ostertagia ostertagi , commonly known as the medium or brown stomach worm , is an important parasitic nematode ( round worm ) of cattle .

o. ostertagi can also be found to a lesser extent in sheep , goats , wild ruminants and horses .

the species causes ostertagiosis , which is potentially fatal in cattle .

it is found worldwide and is economically important to cattle industries , particularly those found in temperate climates .

the abomasal nematode o. ostertagi is a clade v nematode of the order strongylida , the family trichostrongylidae and genus ostertagia .

ransom first described the genus ostertagia in 1907 , which currently contains approximately 15 species .

all species of the genus ostertagia infect domestic or wild ruminants .

these species form a large and complex group , the taxonomy of which has not been fully elucidated .

ostertagia ostertagi

aspects of the biology of ostertagia ostertagi in relation to the genesis of ostertagiasis .
the pathology following single infections of ostertagia ostertagi in calves . - pubmed - ncbi
pathophysiological and parasitological studies on ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves . - pubmed - ncbi
development of immunity to ostertagia ostertagi ( trichostrongylidae : nematoda ) in pastured young cattle .
comparative morphology of ostertagia mossi and ostertagia dikmansi ( trichostrongylidae ) from odocoileus virginianus and comments on other ostertagia spp . from the cervidae
effect of experimental ostertagia ostertagi infection or chronic pentagastrin treatment on abomasal pathophysiology and morphology of goats .
comparative morphology of ostertagia mossi and ostertagia dikmansi ( trichostrongylidae ) from odocoileus virginianus and comments on other ostertagia spp . from the cervidae | springerlink
aspects of the biology of ostertagia ostertagi in relation to the genesis of ostertagiasis . - pubmed - ncbi
ostertagia and teladorsagia spp , parasitic brown stomach worms of cattle , sheep and goats . biology , prevention and control . ostertagiasis . ostertagia lyrata , ostertagia ostertagii , teadorsagia circumcincta , teladorsagia pinnata , ostertagia circumcincta
development of immunity to ostertagia ostertagi ( trichostrongylidae : nematoda ) in pastured young cattle . - pubmed - ncbi
fox mt ( 1993 ) pathophysiology of infection with ostertagia ostertagi in cattle . vet parasitol 46 : 143–158 .
ostertagia species are found throughout temperate and subtropical areas of the world . the cattle species , ostertagia ostertagi is particularly important in temperate areas wherever cattle are raised .
armour j , bruce rg . inhibited development in ostertagia ostertagi infections - - a diapause phenomenon in a nematode .
analysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes ostertagia ostertagi and caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role in egg production .
michel jf , lancaster mb , hong c , berrett s . plasma pepsinogen levels in some experimental infections of ostertagia ostertagi in cattle .
analysis of the translationally controlled tumour protein in the nematodes ostertagia ostertagi and caenorhabditis elegans suggests a pivotal role . . . - pubmed - ncbi
michel jf , lancaster mb , hong c ( 1973 ) ostertagia ostertagi : protective immunity in calves . the development in calves of a protective immunity to infection with ostertagia ostertagi . exp parasitol 33 : 179–186 . 0014 - 4894 ( 73 ) 90023 - 4 [ pii ] .
assessing the agreement between ostertagia ostertagi elisa tests performed using the crude adult antigen and the adult and larval stage 4 excretory / secretory antigens .
ostertagia ostertagi in various stages of development . a unembryonated egg . b early embryonated egg . c embryonated egg . d first - stage larvae , l1
assessing the agreement between ostertagia ostertagi elisa tests performed using the crude adult antigen and the adult and larval stage 4 excretory . . . - pubmed - ncbi
michel jf , lancaster mb , hong c : ostertagia ostertagi : protective immunity in calves . the development in calves of a protective immunity to infection with ostertagia ostertagi . exp parasitol . 1973 , 33 ( 1 ) : 179 - 186 . 10 . 1016 / 0014 - 4894 ( 73 ) 90023 - 4 .
fenbendazole ( white drench ) and levamisole ( clear drench ) against ostertagia ostertagi was less than fully effective on 43 % and 53 % of farms tested , respectively .
pge occurs when parasitic infestations in the abomasum and intestines result in inflammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa . in the uk ostertagia ostertagi is of biggest concern with cooperia contributing to disease .
ritchie jd , anderson n , armour j , jarrett wf , jennings fw , urquhart gm . experimental ostertagia ostertagi infections in calves : parasitology and pathogenesis of a single infection .
disease caused by o . ostertagi is divided into two forms , type i and type ii .
identification and mean number of each species of abomasal nematode identified are presented in table 4 . ostertagia leptospicularis ( o . l ) 67 % and spiculopteragia asymmetrica ( s . a . ) 26 % were the predominant ostertagia - type species present . present but in lower numbers were spiculopteragia spiculoptera ( s . s ) 5 % and ostertagia ostertagi ( o . o ) 2 %
ross jg , dow c : the course and development of the abomasal lesions in calves experimentally infected with the nematode parasite ostertagia ostertagi . brit vet j . 1965 , 121 : 228 - 233 .
trefoil factor 3 immunofluorescent staining ( green ) , combined with dapi staining ( blue ) . formalin fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection were stained . ( a ) negative control , ( b ) exposed to o . ostertagi for 60 days . original magnification 20× .
these worms are often called ‘osties’ or ‘osters’ , short for ostertagia . however , the worm was reclassified in the early 1990s , with the genus name changing from ostertagia to teladorsagia . while ostertagia is a name still commonly used , they are also now called “tellies” , short for teladorsagia .
ostertagia ostertagii infects mainly cattle , but also sheep , goats and other domestic and wild ruminants .
markovits , judit eva ,
effect of experimental ostertagia ostertagi infection or chronic pentagastrin treatment on abomasal pathophysiology and morphology of goats .
( 1986 ) . lsu historical dissertations and theses . 4193 . urltoken
the datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files . ostertagia ostertagi its2 sequence : genbank accession number ab245021 . 2 | : 1 , 036–1 , 126 bp .
vercauteren , isabel , peter geldhof , iris peelaers , et al . “defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . ” molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . 2002 . print .
this report is about the identification of parasite ostertagia ostertagi in cattle with persistent diarrhea . a farmer brought the fecal samples to national veterinary laboratories , islamabad from the village “charaa” , islamabad . he was having total of four animals including one cattle and three calves . cattle approximately 8 year old and have persistent diarrhea with the interval of 2 months after microscopic fecal examination it was conformed that animal was infested by ostertagia ostertagi .
efficacy of levamisole , moxidectin oral , moxidectin injectable and monepantel against ostertagia - type nematodes in deer .
our main objective was to assess whether feeding sainfoin has an effect on pathophysiological and parasitological measurements in calves experimentally infected with the most pathogenic and prevalent gin of cattle in temperate regions : ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora .
vercauteren i , geldhof p , peelaers i , claerebout e , berx g , vercruysse j . defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . 2002 .
predilection sites of adult ostertagia and teladorsagia worms are the stomach ( abomasum ) and the upper small intestine .
disease is caused by maturation of ostertagia ostertagi larvae ( ostertagiosis ) in the abomasum ( fourth stomach ) . unlike disease caus + ed by lungworm and liver fluke , pge does not usually cause clinical disease in adult cattle .
the following table summarizes the relevant information about ostertagia ostertagi , a nematode parasite of cattle found commonly throughout temperate areas of the world , and haemonchus contortus a nematode of sheep found throughout the world in warm temperate and subtropical areas .
' type ii ostertagiasis : ostertagia ostertagi may become hypobiotic in the autumn and if these infestation are heavy , lots of hypobiotic larvae reactivate in the spring . this causes severe acute gastritis ( fibrinous or haemorrhagic ) , and even sudden death .
vercauteren , isabel , peter geldhof , iris peelaers , edwin claerebout , g berx , and jozef vercruysse . 2002 . “defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . ” in molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts .
lectin staining with ueai ( a - l - fucosyl terminals ) . carnoy ' s fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection were stained . ( a and c ) negative control , ( b and d ) exposed to o . ostertagi for 21 days . original magnification 20× ( left panels ) , 40× ( right panels ) .
citation : li rw , wu s , li w , huang y , gasbarre lc ( 2011 ) metagenome plasticity of the bovine abomasal microbiota in immune animals in response to ostertagia ostertagi infection . plos one 6 ( 9 ) : e24417 . urltoken
as already mentioned , ostertagia and teladorsagia are the most damaging worms of cattle in regions with temperate and cool climate .
as leaders in parasite control bimeda have a range of anthelmintics which can be used to successfully treat ostertagia and cooperia .
deer , anthelmintic resistance , anthelmintic efficacy , gastrointestinal parasites , ostertagia , levamisole , moxidectin injection , moxidectin oral , monepantel .
the main roundworm of cattle is ostertagia ostertagi , known commonly as the brown stomach worm . control of ostertagia will incidentally control other roundworms of lesser importance such as the smallå intestinal worm ( cooperia sp ) . occasionally , the stomach hairworm ( trichostrongylus . axei ) can be the predominant parasite but , more importantly , it is the only roundworm species that infects both sheep and cattle .
brown stomach worm occurs in most sheep and goat areas of australia and is a major parasite in winter rainfall districts . it is relatively rare in queensland . the brown stomach worm of cattle , ostertagia ostertagi is known to infect angora goats , but not sheep .
lectin staining , subjectively described from + + ( very strong ) to - ( absent ) during a primary infection with o . ostertagi .
purewal a , fox mt , shivalkar p , carroll ap , uche ue , vaillant c , watkinson a ( 1997 ) effects of ostertagia ostertagi on gastrin gene expression and gastrin - related responses in the calf . j physiol 498 ( pt 3 ) : 809–816 .
there are two types of disease caused by ostertagia . the signs of each type result from the same damage to the abomasum :
ostertagia and teladorsagia spp , parasitic brown stomach worms of cattle , sheep and goats . biology , prevention and control . ostertagiasis .
acquired immunity against cooperia spp . and ostertagia spp . in calves : effect of level of exposure and timing of the midsummer increase
although there are a number of nematode parasites known to be present in wa cattle only the two species that make up the bulk of typical worm burdens are reported here . these two species are cooperia oncophora ( hair worm ) and ostertagia ostertagi ( brown stomach worm ) .
the mcdonnell genome institute and collaborators are sequencing the bovine stomach worm , ostertagia ostertagi . this is the most economically important parasite of cattle throughout temperate regions of the world . globally , these small reddish brown worms are the major cause of parasitic gastritis ( ostertagiosis ) of ruminants .
claerebout e , hilderson h , meeus p , de marez t , behnke j , huntley j , vercruysse j : the effect of truncated infections with ostertagia ostertagi on the development of acquired resistance in calves . vet parasitol . 1996 , 66 ( 3–4 ) : 225 - 239 .
in this paper we describe molecular characterization of opa , an ostertagia polyprotein , and its potential to induce protection against homologous infection in cattle .
there were four ostertagia - type nematode species identified in the deer on this farm . the two spiculopteragia species of ostertagia - type nematodes ( s . spiculoptera and s . asymmetrica ) present are host specific to deer . ostertagia leptospicularis is a deer species but it has been reported in both sheep and cattle in new zealand ( mckenna 1997 ) . ostertagia ostertagi is an important cattle nematode previously only observed in white - tail deer in new zealand ( mckenna 1997 ) but made up 2 % of the ostertagia - type species present in these deer and 3 % on another te anau deer farm ( lawrence et al 2012 ) . it is worthy of note that the sheep ostertagia - type nematode ( teladorsagia ) was not present on this farm and in fact has never been identified in farmed deer in new zealand to date . on this farm moxidectin pour on was not evaluated and all of the ostertagia - type species were well controlled by moxi . spiculopteragia asymmetrica was the species showing the least efficacy to moxo on this farm . technically resistance to an anthelmintic can only be claimed if the dose rate to provide efficacy has been determined . the dose rate in deer for moxo has not been determined and therefore we cannot claim spiculopteragia asymmetrica is resistant on this farm . interpretation of the efficacies of oxo and levo is not appropriate in light of previous discussion regarding the need to determine / re - evaluate the correct dose of these anthelmintics in deer . previous reports on new zealand deer farms indicated ostertagia - type species exhibiting resistance to macrocyclic lactone anthelmintics . ostertagia leptospicularis was resistant to moxidectin pour on ( lawrence et al 2012 ) , ostertagia leptospicularis and spiculopteragia spiculoptera to moxidectin pour on and moxi ( lawrence 2011 ) , and ostertagia leptospicularis resistant to moxidectin pour on and ostertagia leptospicularis , spiculopteragia spiculoptera and spiculopteragia asymmetrica to ivermectin oral ( hoskin et al 2005 ) .
the internal transcribed spacer 2 ( its2 ) is a candidate diagnostic marker of the pathogenic cattle nematode ostertagia ostertagi . the aims of this study were : ( i ) to document and quantify how the development of o . ostertagi eggs affects its2 copies under different storage conditions , and ( ii ) to suggest optimal storage conditions for faecal samples in a diagnostic pipeline that involves detection and semi - quantification by real - time semi - quantitative polymerase chain reaction ( qpcr ) .
li rw , hou y , li c , gasbarre lc : localized complement activation in the development of protective immunity against ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle . vet parasitol . 2010 , 174 ( 3 - 4 ) : 247 - 256 . 10 . 1016 / j . vetpar . 2010 . 08 . 037 .
some of the drenches in group 1 ( benzimidazoles ) have lesser and a more variable effect on the immature and inhibited stages of ostertagia than previously thought .
data ( mean ± sd ) representing worm burden by sieving , percentage males and female fecundity based on the number of eggs in utero from 16 female worms per animal . the calves were experimentally infected with ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora and fed a tannin - rich diet ( group sf ) or a control diet ( group co )
the common stomach worms of cattle are haemonchus placei ( barber’s pole worm , large stomach worm , wire worm ) , ostertagia ostertagi ( medium or brown stomach worm ) , and trichostrongylus axei ( small stomach worm , see trichostrongylus sp in horses ) . in some tropical countries , mecistocirrus digitatus , a large worm up to 40 mm long , is present . h placei is primarily a parasite in tropical regions , whereas o ostertagi and , to a lesser extent , t axei are found in more temperate climates . adult male haemonchus are up to 18 mm long , females up to 30 mm . ostertagia adults are 6–9 mm long , and trichostrongylus , ~ 5 mm .
the objectives of this study were first to molecularly characterize the ostertagia polyprotein allergen ( opa ) ( e . g . , to determine the genomic organization , expression pattern , and immunolocalization ) and then to investigate the protective capacities of both purified native opa ( nopa ) and recombinant opa ( ropa ) in cattle challenged with o . ostertagi .
its2 copies of four developmental stages of ostertagia ostertagi . sample mean of its2 copies ( molecules μl - 1 ) illustrated on the y - axis plotted against each developmental stage ( x - axis ) . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) . asterisks denote statistical significance : * * * = p < 0 . 0001
vercauteren , isabel , geldhof , p . , peelaers , i . , claerebout , e . , berx , g . , & vercruysse , j . ( 2002 ) . defining the composition of ostertagia ostertagi excretory - secretory products . molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites , abstracts . presented at the molecular and cellular biology of helminth parasites .
li rw , hou y , li c , gasbarre lc ( 2010 ) localized complement activation in the development of protective immunity against ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle . vet parasitol 174 : 247–256 . s0304 - 4017 ( 10 ) 00492 - 9 [ pii ] ; 10 . 1016 / j . vetpar . 2010 . 08 . 037 [ doi ] .
external structural changes of adult ostertagia ostertagi recovered from calves fed sainfoin for 58 days . scanning electron microscopy of representative worms recovered 42 days post - infection from control group ( co ) ( a , b ) or sainfoin group ( sf ) ( c , d ) . left column : tail of the female worm ; right column : close view of the cuticle
at present , the control of ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle largely depends on the use of chemical antihelminthic drugs . residues of introduced chemicals in foodstuffs and the environment have become a serious consumer concern . reports of resistance to antiparasitic drugs for a closely related parasite , cooperia species , in cattle ( 5 , 31 ) make the development of alternative control systems even more urgent .
the predominant worm type present in all 6 con deer was ostertagia - type and interestingly there were no cooperia present . the large intestinal parasite oesophagostomum was present in 3 of the six deer . table1 ; faecal larval culture ( flc ) worm type control group averagehaemonchus - ostertagia - type 69 % trichostrongylus 11 % cooperia - oesophagostomum / chabertia 20 % nematodirus -
early attempts to protect cattle against the abomasal nematode o . ostertagi with irradiated larval vaccines ( 2 ) or with crude somatic ( 12 ) and excretory - secretory ( es ) products ( 13 ) were not successful . moderate levels of protection were obtained in calves immunized with gut membrane glycoproteins of o . ostertagi ( 24 ) . recently , it was shown that vaccination of cattle with es products of adult ostertagia worms enriched for cysteine proteinases by thiol - sepharose chromatography reduced the fecal egg counts by 60 % compared to the counts in the control group ( 11 ) .
transcript expression in different developmental stages . this figure represents the number of transcripts expressed in each stage and the percent of those transcripts that are constitutively - expressed in c . oncophora ( a ) and o . ostertagi ( b ) . ( c ) c . oncophora and ( d ) o . ostertagi depict the number of transcripts up - regulated , down - regulated and specific to a given stage .
table 2 : group mean total worm counts for adult and immature ostertagia - types . anthelmintic treatment group efficacy against ostertagia - type adults . oster - type adults oster - type larvacontrol 1495 17moxi % efficacy 0100 % 67moxo % efficacy 3297 . 9 % 173oxo 42271 . 8 % 173levo 42371 . 7 % 118moxi + oxlevo 0100 % 14 . 5zolo 20086 . 6 % 14
concurrent with the diarrhea of o ostertagi and t axei infections , and with the anemia of heavy haemonchus infection , there is often hypoproteinemia and edema ( rare in o ostertagi infections ) , particularly under the lower jaw ( bottle jaw ) and sometimes along the ventral abdomen . heavy infections can result in death before clinical signs appear . other variable signs include progressive weight loss , weakness , rough coat , and anorexia .
note that routine treatment of adult cows after their second calving is not needed . individual cows in this group may be treated if they are scouring or losing condition because of infection with ostertagia .
a lot of research has been carried out on vaccines , but so far no really effective one is available against ostertagia and / or teladorsagia worms . to learn more about vaccines against parasites of livestock and pets
no fluorescence was detected in sections of ostertagia developed with preimmune rabbit serum ( fig . 2i ) or with the irrelevant rabbit serum ( antiscabies serum ) or in the conjugate controls ( data not shown ) .
cooperia oncophora and ostertagia ostertagi are among the most important gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle worldwide . the economic losses caused by these parasites are on the order of hundreds of millions of dollars per year . conventional treatment of these parasites is through anthelmintic drugs ; however , as resistance to anthelmintics increases , overall effectiveness has begun decreasing . new methods of control and alternative drug targets are necessary . in - depth analysis of transcriptomic data can help provide these targets .
most infections are mixed with other gastrointestinal roundworms ( e . g . cooperia spp , haemonchus spp , nematodirus spp , trichostrongylus spp , etc . ) which worsen the damage caused by ostertagia and / or teladorsagia worms .
' type i ostertagiasis : ostertagia ostertagi is ingested by calves in their first year at grass . the parasites colonise the gastric glands of the fundus and pylorus and then 17 - 21 days after ingestion , the parasites reach maturity and emerge from the gastric glands . emergence in sufficient numbers causes extensive pathological changes - chronic gastritis . a thickened , hyperplastic , non - functional gastric mucosa is formed , meaning impaired function in the gut resulting in diarrhoea and hypoalbuminaemia .
in an experiment in which 2 plots of pasture were contaminated , one at the end of september and the other in mid - december , with larvae of ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora , it was found that the ability of these larvae to interrupt their parasitic development increased and then decreased at much the same rate on either plot . seasonal effects , which might have been expected to accelerate these changes in larvae put on the pasture in december , were minimal .
schematic overview of the study design . anaerobic samples ( n = 9 × 2 ) contained 10 g of freshly recovered faeces with ostertagia ostertagi eggs and stored in vacuum bags under anaerobic conditions . samples were subjected to either 4 °c or 25 °c for duration of 0 to 336 h . to stop egg development the samples were frozen at - 20 °c . subsequently , o . ostertagi were isolated and differentiated to developmental stage . finally , 25× o . ostertagi eggs or l1 were counted and transferred to a clean petri dish . this was done in triplicates of each sample and its2 copies were quantified by qpcr . aerobic samples ( n = 9 × 2 ) were produced identically to anaerobic samples but eggs were isolated from faeces before storage and differentiated immediately at each time point . a total of 108 biological replicates were subjected to qpcr semi - quantification . abbreviations : epg , eggs per gram ; its2 , internal transcribed spacer 2 ; qpcr , real - time semi - quantitative polymerase chain reaction
that infect cattle , sheep and goats and other wild ruminants . worms of these genera are also called brown stomach worms . in the past most species were considered as belonging to the genus ostertagia . they have very similar features and life cycles .
ostertagia and other roundworms of cattle have a simple direct life cycle , as shown in figure 1 . an important feature of this life cycle is that it consists of two stages ; the free - living stage on pasture and parasitic stage in cattle .
the con group slaughtered on the 16th october had an average of 1495 ostertagia - type adults ( range 250 – 2650 ) . based on this result , the trial proceeded . all treated deer were slaughtered on the 31st october . the anthelmintics had the following efficacy against the adult ostertagia - type nematodes : moxi 100 % , moxo 97 . 9 % , oxo 71 . 8 % , levo 71 . 7 % , moxi + oxlevo 100 % and zolo 86 . 6 % ( table 2 ) .
pelleted sainfoin as a sole feed significantly reduced the population of o . ostertagi in young calves . our promising results confirm the potential value of sainfoin and perhaps other tannin - rich forages with a high percentage of prodelphinidins in integrated control of bovine ostertagiosis . although o . ostertagi is the main species responsible for reduced productivity in grazing calves , the apparent lack of effect against c . oncophora is a drawback and may hamper the practical use of sainfoin as a “broad - spectrum” anthelmintic forage . more research is needed to address the background of the lacking effect against c . oncophora .
abubucker s , zarlenga ds , martin j , yin y , wang z , mccarter jp , gasbarree l , wilson rk , mitreva m : the transcriptomes of the cattle parasitic nematode ostertagia ostartagi . vet parasitol . 2009 , 162 ( 1–2 ) : 89 - 99 .
clustering of stages based upon the number of transcripts in a stage containing a specific interpro domain . ( a ) c . oncophora ; ( b ) o . ostertagi . a lower - range scale ( 0 to 3 + ) was used to better illustrate the similarities and differences between the stages .
pre - type 2 phase : calves at end of first grazing season ( from october ) accumulate large population ( greater than 100 , 000 ) of ostertagia el4 ( arrested stage ) . disease is caused by l3 ingested in late autumn . there are usually no clinical signs .
ostertagia ostertagi . the nematode grows and develops in the gastric glands of the abomasum which it leaves just before it becomes an adult , approximately 17 - 21 days after infection . during its time in a gastric gland , the nematode grows about 100 fold . therefore we can predict that this growth will result in erosion of the secretory epithelium and also that swelling of the gland will occur . in heavy infections these erosive effects can be widespread resulting in heavy losses of secretory cells and significant reductions in the output of hcl and pepsinogen . these changes are summarized in the table below .
distribution of kegg categories associated with up - regulated transcripts . the number of up - regulated transcripts in free - living and parasitic life stages associated with kegg categories is compared in ( a ) c . oncophora and ( b ) o . ostertagi . * indicates significance ( p < 0 . 05 ) .
additional file 2 : figure s1 : length distribution of peptides with and without homologues in other species . description : histogram of the length of peptides that have homologues in other species and those that do not have homologues i . e . are unique to either c . oncophora or o . ostertagi . ( tiff 249 kb )
on sections of ostertagia parasites clear red fluorescence was observed in the intestinal cells of l3 animals ( fig . 2b ) , in the cuticle of l4 animals ( fig . 2d ) , and in the cuticle and hypodermis of both male and female adult worms ( fig . 2f and h ) .
the aims of this study were : ( i ) to document and quantify how the development of o . ostertagi eggs affects its2 copies under a multitude of storage conditions , and ( ii ) to suggest optimal storage conditions for faecal samples / bovine nematode eggs in a diagnostic pipeline that involves detection and semi - quantification by molecular methodologies .
simcock dc , joblin kn , scott i , burgess dm , rogers cw , pomroy we , simpson hv ( 1999 ) hypergastrinaemia , abomasal bacterial population densities and ph in sheep infected with ostertagia circumcincta . int j parasitol 29 : 1053–1063 . s0020 - 7519 ( 99 ) 00065 - x [ pii ] .
ivermectin is a cost effective treatment for gastrointestinal roundworms . at the therapeutic dose ivermectin will successfully treat the inhibited stage of ostertagia making it an excellent choice . bimeda provide ivermectin in an injectable and pour - on form and also in combination with clorsulon ( bimectin plus ) which can be used to treat liver fluke .
histochemical staining of carnoy ' s fixed , paraffin - embedded abomasum sections of holstein cows after ostertagia ostertagi infection . pas ( a - d ) stained mucins in pink ; ab - pas ph 2 . 5 ( e - h ) stained neutral mucins in magenta and acidic mucins in blue ; hid - ab ( i - n ) stained sialylated mucins in blue and sulphated mucins in brown . ( a , e , i ) negative control , ( b , f , l ) infected for 14 days , ( c , g , m ) infected for 21 days , ( d , h , n ) exposed for 60 days . original magnification 10× .
the amino acid sequences of all visible bands , as determined by maldi - tof mass spectrometry analysis , showed that all of the protein bands represented nopa or ropa . the nopa band , however , comprised traces of a protein homologous to a 17 - kda l3 es antigen of ostertagia ( embl accession no . aj318472 ) .
go term associations with transcripts expressed in each stage . for each phase of the life cycle ( free - living or parasitic ) several prevalent go terms are listed . * indicates a given term is significantly - enriched in that life cycle stage ( p < 0 . 05 ) . ( a ) c . oncophora ; ( b ) o . ostertagi .
fifteen jersey male calves ( 2–4 month - old ) were allocated into two groups and fed isoproteic and isoenergetic diets mainly composed of sainfoin pellets ( group sf ; n = 9 , three pens ) or concentrate and grass - clover hay ( group co ; n = 6 , two pens ) . after 16 days of adaptation , all animals were experimentally infected with 10 , 000 and 66 , 000 third - stage larvae of ostertagia ostertagi and cooperia oncophora , respectively . egg excretion , blood parameters and bodyweights were recorded throughout the study . worms were harvested by sieving for quantification and scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) 42 days post - infection ( dpi ) when the calves were necropsied .
moxidectin pour on has been the formulation of moxidectin which has consistently shown resistance by ostertagia - type nematodes on all deer farms evaluated to date ( n = 6 ) . with this knowledge and the desire to evaluate additional treatment groups , budget restraints meant that moxidectin pour on was not included as a treatment option in this trial .
it is important to stress that an ostertagia vaccine in cattle needs to be an antifecundity vaccine ( 30 ) . as the number of worm eggs shed during the first part of the grazing season determines the number of infective larvae in the pasture in the second half of the grazing season , reduction in egg excretion should be the target . also , because the fecundity of ostertagia is highly regulated by host immunity ( 23 ) and fecal egg output can be strongly reduced without a reduction in the number of worms ( 9 , 4 ) , the number of eggs per gram is the best parameter for evaluation of the protective efficacy of ostertagia antigens ( 30 ) . analogous with observations on the effects of antihelminthic boli on gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle ( 8 ) , it can be stated that vaccination with nopa that results in a 60 % reduction in the number of eggs per gram for at least 2 months is sufficient to protect first - grazing - season calves from ostertagiosis without interfering with the development of natural immunity .
in order to create anaerobic conditions , faeces containing o . ostertagi eggs were vacuum - packed using an easily available kitchen machine . while purified o . ostertagi eggs will quickly disrupt due to pressure if they are vacuum - packed ( data not shown ) , storage of eggs in faeces was essential to secure the integrity of the parasites and maintain a realistic evaluation of the vacuum packing strategy . thus , faeces were only present during storage of the anaerobic samples but not during storage of aerobic samples , and therefore the outcome may potentially have been influenced by other factors such as e . g . ph and humidity rather than oxygen tension . incorporation of an inhibition control by spiking a non - related target to the samples could confirm any presence of potential inhibitors .
distribution of protein homologues in free - living nematodes , strongylida parasites , and non - strongylida parasites . the percent of homologues in each of the three databases as well as the overlap between the databases is shown . ( a ) . c . oncophora ; ( b ) . o . ostertagi . for species included in each of the three databases please see the materials and methods .
the numbers of ostertagia - type larvae present in the control group was very low and as a result no conclusions can be drawn as to efficacy of the various anthelmintics against larvae from this trial . trichostrongylus nematodes were present in the con but in low numbers ( average 23 ) . all treatment groups were clear except the levo group ( average 2 ) .
the pour - on formulations of levamisole have also given variable results in adult cattle in winter . the concentration of the drug in these formulations has been increased in response to these findings , but the lack of effect of levamisole on the inhibited larvae of ostertagia means that levamisole - based drenches are not ideally suited for use in beef cattle over 12 months old .
young animals are more often affected , but adults not previously exposed to infection frequently show signs and succumb . ostertagia and trichostrongylus infections are characterized by profuse , watery diarrhea that usually is persistent . in haemonchosis and mecistocirrus infection , there may be little or no diarrhea but possibly intermittent periods of constipation . anemia of variable degree is a characteristic sign of both these infections .
in an attempt to dissect mechanisms underlying protective immune responses to ostertagia ostertagi infections in cattle , which develops very slowly and requires a prolonged exposure before becoming effective , we developed partially immune animals using multiple drug - attenuated infections . while host mechanisms underlying the development of long - term protective immunity have recently been discussed [ 4 ] , the gut microbiota of ruminants has not been systematically characterized until recently [ 8 ] – [ 10 ] . three - way interactions between the host , its microbiota and parasites are little understood . in this study , we characterized the bovine abomasal microbiota using metagenomic tools . our results provided the first piece of evidence that a minimal disruption in the bovine abomasal microbiota by the parasitic nematode may contribute equally to the restoration of gastric function in immune animals .
hertzberg h , guscetti f , lischer c , kohler l , neiger r , et al . ( 2000 ) evidence for a parasite - mediated inhibition of abomasal acid secretion in sheep infected with ostertagia leptospicularis . vet j 159 : 238–251 . 10 . 1053 / tvjl . 1999 . 0475 [ doi ] ; s1090 - 0233 ( 99 ) 90475 - 6 [ pii ] .
the organization of the coding sequence of opa in genomic dna of ostertagia could indicate that there is only one copy of the opa gene . this is the case for the genes encoding npas of other nematodes , such as dirofilaria immitis ( 6 ) , brugia pahangi ( 27 ) , brugia malayi ( 27 ) , and d . viviparus ( 1 ) . the nopa antigen was located in the intestinal cells of ostertagia l3 and in the cuticle and hypodermis of l4 and adult parasites . similarly , immunostaining of di5 antigen , the opa homologue of d . immitis , was apparent in the hypodermis and the cuticle of the parasite ( 22 ) . in caenorhabditis elegans , npas have been found to bind fatty acids and retinol ( reviewed in reference 15 ) . in parasitic nematodes however , the major function of npas is to alter the host tissue environment to the parasites ' advantage ( 16 ) . the results of the immunolocalization analysis together with the western blot results indeed suggest that opa is secreted . release of opa into the environment could occur directly from the gut with the l3 stage or from the cuticle via the hypodemis with ostertagia l4 and adults .
the third - stage larvae ( l3 ) cannot feed , because they retain the cuticle (
skin
) from the second stage ( l2 ) as a protective sheath , but can survive for long periods within the dung pat . they can also move some distance away from the dung pat . the parasitic stage of the life cycle of ostertagia begins when a beast ingests l3 larvae .
this study characterized transcriptomes from multiple life stages from both c . oncophora and o . ostertagi . these data represent an important resource for studying these parasites . the results of this study show distinct differences in the genes involved in the free - living and parasitic life cycle stages . the data produced will enable better annotation of the upcoming genome sequences and will allow future comparative analyses of the biology , evolution and adaptation to parasitism in nematodes .
immunolocalization of opa . sections of l3 ( a and b ) , l4 ( c and d ) , and male ( e and f ) and female ( g and h ) adult o . ostertagi parasites were incubated with monospecific antibodies to opa , and antibody binding was detected by using alexa fluor - conjugated anti - rabbit immunoglobulin . female adult o . ostertagi parasites were also incubated with negative ( preimmune ) rabbit serum ( at a 1 / 2 , 000 dilution in 2 % hs ) ( i ) . panels a , c , e , and g are phase - contrast micrographs , and panels b , d , f , h , and i are fluorescence microscopy micrographs ( signal indicated by red fluorescence except in panel i ) . ic , intestinal cells ; i , intestine ; g , gonads ; h , hypodermis ; c , cuticle . bars = 25 μm .
generally , es products are considered to be essential for the development and survival of the parasite within the host and are targets for vaccine development ( 17 ) . immunoscreening of cdna libraries of both larvae ( third - stage larvae [ l3 ] and l4 ) and adults of ostertagia with polyclonal rabbit serum raised against es products led to identification of 15 genuinely secreted proteins with potential protective capacities ( 28 ) .
adult parasites of o . ostertagi were microscopically - selected from abomasal contents from animals killed 28 days post infection . cooperia oncophora eggs , l1 , l2 , l3sh and l3ex were also collected as described above . the l4 were obtained by baermannization of intestinal contents and washings from animals euthanized 10 days post infection ; adult worms were microscopically collected from animals euthanized 21 days post infection and further partitioned into male [ m ] and female [ f ] worms .
this occurs when ostertagia ostertagi infective larvae ( l3 ) are ingested by calves in their first or second year at grass . the parasites then take refuge in the gastric glands of the abomasum in order to undergo their period of development . if many worms emerge simultaneously then it can cause severe physical damage to the lining of the abomasum resulting in chronic gastritis . disease is observed in late summer / early autumn and is accountable to the ‘mid - summer rise’ when temperatures increase and many larvae quickly develop . affected calves will present with a decreased / total loss of appetite accompanied by a sudden onset profuse , green diarrhoea . generally many animals within the group are affected . these calves will suffer a severe loss of body condition ( 20 - 60kg ) which will greatly increase the time taken to finish ( up to three months extra ) . one paper suggests losses of up to £100 per head .
o . ostertagi infections can prompt protective immunity to ostertagiosis , making the species a good candidate for vaccine development . having a whole genome sequence for the species could also help with the development of novel methods to control these parasites in livestock , including defining the mechanisms underlying drug susceptibility and resistance with the possibility of extending the useful life of existing drugs and improving diagnostics in this area , as well as providing the means to study the host - parasite interaction in whole animals .
haemonchus contortus . in this example , unlike ostertagia , the parasite matures on the mucosal surface of the the abomasum . therefore its growth and development has little effect on the mucosa and makes no contribution to its pathogenic potential . despite the fact that adult haemonchus are no more than 1cm long , they are voracious blood feeders and it is this blood loss that is entirely responsible for the pathophysiological changes and clinical signs we see in haemonchosis .
although these findings indicate the presence of resistance in the ml group in cooperia oncophora on more than half of farms tested , it is unlikely that farmers using ml drenches are experiencing a major effect in terms of worm disease or production loss . this is because cooperia is considered to have a relatively less severe effect than most other species . importantly , the injectable mls were fully effective against ostertagia , which is the more important of the species .
friesian calves given a low level infection of the abomasal parasite ostertagia ostertagi over a six week period displayed a mild diarrhoea with high faecal egg counts and elevated plasma pepsinogen values . at necropsy on day 23 abomasal lesions characteristic of ostertagiasis were widespread . at 42 and 84 days oedema and congestion were also prominent . total worm burdens on days 23 and 42 were similar but a marked decrease had occurred by day 84 . feed digestibility and nitrogen economy were not markedly affected but radioisotopic measurements demonstrated an increase in albumin disappearance and catabolic rates , and plasma faecal clearance during the course of the infection . prior administration of a morantel sustained release bolus to a group of similarly infected calves reduced the total worm burdens to less than 50 per cent of those recorded in the infected calves on days 23 and 42 and this fell to 3 per cent on day 84 . abomasal damage and the adverse pathophysiological changes associated with infection were prevented in this group .
there was a total of 1393 transcripts identified as encoding putatively - secreted peptides of which 538 were enriched in at least one stage . it was determined that free - living stages tended to have more of these transcripts in common with each other than with the parasitic stages . parasitic stages tended to have a common pool of secreted peptides as well . the exception to this was c . oncophora l4 which shared more secreted peptides with the free - living stages than with the other parasitic stages . the 5 % of domains most prevalent in the secreted peptides were very similar between the two species . transthyretin - like , metridin - like shk toxin , saposin b , and cap domains were among the most prevalent for secreted proteins in both species . two insulin domains were among the most prevalent in secreted peptides of c . oncophora but were absent from o . ostertagi . ves allergen was found in 16 secreted peptides of o . ostertagi but was found in only one secreted peptide of c . oncophora .
eggs of ostertagia ostertagi were obtained from fresh faeces and stored at 4 °c or 25 °c under aerobic or anaerobic ( vacuum packing ) conditions . development was monitored by microscopy for up to 336 h , and the its2 copies were determined by qpcr from a fixed number of parasites . under aerobic conditions at 25 °c , embryonation and a significant increase of its2 copies ( p < 0 . 0001 ) were observed after 12 h . at 4 °c , embryonation occurred after 168 h with a trend towards increased its2 copies . anaerobic conditions inhibited egg development at both temperatures and no significant increase in its2 copies was noticed ( p = 0 . 90 ) . its2 copies were analysed for each parasite stage : first - stage larvae ( l1 ) exhibited significantly higher copy numbers ( 20 , 353 ± 1 , 950 ) than unembryonated eggs ( 568 ± 168 ; p < 0 . 0001 ) with lower coefficient of variation ( 33 vs 266 % ) .
log - transformed its2 copies plotted against developmental stages of ostertagia ostertagi throughout the four sub - experiments . a 4 °c under aerobic conditions . b 25 °c under aerobic conditions . c 4 °c under anaerobic conditions . d 25 °c under anaerobic conditions . the x - axis indicates storage time . distributions ( % ) of developmental stages are plotted on left y - axis ( white bar : unembryonated eggs ; brown bar : early embryonated eggs ; green bar : embryonated eggs ; yellow dotted bar : l1 larvae ; shaded bar : decomposed parasites ) . developmental stage was determined from photographs of 15 randomly selected eggs from each of nine time points . log - transformed its2 copies are plotted on right y - axis and are indicated by a black line . its2 copies were obtained from qpcr analysis of biological triplicate samples containing dna from 25 parasites ( eggs or larvae ) . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) of log - transformed its2 copies
table 4 : mean worm count and anthelmintic efficiency by ostertagia - type species o . o o . l s . a s . scontrol 30 1002 389 75moxi 0 0 0 0 % efficacy 100 % 100 % 100 % 100 % moxo 0 0 32 0 % efficacy 100 % 100 % 91 . 8 % 100 % oxo 0 333 42 42 % efficacy 100 % 66 . 8 % 44 % 44 % levo 0 186 152 85 % efficacy 100 % 81 . 4 % 60 . 9 % 0 %
type 2 occurs when the ostertagia ( l3 ) ingested in late autumn do not emerge immediately and instead remain in the gastric glands in a hypobiotic state . these larvae are stimulated to emerge in the late winter / early spring ( feb - may ) and if the infestation is heavy then they will cause great damage as they do so . this causes an acute gastritis and in severe cases sudden death . routine treatment at housing and or when housed will prevent this which is preferable as response to treatment is generally very poor .
species - level microbial composition in the bovine abomasal microbiota was analyzed using cd - hit - otu ( wu et al . , 2011 , submitted ) . a total of 90 . 3±2 . 9 otu were identified in each abomasal microbial community . seventy two otu were present in the abomasal microbial communities of all 6 immune animals and likely represented the core microbiome of the abomasal microbial community . the community was dominated by 4 otu , which accounted for approximately 50 % of all 16s rdna sequences in control animals . among them , 2 otu ( otu # 1 , 22 . 9 % and otu # 7 , 8 . 1 % ) were annotated to the genus prevotella while the rest 2 otu belonged to bacteroidales and succinivibrio . ostertagi ostertagi infection significantly impacted only 2 otu in immune animals ( unadjusted p value < 0 . 05 ) . the relative abundance of otu # 32 ( lineage : catabacteriaceae ) was increased from 0 . 4 % in control to 1 . 0 % in infected animals while the relative abundance of otu # 25 decreased from 0 . 3 % in control to 0 . 1 % in infected animals ( p < 0 . 05 ) .
worms can readily be seen and identified in the abomasum , and small petechiae may be visible where the worms have been feeding . the most characteristic lesions of ostertagia infection are small , umbilicated nodules 1–2 mm in diameter . these may be discrete , but in heavy infections they tend to coalesce and give rise to a “cobblestone” or “morocco leather” appearance . nodules are most marked in the fundic region but may cover the entire abomasal mucosa and may be accompanied by a rise in gastric ph to 6–7 . as a result , pepsinogen will no longer be converted to pepsin and may leak across the damaged epithelium , leading to high plasma levels . there is also evidence that adult ostertagia can cause direct hypersecretion of pepsinogen . the increased abomasal ph may also stimulate production of gastrin and thus hypergastrinemia , which is closely associated with the inappetence that may accompany infection . this parasite - associated drop in intake has been shown to be largely responsible for impaired weight gain . edema is often marked and , in severe cases , may extend over the abomasum and into the small intestine and omentum .
aerobic storage of o . ostertagi eggs at 25 °c led to a significant increase in its2 copies after 12 h due to embryonation and subsequent hatching . in contrast , anaerobic storage ( vacuum packing ) at 25 °c completely inhibited egg development and any undesirable semi - quantification bias for up to 336 h . hence , vacuum packing is an optimal storage strategy prior to molecular diagnostic analyses . alternatively , aerobic storage at 4 °c for up to 72 h can be used . due to high copy numbers and lower genetic variation , the l1 stage may be considered for diagnostics and further molecular research .
aerobic storage of o . ostertagi eggs at 25 °c led to a significant increase in its2 copies from 12 h due to embryonation and subsequent hatching . in contrast , anaerobic storage ( vacuum packing ) at 25 °c completely inhibited egg development and any undesirable semi - quantification bias for up to 336 h . hence , vacuum packing is an optimal storage strategy prior to molecular diagnostic analyses . alternatively , aerobic storage at 4 °c for up to 72 h can be used . due to high copy numbers and less genetic variation , the l1 stage may be considered for diagnostics and further molecular research .
the objective of this study was to determine the agreement between elisa tests conducted using three o . ostertagia antigens : crude adult worm , larval stage 4 ( l4 ) excretory / secretory ( es ) and adult es . this study was carried out on 289 holstein cows from five herds in prince edward island and one herd in nova scotia . composite milk samples of these cows were collected ( between may and september 2002 ) from the respective provincial laboratories and sent to the atlantic veterinary college where each sample was tested for antibodies to o . ostertagi using an indirect microtitre elisa test . results were expressed as optical density ratio ( odr ) values . each milk sample was tested with three elisa tests , with each test using a different o . ostertagi antigen . there was a slight rise in odr values of both adult antigens , between may and august , with higher values obtained using the adult es antigen . l4 es odr values were generally higher than those for both adult antigens during the study period , except for may . there was a more dramatic rise in l4 es odr values between may and august . rises in odr in may and end of july coincided with periods of mass maturation of l4 to adult worms . the results of the study showed that the concordance correlation coefficient ( ccc ) between tests performed using both es and the crude antigens were low ( crude adult versus adult es = 0 . 31 , crude adult versus l4 es = 0 . 30 ) . the highest ccc was observed between tests done using both es antigens ( ccc = 0 . 56 ) . generally , the study results suggest that the antibody response ( detectable by the elisa ) is mainly directed against es antigens ( especially l4 ) than the crude adult worm antigen .


the family saturniidae , commonly known as saturniids , by most measures include the largest species of moths .

they are a family of lepidoptera , with an estimated 2,300 described species worldwide .

the saturniidae include such lepidoptera as the giant silkmoths , royal moths and emperor moths .

adults are characterized by large size , heavy bodies covered in hair-like scales , lobed wings , reduced mouthparts , and small heads .

they lack a frenulum but the hind wings overlap the forewings , producing the same effect of an unbroken wing surface .

these moths are sometimes brightly colored and often have translucent eyespots or " windows " on their wings .

sexual dimorphism varies by species , but males can generally be distinguished by their larger , broader antennae .

most adults possess wing spans between 1 and 6 in ( 2.5 and 15 cm ) , but some tropical species , such as the atlas moth ( attacus atlas ) , may have wing spans up to 12 in ( 30 cm ) .

together with certain noctuidae ( chiefly calpinae and catocalinae , such as the genera ascalapha , erebus , or thysania ) , the saturniidae contain the largest lepidoptera , and some of the largest insects alive today .

saturniidae

saturniidae of prince edward island livestock for sale . pictures of and information about the saturniidae of prince edward island
thibaud decaens saturniidae collection this site features images of live saturniidae adults and their caterpillars from around the world .
since we have accumulated many different saturniidae and sphingidae pupae and saturniidae cocoons this fall , we decided to compare them .
moths of western north america . 1 . distribution of saturniidae of western north america
balcazar lm , wolfe lk . cladistics of the ceratocampinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae )
saturniidae , butterflies and moths of north america . accessed january 10 , 2013 .
saturnia homepage . wolfgang nässig ' s pages about saturniidae and other bombycoid moths .
( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : unique origin and repeated reduction of the aeropyle crown .
( graells 1849 ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . eos . 1975 ; 49 : 285–92 .
tree of life web project . 2010 . saturniidae . version 02 december 2010 ( temporary ) .
family saturniidae - giant silkworm and royal moths , bugguide . net . accessed january 10 , 2013 .
moths of western north america . 1 . distribution of saturniidae of western north america ( 32 . 49mb )
racheli l , racheli t ( 2006 ) phylogenetic hypothesis and classification : theoretical and methodological issues with reference to some studies on saturniidae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . shilap revista de lepidopterología 34 ( 133 ) : 5–12 .
what you see here is the amazing caterpillar of saturniidae moth . the family saturniidae includes the largest species of moths which generally feature heavy bodies covered in hair - like scales , lobed wings , reduced mouthparts , and small heads .
saturniidae ( bombycoidea ) ; [ nacl ] , 108 ; van nieukerken et al . , 2011 , zootaxa 3148 : 217
saturniidae caterpillar , it was
served
as breakfast by the locals on one of the jobs we did in central africa .
( graells , 1849 ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . shilap soc hispano luso am lepid . 1992 ; 20 : 29–49 .
the cecropia moth is one of the large , showy moths of the family saturniidae . getty images / corbis documentary / darrell gulin
systematic monography of the palaearctic species of saturniidae , brahmaeidae , eupterotidae and endromididae ( lepidoptera ) ( w . a . nässig )
wlss contributer of the year is bart coppens , who has provided great images of many saturniidae adults and larvae from around the world .
saturniidae , pieridae , noctuidae and nymphalidae were the more species consumed with 16 , 11 , 9 , and 8 species , respectively .
( graells , 1849 ) ( lepidoptera , saturniidae ) en la provincia de cuenca . españa graellsia . 2010 ; 66 : 9–20 .
skipper larvae ( hesperiidae ) , and those of moth families including lasiocampidae , arctiidae , saturniidae , notodontidae and zygaenidae pupate within cocoons .
[ larvae - pupae parasitoids of hylesia metabus cramer ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) in northeastern venezuela : a case of natural biological control ] .
adult feeding moths ( sphingidae ) differ from non - adult feeding ones ( saturniidae ) in activity - timing overlap and temporal niche width .
what made you want to look up saturniidae ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
studies on summer diapause in pupae of antheraea yamamai ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : i . shortening of the ' pupal ' duration under certain environmental conditions
pupa and other smerinthinae pupae are not very typical sphingidae , resembling saturniidae pupa more since it lacks a proboscis and not excessively elongated and pointy . o
constructed a molecular phylogeny of the moth genus hemileuca ( saturniidae ) and the h . electra species complex to examine patterns of character evolution and conservation implications
this site hosts pages for over 2500 saturniidae species / subspecies from around the world with over 1550 species / subspecies depicted in over 10 , 000 images .
bombycidae ) have been used for centuries for the production of silk . several species in the family saturniidae including antheraea mylitta also produce silk of commercial quality .
[ larvae - pupae parasitoids of hylesia metabus cramer ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) in northeastern venezuela : a case of natural biological control ] . - pubmed - ncbi
adult feeding moths ( sphingidae ) differ from non - adult feeding ones ( saturniidae ) in activity - timing overlap and temporal niche width . - pubmed - ncbi
i am personally committed to sharing information about all of the world ' s saturniidae . hence , this site will continue to be a work - in - progress .
, but many saturniidae pupae are even easier to sex because the male antennae are much more pectinate than the female ones , and this can be seen clearly on the pupa .
rubinoff , d . 1998 . field observations on mating behavior and predation of hemileuca electra ( saturniidae ) . the journal of the lepidopterists ' society , 52 : 212 - 214
to coordinate the studies on bombycoidea , a small “informal annual meeting of saturniidae researchers” for employed and amateur lepidopterists is organised on occasion of the annual frankfurt insect exchange in early november each year .
( graells , 1849 ) , una nueva especie para la fauna lepidopterológica de almería ( españa ) ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . shilap soc hispano luso am lepid . 2008 ; 36 : 427–30 .
i am constantly seeking natural setting images of saturniidae in all stages of development from around the world . as images become available , they will be woven into html text format for your viewing and enjoyment .
the wild silk moths of north america : a natural history of the saturniidae of the united states and canada , by paul m . tuskes , james p . tuttle , and michael m . collins .
the family saturniidae contains many of the largest and most spectacular moths on earth including the giant atlas moth attacus atlas which measures up to 25cms across the wings , and the amazing madagascan comet moth argema mittrei which has 15cm long tails extending from the hindwings . the name of the family saturniidae is derived from the ' saturn ' s rings ' ocelli on the wings . click on the images below for more photos and detailed descriptions .
this is the first number of a series of atlases detailing the distributional occurrence of the moths of north america . the atlas of saturniidae by richard peigler and me covers the documented distribution of a well - known group .
rubinoff , d . m . san jose and r . peigler . 2017 . multi - gene phylogeny of the hemileuca maia complex ( saturniidae ) across north america suggests complex phylogeography and rapid ecological diversification . systematic entomology .
michener , c . d . 1952 . the saturniidae ( lepidoptera ) of the western hemisphere - morphology , phylogeny , and classification . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 98 ( 5 ) : 341 - 501 .
deml , r . and k . dettner . 2002 . morphology and classification of larval scoli of saturniinae and hemileucinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 40 ( 2 ) : 82 - 91 .
rubinoff , d and f . a . h . sperling . 2004 . mitochondrial dna sequence , morphology and ecology yield contrasting conservation implications for two threatened buckmoths ( hemileuca : saturniidae ) . biological conservation 118 : 341 - 351 .
rubinoff , d . and f . a . h . sperling . 2002 . evolution of ecological traits and wing morphology in hemileuca ( saturniidae ) based on a two gene phylogeny . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 25 : 70 - 86 .
tuskes , p . m . , j . p . tuttle , and m . m . collins . 1996 . the wild silk moths of north america : a natural history of the saturniidae of the united states and canada . cornell university press .
this moth is a member of the family saturniidae - or giant silk worm moths . members of this family are responsible for the production of silk for use in fabrics , rugs and other items . they are among the largest and most beautiful of all moths .
further , the results of the travel to bolivia shall be used as basis for a planned “field guide” of the saturniidae of the bolivian department of santa cruz . further research travels are intended for the coming years to close gaps in the knowledge of special questions .
this article is a step by step guide to the rearing of large numbers of saturniidae in outdoor sleeves . one can start at any one of the four metamorphic stages : 1 ) ova , 2 ) larva , 3 ) pupa / cocoon , 4 ) moth .
regal moth , , ( subfamily citheroniinae ) , any of a group of moths in the family saturniidae ( order lepidoptera ) that are large and brightly coloured and occur only in the new world . the ferocious - looking but harmless hickory horned devil caterpillar ( larva of the royal walnut moth , citheronia…
regier , j . c . , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and t . p . friedlander . 2002 . monophyly , composition and tribal relationships of saturniinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : evidence from two nuclear genes . insect systematics and evolution 33 : 9 - 21 .
elizabeth a . blake , michael r . wagner ; collection and consudlption of pandora moth , coloradia pandora lindseyi ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) , larvae by olvens valley and mono lake paiutes , bulletin of the entomological society of america , volume 33 , issue 1 , 1 march 1987 , pages 22–27 , urltoken
regier , j . c . , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and t . p . friedlander . 2002 . monophyly , composition , and relationships within saturniinae ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) : evidence from two nuclear genes . insect systematics and evolution 33 ( 1 ) : 9 - 21 .
the atlas moth ( attacus atlas ) is one of the largest moths in the world , with a wingspan of over 9 . 8 inches . females are slightly larger than males . like other moths in the family saturniidae , adults do not have working mouth parts and only live for a few days to a week .
since we have begun to accumulate quite a lot of different saturniidae and sphingidae pupae lately , we decided to compare some of them side by side . above are ventral , lateral , and dorsal views of seven different pupae , the five on the left being satuniidae and the two on the right sphingidae . from left to right : ♀
regier , j . c . , m . c . grant , r . s . peigler , c . mitter , c . p . cook , and r . rougerie . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of wild silkmoths ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) inferred from four protein - coding nuclear genes . systematic entomology 33 : 219 - 228 .
friedlander , t . p . , k . r . horst , j . c . regier , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and q . q . fang . 1998 . two nuclear genes yield concordant relationships within attacini ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . mol . phyl . evol . 9 : 131 - 140 .
friedlander , t . p . , k . r . horst , j . c . regier , c . mitter , r . s . peigler , and q . q . fang . 1998 . two nuclear genes yield concordant relationships within attacini ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 9 ( 1 ) : 131 - 140 .
…asiatic giant silkworm moths ( family saturniidae ) . the larvae and sometimes the adults of a few species are used for food . the larvae of one skipper ( rhopalocampta libeon , or caeliades libeon ) are collected in large quantities in the congo , and the 10 - cm ( 4 - inch ) caterpillars of giant skippers ( family megathymidae ) , known in…
since these are silk moths of family saturniidae they should be relatively easy to sex as pupae . the female pupa will have an extra pore compared to the male one , and also if the antennae of male and female adults are different ( in many species the males have much broader antennae ) you should be able to see this difference in the pupal case .
in this paper , we reported the butterflies and moths that are consumed in mexico . we identified 67 species of lepidoptera that are eaten principally in their larval stage in 17 states of mexico . these species belong to 16 families : arctiidae , bombycidae , castniidae , cossidae , geometridae , hepialidae , hesperiidae , lasiocampidae , noctuidae , nymphalidae , papilionidae , pieridae , pyralidae , saturniidae , sesiidae , and sphingidae .
larvae pass through growth stages called instars . they have to shed old skins to make room for new growth . it is generally not a good idea to move larvae while they are reparing or attempting to shed skins . most saturniidae larvae spend about 6 - 8 days in their first instar and that is why i like to move larvae outdoors after only 3 - 4 days in their indoor hatching containers .
thousands of people , all over the world , have reared saturniidae . for most , the experience has largely been one of finding a few larvae , taking them home , feeding them some leaves in an aquarium , large jar , etc . , watching them spin their cocoons , and then waiting for the adult emergence . many people have found an h . cecropia larva on an ornamental tree in the yard .
even people with no particular love of insects find the giant moths ( and caterpillars ! ) of the family saturniidae fascinating . the name is thought to refer to the large eyespots found on the wings of some species . the eyespots contain concentric rings , reminiscent of the planet saturn ' s rings . these showy moths are easy to rear in captivity if you can find enough foliage to keep their very hungry caterpillars fed .
most females of the large saturniidae lay tiny eggs , either singly or in small rows on the underside of leaves . trying to find these eggs would be like looking for a needle in a haystack . most people obtain ova in the following ways : 1 ) obtain them from a dealer , 2 ) capture a gravid female at a light , 3 ) obtain cocoons from a dealer or from the wild and secure a mating .
saturniidae larvae are usually left in the sleeves to spin cocoons . some species ( cynthia and promethea ) always use a leaf wrap and remain attached to branches . other species sometimes use a leaf wrap , ( luna , cecropia , polyphemus ) , while others either spin attached to branches or trunks ( cecropia , columbia ) or in the folds of the sleeve - - a most annoying practice : polypphemus , cecropia , luna , io .
i raise mostly cecropia and polyphemus moths , but i’ve been trying other species too . this year i’ve been raising prometheas , and i have some buck moth pupas that i’m hoping will hatch so i can try raising them . in 2011 , i’ve been raising luna moths . one advantage of these giant silk moths ( the family saturniidae ) is that the adults don’t eat , so it’s possible to keep them for a day or two to try to mate them and get eggs .
there are about 1 , 400 species world - wide in the moth family saturniidae . for over thirty years , the author has been studying more than three hundred of them . furthermore , he has professionally photographed the stages of development from the egg , through the larval stages and pupation , to the adult moth . the result is a unique documentation of the metamorphosis of these fascinating animals . with 2 , 949 illustrations , the author unfolds to us the unexpected variety and beauty of saturniid larvae .
this is one of those books that , once you see a copy , you will have to have it . books like this go a long way to encourage young naturalists to become entomologists . as a professor , i know that many young people do not collect books , thinking that they can get everything they need on the internet . but this book is not expensive considering its attributes , so i hope that every admirer of saturniidae will acquire it . when your computer crashes or the power goes out , you can immerse yourself in lampe’s beautiful book using natural daylight or candlelight until those things get fixed .
the saturniidae are members of the superfamily bombycoidea . these species are medium to very large in size , and this family includes the largest moths in north america . adults have a wingspan of 3 to 15 centimeters , relatively small heads , and densely hairy bodies . larvae are usually very fleshy , with clumps of raised bristles . buck moth and io moth caterpillars have sharp , stinging hairs . caterpillars mostly feed on leaves of trees and shrubs ; some cause severe damage . pupa develop in silken cocoons or in the soil . this family does not contain the commercial silkworm moth ( bombyx mori ) , which is not native to north america .
rudolf lampe has produced an excellent contribution that will be both scientifically useful and aesthetically enjoyable for those who rear and study saturniidae . for more than 30 years , lampe has reared and photographed saturniids , and this book is a wonderful culmination of his efforts . each [ of the more than 300 species ] is documented in an appendix giving the locality data , dates of the rearing , and what hostplant was used . close - up views of eggs , all larval stages , pupae , cocoons ( for those species that make cocoons ) , and pinned adults are given , usually of both sexes , and sometimes live adults are also shown in natural repose .
2010 , in english and german , 368 pages , 336 color plates ( 2 , 949 photos ) , 9 color & 2 b / w figures . there are ~ 1 , 400 species world - wide in the moth family saturniidae . for over 30 years , the author has been studying more than 300 of them . he has professionally photographed the stages of development from the egg , through larval stages and pupation , to the adult moth . the result is a unique documentation of the metamorphosis of these fascinating animals . the unexpected variety and beauty of saturniid moths is extensively portrayed in this remarkable book . hardcover ; 8 - 1 / 2 x 12
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males and females of most large saturniidae are attracted to lights , especially mercury vapour or black lights . i have purchased both types of lights from hardware stores and use them regularly to attract females . mercury vapour lights are often used as floodlights or security lights on large buildings : schools , warehouses , car dealerships , etc . i have a five mile circuit that i make quite regularly during prime flight times in the spring and summer to visit such sites from 11 : 00 pm to 1 : 00 am looking for moths . police are notified and landowners ' permission is obtained in advance . a warm , overcast , moonless or at least
dark
, night offers the best collecting .
actually the metamorphosis of lepidoptera ( from ovum to imago ) is strongly governed by their environment ( temperature , humidity , air flow , photo period , available resources , etc ) . that ' s why i designed all of my rearing / breeding cages and plant storage methods so i could control all of the environmental factors to match the normal conditions during the peak seasons of a species . short photo period slows them down , can induce early aestivation / hibernation , both that can result in smaller livestock / imago ' s . how sever is dependent on the species and the conditions . i ' ve reared a lot of different species of saturniidae since 1964 , and they are a product of their environment same as they are from all lepidopteran families . fwiw - hth
( luna month ) actias luna classification kingdom : animalia class : insecta order : lepidoptera family : saturniidae genus : actias species : actias luna environmental information habitat : forested areas of north america . description of identifying characteristics / physical appearance food habits : caterpillar feeds on foliage of various species of hickory , walnut , sweet - gum , persimmon , and birch trees . luna moths predators : birds , bats , and spiders . moths are large , with a 4 to 5 inch wingspan . wings are light green , transparent spots and a pink - purple or yellow , hind wings bearing long twisted tails and antennae are feathery , luna moths have often been used in classrooms to help teach insect life cycles . economic importance for humans : positive importance to humans and / or the environment resources used urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken
the female emperor moth is above , and the male below . this moth is considered by some to have the best sense of small of any animal . a male can smell the pheromone the female releases to attract him to mate from seven miles away ! this moth is found throughout the paleartctic , and is the only member of the saturniidae family found in the u . k . , it is normally seen in moorland and open country . the two specimens here are preserved , but in life the males have much brighter orange hindwings , the female colouring is similar , but less bright . males fly by day especially on sunny days , and their flight is rapid . females by night . the flight period is april and may . male wingspan is 60 mm , and female 80 mm . male forewing length is 27 - 32 mm , and female is 35 - 41 mm .
larvae pupate in different ways depending on which family they belong to . a larva from the family nymphalidae for example will spin a tiny button of silk on a leaf or stem , and anchor itself to it by its tail . the tail has an appendage called a cremaster , which is equipped with microscopic hooks to hold it securely to the silk . larvae of papilionidae and pieridae do the same , but additionally spin a silken girdle around their waist . lycaenidae and riodinidae don ' t possess cremasters so they either pupate on the ground , or attach themselves by a silk girdle to a leaf or stem . hesperiidae pupate loosely , usually within a flimsy silken tent . the larvae of most moths pupate loosely in a chamber just below the surface of the ground . others , including saturniidae , bombycidae and lasiocampidae pupate inside a tough silk cocoon spun on the leaves , stems or branches of their foodplants .
actually if you use a hand lens it is really quite obvious , much clearer than in the photo . the only difference between the sexes is in the one segment i indicated , presence or absence of the pore . this difference is present in all lepidoptera , but you need to familiarise yourself with each species , as pupae can look quite different , and the shape of the female pore varies between specimens of the same species ( sometimes quite short , sometimes there ' s a slit across the whole segment ) as well as between species , but the principle is the same : male no pore , female with a pore in the position indicated . you will soon get the hang of the difference between sexes , and be able to spot it for different species . the hemileuca you are rearing will have basically the same difference between sexes . i do know that some of the saturniid breeders will deliberately cut open the cocoons , check the sex of the pupae and put them back inside . if done carefully it has no effect on the pupae at all . i ' m not sure if this applies to hemileuca , but many saturniidae pupae are even easier to sex because the male antennae are much more pectinate than the female ones , and this can be seen clearly on the pupa . adam .
according to classic ecology , resource partitioning by segregation along at least one of the three main niche axes ( time , food , and space ) must take place for the coexistence of species with similar ecological requirements . we used nocturnal light traps to investigate the assemblage structuration of two moth families : sphingidae ( 23 species ) and saturniidae ( 13 species ) . because competition for food among adults potentially occurs only among sphingids , only for this family did we expect less overlap of diel activity patterns than expected by chance and also a greater temporal niche width compared to saturniids . moreover , we expected a greater number of sphingid species pairs to differ in activity timing compared to saturniid pairs . we also hypothesized that in the case of a lack of temporal structuration , sphingids would be morphologically structured in relation to proboscis length . contrary to what we expected , both families overlapped their activity patterns more than expected by chance alone and sphingid moths were not morphologically structured . nevertheless , there were 173 significant pairwise differences in temporal activity between sphingids , contrasting with no interspecific differences between saturniids . sphingid species also showed a wider temporal niche width than saturniids , as expected . predation risk and abiotic factors may have caused the overall similarities in activity patterns for both families . the temporal niche seemed not to be determinant for the assemblage structuration of moths as a whole for either of the studied families , but segregation along the temporal niche axis of some potentially competing species pairs can be a relevant factor for the coexistence of nectar - feeding species .
while we were at it , we also decided to compare some of our saturniidae cocoons . below are five different species , the three on the left being in the saturniinae tribe and the two on the right in the attacini tribe . from left to right : antheraea mylitta , antheraea polyphemus , actias luna , samia ricini , and hyalophora cecropia . all are unopened except the a . luna cocoon since it was from a brood reared in 2013 ; the rest are unopen and were obtained or reared this year . despite the close relation between the two antheraeas , their cocoons are surprisingly different . the mylitta is huge and perfectly smooth and ovular , made of extremely tough and thick beige colored silk . there also is a long silk stalk at the top for hanging to branches . in comparison , polyphemus is less perfectly shaped and flatter , with a tough but thinner shell . there is not stalk since they are either affixed to the tree or in the leaf litter . the a . luna cocoon resembles the a . polyphemus cocoon very much but is brown and the shell is much thinner , shinier , and smoother . the s . ricini cocoon is far less compact and the silk is softer and white . the shape is sort of irregular , being flat and tapered at the ends . the h . cecropia cocoon is also tapered at the ends - - very much so at the top , but the silk is very course and thick , though not as compact a the antheraeas ' . it is the largest cocoon by far and is like a bag , with a little escape hole at the top for when the moth ecloses . between the three saturniinaes and two attacini cocoons the former have more or less ovular cocoons while the attacini cocoon are more irregular shaped , but are usually tapered at the ends with a escape hole at the top .
insects have been a good and natural source of human diet for long periods of time . the tradition has been actively pursued in a number of continents where the collection of insects as food is an essential part of the people’s livelihoods .
the concept of ingesting insects has only been acknowledged and researched very recently due to exposure and interests . publications found on the topic are spread across many journals in a lot of disciplines , varying from biochemistry , nutrition , food science , anthropology , history , entomology , agriculture , health , ecology , and sociology .
such publications have started dealing with studies in order to understand the biology and ecology of edible insects , along with other factors to determine their availability , significance as food sources to sustain livelihoods , and their importance of ethno - entomological knowledge .
in addition , these publications also showcase technology transfer’s role to help people in utilizing their traditional knowledge for improving the worth of insects as food sources in their lives . the works created by françoise malaisse , jun mitsuhashi , and gene defoliart deserve special attention and applause in this field .
edible insects carry a high quality of amino acids , proteins , and vitamins for human beings . these insects also contribute to a higher rate of food conversion than regular livestock . for instance , cricket needs 6 times lesser feed quantity than regular cattle , 4 times lesser than a sheep , and two times lesser than a pig or a broiler chicken , in order to generate the equivalent sum of protein .
what’s more , edible insects also emit lesser ammonia and greenhouse gases than the traditional livestock . edible insects are capable of growing on organic wastes too . as a result , these insects are potential sources for the regular production of protein , both for direct consumption by humans or for indirect recomposed food items , and as protein sources to be used in feedstock mixtures .
there are many numerous advantages of eating edible insects as a natural source of food . breeding of such insects in comparison to livestock is , in fact , a better step towards being environmentally friendly . this is due to the lesser amount of land occupancy , water pollution problems , and much lesser greenhouse gas emissions . eating house cricket has actually been proven as a more resourceful form of feed conversion .
moreover , the tremendous augmentation in population around the world has necessitated the need for a good source of protein , which is hardly met by reason of the limited quantity of available farmlands .
in addition , it is most noteworthy to mention the economic advantages of eating insects in relation to the plant cultivations . for example , in mexico , collecting insects for human use led to a considerable shrinking in the degree of pesticides , which are usually used in an agricultural production . this has also lessened the economic burden for the cultivating farmers . among the many dangers , faced by everyone across the world , is the food diversity loss . hence , the utilization of a varied choice of insects as food would count as a big step in alleviating the problem .
at present , there are almost 2 billion people , who consume a large range of edible insects on a regular basis both raw and cooked .
follow the list of insects , which have been authorized as edible and safe to eat by the u . n . :
beetles : these insects turn cellulose in trees to digestible fat , and contain more protein quantities than other insects .
ants : ants are low on carbs , and contain all essential proteins , calcium , iron , etc .
grasshoppers : these are a tremendous source of protein , and are usable in any curry flavor .
stinkbugs : this edible insect tends to put in an apple - like flavor to any sauce , and is a good iodine source .
there is a large variety of edible insects , which can be used for regular consumption . a number of edible insects are in fact packed with good fats , fundamental minerals , proteins , and fibers , which amount to an equivalent of any other food source . other than an ‘icky’ factor , there is no real issue in consuming insects for an all round diet .
have you ever wondered insects can be a great source of nutrition ? well , some people will say – oh my god , how could we eat insects , given the fact , we have so many fine foods and vegetables for ourselves ? and some will argue by saying – from an ancient time , people have been eating insects to get nutrition and vitamins , which are not present in our body .
in this article , we are going to take the support of the second types of people who believe insects are in fact , a fantastic way to provide nutritional value to our body . we will talk about what kind of nutrition you can get from insects and which insects provide the best value . so , let us have a look at the article . before going to the depths of the topic , we want you to know that there has been a constant debate as to whether the insects are a good source of nutrition . this debate has grown over the years because of lack of knowledge . for example – have you observed how birds feed insects to their young ?
basically , the young birds become ready to fly and leave their nest in just three weeks . so , how do they get the strength in such short time ? the answer is insects have a combination of nutritional elements and fluids , which provides the necessary nutritional value to the birds , making them strong enough to fly .
as we have said earlier that insects are a genuine source of food for birds and animals , humans can also get benefits by eating them . you will see many articles and research studies , citing the significance of eating insects . even from different archaeological explorations , you will find out people in ancient time had eaten them on a regular basis . for example – one painting from an archaeological site depicts that mankind had utilized tools to collect termites from the mounds for food .
if we talk about recent times , you will be amazed to know around 80 % people of the world are eating insects every day . in mexico , more than 200 edible insects have been used as foods and in thailand , there are more than 20 , 000 insects firms . not to mention , cambodia is the top exporter of edible insects .
so , what do you understand from this information ? insects contain protein and other nutritive elements such as vitamins , mineral , prebiotic fiber , beneficial fats , etc . in that case , you could say that insects are the new frontier in nutrition and we have much more to discover from them .
from a health point of view , insects contain a high amount protein with vitamins and minerals in abundance . there is also beneficial fats and different amino acids . besides , one vitamin , name vitamin b12 is not found in plant sources . in fact , nuts and pulses don’t simply have this vitamin . however , insects can provide this vitamin easily . even insects include the combination of unsaturated omega - 3 and omega - 6 fatty acids , which are high in fish , pork , and cattle .
furthermore , when you will eat insects , you have to eat them in whole , meaning that the complete exoskeleton , vital organs , and muscle tissues will be consumed by you . this fact is the most significant fact as you will be able to enjoy the high micro - nutritional value of insects .
1 . grasshoppers and crickets : grasshoppers and crickets are two of the best edible insects . a 3 . 5 - ounce grasshoppers can provide you with 14 - 28 grams of protein . this amount of protein is significant , given the fact , the grasshopper is a small insect . in relation to this fact , 30 - 60 % of women need 46 grams of protein daily and 25 - 50 % of men need 56 grams of protein each day . in that case , a grasshopper can meet this protein demand of men and women smoothly .
additionally , crickets and grasshoppers contain unsaturated fats . according to the food and agriculture organization of the united nations , unsaturated fats are essential for reducing the risk of heart disease . on a side note , humans cannot synthesize essential fatty acids as they have to obtain this health nutritional element via diet . therefore , crickets can easily deliver this nutrition as they have a fantastic omega 3 : 6 balance .
2 . ants : according to national geographic website , a 3 . 5 - ounce red ants are enough to provide 14 grams of protein . the same amount of red ants can supply 5 . 7 milligrams of iron . now , men need 8 milligrams of iron each and women need 18 milligrams every day . thus , these red ants can cover almost 71 % of the men’s iron demand . they can also meet one - third of iron demand of the women as well . not to mention , red ants along with other types of ants are a great source of calcium .
the fact of the matter is insects have certainly nutritional value and you can grow them just anywhere you want . along with other food items , you can add them to your food list because when you start eating insects for nutrition , you are putting less pressure on nature , meaning that we can have a sustainable environment altogether . so , if you have any questions regarding our opinion , please share your thoughts in the comments section .
insects are a good source of food supply in both humans and animals . this is why reports of various nutrient contents are often researched and found in fields of most disciplines varying from zoology to anthropology . a primary application of such nutrient contents of insects , especially the house cricket , is utilized as an essential nutritional food source for human beings .
more than 2 , 000 species in the insect world are acknowledged to be fit to be eaten . a number of evidence from ancient archeological sites proves that such insects have always been and are still an essential human food resource . in this article , we will primarily study about the nutrient content of the house cricket , also called acheta domesticus in latin .
there are a number of advantages to taking up insects as a source of food . in comparison to livestock , breeding of insects is a better environment - friendly action , due to land use , water pollution , and lesser greenhouse gas discharges .
consumption of house cricket proves to be a more efficient form of feed conversion . the increase in population growth all over the world augments the requirement of good sources of protein but is hardly met due to the limited amount of on hand farmland .
additionally , the economic advantages of consuming insects in comparison to the plant’s cultivation must be taken into account . for instance , collecting insects in mexico for human eating decreased the extent of pesticides being used in agricultural production , along with a lessened economic burden on the farmers .
although the tradition of using insects is not much common in every country nowadays , these insects continue to be a good source of nutrition in many cultures over the world .
the house cricket or acheta domestica is mostly found to be bred and eaten through appropriate farming conditions in europe . whilst the house cricket is sometimes eaten in its raw form , most of the time they are processed and consumed by human beings typically by roasting , drying , frying , or boiling .
in addition , the dietary composition of such cultured insects like the house cricket has been researched and used as a food source to captivated insectivorous reptiles , mammals , or birds , which are kept in the zoos .
the nutritional elements in different insects and their different stages differ . hence , there is no generalization of such data relating to their nutritional content . analysis of the insects is made based on their level of protein , moisture , fat , fiber , and ash .
it has been found that whole and raw insects by and large hold 55 - 85 % of moisture . on the other hand , the whole insects containing a lower content of moisture are normally the ones that have a higher fat content . the insects developed for human eating , in general , hold lesser moisture in comparison to the raw insects due to their processing , which typically engages some form of drying so as to prolong their shelf life .
house crickets are one of the most commonly consumed insects all over the world . these are more commonly farmed by cultivators in thailand . this breed of house crickets is more well - liked than the native breed of cricket species attributable to its better quality texture and taste . the house cricket is typically consumed as a deep fried food snack and is sold off as a protein extract or as a protein powder .
to conclude , the house cricket or acheta domesticus is a completely well rounded edible insect and can be relied on for long periods . due to the overpopulation issue all over the world , most people have taken to the consumption of alternatives to livestock and plant - based food sources . insect farming is quite a popular concept nowadays , which has driven a number of farmers to a better crop cultivation , devoid of fertilizers .
gun safety is always a foremost concern . before indulging in a personal gun , you must be assured of your pre - chosen gun safe and secret zones . to responsibly use a gun is easy , provided you have your checks and balances ready and in control . the tool is used by people of all genders and races for protection against an unknown and surprising force .
more often than not , the gun is typically kept in the car because anyone can experience an unintentional mishap from an outside force , and hence you need to have a defensive stance at all times . people often experience burglary or crime cases while traveling in their cars and the display of the gun can thwart such a confrontation .
while the gun is a good defense mechanism to be kept in the vehicle ; at the same time , one must be aware of the dangers of keeping such a powerful weapon on hand . if the gun is kept in the car , the owner must have a good way to lock and secure the weapon . this is so that further unwanted accidents or incidents are prevented . a loose firearm must be adhered to and should not be taken lightly .
most gun owners use a gun safe for keeping their guns safe . the gun safe is used by most law enforcement officials for keeping their guns safe . we have hence provided some very well researched and noteworthy pointers on the benefits of having a gun safe for your gun in regular and emergency needs .
security : in a gun safe , the gun is sealed in stealing cases and locked securely .
strength : a gun safe has enough strength in its security to prevent any illicit or unwanted entry by children , thieves , or other non - permitted persons .
easy to use and fast in functionality : you can easily and effortlessly access and close your gun safe readily in times of an urgent need for a limited time .
there are a few common places in a car , which people commonly use to protect their guns . however , such places are not always safe as anyone can find the weapon , risking both you and your co - passengers in the car .
to mention an unsafe place , the console or glove compartment is a good example . it is the first place that a thief or an unwanted party would look into and is basically an insecure place to hold a gun . additionally , the glove box or the console is not discreet at all . such areas for keeping your gun can make it very obvious as to the existence of the gun and may pose problems from thefts or threats . plus , it is too far away from the driver , in case he or she should need to make a defensive move .
instead of keeping your gun in an inaccessible area in your car , you could find more inventive ways to keep your gun safely in your car . it is very important to keep your gun within your hand’s reach . you can simply have your gun kept out in the open while concealing it well inside the car . you could use the space provided beneath your steering column or beneath your seat .
there are a number of seat holster companies for cars , which have recently manufactured products , meant to be used for attaching the gun beneath your car seat . through such a way , your gun remains cleverly hidden out of sight , and you can access it without any difficulty .
gun safety is a prior concern and should not be taken lightly . it is very important that you act responsibly so that no one else is harmed accidentally in the venture . thus , these are the points that you should keep in mind while keeping your gun in the car . do use a gun safe in your car so that your gun remains safe and secure . and , avoid the places where you should not keep your gun .
bathroom ceiling fans are the most efficient must - haves in any regular bathroom . these bathroom fans can not only provide your home with a good ventilation system but also help save your bathroom walls from moisture and humidity . these ceiling fans are less costly and very useful for personal hygiene and proper flow of air around the house .
ceiling fans are used in bathrooms as a good way to air the bathroom space and protect the walls and corners . more often than not , the humidity stuck in any regular bathroom space can ultimately give rise to a batch of whole other problems like mildew and mold . bathroom fans tend to remove the extra moisture from such walls , thus preventing wallpapers and paints to peel off or become warped .
the bathroom ceiling fans add ventilation , improve airflow , and reduce the excess humidity in a bathroom space . in addition , these bathroom fans can serve well to remove unwanted odors from the body or products to create a well - ventilated environment . these fans are of tremendous use for times when a homeowner may wish to take a steam bath or spa in their bathrooms , which otherwise wreak havoc on the air quality . thus , they maintain the utmost air quality indoors and keep the homeowner comfortable .
the pressure cooker is the most useful and time saving tool among all the other inventions by humankind . it is a tool to be used for easy cooking in the day to day purposes . in the present millennium , this apparatus is a common and everyday object used in almost every household around the world .
whether you wish to make a luxurious and scrumptious meal or a simple home cooked meal , the pressure cooker can come to assist in the most simple and innovative recipes . these recipes can range from the toughest food items like chickpeas and beans to the most complex roasts or stews . we have made a list of the best and easy food items that you can cook in a pressure cooker , along with good tips to get the optimal results while using it and if you are looking for a high quality pressure cooker the instant pot ip - duo60 7 - in - 1 programmable pressure cooker review is a product we can´t recomment enough .
chicken with tomatoes , chickpeas , and chorizo : this recipe is a common meal in all american households . the pressure cooker helps elevate and intensify the smoky flavors of the ingredients while the chicken is roasted inside it .
beef american stew : this is another classic dish , which cuts more than half time through the use of the pressure cooker . the cooker is used mainly for easy tenderizing of a tough piece of beef meat and takes about 45 minutes .
smoky beans : the pressure cooker can be used to bring out the earthy smell of the beans . you can additionally use some more ingredients while cooking beans in a cooker and gain the optimal tang .
chicken and bean stew : while preparing a meat - based stew , the pressure cooker can be of ultimate convenience in saving a load of the cook’s time and bringing out the best zest . a cooker can efficiently make your chicken tender by making it fall off the bone level .