a prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus ( karyon ) , mitochondria , or any other membrane-bound organelle .

the word prokaryote comes from the greek πρό ( pro ) " before " and κάρυον ( karyon ) " nut or kernel " .

prokaryotes can be divided into two domains , archaea and bacteria .

in contrast , species with nuclei and organelles are placed in the domain eukaryota .

in the prokaryotes , all the intracellular water-soluble components ( proteins , dna and metabolites ) are located together in the cytoplasm enclosed by the cell membrane , rather than in separate cellular compartments .

bacteria , however , do possess protein-based bacterial microcompartments , which are thought to act as primitive organelles enclosed in protein shells .

some prokaryotes , such as cyanobacteria may form large colonies .

others , such as myxobacteria , have multicellular stages in their life cycles .

molecular studies have provided insight into the evolution and interrelationships of the three domains of biological species .

eukaryotes are organisms , including humans , whose cells have a well defined membrane-bound nucleus ( containing chromosomal dna ) and organelles .

the division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes reflects the existence of two very different levels of cellular organization .

distinctive types of prokaryotes include extremophiles and methanogens ; these are common in some extreme environments .

prokaryote

a prokaryote is a single - celled organism that doesn ' t have a nucleus . bacteria are one familiar type of prokaryote .
prokaryote - eukaryote relationship and the amino acid sequence of plastocyanin from anabaena variabilis .
brown jr , doolittle wf . archaea and the prokaryote - to - eukaryote transition .
' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' , a multicellular , magnetotactic prokaryote from a hypersaline environment .
poole am , phillips mj , penny d ( 2003 ) prokaryote and eukaryote evolvability .
cell adhesion , multicellular morphology , and magnetosome distribution in the multicellular magnetotactic prokaryote candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis .
a prokaryote is a cell without a distinct nucleus . bacteria and some other simple organisms are prokaryotic . the genome of a prokaryote is in the form of a single dna molecule , like a single chromosome .
' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' , a multicellular , magnetotactic prokaryote from a hypersaline environment . - pubmed - ncbi
dagan t , martin w . ancestral genome sizes specify the minimum rate of lateral gene transfer during prokaryote evolution .
genetic variation within prokaryotic organisms is accomplished through recombination . in recombination , genes from one prokaryote are incorporated into the genome of another prokaryote . recombination is accomplished in bacterial reproduction by the processes of conjugation , transformation , or transduction .
) had counterpart segments with a significant level of sequence homology in the mt genomes of a minimum of nine of the ten examined green plants and one or both of the two prokaryote genomes , supporting the interpretation of their prokaryote origin .
prokaryote . provided by : wikipedia . located at : urltoken . license : cc by - sa : attribution - sharealike
prokaryote . provided by : wiktionary . located at : urltoken . license : cc by - sa : attribution - sharealike
] - it is possible to constrain some nodes in the prokaryote timescale , but only in a coarse sense . however , most information on the timescale of prokaryote evolution has come from analysis of dna and amino acid sequence data with molecular clocks [
cell adhesion , multicellular morphology , and magnetosome distribution in the multicellular magnetotactic prokaryote candidatus magnetoglobus multic . . . - pubmed - ncbi
dagan t , artzy - randrup y , martin w . modular networks and cumulative impact of lateral transfer in prokaryote genome evolution .
) branch basally in the tree . these groups and relationships are similar to those found previously with analyses of prokaryote genome sequences [
doolittle rf , feng df , anderson kl , alberro mr . a naturally occurring horizontal gene transfer from a eukaryote to a prokaryote .
transformation is a type of prokaryotic reproduction in which a prokaryote can take up dna found within the environment that has originated from other prokaryotes .
a ) five green plant and a prokaryote species were used in the analysis : oryza sativa ( monocotyledon ) , arabidopsis thaliana ( dicotyledon ) , cycas taitungensis ( gymnosperm ) , physcomitrella patens ( bryophyte ) , chlorokybus atmophyticus ( green alga ) , and prochlorococcus marinus ( prokaryote ) .
what made you want to look up prokaryote ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
transduction is a type of prokaryotic reproduction in which a prokaryote is infected by a virus which injects short pieces of chromosomal dna from one bacterium to another .
the tnt score heat maps for different functional classes of gene from the 100 analyzed prokaryote species . the order of and numbering of the species are as in
three mechanisms for the origin of ctdna - homologous mtdna segments : ( 1 ) vertical transmission of a prokaryote dna segment ( orthology ) , ( 2 ) interorganellar dna transfer from the ct to mt genome ( xenology ) and ( 3 ) amplification of an orthologous or xenologous dna segment in the mitochondrion ( paralogy ) . circle : prokaryote genome and plant organellar genome . thick arc on dna molecule : homologous dna segment descended from the prokaryote genome or by xenology or paralogy .
] . the detection of evolutionary patterns in metabolic innovations , as a consequence of a phylogeny not dominated by hgt events , allows more detailed constraints on a prokaryote timescale .
slesarev ai , stetter ko , lake ja , gellert m , krah r , kozyavkin sa . dna topoisomerase v is a relative of eukaryotic topoisomerase i from a hyperthermophilic prokaryote .
binary fission is a type of reproduction in which the chromosome is replicated and the resultant prokaryote is an exact copy of the parental prokaryate , thus leaving no opportunity for genetic diversity .
all prokaryote and eukaryote cells also have cytoplasm ( or cytosol ) , a semiliquid substance that composes the volume of a cell . essentially , cytoplasm is the gel - like material enclosed by the plasma membrane .
. we assume that present day bacteria were derived from a single ancestral prokaryote . in addition , the diagram assumes that the ct and mt genomes of green plants originated from a cyanobacterium and an α - proteobacterium , respectively .
temporal information concerning prokaryote evolution has come from diverse sources . for eukaryotes , the fossil record provides an abundant source of such data , but this has not been true for prokaryotes , which are difficult to identify as fossils [
dion p . ( 2008 ) extreme views on prokaryote evolution . in : dion p . , nautiyal c . s . ( eds ) microbiology of extreme soils . soil biology , vol 13 . springer , berlin , heidelberg
these example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' prokaryote . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .
doolittle rf , anderson kl , feng d - f ( 1989 ) estimating the prokaryote - eukaryote divergence time from protein sequences . in : fernholm b , bremer k , jornvall h ( eds ) the hierarchy of life . elsevier , amsterdam , pp 73–85
a search of the distribution of ctdna - homologous mtdna sequences among the mt genomes of a wide range of green plants , including the reference prokaryote genomes , will provide insights into the phylogenetic origin of ctdna transfer in plant evolution . for this purpose , the mtdnas of 10 green plant species of diverse taxa and the two prokaryote reference genomes were blast searched for sequences with homology to the 52 wheat mtdna segments of orthologous or xenologous origin . to confirm the validity of the present method , the presence of homologous sequences to the wheat ct -
reproduction in prokaryotes is asexual and usually takes place by binary fission . the dna of a prokaryote exists as as a single , circular chromosome . prokaryotes do not undergo mitosis ; rather the chromosome is replicated and the two resulting copies separate from one another , due to the growth of the cell . the prokaryote , now enlarged , is pinched inward at its equator and the two resulting cells , which are clones , separate . binary fission does not provide an opportunity for genetic recombination or genetic diversity , but prokaryotes can share genes by three other mechanisms .
the genome fluidity statistic ϕ as a function of synonymous core genome nucleotide variation π for 90 free - living prokaryote species on a ln - ln scale . white dots : proteobacteria , black dots : terrabacteria ( actinobacteria , firmicutes and cyanobacteria ) , grey dots : other taxa .
prokaryote , any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes . bacteria are among the best - known prokaryotic organisms . the lack of internal membranes in prokaryotes distinguishes them from eukaryotes . the prokaryotic cell membrane is made up of phospholipids and constitutes…
] . the following settings were used : numsamp ( 10 , 000 ) , burnin ( 100 , 000 ) , and sampfreq ( 100 ) . this method permitted rates to vary on different branches , which was necessary given the known rate variation among prokaryote and eukaryote nuclear protein sequences [
modes of prokaryote reproduction : besides binary fission , there are three other mechanisms by which prokaryotes can exchange dna . in ( a ) transformation , the cell takes up prokaryotic dna directly from the environment . the dna may remain separate as plasmid dna or be incorporated into the host genome . in ( b ) transduction , a bacteriophage injects dna into the cell that contains a small fragment of dna from a different prokaryote . in ( c ) conjugation , dna is transferred from one cell to another via a mating bridge that connects the two cells after the pilus draws the two bacteria close enough to form the bridge .
bacteria and radiation tolerance : deinococcus radiodurans , visualized in this false color transmission electron micrograph , is a prokaryote that can tolerate very high doses of ionizing radiation . it has developed dna repair mechanisms that allow it to reconstruct its chromosome even if it has been broken into hundreds of pieces by radiation or heat .
genes , respectively ; both genes encode an nadh dehydrogenase subunit . neither of the two prokaryote genomes had sequences with significant homology to the no . 22 segment , indicating the non - orthologous origin of these segments in the mt and ct genomes . homologues of the no . 22 mtdna segment were found only in the monocotyledon species ( ref . table
the evolution of the eukaryote cell was probably spurred by the benefits that the engulfed bacteria provided . if an anaerobic prokaryote engulfed an aerobic bacteria , it would have acquired the ability to generate energy from nutrients and oxygen . a prokaryote that took up a cyanobacteria would acquire the ability to make energy utilizing sunlight . the engulfed aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria would benefit from the protection and nutrients supplied by the host cell . the extra energy produced by the bacteria may have allowed the primitive eukaryotic cell to enlarge and acquire other bacteria , resulting in a more complex cell . without the extra energy provided by the bacterial organelles , the primitive eukaryotic cell may not have been able to develop into a multicellular organism .
a timescale of prokaryote evolution . letters indicate nodes discussed in the text . the last common ancestor was arbitrarily placed at 4 . 25 ga in the tree , although this placement was not part of the analyses . the grey rectangle shows the time prior to the initial rise in oxygen ( presumably anaerobic conditions ) . mtb : methanothermobacter , tab : thermoanaerobacter , tsc : thermosynechococcus .
in transformation , the prokaryote takes in dna found in its environment that is shed by other prokaryotes . if a nonpathogenic bacterium takes up dna for a toxin gene from a pathogen and incorporates the new dna into its own chromosome , it , too , may become pathogenic . in transduction , bacteriophages , the viruses that infect bacteria , sometimes also move short pieces of chromosomal dna from one bacterium to another . transduction results in a recombinant organism . archaea are not affected by bacteriophages , but instead have their own viruses that translocate genetic material from one individual to another . in conjugation , dna is transferred from one prokaryote to another by means of a pilus , which brings the organisms into contact with one another . the dna transferred can be in the form of a plasmid or as a hybrid , containing both plasmid and chromosomal dna .
if you take a biology class , you ' re likely to learn about prokaryotes , tiny organisms without a distinct nucleus bound by a membrane , like most other living things . prokaryotes are often contrasted with the single - celled or multicellular eukaryotes , which do have a nucleus . the word prokaryote is rooted in greek — it combines the word pro ,
before ,
with karyon ,
nut or kernel .
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membranes , energetics , and evolution across the prokaryote - eukaryote divide
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phylogenetic trees of individual genes of prokaryotes ( archaea and bacteria ) generally have different topologies , largely owing to extensive horizontal gene transfer ( hgt ) , suggesting that the tree of life ( tol ) should be replaced by a “net of life” as the paradigm of prokaryote evolution . however , trees remain the natural representation of the histories of individual genes given the fundamentally bifurcating process of gene replication . therefore , although no single tree can fully represent the evolution of prokaryote genomes , the complete picture of evolution will necessarily combine trees and nets . a quantitative measure of the signals of tree and net evolution is derived from an analysis of all quartets of species in all trees of the “forest of life” ( fol ) , which consists of approximately 7 , 000 phylogenetic trees for prokaryote genes including approximately 100 nearly universal trees ( nuts ) . although diverse routes of net - like evolution collectively dominate the fol , the pattern of tree - like evolution that reflects the consistent topologies of the nuts is the most prominent coherent trend . we show that the contributions of tree - like and net - like evolutionary processes substantially differ across bacterial and archaeal lineages and between functional classes of genes . evolutionary simulations indicate that the central tree - like signal cannot be realistically explained by a self - reinforcing pattern of biased hgt .
the concept of evolvability covers a broad spectrum of , often contradictory , ideas . at one end of the spectrum it is equivalent to the statement that evolution is possible , at the other end are untestable post hoc explanations , such as the suggestion that current evolutionary theory cannot explain the evolution of evolvability . we examine similarities and differences in eukaryote and prokaryote evolvability , and look for explanations that are compatible with a wide range of observations . differences in genome organisation between eukaryotes and prokaryotes meets this criterion . the single origin of replication in prokaryote chromosomes ( versus multiple origins in eukaryotes ) accounts for many differences because the time to replicate a prokaryote genome limits its size ( and the accumulation of junk dna ) . both prokaryotes and eukaryotes appear to switch from genetic stability to genetic change in response to stress . we examine a range of stress responses , and discuss how these impact on evolvability , particularly in unicellular organisms versus complex multicellular ones . evolvability is also limited by environmental interactions ( including competition ) and we describe a model that places limits on potential evolvability . examples are given of its application to predator competition and limits to lateral gene transfer . we suggest that unicellular organisms evolve largely through a process of metabolic change , resulting in biochemical diversity . multicellular organisms evolve largely through morphological changes , not through extensive changes to cellular biochemistry .
one of the mechanisms that produced homology between the ct and mtdna segments is the vertical transmission of an ancestral prokaryote dna segment ( or gene ) to both the ct and mt genomes via a cyanobacterium or an α - proteobacterium , respectively ( “orthology” ) . the second mechanism is interorganellar dna transfer between the ct and mt genomes ( “xenology” ) . 32 ) the third mechanism is amplification of a dna segment of orthologous or xenologous origin in an organelle ( “paralogy” ) .
recently , we reported a comparative analysis of approximately 7 , 000 phylogenetic trees for prokaryote genes that jointly constitute the “forest of life” ( fol ) and showed that the fol does gravitate to a single - tree topology . this statistically significant trend was particularly prominent among nearly universal trees ( nuts ) , that is , trees for highly conserved genes that are represented in all or almost all prokaryote genomes ( puigbo et al . 2009 ) . here , we describe a quantitative measure of the tree and net signals in evolution that is derived from an analysis of all quartets of species in all trees of the fol . we find that , although diverse routes of net - like evolution jointly dominate the fol , the pattern of tree - like evolution that recapitulates the consensus topology of the nuts is the single most prominent coherent trend . evolutionary simulations suggest that the central tree - like signal cannot be realistically explained by a self - reinforcing pattern of biased hgt .
) . these observations support my conclusion on the orthology of the 16 wheat mtdna segments and their ctdna counterparts . orthology of two other mtdna segments , nos . 24 and 31 , was not supported by the presence of orthologous gene sequences . however , they did show high sequence homology to the wheat ct genome and to one or other of the prokaryote genomes . they also had significant and high sequence homology to the mtdnas of the 10 green plant species examined later ( ref . table
the timescale of prokaryote evolution has been difficult to reconstruct because of a limited fossil record and complexities associated with molecular clocks and deep divergences . however , the relatively large number of genome sequences currently available has provided a better opportunity to control for potential biases such as horizontal gene transfer and rate differences among lineages . we assembled a data set of sequences from 32 proteins ( ~ 7600 amino acids ) common to 72 species and estimated phylogenetic relationships and divergence times with a local clock method .
certain prokaryotes move independently by using flagella , long structures that rotate in a propeller - like fashion . prokaryotic flagella consist of intertwined fibrils ( small fibers ) of the protein flagellin . a prokaryote may have a single flagellum , a group of flagella at one or both poles of the cell , or may be covered with flagella . many species of prokaryotes also have pili ( singular , pilus ) slender , hairlike extensions used for attachment to soil , rocks , teeth , or other structures .
cocci ( the plural of coccus , from the greek kokkus = berry ) are round bacteria . spherical is a safe shape since it gives the maximum surface area for a given volume . however , spherical doesn’t necessarily mean small . thiomargarita namibiensis is a spherical bacterium , but it is the second largest prokaryote we know of . if an e . coli cell was the size of a tic tac , t . namibiensis would have a diameter a bit larger than the barringer meteor crater in arizona ( see picture above ) .
eleven mtdna segments showed high sequence homology ( ca . 70 % or higher ) to sequences in all genomes of wheat ct , pm and pu . additionally , five mtdna segments , nos . 2 , 18 , 28 , 40 and 51 , showed high sequence homologies ( ca . 60 % or higher ) to ct sequences and also to either pm or pu sequences . in addition to their high sequence homologies , most of the wheat mtdna segments and their corresponding wheat ct and prokaryote dna segments included complete or partial sequences of orthologous genes ( table
all prokaryote and eukaryote cells have plasma membranes . the plasma membrane ( also known as the cell membrane ) is the outermost cell surface , which separates the cell from the external environment . the plasma membrane is composed primarily of proteins and lipids , especially phospholipids . the lipids occur in two layers ( a bilayer ) . proteins embedded in the bilayer appear to float within the lipid , so the membrane is constantly in flux . the membrane is therefore referred to as a fluid mosaic structure . within the fluid mosaic structure , proteins carry out most of the membrane’s functions .
the aims and materials of the present investigation were very similar to those of wang et al . 41 ) with the following exceptions : ( 1 ) i surveyed sequence homologies between all the ct and mtdna segments , irrespective of the presence / absence of genes , to obtain an entire picture of ctdna transfers ; ( 2 ) the ctdna - homologous mtdna segments were classified with respect to origin as orthologous ( prokaryote origin ) , xenologous ( ctdna origin ) and paralogous ( amplification of orthologs or xenologs ) using prokaryotic genome sequences as a reference ; ( 3 ) the dynamics of recurrent ct - to - mt transfers were analyzed in detail with respect to the transfer of ctdna segments in the same ct genome region to different sites of the mt genome , in order to assess directionality of the transfer ; and ( 4 ) the evolutionary timing of transfer of most of the xenologs to the mt genome was estimated , based on the results of a homology search between the ctdna - derived wheat mtdna segments and the mt genomes of ten green plant species and two reference prokaryote genomes . these analyses identified new aspects of the dynamics and phylogenetic origins of interorganellar dna transfers .
the analyses presented here are based on the assumption , still under debate , that historical information ( phylogenies and divergence times ) can be retrieved from genes in the prokaryote genome that have not been affected by horizontal gene transfer . our prokaryotic timeline shows deep divergences within both the eubacterial and archaebacterial domains indicating a long evolutionary history . the early evolution of life ( > 4 . 1 ga ) and early origin of several important metabolic pathways ( phototrophy , methanogenesis ; but not oxygenic photosynthesis ) suggests that organisms have influenced the earth ' s environment since early in the history of the planet ( fig .
in contrast , the dna of prokaryotic cells is distributed loosely around the cytoplasm , along with the protein synthesis machinery . this closeness allows prokaryotic cells to rapidly respond to environmental change by quickly altering the types and amount of proteins they manufacture . note that eukaryotic cells likely evolved from a symbiotic relationship between two prokaryotic cells , whereby one set of prokaryotic dna eventually became separated by a nuclear envelope and formed a nucleus . over time , portions of the dna from the other prokaryote remaining in the cytoplasmic part of the cell may or may not have been incoporated into the new eukaryotic nucleus ( figure 3 ) .
differences in the mechanisms of inheritance across the prokaryote–eukaryote divide generate , over long time frames , different patterns of variation . in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes , there are clonally propagating species that seem never to undergo recombination . because mutation is inevitable ( 45 ) , prokaryotic or eukaryotic species that never undergo recombination will continuously accumulate sublethal mutations , which they cannot purge from their genomes . this process continuously increases genetic load , for which reason they will eventually go extinct , a process known as muller ' s ratchet ( 46 – 49 ) . recombination has an important role in evolution in that it rescues genomes from muller’s ratchet .
notwithstanding the ubiquity of hgt , trees remain the natural representation of the histories of individual genes given the fundamentally bifurcating character of gene replication and the low frequency of intragenic recombination compared with intergenic recombination at long evolutionary distances ( koonin and wolf 2009 ; koonin , wolf , and puigbo 2009 ) . therefore , although no single tree can fully represent the evolution of prokaryote genomes , the complete picture of evolution will necessarily combine trees and nets ( gogarten et al . 2002 ; koonin and wolf 2008 ) . taken together , the results of the present analysis reveal a complex landscape of tree - like and net - like evolution of prokaryotes . the signals from these two types of evolution are distributed in a highly nonrandom fashion among lineages of archaea and bacteria and among functional classes of genes . overall , within the fol , the net - like signal is quantitatively dominant , vindicating the concepts of “lateral genomics” or net of life ( hilario and gogarten 1993 ; doolittle 1999a , 2009 ; gogarten et al . 2002 ; gogarten and townsend 2005 ; doolittle and bapteste 2007 ; koonin and wolf 2008 ) . by no account , are these results compatible with the representation of prokaryote evolution as a tol adorned with thin , random “cobwebs” of hgt ( kurland et al . 2003 ; ge et al . 2005 ; kunin et al . 2005 ) . however , the tree - like signal compatible with the consensus topology of the nuts is also unmistakably detectable and strong as by our measurement up to 40 % of the evolution in the prokaryote world conforms with the “statistical tol . ” the reality of prokaryote evolution appears to be that , although net - like processes are quantitatively dominant , the single strongest trend is the tree - like evolution characteristic of the nuts that also partially recapitulates the rrna tree ( pace 1997 ; puigbo et al . 2009 ) . of course , the tree - like and net - like processes of evolution are entangled : when we consider a “tree - like” signal , we actually mean the topology of the supertree of the nuts that is affected not only by the coherent central trend but also biased routes of hgt . however , the strong coherence between the topologies of the nuts , the quasi - random distribution of hgt events in this set of trees , and the substantial topological similarity between the nuts and a large fraction of the trees in the fol , taken together , seem to justify the use of the supertree as the best available standard of tree - like evolution .
the early eukaryote cell evolved more than a billion years ago . the endosymbiosis theory of the evolution of eukaryotes was first proposed by biologist lynn margulis in the 1960s . over the years , many scientists have gathered evidence in support of endosymbiosis . the endosymbiosis theory states that the eukaryotic cell developed from a larger prokaryotic cell engulfing a smaller prokaryotic cell without digesting it . the smaller prokaryotic cell or bacteria lived on in the larger prokaryote , providing it with extra energy , while the larger cell protected the small bacteria , allowing it to survive . engulfed aerobic bacteria eventually developed into mitochondria , while photosynthetic bacteria became the chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells .
the majority ( 81 % ) of the 32 proteins that were used are classified in the
information storage and processes
functional category of the cog . the other categories represented are
cellular processes
( 10 % ) ,
metabolism
( 3 % ) , and
information storage and processing
+
metabolism
( proteins with combined functions ; 6 % ) . other studies that have analyzed prokaryote genome sequence data for phylogeny have found a similar high proportion of proteins in the
information storage and processes
functional category , presumably because hgt is more difficult with such genes that are vital for the survival of the cell [
in principle , the fol encompasses the complete set of phylogenetic trees for all genes from all genomes . however , a comprehensive analysis of the entire fol is computationally prohibitive , so a representative subset of the trees needs to be selected and analyzed . previously ( puigbo , wolf , and koonin 2009 ) , we defined such a subset by selecting 100 archaeal and bacterial genomes representative of all major prokaryote groups and building 6 , 901 ml trees for all sufficiently conserved genes in this set of genomes ; for brevity , we refer to this set of trees as the fol ( see details in supplementary materials and methods and supplementary fig . s1 , supplementary material online ) .
many prokaryote species are known to have fluid genomes , with different strains varying markedly in accessory gene content through the combined action of gene loss , gene gain via lateral transfer , as well as gene duplication . however , the evolutionary forces determining genome fluidity are not yet well understood . we here for the first time systematically analyse the degree to which this distinctive genomic feature differs between bacterial species . we find that genome fluidity is positively correlated with synonymous nucleotide diversity of the core genome , a measure of effective population size n e . no effects of genome size , phylogeny or homologous recombination rate on genome fluidity were found . our findings are consistent with a scenario where accessory gene content turnover is for a large part dictated by neutral evolution .
a prokaryotic host cell incorporates another prokaryotic cell . each prokaryote has its own set of dna molecules ( a genome ) . the genome of the incorporated cell remains separate ( curved blue line ) from the host cell genome ( curved purple line ) . the incorporated cell may continue to replicate as it exists within the host cell . over time , during errors of replication or perhaps when the incorporated cell lyses and loses its membrane separation from the host , genetic material becomes separated from the incorporated cell and merges with the host cell genome . eventually , the host genome becomes a mixture of both genomes , and it ultimately becomes enclosed in an endomembrane , a membrane within the cell that creates a separate compartment . this compartment eventually evolves into a nucleus .
the tnt score heatmaps for the 100 analyzed prokaryote species . ( a ) the 102 nuts . ( b ) the fol without the nuts ( 6 , 799 trees ) . the tnt increases from red ( slow tnt score , close to random , an indication of net - like evolution ) to green ( high tnt score , close to the supertree topology , an indication of tree - like evolution ) . the species are ordered in accord with the topology of the supertree of the 102 nuts . in ( a ) , the major groups of archaea and bacteria are denoted . the complete species names are given in the supplementary table s1 ( supplementary material online ) . for additional tnt heatmaps , see supplementary figs . s12 , s13 , and s24 ( supplementary material online ) .
many bacterial species have been shown to exhibit extensive variation in gene repertoires , where a set of core genes shared by all strains are supplemented with a set of accessory genes that are only present in a subset of strains ( ochman et al . , 2000 ; gogarten et al . , 2002 ; tettelin et al . , 2005 ) . although accessory genome analyses are routinely performed in prokaryote genomics studies , whether certain genome characteristics are associated with particularly low or high genome fluidity has not been systematically tested . we here make use of the increasing availability of whole - genome sequences to , for the first time , perform a meta - analysis to ( 1 ) gauge the extent to which genome fluidity varies among different species and ( 2 ) test which genome characteristics best explain genome fluidity .
naturally occurring horizontal gene transfers between nonviral organisms are difficult to prove . only with the availability of sequence data from a wide variety of organisms can a convincing case be made . in the case of putative gene transfers between prokaryotes and eukaryotes , the minimum requirements for inferring such an event include ( 1 ) sequences of the transferred gene or its product from several appropriately divergent eukaryotes and several prokaryotes , and ( 2 ) a similar set of sequences from the same ( or closely related organisms ) for another gene or genes . given these criteria , we believe that a strong case can be made for escherichia coli having acquired a second glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase gene from some eukaryotic host . ancillary observations on the general rate of change and the time of the prokaryote - eukaryote divergence support the notion .
since there are no fossil records on the evolution of eukaryotes , most of the evidence is based on the study of present - day cells . evidence for endosymbiosis comes from dna sequencing and the comparison of bacterial , mitochondrial and chloroplast characteristics . dna analysis reveals that eukaryotes contain many bacterial genes . mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to bacteria in size and divide independently of the eukaryote host cell by a process called binary fission . bacteria also replicate by binary fission , while eukaryotes multiply by mitosis or meiosis . mitochondria and chloroplasts inside the eukaryotic cell have single , circular dna molecules just like bacteria . the inner membrane of bacteria , mitochondria and chloroplasts contains the electron transport chain , which provides chemical energy . mitochondria and chloroplasts also have a second membrane surrounding their inner membrane , which is thought to have arisen from the host cell membrane indenting and surrounding the early prokaryote to take it up .
phylogenetic analysis and phenotypic characterization were used to assign a multicellular magnetotactic prokaryote the name ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' . ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' lives in a large hypersaline coastal lagoon from brazil and has properties that are unique among prokaryotes . it consists of a compact assembly or aggregate of flagellated bacterial cells , highly organized in a sphere , that swim in either helical or straight trajectories . the life cycle of ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' is completely multicellular , in which one aggregate grows by enlarging the size of its cells and approximately doubling the volume of the whole organism . cells then divide synchronously , maintaining the spherical arrangement ; finally the cells separate into two identical aggregates . phylogenetic 16s rrna gene sequence analysis showed that ' candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis ' is related to the dissimilatory sulfate - reducing bacteria within the deltaproteobacteria and to other previously described , but not yet well characterized , multicellular magnetotactic prokaryotes .
although a few basic trends stand out ( e . g . , that motile cells are usually rods ) , we know exceedingly few morphological rules . this means that , except for the simplest cases , it is difficult or impossible to answer the question , “why does a bacterium have a particular shape ? ” consider , for example , the bacterium pelagibacter ubique , which constitutes ~ 25 % of all ocean microorganisms and is possibly the most successful , most numerous single prokaryote on earth [ 49 ] . even for such a plain bacterium in a relatively uncomplicated environment , we have no clue as to why it is a tiny curved rod instead of a small straight rod ; and beyond this , everything else is even more uncertain . in short , at our present level of understanding , when given an organism’s environment we cannot predict its shape , nor when given its shape can we confidently infer the characteristics of its environment [ 5 ] .
biology of termites : a modern synthesis ( bignell de , roisin y , lo n , ( editors ) , springer , dordrecht , 576pp , isbn 978 - 90 - 481 - 3976 - 7 , e - isbn 978 - 90 - 481 - 3977 - 4 , doi 10 . 1007 / 978 - 90 - 481 - 3977 - 4 ) was published in 2011 . with the agreement of the publishers , we give a taxonomic index of the book comprising 494 termite entries , 103 entries of other multicellular animal species mentioned as associates or predators of termites , with 9 fungal , 60 protist , and 64 prokaryote identities , which are listed as termite symbionts ( sensu stricto ) . in addition , we add descriptive authorities for living ( and some fossil ) termite genera and species . higher taxonomic groupings for termites are indicated by 25 code numbers . microorganisms ( prokaryotes , protists , and fungi ) are listed separately , using broad modern taxonomic affiliations from the contemporary literature of bacteriology , protozoology , and mycology .
candidatus magnetoglobus multicellularis is an uncultured magnetotactic multicellular prokaryote composed of 17 - 40 gram - negative cells that are capable of synthesizing organelles known as magnetosomes . the magnetosomes of ca . m . multicellularis are composed of greigite and are organized in chains that are responsible for the microorganism ' s orientation along magnetic field lines . the characteristics of the microorganism , including its multicellular life cycle , magnetic field orientation , and swimming behavior , and the lack of viability of individual cells detached from the whole assembly , are considered strong evidence for the existence of a unique multicellular life cycle among prokaryotes . it has been proposed that the position of each cell within the aggregate is fundamental for the maintenance of its distinctive morphology and magnetic field orientation . however , the cellular organization of the whole organism has never been studied in detail . here , we investigated the magnetosome organization within a cell , its distribution within the microorganism , and the intercellular relationships that might be responsible for maintaining the cells in the proper position within the microorganism , which is essential for determining the magnetic properties of ca . m . multicellularis during its life cycle . the results indicate that cellular interactions are essential for the determination of individual cell shape and the magnetic properties of the organism and are likely directly associated with the morphological changes that occur during the multicellular life cycle of this species .
when these endosymbiotic events occured is subject to much debate , but it must have been early in life ' s history , perhaps as early as the archean eon more than 2500 million years ago . the heterotrophic prokaryote used cellular respiration to intake oxygen and convert organic molecules to energy . the prokaryotic cells that were too small to be digested continued to live inside the host eukaryote , eventually becoming dependent on the host cell for organic molecules and inorganic compounds . importantly , the host cell could have acquired , by the addition of the aerobic function , an increased output of atp for cellular activities , leading to its improved selective advantage . was the
engulfer
a eubacteria or an archaean - yes - it depends on which of competing theories you choose ? other theories hold that the prokaryotes that gave rise to early eukaryotes were probably from the domain archaea , both because of several key characteristics and because dna sequence comparison suggest that archaeans are more closely related to the eukaryotes than are eubacteria . this is the so - called serial endosymbiosis theory of a monophyletic origin of the mitochondrion from a eubacterial ancestor . that fact that mitochondria have their own dna , rna , and ribosomes , supports the endosymbiosis theory , as does the existence of the amoeba , a eukaryotic organism that lacks mitochondria and therefore requires a symbiotic relationship with an aerobic bacterium .
a second development is the recognition that the origin of the roughly 2 , 000 gene families that underpinned the origin of eukaryotic - specific traits in the eukaryote ancestor required the biochemical power of internalized bioenergetic membranes that mitochondria provided ( 3 ) . mitochondria , not oxygen , made the energetic difference that separates eukaryotes from prokaryotes . that is because anaerobic mitochondria generate about five atp per glucose and fermentations in eukaryotes generate two to four atp per glucose ( 11 ) , such that the meager 5 - to 10 - fold increase in atp yield per glucose conferred by oxygen respiration is dwarfed by the 10 4 to 10 5 increase in atp yield per gene manifest in cells with mitochondria ( 3 ) . the key to the orders of magnitude increase in energy available for evolutionary invention that mitochondria conferred is the eukaryotic configuration of internal , compartmentalized bioenergetic membranes relative to genes ( 3 , 5 ) . after all , had oxygen been the key to eukaryote complexity , escherichia coli would have become eukaryotic for the same reason . furthermore , eukaryotic aerobes and anaerobes interleave across eukaryote phylogeny ( 11 ) , and bioenergetics point to a mitochondrion ancestor with a facultatively anaerobic lifestyle ( 12 ) . only those cells became complex that experienced the increased energy per gene afforded by mitochondria , and the long puzzling lack of true intermediates in the prokaryote–eukaryote transition has a bioenergetic cause ( 3 ) .
the ϕ estimate only provides a general indication of genome fluidity as it ignores genome rearrangements or plasmids , and we cannot exclude the fact that elevated or decreased levels of genome fluidity are associated with some of the many phyla that could not be included in this analysis due to a lack of data . these caveats aside , the positive relationship of genome fluidity with synonymous diversity is highly significant . the synonymous nucleotide diversity equals two times the product of the mutation rate μ and effective population size n e for haploid species . as variation in prokaryote mutation rate is believed to be relatively small ( lynch , 2010 ) , π syn can be taken as a proxy for n e . large effective population size is expected to result in generally higher levels of genetic diversity due to neutral evolution ( kimura , 1984 ) . the result of our cross - species meta - analysis is therefore consistent with the expectation that large n e species exhibit greater accessory genome variation . a variety of studies have suggested that many gene content changes have only minor effects on fitness and are effectively neutral ( gogarten and townsend , 2005 ; baumdicker et al . , 2012 ; haegeman and weitz , 2012 ; knöppel et al . , 2014 ) , although it is clear that a proportion of gene gains and losses will be significantly deleterious or beneficial . to gain a full understanding of selection on the accessory genome , it will be vital to collect data on the distribution of fitness effects of gene content changes ( vos et al . , 2015 ) .
two mtdna segments , nos . 52 and 53a , maintained a high level of sequence homology to the mtdna segments of all 10 green plants , with no or a low level of homology to prokaryote genomes . this finding indicated that these two mtdna segments were transferred from the ct genome at an early stage of green plant evolution . four wheat mtdna segments , nos . 16 , 29 , 36 and 37 , appeared to have been transferred at an early stage of angiosperm evolution , because their homologues were found in almost all of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons examined , but not in the lower plant taxa , including the gymnosperm . three other mtdna segments , nos . 17 , 22 and 34 , showed highly significant sequence homology to all monocotyledons examined , but not to other plant taxa , suggesting they were transferred at an early stage of monocotyledon evolution . nine mtdna segments , nos . 3 , 4 , 21 , 33 , 35 , 38 , 39 , 42 and 49 , showed highly significant homology to the mtdnas in various combinations of two or three monocotyledons , including wheat , suggesting their transfer occurred during divergence of the cereal species . our previous phylogenetic studies on the organellar genomes indicated that genetic distances between the organellar genomes of wheat , rice and maize were similar , suggesting that the phylogenetic divergence of their organellar genomes occurred at almost the same time . 31 ) as a result , i could not conclude with any certainty whether the observed ctdna transfer occurred in a common ancestor of the two to three cereal species or if it occurred independently in these species . transfer of eight mtdna segments , nos . 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 15 , 32 , 50 and 54 , undoubtedly occurred only once in the wheat lineage .
using the logic germane to supernumerary phylobiont inference , the findings in dataset s1 and figs . s2 and s3 would be interpreted as evidence that neither the mitochondrion nor the plastid arose via endosymbiosis ; rather , each would be the product of 43 and 124 independent gene transfers , respectively , from different donors , thus one at a time , to the eukaryotic ancestor and the archaeplastidan ancestor , but the transfers would have to be directed to some kind of preexisting compartment , not dissimilar to gray ' s premitochondrion , where rrna operons and trnas also became donated , enabling the result of such transfer to morph into a bioenergetic organelle , but only mimicking a bona fide endosymbiotic origin , the real mechanism being lgt : so say the single - gene trees . we say : that scenario cannot possibly be true . however , why can it not be true ? it cannot be true because exactly the same kinds of transfers—one at a time and from independent donors—for exactly the right kinds of genes to support the function of the bioenergetic membrane in mitochondria and the bioenergetic membrane in plastids ( in addition to the other biochemical and physiological functions of the organelles ) would have to be going on to the nucleus as well , the crux being that , until the whole organelle is assembled through such imaginary lgt , none of the transferred genes have a selectable function . without selection for function , they would all become pseudogenes , and no organelle would emerge at all . a free - living prokaryote brings along the complete and selectable functional unit , which can then be transferred a chunk at a time to the host , but from a continuously selected and replicating functional source . there is something very wrong with the supernumerary phylobiont stories , and the core of the problem is rooted in trees .
like eukaryotes , the origin of sex also counts as one of the major evolutionary transitions ( 1 ) and remains one of evolutionary biology’s toughest problems . existing theories seek the origin of sex in a haploid cell with fully fledged eukaryotic mitosis ( 104 ) , but it is more likely that mitosis and sex arose in a cell that had a mitochondrion ( 3 , 5 ) . during the prokaryote - to - eukaryote transition , eukaryotes seem to have lost the standard mechanisms that prokaryotes use to escape muller’s ratchet—transduction , transformation , and conjugation—because they are lacking in all eukaryotic groups . had eukaryotes retained one or all three of those mechanisms , it seems unlikely that they would have evolved sex on top of them , and , indeed , cells that never had mitochondria ( prokaryotes ) never evolved sex . the machinery involved in eukaryotic recombination was surely present at the time of mitochondrial symbiosis because the main enzymes involved are homologous to their prokaryotic counterparts : spo11 , mre11 , dmc1 , rad51 , mlh1 , and pms1 ( 105 , 106 ) . did a simple form of eukaryotic recombination , catalyzed by enzymes that are homologous to the enzymes of prokaryotic recombination , rescue nascent eukaryotes from muller’s ratchet ? the basic machinery required might have been a property of the host . it is a curiously underpublicized observation that various archaea can fuse their cells ( 55 , 107 ) and that , in some haloarchaea , fusion is accompanied by recombination ( 108 ) whereas , in others , only recombination is observed ( 109 ) . one needs to be careful not to ( over - ) state that “archaea have sex , ” but , in some rare documented examples , they do undergo outright cell fusion ( an otherwise curious property of gametes ) and , in some rarer cases , recombination and fusion are observed ( 108 ) .
1 center for biofilm engineering , montana state university , bozeman , mt 59717 , usa .
2 department of microbiology , university of iowa , iowa city , ia 52242 , usa .
science 21 may 1999 : vol . 284 , issue 5418 , pp . 1318 - 1322 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 284 . 5418 . 1318
center for biofilm engineering , montana state university , bozeman , mt 59717 , usa .
department of microbiology , university of iowa , iowa city , ia 52242 , usa .
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bacteria that attach to surfaces aggregate in a hydrated polymeric matrix of their own synthesis to form biofilms . formation of these sessile communities and their inherent resistance to antimicrobial agents are at the root of many persistent and chronic bacterial infections . studies of biofilms have revealed differentiated , structured groups of cells with community properties . recent advances in our understanding of the genetic and molecular basis of bacterial community behavior point to therapeutic targets that may provide a means for the control of biofilm infections .
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cyatta is a genus of ant in the subfamily myrmicinae containing the single species cyatta abscondita .

it is considered the most recent ancestor of all fungus-farming ants and a living fossil .

cyatta

richness of cyatta species ( countries with darker colours are more species - rich ) . for a list of species and subspecies see the checklist of cyatta species or for valid names only see cyatta species .
cyatta sosa - calvo , schultz , brandão et al . , 2013 : 4 . type - species : cyatta abscondita , by original designation .
the new species of fungus - growing ant from brazil has been named cyatta abscondita .
chamber with a fungus garden grown by cyatta abscondita . image credit : ted schultz / smithsonian .
expansion of the geographic range of cyatta abscondita sosa‑calvo et al . , 2013 ( hymenoptera : formicidae )
cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil .
cyatta abscondita is considered to be a ‘living fossil , ’ which can reveal ways in which early attini ants may have lived .
expansion of the geographic range of cyatta abscondita sosa‑calvo et al . , 2013 ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) | ramos | check list
new distribution records of the savanna specialist fungus - farming ant cyatta sosa - calvo et al . ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmicinae )
cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . - pubmed - ncbi
new distribution records of the savanna specialist fungus - farming ant cyatta sosa - calvo et al . ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmicinae )
an excavated cyatta fungus garden , showing the cultures suspended from a chamber ceiling . ( modified from sosa - calvo et al 2013 fig . 6 ) .
holotype worker ( usnment00758173 ) ( a , c , e ) and paratype gyne ( usnment00758174 ) ( b , d , f ) of cyatta abscondita .
taxonomic treatments database ( 2012 ) . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . checklist dataset
census records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your cyatta ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .
but cyatta is not just another trachymyrmex . this new ant occupies an unusual space in the attine tree . cyatta , along with its sister kalathomyrmex , doesn’t share recent ancestry with other attines , instead tracing its origin to near the origin of the whole tribe . as such , it will provide another perspective from which to triangulate our inferences of how ant agriculture developed .
cyatta abscondita was first recognized by jeffrey sosa - calvo and his colleagues as a single misidentified specimen in 2003 in the collections of the museum of zoology at the university of sao paulo in brazil .
census records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your cyatta ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .
the ghost ant , formally cyatta abscondita , is considered a living fossil , the most recent ancestor of all fungus farming ants , that researchers hope will unveil new clues about how early attine ants may have lived .
use census records and voter lists to see where families with the cyatta surname lived . within census records , you can often find information like name of household members , ages , birthplaces , residences , and occupations .
sosa - calvo j et al . 2013 . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 ; doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498
urltoken on the basis of the extreme amount of morphological divergence and the outcome of the divergence relationship explanations ( see below ) , we have chosen to describe cyatta like a new genus in place of to describe it as a variety within the genus kalathomyrmex discovery history .
the genus name , cyatta , is a neologism constructed in part from the brazilian tupi language word cy , meaning ‘sister , ’ and the name of the ant genus atta . the specific name , abscondita , means ‘hidden ant’ and refers to the exceedingly secretive nature of the new species .
an unusually short lifespan might indicate that your cyatta ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .
cyatta is a neologism constructed in part from the brazilian tupi language word cy , meaning
sister ,
referring to its status , along with the genus kalathomyrmex , as the sister clade to the remaining genera of the informal clade neoattini , to which the genus atta , the most conspicuous member of the neoattini , belongs .
ted schultz , curator of ants at the national museum of natural history , studies the nest and behavior of the newly discovered fungus - farming ant species , cyatta abscondita , in brazil . the new species is a ‘living fossil’ which can help scientists reveal the way in which the first fungus - farming ant may have lived .
( a , b ) fazenda agua limpa ( faz ) . ( a ) excavation of nest jsc100412 - 01 in dormitory garden area . ( b ) cerrado senso stricto , where colonies were found on the side of the road . ( c , d ) nest entrance of cyatta abscondita ( white arrows ) . ( c ) worker entering nest . ( d ) nest entrance of cyatta abscondita , consisting of an inconspicuous ~ 1mm diameter hole in the ground . ( e ) chamber with pendant fungus garden . ( f ) excavation of nest 4 ( jsc110920 - 01 ) . black bars indicate two chambers , the lower one 104 cm below the surface .
sosa - calvo j , schultz tr , brandão crf , klingenberg c , feitosa rm , et al . ( 2013 ) cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498
sosa - calvo j , schultz tr , brandão crf , klingenberg c , feitosa rm , et al . ( 2013 ) cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498
for example , cyatta gardens resemble those of kalathomyrmex and mycocepurus , strengthening our inference that simple suspended gardens were the form used by the ancestor of all neoattines . and the presence of larval anchor hairs employed in other genera to hang larvae along the sides of the nest chamber ( see clint penick’s research ) , suggests that brood - hanging may have been present in the early attines but was subsequently lost .
@ misc { sosa - calvo _ cyattaabscondita : , author = { jeffrey sosa - calvo and ted r . schultz and carlos r . f . br and christiana klingenberg and rodrigo m and christian rabeling and maurício bacci and cauê t . lopes and heraldo l . vasconcelos } , title = { cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil } , year = { } }
most notably , cyatta differs from all other attine genera and species by the following autapomorphies : ( i ) mandible of the worker and gyne with four teeth ; ( ii ) in ventral view , metapleura of the worker and gyne with two piniform processes between the mid and hind coxae , apparently absent in the male ; ( iii ) apical margin of the pygidium medially emarginate , v - shaped ; and ( iv ) forewing of the male with a closed discal cell .
sosa - calvo , j . , t . r . schultz , c . r . f . brandão , c . klingenberg , r . m . feitosa , c . rabeling , m . m . jr . bacci , c . t lopes and h . l . vasconcelos . 2013 . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498
the genus cyatta shares with other members of the neoattine clade : ( i ) the antennal scape of the male long , longer than the sum of the length of antennal funicular segments i–iii ; ( ii ) the first funicular segment ( pedicel ) of the antenna of the male longer than second funicular segment ; ( iii ) the petiole in workers somewhat sessile ; ( iv ) the lack of hypostomal teeth in workers and gynes ; and ( v ) the maxillary palp of the larva widely removed laterad from the galea .
this dataset contains the digitized treatments in plazi based on the original journal article jeffrey sosa - calvo , ted r . schultz , carlos r . f . brandao , christiana klingenberg , rodrigo m . feitosa , christian rabeling , mauricio bacci jr . , caue t . lopes , heraldo l . vasconcelos ( 2013 ) : cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : 1 - 20 , doi : doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498
sosa - calvo , j . , schultz , t . r . , brandão , c . r . f . , klingenberg , c . , feitosa , r . m . , rabeling , c . , bacci , m . jr . , lopes , c . t . , heraldo , l . vasconcelos , h . l . 2013 . cyatta abscondita : taxonomy , evolution , and natural history of a new fungus - farming ant genus from brazil . plos one 8 ( 11 ) : e80498 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0080498 .
cyatta shares with its sister genus , kalathomyrmex , ( i ) the lack of a tubercle or spine on the inferior lateral margin of the pronotum , a symplesiomorphy shared with the paleoattine clade ; ( ii ) the clypeus with a pair of lateral transverse carinae , each extending from the frontal lobe to the mandibular insertion and each medially developed into a lamella perpendicular to the clypeal face , thus forming a wall that divides the clypeus laterally into anterior and posterior areas ; and ( iii ) the mandibles of the male with three teeth , of which the apical and preapical teeth are the largest and have a multidentate ( sawlike ) margin .
cyatta differs from its sister genus kalathomyrmex , however , by ( i ) having , on the forewing of the male ( forewing of gyne unknown ) , a closed marginal cell ( open in the forewings of both the male and gyne of kalathomyrmex [ klingenberg and brandão , therein as radial cell ] ) ; ( ii ) the mesoscutum of the male with strongly impressed notauli ( absent in the male of kalathomyrmex ) ; ( iii ) the pronotum of the male with lateral pronotal tubercles present , pyramidal ( the pronotum in the male of kalathomyrmex lacks any tubercles ) ; and ( iv ) the psammophore absent in the worker , the gyne , and the male .
the ghost ant , a new genus and species described in the journal plos one reveals clues about one of the world ' s earliest agricultural specialists .
scientists know of more than 240 ants in the group attine that evolved more than 50 million years ago , capable of growing elaborate fungal gardens as a source of food within nests for their colonies .
the c . abscondita was first recognized in 2003 , when researchers working with a museum species collection in sao paulo , brazil realized it was a misidentified species . based on where this misidentified species was located , the researchers traced it back to two biomes : caatinga , an under explored desert - like region populated widely by small thorny vegetation , and cerrado , a tropical savanna region known among experts as a biodiversity hotspot .
it took years of work and numerous large holes for the researchers to confirm the ghost ant was indeed a new species . the work to identify the ants by their intricate nests required the researchers to dig holes as deep as two meters in the ground .
the ghost ants grow fungus gardens on the walls of chambers in their nest . while the fungus may not require the ants to survive , it ' s clear the ants depend on the fungus for their own survival .
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gyne . preocular carina absent . mandible 4 - toothed , apical tooth nearly twice as long as preapical tooth . parapsidal lines inconspicuous .
male . mandibles broadly triangular with apical and subapical teeth present . anterior margin of clypeus ( clypeal apron ) convex , projecting over mandibles , and with a long median seta . discal cell present in forewing .
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an international group of entomologists has described a new genus and species of fungus - farming ant from brazil .
fungus - growing ants ( tribe attini ) make up a group of more than 240 species . they evolved more than 50 million years ago , growing elaborate fungal gardens as a source of food within nests for their colonies .
these ants are nocturnal and forage for organic debris to grow their fungus gardens , which hang in curtain - like columns from the ceilings of their hidden underground chambers .
the fungi that the attini ants cultivate are probably not completely dependent upon their ant partners to survive and reproduce ; they may be capable of surviving independently . the ants , however , are obligatorily dependent on the fungi for their survival .
while theories about the origin of attini ants’ relationships with fungi remain a topic of debate , entomologists generally support the hypothesis that ants first began to interact with fungi by sharing overlapping habitats .
based on where the specimens had been collected , the entomologists traced the location of the species to two separate , highly threatened , biomes in brazil : caatinga , an underexplored desert - like region populated widely by small thorny vegetation , and cerrado , a tropical savanna region known among experts as a biodiversity hotspot .
“after discovering such an informative species in caatinga and cerrado , we are very excited to return to these regions to learn more about this fascinating group of ants , ” said study second author dr ted schultz of smithsonian’s national museum of natural history .
“with the majority of the world’s invertebrates still waiting to be identified , the age of discovery is only just beginning . ”
“brazil is a key steward in understanding our planet’s incredible natural history and biodiversity , and it plays a vital role in making findings like this possible , ” dr schultz concluded .
juvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows
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this page was last modified on 20 january 2014 , at 06 : 27 .
sosa - calvo , schultz , brandão , klingenberg , feitosa , rabeling , bacci , lopes & vasconcelos 2013 . yes , that’s the full name . modified from sosa calvo et al 2013 figure 1 .
figure 7 from sosa - calvo et al 2013 . this phylogeny is based on 4 nuclear protein - coding genes .
one final gripe - because i always have a gripe - is that all authors of the paper are also listed as authors of the genus and species . this makes the formal name for the new ant an impressive :
this moniker will be a handful for people who handle taxonomic databases , or for taxonomists who will need to write about this ant . i doubt all authors contributed equally to the written description embedded in the paper ; surely a separate , smaller authorship for the description would have made for a less cumbersome name .
in that vein , does anyone know if there is a longer authorship for any animal species ? this is the largest i’ve seen .
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by jeffrey sosa - calvo , ted r . schultz , carlos r . f . br , christiana klingenberg , rodrigo m , christian rabeling , maurício bacci , cauê t . lopes , heraldo l . vasconcelos
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a monotypic genus closely allied with the attine genus kalathomyrmex . the single known species is a fungus growing ant .
species richness by country based on regional taxon lists ( countries with darker colours are more species - rich ) . view data
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .
preocular carina absent . mandible 4 - toothed , apical tooth nearly twice as long as preapical tooth . parapsidal lines inconspicuous .
mandibles broadly triangular with apical and subapical teeth present . anterior margin of clypeus ( clypeal apron ) convex , projecting over mandibles , and with a long median seta . discal cell present in forewing .
this page was last modified on 26 june 2017 , at 18 : 40 .
a couple weeks ago a media guy from our college of natural sciences , thomas swafford , stopped in to shoot a short piece promoting the insect collection . have a look !
i have never been more pleased to report a taxonomic name change than this one . long called “ tetramorium caespitum” , then “ tetramorium species e” once it became clear the eurasian t . caespitum was a complex of cryptic forms , the pavement ant has spread across the world and is now among most common urban ants in north america . after decades of confusion , herbert wagner has published a fine monograph on the taxonomy of the species complex . among wagner’s many discoveries was that santschi’s 1927 “ immigrans” was valid for this world - traveller . an apt change , and a fine resolution of a long - standing problem .
wagner , h . c . et al ( 2017 ) . light at the end of the tunnel : integrative taxonomy delimits cryptic species in the tetramorium caespitum complex ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) ” . myrmecological news 25 : 95 - 129
concluding , among many results , that a slate of socially parasitic genera had evolved from within their host genera . the names of parasitic genera were subsequently sunk . inclusion of derived groups in their parent genera has been standard practice for decades as a way to keep names consistent with ancestry .
we contend that banning all paraphyletic groups while simultaneously executing binominal linnaean nomenclature results in a taxonomy going off the rails .
still , given the volumes of vituperative ink spilled a half - century ago in the cladism wars , and the weight of the pro - monophyly consensus among all biologists , i suspect this renegade group of ant scientists will be fighting an uphill battle .
disclosure : i eclosed as a myrmecologist from phil ward’s lab , so of course i am not without my allegiances .
sources : seifert , b . et al 2016 . banning paraphylies and executing linnaean taxonomy is discordant and reduces the evolutionary and semantic information content of biological nomenclature . insectes sociaux doi : 10 . 1007 / s00040 - 016 - 0467 - 1
ward , p . s . et al 2015 . the evolution of myrmicine ants : phylogeny and biogeography of a hyperdiverse ant clade ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . systematic entomology , 40 : 61–81 . doi : 10 . 1111 / syen . 12090
, an australian myrmicine . the narrow , two - segmented waist is characteristic of this subfamily .
we’re only halfway through the year , but already 2014 will be remembered as pivotal for studies of ant evolution and classification . following right on the heels of schmidt & shattuck’s massive ponerine revision comes
from the ant tree of life group . ward , brady , fisher , and schultz ( 2014 ) have reconstructed the first thorough genus - level phylogeny of the great ant subfamily myrmicinae .
roughly half of all ants are myrmicines , both in abundance and in species diversity . their numbers include fire ants , harvester ants , leafcutter ants , big - headed ants , acrobat ants , and so on , to the tune of some 6 , 000 + species .
so… boom ! suddenly , we’ve been given a detailed picture of the evolution of half the ants . this is big . it is so big i cannot cover the paper in detail . instead , i’ll just give a few preliminary thoughts , as follows :
the myrmicine big picture . ( sharpie on office paper , 2014 , limited edition print available , unless i recycle it ) .
distressingly , fuzzy resolution in a data set with this many markers and taxa means achieving proper resolution , if at all , will likely be expensive . myrmicines may have speciated so explosively that we may never be able to reconstruct what happened with confidence .
4 . the authors correct a few of the more obvious instances of paraphyly . notably , the new world “
most of the identified problems - such as what to do with monomorium and aphaenogaster – were left for targeted future research .
5 . remember the dispute over pyramica vs . strumigenys ? the argument was fundamentally over how ant mandibles evolve . apparently , high energy trap - jaws arise easier than anyone imagined . according to ward et al , not only is the assemblage of trap - jaw ants formerly included in dacetini a polyphyletic splatter , even within the genus strumigenys the trap jaw has arisen at least twice .
, modified from figure 1 in ward et al 2014 , showing strong support for the parallel evolution of trap - jaws in the genus .
of the neotropics , sitting on a distant branch of the ant tree . peas in a poneromorph pod…
ultimately , ward et al have crafted a sobering view of how little we still know about ant evolution , and how much remains to be done .
. systematic entomology , online early . doi : 10 . 1111 / syen . 12090
disclosure : i received my ph . d . from phil ward’s lab where much of this study was completed , and i contributed a few of the samples , but i was long gone by the time the study was initiated and have had no other involvement with the research .
a monumental day for ant taxonomy ! the mythical schmidt & shattuck ponerine revision , long rumored to be in the works , has emerged from the mists of legend and lore . it’s real ! all 242 pages are in
you might think such large changes would invite controversy , but i anticipate that the new scheme will be widely accepted and largely stable .
in the big picture , schmidt & shattuck have put this important group of ants on a stronger taxonomic foundation . in the small picture , we are faced with the mundane realities of re - memorization .
pachyondyla apicalis ? no longer . get used to neoponera apicalis . pachycondyla stigma ? nope . it’s pseudoponera stigma . plus , there’s brachyponera , pseudoneoponera , mesoponera…
source : schmidt , ca , shattuck , so ( 2014 ) the higher classification of the ant subfamily ponerinae ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , with a review of ponerine ecology and behavior . zootaxa 3817 ( 1 ) : 001–242 .
urban ant collectors across temperate north america are undoubtedly familiar with the pavement ant tetramorium caespitum * . this small brown insect is as common as dirt along sidewalks .
the pavement ant is not native here . rather , it is a european species that proliferates in the novel habitats where americans added cement and paving stone to previously uncapped , pavement - free soils . since we love our sidewalks and our asphalt , we have created a lot of ant habitat and a lot of pavement ants .
this diagnosis failed in the 1980s when an extremely similar species was introduced to st . louis . the newcomer , the japanese pavement ant
. on average , the new introduction is slightly smaller and with slightly larger propodeal spines . your chances of nailing the id based on a single worker aren’t great .
there is one easy identification trick that works pretty well at low magnification in the field , though . the trick is worth learning , because tetramorium tsushimae appears to be more aggressively invasive than the common pavement ant and may become more common as it spreads from missouri and illinois .
colonies of the japanese pavement ant usually host a great deal more color variation in the workers .
while older t . tsushimae are uniformly dark , the same as their european counterparts , younger workers are strongly bicolored , with a light thorax , giving colonies a more varied appearance . this difference should be visible in the photograph above .
now that you can spot the difference , keep an eye out for t . tsushimae . it could show up many places where t . caespitum is currently king .
* sometimes called “ tetramorium sp . e . ” , for reasons too lengthy to discuss here .
source : steiner , florian m . , birgit c . schlick - steiner , james c . trager , karl moder , matthias sanetra , erhard christian , and christian stauffer . 2006 . tetramorium tsushimae , a new invasive ant in north america . biological invasions 8 ( 2 ) : 117 - 123 .
this book is not a book . it’s an unpublished student thesis from the university of texas at el paso .
apparently bibliogov , a publishing company that scrapes state websites and repackages content to sell to unsuspecting buyers , has picked up the deposited thesis and is printing it on demand . the research was not completed to the point of submission to a peer - reviewed journal , and neither the student nor her adviser intended to publish the work . at least , not in the current form . the thesis was merely filed as a requirement for the student to graduate .
this sort of robo - publishing would not normally be a problem but for the legalistic nature of how taxonomic names are regulated . publishing is a formal act that makes taxonomic names available . third party printing potentially legitimizes taxonomic proposals never intended for release . not good . taxonomy already has enough chaos without robots jumping the gun .
should the practice of scraping and publishing theses become common , either the international commission on zoological nomenclature will have to adopt a set of rules suppressing involuntary publication , or students of taxonomy should be uniquely exempt from filing dissertations with unpublished results .
[ update : to clarify , these robo - books don’t automatically make a name available under iczn rules . a couple other conditions about the timing and deposition of the content must be met that may or may not be the case . ]
if you’re going to fail at taxonomy , you may as well fail big .
snelling , borowiec , and prebus 2014 from jasper ridge biological reserve , california , usa .
with the humous assistance of matt prebus and marek borowiec . the paper provides an illustrated key to species , range maps , and descriptions of ten new taxa . among the newbies is
that nests in trees” . at last ! a real name . the etymology of this entomology is given as :
when hernán cortéz was conquering central mexico , the nahua speaking people related to him tales of a fabulous land , ruled by women , far to the northwest that was rich in gold and gems . they named this land “caguatán” , the land of women . this tale presumably inspired cortéz and other avaricious conquistadors to search for this marvelous land , ultimately leading the spaniards to the californias .
if you’ve ever wondered why no single easy reference book exists for identifying north america’s ants , this is the reason . the state of taxonomy remains more rudimentary than you’d think , with many species still nameless or poorly understood . a few dozen more studies like roy’s and someone will finally be able to give our ants a decent guide .
source : snelling r , borowiec m , prebus m ( 2014 ) studies on california ants : a review of the genus temnothorax ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . zookeys 372 : 27 - 89 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 372 . 6039
the most infamous ant in the world is surely the tropical american bullet ant , paraponera clavata . this conspicuous insect is known for an unusually painful sting . it is not the only big rainforest ant , however , and other species are frequently mistaken for it .
here is how to make sure that big ant you saw was really a bullet ant .
1 . check your location : in the wild , bullet ants are only found in low - elevation forests from honduras south to paraguay . if you are not in central or south america , you don’t have a bullet ant . ( source )
2 . check the size : bullet ants are not just large , they are massive – over an inch long . they look like plastic toy ants brought to life .
3 . check for the characteristic thoracic horns . bullet ants have a pair of blunt horns on the first segment of the thorax . no other ant its size has the horns .
4 . check the shape of the petiolar node . the waist of the bullet ant has a sharp , forward - leaning triangular node .
south america ? check . massive ? check . horns ? check . forward - pointing waist segment ? check .
is an ubiquitous big rainforest ant with a shape confusingly similar to that of the bullet ant . but
is too small , as are the horns , and the waist segment is the wrong shape .
is common and also packs a painful sting , but this large species is not big enough to be a bullet ant and it lacks the horns .
leafcutter ant soldiers are big and even have the thoracic horns , but they aren’t big enough , they lack the right waist shape , and are their overall body proportions are different .
black turtle ants are common and conspicuous , but they are much smaller than bullet ants and have sharp spines rather than blunt horns .
is not quite big enough , its horns are more forward on the thorax , and it doesn’t have the right waist shape .
with any luck , you should now be able to check the identification of your purported bullet ant without having to run a sting test .
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“through our dna analysis , we learned that the new species is very closely related to the first ant ancestor that began growing fungal gardens , ” said sosa - calvo . “given this relationship , we can infer that some of c . abscondita ’s unique physical and behavioral characteristics hint at what the first agricultural ants and their predecessors looked and acted like . ”
the discovery of the new species entailed a multiyear excavation of intricate nests , delving down to a maximum of two meters beneath the surface . these nests were made up of a network of fragile tunnels and chambers that could be less than a millimeter in diameter .
ghost ants are nocturnal and forage for organic debris to grow their fungus gardens , which hang in curtain - like columns from the ceilings of their hidden underground chambers . the fungi that the ghost ants cultivate are probably not completely dependent upon their ant partners to survive and reproduce ; they may be capable of surviving independently . the ants , however , are obligatorily dependent on the fungi for their survival .
while theories about the origin of attine ants’ relationships with fungi remain a topic of debate , scientists generally support the hypothesis that ants first began to interact with fungi by sharing overlapping habitats . over the course of millions of years , this coincidental overlap between the two species developed into a tentative partnership ; a relationship in which the fungi and the ants could both survive and reproduce without closely interacting with each other . since its origin 50 million years ago , this relationship between fungi and ants has become obligatory in many attine species : neither the fungal species nor the ant species in the relationship can live without the other . this complex process of one organism evolving in concert with another is called coevolution .
understanding how attine ants developed their agricultural relationship with fungi could be extrapolated to improve human farming activities , including sustainable agriculture efforts and crop disease or pest management .
the publication is the result of an international collaboration amongst research institutions based in the u . s . , brazil and germany .
what did the t . rex say when challenged to an arm - wrestling contest ?
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we moved to illinois from tucson in 2008 . the naturalist in me cringed at the relocation . tucson is surrounded by rich natural deserts , national parks , and state forests . champaign - urbana is buried in a monotony of industrial corn / soy production . illinois nature was more than 90 % plowed under years ago and hasn’t returned .
yet the midwest has its buggy bright points . what’s left of the local ant fauna remains mostly native and hosts an array of fascinating social parasites . the famous 13 - year periodical cicadas emerged again in 2011 . and the fireflies ! the common eastern firefly photinus pyralis launches a tremendous show in june and july . western fireflies for the most part don’t glow as adults . i missed them when i live in arizona .
i’d been telling mrs . myrmecos every year since the move , “this is the summer i finally shoot the fireflies ! ” and then , for various reasons , i fail to follow through . for a specialized insect photographer to not have photographs of the most spectacular local insect phenomenon was getting ridiculous .
my schedule this past summer finally conspired to allow plenty of evening firefly time , though , so i went at them with a vengeance . if you haven’t seen the results , i’ve uploaded them here :
learning to shoot fireflies on the wing wasn’t easy , but i can distill the strategy down to one key point : spend a few evenings watching the animals behave . each species has a particular courtship pattern , this pattern is predictable , and if you learn it you’re much more likely to know where to put the camera and when to time the shot . photinus pyralis males have a six - second cycle : swoop upward while lit , hover for a couple seconds to watch for a female return signal , the fly forward a few feet to begin the next run .
after some practice hand - holding a pre - focused camera rig and flash , i was able to not only get a flying firefly in focus , i was able to plan for particular backdrops . the photograph above shows a male at the height of his ascent , watching for females .
if you’d like a print , this photograph is one of 30 i’ve included in the holiday print sale , running until january 1 .
canon ef 50mm f / 1 . 4 usm & 12mm extension tube on a canon eos 6d
the next series of posts - behind the photo – will feature the stories behind images i’ve included in this year’s print sale . first up : the brutish male dung beetles in this 2009 creation .
these insects were given to me by biologist emilie snell - rood , who at the time was working in armin’s moczek’s evo - devo lab , with the hope that i might photograph live animals of different shapes and sizes for use in moczek lab papers , web pages , and talks . live photos make compelling stories , after all , and onthopagus taurus has an especially interesting one . it’s about how new body parts evolve .
males of this species employ varying strategies to reach females . the larger ones sport horns and fight over mates , while the smaller hornless ones bear a striking enough resemblance to females to slip past their rivals unrecognized as males . since beetles that are otherwise genetically identical either sprout horns as they develop or don’t , they’ve become a fantastic model for questions about why and how new structures form . biologists can watch the horns grow , or not grow , all within a single sex of a single species . they can also examine the process in related beetles , and make comparisons that allow inferences about how ecology interacts with genomes to produce new horns . if you’re intrigued , you can catch up with the research
my photograph of the dueling male beetles is not a natural scene , of course . wild beetles fight in underground tunnels , face - to - face , not in the gleaming open air of a photography studio , so this scene is less documentation of real world behavior that a stylized illustration of male variation .
the challenge of taking this photograph was two - fold . first , dung beetles are shiny . to capture the subtleties of texture on such a reflective animal , i needed extremely soft lighting . so i fired an upward - facing flash off in a white box . a white box is what it sounds like - a box that’s all white on the inside . the box i used for the above photo is pictured at left , an old toilet paper box with printer paper taped to the inside .
the second challenge was the hyperactivity of the beetles themselves . getting two feisty insects to perform for a well - composed shot took a long time and a lot of attempts . here is a sample of mostly throwaways from the session :
if you’d like to purchase a print , the dueling beetles photograph is one of 30 i’ve included in the holiday print sale , running until january 1 . i have reprocessed the image up from the original raw file just for this event .
canon 100mm f / 2 . 8 macro lens on a canon eos 20d .
velvet ant ; 12×18″ print on a 3 / 4″ standout mount . sale price $ 15 . 99 / $ 42 . 99 unmounted / mounted . ( regular $ 60 / $ 120 )
i am pleased to announce the return of the holiday print sale ! this year’s selection features 30 favorite photographs reduced up to 70 % off regular pricing . have a look :
using high - quality papers and archival photo inks . these are not simple posters ! bay photo will also custom mount , mat & frame images if you choose “add frames & more” when you check out .
why the sale ? i know a portion of my photos go to biology students looking for something buggy to hang on their walls , and to parents of budding young entomologists , and these folks are not in the demographic that typically plays in the fine art market . so i’ve assembled an affordable gallery of some of my best known and biologically informative natural history images priced near cost . an 8×12″ print , for example , is just $ 9 . 99 . i hope you enjoy them !