gastropteridae is a family of sea slugs , gastropod mollusks in the superfamily philinoidea of the clade cephalaspidea , the headshield slugs and bubble snails .

gastropteridae

anatomy and histology of a new species of enotepteron ( cephalaspidea : gastropteridae ) from tropical northeastern australia .
köhler , e . ( 2016 ) , published 24 june 2016 , gastropteridae sp . 01 family : swainson , 1840
it was posted on 16 april 2004 at these websites as gastropteridae sp . a family : swainson , 184 , changed on 28 august 2011 into
gastropteridae sp . 01 is characterized by it ' s orange colour without any ornaments , and by its orange posterior funnel , in some specimens dark orange .
dear bill , the attached pictures were found and taken by hisako yamada . this is certainly gastropteridae , we think . but we can ' t determine further identification . can you please help us ?
gosliner t . m . ( 1989 ) revision of the gastropteridae ( opisthobranchia : cephalaspidea ) with descriptions of a new genus and six new species . the veliger 32 ( 4 ) : 333 - 381 . [ details ]
bayesian and ml phylogram of relationships of gastropteridae . bootstrap values and posterior probabilities are shown at each node when they are < 0 . 95 or 70 , respectively . all other values indicated with an asterisk ( * ) are highly supported .
phylogenetic relationships within gastropteridae have been studied based on anatomy ( gosliner , 1989 ) and molecular data ( anthes , schulenburg & michiels , 2008 ) , and the systematics relationships of these two studies are largely congruent . most recently , oskars , bouchet & malaquias ( 2015 ) revised the phylogeny and systematics of the cephalaspidean heterobranchs and reaffirmed the apparent monophyly of gastropteridae and suggested its sister relationship with colpodaspidae oskars , bouchet & malaquias , 2015 , another lineage of cephalaspideans with a reduced internal shell .
this study also sheds light on the nature of genetic variation in widely separated populations of gastropteridae . in comparing , populations that are geographically separated , there are wide differences in the amount of genetic divergence based on differences in the coi ( table 3 ) .
dear haruo , yes this is a species of the gastropteridae and i think it is probably a species of gastropteron . however i don ' t recognise it and think it may be an unnamed species . perhaps someone will recognise it . best wishes , bill rudman
the family gastropteridae includes small diurnal species that may or may not have an internal shell . most species have greatly enlarged parapodia that may be used for swimming . they are probably carnivores but little is known about their diet . at least eight species are known from hawaii in four genera (
ty - jour ti - revision of the gastropteridae ( opisthobranchia , cephalaspidea ) with descriptions of a new genus and 6 new species t2 - the veliger . vl - 32 ur - urltoken pb - california malacozoological society . cy - berkeley , ca : py - 1989 sp - 333 ep - 381 sn - 0042 - 3211 au - gosliner , tm er -
@ article { bhlpart96921 , title = { revision of the gastropteridae ( opisthobranchia , cephalaspidea ) with descriptions of a new genus and 6 new species } , journal = { the veliger . } , volume = { 32 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { berkeley , ca : california malacozoological society . 1958 - } , author = { gosliner , tm } , year = { 1989 } , pages = { 333 - - 381 } , }
both ndna ( 28s ) and mtdna [ 16s and cytochrome c oxidase i ( coi ) ] fragments were utilized to estimate gastropteridae phylogeny . these molecular markers have been shown to be effective gene markers to infer heterobranch phylogenetic relationships ( dinapoli & klussmann - kolb , 2010 ; göbbeler & klussmann - kolb , 2010 ; pola & gosliner ; 2010 ; camacho - garcía et al . , 2014 ; hallas & gosliner , 2015 ; hallas , simison & gosliner , 2016 ) . the dna was extracted from tissue removed from either the parapodia or foot of the specimen .
in all three individual gene trees and both concatenated analyses , gastropteridae is monophyletic . gastropteron and siphopteron are not supported in either analysis , while sagaminopteron is strongly supported ( bs = 88 , pp = 1 . 00 ) . the two clades of gastropteron are strongly supported ( rubrum clade : bs = 78 , pp = 1 . 00 ; bicornutum clade : bs = 97 , pp = 1 . 00 ) as are the three clades of s . tigrinum clade ( clade 1 ) : bs = 97 , pp = 1 . 00 ; quadrispinosum clade ( clade 3 ) : bs = 89 , pp = 1 . 00 ; and the sp . cas 181575 clade ( clade 2 ) .
the topologies of individual gene trees for coi , 16s and 28s consistently show the monophyly of gastropteridae and the major clades within the family . the aligned concatenated dataset was 1839 base pairs in length . this included 750 bp for 28s , 657 bp for coi and 432 bp for 16s ( including gaps and variable regions ) . raxml and bayesian analyses have nearly identical topologies . tracer files showed that bi searchers all converged on the same likelihood score . for comparison purposes , the combined gene bayesian tree is shown with their respective non - parametric bootstrap ( bs ) and posterior probability ( pp ) values from ml and bi ( fig . 23 ) . the only difference between the two trees is that there are three lineages of s . psychedelicum in the bayesian tree and two in the raxml tree .
evolutionary models for the targeted molecular markers were estimated using partitionfinder v1 . 1 . 1 ( lanfear et al . , 2012 ) ( table 2 ) . a concatenated alignment of all three molecular markers was used to estimate gastropteridae evolutionary relationships using both bayesian inference ( bi ) and maximum likelihood ( ml ) approaches . bi searches were run using mrbayes v3 . 2 . 1 ( ronquist & huelsenbeck , 2003 ) for a total of 2 × 10 7 generations with markov chains sampled every 1000 generations with parameters unlinked . a conservative 25 % burn - in was calculated , and the remaining trees were used to estimate the 50 % majority rule consensus tree and corresponding posterior probabilities ( pp ) . convergence and stationarity of bi searches were checked using tracer v1 . 5 ( drummond & rambaut , 2007 ) . ml search was run using raxml v7 . 2 . 6 ( stamatakis , 2006 ) with the evolution model gtr - gamma . ml dataset was set for 50 000 fast bootstrapping runs . support values for ml bootstrap ( bs ) ≥ 70 ( hillis & bull , 1993 ) and bayesian pp ≥ 0 . 95 were interpreted as significant .
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bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]
oskars t . r . , bouchet p . & malaquias m . a . ( 2015 ) . a new phylogeny of the cephalaspidea ( gastropoda : heterobranchia ) based on expanded taxon sampling and gene markers . molecular phylogenetics and evolution . 89 : 130 - 150 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of gasteropteridae ) costello , m . j . ; emblow , c . ; white , r . ( ed . ) . ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 . muséum national d ' histoire naturelle : paris , france . isbn 2 - 85653 - 538 - 0 . 463 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of gasteropteridae ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]
to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to genbank to image gallery of natural history museum rotterdam to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) to itis
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genus : enotepteron y . s . minichev , 1967 ( db : 5 sp , 0 img )
genus : gastropteron j . f . meckel in kosse , 1813 ( syn : gasteroptera , gasteropterum , gastroptera , gastropterum , parthenopia , sarcopterus , gasteropteron - db : 14 sp , 5 img )
genus : sagaminopteron t . tokioka & k . baba , 1964 ( db : 5 sp , 3 img )
enotepteron minichev , yu . s . , 196 type species : enotepteron flavum minichev , yu . s . , 1967
gastropteron meckel , j . f . in kosse , 1813 type species : unknowngenustype
sagaminopteron tokioka , t . & k . baba , 1964 type species : unknowngenustype
turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .
common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .
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the anatomy and histology of a new species of gastropterid cephalaspidean , enotepteron heikeae , sp . nov . , from tropical australia is described . enotepteron is the least documented of the gastropterid genera with only two previously recorded species , from yellow sea ( north pacific ) and the seychelles ( indian ocean ) . the unique features of e . heikeae , within the genus , are the long thin tail ( posterior end of the foot ) , cuticular penial armature , and a bilobed prostate . the investigation also reveals the presence of a very large anal gland . this gland maybe a useful taxonomic region , and its discovery considerably broadens the previously known geographical occurrence of the genus . documentation and investigation of this species improves our knowledge of the morphological variation across the genus , and allows reassessment of the generic features to show that the presence of spheres to the posterior edge of the parapodia may be the only unifying character .
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was originally described from guam , mariana islands . the species has since been found in many other areas of the western pacific as well as the indian ocean . adult animals average about 9mm in length though specimens up to 16mm have been found .
. the animals are difficult to see on their sponge host since their color and texture match that of the sponge .
with egg masses from palau . it was collected 24 sept ' 96 at a depth of 13m ; ' wonder channel ' , palau . the host sponge in this case is
can be found in a paper by dr . terry gosliner ( 1989 ) in the
veliger .
. the vast majority of the almost thirty species in the family are found in the indo - pacific tropics . most species are small , less than an inch in length . they are unusual for cephalaspideans in that the
is reduced to a flat , internal plate , found under the skin in the hind end of the animal , or is entirely absent in adults . most species are able to swim by flapping their parapodia and
flying
through the water .
( the genus is named for sagami bay , japan , where emperor hirohito collected so many opisthobranchs that have been studied by kikutaro baba ) are all found on sponges , upon which they feed . the feeding biology of other members of the family is virtually unknown .
this translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .
a new gastropterid species , enotepteron hayashii , collected from the sea of japan , is described herein . enotepteron is a small genus characterized externally by a small globular protuberance ( sphere ) on the posterior edge of both parapodia . e . hayashii differs from the previously known species by the presence of a small knob - like spur on the median line of the posterodorsal end of the mantle shield . this paper represents the first record of this genus from japan .
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the overwhelming majority of species are found in the indo - pacific tropics or in adjacent temperate regions ( gosliner et al . , 2008 ) . while this is a typical pattern of diversity , the extent of distribution of many of these tropical species is poorly understood and there appear to be many undescribed species inhabiting this largest portion of the world’s oceans .
two different extraction methods were utilized , depending on the amount of tissue able to be sampled . for large amounts of tissue , we used the standard qiagen dneasy blood & tissue extraction kit ( valencia , ca , usa ) protocol , and for instances where only small amounts of tissue was sampled , we used the qiagen gentra puregene tissue kit ( valencia , ca , usa ) 5–10 mg protocol .
each polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) was conducted in 25 µl reactions . reactions consisted of 2 . 5 µl of 10× usb buffer , 1 . 25 µl of mgcl 2 ( 25 mm ) , 1 µl of each primer ( 10 µm stock ) , 1 µl of bsa ( 10 mg / ml ) , 0 . 5 µl of dntps ( 10 mm ) , 5 µl of betaine ( 5 m ) , 1 µl of dmso , 1 µl of hotstart - it taq polymerase ( 1 . 25 u / µl ) , 1–4 µl of template dna and then filled to volume with millipore water . primers used for sequencing are all listed in table 2 . pcr cycling conditions for coi and 16s fragments are as follows : initial denaturing for 2 min at 94 °c , followed by 35 cycles of denaturing for 30 s at 94 °c , annealing for 30 s at 50 °c and extension for 45 s at 72°c and a final extension period of 10 min at 72 °c . the coi annealing temperature was relaxed to 48 °c for the naf / narcoi primers . pcr protocol for 28s was initially denatured for 3 min at 94 °c , followed by 35 cycles of denaturing for 30 s at 94 °c , annealing for 30 s at 52 . 5 °c and extension for 2 min at 72 °c and a final extension period of 10 min at 72 °c . all pcr reactions were stained with ethidium bromide and run on 0 . 5 % tris / borate / edta agarose gel using electrophoresis . successfully amplified fragments were purified using exosap - it enzymes and protocol ( usb ) , and unsuccessful amplified reactions were excised using the zymoclean gel dna recovery protocol .
purified pcr product was cycle sequenced using fluorescently labelled dideoxynucleotides ( ddntps ) ( big dye terminator v3 . 1 , applied biosystems ) . cycle sequencing reactions were performed in 10 µl volumes . all regular cycle sequencing reactions had the same protocol for all primers ; each reaction used 2 µl of pcr product and the following reaction components : 5 . 45 µl of millipore water , 1 . 5 µl of 5× big dye buffer , 0 . 3 µl of primer ( 10 µm ) , 0 . 75 µl of big dye 3 . 1 . for those samples that required gel excision or had low pcr amplifications , we used modified cycle sequencing protocols that were performed in 20 µl volumes . each reaction used 3 µl of pcr product and the following reaction components : 9 . 4 µl of millipore water , 3 µl of 5× big dye buffer , 0 . 6 µl of primer ( 10 µm ) , 4 µl of big dye 3 . 1 and followed the step protocol ( platt , woodhall & george , 2007 ) .
fluorescently labelled sequences were precipitated using 2 . 5 µl of di - na edta ( 125 mm ) and cleaned with 30 µl of 100 % etoh then with 60 µl of 70 % etoh . the tubes were placed into a 65 °c incubator for 8 min to dry , then the dna pellets were re - suspended in 10 µl deionized formamide and denatured at 94–96 °c for 2 min . immediately afterwards , they were placed on an abi 3130 xl genetic analyser ( applied biosystems ) , located in the center for comparative genomics at the california academy of sciences .
successfully sequenced markers were assembled and edited using geneious 6 . 1 ( biomatters ltd . , 2005 ) . the sequences were aligned using the multiple alignment using fast fourier transform ( mafft ) algorithm ( katoh , asimenos & toh , 2009 ) with the settings set to default . following mafft alignment , variable regions of rdna fragments were manually optimized , and these alignments have been deposited in treebase ( urltoken ) . in sequences where confidence was low , ambiguities were deleted and not analysed . finally , all sequences were trimmed to the length of the outgroup .
species were delimited through an integrative approach with the use of congruence of single - gene topologies , automatic barcode gap discovery ( abgd ) ( puillandre et al . , 2012 ) . abgd uses genetic pairwise distances to identify breaks between intra - and interspecific variation , also referred to as the ‘barcode gap’ . coi genetic distance matrix was created using mega v6 . 06 ( tamura et al . , 2011 ) using the tamura nei model and uploaded to the abgd web - based interface ( available at urltoken ) . except for the relative gap width ( x ) , which was set to 1 , the remaining settings were left at their default configuration .
penial anatomy . ( a ) gastropteron minutum sp . nov . paratype , casiz 182731 . ( b ) gastropteron multo sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041181 , mabini , philippines , cs = cuticular spine , pp = penial papilla , pr = prostate , rm = retractor muscle . ( c ) sagaminopteron multimaculatum sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041182 , tingloy , philippines .
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gastropteron sp . 5 gosliner , valdés & behrens , 2015 : 56 , upper right fig .
holotype : casiz 209032 , originally casiz 182731 , honokowai beach park , maui , hawai’ian islands , 1–6 m depth , 11 april 2010 , cory pittman .
paratypes : casiz 182731 , two specimens , one dissected , honokowai beach park , maui , hawai’ian islands , 1–6 m depth , 11 april 2010 , cory pittman . casiz 199181 , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , maricaban island , tingloy , luzon , philippines , emerged from algae , 26 april 2014 , patrick krug .
known from japan ( rudman , 2002 ) , the hawai’ian islands , the marshall islands and the philippines ( gosliner et al . , 2015 ) .
the name minutum is derived from the extremely small size of this species , reaching a maximum of 3 mm in length .
living animal 2–3 mm in length ( fig . 1a , b ) . preserved holotype < 1 mm in length ( fig . 2a ) . ground colour of head shield , parapodia , visceral hump and flagellum almost colourless with opaque white and orange mottling speckling body . orange and off - white spots condensing around visceral hump to form low , rounded tubercles and covering parapodia . head shield and flagellum having fewer spots , almost clear . head shield narrow anteriorly , broadening out before again narrowing posteriorly . posteriorly , head shield forming a simple rolled siphon without medial crest . parapodia covering visceral hump when retracted . at posterior end of visceral hump , elongate , acutely pointed flagellum extending posteriorly . foot extending posteriorly , almost entire length of animal from head to end of visceral hump . at posterior end , foot narrowing into elongate , acutely pointed posterior tip . gill situated on right side of body and consisting of seven tiny lamellae .
living animals . ( a ) gastropteron minutum sp . nov . , partaype , casiz 199181 , tingloy , philippines . ( b ) gastropteron minutum sp . nov . , holotype , casiz 209032 , maui , hawai’ian islands , photo by cory pittman . ( c ) gastropteron multo sp . nov . , holotype nmp 041181 , mabini , philippines . ( d ) gastropteron multo sp . nov . , paratype , casiz 186048 , mabini , philippines . ( e ) sagaminopteron multimaculatum sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041182 , tingloy , philippines . ( f ) siphopteron vermiculum sp . nov . , paratype , casiz 199129 , tingloy , philippines . ( g ) siphopteron flavolineatum , holotype , nmp 041184 , tingloy , philippines . ( h ) siphopteron flavolineatum , paratype , casiz 199132 , tingloy , philippines . ( photos by t . gosliner unless otherwise indicated . )
gastropteron minutum sp . nov . paratype , casiz 182731 , maui , hawai’ian islands . ( a ) dorsal view of preserved specimen , scale = 1 . 25 mm . ( b ) buccal mass , scale = 0 . 75 mm . ( c ) posterior reproductive organs . a = ampulla , bc = bursa copulatrix , fgm = female gland mass , rs = receptaculum seminis ; scale = 0 . 5 mm . ( d ) penis . p = penis , pr = prostate ; scale = 0 . 75 mm .
thinly calcified , planispiral , tightly coiled , c . 300 µm in diameter ( fig . 3a ) . protoconch not clearly differentiated from remainder of shell .
gastropteron minutum sp . nov . paratype , casiz 182731 , scanning electron micrographs . ( a ) shell . ( b ) jaw rodlets . ( c ) half - row of radular teeth , triangular thickening indicated by arrow . ( d ) half - row of radular teeth .
buccal mass ( fig . 2b ) moderately muscularized , with series of circular muscles anteriorly and more complex musculature around radular sac . buccal mass containing labial cuticle with pair of minute areas with small irregular rodlets ( fig . 3b ) . radular formula 20 × 4 . 1 . 0 . 1 . 4 in one specimen ( casiz 182731 ) . inner lateral teeth broad with single primary cusp . masticatory margin of the inner laterals containing 13–14 acutely pointed denticles ( fig . 3c , d ) . triangular thickening present on inner edge of masticatory border of inner lateral teeth . innermost outer lateral tooth with moderately broad base and primary cusp without secondary denticles . successive outer laterals becoming progressively smaller , with narrower base ; all lacking denticles ( fig . 3c ) .
arrangement of ganglia euthyneurous , with short visceral loop . owing to small size of animal , details of arrangement of ganglia could not be determined in a single specimen dissected .
despite its small size , reproductive system is fully mature and well - developed ; female glands clearly visible ( fig . 2c ) . narrow ampulla extending into straighter hermaphroditic duct , curving around top of lobate mucous gland , and expanding into small receptaculum seminis before curving around female glands once more . opening of hermaphroditic duct into female glands not visible , but hermaphroditic duct joining relatively short bursa copulatrix near gonopore , leading to external sperm groove . sperm groove continuing on right side of the body to head , where penis is situated . penis simple with slightly curved prostate . penial papilla straight and devoid of penial armature ( figs 2d , 4a ) .
the external anatomy of g . minutum clearly differentiates this species from all described species of gastropteron . it is the only species with an off - white body colour with opaque white and orange spots . the presence of opaque white spots and rounded tubercles give the entire animal a granular rather than smooth appearance . most species of gastropteron have a smooth body without tubercles or granules . of the seven species of gastropteron known from the pacific ocean , none of them is known to have a single flagellum with an elongate extension of the foot . the only described species with an elongate foot is g . bicornutum baba & tokioka , 1965 . it has two flagella , one more dorsally situated on the visceral hump and one more ventrally situated . it has a smooth rather than rugose body and has black and yellow spots over the dorsal surface . internally , the inner lateral radular teeth have fewer denticles than g . minutum . both species have a simple penis with an elongate prostate . in our molecular phylogeny , g . minutum is sister to g . rubrum ( rafinesque , 1814 ) , known from the mediterranean and west africa , and is quite far removed from g . bicornutum .
lsid urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 025f1253 - a0d7 - 4d2a - b332 - ce30df011436
gastropteron sp . 3 gosliner et al . , 2015 : 55 , lower right fig .
holotype , dissected , nmp 041181 , originally casiz 199130 , mainit bubbles ( 13 . 68688°n 120 . 89564°e ) , mabini , batangas , luzon , philippines , 5 m depth , 3 may 2014 , alexis principe . paratype , casiz 186048 , one specimen , anilao pier ( 13 . 76001°n 120 . 92615°e ) , mabini , batangas , luzon , philippines , 5 m depth , 30 april 2011 , t . gosliner .
mainit bubbles ( 13 . 68688°n 120 . 89564°e ) , mabini , batangas , luzon , philippines .
thus far , known only from the philippines ( gosliner et al . 2015 ) .
the species epithet , multo , is derived from tagalog word for ghost , owing to the pale ghostly appearance of this species .
living animals ( fig . 1c , d ) 7–20 mm in length . colour clear to translucent white with fine orange , brown and white dots speckling body or with series of brownish and orange patches . opaque white digestive gland and ovotestis visible through visceral hump . head shield , parapodia , flagella and foot translucent whitish . small orange dots or brown patches covering body , concentrated on siphon and flagella . dorsal flagellum centred on midline of visceral hump . immediately ventral to this flagellum , second , slightly wider flagellar process , either longer or shorter than dorsal one ( fig . 5a ) . white spots outlining visceral hump and parapodia . head shield shaped roughly like cauldron . broadest anteriorly , narrowing and then broadening again posteriorly . head shield terminating in tubular , simple siphon , lacking mid - dorsal ridge . broad parapodia covering body when the animal is actively crawling . foot elongate with long , acutely pointed posterior extension . gill with nine primary folds .
gastropteron multo sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041181 , mabini , philippines . ( a ) dorsal view of preserved specimen , p = penis ; scale = 4 mm . ( b ) shell ; scale = 0 . 75 mm . ( c ) central nervous system , c = cerebral ganglion , pe = pedal ganglion . pl = pleural ganglion , sb = subintestinal ganglion , su = supraintestinal ganglion , v = visceral ganglion ; scale = 1 . 5 mm . ( d ) posterior reproductive organs , am = ampulla , bc = bursa copulatrix , fgm = female gland mass , rs = receptaculum seminis ; scale = 1 . 6 mm .
thinly calcified slightly curved plate , 2 mm in length ( fig . 5b ) . part of shell appearing decalcified .
entire buccal mass moderately muscularized with series of circular muscles anteriorly and more complex musculature present around radular sac . buccal mass containing labial cuticle with pair of minute areas with small irregular rodlets ( fig . 6a ) . radular formula 25 × 5 . 1 . 0 . 1 . 5 in one specimen ( nmp 041181 ) ( fig . 6b ) . inner lateral teeth broad with single primary cusp . masticatory margin of inner laterals containing 3–16 irregularly pointed denticles on inner edge of masticatory margin ( fig . 6c , d ) . remainder of masticatory margin devoid of denticles . triangular thickening present on inner edge of masticatory border of inner lateral teeth . innermost outer lateral tooth with moderately broad base and primary cusp without secondary denticles . successive outer laterals becoming progressively smaller with narrower base and all lacking denticles ( fig . 6c ) .
gastropteron multo sp . nov . holotype , ex casiz 199130 . nmp 041181 , mabini , philippines . ( a ) jaw rodlets . ( b ) entire radula . ( c ) half - row of radular teeth , triangular thickening indicated by arrow . ( d ) half - row of radular teeth .
arrangement of ganglia ( fig . 5c ) euthyneurous , with short visceral loop . cerebral ganglia large , separated by short commissure . pedal ganglia as large as cerebral ganglia , separated by elongate commissure passing ventrally to buccal mass . supraintestinal ganglion immediately posterior to right pleural ganglion . from there , visceral loop connecting to visceral and subintestinal ganglia and curving anteriorly to join left pleural ganglion .
the external anatomy of g . multo clearly differentiates this species from all described species of gastropteron . it is the only species with a translucent white body colour with orange spots and brown patches . of the seven species of gastropteron known from the pacific ocean , only g . bicornutum is known to have dorsal and ventral flagella with an elongate extension of the foot . in g . bicornutum , the posterior extension of the foot is thin and very elongate , while in g . multo it is short and triangular . gastropteron bicornutum has black and yellow spots over the dorsal surface , which are absent in g . multo . internally , the inner lateral radular teeth of g . multo have fewer denticles than g . bicornutum and are restricted to the outer edge of the masticatory border , whereas they are evenly distributed along the border of g . bicornutum . both species have a simple penis , but the prostate is much shorter in g . multo . in our molecular phylogeny , g . multo is sister to g . bicornutum , and the two species differ by more than 22 % in their coi gene and are also clearly separated in the abgd analysis . the two specimens of g . multo that were sequenced do not exhibit any genetic variation between them .
sagaminopteron multimaculatum sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041182 , tingloy , philippines . ( a ) buccal mass , scale = 0 . 75 mm . ( b ) posterior reproductive system , am = ampulla , fgm = female gland mas , rs = receptaculum seminis ; scale = 0 . 67 mm . ( c ) penis , p = penis , pr = prostate ; scale = 0 . 85 mm .
sagaminopteron multimaculatum sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041182 , tingloy , philippines , scanning electron micrographs . ( a ) entire radula . ( b ) half row of radular teeth .
lsid urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : c54f7bab - eb1f - 478d - b828 - 7d2df4a80bab
siphopteron pohnpei ( hoff & carlson , 1983 ) , anthes et al . , 2008 , misidentification .
siphopteron sp . 8 gosliner et al . , 2015 : 60 , middle left fig .
holotype , dissected , nmp 041182 , originally casiz 199127 , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 2 may 2014 , t . gosliner .
cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines .
thus far , known only from the philippines ( gosliner et al . , 2015 ) and possibly australia ( anthes et al . , 2008 ) .
the species epithet , multimaculatum , refers to the many coloured spots ornamenting the parapodia , head shield , visceral mass and foot of this species .
living animal ( fig . 1e ) 4 mm in length . colour clear to translucent white around its foot . majority of body green–brown with white , orange and canary yellow spots . small yellow dots covering majority of elongate parapodia and extending well - beyond posterior end of visceral hump . small orange dots lining the edges of parapodia . small yellow dots centred linearly on head shield , base of foot and posterior end of foot . larger orange splotch present on anterior side of head shield . white splotches present on either side of head shield . white splotches lining the edge of parapodia and anteriorly near foot . foot translucent white and lined with orange spots . small yellow dots also present on foot . head shield roughly triangular , broadest anteriorly and narrowing posteriorly . siphon with longitudinal ridge along its anterior margin . parapodia covering body when retracted and overlapping above visceral hump . distinct flagellum absent . gill with four simple plicae .
moderately muscularized with series of circular muscles anteriorly and more complex musculature around radular sac ( fig . 7a ) . buccal mass containing labial cuticle with a pair of minute areas with small irregular rodlets , not observed in the scanning electron micrographs . radular formula 15 × 4 . 1 . 0 . 1 . 4 . ( fig . 8a ) in holotype specimen ( nmp 041182 ) . inner lateral teeth broad with single primary cusp . masticatory margin of inner laterals broad with eight to ten irregular , elongate , acutely pointed denticles along entire margin . innermost outer lateral tooth with moderately broad base and primary cusp without secondary denticles . successive outer laterals becoming progressively smaller with narrower base , all lacking denticles ( fig . 8b ) .
arrangement of ganglia is euthyneurous , with a short visceral loop . details of arrangement of ganglia cannot be determined in single specimen dissected .
reproductive system fully mature with well - developed female glands clearly visible ( fig . 7b ) . elongate , convoluted ampulla extending into straighter hermaphroditic duct curving around top of lobate mucous gland and expanding into short lobe of receptaculum seminis before curving around female glands once more . opening of hermaphroditic duct into female glands not visible , with hermaphroditic duct joining near gonopore , leading to external sperm groove . bursa copulatrix not visible . sperm groove continuing on the right side of the body to head where penis is situated . penis simple with short , sharply curved prostate ( fig . 7c ) . penial retractor muscle short . penial sac straight and penial papilla lobed , but devoid of any penial armature ( fig . 4c ) .
penial anatomy . ( a ) sagaminopteron pohnpei ( hoff & carlson , 1983 ) , casiz 180408 , entire penis , pr = prostate . ( b ) sagaminopteron pohnpei ( hoff & carlson , 1983 ) , casiz 180408 , penial sac detail , pb = penial bulb . ( c ) siphopteron vermiculum sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041183 . tingloy , philippines , philippines , entire penis . ( d ) siphopteron vermiculum sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041183 . tingloy , philippines , philippines , penial bulb detail , ps = penial spines 1 , ps 2 = penial spines ( e ) siphopteron flavolineatum sp . nov . , paratype , casiz 199132 . tingloy , philippines , philippines , entire penis . ( f ) siphopteron flavolineatum sp . nov . , casiz 199132 . tingloy , philippines , philippines , penial bulb detail , ps = penial spines 1 , ps 2 = penial spines 2 , ps3 = penial spines 3 , ps4 = penial spines 4 .
siphopteron vermiculum sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041183 , tingloy , philippines . ( a ) dorsal view of preserved specimen , scale = 1 . 7 mm . ( b ) buccal mass , scale = 0 . 67 mm . ( c ) penis , scale = 0 . 56 mm .
siphopteron vermiculum sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041183 , tingloy , philippines , scanning electron micrographs . ( a ) jaw rodlets . ( b ) entire radula . ( c ) half - row of radular teeth . ( d ) half - row of radular teeth showing detail of denticles and lateral teeth .
lsid urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 87679efcb0e8 - 427b - a63b - 1b1521bd79d4
siphopteron sp . 4 , gosliner et al . , 2015 : 59 , middle left fig .
holotype , dissected , nmp 041183 , originally casiz 199134 , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 2 may 2014 , t . gosliner . paratypes : casiz 199126 , one specimen , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 2 may 2014 , t . gosliner . casiz 199129 , three specimens , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 6 may 2014 , t . gosliner .
thus far , known only from the philippines ( gosliner et al . , 2015 ) .
the species epithet , vermiculum , refers to the vermillion colour ornamenting the body of this species .
moderately muscularized with series of circular muscles anteriorly and more complex musculature around radular sac ( fig . 10b ) . buccal mass containing labial cuticle with pair of minute areas of small irregular rodlets ( fig . 11a ) . radular formula 18 × 2 - 3 . 1 . 0 . 1 . 2 - 3 . ( fig . 11b ) in one specimen ( nmp 041183 ) . inner lateral teeth broad with single primary cusp . masticatory margin of inner laterals broad with irregular series of 2–3 wide areas ( fig . 11c , d ) . under higher magnification , these areas bear numerous striations ( fig . 11d ) , suggesting that they may represent fusion of denticles . outer lateral teeth with moderately broad base and primary cusp without secondary denticles . successive outer laterals becoming progressively smaller with narrower base ; all lacking denticles ( fig . 11d ) .
arrangement of ganglia euthyneurous , with short visceral loop . details of arrangement of ganglia not determined in single specimen dissected .
fully mature but poorly preserved . well - developed female glands clearly visible . elongate , convoluted ampulla extending into straighter hermaphroditic duct curving around top of lobate mucous gland and expanding into short lobe of receptaculum seminis before curving around female glands once more . opening of hermaphroditic duct into female glands not visible , and hermaphroditic duct joining near gonopore , leading to external sperm groove . bursa copulatrix not visible . sperm groove continuing on the right side of the body to head where penis is situated . penis complex with elongate , sharply curved prostate ( fig . 10c ) . secondary duct connecting anterior end of prostate with anterior part of penis . penial sac straight , containing arch of c . 23 interiorly directed , acutely pointed cuticular spines ( fig . 9d , ps1 ) . second row of 20 much smaller spines found inside arch of the larger spines ( fig . 9d , ps2 ) . secondary papilla found at anterior end of penial sac , lacking any armature .
based on its coloration , s . vermiculum is distinct from other members of the genus . it is the only species with a bright vermillion red ground colour . based on internal morphological characters , s . vermiculum appears to be most similar to siphopteron nigromarginatum gosliner , 1989 and siphopteron flavum ( tokioka & baba , 1964 ) . all three species are the only members of the family known to have a complex penis with two papillae where the primary papilla has a series of cuticular spines and where the secondary papilla lacks armature ( gosliner , 1989 ) . all three species also have an irregularly shaped masticatory margin of the inner lateral tooth , but the denticles in s . vermiculum are reduced to striations , whereas they are more prominent in s . nigromarginatum and s . flavum . in s . vermiculum , there are two rows of penial spines , whereas s . flavum possesses only a single band of penial spines , and s . nigromarginatum has four distinct bands of spines ( gosliner , 1989 ) .
in our molecular analysis , s . vermiculum is sister to siphopteron sp . 2 ( am421863 ) and both are sister to s . sp . 1 ( am421862 ) . siphopteron vermiculum and siphopteron sp . 2 are only 4 . 4 % different in their coi p - distance , suggesting that they may be the same species . no other information about the appearance of s . sp . 2 is available , based on the unpublished genbank sequences .
siphopteron flavolineatum sp . nov . paratype , casiz 199132 , tingloy , philippines . ( a ) buccal mass , sg = salivary gland ; scale = 0 . 8 mm . ( b ) central nervous system , c = cerebral ganglion , pe = pedal ganglion . pl = pleural ganglion , su - subintestinal ganglion , sp = supraintestinal ganglion , v = visceral ganglion ; scale = 0 . 56 mm . ( c ) posterior reproductive system am = ampulla , al = albumen gland , bc = bursa copulatrix , me = membrane gland , mu = mucous gland , rs = receptaculum seminis ; scale = 0 . 7 mm . ( d ) penis , cs = copulatory spine , p = penis , pr = prostate ; scale = 1 . 0 mm .
siphopteron flavolineatum sp . nov . paratype , casiz 199132 , tingloy , philippines , scanning electron micrographs . ( a ) entire radula . ( b ) half - row of radular teeth . ( c ) half - row of radular teeth showing outer lateral teeth .
lsid urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 05a33467 - ce3a - 4e95 - ba4a - 57b2d47b4365
siphopteron sp . 6 gosliner et al . , 2015 : 59 , bottom two figs .
holotype , nmp 041184 , originally casiz 199132 , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 6 may 2014 , t . gosliner . paratypes : casiz 199132 , two specimens , one dissected , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 6 may 2014 , t . gosliner . casiz , 199124 , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 26 april 2014 , t . gosliner . casiz 204848 , gal 73 , one specimen , shipyard , puerto galera harbor , mindoro oriental , philippines , 18 m depth , t . gosliner . , casiz 204850 , one specimen , gal 98 , giant clam , puerto galera harbor , mindoro oriental , philippines , 18 m depth , gustav paulay .
thus far , known only from the philippines and malaysia ( gosliner et al . , 2015 ) .
the species epithet , flavolineatum , refers to the yellow medial line on the posterior end of the foot , which distinguishes this species .
living animal 5–7 mm in length ( fig . 1g , h ) . parapodia and foot ground colour clear to translucent white to ochre . parapodia lined with yellow and vermillion accents . white spots dotting parapodia , head shield and visceral hump . visceral hump is more opaque than its appendages . visceral hump ochre to vermillion towards flagellum with white spots . flagellum opaque ochre with vermillion outlined by yellow stripes at the end with black tip . foot translucent white , lined with orange edges and central yellow stripe down middle . flagellum ( fig . 1g , h ) centred on midline of visceral hump . head shield roughly triangular in shape , broadest anteriorly and narrowing posteriorly into siphon . siphon with central white stripe that bisects vertically on anterior side . siphon with two symmetrical white dots on either side of head shield on a translucent ground colour transitioning posteriorly into ochre colour on siphon . yellow stripe present on posterior side of siphon , lined with darker vermillion on either side . siphon with prominent medial crest on posterior side , extending slightly above level of lateral margins . gill small with three primary folds .
highly muscularized with series of circular muscles anteriorly and more complex musculature around radular sac ( fig . 12a ) . buccal mass containing labial cuticle with pair of minute areas with small irregular rodlets ; not visible in scanning electron microscopy preparation . radular formula 16 × 4 . 1 . 0 . 1 . 4 . ( fig . 13a ) in one specimen ( casiz 199132 ) examined . inner lateral teeth broad with single primary cusp . masticatory margin of inner laterals broad with two large , well - separated triangular denticles ( fig . 13b , c ) . outer lateral teeth with moderately broad base and primary cusp without secondary denticles . successive outer laterals becoming progressively smaller with narrower base . outer laterals all lacking denticles ( fig . 13c ) .
arrangement of ganglia ( fig . 12b ) euthyneurous , with short visceral loop . cerebral ganglia large , separated by short commissure . pedal ganglia as large as cerebral ganglia , separated by elongate commissure passing ventrally to buccal mass . supraintestinal ganglion immediately posterior to right pleural ganglion . visceral loop connecting to visceral and subintestinal ganglia and curving anteriorly to join left pleural ganglion .
living animals . ( a ) siphopteron nakakatuwa sp . nov . , partaype , casiz 199114 , tingloy , philippines . ( b ) siphopteron nakakatuwa sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041185 , tingloy , philippines . ( c ) siphopteron makisig sp . nov . , holotype nmp 041186 , calatagan , philippines . ( d ) siphopteron dumbo sp . nov . , nmp 041187 , puerto , galera , philippines . photos by t . gosliner .
siphopteron nakakatuwa sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041185 , tingloy , philippines . ( a ) buccal mass , scale = 0 . 5 mm . ( b ) central nervous system , c = cerebral ganglion , pe = pedal ganglion . pl = pleural ganglion , su - subintestinal ganglion , sp = supraintestinal ganglion , v = visceral ganglion , scale = 0 . 67 mm . ( c ) posterior reproductive organs , a = ampulla , al = albumen gland , bc = bursa copulatrix , me = membrane gland , mu = mucous gland , rs = receptaculum seminis ; scale = 0 . 58 mm . ( d ) penis , scale = 0 . 5 mm .
siphopteron nakakatuwa sp . nov . holotype , nmp 041185 , tingloy , philippines , scanning electron micrographs . ( a ) entire radula . ( b ) half row of radular teeth .
penial anatomy . ( a ) siphopteron nakakatuwa sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041185 , tingloy , philippines , entire penis . ( b ) siphopteron nakakatuwa sp . nov . , holotype , nmp 041185 , tingloy , philippines , penial sac detail , ps = penial spines 1 , ps 2 = penial spines , ps3 = penial spines 3 , cs = cuticular spine . ( c ) siphopteron makisig sp . nov . , casiz 199134 . calatagan , philippines , philippines , detail of penial spines , ps = penial spines . ( d ) siphopteron makisig sp . nov . , casiz 199134 . calatagan , philippines , philippines , detail of cuticular spine and penial papilla , cs = cuticiular spine , p = penial papilla .
lsid urn : lsid : zoobank . org : act : 0d0afdd2 - aa44 - 4c25 - aa98 - f59c138ba098
siphopteron sp . 7 gosliner et al . , 2015 : 60 , upper two figs .
holotype , dissected , nmp 041185 , ex casiz 199135 , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 6 may 2014 , t . gosliner . paratypes : casiz 199135 , one specimen , cemetery beach ( 13 . 68428°n 120 . 83024°e ) , tingloy , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 6 may 2014 , t . gosliner . casiz 199125 , one specimen , mainit bubbles ( 13 . 68688°n 120 . 89564°e ) , mabini , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 27 april 2014 , alexis principe . casiz , 199114 , one specimen , bilbago reef south , calatagan ( 13 . 929165°n 120 . 612299°e ) , batangas , luzon , philippines , 7 m depth , 17 may 2014 , t . gosliner .
thus far , known only from the philippines and indonesia ( gosliner et al . , 2015 ) .
the species epithet , nakakatuwa , is a tagalog word meaning ‘amusing or cute’ .
living animals 4–7 mm in length ( fig . 14a , b ) . parapodia and foot ground colour translucent white to orange . white spots covering parapodia ; each spot lined by bright orange . parapodia lined with accents converging on foot . white spots with opaque white punctations inside larger spot . these large spots dotting head shield , parapodia and visceral hump . visceral hump rounded with long flagellum near midline of body . elongate flagellum ( fig . 14a , b ) opaque vermillion with white spots ending with black tip . foot translucent white , lined with orange edges and central white triangular stripe down middle . stripe merging into yellow tip . head shield roughly triangular , broadest anteriorly , and narrowing posteriorly into siphon . siphon with central white stripe on anterior face , bisecting vertically . posterior side of siphon with prominent ridge extending above lateral margins . siphon with vermillion ground colour and yellow tip with vermillion edges and white spots . gill with four simple folds .
highly muscularized with series of circular muscles anteriorly and more complex musculature around radular sac ( fig . 15a ) . buccal mass containing labial cuticle with a pair of minute areas with small irregular rodlets , rodlets not visible in scanning electron microscopy preparation . radular formula 16 × 4 . 1 . 0 . 1 . 4 . ( fig . 16a ) in one specimen ( nmp 041185 ) examined . inner lateral teeth broad with single primary cusp . masticatory margin of inner laterals broad with two large , well - separated , triangular denticles ( fig . 16b ) . outer lateral teeth with moderately broad base and primary cusp without secondary denticles . successive outer laterals becoming progressively smaller with narrower base ; all lacking denticles ( fig . 16b ) .
arrangement of ganglia ( fig . 15b ) euthyneurous with short visceral loop . cerebral ganglia large ; separated by a short commissure . pedal ganglia as large as cerebral ganglia , separated by elongate commissure passing ventrally to buccal mass . supraintestinal ganglion immediately posterior to right pleural ganglion . visceral loop connecting to visceral and subintestinal ganglia and curving anteriorly to join left pleural ganglion .


gegeneophis primus is a species of caecilian discovered in wynad district in the western ghats of kerala , india .

the species was described in 2012 by ramachandran kotharambath , mark wilkinson , and colleagues .

gegeneophis primus

gegeneophis primus belongs to the indotyphlidae family comprising african , seychellean and indian varieties .
gegeneophis primus belongs to the indotyphlidae family comprising african , seychellean and indian varieties . it is the first new species of gegeneophis reported from kerala since1964 . the species were collected from the sugandhagiri cardamom estate neighbouring an evergreen forest at vythiri in the northern district of wayanad .
according to the researchers , specimens of the novel caecilian - named gegeneophis primus - were collected during field works in two consecutive monsoons , first in october 2010 and then in august 2011 .
gegeneophis primus is the scientific name of a caecilian ( limbless ) amphibian reported from kerala . a team of scientists from the university of kerala ; central university , kasaragod ; and natural history museum , london , have reported this discovery from the southern region of the western ghats in kerala .
g . primus is only the third indotyphlid caecilian species reported from kerala after g . carnosus , described by beddome in 1870 and g . ramaswami by taylor in 1964 .
gegeneophis primus kotharambath , gower , oommen , and wilkinson , 2012 , zootaxa , 3272 : 27 . holotype : bnhs 5536 , by original designation . type locality :
sugandhagiri cardamom estate , near vythiri , pozhuthana gramapanchayath , vythiri taluk , wayanad district , kerala ( n 11° 33′ e 076° 00′ , 850 m a . s . l . )
.
species description : kotharambath r , gower dj , oommen ov , wilkinson m 2012 a third species of gegeneophis peters ( amphibia : gymnophiona ; indotyphlidae ) lacking secondary annular grooves . zootaxa 3272 : 26 - 34 .
giri , v . , gower , d . j . , gaikwad , k . , & wilkinson , m . ( 2011 ) .
a second species of gegeneophis peters ( amphibia : gymnophiona : caeciliidae ) lacking secondary annular grooves .
zootaxa 2815 : 49 - 58 .
kotharambath , r . , gower , d . j . , oommen , o . v . , & wilkinson , m . ( 2012 ) .
a third species of gegeneophis peters ( amphibia : gymnophiona : indotyphlidae ) lacking secondary annular grooves .
zootaxa 3272 : 26 - 34 .
the team , including k . ramachandran from the university of kerala , oommen v . oommen from the central university and david j . gower and mark wilkinson from the natural history museum found that the species , unlike other gegeneophis , lacked scales and secondary annular grooves , as well as a well - developed terminal shield .
it is the first new species of gegeneophis reported from kerala since1964 . the species were collected from the sugandhagiri cardamom estate neighbouring an evergreen forest at vythiri in the northern district of wayanad . measuring approximately 168 mm in length and pink in colour , the specimens were dug out from moist soil along the shrub - covered banks of a stream under a dense canopy .
the paper notes that the population of g . primus at the locality from where it was found was not likely to be under threat as long as the habitat was maintained . the team has proposed that the conservation status of the species be classified as data deficient under the iucn red list criteria . the paper suggests the common name of malabar cardamom geg for the species , indicating the northern part of the state and the cardamom estate from where it was discovered .
a uk - indian team of scientists have announced the discovery of a new species of limbless amphibian .
the animal was identified by accident in the western ghats area in the state of kerala , south india .
the specimens were found inside moist soil after digging the shrub - covered bank of a mountain stream .
the creature - about 168mm in length and pink in colour - belongs to an enigmatic , limbless group of amphibians known as the caecilians .
ramachandran kotharambath , lead author of the report , told the bbc tamil service that the animal was identified as a new species following extensive comparisons with other , similar examples from this amphibian group .
they were discovered at a valley on a plantation in the wynad district of kerala .
the new finding was made as part of a longstanding research collaboration between the department of zoology at the university of kerala and london ' s natural history museum . the central university at kasargod in kerala also contributed to of the discovery .
the finding has been reported in the latest edition of the academic journal zootaxa .
the wider distribution , natural history and habitat preferences of the species are yet to be determined .
the discovery of this species indicates that the caecilian amphibians might have great diversity all along the western ghats area said mr ramachandran .
the new species do not face any immediate threat as long as the habitat structure is maintained , according to the scientists .
they also say that they need to know how far and wide this species is distributed and what are the habitat requirements .
co - author dr oommen says the discovery was significant since the finding ended a hiatus of almost half - a - century .
it highlights the fact that the knowledge of caecilian amphibians of the western ghats remains incomplete and in need of further study .
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known only from the type locality ( sugandhagiri cardamom estate , near vythiri , pozhuthana gramapanchayath , vythiri taluk , wayanad district , kerala , india ) .
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a team of scientists from the university of kerala ; central university , kasaragod ; and natural history museum , london , have reported the discovery of a new species of caecilian ( limbless ) amphibian from the southern region of the western ghats in kerala .
measuring approximately 168 mm in length and pink in colour , the specimens were dug out from moist soil along the shrub - covered banks of a stream under a dense canopy .
the researchers stumbled upon the new species while on the trail of another caecilian spotted in kerala 142 years ago . after a second collection from the same location , the identification was confirmed by scientists at the natural history museum .
the finding has been reported in the latest edition of zootaxa , an international journal for zoological taxonomists . the wider distribution , natural history and habitat preferences of the species are yet to be determined .
dr . oommen said the discovery was significant since the finding ended a hiatus of almost half - a - century . “it highlights the fact that the knowledge of caecilian amphibians of the western ghats remains incomplete and in need of further study . ”
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