found some decent looking water downstream , but the best spot i had found was the culvert pool were the road crossed the creek . by 8 : 00am it had warmed up enough for my liking , so i righted up my 4wt with a size 12 royal pmx and size 18 black copper john dropper . the first spot that i tried was the culvert pool , which seemed to be packed with fish and it only took me a couple of minutes to catch my first fort rock basin redband .
frustrated with the cramped conditions , i decided to continue my search for some better water . about another 1 / 2 mile upstream i found a spot with a decent pool where i would have enough room to set the hook if need be . i rose a fish as soon as my royal pmx hit the water , but didn ' t get a good hook set . after a couple more tries i finally got a solid hook up , although it wasn ' t a redband like i was expecting , but instead was a stream resident bull trout ! my research had indicated that bull trout were also present in this creek , but with all of my failed attempts to catch this elusive fish in washington i never expected that i would actually catch any .
the fishing in this creek was ridiculous , and every pool would hold several fish that grabbed my fly as soon as it hit the water . on my way back upstream i stopped at a small pool where i caught my biggest trout on the creek , a nice deeply colored about 10 inch buck . as we were heading out of the refuge we saw a good number of pronghorn antelope amidst some beautiful scenery . with the catlow valley redband being caught and photographed , we called it a wrap and made the long drive home .
as soon as the royal pmx hit the water a fish attacked it , but unfortunately it managed to shake the hook . on the next cast though another fish grabbed my fly and i got a solid hook up and i caught my first catlow valley redband , which was followed by a number of other ones .
with the first variety of redband sucessfully caught my dad and i decided that we might as well hit the road again for the next spot , which a small stream draining to summer lake in the chewaucan basin . the research that i had done prior to heading out on the trip showed that this stream had never been stocked with hatchery trout , so it should have the purest population of chewaucan redbands . we drove up to summer lake rim and the headwaters of the creek , but it was much smaller than i had anticipated at only a foot wide and a few inches deep in most places . i decided that i would spend about an hour fishing the creek , so i headed downstream to search for some type of holding water . there was evidence of beaver activity along the creek , but it all appeared to be at least five or ten years old and all of the ponds had long since was out . after a 1 / 2 mile of fishing a hiking and still no sign of fish , i pulled the plug on it and headed back to the car .
i had originally planned on fishing two more streams that these redbands are native to in order to get a better sampling of the diversity found among the different isolated populations . the only problem with this idea was the the poor signage and maze of forest service and logging roads that made the other streams impossible to find . we ended up wasting the next couple of hours on a wild goose chase looking for a couple of streams that we never found . at this point we were pretty worn out and my dad suggested that we should head over to reno for the night . this idea sounded great as it would give me a shot a some lahontan cutthroat and put me another step closer to completing the heritage trout challenge . just getting to reno in the first place ended up being no small task though , and we ended up wasting two hours waiting for pilot cars at worthless road work projects . as we got closer to reno we noticed an odd cloud over the area which ended up being smoke from a forest fire in the south lake tahoe area and ruled out my plans of going after any lahontan cutthroat on this trip . skipping the fishing ended up making the stay in reno a bit more relaxing though , as it gave us a chance to take in the town and get a good nights sleep .
both my dad and i got rigged up to fish here and at the advice of a california fish and wildlife biologist we started out in the pocket water section , which was supposed to hold more fish than the meadow water . my dad hooked a fish almost right away on his dry , but lost it after a few seconds . the next fish that he hooked stayed on the line and he got the first goose lake redband of the trip .
we got up at about 7 : 00am and i went out to scout the creek out with my fly rod . this stream appeared to be about the size of the one above summer lake that i couldn ' t find any trout in and flowed through a meadow interspersed with a few groves of aspens here and there . i decide to head downstream to where a small tributary added its flow to the creek and found a decent pool with some fish in it .
i fished the pool for another 45 minutes or so , and caught a few more trout before the fish seemed to stop feeding . at this point i headed for some of the spots that i noticed earlier in the moring when i scouted the creek , but after spending an hour of bush wacking and fishing i had only gotten one more small fish . the only thing to do was head back to the culvert pool , where i caught a couple more fish and even had two on at the same time for a couple of seconds .
we arrived at the first stream at around 11 : 00am and on my third or fouth cast i caught my first redband . the fishing didn ' t slow down either and just seemed to improve as i worked my way upstream . i was evident that the population of fish here was healthy and they didn ' t seem to even think twice before grabbing my fly . after covering about a quarter mile of the stream and catching plenty of redbands , i headed back to the car and handed my fly rod off to my dad who also caught several fish . once we had caught our fair share of fish , we hit the road again to try to find some more redbands in another nearby stream .
the next stop on the list was a small stream in the klamath basin that all of my research had indicated held a good population of redbands . it was evident as soon as we arrived at this stream that i was going to be in for some
fun
fishing as the creek flowed though an absolute tunnel of vegetation . i decided that i would hike upstream to see if i could find any beaver ponds or meadow stretches were the creek might open up a bit but after hiking about a mile i had no such luck . i decided to make the best of the situation a scrambled through the bushes down to the creek . when i got down to the creek , there wasn ' t even enough room to stand up straight let alone make a cast . this was small stream fishing in the extreme and the only way to get my fly to where it needed to be was doing some tap and dap fishing or using a sling shot cast . even with the less than ideal conditions i managed to get a fish to grab my fly , the only problem was that there wasn ' t enough room to raise the rod tip to set the hook so i lost it .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
search usfws threatened & endangered species system ( tess ) ( for listing rules , critical habitat , recovery plan , etc . )
oregon fish & wildlife office home pacific region ecological services home pacific region home u . s . fish and wildlife service national home page | department of the interior | urltoken | about the u . s . fish and wildlife service | accessibility | privacy | notices | disclaimer | foia
several life history types with different migratory patterns . pools provide important habitat for all life stages .
poor understanding of factors that influence long - term viability . limiting factor is likely to be availability of water ( linked to natural cycles ) . influence of climate change on these cycles is poorly understood in this region .
the east cascade ecoregion extends from the cascade mountains’ summit east to the warmer , drier high desert and down the length of the state . this ecoregion varies dramatically from its cool , moist border with the west cascades ecoregion to its dry eastern border , where it meets sagebrush desert landscapes .
passage barriers . non - natives in lake . high temperatures . water withdrawals . channelization . riparian condition .
my dad and i left home in washington early in the morning with rainy weather that would follow us all of the way into central oregon . normally when we head over the the bend oregon area we take us 26 over the cascades , but with the traffic getting out of the portland area we decided to take a different road . we ended up taking us 20 instead , which was a good move as there was nobody on the road and the drive up the santiam river valley made for a nice change .
our first stop for the trip was hosmer lake , a high mountain lake that is stocked with atlantic salmon and located about an hour southwest of bend . the lake was beautiful , but the weather was cold and windy and the fish did appear to be too interested in feeding . i did a circle around the part of the lake near the boat launch in my float tube , using nymphs , dries and streamers . i even tried some of my standby attractor patterns for resident coho salmon in the puget sound , but only had a couple of hits . with the fishing being slow and the weather going down hill fast , my dad and i decided that it would be best just to head over to the next spot instead of hanging around at hosmer for the night .
we got off to a slow start in order to get a little enjoyment out of the swimming pool at our hotel in reno . once on the road we ran into three more road work projects on us 395 on our way to goose lake and lost about another hour because of them . when we got to goose lake we headed up a forest service road leading to the stream that i wanted to fish . once again finding the stream proved difficult , but after getting turned around a couple of times we finally made our way to the creek . the creek was beautiful and flowed from meandering meadows into high gradient pocket water sections .
it soon became evident that the fish in this stream were pros at throwing flies and if you wanted to land them at all you had to do it quickly .
i fished my way downstream further into the pocket water section , and managed to catch five redbands including one that was pretty good sized on my nymph . while the pocket water was much more productive , meadow section was a bit more scenic and i couldn ' t resist trying it out for a bit .
this section was fun but much less productive , as the fish were few and far between and spooked easily .
we made up a quick dinner before leaving the creek and then headed over to northern side of the warner mountains so i could try to catch some warner lakes redbands . the road to this spot was one of the hairiest that i have ever seen , and it switch backed up the mountain side past gold mines and to the tiny stream which was located in a meadow at about 7 , 000 feet above sea level . this spot was completely infested with mosquitoes and i made quick work of catching the warner lakes redbands that inhabited the stream . the fish were not large , but there were a good number of them at the culvert pool where the road crossed the creek .
i used the same ever dependable royal pmx and copper john setup and caught a handful of fish at the culvert pool before heading upstream a little further . i lasted about a half hour before it got to dark fish and the swarm of mosquitoes that followed my every movement had completely eaten me alive .
we had originally planned on camping here , but between the mosquitoes and rapidly dropping temperatures we changed our mind , and decided to drive through the night to the next spot .
the drive to the next spot located in the hart mountain antelope refuge was a little interesting as the desert came alive at night and all manner of creatures seemed intent at testing our ability to dodge them . we arrived at the creek at around midnight and hit the hay .
this blog is all about fly fishing for native salmonids everywhere . it has been my quest to catch and photograph every species and subspecies of salmonids native to north america .
data and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .


grotella citronella is a species of moth in the genus grotella , of the family noctuidae .

this moth species is found in north america , including the mojave desert region of california .

grotella citronella

grotella citronella barnes & mcdunnough , 1916 ; 5 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : california , riverside co . , palm springs
the moth is at least somewhat worn . but it might be a member of the grotellini , possibly 11227 - grotella citronella or some other grotella . see grotellini plate at mpg . ( no rsvp , thanks )
lectotype for grotella citronella barnes & mcdunnough , 1916 catalog number : usnm collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of entomology sex / stage : male ; preparation : pinned locality : riverside co . , palm springs , california , united states
grotella vagans barnes & benjamin , 1922 ; 15 ; tl : nevada , clark co .
grotella parvipuncta barnes & mcdunnough , 1912 ; 19 ; tl : new mexico , ft . wingate ; deming
grotella stretchi barnes & benjamin , 1922 ; 14 ; tl : california , riverside co . , palm springs
grotella ( grotellini ) ; [ nacl ] , 159 ; [ mna26 . 1 ] , 26 ( note )
grotella vauriae mcelvare , 1950 ; 117 ; tl : texas , brewster co . , near hot springs , tornillo creek
grotella blanchardi mcelvare , 1966 ; j . lep . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 91 ; tl : new mexico , eddy co . , white city
grotella margueritaria blanchard , 1968 ; j . lep . soc . 22 ( 3 ) : 142 , pl . 1 , f . 6 ; tl : texas , [ brewster co . ] , big bend national park , chihuahuan desert nr . nugent mountain , 914m
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .
lectotype : barnes & mcdunnough . 1916 . contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america . 3 ( 1 ) : 5 , pl . 3 , fig . 13 adult .
poole , robert w . ( march 30 , 1995 ) . the moths of america north of mexico . fascicle 26 . 1 . noctuoidea , noctuidae : cuculliinae , stiriinae , psaphidinae . charles l . hogue ( illustrator ) , brit griswold ( illustrator ) , chip clark ( photographer ) , patricia gentili ( photographer ) . wedge entomological research foundation . pp . 249 . isbn 0 - 933003 - 07 - 2 .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
[ mna26 . 1 ] ; poole , 1995 the moths of america north of mexico . noctuoidae , noctuidae ( part ) , cuculliinae , striinae , psaphidinae moths am . n of mexico 26 . 1 : 1 - 249
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
encyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
poole , robert w . / poole , robert w . , and patricia gentili , eds .
nomina insecta nearctica : a check list of the insects of north america , vol . 3 : diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera
popular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
pale yellow moth with spots adjacent to the outer margin - schinia luxa - bugguide . net
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
select your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
full text of
contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america . .
full text of
contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america . .