channa is a genus of fish in the family channidae , commonly known as snakehead , native to asia .

this genus contains 35 scientifically described species , but the most well known are probably the northern snakehead ( channa argus ) and the giant snakehead ( channa micropeltes ) .

these species have a wide natural distribution extending from iran in the west , to china in the east and parts of siberia in the far east .

they are one of the most common staple food fish in cambodia , thailand , vietnam and other southeast asian countries , where they are extensively cultured .

apart from their importance as a food fish , snakeheads are also consumed as a therapeutic for wound healing as well as reducing post-operative pain and discomfort and collected for the international aquarium pet trade .

the diets of various species of channa include fish , frogs , snakes , rodents , birds and insects .

they have a labyrinth organ , which allows them to breathe air for short periods , and they use this adaptation to travel across land in the event that their habitat becomes inhospitable .

the taxonomy of the genus channa is incomplete and a comprehensive revision of the family has not been performed .

a phylogenetic study in 2010 has also indicated the likelihood of the existence of undescribed species of channids in southeast asia .

in june 2011 , the malabar snakehead channa diplogramma from peninsular india was shown to be a distinct species , 146 years after its initial description and 134 years after it was synonymised with c. micropeltes , establishing it is an endemic species of peninsular india .

the study also suggested that the species shared a most recent common ancestor with c. micropeltes , around 9.52 to 21.76 mya .

in assamese it is called goroi .

in malayalam it is called varal or braal .

channa

channa sp . true blue picture credited to amiidae of arofanatics refer to channa stewerti profile .
there are two genera ( channa , parachanna ) containing 34 species ( 31 channa and three parachanna ) , although the diversity is much greater and several undescribed species , particularly from india — for example , channa sp . ' lal cheng ' and channa sp . ' kerala five stripe ' — have already reached the aquarium trade .
channa pardalis is a newly described , gorgeous snakehead . it was discovered in northeastern india and is known by aquarists as
channa sp . meghalaya leopard .
now it ' s got a formal name .
the new snakehead species is described in the latest publication of the journal of threatened taxa . here is a video of a reported rare channa pardalis ( aka
channa sp . meghalaya leopard
) in captivity :
so excited to try this recipe out ( with dairy free butter , though ! ) ! looks amazing . and i love channa masala . a lot .
reported as very aggresive to its own kind and others , said to share the same temprement of other channa most closley related . i . e aurantimaculata and stewarti
scientific name : channa panaw common name : panaw snakehead maximum size : at least 17 cm / 7 inches origin : ayeyarwaddy and sittang river basins , myanmar temperament : predatory company : channa panaw should only be kept with fish larger than 2 / 3 of the species size . water parameters : temperature mainly sub - tropical but range extends into tropical , temp 18 - 28 c ph around ph 5 - 6 and enjoys cover / shade feeding : channa panaw should be fed live food .
this channa is very rarly aggresive toward other fish or its own kind outside of breeding time , it is often said to be one of the more passive snakeheads .
scientific name : channa orientalis common name : ceylon snakehead maximum size : 10 cm / 4 inches origin : southwestern sri lanka temperament : predatory company : channa orientalis should not be kept with fish smaller than 2 / 3 of the species size . water parameters : temperature - tropical species likes softer water but has been bred several times is different ph levels 22 - 28˚c / 72 - 82˚f ; ph 6 - 7 . 5 feeding : channa orientalis ( ceylon snakehead ) accepts live and frozen food .
x factor hopeful amrick channa has a secret television past , having already appeared on the voice , come dine with me and ant and dec ' s saturday night takeaway .
channa masala is one of those dishes that i always think sounds delicious , but never make . i really need to get some spices so i can give it a try .
to do list : make channa masala this sunday . thanks for the awesome recipe . i’m just now starting to really like indian food so i will definitely be making this !
channa aurantimaculata so allways insist on a picture of the actual fish before handing over any of your hard earned cash , there is allway someone waiting to realive you of it .
looove indian food , especially channa masala . i usually don’t put so much effort into it though . i just throw a bunch of stuff together and call it a meal . 😉
justification : channa punctata is a widespread species with no known major widespread threats , and no evidence as yet that it is a species complex . the species is assessed as least concern .
hamilton ( 1822 ) described ophiocephalus marulius from river ganges , which is now placed in the genus channa . the group has been studied recently by li et al . ( 2006 ) .
scientific name : channa melasoma common name : black snakehead maximum size : 30 cm / 12 inches environment : freshwater streams , prefers to be shaded temperament : aggressive company : channa melasoma should not be kept with species smaller than the snakeheads . water parameters : temperature - found from tropical to sub - tropical 18 - 28˚c ; ph 5 - 5 . 3 has a distinct preference for still waters urltoken
there is also another snakehead sometimes referred to as blue bleheri , for some time it was thought that they may have been the same species , they are now described separately and named channa sp . assam .
i just made this last night . this is the best channa masala recipe ever . ever ! it beats one i’ve been using because it’s all about cooking down the tomato paste . so yummy ! thank you !
x factor hopeful amrick channa has a secret television past and has already appeared on the voice and come dine with me along with other shows . . . and is even the ' face of sainsbury ' s '
oh man , i totally have to make this recipe sometime this weekend . i really enjoy amy’s organic channa masala , so hopefully this one will be as equally good or even better . thanks for sharing , jenna ! 🙂
the sun online can reveal that amrick channa , a dance track performer from kent , is no stranger to the reality show circuit , and even brags that he is a
tv personality
on websites offering personal appearances .
i love your channa masala recipe ! i was lucky enough to write down your old one when it was still posted on the blog . i think this one is a variation of that one and can’t wait to make this version .
tank size : one of the advantages of channa bleheri is its small size and peacefulness . these snakeheads can be kept in a relatively small aquarium . 36 & # 8221 ; for a pair , groups can be kept in larger setups .
water parameters : coming from the assam region channa bleheri have a winter temp of 19 c and summer temp of 22 - 28 c / 72 - 82 f ; they prefer the cooler side of that range , ph 6 - 7 . 5 ,
i just made this for dinner and it was delicious : ) thanks for this , jenna ! i’ve made channa masala with a spice blend before but this was better . i hope to see more indian recipes…i may have to make your chicken tikka masala next .
now this is the first very important step . you must execute patience and grace or your channa masala will suffer indefinitely . you are to let the onions caramelize . this will take about 15 minutes and you probably will get very nervous and antsy while the onions cook because if they burn… . you lose .
definitely going to try this . i love your pictorial recipes - keep them coming ! i had an amy’s frozen meal for lunch today - coincidentally , it was the mattar paneer with channa masala ! when you make this do you serve it with anything ? such as over rice or maybe just naan on the side ?
thank you sooo much for this recipe ! ! ! ! i had channa masala for the first time last week while in orlando on vacation . it was an amy’s frozen dinner , and i loved it . i have been wanting to make it ever since , and now i have the perfect recipe ! cannot wait to try this !
only known breeding sucsess is reported by a german aquarist , from this we know they are mouthbrooders and also egg feeders , practice spawning can be whitnessed year round but activity hightens as tempretures drop for winter , we belive the trigger tempreture to be around 20deg , as with all channa you are best to start out with a group and let the fish pair up for them selves .
towards there own kind they are amoung one of the nastiest channa around , they simply can not stand each other unless they have formed a pair , even then fights can break out at the drop of a hat and they are capable of infliction great damage on each other , strangly when mixed with other fish they seam to ignore all but the smallest fish , if they dont see it as food they are useally ok .
price is no object for true snakehead lovers , with mark - ups for rare specimens rivaling those of dragonfish . the barca snakehead ( channa barca ) pictured above , became one of the most expensive aquarium fish when the first individuals imported into the uk were going at £5 , 000 apiece . the price has since dropped to about £1 , 500 , as seen at aquarama 2009 in singapore , but that’s still a hefty outlay !
scientific name : channa baramensis common name : barama snakehead maximum size : 22 cm / 9 inches origin : northern , brunei and borneo introduced range : not known at this time temperament : temperament is said to resemble that of its closest relative channa melasoma , whom we know to not tolerate other fish very well and can be quite aggresive amoung its own kind company : best kept in a species tank and ideally as part of a bonded pair water parameters : temperature 22 - 25˚c / 72 - 77˚ f ; ph 6 . 5  8 . 0 feeding : like most channa can be trained to take most of the going food , but keep diet varied or the fish can become addicted to a certain food aquarium set up : in nature this fish is found in blackwater swamps , and this should be replicated in the aquarium , softer water is a must and the use of aquatic peat would be recomended . being a fairly aggresive fish the tank should be sized to take this into consideration , although only reaching 9 inches i would recommend a tank of around 4ft as a minimum reproductive habits : not reported in the aquarium suspect similar to melasoma . eggs probably prone to fungas if water is too hard other notes : extremely rare fish and hardly seen in the trade . picture credited to michael lo
as one of the most popular dishes in the world , both in and out of india and pakistan , channa masala ( or chana masala , chole masala , or chholay , depending on where you ' re from ) —chickpeas cooked in a spicy and tangy tomato - based sauce—is the kind of dish that stirs passions in the recipe - writing community . my version might not taste like your grandmother ' s , but i promise that it tastes damn good .
channa micropeltes is endemic to the western ghats , india and has an eoo of about 10 , 350 km 2 and an aoo of about 800 km 2 and based on the major threats to the species from targeted fishing , agricultural expansion , dams and pollution , the species is found in up to 7 - 10 locations . so , this species qualifies for vulnerable status , despite it still requiring further research and moderate conservation measures as its habitat is in decline and it is a victim of targeted mortality in most of its range outside protected areas .
as with all member of the group channide , you are best to sart out with a group of 6 or more fish , from this a pair shoud form , when a pair has formed it is advisable to swiftly remove all other fish from the aquarium , gachua are mouthbrooders in the male sex , and take excelant care of there young , one a a very few channa that will breed in tanks without plant cover , breeding has triggered by long periods without water change then a large change with fresh cooler water seems to initiate a spawning responce .
aquarium setup : the aquarium should be well planted with open areas to swim in . make sure hiding places are provided . all snakeheads breath air and can suffocate if they are prevented from reaching the surface to breath . a secure top should be in place as they are excellent jumpers . channa bleheri are excellent escape artists and can escape from the very smallest of holes . do not underestimate their escaping abilities . they can survive for sometime out of water as long as their lungs don & # 8217 ; t dry out but the impact from the height of the tank to the floor may cause injury they cannot recover from .
mixes quite well with other fish as long as its basic needs are catered for , avoid overly aggresive fish and fish small enough to be seen as food , fish that have been tried and tested include angles , rainbow fish and some of the more docile cichlids , please bare in mind that if you keep this fish with other the chance of breeding will be greatly reduced as the gachua sometimes do not see the other tank inhabitants as a threat and any fry are swiftly eaten by other tank mates , avoid useing plecos that are easly bred because if they breed the channa will eat the babies and there bristles can get stuck in the channas mouth .
remains the single most sought after channa available in the hobby , there is still only a few in captivity , pairs being even rarer with only one confirmed pair and another pair rummored to exsist . the price of this fish varies greatly depending on supply and demand , i have seen for sale at £5000 for a pair down to £600 for a single fish , the average price for a single fish is between £2000 and £2500 , no doubt now that we know where about to look for theese fish more and more will become available and prices will hopefully fall ( anyone remember the days when red tailed catfish fetched over £400 ? , yes iam showing my age lol )
snakeheads are oddball fish equipped with air - breathing organs , thus able to breath air from the surface of the water . some species remain relatively small , but some get very large ; the c . paradalis holotype measured only 13cm ( 5 inches ) , but it likely has an adult size circa 25cm ( 10 inches ) . all channa are territorial and prolific predators , so they can not be kept with fish that will are small enough to eat ( ideally kept with fish no smaller than half its size ) . more importantly , they are illegal to acquire , import or trade across state lines in the united states because the entire genus is recognized by the us fish and wildlife department as a highly invasive fish .
channa mereya is soul of ae dil hai mushkil music album . here is the full video of karan johar ' s favorite song in the album , the lyrics are given by amitabh bhattacharya , music by pritam and sung by arijit singh join the conversation - # channamereya music - pritam lyrics - amitabh bhattacharya singer - arijit singh sound design - sunny m . r , dj phukan music programmers - sunny m . r . , arijit singh mix & master - shadab rayeen @ newedge assistant - abhishek sortey recording engineers - ashwin kulkarni , himanshu shirlekar , kaushik das vocal conductor - akashdeep sengupta & kaushik das production manager - supriti banerjee musicians accoustic guitar - roland electric & bass guitar - roland & amandeep dholak - iqbal azad , sanjiv sen sarangi - ghulam ali khan shehnai - omkar dhumal backing vocals - keshia braganza , gwen dias banner - dharma productions and fox star studios audio on sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd ( c ) 2017 sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd . subscribe : vevo - urltoken . . . like us : : facebook : urltoken follow us : twitter : urltoken g + : urltoken
scientific name : channa stewartii common name : golden snakehead assamese snakehead maximum size : 30cm approx 11inches although varients reported larger origin : endemic to brahmaputra ( upper , middle , lower ) river basin of india and bangladesh , ganges river basin from southern nepal southeastward . in southern nepal , it occurs in the kamala , bagmati , koshi , gandaki , and karnali river basins introduced range : not known at this point temperament : often sited as one of the more aggresive snakeheads , they belong to the same group as aurantimaculata and barca and have the same sort of temperament , company : as a sub - tropical species tankmates should be chosen to suit , if this fish takes a dislike to any tankmate it will swiftly kill them , even its own kind are not tolerated very well , and this fish is probably best left to the more experianced channa keeper in a well though out species tank water parameters : temperature 18 - 24c ranges from warm temperate to sub - tropical ; ph 6 - 7 . 5 feeding : this snakehead will accept all the usual fare , feeds well on insects worms , frozen foods , market shrimp and prawn also bits of fish breeding : start out with small group and allow them to chose there own pair , this fish is mouthbrooder in the male sex , they are very good parents and fry should be left with parent until upto 10cm in lenght tank : even though this is a dwarf species you can not get away with a small tank , in small tanks they will fight constantly and that will result in many deaths , as always floating cover is needed to feel secure and the tank should contain many hiding places and be well planted , this is another species that really does prefer older tank water and live plant will help keep nitrates under control in such tanks aswell as providing much needed cover and hiding spots for the fish and breaking up the line of sight notes : this fish is offered from time to time in the more specialised stores and from time to time on order lists , although they have become harder to obtain in recent years , because of the colouring of this fish and the relative small size , especially of some of the newer varients , this fish often comands a high price .
freshwater snakehead fishes ( channidae ) provide an interesting target for phylogenetic analysis for the following reasons , their unusual biology , potential for cryptic diversity and availability of a good fossil record . here , a multi - locus molecular phylogeny was constructed and calibrated using two fossil dates to estimate divergence times within the family . sampling aimed to explore interspecific divergence of channa species across southeast asia and intra - specific variation where species possessed natural geographical ranges that were extensive . results contradict divergence times estimated previously independently from single locus mitochondrial data or the fossil record and suggest that after divergence from african taxa 40–50 ma , evolution of asian snakeheads has been heavily influenced by multiple broad scale dispersal events across india and southeast asia . a similar pattern of divergence within multiple clades suggests that west–east dispersal was limited for many taxa during the miocene . deep intra - specific divergence was inferred for c . striata , indicating that long historical periods of isolation ( ∼8 ma ) have not resulted in the evolution of reproductive isolation within this species . results support suggestions that c . marulia like fishes in northern cambodia may constitute an undescribed species , and that indian c . diplogramma warrants taxonomic recognition as being distinct from southeast asian c . micropeltes , with the two taxa last sharing a common ancestor in the mid - to late - miocene .
sing along to the soulful channa mereya . lyrics have been beautifully crafted by amitabh bhattacharya and the song has been brought to life by none other than pritam . arijit singh has voiced the track and the video stars ranbir kapoor and anushka sharma .
ae dil hai mushkil
is a story about unrequited love . the journey of three characters - ayan ( ranbir ) , alizeh ( anushka ) & saba ( aishwarya ) written & directed by karan johar releasing this diwali , on 28th october , 2016 hear it on saavn - urltoken join the conversation - # channamereya music - pritam lyrics - amitabh bhattacharya singer - arijit singh sound design - sunny m . r , dj phukan music programmers - sunny m . r . , arijit singh mix & master - shadab rayeen @ newedge assistant - abhishek sortey recording engineers - ashwin kulkarni , himanshu shirlekar , kaushik das vocal conductor - akashdeep sengupta & kaushik das production manager - supriti banerjee musicians accoustic guitar - roland electric & bass guitar - roland & amandeep dholak - iqbal azad , sanjiv sen sarangi - ghulam ali khan shehnai - omkar dhumal backing vocals - keshia braganza , gwen dias banner - dharma productions and fox star studios audio on sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd . ( c ) 2016 sony music entertainment india pvt . ltd . subscribe : vevo - urltoken like us : facebook : urltoken follow us : twitter : urltoken g + : urltoken
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doctoring up store - bought garam masala with additional spices produces a flavor that ' s both complex and suited to the dish .
grinding the garlic in lemon juice helps prevent it from turning too sharp and pungent , while still allowing its aroma to shine .
combine garlic , ginger , chilies , 1 tablespoon lemon juice , and 1 / 2 teaspoon kosher salt in a mortar and pestle or in the small work bowl of a food processor and pound or process until a fine paste is produced . set aside .
heat oil or ghee in a large saucepan or dutch oven over medium - high heat until shimmering . all at once , add mustard seed and cumin . they will sputter and spit for a few seconds . as soon as they are aromatic ( about 15 seconds ) , add onion all at once , along with baking soda . cook , stirring frequently , until onions start to leave a brown coating on bottom of pan , 3 to 4 minutes . add 1 tablespoon water , scrape up browned bits from pan , and continue cooking . repeat this process until onions are a deep brown , about 10 minutes total .
immediately add garlic / ginger / chili paste all at once and stir to combine . add coriander , black pepper , turmeric , and 1 teaspoon garam masala . stir until fragrant , about 30 seconds . add tomatoes and crush them using a whisk or potato masher . add drained , rinsed chickpeas and cilantro , reserving a little cilantro for garnish . add 1 / 2 cup water .
bring to a simmer , cover with lid slightly cracked , and reduce heat to maintain a gentle bubbling . cook , stirring occasionally , until liquid has reduced into a thick stew and spices have melded , about 30 minutes .
stir in remaining garam masala and lemon juice . season to taste with salt . serve with rice and / or naan , sprinkling additional cilantro on top .
j . kenji lópez - alt is the chief culinary advisor of serious eats , and author of the james beard award - nominated column the food lab , where he unravels the science of home cooking . a restaurant - trained chef and former editor at cook ' s illustrated magazine , his first book , the food lab : better home cooking through science is a new york times best - seller , the recipient of a james beard award , and was named cookbook of the year in 2015 by the international association of culinary professionals .
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i love indian food . i had it for the first time when i was in culinary school , living in orlando , and i’ve been rather obsessed ever since . for some reason ( like most things ) indian food never tastes as good when you make it yourself . i see that as a challenge .
first , heat up about two tbsp of butter in your cast iron skillet .
yes , butter . don’t try to substitute this out because its crucial to the finished product . i’m watching you .
toss well so the onions are thoroughly coated with the good stuff . your heat should be at medium right now .
and then add about three tbsp of tomato paste . i have a secret when it comes to tomato paste . i freeze it .
i dare you to show me a person who uses the whole can of tomato paste in any one recipe that they make . usually they use about two or three tablespoons and the rest goes in the trash . my method is to scoop the extra paste from the can into a little plastic baggie and then freeze . when you need a tablespoon just break off what you need ( it melts quickly ) and throw it in frozen to your recipe . bang !
now i need to talk for a second about this step because if the onions were number one most crucial , the tomato paste is a close second . this is the base of all the flavor for the whole dish right now and most people mess it up . but not you because in a second you will be a pince champ ( pronounced pinc - ay ) . all pince really means is to cook the tomato paste down , thus intensifying the flavors immensely . no pince = bland and boring . this is important .
once you add the tomato paste to the pan , stir so that all the onions are coated well .
flatten down everything on the bottom of the pan , crank the heat to more of a high / medium and set away . that’s right , you heard me , step away from the stove . to properly pince means you need to let the tomato paste cook and brown up a bit . this is going to burn off all the sugar in the tomato and leave you with a really intense delicious flavor .
after a few minutes a crust will start to appear on the bottom of your pan . no , you did not burn anything . you did good ! also , it will start to smell like pizza . there’s just no other way i can describe this . you’ll know what i mean when you do it .
mine turned out super duper extreme spicy because i used 1 / 2 tsp cayenne . i don’t recommend this if you are sane , which clearly i am not . i will probably stir some plain yogurt in it before i serve it tonight or else i might not make it .
in a large cast iron skillet , heat the butter . once melted , add the onions and cook for about 15 minutes on medium low heat , or until golden brown .
once the onions have caramelized , add the garlic , ginger and jalapeno and stir well . cook for about two minutes or until it starts to smell like heaven on earth .
add the tomato paste and pince , using above photos as an example . this is very important and if you don’t do it right your dish is pretty much doomed . no pressure .
add the coriander , cumin , cayenne and tumeric and stir well . then add the diced tomatoes , chickpeas and garam masala .
cook for about five minutes or until the chickpeas have heated through . finish with a squeeze of lemon and top with plain yogurt and cilantro if desired !
i don’t use tomato paste but i do use a few more spices so the flavour probably evens out somewhere in the middle .
mine is always spicy to the extreme as well : i don’t seed my jalapenos . because i am mental .
i’ve always wanted to make indian food at home but have been scared ! this post definitely encouraged me .
homemade indian is always so much better if you use whole spices ( whole coriander and cumin seeds , etc ) , toast them first , then grind them yourself . i know it’s kind of a pain and more time consuming , but it is that much more delicious . also , i add my spices in with my onions which makes it that much more fragrant . and if you love the heat , which i know you do , use whole chiles ! so spicy , so delicious .
this is great ! i had one bad experience with indian food when i was trying to be brave ( and at the time i wasn’t a vegetarian ) and open my taste buds a little bit and i have been scared ever since . however , since discovering food blogs it seems like you can find good , healthy , vegetarian options . i have seen this on other food blogs before but always from a restaurant so thanks for doing a homemade version ! i will for sure try this soon !
thank you for this wonderful step by step recipe post . i can not wait to try it at home ! !
looks delicious and i totally agree about the caramelization of the onions . gives it so much flavor !
yum – thanks for the recipe and the tips . also great idea re : the tomato paste ! ! clever ! ! ! i hope to try this recipe soon !
did you love it ? it looks so good . i , too , am obsessed with indian food . my kids and i made naan the other day and it was pretty good , but not as good as the naan from my fave restaurant . i’m definitely going to try this recipe . thanks so much ! 🙂
yum i have actually been looking for this exact recipe for some time now ! & your technique tips are great because otherwise i would be clueless ! however , i do have a question . you say to use butter , but is the final product different if you use oil instead ? i am really not a butter fan ( i know , crazy ! ) so i never have it in my house . thanks ! 🙂
one word : ghee . it’s not indian food unless it’s made with ghee .
or if you can’t find ghee , clarified butter… also , if you want to go the ghee way , for vegetarians / vegans you can get vegetable based ghee , but i know many places in india i’ve visited use oil instead . but they also fry the spices in with the onions to get them really aromatic 😉
yep , i agree on the frying of spices in the pan with the onions . or even better , before anything else goes in , you “toast” the spices in the pan . it really heightens and deepens the flavor . i didn’t know there was vegetarian ghee - i have to check that out !
oh my dear goodness…i realize it’s not the most profound thing ever done , but i still think you are a genius for freezing tomato paste . seriously . i guarantee you no one has ever used the full can in a recipe . and then it sits , lonely and most likely rotting , in your fridge…or the trash can . i freeze just about everything else to buy myself time…why have i never frozen tomato paste ! ? ahhhhhhh thank you .
awesome , jenna ! i will have my own kitchen soon , and i totally plan on making this – and your turkey chili ! thanks for the great recipes . 🙂
when i moved into my last apartment , what i missed the most was not the dishwasher ( i lived alone ) but the disposal . those things are great !
this looks really good , i love indian food and keep wanting to make it myself , maybe this weekend ? check your grocery store . i keep tomato paste in a tube . it’s great for using a little bit . the only thing i ever use a whole can for is my tomato sauce , otherwise , it goes to waste , which is why i keep a tube on hand .
this looks so good ! ! i love indian food , but ive never considered making it from scratch . it always seemed too hard ! i usually buy some type of pre mixed spice packet .
love the step by step with pix . that will be fun when later do as video , too . both a great idea . thanks for the recipe , which sounds very healthy . freezing the tomato paste a terrific idea . will make tomorrow night as went for a gonzo walk / hike around carmel and found a homemade / gourmet noodle shop…so making a pasta recipe they suggested tonight . both sound yum .
i agree that olive , canola oil or even earth balance make good substitutes if you don’t do dairy , butter , animal products , etc . !
cooking lesson # 3… . son loves indian food , he will be so proud of my cooking talents on this one , lol… . .
what a great walk - through for this lovely indian dish . totally making this soon . 😀
ooh , i’ve wanted to try this recipe for such a long time and this is probably the most straightforward and simple - to - follow version i’ve seen . i’m saving this for a great day of cooking !
i also find it funny that i have almost all of the exact spices you used in the same brands and everything , haha .
and i like to freeze my tomato paste in an ice cube tray in 1 tbsp servings and then pop them out and put them in a bag , that way they’re little pre - measured cubes that work well in recipes . 🙂
amote ` tomato paste in a tube will last forever in your refridge ! you can get this at any grocery store . use what you need and refridge the rest 🙂
i really like the tip on how to keep the tomato paste ! i always hate to waste it and have tried to put it in tubberware but it always goes bad . so i will def be fallowing your tip from no on !
thanks for posting this . i can’t wait to see more of these in the future . unfortunately , i can’t get a lot of these ingredients in japan . next time !
i love this little series . i’ve never had indian food but definitely want some and may try this recipe . keep them coming ! 🙂
sweeeeet ! thanks so much for the step by step ; i’ve been wanting to delve into making my own indian food , but sadly i was scared . and freezing tomato paste ? why didn’t my pea sized brain think of that ?
thanks for this ! i looooove indian food ( but i have to admit that the naan is a big part of that love affair ! ) and agree , it is never as good at home…i look forward to trying this recipe out with your tips . i’ve never even heard of a “pince” so perhaps that has been the missing ingredient in my recipes , since pretty much all indian includes tomato paste !
i admit ive always been nervous about making indian food because i hate curry , but i have to admit , this looks awesome . your instructions are great , and this will definitely be making an appearance !
i’ve never tried any time of indian food before , but i’m really interested and i totally want to make this . is it a one dish wonder , or do you serve it with some sort of side ?
you could take pictures of an old banana and a roll of foil and tell a story about how you once climbed a tree and i’d probably still find it interesting . everything you make looks ballin outta control . i am inspired to whip up some indian and i thank you very kindly .
thank you for sharing again ! i am so happy . your recipe is the best .
mmm , that looks so good . totally craving indian now . i don’t eat it enough , but my tummy is always happy when i do !
yum ! ! i am hungry right now and these pics and descriptions just made my tummy growl ! haha ! i have to try this recipe for sure . i love ginger . i am off to find something to eat that tastes half as good as your meal looks ! 🙂
hey jenna – love the blog . real quick – i’m indian , and have been around true indian cooking my entire life and we never use butter ! ! always oil , and always a little ! butter is a no no , unless you own your own restaurant where everything is packed full of calories and fat !
this is like taking lessons from the master chef . i have most of those ingredients already . i just need to buy some of the spices .
great that you’re getting all settled into your new place ! i’m impressed you have a recipe up so quickly…and one so thorough at that ! i’ve never had indian food…never had the opportunity or knew where to start . this recipe sounds doable and delicious ! i’m bookmarking it now . thanks for sharing ! !
i love this “what’s cooking tonight” series . it’s very informative and i appreciate all the details and pictures . i think i prefer photo to video . keep it up !
i really love these how - to posts ! your chana masala looks delicious .
it looks soooo delicious . i love indian food but find it very intimidating to make at home . this recipe seems doable and i love your detailed step by step directions . thanks .
looks fantastic . and with your instructions , doable even for a non - cook like me . i think i’ll give it a try . thanks so much !
i’ve never had indian food , but this recipe intrigues me . i go back and forth on vegetarianism — i suppose that makes me a flexitarian , but why impose labels ? this non - meat recipe sounds easy enough to throw together and is healthy too . even if i use real butter , we’re talking about 2 tablespoons distributed through a dish that probable makes six servings . how many servings does this make ? i suppose the final product freezes well too ?
this is such a great post ! you’re pictures came out so pretty and i love the narrative that you added with the instructions . maybe this will finally convince to like chickpeas in non - hummus form !
i love indian food too and i can never get it to taste as good at home . thanks for the recipe , i’ll have to give it a shot 🙂
this . looks . amazing ! i have always wanted to attempt both indian and thai recipes at home…but haven’t out of fear of completely butchering the amazing balance of flavors that those cultures achieve . mmmm . this looks amazing – i’m totally saving this recipe ! !
ooh ! i have been wanting to learn to make some indian food ! this is perfect . i am excited to try this . great post : - ) .
love your step by step posts . know what else i love ? the fact that i’ll be freezing tomato paste from now on . genius !
i freeze my tomato paste too ! love that . and you know what is even better ? i am currently living in malta ( south of sicily ) w / my in - laws and they sell tomato paste by the tube ( like a tube of toothpaste ) . it’s awesome b / c you just squirt out what you need !
thank you so much for the recent tutorials ! i love this addition to the blog .
bravo . i had not really been enjoying some of the posts recently , but this one made up for it . i really like the step - by - step instructions . indian and thai food are definitely types of cuisine that i have never been able to duplicate at home . i am looking forward to trying this one . thanks !
this sounds sooo good , jenna ! i’m going to have to make this . and thanks for the tip about the tomato paste…i always hate throwing away a whole can of it when i only use a tablespoon . i don’t know why i never thought of freezing it .
woohoo ~ this is definetely going to be a weekend meal . i didn’t know you posted this . i’m glad i went back through your posts to find the banana pancake recipe ( which is also on the weekend menu ) on which i stumbled across this one . and i like your new “what’s cooking tonight” series . cheers !
i love these posts ! cooking is so intimidating to me , so i greatly appreciate the step - by - step breakdown . thanks jenna 🙂
this is so good ! ! ! i just made it and i will be making it again and again ! thank you for the detailed instructions… . . as i have never cooked this before and it really helped !
i will definitely be making this next week ! your turkey chilli was the best turkey chilli i’ve ever made , even my fussy fiancé liked it which is saying something , haha .
i’ve never tried making indian food before but i do think it’s delicious . it just seems so daunting but this makes it seem so much easier . thanks jenna !
i love your new cooking series – fun ! i used to always freeze my tomato paste until i discovered that whole foods sells tubes of it that you can keep in the fridge ( just like on food network ! ) you just squeeze as much as you need and keep in in the fridge . the best part – they are only $ 0 . 99 each ! ! ! check them out 🙂
thank you so much for this post . i love indian food and have always been terribly disappointed when i’ve tried to make it at home . i followed your lead last night and we had a delicious meal at my house . the detailed instructions and images really helped . i look fwd to seeing more of these kinds of recipes on your blog . now i know i can cook indian food at home . thanks again !
i made this tonight and it was awesome ! my first attempt at indian , too . thanks !
i finally got around to making this . thank you ! the pictures really help those of us who haven’t been to culinary school understand thinks like “carmelize” or “pince . ” your blog makes recipes so easy to get right instead of just crossing your fingers !
i love the website - i first saw it yesterday , and i already have half a dozen recipes i must try .
this looks delicious , but as much as i try to like chickpeas , i just can’t . obviously it’ll be a different dish without chickpeas , but does anyone have any substitutes for them ? i would love to try these flavors without chickpeas .
jenna – someone in our household ( not mentioning any names but it’s not me – your dad will know who it is ) can’t eat many onions . i can get away with sneaking a few into recipes but it looks like onions are an important part of this recipe . will it turn out bad if i don’t use as many ? ? ? thanks – can’t wait to try this one !
awww i was totally going to swap out the butter since my body can’t digest it , but you caught me ! i’ll just keep drooling over the pictures instead . 🙂
i made this tonight and it was amazing ! had to sub the tomato paste for tomato sauce but it still came out so so tasty . thank you for the step by step instructions !
i make chana masala at home all the time , too – it’s such an easy “pantry meal” . i use a higher tomato to chickpea ratio though , mainly to up the veggie ( erm , fruit ) content and i like it soupier . plus more spices instead of a jalapeno since i often make this when there’s not much fresh stuff in the fridge ( hence , no jalapenos ) .
thank you so much for this recipe ! ! ! i made it for dinner tonight and my boyfriend and i loved it ! it will definitely become a staple around here .
i made this recipe for the second time tonight and loved it again ! i’m a novice when it comes to cooking but i could definitely handle this . it came out great and i’ll have some fabulous take - to - work lunches this week ! thanks so much for sharing .
i would recommend adding a pinch of sugar or tamarind as well to balance the acidity from the tomatoes .
your recipes are extremely entertaining and the step by step photos are so helpful ! i always wish more cookbooks had those so i knew what my progress was like as i struggle through . love your blog !
dear jenna , i love , love you but sometimes you forget to tell me when to add ingredients , like sea salt in this case . i actually make your recipes , so i hope you will comment !
thanks for the recipe , jenna ! i’m always looking for good vegetarian recipes with protein . keep up the great work ! 🙂
i didn’t even put any cayenne , just the jalapeno was spicy enough for me . and i didn’t have any plain yogurt but i stirred in cottage cheese instead . very good !
love indian food , but i’ve never made it myself . that is , until tonight . this was so good ! and now that i have the spices , i’ll have to make it again . ( after reading other people’s comments , i want to try mixing spices in with the onions . ) and after making this , i totally get what you’re saying about the dish smelling like pizza after pinceing !
i love this dish . i made it a couple of months ago and haven’t been able to stop thinking about it… and tonight i’m going to make it for a vegetarian friendly dinner party i’m making . it’s by far the best chickpea recipe i’ve ever made . thanks ! !
recipe looks great ! i found tomato paste in a tube in my local ‘designer’ market… . sure beats the can !
i have now made this twice , and i can officially say that i’m obsessed . i blogged about it once too : urltoken
i’m eating this right now 🙂 it was my first ever attempt at homemade indian and it will be in my rotation now ! thanks .
i love the idea of freezing the tomato paste ! i am guilty of throwing away so many cans . i’ve been meaning to find the tube of paste that keeps it fresh and you can squeeze but i always seem to forget . this is much easier . thank you !


uropeltis woodmasoni , commonly known as wood-mason 's earth snake , is a species of snake in the family uropeltidae .

the species is endemic to india .

uropeltis woodmasoni

silybura wood - masoni theobald 1876 : 135 silybura melanogaster günther 1875 ( non uropeltis melanogaster gray 1858 ) silybura nigra beddome 1878 silybura nigra — beddome 1886 : 12 silybura nigra — boulenger 1893 : 151 uropeltis wood - masoni — smith 1943 uropeltis ruhunae deraniyagala 1954 uropeltis ruhunae — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 151 uropeltis woodmasoni — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 151 uropeltis woodmasoni — das 2003 uropeltis ruhunae — wallach et al . 2014 : 782 uropeltis woodmasoni — wallach et al . 2014 : 782
silybura macrorhyncha beddome 1877 silybura macrorhyncha — beddome 1886 : 19 silybura macrorhynchus — boulenger 1893 : 153 uropeltis macrorhynchus — smith 1943 : 78 uropeltis macrorhyncha — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 146 uropeltis macrorhynchus — das 2003 uropeltis macrorhyncha — wallach et al . 2014 : 766
on the taxonomic status of uropeltis bicatenatus ( günther ) ( reptilia : serpentes : uropeltidae ) .
rajendran ( 1985 ) is not convinced that this is a distinct species from uropeltis smithi gans , 1966 .
olori , j . c . 2010 . digital endocasts of the braincase and osseous labyrinth of uropeltis woodmasoni ( alethinophidia : uropeltidae ) . copeia 2010 ( 1 ) : 14 - 26 .
the splenial and angular do not differ substantially from those of u . woodmasoni .
uropeltis is the most speciose of all shieldtail snake ( uropeltid ) genera , particularly in india , a . . .
the angular and splenial have the same general morphology of those of u . woodmasoni .
taxonomic reassessment of two indian shieldtail snakes in the < i > uropeltis ceylanicus < / i > species grou . . .
to cite this page : dr . jennifer olori , c . j . bell , the university of texas at austin , 2012 ,
uropeltis woodmasoni
( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . uropeltis woodmasoni ( theobald , 1876 ) . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .
as in u . woodmasoni , the teeth terminate posteriorly at the angular - splenial suture . eight teeth are present .
justification : uropeltis woodmasoni has been assessed as least concern as it is common in parts of its range and there are no known major threats affecting it . in addition , its distribution range coincides with several protected areas . research is needed to establish its population status in parts of its distribution .
the pterygoid is robust and smooth and has a cylindrical ectopterygoid process with a more rounded tip ( fig . 7a ) . the palatine process is also much more robust than in any other species of uropeltis or rhinophis we surveyed . as in u . woodmasoni , curvature toward the otic region is smooth and lacks a pronounced bend .
the quadrate is distinct from that of other rhinophis and uropeltis species examined in having a more sharply pointed caudal process and an anterodorsal corner that is more rounded and lacks a well - developed , triangular extension .
the angular reaches the posterior half of the coronoid process and has a small , ventral foramen . the foramen found in the splenial is located closer to the angular - splenial suture than in species of uropeltis and rhinophis .
the angular lacks the ventral convexity observed in u . woodmasoni . instead , that surface of the bone is rough and irregular and has an anteroposteriorly aligned , low ridge along the midline . medial to the ridge is a dent that may contain a nearly closed foramen at its center . the splenial is like that of u . woodmasoni .
in dorsal view , the nasals appear to be slightly broader than in u . woodmasoni and taper anteriorly only at their tips ( fig . 6a ) . the nasals do not extend as far anteriorly as they do in u . woodmasoni , terminating well posterior to the expansion of the rostral process of the premaxilla . the lateral suture with the septomaxilla is more horizontal than in articulated uropeltis specimens . the suture with the frontal is rounded along its central portion , with distinct lateral processes posteriorly , and small medial processes directed posteriorly between the frontals . no disarticulated material is available .
in ventral view , the palatine has a rounded anterior vomerine process as in u . woodmasoni and most other taxa we examined ( fig . 21g ) . the lateral process , which is again the ventral surface of a closed loop , has a hooked morphology . the loop extends farther laterally than in the examined species of rhinophis and uropeltis , and this structure has a noticeably angled corner at its widest point ( fig . 21g , h ) . unlike in u . woodmasoni the loop does not form right angles with the ventral floor and the lateral surface of the palatine .
the quadrate of u . rubromaculata does not differ substantially from that of u . woodmasoni . however , in articulated skulls , because there is less constriction of the retroarticular process of the compound bone in u . rubromaculata , the shaft appears longer relative to the caudal process , but the proportions are actually the same as in u . woodmasoni .
as in u . rubromaculata , the angular extends to the midpoint of the coronoid process of the compound bone . the splenial does not differ from that of u . woodmasoni .
the posterior end of the dentary is much more pointed than in u . woodmasoni , and the last tooth occurs at the splenial - angular suture . seven teeth are present .
the single specimen possesses a quadrate with a caudal process that is approximately 2 . 5 times the length of the shaft . overall the bone is robust , as in u . woodmasoni .
the occipital condyle of u . woodmasoni has a long , robust neck ( figs . 5a ; 23 ) . posterior to the trough leading down into the braincase , at the narrowest point of the neck , the dorsal surface of the occipital condyle has a shallow depression or fovea for the continuation of the brainstem [ 17 ] . this is also visible in the other species of uropeltis and in rhinophis ( figs . 5a , b ; 6 ) .
the nasals have a broader dorsal surface than in u . woodmasoni ( fig . 5b ) . tapering of the nasals in dorsal view begins farther anteriorly and in lateral view occurs at a much shallower angle , forming a triangular point anteriorly rather than the curved edge seen in u . woodmasoni ( fig . 2b ) . this is associated with the more blunt appearance of the tip of the snout in u . rubromaculata . in addition , in lateral view the ventral surface is less emarginated than in u . woodmasoni . the contact with the frontal is subtly angled posterolaterally and has fine - scale undulations along the suture .
the angular extends posteriorly to below the center of the coronoid process . clear foramina occur in both the angular and splenial , and the foramen in the angular is located more ventrally than in u . woodmasoni .
the anterior rostrum is broader than that of u . woodmasoni , as are the sagittal groove and the portion of the nasal process that separates the nasals ( fig . 5b ) . contact with the vomers does not differ substantially from u . woodmasoni . the subnarial foramen is enclosed entirely within the premaxilla on the right side , but on the left the posterior margin is formed by the palatal tubercle of the septomaxilla ( fig . 4b ) . the contact with the maxilla is relatively broader than in u . woodmasoni , owing mostly to the proportionally broader transverse process of the premaxilla . in palatal view , the vomer is excluded from contact with the maxilla and the transverse process of the premaxilla by a significant exposure of the septomaxilla . a mediolaterally oriented canal penetrates the septum at the base of the nasal process ( as in some specimens of u . woodmasoni ) . the ventral premaxillary foramen is formed as in u . woodmasoni , but an additional small foramen is situated anterior to the former foramen , entering dorsally into the body of the rostrum .
overall , the compound bone strongly resembles that of u . woodmasoni . the retroarticular process , however , is much more rounded and circular , although its dorsal surface does not seem to constrict the socket for the quadrate . a small , thin coronoid bone is present , and in lateral view a foramen is ventral to the anterior half of the coronoid process , although it is located more ventrally than in u . woodmasoni .
synonymy : s . melanogaster günther 1875 is a secondary junior homonym of uropeltis melanogaster gray 1858 . it is hence unavailable und therfore has been replaced by the next available name by gans 1966 . u . ruhunae was synonymized with u . woodmasoni by pyron et al . 2016 . distribution : the locality of ruhunae is likely in error . although it was reported from sri lanka ( galle district , southern province ) with its type locality : „galle
, ceylon , pyron et al . 2016 are almost certain it doesn’t occur there .
the shape , structure , and associations of the frontal in the articulated skull are similar to those outlined for u . woodmasoni , although the crista trabecularis ends posterior to the frontal - parietal suture . disarticulated material is not available .
the ectopterygoid process of the pterygoid is broader and more rounded than that of u . woodmasoni , and reaches half the length and twice the width of the associated palatine process . the angle between the two is greater than 45° .
the ectopterygoid strongly resembles that of u . woodmasoni , but possesses a larger surface area for contact with the maxilla ( the maxilla covers more than half the length of the ectopterygoid ; fig . 6a ) and is also less strongly arched .
the ectopterygoid is similar to that of u . woodmasoni , although the element is slender and somewhat irregular , as in u . melanogaster . however , in dorsal view , the posterior half is not as wide as in u . melanogaster .
the ectopterygoid appears irregular and weakly developed compared to the other uropeltis taxa ( fig . 22b ) . the curvature of the bone forms a sharper ( though still obtuse ) angle , but does not form a lateral flange as in u . rubromaculata . the posterior half of the ectopterygoid is broader horizontally and more dorsoventrally compressed than the anterior half .
uropeltis ceylanica is a nonvenomous shield tail snake species found in southern india . no subspecies are currently recognized . = = geographic range = = found in southern india in the western ghats ( kerala ) from castle rock to travancore ( anaimalai hills ) , in the eastern ghats in the shevaroy hills , and in the southern ghats from kunjithanni ( idikki d . . .
the ectopterygoid is more arched than that of u . woodmasoni in lateral view . the curvature of the bone is also more prominent , forming a more acute and abrupt angle . the apex is slightly expanded laterally to form a small triangular flange ( fig . 5b ) .
the shape and proportions of the maxilla in lateral view differ in u . rubromaculata . more than half the length of the bone tapers posteriorly . the portion of the bone anterior to the ascending process is dorsoventrally much deeper than in u . woodmasoni , giving the ( false ) impression that the anterior portion has been anteroposteriorly compressed ( fig . 2b ) . the ventral margin of the maxilla in lateral view is more strongly irregular than in u . woodmasoni . at the contact with the premaxilla , the lateral surface extends below the ventral margin of the premaxilla .
the maxilla resembles that of u . woodmasoni in lateral view , with a horizontal , unsloped dorsal surface anterior to the ascending process ( fig . 8 ) . the process is narrower than in u . woodmasoni and more rounded at its apex . additionally , the anteriormost foramen is more posteriorly located and the anterior tip of the maxilla is slightly taller , extending ventrally just past the ventral margin of the premaxilla in lateral view . seven tooth positions occupy each side , and the posteriormost tooth is positioned at the level of the anterior - most contact with the ectopterygoid .
the ectopterygoid is straighter than that of u . woodmasoni and r . homolepis , but has a slight bend just posterior to the contact with the maxilla . little of the bone is free of contact with either the pterygoid or the maxilla , and that portion is only slightly arched in lateral view .
other than a smoother and straighter process for the compound , a more sharply pointed posterior tip , and the possession of less edentulous space posterior to the anterior tip , the dentary does not differ substantially from that of u . woodmasoni ( fig . 28i , j ) . eight teeth are present .
the nasals most closely resemble those of u . woodmasoni in proportions and shape . the lateral suture with the septomaxilla is more horizontal . the suture with the frontal is straight but angled obliquely ( fig . 6b ) , because the lateral edge of the nasal extends farther posteriorly than does the medial edge .
rhinophis drummondhayi resembles u . woodmasoni in the length and breadth of the frontals , but the lateral curvature is not as pronounced in dorsal view , and the contact with the prefrontal is curved as in u . rubromaculata . the crista trabecularis ends a short distance anterior to the ventrolateral frontal - parietal suture .
the long , posterior palatine process is dorsoventrally compressed ( figs . 4c ; 16h , i ) and much broader than in u . woodmasoni . the tapering of the posterolateral margin of the vomer that produces the process is more gradual than in u . woodmasoni . in dorsal view , a crest and anterior concavity occur in association with the posterolateral process as in other taxa ( fig . 16g ) . a single dorsal foramen pierces the posterolateral crest near its origin at the medial wall . dorsal to the palatine process , a short , tapered , and pointed additional posterior process begins at the medial wall ( fig . 16g , i ) . in between the two posterior processes , a small , anteroposteriorly directed canal leads into the medial wall . the canal exits at the level of the crest , in the floor of the medial wall and , based on position , may be homologous to the ventral foramen of u . woodmasoni .
the ectopterygoid shows less curvature than that of u . woodmasoni . a slight , dorsally convex arch characterizes the bone in lateral view . a subtle apex , formed by the transition between the laterally compressed anterior half and the dorsoventrally compressed posterior half of the element , occurs immediately posterior to the contact with the maxilla .
in u . woodmasoni , the ectopterygoid process is dorsoventrally compressed anteriorly . the angle formed at the junction of the ectopterygoid and palatine processes is approximately 45° , and the ectopterygoid process is usually between one - quarter and one - half the length of the palatine process ( fig . 22e ) . in ventral view , about three - quarters of the way from anterior to posterior , the pterygoid curves and bends laterally toward the otic region . in lateral view the element shows a dorsally convex arch , sloping upward from the lowest position at the posterior end to the highest point at the anterior end . the posterior tip of the pterygoid is spatulate in u . woodmasoni .
in dorsolateral view , the wide , anterior portion of the palatine extends laterally only to the lacrimal duct , falling short of the terminus of the maxillary process of the prefrontal . in addition to the tiny foramen visible in this view in u . woodmasoni , a second foramen is located at the posterior extent of the contact with the maxilla , near the base of the pterygoid process . when viewed laterally , the tapering of the pterygoid process and the end of contact with the frontal occur anterior to the optic foramen , farther anteriorly than in u . woodmasoni . the clasping articulation of the pterygoid process of the palatine with the palatine process of the pterygoid is depicted in figure 17b .
the dentary has a much more sharply pointed posterior tip than that of u . woodmasoni , and the teeth end posteriorly at the splenial - angular suture . the groove for meckel ' s cartilage is open in anterior view , and this creates a medial , trochlea - like expansion of the anterior tip of the dentary . eight teeth are present .
the coronoid process of the compound bone is broad , and somewhat triangular . a foramen pierces the medial surface of the retroarticular process , but none occurs ventral to the coronoid process . the retroarticular process is like that of u . woodmasoni , and both the dorsal portion of the process and the anterior rim of the socket for the quadrate constrict the cotyle .
in ventral view the anterior edge of the vomer has a short , ventral premaxillary process with a shallow , lateral indentation and farther laterally a tiny , pointed projection that juts between the premaxilla and septomaxilla ( figs . 4b ; 17b ) . the anterior margin of the anterolateral process is posterior to that projection . compared to u . woodmasoni , the anterolateral process is expanded and has a squared appearance . the anterolateral process of the vomer and the anteromedial process of the maxilla do not touch but both are in contact with the overlying septomaxilla . within the vomeronasal opening , a thin bar of bone separates the smaller , medial half from the lateral half . as in u . woodmasoni , u . rubromaculata has a long , thin palatine process .
as in u . woodmasoni , the maxilla and ectopterygoid of u . rubromaculata have a long mediolateral contact , with the maxilla lateral to the ectopterygoid . however , in u . rubromaculata the posterior rim of the posteriormost tooth position coincides with the beginning of the contact with the ectopterygoid . in ventral view , the palatine process is broader , larger , and more rounded medially than in u . woodmasoni ( fig . 4b ) . the maxilla and vomer do not contact in palatal view . the teeth are much larger and fewer in number than in any other taxon examined ( six positions on the left , five on the right ) . our tooth count is consistent with a previous report of five maxillary teeth in u . rubromaculata [ 15 ] .
the supraorbital processes are robust and similar to those of u . woodmasoni , but the sagittal crest is stronger and terminates anteriorly at a triangular , roughened , shallow depression . there is only a small posterior notch along the midline . in lateral view , the majority of the cn v 2 foramen is in the braincase , and the parietal completes only the anterior - most portion .
the prefrontal is not as anteroposteriorly shortened as in r . blythii , nor is it as round as in u . woodmasoni ( fig . 8b ) . in this specimen ( tmm m - 10046 ) the prefrontal and parietal closely approach , but do not actually contact , one another . the rounded inflection of the anterodorsal margin is located at the junction with the nasal and septomaxilla .
the frontals are proportionately wider and shorter than in the uropeltis specimens . the contacts in the articulated skull are the same , although sharper and more angled than in r . blythii . in dorsal exposure , a small , pointed process appears to jut into the junction of the frontal with the prefrontal and supraorbital process of the parietal and may occur because the prefrontal and supraorbital process are in contact . a similar , but narrower , surface extends into the junction between frontal , nasal , and prefrontal . the crista trabecularis ends at the frontal - parietal suture .
the basioccipital and basisphenoid are fused in all of our adult specimens , although previously those bones were reported to remain separate [ 17 ] . thus , this species exhibits the same degree of fusion found in rhinophis and uropeltis . dorsally , no sagittal crest occurs in the supraoccipital region . the canals piercing that area are more medially positioned than they are in species of uropeltis and rhinophis and open posteriorly inside the dorsal margin of the foramen magnum . the occipital condyle is short , lacking any solid neck between the triangular trough leading into the braincase and the actual condyle , and there is no posterior fovea as exhibited by uropeltis and rhinophis ( figs . 5c , 27 ) . the number of hypoglossal openings varies individually in b . rhodogaster . in tmm m - 10019 , tmm m - 10027 , and tmm m - 10022 there are two on the right and one on the left , whereas in tmm m - 10016 , tmm m - 10023 , and tmm m - 10020 there are two on the left and one on the right . in tmm m - 10013 , tmm m - 10017 , tmm m - 10018 , tmm m - 10024 , and tmm m - 10014 the opening is single on both sides , and in tmm m - 10015 , tmm m - 10026 , and tmm m - 10020 it is paired on both sides . when paired , one opening is located dorsal to the other , and the more dorsal opening is smaller . an exception occurs in specimen tmm m - 10011 , in which the opening is single on the right , but on the left it appears to be paired as a result of a deep division of one large foramen .
the supraorbital processes are straight and slender , with little tapering and a shorter length relative to the other species we examined ( fig . 8a ) . dorsally the sagittal crest is stronger than in the three uropeltis species examined and ends anteriorly at a weakly depressed , roughened , irregular spot . the two lobes of the shelf dorsal to the otic region are relatively short , and there is a small , squared notch at the posterior midline . in lateral view the cn v 2 opening is almost entirely within the braincase , but a small portion of the parietal completes its anterior edge .
anterior is to the left unless noted ; scale bars = 0 . 5 mm . a from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; b from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; c from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10027 ) ; and d–f from ct scans of u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10006 ) . left quadrates in lateral view ( a–c ) , and right stapes in ventrolateral ( k , anterior to the right ) , dorsal ( l , anterior to the right ) , and anterolateral ( m , lateral to the left ) views . fp . st = stapedial footplate ; m . con = mandibular condyle of quadrate ; sh . st = stapedial shaft ; sst . p = suprastapedial process ( caudal process ) of quadrate ; urltoken = tympanic crest of quadrate .
the posteromedial corner of the nasal buttress completely encloses the vomeronasal posteromedial foramen , forming a short tube ( visible only in the disarticulated element , fig . 10i , l ) . the posteromedial process associated with this foramen is short and triangular in b . rhodogaster . the open , posterior margin of the cupola for the vomeronasal organ is rounded and upswept , as opposed to the condition in u . woodmasoni and u . melanogaster .
the ectopterygoid process is narrow , and the palatine process is slender ( fig . 7b ) . the ectopterygoid process is less than a quarter of the length of the palatine process . the angle between the processes is slightly less than 45° , and their junction occurs farther anteriorly than in uropeltis , approximately one - quarter of the way from the anterior end of the bone . a distinct bend with a roughly square flange or extension is placed at the point where the posterior tip curves upward toward the otic region . this occurs three - quarters of the way down the bone , moving from anterior to posterior .
the nasals are more rectangular than in species referred to either uropeltis or rhinophis . tapering occurs only at the anteromedial tip and is visible only in dorsal view ( figs . 5c , 12g ) . the overall appearance is of a rectangular bone with an anterolateral notch . the nasal process of the premaxilla is exposed in the narrow space between the anterior ends of the nasals . in lateral view , the nasal shares an elongated contact with the septomaxilla ; no dorsal emargination is present , but the posterior margin of the external naris excavates a shallow notch in the anterior surface of the nasal ( figs . 2c , 12h ) .
the ventral premaxillary process is small and rounded , abuts the vomerine process of the premaxilla , and possesses a shallow indentation laterally ( figs . 7b ; 18b ) . the anterolateral process is squared and meets the anteromedial process of the maxilla . the anterior projection of the posterolateral process forms much more of the vomeronasal opening than in any other species examined . the small , pointed process that projects into the vomeronasal opening originates dorsal to the ventral surface , rather than at it as in the three species of uropeltis , and r . blythii . dorsally , the vomer has a strong medial inflection . the palatine process is not elongate .
the posterior part of the transverse process of the premaxilla slots into the space between the anteromedial process and the anterior tip of the maxilla ( fig . 3i ) , forming a clasping articulation between the two elements . in palatal view , the entire anterior surface of the anteromedial process forms a firm articulation with the transverse process of the premaxilla ( unlike in u . woodmasoni , in which only a small lateral portion of the anterior surface contacts the premaxilla ) .
the dentary is similar to that of u . woodmasoni , except in the case of the teeth , which extend farther posteriorly ; two full sockets are located posterior to the angular - splenial suture . eight teeth occur on the dentary ; like the maxillary teeth , they are enlarged relative to those of other taxa examined ( fig . 2b ) . our tooth count is higher than a previous report of six or seven dentary teeth occurring in specimens of u . rubromaculata [ 15 ] .
the contact of the prefrontal with the nasal in lateral view is longer than in u . woodmasoni , and the inflection in the shape of the anterodorsal margin occurs ventral to the junction with the nasal and septomaxilla . as in u . melanogaster , the lateral surface appears anteroposteriorly compressed , and overall the bone is taller than it is long ( fig . 8a ) . the frontal process is much larger than the lateral foot process , but does not contact the supraorbital process of the parietal .
in lateral view , the entire dorsal margin of the compound bone is arched from the posterior extent of the dentary articulation to just anterior to the articulation with the quadrate , forming a large , broad , rounded coronoid process ( fig . 8a ) . this gives the compound bone a wide and smooth appearance at its midpoint . a tiny coronoid bone is present , but unlike in u . woodmasoni , a sliver of the bone is visible in lateral view along the dorsal margin of the compound bone .
when the six characters that exhibited the highest degree of polymorphism and individual asymmetries ( i . e . , characters 4 , 6 , 7 , 11 , 13 ) were removed from the analysis , 469 mpts were recovered ( tree length = 49 , ci = 0 . 7755 , ri = 0 . 8791 ) . as indicated by the majority rule consensus ( fig . 29b ) , a clade comprising species of uropeltis , rhinophis , and plectrurus was recovered in most topologies ( 87 % ) . however , in both the majority rule and strict consensus , resolution of relationships other than the position of species of melanophidium was extremely poor , suggesting that the excluded characters carry phylogenetic signal and should be revised rather than discarded ( figs . 29b , 30b ) .
the parietal is a smoothly rounded , dorsally convex , midline element . at its anterolateral margin , a fingerlike supraorbital process extends anteriorly onto each frontal . in addition to the frontal , the parietal contacts the fused braincase complex posteriorly and ventrally , and occasionally the prefrontal anteriorly ( via the supraorbital process ) . the parietal closely approaches the pterygoid laterally , but soft tissue prevents contact . in all uropeltids we examined , only a single , unpaired parietal is present , although previous authors reported that incomplete fusion of the parietals is visible in some specimens of rhinophis and uropeltis [ 17 ] . it seems likely that those reports were based on the narrow , slit - like opening along the posterior midline of the parietal visible in some specimens ( e . g . , fig . 15 ) .
both specimens resemble u . woodmasoni in their frontal proportions , but as in the other rhinophis species we examined , the frontals show much less mediolateral tapering in dorsal view . the crista trabecularis ends just anterior to the frontal - parietal suture . in all rhinophis species examined the optic foramen was contained within the frontal . in tmm m - 10038 , the palatal bones are disarticulated , and it is clear that the posterior bifurcation of the ventral groove is absent . in tmm m - 10037 the frontal process of the prefrontal and the supraorbital process of the parietal are in contact .
the supraorbital processes of the parietal are proportionately narrower and straighter than in u . woodmasoni , and also are less tapered anteriorly . in dorsal view , the sagittal crest is more strongly developed in u . rubromaculata , but still weak , and the crest ends at a circular , roughened patch of bone instead of terminating at a depression . the posterior margin of the parietal has a prominent trilobed appearance . in lateral view , the opening for the cn v 2 is almost entirely within the braincase , but the anterior margin is completed by the parietal ( fig . 2b ) .
in one specimen ( tmm m - 10032 ) , the caudal process is proportionately longer than the shaft , reaching 2 . 5 times the length of the latter . the second specimen , tmm m - 10045 , lacks this extra length and shows a stronger resemblance to u . woodmasoni , although both specimens of u . melanogaster have a more slender quadrate ( fig . 25b ) . the anterodorsal margin of the quadrate curves so that the anterodorsal corner is ventral to the dorsal margin of the bone . the angle between the caudal process and the shaft is more acute , roughly 90° .
the anterolateral process is large , broad , and squared in ventral view . it meets the anteromedial process of the maxilla and maintains contact with it along the posterior margin of the latter , moving toward the body of the maxilla . the anterior margin of the vomer is more like that of u . woodmasoni than r . blythii . it is also similar to those taxa in that the small process that projects into the vomeronasal opening originates on the ventral surface of the bone . as in all other rhinophis species we examined , the palatine process is not elongate ( figs . 7d ; 19b ) .
the maxilla more closely resembles that of u . woodmasoni than r . blythii in lateral view , because the anterior tip does not extend ventrally past the premaxilla at the suture between the two elements , but the maxilla does deepen just posterior to that suture ( fig . 8b ) . the posteriormost lateral foramen is entirely anterior to the ascending process . in ventral view , the palatine process is small and does not extend far medially ( fig . 7b ) . seven tooth positions occur on each side , and the posteriormost tooth is positioned at the level of the anterior - most contact with the ectopterygoid .
in anterolateral view the dorsal premaxillary process of the vomer extends anteriorly past the septomaxilla and is visible in the floor of the external naris . in ventral view , the triangularly pointed ventral premaxillary process of the vomer lies lateral to the vomerine process of the premaxilla ( figs . 7a ; 18a ) . the medial surface of the premaxillary process is l - shaped and receives the vomerine process of the premaxilla . posterolaterally , the anterolateral process of the vomer contacts the anteromedial process of the maxilla on the right side , but not the left side , of our specimen ( tmm m - 10030 ) . the posterolateral process and its anterior projection are broader and rounder than in the other species of uropeltis examined . the posterolateral process is thickened and a small ridge occurs where the process forms the posterolateral margin of the vomeronasal opening . the palatine process is not elongate .
the prefrontal is similar to that of u . woodmasoni , but has a relatively larger frontal process that is also larger than the lateral foot process . in lateral view the rounded inflection in the anterodorsal margin occurs just posterior to the junction with the nasal and septomaxilla . a clear gap separates the frontal process of the prefrontal and the supraorbital process of the parietal . additionally , the entire anterior half of the ventrolateral margin ( including the medial foot process ) is overlapped by the ascending process of the maxilla , so that no part of the prefrontal is visible between the septomaxilla and the ascending process of the maxilla .
as in the other rhinophis , the anterior lateral foramen of the maxilla is positioned more posteriorly than in u . woodmasoni . the lateral maxillary foramina are proportionately larger than any other taxon surveyed . the posterior - most foramen is located ventral and slightly posterior to the midpoint of the ascending process ( fig . 8d ) . ventrally , the anteromedial process is reduced , and the palatine process has a triangular , posteriorly directed point ( fig . 7d ) . the vomer and maxilla contact in palatal view . there are seven tooth positions on each side , and the posteriormost tooth is positioned just anterior to the anteriormost contact with the ectopterygoid .
the shape of the septomaxilla is similar to that of u . woodmasoni in lateral view , but is more rounded overall . in lateral exposure , its anterior margin curves so that the ventral portion extends farther anteriorly than the dorsal ( fig . 8a ) . the septomaxilla reaches its anteriormost extent at the level of the premaxilla - maxilla suture and contacts both bones at that suture . there is no palatal tubercle visible between the junction of the vomer , premaxilla , and maxilla . the vomer and maxilla meet in palatal view because of complete underlap of the septomaxilla by the vomers and a robust anteromedial process of the maxilla ( fig . 7a ) .
anterior is to the left ; scale bars = 1 . 0 mm . ( a ) u . woodmasoni , tmm m - 10010 . note missing max , pl , ecpt , and pt on left side . ( b ) u . rubromaculata , tmm m - 10028 . note that right lower jaw is present . ang = angular ; den = dentary ; ecpt = ectopterygoid ; fr = frontal ; max = maxilla ; pal . tub = palatine tubercle of septomaxilla ; pfr = prefrontal ; pl = palatine ; pmx = premaxilla ; pt = pterygoid ; smx = septomaxilla ; spl = splenial ; sph = sphenoid region of the otooccipital complex ; vo = vomer .
anterior up ; scale bars = 1 . 0 mm . ( a ) u . woodmasoni , tmm m - 10006 ; ( b ) u . rubromaculata , tmm m - 10028 ( c ) b . rhodogaster , tmm m - 10011 . ecpt = ectopterygoid ; fr = frontal ; low . j = lower jaw ; max = maxilla ; na = nasal ; oo . c = otooccipital complex ; pa = parietal ; pfr = prefrontal ; pmx = premaxilla ; pl = palatine ; pt = pterygoid ; smx = septomaxilla ; q = quadrate ; r . c = rieppel ' s canal ; v2m . f = foramen for branch of maxillary branch of trigeminal nerve .
anterior is to the left ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . a–c from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . a , d , g in dorsal view ; b , e , h in ventral view ; and c , f , i in lateral view . arrow points to slit - like opening along posterior midline of parietal . urltoken = parietal shelf ; s . o . p = supraorbital process of the parietal ; tab = tab - like process that articulates with otic region ; v2 . f = notch that contributes to v2 foramen .
the premaxilla is similar to that of r . blythii , but the rostrum is more rounded and less broad ( similar to the condition in u . woodmasoni ) . the contact with the maxilla in lateral view is almost vertical , but a small posterodorsal tip of the transverse process of the premaxilla overlaps the anterior portion of the dorsal margin of the maxilla ( fig . 8d ) . the vomerine process is emarginated in a way similar to that of r . drummondhayi . the subnarial opening is completely enclosed by the premaxilla on the right side , but a small portion of the septomaxilla closes the opening on the left ( fig . 7d ) . a single ventral premaxillary foramen and a foramen piercing the medial septum are present .
anterior is to the left in a , d , e ; anterior is to the right in b , c , f ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . a–c from the left side of the skull in u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from the right side of the skull in u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from the left side of the skull in b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10027 ) . a , c , e in lateral view and b , d , f in medial view . fr . pfr = frontal process of prefrontal ; knob = medially projecting knob at base of frontal process of prefrontal ; l . f . p = lateral foot plate ; m . f . p = medial foot process .
anterior is to the right unless noted ; scale bars = 0 . 5 mm . a , e from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; b , f from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; c , d from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10016 ) ; and g from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . right ectopterygoids in ventral ( a–c ) and dorsal ( d ) views ; left pterygoids ( e , g ; anterior to the left ) and right pterygoid ( f ) in dorsal views . ect . pt = ectopterygoid process of pterygoid ; mx . ect = maxillary process of ectopterygoid ; pl . pt = palatine process of pterygoid ; post . p = posterior process of pterygoid ; pt . ect = pterygoid process of ectopterygoid .
anterior is to the left unless noted ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . all elements from the left side of the skull . a–c from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . a , d , g in dorsal view ; b , e , h in lateral view ; and c , f , i in medial view ( anterior is to the right ) . can = anterior opening of the canal within the medial process of the nasal ; md . p = medial process ; pmx . na = premaxillary process of nasal ; shelf = shelf that is continuous with pre - orbital ridge of frontal ; vl . p = ventrolateral process at triple junction .
the openings for cn v 2 and cn v 3 are in the same positions as in u . woodmasoni , although the prootic canal is shifted dorsally and appears to be merged with the juxtastapedial recess . the canal is separated from the opening of the v 3 by a narrow partition of bone . on the left side the laterosphenoid foramen is ventral to and between the openings for cn v 2 and cn v 3 , but on the right it is located posterodorsally , adjacent to the anteroventral margin of the cn v 3 foramen . a tiny dorsal metotic foramen is visible when viewed through the foramen magnum , and the opening for cn x and the jugular vein is single . the opening for the hypoglossal nerve also is single . the interchoanal process is visible , but because the specimen is articulated , it is unknown if that process extends anteriorly beyond the cultriform process .
anterior up ; scale bars = 1 . 0 mm . ( a ) u . woodmasoni , tmm m - 10006 ; ( b ) u . rubromaculata , tmm m - 10028 ; ( c ) b . rhodogaster , tmm m - 10011 . ang = angular ; com = compound ; den = dentary ; ecpt = ectopterygoid ; js . r = juxtastapedial recess ; max = maxilla ; oo . c = otooccipital complex ; pa = parietal ; pl = palatine ; pmx = premaxilla ; pro . c = prootic canal ; pt = pterygoid ; smx = septomaxilla ; spl = splenial ; sub . f = subnarial foramen ; q = quadrate ; vn . o = vomeronasal opening ; vo = vomer ; vp . f = ventral premaxillary foramen ; v2 . f = foramen for maxillary branch of trigeminal nerve ; v3 . f = foramen for mandibular branch of trigeminal nerve .
anterior is to the left in a–f ; anterior is to the right in i ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . a–c from the right side of u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from the right side of the skull of u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from the left side of the skull of b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . a , d , g in dorsal view ; b , e , h in ventral view ; and c , f , i in medial view . ch . pl = choanal process of palatine ; lat . f = tiny lateral foramen ; lat . p = lateral process of palatine ; pt . pl = pterygoid process of palatine ; vo . pl = vomerine process of palatine ; v2m . f = foramen for branch of the trigeminal nerve ( cn v 2 ) .
the pterygoid has a higher arch in lateral view and more curvature in dorsal view than in u . woodmasoni . the bend originates earlier , approximately halfway along the bone from anterior to posterior . a broad , short flange or extension of the apex of curvature occurs posterior to the center of the pterygoid ( fig . 22f ) . the ectopterygoid process is short , approximately one - quarter the length of the palatine process . the anteriormost tip of the palatine process is irregular . the palatine process is wide at its base , but gradually tapers anteriorly . the process becomes dorsoventrally compressed on its lateral side near its base , giving the impression of a thin sheet ( i . e . , web ) of bone between the palatine and ectopterygoid processes . at about three - quarters of the distance anteriorly , the tapering becomes abrupt and the resulting tip is pointed and slender . the posterior process is rounded .
anterior is to the left ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . a–c from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10024 ) . a , d , g in dorsal view ; b , e , h in ventral view ; and c , f , i in lateral view . the posterior tip of the nasal process is broken in the b . rhodogaster specimen . l . f = lateral foramen ; na . pmx = nasal process ( keel ) of premaxilla ; pl . c = posterolateral canal ; ros = rostral tip ; sep . c = septal canal ; sub . f = subnarial foramen ; sub . fen = subnarial fenestra ; trv . p = transverse process ; vp . f = ventral premaxillary foramen ; vo . pmx = vomerine process of premaxilla .
the vertical suture with the braincase complex terminates dorsally at a broad shelf of the parietal that extends posteriorly to overlie the anterodorsal half of the otic capsules , in the supraoccipital region . the lateral edges of the shelf are straight and horizontal and originate at a right angle to the vertical suture with the otic region . in other taxa the posterior extent of the shelf is composed of two short , oblate lobes , but in u . woodmasoni the lobes are broad and meet along the posterior midline to form a rounded , smooth , and upswept posterior margin . in three specimens ( tmm m - 10001 , - 10004 , - 10009 ) , the posteriormost region of the shelf butterflies into a small v - shaped notch along the midline ( fig . 15a ) . in disarticulated specimens the ventral surface of the posterior shelf is rough and irregular along the area where it articulates with the otic capsules ( fig . 15b ) .
anterior is to the left unless noted ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . all elements from the left side of the skull . a–c from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . a , d , g in dorsal view ; b , e , h in lateral view ; and c , f , i in medial view ( anterior is to the right ) . fr . c = frontal canal ; l . f . f = lateral frontal flange ; m . f . f = mesial frontal flange ; o . f = optic foramen ; ol . fr . = olfactory process of frontal ; p . o . r = pre - orbital ridge of frontal ; so . g = groove for supraorbital process of parietal ; trab . g = groove for cartilaginous portion of crista trabecularis .
anterior is to the left in a–f ; anterior is to the right in i ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . a–c from the right side of u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from the right side of u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from the left side of b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . a , d , g in dorsal view ; b , e , h in ventral view ; and c , f , i in medial view . al . p = anterior lateral process ; d . pmx . vo = dorsal premaxillary process of vomer ; dm . f = dorsomedial foramen of posterolateral crest ; md . w = medial wall ; urltoken = crest on posterolateral process ; pl . p = posterior lateral process ; pl . vo = palatine process of vomer ; pmx . vo = premaxillary process of vomer ; tab = bone tab projecting into vomero - nasal opening ; v . pmx . vo = ventral premaxillary process of vomer .
anterior is to the left unless noted ; scale bar = 0 . 5 mm . all elements from the left side of the skull . a–c from u . woodmasoni ( tmm m - 10001 ) ; d–f from u . melanogaster ( tmm m - 10045 ) ; and g–i from b . rhodogaster ( tmm m - 10022 ) . a , d , g in lateral view ; b , e , h in medial view ( anterior is to the right ) ; and c , f , i in dorsal view . a . m . f = anterior maxillary foramen ; alv . c = alveolar canal ; ant . med . p = anteromedial process ; asc . mx = ascending process ; ect . mx = ectopterygoid process of maxilla ; f . jug + x = foramen for jugular vein and vagus nerve ; m . m . f = middle maxillary foramen ; p . m . f = posterior maxillary foramen ; pl . mx = palatine process ( posteromedial process ) of maxilla ; pmx . mx = premaxillary process of maxilla ; shelf = shelf medial to articulation facet for prefrontal .
in ventral view , the lateral process of the palatine [ 32 ] projects anterolaterally towards the posterior margin of the palatine process of the maxilla , by which it is underlapped . in dorsolateral view of articulated skulls , and even more clearly in disarticulated specimens , it can be seen that the lateral ‘process’ is the ventral surface of a loop of bone surrounding the large foramen for cn v 2 ( fig . 21b ) . the same structure was described for the disarticulated palatine of p . aureus [ 19 ] . in u . woodmasoni , the loop is oriented vertically and aligned anterolaterally from its origin on the lateral surface of the palatine , positioned at right angles to the ventral floor and the lateral wall of the element . in some specimens the presence of a suture indicates that the loop is formed by closure between a dorsally reaching ventrolateral process and a ventrally reaching dorsolateral process . when disarticulated and viewed ventrally , anterior to the loop and at the exit for the foramen , a broad groove or depression slopes anteroventrally , eventually flattening out with the ventral surface of the palatine . the palatine process of the maxilla articulates with this groove ( fig . 21b ) .
in u . woodmasoni , the nasals contact each other medially along a straight suture from their posterior contact with the frontals until approximately three - quarters of their length anteriorly ( fig . 5a ) . at the point of overlap with the premaxilla , the premaxillary processes of the nasals diverge laterally . the nasal process of the premaxilla is visible dorsally as a wedge located in the fork between the two nasals . the nasals overlap the premaxilla up to the point where the rostral process of the premaxilla expands laterally . in both dorsal and lateral views , the nasal tapers anteriorly ( figs . 2a ; 5a ; 12a , b ) . in lateral view , a broad , crescentic ventral emargination forms the dorsal border of the external naris . in most specimens , the emargination begins at the anterior point of contact with the septomaxilla and increases in a gradual curve anteriorly . in tmm m - 10003 , tmm m - 10005 , and tmm m - 10010 , the emargination begins anterior to that contact . the anterolateral extent forms a rounded surface with a slight ventral inclination ( fig . 2a ) ; dorsally the anterior end of the nasal appears as an elongated , pointed premaxillary process .


it is found in china ( sichuan ) .

the length of the forewings is 9-10 mm .

auzata semilucida

this is the place for semilucida definition . you find here semilucida meaning , synonyms of semilucida and images for semilucida copyright 2017 © urltoken
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auzata semilucida is a moth in the drepanidae family . it was described by chu and wang in 1988 . it is found in china ( sichuan ) .
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the length of the forewings is 9 - 10 mm . adults have a large translucent patch on the hindwings .
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bhou io xiang henordokcidenia kolegio de agrikulturo la shaanxi - a ir . stltuto de zoologio ; studo drepanedoj el shaanxi provinco ( lepidoptera : drepanidae ) [ j ] ; entomotaxonomia ; 1982 - 04
chou io xiang he nordokcidenta kolegio de agrikulturo , wugong , shaanxi . la shaanxi - a instituto de zoologio , xi ' an , shaanxi . ; studo de drepanedoj el yunnan provinco ( lepidoptera : drepanidae ) [ j ] ; entomotaxonomia ; 1984 - z1
guo zheng - fu ~ 1 , ding dong - sun ~ 2 ( 1 . jiangxi provincial academy of forestry , nanchang , jiangxi 330046 , china ; 2 . jiangxi provincial station of forest disease and pest control , nanchang , jiangxi 330077 , china ) ; butterfly fauna analysis of the natural reservation of guanshan , jiangxi province [ j ] ; entomological journal of east china ; 2005 - 02
xie xiao - jian1 , ren ze - jun1 , ding dong - sun1 , lin yu - jian2 ( 1 . forest pest control station of jiangxi province , nanchang , 330077 ; 2 . college of agronomy , jiangxi agriculture university , nanchang 330045 ) ; the species of lymantriidae insects from jiangxi province [ j ] ; jiangxi plant protection ; 2007 - 01
ding dongsun1 , zhu xianchao2 , huang xianlin3 , qiu ningfang1 ( 1 . jiangxi forest pest control station , nanchang jiangxi 330077 , china ; 2 . leqing city yandang town forest station , leqing zhejiang 325614 , china ; 3 . leqing city xiangyang town forest station , leqing zhejiang 325619 , china ) ; tettigonioidae and geographical distributions of insect from jiangxi lushan nature reserve [ j ] ; jiangxi forestry science and technology ; 2007 - 03
zhen benguang1 , chen chunquang1 , zhuo chuansen1 , cheng yong1 , jia fenghai2 ( 1 . jinggang mountain national reserve management bureau , ji ' an jiangxi 343600 , china ; 2 . nanchang university , nanchan jiangxi 330031 , china ) ; lepidoptera lycaenidae new records in jiangxi [ j ] ; jiangxi forestry science and technology ; 2007 - 04
song hong - min1 , 2 , zhang qing - fen1 , han xue - mei1 , xu yan1 , 3 , xu ru - mei 1 * * ( 1 ministry of education laboratory for biodiversity science and ecological engineering , beijing normal university , beijing 100875 , china ; 2 ministry of laboratory for biological - active substances and functional food , beijing union university , beijing 100083 , china ; 3 institute of animal and plant quarantine , administry of quality supervise and inspection and quarantine , beijing 100029 , china ) ; climex : professional biological software for predicting potential distribution of species . [ j ] ; entomological knowledge ; 2004 - 04
liu yuanfu , associate professor ( the research institute of tropical forestry , caf guangzhou 510520 ) . ; the insect fauna of the jianfengling forest area , hainan island - - thyrididae [ j ] ; forest research ; 1993 - 03
ding dong - sun1 , zeng zhi - jie1 , chen chun - fa1 , lin yu - jian2 , wu he - ping3 , xu xiang - rong3 , yu ze - ping3 ( 1 . forest pest control and quarantine bureau of jiangxi , nanchang 330077 , jiangxi , china ; 2 . jiangxi agricultural university , nanchang 330045 , jiangxi , china ; 3 . guanshan mountain natural reserve in jiangxi , yifeng 336300 , jiangxi , china ) ; insect fauna analysis of guanshan mountain natural reserve in jiangxi [ j ] ; forest research ; 2009 - 03
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by hong - fu chu and lin - yao wang in 1988 . it is