theba pisana , common names the white garden snail , sand hill snail , white italian snail , mediterranean coastal snail , and simply just the mediterranean snail , is an edible species of medium-sized , air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family helicidae , the typical snails .

this species is native to the mediterranean region , however , it has become an invasive species in many other countries worldwide .

theba pisana is a well-known agricultural pest in numerous parts of the world .

the shell color varies from white to yellow-brown with light brown spiral markings .

theba pisana

theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; two adult shells , showing polymorphism .
global metabolite analysis of the land snail theba pisana hemolymph during active and aestivated states .
theba pisana : juvenile . ( photo : © dr . roy anderson , molluscireland )
subspecies theba pisana almogravensis d . t . holyoak & g . a . holyoak , 2016
effect of testosterone on the ovotestis of the land snail theba pisana . - pubmed - ncbi
theba pisana : juveniles . ( photo : © f . geller - grimm , wikipedia )
global metabolite analysis of the land snail theba pisana hemolymph during active and aestivated states . - pubmed - ncbi
theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; an aggregation of snails on vegetation . tenby , wales , uk .
observation - high concentration of theba pisana - southern africa . description : an unusual concentration of theba pisana ( various sizes , but mostly above 10mm size range ) within 0 . 25 square metre . about 80 theba pisana , 10 corna aspersusm and 5 small conical snails on clump of clivia miniata clump . there were less than about 20 snail
barrett bw , 1972 . theba pisana in guernsey , 1971 . journal of conchology , 27 : 391 - 396 .
risso , 1826 ; theba was placed on the ‘official list of specific names in zoology’ , with theba pisana as the type species , and euparypha was placed on the ‘official index of rejected and invalid generic names in zoology’ . the correct name is therefore theba pisana . this iczn determination took some time to be recognized by those working with the species , many of whom continued to call it euparypha pisana . however , it is now almost always referred to correctly as theba pisana .
heller j , 1982 . natural history of theba pisana in israel . journal of zoology , 196 : 475 - 487 .
early evidence for a virus - like agent infecting the pest snail theba pisana ( gastropoda : pulmonata ) in southern italy .
cain aj , 1984 . genetics of some morphs in the land snail theba pisana . malacologia , 25 : 381 - 411 .
theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; close - up of an aggregation of snails on vegetation . tenby , wales , uk .
theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; aggregation aestivating on pine sapling . rethymno ( rethymnon ) , crete . august , 2011 .
theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; large aggregation aestivating in doorway . rethymno ( rethymnon ) , crete . august , 2011 .
cowie rh , 1987 . rediscovery of theba pisana at manorbier , south wales . journal of conchology , 32 : 384 - 385 .
johnson ms , 1988 . founder effects and geographic variation in the land snails theba pisana . heredity , 61 : 133 - 142 .
“my previous research into the mediterranean snail theba pisana identified 30 key neurohormones that were unique only to molluscs , ” dr stewart said .
theba pisana ( white garden snail ) ; large aggregation , aestivating on plants . rethymno ( rethymnon ) , crete . august , 2011 .
baker gh , 1988 . dispersal of theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) . journal of applied ecology , 25 : 889 - 900 .
bank r , 2007 . fauna europaea : theba pisana . fauna europaea version 1 . 3 . http / / www . faunaeur . org
cowie rh , 1984 . density , dispersal and neighbourhood size in the land snail theba pisana . heredity , 52 : 391 - 401 .
turk sm , 1966 . the rediscovery of theba pisana ( müller ) in cornwall . journal of conchology , 26 : 19 - 25 .
cowie rh , 1980 . precocious breeding of theba pisana ( müller ) ( pulmonata : helicidae ) . journal of conchology , 30 : 238 .
early evidence for a virus - like agent infecting the pest snail theba pisana ( gastropoda : pulmonata ) in southern italy . - pubmed - ncbi
hickson tgl , 1972 . a possible case of genetic drift in colonies of the land snail theba pisana . heredity , 29 : 177 - 190 .
johnson ms ; black r , 1979 . the distribution of theba pisana on rottnest island . the western australian naturalist , 14 : 140 - 143 .
barrett bw , 1975 . the sandhill snail theba pisana ( müller ) in jersey . bulletin annuel de la société jersiaise , 21 : 409 - 412 .
johnson ms , 1981 . association of shell banding and habitat in a colony of the land snail theba pisana . heredity , 45 : 7 - 14 .
mienis hk , 1978 . theba pisana in droppings of the stone curlew in israel . argamon , isreal journal of malacology , 6 : 61 - 63 .
cowie rh , 1982 . studies on the ecology and ecogenetics of the helicid land snail theba pisana ( müller ) . liverpool , uk : university of liverpool .
cowie rh , 1984 . ecogenetics of theba pisana ( pulmonata : helicidae ) at the northern edge of its range . malacologia , 25 : 361 - 380 .
fowles ap ; cowie rh , 1989 . westward extension of the distribution of theba pisana in south wales . journal of conchology , 33 : 186 - 187 .
humphreys j ; stephens bd ; turk sm , 1982 . a new british site for theba pisana ( müller ) . journal of conchology , 31 : 73 .
johnson ms , 1980 . effects of migration and habitat choice on shell banding frequencies in theba pisana at a habitat boundary . heredity , 47 : 121 - 133 .
bachuys w , 1972 . notes on theba pisana ustulata ( lowe , 1852 ) the land - snail of the salvage islands . basteria , 36 : 117 - 130 .
cowie rh , 1986 . reduction in the distribution of the land snail theba pisana in dyfed . nature in wales ( new series ) , 4 : 66 - 70 .
turk sm , 1972 . a study of the white sand - hill snail theba pisana . journal of the devon trust for nature conservation , 4 : 138 - 142 .
cowie rh , 1990 . climatic selection on body colour in the land snail theba pisana ( pulmonata : helicidae ) . heredity , 65 ( 1 ) : 123 - 126 .
hazel wn ; johnson ms , 1990 . microhabitat choice and polymorphism in the land snail theba pisana ( müller ) . heredity , 65 ( 3 ) : 449 - 454 .
cowie rh , 1984 . the life - cycle and productivity of the land snail theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) . journal of animal ecology , 53 : 311 - 325 .
cowie rh , 1985 . microhabitat choice and high temperature tolerance in the land snail theba pisana ( mollusca : gastropoda ) . journal of zoology ( a ) , 207 : 201 - 211 .
baker gh ; vogelzang bk , 1988 . life history , population dynamics and polymorphism of theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) in australia . journal of applied ecology , 25 : 867 - 887 .
cowie rh , 1983 . variation in mantle collar colour in the land snail theba pisana : evidence of climatic selection ? proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , 135 : 154 - 162 .
mcquaid cd ; branch gm ; frost pgh , 1979 . aestivation behaviour and thermal relations of the pulmonate theba pisana in a semi - arid environment . journal of thermal biology , 4 : 47 - 55 .
spence gc , 1938 . helilx pisana müller . journal of conchology , 21 : 72 .
dürr hjr , 1946 . a contribution to the morphology and bionomics of theba pisana ( müller ) ( gastropoda : helicidae ) . science bulletin , union of south africa department of agriculture , 257 : 1 - 34 .
baker gh ; hawke bg , 1990 . life history and population dynamics of theba pisana ( mollusca : helicidae ) in a cereal - pasture rotation . journal of applied ecology , 27 ( 1 ) : 16 - 29 .
chace ep , 1915 . helix pisana muller in california . the nautilus , 29 : 72 .
in this study , we have focused on investigating correlations between shell colouration and constitutive as well as inducible po activity in different shell colour morphs of cepaea hortensis , theba pisana and cornu aspersum maximum , applying zymosan a as an immunostimulant .
it is possible that in california , t . pisana is monitored in case it should spread further .
aestivation ; lc - ms ; metabolites ; metabolomics ; non - aestivated ; phospholipid ; t . pisana
an unusual concentration of theba pisana ( various sizes , but mostly above 10mm size range ) within 0 . 25 square metre . about 80 theba pisana , 10 corna aspersusm and 5 small conical snails on clump of clivia miniata clump . there were less than about 20 snails visible at the same time in the surrounding garden within about 10 square metres , including on other clivia and geophytic plants with blade leaves . some of these 20 or so snails were wandering on the ground , some on plants .
deblock r ; hoestlandt h , 1967 . [ english title not available ] . ( données biologiques sur le gastropode littoral theba pisana müller aux limites septentrionales de son extension . ) comptes rendus de l ' académie des sciences , 265 : 893 - 896 .
baker gh , 1991 . production of eggs and young snails by adult theba pisana ( müller ) and cernuella virgata ( da costa ) ( mollusca : helicidae ) in laboratory cultures and field populations . australian journal of zoology , 39 ( 6 ) : 673 - 679 .
t . pisana is readily identified and distinguished from similar - looking species by simple visual inspection of the shell characteristics .
ranger gutknecht pointed me to videos hosted by bill howell , a trail guide instructor at mtrp . the first is a short introduction to the common garden snail , helix vulgaris , and the second is about white garden snails , theba pisana . both species can be found in the park .
similarly , t . pisana will feed on a wide range of agricultural crops and garden and ornamental plants , as follows .
gittenberger e ; ripken teh , 1987 . the genus theba ( mollusca : gastropoda : helicidae ) , systematics and distribution . zoologische verhandelingen , 241 : 1 - 59 .
gittenberger and ripken ( 1987 ) only recorded t . pisana as far south as southern morocco , and not even in western sahara
this species shares the same habitats than t . pisana in general : the edges of agricultural fields and roads , riparian and ruderal vegetation .
baker gh ; beckett s ; thammavongsa b , 2012 . are the european snails , theba pisana ( müller , 1774 ) ( helicidae ) , cernuella virgata ( da costa , 1778 ) and cochlicella acuta ( müller , 1774 ) ( hygromiidae ) attracted by potential food odours ? crop protection , 42 : 88 - 93 . urltoken
baker gh , 2008 . the population dynamics of the mediterranean snails cernuella virgata , cochlicella acuta ( hygromiidae ) and theba pisana ( helicidae ) in pasture - cereal rotations in south australia : a 20 - year study . australian journal of experimental agriculture , 48 ( 12 ) : 1514 - 1522 . urltoken ; _ id = ea08031 . pdf
there is no evidence that t . pisana is dispersed via non - biotic natural means , such as the wind , although it is possible that snails , especially small ones ( perhaps juvenile t . pisana ) can be blown considerable distances by the wind ( kirchner et al . , 1997 ) .
white garden snail theba pisana . this is another high risk snail for introduction into the pacific northwest . it has established populations in san diego , california , just stops away for ships visiting west coast ports . the white garden snail , also a helicid , is thought to be potentially one of the worst foreign snails as an agricultural pest . it is also the most frequently intercepted exotic snail . theba has remarkable abilities to increase in population once established and can be particularly destructive to ornamental plants and various types of trees . one citrus tree in california was covered with more than 3000 theba pisana snails . it can move 55 meters in one month . the white garden snail is native to the mediterranean countries and great britain . it generally is found in coastal habitats . it has been introduced into australia , the atlantic islands , south africa , and the united states . california is thought to be the only state with established populations .
certain other species of theba are extremely similar . distinguishing them is based primarily on the general shape of the shell , whether it is keeled or not , its microsculpture , the structure of the umbilical region of the shell and the shape of the aperture . identification is best achieved using the key of gittenberger and ripken ( 1987 ) . however , these other species of theba are rarely intercepted by quarantine officials and seem not to be highly invasive .
the most recent comprehensive taxonomic treatment of the genus theba is by gittenberger and ripken ( 1987 ) . four fossil and ten recent species are recognized . because of variation within some of the species there are 17 species and subspecies in total . how many of the subspecies are valid is open to debate . all species and subspecies , with the exception of t . pisana pisana are restricted to small geographical areas in morocco , the western sahara , the southernmost part of the iberian peninsula and the canary and salvage islands ( bachuys , 1972 ; gittenberger and ripken , 1987 ) .
theba pisana generally lays its eggs several inches below the soil surface with an average of 70 eggs per clutch . it takes approximately 20 days for the eggs to incubate ; however , it may take longer in dry weather . this snail typically does not seek cool , dark places to aestivate . they preferentially attach to plants , fences , under stones or other vertical , physical structures . longevity : 2 years .
the effect of testosterone on the histological pattern of the gonads of the land snail theba pisana was studied . it was found that testosterone accelerated spermatogenesis , as indicated by the large increase in the number of spermatozoa and the decrease in the number of primary spermatocytes . the diameter of the acini in treated snails was greater than in the normal controls . conversely , testosterone led to reduction of the number of mature ova .
the generalist predatory snails euglandina rosea ( from florida ) and gonaxis sp . ( from kenya ) have been introduced to south africa for biocontrol of t . pisana but neither of them became established ( barker and efford , 2004 ) . the facultative predatory snail rumina decollata was said to be able to control but not eradicate t . pisana in california ( anonymous , 1987 ) , although the efficacy of r . decollata has been questioned ( cowie , 2001a ) . extensive screening of diptera , notably sarcophagidae and sciomyzidae , and some nematodes as biocontrol agents has taken place with a goal to control t . pisana in australian agriculture ( see section on natural enemies ) . however , no species has been introduced specifically to control t . pisana because those screened were either ineffective or attacked non - target snails , including native australian species , and no biological control agents were being considered for release against t . pisana in australia as of 2008 ( baker , 2008 ) . ducks were recommended by joubert and walters ( 1951 ) for small scale control of t . pisana in south africa .
from time to time it has been placed in various other genera , viz . heliomanes , carocolla , xerophila , cochlea , tropidocochlis and teba , the last being an incorrect subsequent spelling of theba ( cowie , 1982 ; bouchet and rocroi , 2004 ) .
the larval development of muellerius cf . capillaris in aestivating trochoidea seetzenii and theba pisana was delayed : in the first snail 82 % of the parasites remained as second - stage larvae ( l2 ) after as much as 90 days , and in the second snail 60 % remained as l2 after 50 days . reactivation of t . seetzenii after 59 days of aestivation caused the larvae to develop to the third stage ( l3 ) . the number of recovered larvae among t . seetzenii was consistently higher in active vs aestivating snails ( p < 0 . 05 ) . such differences were not evident among t . pisana ( p > 0 . 05 ) . in active t . pisana , larval development was faster than in active t . seetzenii , whereas there were no such differences between aestivating snails of these 2 species . aestivating infected t . seetzenii had lower body weights than same - size active non - infected , as well as infected snails . aestivating infected t . pisana were not weighed , but they too exhibited poor body condition .
there is no known mechanism currently in place for rapid response to detection of new infestations of t . pisana , although such mechanisms may be in place in the united states . however , despite the problems caused by t . pisana in california in the early twentieth century and the huge effort to eradicate it , when it was rediscovered in 1985 there was some discussion among officials about what to do about the infestations but little action was taken and t . pisana is still present as far as is known ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) .
in the united states , t . pisana is on a list of actionable pests if detected by quarantine officials , and is one of the species listed as of major concern should it be introduced more widely in the united states ( cowie et al . , 2009 ) . the author is not aware of other countries’ regulations regarding t . pisana ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) .
competition between introduced t . pisana and native land snails in israel has been suggested but remains speculative ( heller and tchernov , 1978 ) . in australia , the impact of t . pisana on natural ecosystems is essentially unknown , although it will feed on native australian plants ( baker , 1989 ) and a native snail species ( bothryembrion melo ) has become rare or gone extinct in areas invaded by t . pisana in western australia ( baker , 2002 ) . in south africa it is said to have “exterminated some native species at cape town by eating all the available vegetable matter” ( quick , 1952 ) , although which “native species” was not specified .
other . t . pisana is reported as a garden pest and a pest of ornamental flowers and shrubs ( basinger , 1927 ; dürr , 1946 ; joubert and walters , 1951 ; baker , 1986 , 1988 ) .
basinger aj , 1923 . eradication of the white snail , helix pisana , at la jolla , california . monthly bulletin of the department of agriculture , state of california , 12 ( 1 - 2 ) : 7 - 11 .
basinger aj , 1927 . the eradication campaign against the white snail ( helix pisana ) at la jolla , california . monthly bulletin of the department of agriculture , state of california , 16 ( 2 ) : 51 - 77 .
different morphs of test snails ; pale and dark morph of c . hortensis ( a ) , pale and dark morphs of t . pisana ( b ) , and pale and dark morph of c . aspersum maximum ( c ) .
public awareness in general , the public is almost completely unaware of invasive snails , and this is probably largely true regarding t . pisana despite the extreme abundances it may reach . awareness may be greater in australia since it has a significant economic impact , notably on cereal agriculture , and may generate more news stories than other pest snails / slugs . in particular , t . pisana , along with a number of other exotic species in australia , has significant localised pest status .
various fumigants have also been tried in order to kill t . pisana in shipments of goods and in grain silos but high doses and longer periods of treatment than for insect control proved necessary ( godan , 1983 ; baker , 2002 ) .
the following comments relate to the distribution further afield to areas in which t . pisana is known definitively to have been introduced as a result of human activities . in almost no case is the reason for introduction ( deliberate or accidental ) known .
in andalusia there is an important annual consumption of terrestrial snails , specially t . pisana . every year more than 10 . 000 tm of snails (
caracoles
) are consumed during spring and summer months by andalusians , coming both from natural autochthonous resources and imports ( 95 % from morocco ) . t . andalusica is almost identical to the polymorphic t . pisana ( in commercial terms ) so it forms part of this lucrative business ( arrébola , porras , cárcaba and ruiz 2004 ) .
t . pisana is a medium - sized snail with a sub - globular , generally white or off - white shell that often bears a complex pattern of darker markings . it is generally a species of coastal habitats with warm to hot an . . .
the only use of t . pisana is as human food , in the mediterranean and possibly in emigrant mediterranean communities in other countries ( the reason for its original import to california ) . the potential market is far too small to result in significant control .
deblock r , 1962 . recherches biologiques sur un gastropode pulmoné méditerranée euparypha pisana müll aux limites nordiques de son extension . diplome d ' etudes superieures ( sciences naturelles ) ( [ english title not available ] ) . lille , france : faculté libre ds sciences .
in legume - based pastures in australia , t . pisana reduced herbage yield by 23 % in a month , with the clover component reduced by 75 % ( baker , 1989 ) , while baker ( 1992 ) reported 83 % loss of pasture herbage over two months .
these are the main impacts on particular crops etc . in particular countries that have been reported in the literature . almost certainly they can be generalized to similar crops in other countries where t . pisana is abundant , but have simply not been reported in the widely accessible literature .
the sites where t . andalusica hypothetically lives are globally characterized by a high anthropic influence due to agricultural , urbanism , tourism , pollution . . . on the other hand , this species is harvested for food as well as t . pisana ( see use and trade ) .
helix pisana muller , 1774 , verm . hist . , 2 : 60 ; taylor , 1911 , monogr . l . & freshw . moll . brit . is . , 3 : 360 , pl . 30 , 31 ; orcutt , 1919 , nautilus , 33 : 63 .
bonavita a ; bonavita d , 1962 . [ english title not available ] . ( contribution à lé ' tude écologique d ' euparypha pisana müller des rivages méditerranéens de la provence . note préliminaire . ) pubblicazioni della stazione zoologica di napoli , 32 ( supplement ) : 198 - 204 .
it has been suggested on various bases , including the occurrence of other theba species only in northwest africa , that the original natural range of t . pisana was confined to morocco ( sacchi , 1971 ; welter - schultes , 1998 ) . however , it is possible that most of its current north african , mediterranean and western european range is natural ( dürr , 1946 ; baker and vogelzang , 1988 ; roth and sadeghian , 2003 ) , although possibly a result of post - glacial expansion from morocco ( sacchi , 1971 ) . alternatively , at least some , if not most of its circum mediterranean and western european distribution is a result of human activities in historic times and therefore t . pisana should be considered invasive in these areas where it may reach extremely high abundances . for the most part , the issue is unresolved ( gittenberger and ripken , 1987 ) , although there is some evidence and conjecture regarding specific regions ( see history of introduction / spread ) .
citrus . t . pisana is a pest in citrus orchards in israel , libya , other mediterranean countries , south africa and in oases in saudi arabia ( harpaz and oseri , 1961 ; godan , 1983 ; baker , 1986 ) . damage to citrus was the major concern in california ( gammon , 1943 ) , and remains so should t . pisana become widely established again . it will feed on foliage , bark of tender twigs , fruit and blossoms ( basinger , 1927 , quoting de stefani ) . specifically , orange , lemon and grapefruit have been mentioned ( basinger , 1927 ) .
in california , various chemicals were tested experimentally against t . pisana , although during the eradication campaign only calcium arsenate was deployed ( basinger , 1927 ) . calcium arsenate was also considered effective in south africa ( joubert and walters , 1951 ) ; methiocarb and carbaryl have also been recommended for use in south africa . many other chemicals are available in a range of formulations ( godan , 1983 ; bowen and antoine , 1995 ) . in australia , the widely used molluscicide metaldehyde , in bait formulations , has been traditionally broadcast against t . pisana but is expensive and may have non - target impacts .
there is no evidence that t . pisana is dispersed via biotic natural means , for instance being carried by other animals , although it is known for other snail species that they can be carried long distances by birds ( ramsden , 1913 ; anonymous , 1936 ; rees , 1965 ; boag , 1986 ) .
in addition to impacting crops , t . pisana may have other agricultural impacts as it is an intermediate host of nematodes including the lungworm muellerius capillaris , which is an important parasite of sheep and cattle , although the veterinary significance of these nematodes in australia are not known ( baker and vogelzang , 1988 ; baker , 1989 ) .
as mentioned above , t . pisana is widely used as a food resource in mediterranean countries and has been shipped to other countries for this reason . however , it can become a public nuisance when it invades urban / suburban areas . the snails crawl up the walls and windows of houses , and in rainy weather it can be difficult to avoid treading on them on sidewalks ( basinger , 1927 ) . unspecified ‘white snails’ ( i . e . t . pisana and / or cernuella virgata ) are intermediate hosts of a fluke ( brachylaima sp . ) , and young children who have ingested infected snails in south australia have suffered severe gut disorders ( baker , 2002 ) .
the major crops affected seriously by t . pisana are cereals , citrus and grapevines , as well as pasture . its major agricultural impacts in australia ( where most work has been done on its ecology and behaviour related to its invasive impacts ) became increasingly evident in the 1980s , especially in cereal crops and pasture ( baker , 2002 ) .
vegetables . vegetables are impacted in south africa , israel , in oases in saudi arabia , and in most countries where t . pisana occurs ( godan , 1983 ; baker , 1986 ) . the list in the host plants table is derived primarily from godan ( 1983 ) and baker ( 1986 ) . seed carrots are affected in australia .
t . pisana is widely used as a food item in mediterranean countries , where it can be found in great numbers in local markets . huge numbers of the snail were shipped from europe to california in the early 1900s for food , presumably for sale ( mead , 1961 ) . this appears to be its only positive economic / social value .
typically this snail is found in coastal , sandy areas . theba pisana has the potential to increase in number rapidly . this species has been deemed a serious pest and and may be a nuisance because of its ability to aggregate in large numbers . it may occur in numbers of up to 3000 in one tree . this snail possesses the ability to defoliate large trees , including citrus and ornamentals . it also consumes garden crops , seedlings and cereal grains ( e . g . , wheat , barley , oil seeds , seed carrot and legumes ) . in grain producing areas this species will cause direct and indirect losses . direct losses include clogging machinery and directly consuming the crop . indirect losses include contaminating the grain and allowing for the infestation of the grain by secondary fungal pathogens , due to the added moisture they provide .
seed lucerne and other legume crops . t . pisana is a problem in seed lucerne in france , where the snails feed on the flowers , the slime inhibits pollination , crushed snails block harvesters , and fouled seeds are unmarketable ( baker , 1986 ) . it is a problem in ( unspecified ) legume crops in south africa and australia ( baker , 1986 , 1991 ) .
t . pisana feeds on a number of plants in its natural habitat , many of which might be unexpected to be palatable because of their toughness ( quick , 1952 ; cowie , 1982 , 1986 ) . however , the distinction between feeding on certain plants and simply using the plants as habitat is not easy to make as there have been no adequate studies of the feeding preferences of t . pisana . there has been some work carried out on the odour attraction of food , in order to inform bait attractants , but no food items tested were found to significantly attract t . pisana ( baker et al . , 2012 ) . some entries in the host plants table , derived from quick ( 1952 ) , johnson and black ( 1979 ) , johnson ( 1980 , 1981 ) , cowie ( 1982 , 1986 ) , and baker and hawke ( 1990 ) , should therefore be treated cautiously . those listed as wild hosts are only those identified as being fed upon in the literature or from personal experience , and those listed as habitat are simply all plants mentioned ( which may be fed upon ) , with no assessment of significance , as none could be reliably made .
pastures . in australia , legume - based pastures ( e . g . annual medics , lucerne , clover ) are seriously damaged and occasionally totally destroyed ( baker , 1986 , 1989 , 2002 , 2008 ) . also , stock reject pasture and hay contaminated with slime trails . in south africa , t . pisana is also a pest of pasture ( joubert and walters , 1951 ; baker , 1986 ) .
the spread of t . pisana around the mediterranean and northwards up the coast of western europe from its presumed origin in morocco was probably for the most part post - glacial with some more recent introductions the result of human activities , notably in the northernmost parts of the range . however , little is known of the chronology of introduction or spread , or of the geographic sources . much of the following information is highly conjectural .
in 1984 , a shipment of barley from south australia was rejected by chile because live snails ( cernuella virgata , though it could easily have been t . pisana ) were included with the grain , this one rejected shipment costed the australian barley board aus $ 1 . 3 million ( baker , 1989 ) . downgrading of barley because of snail contamination can reduce the price paid to farmers from aus $ 160 to aus $ 120 per tonne ( baker , 2002 ) .
in south africa native shrubs are entirely destroyed by the snails , which eat not only the leaves but also the bark of young branches ( dürr , 1946 ) . otherwise , no natural habitat impacts have been documented , although perhaps only because the focus has been on the agricultural impacts of t . pisana . as a major , abundant component of mediterranean ecosystems , in which it may or may not be considered native , its importance must be diverse and pervasive , though little studied or documented .
shell displaying various colour variants , yellow or white with dark colour bands or spots and often a dark bluish grey apex , juveniles sharply keeled , the keel disappears at the last whorl , aperture often with a light reddish lip inside , margin only reflected at columellar side , umbilicus narrow and half covered by the reflected columellar margin . the apex has a characteristic size in the eastern mediterranean when compared with other species , where there are no other theba species . the umbilicus is also rarely seen in other species , juvenile eobania vermiculata have a considerably larger apex . animal very light yellowish with dark colour bands running from the sides to the upper tentacles , tentacles very long .
it is not known whether t . pisana should be considered native or not around much of the mediterranean and western europe . even if it invaded much of the region post - glacially , it should still be considered native if that spread was not aided by people . however , in some instances introduction may have been by people , either accidentally or deliberately . detailed investigation of the holocene palaeontological record at numerous localities within this range would shed great insight into the history of the spread of this species .
originally , we planned to re - sample zymosan a - injected snails 6 h and 24 h after injection . the 24 h time point was chosen as it has been shown in other molluscs that po activity can increase two - fold within 24 h after zymosan a - injection [ 1 ] . the 6 h time point was chosen in order to test for a possibly earlier po activity induction . however , in c . hortensis and t . pisana , amendments to this schedule were necessary as described below .
phenoloxidase ( po ) activity levels in different morphs of t . pisana ; test run 1 with base levels and levels 24 h after hemolymph ( hl ) withdrawal , and test run 2 with base levels , levels after hemolymph withdrawal and 24 h zymosan a - exposure and levels after 24 h zymosan a - exposure only ( mean + sd ; n = 10 ; 0 . 01 < p ≤ 0 . 05 : * ; 0 . 001 < p ≤ 0 . 01 : * * ; p ≤ 0 . 001 : * * * ) .
other crop trees and shrubs . stone fruit , almonds and olives have been reported to be affected ( baker , 1986 , 1988 ) , as have figs ( basinger , 1927 ) . apples , apricots , peaches and plums were listed by dürr ( 1946 ) but whether these were attacked by t . pisana or by another invasive snail species , helix aspersa ( now known as either cornu aspersum , cantareus aspersus or cryptomphalus aspersus ) , was not made clear . oil seed crops ( unspecified ) , including seedlings , are affected in australia ( baker , 1986 ) .
baker ( 1989 ) reported laboratory experiments demonstrating that t . pisana will feed on the following cereal and pasture plants : barley ( hordeum vulgare ) , wheat ( triticum vulgare ) , perennial rye grass ( lolium perenne ) , tall fescue ( festuca arundinacea ) , cocksfoot ( dactylis glomerata ) , rape ( brassica napus ) , vetch ( vicia sativa ) , clover ( trifolium subterraneum , t . fragiferum ) , barrel medic ( medicago truncatula ) and lucerne ( medicago sativa ) . it did not feed on phalaris ( phalaris aquatica ) and faba bean ( vicia faba ) .
the capacity of t . pisana for active , unaided dispersal is limited , as it is for most snails . in south africa snails moved on average about 4 m per year ( hickson , 1972 ) but this was based on movements in isolated patches of vegetation in summer and is probably an underestimate . in western australia , during february – july , when increased rain promotes snail activity , the average distance moved by marked snails was about 7 m , although one snail moved 40 m and several moved 20 m or more ( johnson , 1981 ) . in south wales , over 100 days during the active summer and early autumn season ( july – october ) no snail moved more than 3 m ( cowie , 1984c ) . in south australia , marked snails moved up to 13 m in one week and up to 75 m in three months ( baker , 1988 ) . in most of these studies differences in dispersal rates among habitats were reported ( cf . cowie , 1980b ) and may explain , at least in part , the differences among the studies . only one study has addressed the rate of spread of a newly introduced population of t . pisana ( johnson and black , 1979 ) , reporting a rate of population expansion of about 20 m per year from 1925 to 1978 .
we would like to thank dr . yvan capowiez and dr . christophe mazzia , laboratoire de toxicologie environnementale , umr “écologie des invertébrés” inra / uapv , avignon , france , for sampling t . pisana snails . many thanks also to dr . thomas d’souza , dr . volker scheil , stefanie krais , anja henneberg and diana maier , university of tübingen , germany , for scientific and technical support , and to otto seppälä , ph . d . , department of aquatic ecology , eawag , dübendorf and institute of integrative biology , eth - zürich , zürich , switzerland , for assistance in po activity calculation . we acknowledge support by deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft and open access publishing fund of tuebingen university .
only one study has investigated the molecular genetics of t . pisana . johnson ( 1988 ) compared allozyme variation among introduced populations in western australia , victoria and tasmania ( australia ) and southern france , israel and wales . he demonstrated that the allelic compositions of the australian ( introduced ) samples were consistent with them all having a common source , and that they had the closest similarity to those from southern france , consistent with the original introduction ( s ) being from this area . whether there was one or more introductions to australia and whether the introduction ( s ) were directly from the ultimate source or from an intermediate introduced population ( i . e . in south africa ) could not be determined .
cereals . one of the main problems caused by t . pisana and one that has received considerable attention is in australian cereals ( baker , 1989 , 1992 , 2002 , 2008 ) . primarily , the problem is that the snails aestivate on the stems and heads of the full grown plants at harvest . not only does this contaminate the harvested crop , which can result in downgrading of the grain or rejection of bulk shipments of grain overseas , with the associated major economic loss , but it also clogs the harvesting machinery . however , the snails also feed on the crops , including on seedlings of wheat and barley ( baker , 1986 , 1989 ) . it is also a cereal pest in south africa ( joubert and walters , 1951 ; baker , 1986 ) .
eradication has been reported in california ( armitage , 1949 ) , some 35 years after the initial introductions . the final resort was the use of flame throwers , which were able to penetrate the nooks and crannies that simply setting fire to the vegetation could not . hand picking was considered essential in order to find the last remaining individuals ( basinger , 1927 ) . use of calcium arsenate bait was also used extensively as part of the eradication campaign ( basinger , 1927 ) . whether eradication was completely successful is open to debate , since t . pisana was discovered again in the 1960s ( supposedly eradicated again ) and again in 1985 , when fire was used in attempts to eradicate them ( anonymous , 1987 ) . as for most snails , eradication is extremely difficult , since in general the snails ( as is the case for most invertebrate species ) are well established and locally widespread before people become sufficiently aware of them to complain or report that there is something new in their environment that may be causing a problem . confirming that every last snail has been killed is extremely difficult .
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müller , o . f . 1774 . vermivm terrestrium et fluviatilium , seu animalium infusoriorum , helminthicorum , et testaceorum , non marinorum , succincta historia . volumen alterum . - pp . i - xxxvi [ = 1 - 36 ] , 1 - 214 , [ 1 - 10 ] . havniæ & lipsiæ . ( heineck & faber ) .
mediterranean region and adjacent atlantic coasts from central morocco to belgium , sw england , s wales , e and s ireland and central atlantic islands . in spain occasionally also in the interior .
9 - 20 x 12 - 25 mm , diameter in greece usually below 15 mm . diameter 1 . 7 - 1 . 9 mm at 1 whorl , 3 . 7 - 3 . 9 mmm ( 2 wh . ) , 6 . 8 - 7 . 5 mm ( 3 ) , 11 - 12 mm ( 4 wh . ) , 15 - 17 mm ( 4 . 5 wh . )
usually in coastlands , in or near sandy habitats , in hot climates estivating often directly exposed to the sun , attached to grasses , shrubs or succulent plants . in dunes it can live on nearly bare sand poorly fixed by grasses . in the north the snails do not estivate but they climb on plants in dry weather . does not survive serious winter frosts . often associated with cochlicella acuta and cernuella virgata , but can live slightly deeper inside pure sandy habitats and is usually more common than c . acuta . in france 40 - 80 oval eggs ( diameter 1 . 5 mm ) are deposited from june to october under stones , between roots or in the soil , hatchling size 2 mm . in greece maximum shell size is attained after 2 years , maturity is reached at half maximum shell size after 1 year .
common near beaches , one of the most common snails in coastal regions from s portugal to greece . introduced to sw great britain and ireland since at least the 1700s , still spreading along frost - free coastal localities . a subspecies from coastal habitats in spain is on the red list ( the . pi . arietina , endangered , gómez moliner et al . 2001 ) .
references : nobre 1913 : 186 , germain 1930 : 181 , nobre 1941 : 91 , hickson 1972 , bar 1978 , kerney & cameron 1979 : 202 , johnson 1981 , lazaridou - dimitriadou & daguzan 1981 , kerney et al . 1983 : 280 , cowie 1984 ( 3 papers ) , heller & gadot 1984 , cowie 1985 , liebegott 1986 ( greece : vórii sporádes ) , gittenberger & ripken 1987 : 32 , baker 1988 , baker & vogelzang 1988 , prieto & altonaga 1988 : 6 ( n spain ) , smallridge & kirby 1988 , cowie 1990 , falkner 1990 : 234 , manganelli et al . 1995 : 33 , dhora & welter - schultes 1996 : 167 , welter - schultes & wiese 1997 ( 2 papers ) , welter - schultes 1998 : 91 , ondina et al . 1997 , kerney 1999 : 202 , schütt 2001 : 468 , martínez - ortí et al . 2004 , quintana cardona 2006 ( menorca , introduced ) , welter - schultes 2008 : 80 , welter - schultes 2012 : 627 ( range map ) , vardinoyannis et al . 2012 : 40 ( cyprus ) .
provoost , s . ; bonte , d . ( ed . ) ( 2004 ) . animated dunes : a view of biodiversity at the flemish coast [ levende duinen : een overzicht van de biodiversiteit aan de vlaamse kust ] . mededelingen van het instituut voor natuurbehoud , 22 . instituut voor natuurbehoud : brussel , belgium . isbn 90 - 403 - 0205 - 7 . 416 , ill . , appendices pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of janthina alba anton , 1838 ) beu a . g . ( 2017 ) . evolution of janthina and recluzia ( mollusca : gastropoda : epitoniidae ) . records of the australian museum . 69 ( 3 ) : 119 - 222 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 163 [ details ]
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is a medium - sized snail with a sub - globular , generally white or off - white shell that often bears a complex pattern of darker markings . it is generally a species of coastal habitats with warm to hot and arid climates , although it extends into cooler and wetter habitats in northwest europe . its range includes almost all the mediterranean coastline , extending up the atlantic coast of europe . the extent to which this range is natural is not certain . morocco has been suggested as its region of origin . beyond this european / mediterranean range , the major regions to which it has been introduced are south africa ( first recorded 1881 ) ,
, in all three regions rapidly becoming an invasive pest . it is frequently intercepted by quarantine officials both associated with shipments of goods and in personal luggage , indicating that it is both accidentally and deliberately transported over long distances . it is also readily transported relatively short distances , for instance attached to vehicles . once introduced , its high rate of growth and reproduction and ability to reach extremely high population densities make it a potentially serious and difficult to control pest . it is listed as a potential pest of quarantine significance in the united states .
was placed within it . hartmann ( 1844 [ in 1840 - 1844 ] ) placed it in his new monotypic subgenus
is very variable in terms of its shell appearance , primarily in the patterning of bands and other markings on the shell . by the start of the twentieth century , no fewer than 27 ‘species’ , all in fact referable to
, as well as by taylor ( 1906 - 1914 ) , who also dealt with the plethora of varietal and sub - varietal names given to shells with subtle differences in shell shape and colour / pattern , few of which have any taxonomic meaning , as taylor recognized , but are purely descriptive of the immense range of variation especially in shell colour / pattern .
is generally a species of coastal , often sandy ( e . g . dunes ) habitats with warm to hot and arid climates . its range includes almost all the mediterranean coastline , extending up the atlantic coast of europe as far as the southernmost part of the netherlands , southwest england and wales and eastern ireland , and to the madeiran ( records on the salvages are in fact of a different
) and canary archipelagos , especially in sandy areas close to the sea . it extends inland notably in spain , portugal , southern and western france , italy , algeria and morocco , although it is generally less abundant in such localities than it is near the coasts (
although reported in germany ( godan , 1983 ) , whether it ever became established is doubtful ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) . it is almost certainly present in monaco due to presence all along this part of the french and italian coasts ( r cowie , university of hawaii , usa , personal communication , 2009 ) .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
taylor , 1906 - 1914 ; dürr , 1946 ; joubert and walters , 1951 ; quick , 1952 ; mcquaid et al . , 1979 ; sanderson and sirgel , 2002 ; eppo , 2014
taylor , 1906 - 1914 ; bank , 2007 ; cameron et al . , 2007
taylor , 1906 - 1914 ; germain , 1908 ; gittenberger and ripken , 1987 ; cowie , 1990 ; cameron and cook , 2001 ; cameron et al . , 2006 ; bank , 2007 ; cameron et al . , 2007
cowie , 1984b ; taylor , 1906 - 1914 ; pennant , 1777 ; deblock , 1962 ; cowie , 1982 ; humphreys et al . , 1982 ; cowie , 1983 ; cowie , 1986 ; cowie , 1987 ; fowles and cowie , 1989 ; cowie , 1990 ; eppo , 2014
as non - native in their studies in the greek islands , but with no explanation . it has been found in deposits in malta dating to as early as the second or third centuries ad but not earlier (
) so may be a roman introduction . in the channel islands , france , italy ( sicily ) , the balearic islands ( majorca ) , madeira and the canary islands ( fuerteventura ) it has been reported in holocene deposits of unspecified age (
- 1914 ) but whether truly fossil or the result of mixing of strata involving modern shells is not known , as was hinted at by taylor ( 1906 - 1914 ) regarding madeira .
its entire northwest european distribution may be fairly recent , although this has been demonstrated or inferred on a sound basis for only a few locations . it was deliberately introduced to the english channel coast of belgium ( ostend ) in 1868 from algeria (
as the possible source of the northern french and belgian populations . it was not then reported from belgium until 1934 (
, probably took place between 1962 and 1987 . taylor ( 1906 - 1914 ) and
had been found in pleistocene dunes in northern france near the belgian border close to the english channel , but this report and accurate dating of the shells has not been verified . introduction to the channel island of guernsey was from jersey in 1860 , deliberately for “naturalization” (
) . if its presence in jersey is as a result of an introduction , then this occurred before 1912 , as it was recorded there by taylor ( 1912 in 1906 - 1914 ) , who also reported it in pre - neolithic deposits . the origins of the uk populations are probably post - glacial (


myrmica rubra , also known as the european fire ant or common red ant , is a species of ant of the genus myrmica , found all over europe and in some parts of north america and asia .

they are mainly red in colour , with slightly darker pigmentation on the head .

the ants live under stones , fallen trees , and in soil .

they are aggressive ants , often attacking rather than running away , and are equipped with a sting , though lack the ability to spray formic acid like the genus formica .

this is one of the most common and widespread myrmica species of the palaearctic .

occurs in the region stretching from portugal to east siberia ( till transbaikalia ) , and from northern greece to the forest-tundra natural zone in the north .

it is also currently invading japan and north america where they are considered a nuisance as it is an invasive species .

their colonies have a polygyne form , and can have up to one hundred queens per nest .

they are also polydomous , with many nest sites per individual colony .

these queens will have gathered together after their nuptial flight and will have formed a nest and laid their eggs in it .

the queens can live up to fifteen years .

nuptial flights take place normally in late july to mid-august in europe .

hundreds of young queens and males take to the air to mate together .

afterwards , the males die and the queens shed their wings to make a new colony .

no nuptial flights have been witnessed yet from this species where it is living in north america .

they are very common in europe and live in meadows and gardens .

they live on a diet of honeydew excreted by aphids , and , being very aggressive like to eat many types of insect and other invertebrates .

they will attack any creature that disturbs their nest , but are not as aggressive as the red imported fire ant .

they also consume pollen , a phenomenon rarely documented in ants of the temperal zone .

it is very similar to m. ruginodis , and the differences are very hard to tell .

however , myrmica rubra is the commoner of the two .

the larvae of the butterfly maculinea alcon ( alcon blue ) as well as maculinea teleius use myrmica rubra as their primary host .

myrmica rubra

myrmica laevinodis , ( nylander ) myrmica laevinodis , var . bruesi ( weber ) myrmica rubra r . champlaini , ( forel ) myrmica longiscapus , ( curtis ) myrmica rubra laevinodis , ( nylander ) myrmica levinodis , ( dalla torre ) myrmica rubra st . laevinodis , ( nylander ) atta rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica ( myrmecia ) rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica ( myrmica ) rubra , ( linnaeus ) formica rubra , ( linnaeus ) manica rubra , ( linnaeus )
myrmica rubra is a myrmicine ant , one of 116 species recorded in this genus . there are several species of myrmica in north america . among the most commonly reported are myrmica detritinodis , myrmica incompleta , myrmica emeryana , myrmica brevinodis , myrmica americana , myrmica fracticornus , and myrmica evaneda , which makes the morphological identification of myrmica rubra complicated . some of these species are not very common in the northeastern united states and most are rarely found in disturbed areas , which help us to recognize myrmica rubra in the field .
the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmica rubra for further details
principal source : landcare research . 2006 . myrmica rubra information sheet , research , invasive ants .
myrmica rubra are scavengers and predators . they work around the clock from june to september obtaining food .
informations on myrmica rubra has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .
landcare research . 2006 . myrmica rubra information sheet , research , invasive ants . summary : this information sheet provides comprehensive information about the biology , impacts and control options for myrmica rubra . available from : urltoken [ 28 september 2006 ]
the life cycle in the united states is still being studied . myrmica rubra is polygynous ( many queens per colony ) and polydomous ( many nests per individual colony ) . this situation allows myrmica rubra to maintain very high densities of individuals and nests in some areas . myrmica rubra colonies are also extremely mobile and some colonies move their nests regularly throughout the summer .
myrmica rubra can be dispersed via the movement of infested potted plants , mulch and fill ( landcare research , 2006 ) .
japanese ant database group . ( 2003 ) . myrmica rubra . summary : available from urltoken [ accessed 26 june , 2009 ]
recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : myrmica rubra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .
figure 5 . symptoms of an individual sting by the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .
in addition to its nuisance impact , myrmica rubra is also having significant effects on natural ecosystems . myrmica rubra appears to be responsible for the reduction of the ant diversity , richness , and abundance in infested areas , and has also exacerbated populations of plant feeding hemipteran pests such as aphids and scales .
ordered 26 - 50 myrmica rubra . took only 3 days from germany too holland and received 2 queens and 40 - 50 workers ! thanks antstore !
myrmica rubra is native to the palearctic regions of europe and asia from ireland to western siberia ( czechowski et al . 2000 ) . in the old world , myrmica rubra is found from 25° latitude north to the arctic circle ( 66°n ) ( elmes et al . 1999 ) . based on its native distribution , the potential invasive range of myrmica rubra in north america would span the southern - most inland part of florida to the north of hudson bay in canada .
groden e . ( 2003 ) . european imported red ant ( myrmica rubra ) in maine . entomology - university of maine . ( no longer available online )
elmes , g . w . 1973 . miniature queens of the ant myrmica rubra l . ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . entomologist 106 : 133 - 136 pdf
there are around 200 different known species of the red stinging ant ‘myrmica sp’ .
figure 6 . worker ants of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , attending aphids and other homopterans in maine . photograph by f . drummond , university of maine .
champlaini . myrmica rubra r . champlaini forel , 1901h : 80 ( w . ) canada . subspecies of laevinodis : weber , 1947 : 454 ; of rubra : creighton , 1950a : 103 . junior synonym of laevinodis : smith , m . r . 1951a : 789 .
bertelsmeier et al . ( 2015 ) examined elements of interspecific aggression between this species and several other highly invasive ants . in laboratory assays myrmica rubra was adept at avoiding aggressive interactions . when confronted by workers of other invasive ant species m . rubra either acted indifferently or moved away .
europaea . myrmica laevinodis var . europaea finzi , 1926 : 84 ( w . ) norway . [ first available use of myrmica rubra subsp . champlaini var . europaea forel , 1911h : 457 ; unavailable name . ] santschi , 1931b : 339 ( m . ) . subspecies of laevinodis : stitz , 1939 : 83 ; of rubra : bolton , 1995b : 279 . junior synonym of rubra : radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1997 : 483 ; czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 : 17 .
figure 4 . workers of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , gathering and protecting various larval instars after the nest was disturbed . photograph by h . a . arevalo , university of maine .
fedoseeva , e . b . 2015 . a technological approach to the description of group foraging in ant myrmica rubra . zoologichesky zhurnal . 94 : 1163 - 1178 . doi : 10 . 1134 / s0013873815080060
senior synonym of myrmica laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms myrmica bruesi , myrmica champlaini , myrmica longiscapus ) : yarrow , 1955c pdf : 114 ; arnol ' di , 1970b pdf : 1839 ; boven , 1977 pdf : 115 ; arnol ' di & dlussky , 1978 : 530 ; collingwood , 1979 pdf : 52 ; seifert , 1988b : 5 ; of myrmica europaea : radchenko , czechowski & czechowska , 1997 : 483 ; czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 pdf : 17 ; of myrmica microrubra : steiner , schlick - steiner , konrad , et al . 2006 : 777 .
the first reports of red ants stinging people in maine occurred from the late 1960s to the mid - 1970s , but it was not until 1986 that the species was confirmed as myrmica rubra . complaints received by the university of maine cooperative extension office have increased sharply since 1998 ( groden et al . 2005 ) . today myrmica rubra is considered a nuisance pest in most places where it is established in north america .
bologna , a . and c . detrain . 2015 . steep decline and cessation in seed dispersal by myrmica rubra ants . plos one . 10 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0139365
groden e , drummond fa , garnas j , franceour a . 2005 . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 : 1774 - 1784 .
figure 1 . adult worker of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . notice the sting , the two - segmented waist and the two spines on the propodeum . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .
radchenko and elmes ( 2010 ) - from the latin word rubra = red , to describe its generally reddish colour .
bruesi . myrmica laevinodis var . bruesi weber , 1947 : 453 ( w . q . m . ) u . s . a . [ first available use of myrmica rubra subsp . laevinodis var . bruesi wheeler , w . m . 1906a : 38 ; unavailable name . ] junior synonym of laevinodis : creighton , 1950a : 104 .
please see antweb : myrmica rubra for more images and assistance with identification . the antweb image comparison tool lets you compare images of ants at the subfamily , genus , species or specimen level . you may also specify which types of images you would like to compare : head , profile , dorsal , or label . there are several native species of myrmica in new england , and distinguishing them from m . rubra can be difficult ( landcare research , 2006 ) .
weir , j . s . 1957 . effect of anaesthetics on workers of the ant myrmica . journal of experimental biology . 34 : 464 - 468 . summary : provides additional information on the use of anaesthetics with m . rubra .
onoyama , k . 1989a . confirmation of the occurrence of myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) in japan with taxonomic and ecological notes . jpn . j . entomol . 57 : 131 - 135 ( page 131 , see also )
schar , s . & nash , d . r . 2014 . evidence that microgynes of myrmica rubra ants are social parasites that attack old host colonies . journal of evolutionary biology , doi : 10 . 1111 / jeb . 12482 .
vepsalainen , k . , ebsen , j . r . , savolainen , r . , boomsma , j . j . 2009 . genetic differentiation between the ant myrmica rubra and its microgynous social parasite . insectes sociaux 56 : 425–437 .
gammans , n . r . , drummond , f . , gorden , e . and stock , p . 2006 . use of pheromones in bait stations to control the invasive european fire ant , myrmica rubra . summary : this article discusses the use of pheromones in attracting m . rubra to bait stations . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 october 2006 ]
butterflies of the highly endangered genus maculinea are parasites of myrmica ants . a recent study by anton et al ( 2008 ) indicates that maculinea nausithous is limited by the density of its host ant , m . rubra . they suggest that habitat management to increase densities of this endangered butterfly should focus on the optimization of habitats that enable high densities of m . rubra .
bell , d . a . , felse , j . , mescher , m . and holbrook , g . 2002 . potential supercolonialism in north american myrmica rubra . summary : this presentation suggested that there may be an approach towards supercolonialism in populations of m . rubra on mount desert island , maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]
naumann and higgins ( 2015 ) examined the influence of this species on native insects . abstract : pitfall trapping revealed that the european fire ant , myrmica rubra ( linnaeus ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , represents an unusual example of a temperate invasive ant species . in british columbia , canada , m . rubra populations are associated with a decreased incidence and abundance of other ant species in three different plant communities when compared with m . rubra - free control areas . m . rubra represented more than 99 . 99 % of the total ant fauna caught in the infested areas , and the numbers of m . rubra captured in the plant communities ranged from over 10 times to over 1300 times the total number of all ants collected in corresponding m . rubra - free areas . total numbers of some taxa of insects and non - insect arthropods , including those likely to be competitors or prey of m . rubra , were reduced where the invasive species was present . biodiversity indexes for the overall suite of captured arthropod species were lower where m . rubra was present in all three plant communities but most of this decrease can be attributed to the difference in the ant fauna .
figure 2 . distribution of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus , in the unites states and canada . this information is based on the published literature and surveys conducted between 2002 and 2004 . illustration by h . alejandro arevalo , university of maine .
leppanen , j . , vepsalainen , k . , savolainen , r . 2011 . phylogeography of the ant myrmica rubra and its inquiline social parasite . ecology and evolution 1 ( 1 ) : 46–62 ( doi 10 . 1002 / ece3 . 6 ) .
myrmica rubra infestations are particularly severe in many areas along the sea coast , lakes and streams . these are areas with high value for tourism . home and business owners are concerned about the impact of these ants on their activities , income , and value of their property
czechowski , w . , radchenko , a . & czechowska , w . ( 2007 ) . mermithid infestation strikingly alters the morphology of myrmica rubra ( l . ) ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : possible taxonomical involvements . annales zoologici 51 ( 2 ) : abstract .
wardlaw , j . c . 1995 . the effect of carbon dioxide on egg production in myrmica rubra . ins . soc . . 42 : 325 - 328 . summary : this paper discusses the use of carbon dioxide as an anaesthetic for examining ants in a laboratory situation .
figure 3 . detail of the head of an adult worker of the european fire ant , myrmica rubra linnaeus . notice the bent scape , the frontal lobes with respect to the base of the antenna , and the sculptured head . photograph by e . groden , university of maine .
groden , e . , drummond , f . a . , garnas , j . , franceour , a . 2005 . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 ( 6 ) , 1774 - 1784 .
workers of myrmica rubra are of a reddish - brown color , but the coloration greatly varies between individuals and colonies . workers are small ( 4 to 5 mm ) , their waist has two segments , the head and the mesosoma are heavily sculpted , but the abdomen is shiny . the worker ' s body is cover with fine hairs . the antennae are 12 - segmented with a four - segmented club and a bent scape . the propodeum ( the first abdominal segment fused anteriorly to the thorax ) has two spines pointing backwards , which is one of the main differences from other native ants ( not of the genus myrmica ) in the northeastern u . s . there are a few morphological differences that help to differentiate myrmica rubra from the other ants within the same genus . when viewed dorsally , the frontal lobes of myrmica rubra look thin and lamellar , laterally developed and do not cover the antennal base , and the propodeal lobes form a 90° angle apically ( francoeur , unpublished data ) .
le roux , a . m . , le roux , g . & thibout , e . ( 2002 ) . food experience on the predatory behavior of the ant myrmica rubra towards a specialist moth , acrolepiopsis assectella . journal of chemical ecology 28 ( 11 ) : 2307 - 2314 .
wheeler wm . 1908 . a european ant ( myrmica laevinodis ) introduced into massachusetts . journal of economic entomology 1 : 336 - 339 .
myrmica rubra has become a significant pest in areas in the northeastern u . s . primarily because these aggressive , stinging ants interfere with people ' s use and enjoyment of their properties , gardens and parks . myrmica rubra ' s extremely high densities foraging both on herbaceous plants , shrubs and trees in combination with the cryptic nature of their nests , the probability of people and their pets inadvertently disrupting the ant ' s activities is very high . when disrupted , the ants will deliver a painful sting which has in a few cases produced severe allergic reactions to the venom including anaphylactic shock .
groden , e . and drummond , f . a . 2003 . management of the european fire ant in eastern maine . us environmental protection agency . summary : this paper provides information about management of myrmica rubra in eastern maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]
groden , e . , drummond , f . a . , garnas , j . & franceour , a . ( 2005 ) . distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine . journal of economic entomology 98 ( 6 ) : 1774 - 1784 .
bibliography bradley , g . .
ants - myrmica rubra - formicidae - uk safari .
urltoken n . p . , n . d . web . 5 feb . 2011 . < urltoken > . eleanor , groden , drummond francis a . , garnas jefferey , and franceour andre .
distribution of an invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in maine .
journal of economic entomology 98 . 6 ( 2005 ) : n . pag . entomofaune du quebec . web . 23 may 2011 . groden , eleanor . email interview . 26 feb . 2011 groden , eleanor .
natural enemies of the invasive ant , myrmica rubra .
powerpoint . school of biology and ecology , university of maine . may 4 2011 groden , eleanor , and h . alejandro arevalo .
european fire ant - myrmica rubra linnaeus .
university of florida entomology and nematology department . version eeny - 410 . university of florida and university of maine , n . d . web . 2 feb . 2011 . < urltoken > .
myrmica rubra ( linnaeus , 1758 ) .
urltoken n . p . , 29 sept . 2009 . web . 2 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .
myrmica rubra , the common red ant .
urltoken n . p . , n . d . web . 29 jan . 2011 . < urltoken > .
researchers try to squash fire ant population - wabi tv5 .
urltoken community broadcasting service , 22 july 2010 . web . 17 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .
the european fire ant ( myrmica rubra ) .
urltoken university of maine , n . d . web . 6 mar . 2011 . < urltoken > .
the university of maine - cooperative extension publications - bulletin # 2550 , european fire ant : a new invasive insect in maine .
urltoken maine agricultural center university of maine cooperative extension ornamental horticulture program leadership team , n . d . web . 2 may 2011 . < urltoken > . mla formatting by bibme . org .
leppänen , j . , seppä , p . , vepsäläinen , k . , savolainen , r . 2016 . mating isolation between the ant myrmica rubra and its microgynous social parasite . insectes sociaux 63 : 79 - 86 ( doi 10 . 1007 / s00040 - 015 - 0438 - y ) .
myrmica rubra , commonly known as the european fire ant , is an aggressive ant species which has been introduced from its native eurasia to eastern north america , where it appears able to reach sizeable densities . it has a painful sting , and also impacts on native ants and other invertebrates , and reptiles .
garnas , j . r . , drummond , f . a . & groden , e . ( 2007 ) . intercolony aggression within and among local populations of the invasive ant , myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) , in coastal maine . environmental entomology 36 ( 1 ) : 105 - 113 .
leclerc , j . - b . , detrain , c . 2017 . loss of attraction for social cues leads to fungal - infected myrmica rubra ants withdrawing from the nest . animal behaviour 129 , 133 - 141 ( doi 10 . 1016 / j . anbehav . 2017 . 05 . 002 ) .
however , in europe and northern asia , where these ants are native , ants in the genus myrmica are considered important for the conservation of rare maculinea butterflies that live in association with the ants . myrmica rubra in particular is considered to be a host for maculinea teleius , maculinea nausithous , and two cryptic species of maculinea alcon ( elmes et al . 1998 ) . these butterflies are an important research topic due to their social - parasitic relationship with myrmica ants and their importance as bioindicators of the health of paleartic , and moist - grassland ecosystems in europe ( mouquet et al . 2005 ) .
myrmica rubra linnaeus , often called the european fire or red ant , is an adventive species found mainly in the northeastern united states . it was first discovered in massachusetts in 1908 by wheeler ( 1908 ) . this stinging ant species is considered to be a potential health and ecological risk to the u . s .
in north america , myrmica rubra has been reported in maine , massachusetts , new york , pennsylvania , new jersey , washington d . c . , rhode island , and new hampshire in the us , and in ontario , québec , new brunswick , and nova scotia in canada ( groden et al . 2005 ) .
although workers in supercolonies appear to be very tolerant towards their neighbouring colony members , they can be very aggressive towards other organisms , stinging people and other animals freely ( personal observations ) ; however , laboratory studies suggest that m . rubra workers do not have especially different aggressive responses compared to other members of the genus ( de vroey and pasteels 1978 ) . m . rubra have a well equipped sting apparatus ( billen 1986 ) and although some people react allergically to the venom , the sting and venom does not seem markedly different from that of other free - stinging myrmicines ( e . g . blum and herman 1978 ) . most people ( including one of us - ar ) think that m . rubra stings seem particularly painful compared to other myrmica species . however in the opinion of the other author ( gwe ) when individuals of other myrmica are provoked into stinging ( usually in hot conditions ) a single sting can be equally painfully as that of m . rubra , perhaps even more so if the specimen is large : m . rubra having acquired its reputation because colonies are corporately aggressive and individuals sting rapidly and frequently even when fairly cool .
brian , m . v . ; brian , a . d . 1949 . observations on the taxonomy of the ants myrmica rubra l . and m . laevinodis nylander . ( hymenoptera : formicidae . ) . trans . r . entomol . soc . lond . 100 : 393 - 409 pdf ( page 393 , see also )
radchenko , a . g . & elmes , g . w . 2010 . myrmica ants of the old world . fauna mundi 3 : 1 - 789 .
microrubra . myrmica microrubra seifert , 1993 : 10 , figs . 1 , 4 ( q . m . ) germany . junior synonym of rubra : steiner , schlick - steiner , konrad , et al . 2006 : 777 . see also : czechowski , radchenko & czechowska , 2002 : 19 ; radchenko & elmes , 2003a : 236 .
this ant is a small black stinging ant which reminds me of a cross between lasius niger and myrmica rubra , though are in the same genus as the latter . they are typically found along the coasts of southern and western england . they can have nests containing up to 30 , 000 ants , but the average is perhaps 10 , 000 .
myrmica rubra is a very interesting species . it was surprising to me that it came to the united states in potting soil and that they have a symbiotic relationship with aphids . when researching this topic , i found some sites that had solid information but , at times , it was very hard to find information because most information was on how to get m . rubra out of your yard or it was only repeating what other websites had already claimed . often many sites had little or no information that was usable . this species was so difficult to research that i had to email professor eleanor groden of the university of maine at orono . she was so helpful . it was very surprising to me that it was hard to find information because myrmica rubra came to the united states first in 1908 and , yet , there is not a lot of readily available information on this species .
species of myrmica ruginodis ; one that has queens which are visibly larger than the workers , and the other has queens which are almost the same size as the worker .
generally , the microhabitat favoured by m . rubra colonies living by rivers and wet meadows ranges from open grass ( about 10 - 20 cm tall ) in the north and west of europe to much longer grass and reeds ( 1 - 2 m tall ) in southern and eastern habitats . much less is known about its distribution in west siberia : m . rubra is one of the commonest ants in various habitats of west and east siberia ( reznikova 1983 ; dmitrienko , petrenko 1976 ) and is particularly common in rivers meadows in north - eastern kazakhstan ( m . woyciechowski , pers . comm . ) . the principal competitors of m . rubra are other myrmica species but in meadows it faces strong competition from lasius niger ( czechowski 1985 ) .
elmes gw , wardlaw jc , nielsen mg , kipyatkov ve , lopatina eb , radchenko ag , barr b . 1999 . site latitude influences on the respiration rate , fat content and the ability of worker ants to rear larvae : a comparison of myrmica rubra ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) populations over their european range . european journal of entomology 96 : 117 - 123 .
myrmica rubra is an aggressive ant species which has a painful sting . it has become a significant pest in many parts of its introduced range in maine , usa . nest densities can reach 4 / m2 , and there are impacts on people , pets , native ants , other invertebrates and reptiles ( landcare research , 2006 ; gammans et al . 2006 ) . m . rubra appears to establish in sizeable colonies in its introduced range , in disturbed and natural areas around residences and commercial buildings . it aggressively defends its territory as well as dominating native species . ( usda - aphis , 2003 ) .
antweb , 2006 . myrmica rubra summary : antweb illustrates ant diversity by providing information and high quality color images of many of the approximately 10 , 000 known species of ants . antweb currently focusses on the species of the nearctic and malagasy biogeographic regions , and the ant genera of the world . over time , the site is expected to grow to describe every species of ant known . antweb provides the following tools : search tools , regional lists , in - depth information , ant image comparision tool pdf field guides maps on antweb and google earth and ant genera of the world slide show . antweb is available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 september 2006 ] the species page is available from : urltoken ; = myrmica & name ; = rubra & project ; = [ accessed 26 september 2006 ]
stanley , 2004 provides comprehensive information about the range of baits available for ant control and eradication . groden and stack , 2003 provide information on managing m . rubra in maine , as does usepa , 2003 .
hauschteck , e . 1965 . halbe haploide chromosomenzahl im hoden von myrmica sulcinodis nyl . ( formicidae ) . experientia ( basel ) 21 : 323 - 325 ( page 325 , karyotype described )
from egg hatch to egg production , queens take at least two years to start a colony . in europe , myrmica rubra produces two types of brood characterized by the time necessary to mature . rapid brood develops in the year that it is laid , but a slower brood will overwinter as third instar larvae and mature to adulthood the following year ( elmes et al . 1998 , elmes et al . 1999 ) .
myrmica rubra is \
normally polygynous with some 1000 workers , but may develop large polydomous colonies covering up to 2 m2 and consisting of 100s of queens and over 10 000 workers ( saaristo , 1995 ) . unrelated queens have been found cohabiting ( pearson , 1983 ) . densities of m . rubra nests can be as high as 4 per m2 , with more than 5200 workers and 39 queens per nest ( drummond and garnas www57 ) . artificial nesting substrates set out in maine were readily used and were repeatedly vacated and recolonised , suggesting colony movement is high , or that m . rubra’s large polydomous colonies are able to relocate nests in response to shifting optimal conditions for brood production on a short temporal scale ( garnas et al . www57 ) . in poland , mating swarms were present from august until mid - october ( woyciechowski , 1992 ) \
( from landcare research , 2006 ) . studies on populations of m . rubra on mount desert island ( maine , usa ) have suggested an approach towards supercolonialism ( bell et al . 2002 ) .
there are seven species of the myrmica family found in this country . these ants tend to be a deep red in colour and can deliver a painful sting . the most common of the seven species is
pearson , b . 1981 . the electrophoretic determination of myrmica rubra microgynes as a social parasite : possible significance in the evolution of ant social parasites . pp . 75 - 84 in : howse , p . e . , clement , j . - l . ( eds . ) biosystematics of social insects . systematics association special volume no . 19 . london : academic press , 346 pp . ( page 75 , see also )
longiscapus . myrmica longiscapus curtis , 1854 : 213 , pl . 23 , figs . 11 - 14 ( w . q . m . ) great britain . junior synonym of laevinodis : mayr , 1863 : 433 .
della santa , e . 2000 . l ' identification des espèces du genre myrmica latreille ( formicidae ) de suisse ; essai de présentation synoptique . bull . romand entomol . 18 : 169 - 187 ( page 171 , status )
elmes gw , thomas ja , wardlaw jc , hochberg me , clarke rt , simcox dj . 1998 . the ecology of myrmica ants in relation to the conservation of maculinea butterflies . journal of insect conservation 2 : 67 - 68 .
nash , d . ( 2006 ) . coevolution of chemical mimicry of maculinea butterflies and their myrmica ant hosts : the importance of spatial scale and gene flow . the iussi 2006 congress symposium 21 : coevolution between social insects and their macroparasites
myrmica rubra are generalist scavengers and predators . workers also feed on honeydew of homoptera and exudates of plants , and tend aphids . workers forage around the clock from early june to september on mount desert island , maine . throughout the autumn months ( september to early november ) there was a significant sigmoidal relationship between temperature and foraging . foraging activity increased with temperature from about 6°c to 13–14°c . above these temperatures , foraging did not appear to increase in response to air temperature ( landcare research , 2006 ) .
m . rubra is a generalist scavenger and predator hunting various small invertebrates ( e . g . petal 1967 ) , but also utilize honeydew and nectar ( flowers and extrafloral nectaries , e . g . felton 1959 ) , aphids and scale insects . they forage on trees and shrubs more frequently than any other myrmica species ( except perhaps m . ruginodis ) ; though in europe arboreal foraging is quite rare while in the supercolonies of maine , usa very many m . rubra workers can be seen foraging high into the canopy ( personal observations ) . m . rubra workers often forage in groups ( e . g . dlussky et al . 1978 ) and they lay and follow chemical foraging trails ( e . g . cammaerts - tricot and verhaeghe 1974 ; cammaerts - tricot et al . 1977 ) . single foragers ( weighing about 2 mg ) are able to exert pulling - forces of about 100 mg . developing a mean power of about 5 . 8 ergs / s ( sudd 1965 ) , a third to a quarter of the strength and power exerted by formica lugubris zett . workers .
see the general biology discussion above for an overview of diet and foraging . novgorodova ( 2015b ) investigated ant - aphid interactions of a dozen honeydew collecting ants in south - central russia . all of the ants studied had workers that showed high fidelity to attending particular aphid colonies , i . e , individual foragers that collect honeydew tend to return to the same location , and group of aphids , every time they leave the nest . myrmica rubra showed no specialization beyond this foraging site fidelity . foragers tended chaitophorus populeti ( panzer ) and aphis pomi de geer .
hey guys , i took a walk in my back yard and rolled over a small log to find a large colony of myrmica rubra under it warming up under the warm log . i thought it was a good opportunity to start a small colony so i caught a few workers and was able to grab one of their queens . this species of ant has multiple queens so me taking one was not harmful at all . the small colony i have now is doing very well and producing a good amount of eggs . the colony is starting its life in a test tube . one of the best ways to raise young ant colonies .
yarrow , i . h . h . 1955c . the type species of the ant genus myrmica latreille . proc . r . entomol . soc . lond . ser . b 24 : 113 - 115 ( page 114 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )
cultural control . another tactic is to make the environment less hospitable for this ant . these ants prefer high humidity , moist soil , and reduced exposure to the sun ( lightly shaded habitats ) . reducing irrigation , mowing tall grasses and increasing sun exposure to the ground will decrease favorable nesting and foraging conditions for the ants . these ants build their nests under debris placed on the lawn , including rocks , boards , logs , and anything that maintains a moist environment underneath . reducing nesting sites will reduce the populations and force the ants to nest elsewhere . this method will not eliminate myrmica rubra , but may help to keep population densities low .
in north america , myrmica rubra nests are cryptic and difficult to spot at first glance , as they do not construct obvious mounds from soil . nests are usually in places that maintain high humidity for the colony including in the soil along roots of trees or shrubs , under rocks , logs or other human or natural debris , and in decaying logs . their nest densities are extremely high in infested areas in the u . s . , averaging between 0 . 5 and 1 . 5 nests per square meter , compared with 0 . 02 to 0 . 3 nests per square meter in their native habitat in england ( groden et al . 2005 ) .
arnol ' di , k . v . 1970b . review of the ant genus myrmica ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in the european part of the ussr . zool . zh . 4 49 : 1829 - 1844 ( page 1839 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )
mechanical control . one of the best means to reduce the impact of myrmica rubra is to prevent its further spread . the public should be aware of the risk involved in transporting materials from infested areas . potted plants , soil , mulches , and similar materials should be inspected on site and again before transplanting or use . ant activity can be hard to detect if the colony is small and underground , so careful observation is necessary . if ants are found , it is necessary to avoid using the materials until they can be identified by a reliable source ( entomologist , local cooperative extension service office , or a university entomology identification program ) and / or destroyed .
usda - aphis . 2003 . annual progress report for fy 2003 , usda - aphis cooperative agricultural pest survey for maine . cooperative agreement : 03 - 8223 - 0360 - ca . summary : this report provides up to date information on the status of m . rubra in maine , usa . available from : urltoken [ accessed 28 september 2006 ]
latreille , p . a . 1804 . tableau méthodique des insectes . pp . 129 - 200 in : société de naturalistes et d ' agriculteurs . nouveau dictionnaire d ' histoire naturelle . tome 24 . paris : déterville , 84 + 85 + 238 + 18 + 34 pp . ( page 179 , combination in myrmica )
seifert , b . 1988b . a taxonomic revision of the myrmica species of europe , asia minor , and caucasia ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . abh . ber . naturkundemus . görlitz 62 ( 3 ) : 1 - 75 ( page 5 , senior synonym of laevinodis ( and its junior synonyms bruesi , champlaini and longiscapus ) )
radchenko , a . g . ; czechowski , w . ; czechowska , w . 1997 . the genus myrmica latr . ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) in poland - a survey of species and a key for their identification . ann . zool . ( warsaw ) 47 : 481 - 500 ( page 483 , senior synonym of europaea )
morphologically m . rubra is comparatively stable over its very wide range ( unlike , for example , m . scabrinodis , which is probably undergoing current speciation in europe – see notes to that species ) , most of its local adaptation appears to have been physiological and perhaps behavioural . consequently , given its abundance , it would be an ideal candidate to attempt phylogeographical history of its invasion of europe using modern molecular analytical techniques . until this occurs we can only hypothesise from whence m . rubra spread . it seems probable to us , that it survived the last ice age in middle asia or maybe the balkans or southeast europe , on so - called “tundra - steppes” , and spread rapidly into europe along the great river margins as the ice melted . coinciding with man ' s deforestation of europe many new habitats were created in the oceanic part of europe , the forests of which would have been generally too cold for colonisation . thus in a sense m . rubra is pre - adapted to invade anthropogenic habitats ( gardens , agrocoenoses ) especially in areas of high rainfall . this might help explain why it has been a very successful invader of the eastern seaboard of usa and canada .
nuptial flights occur from late july and have been reported as late as october . compared to many other myrmica species , m . rubra mating swarms can be quite large aggregations and they have frequently been reported flying quite long distances to join swarms on church towers , high trees and mountain - tops ( e . g . hubbard and nagell 1976 ; woyciechowski 1990b ; personal observations ) . we have on occasion observed nests having recruited a mixture of their own daughters and other young queens ( all fertilised ) , but we are not sure whether their daughters mated in or near to the nest prior to joining the parent colony or flew to a distant swarm , mated and found their way home again . while the latter seems improbable it is what happens in the case of honey bees .
a member of the rubra group . yellowish brown . sculpture dilute ; frontal triangle and subspinal areas smooth and shining . antennal scapes long and slender . petiole node with short indistinct dorsal area sloping evenly without definite break to its junction with the postpetiole . head index : 79 . 5 ; frons index : 49 . 4 ; frontal laminae index : 92 . 7 . length : 3 . 5 - 5 . 0 mm . ( collingwood 1979 )
bologna and detrain ( 2015 ) examined foraging behavior in a laboratory experiment with m . rubra obtained from locations in belgium . they found that the ants became satiated and showed a large decline over time in retrieval of elaiosome bearing seeds of viola odorata . seeds were offered once a week for 5 consecutive weeks and again at week 12 . a similar experiment with dead fruit flies showed a consistent foraging response where the ants collected most of the offered fruit flies .
laevinodis . myrmica laevinodis nylander , 1846a : 927 , pl . 18 , figs . 5 , 31 ( w . q . m . ) finland . subspecies of rubra : forel , 1874 : 76 ; emery & forel , 1879 : 460 ; wheeler , w . m . 1906d : 315 ; emery , 1914d : 156 ; forel , 1915d : 28 ; menozzi , 1918 : 82 ; karavaiev , 1927c : 259 ; creighton , 1950a : 104 . status as species : saunders , e . 1880 : 215 ; andré , 1883a : 316 ; dalla torre , 1893 : 110 ; ruzsky , 1905b : 662 ; bondroit , 1912 : 351 ; donisthorpe , 1915d : 110 ; bondroit , 1918 : 104 ; müller , 1923 : 40 ; finzi , 1926 : 83 ; stitz , 1939 : 78 ; holgersen , 1940 : 184 ; novak & sadil , 1941 : 76 ; weber , 1947 : 441 ; bernard , 1967 : 119 ; baroni urbani , 1971c : 22 ; kutter , 1977c : 65 . senior synonym of longiscapus : mayr , 1863 : 433 ; of champlaini : smith , m . r . 1951a : 789 ; of bruesi : creighton , 1950a : 104 . junior synonym of rubra : yarrow , 1955b : 114 ; arnol ' di , 1970b : 1839 ; arnol ' di & dlussky , 1978 : 530 ; collingwood , 1979 : 52 ; seifert , 1988b : 5 ; radchenko , 2007 : 30 .
agosti , d . , and n . f . johnson . editors . 2005 . antbase . hymenoptera name server results for the species myrmica rubra ( linnaeus ) : world wide web electronic publication . antbase . org , version ( 05 / 2005 ) . summary : antbase is a collaborative effort between scientists from around the world , aiming at providing the best possible access to the wealth of information on ants , to fulfill the conservation needs of the international union for the study of social insects ( iussi ) , and the species survival commission of the world conservation union ( iucn ) . antbase , together with the hymenoptera on - line database , is the data provider for ants to the integrated taxonomic information system , itis . antbase is being built and maintained at the american museum of natural history ( donat agosti ) and the ohio state university ( norman f . johnson ) . antbase is available from : urltoken this page is available from : urltoken [ accessed 26 september 2006 ]
m . rubra colonies do not need a long season of high temperatures to complete their life cycles , in most habitats the ants do not become active until the end of april and are entering a pre - hibernation state by late september ( elmes 1982 ) . they have an active basal physiology ( compared to many other myrmica species ) that has adapted to local environments in different parts of its range . habitat selection seems to be determined by a trade - off between sufficient insolation to complete their life cycle and maintaining a high humidity within the soil nest ( assuming other factors such as food availability and nest site suitability being equal ) . thus at sea level in the more oceanic climates of western europe , woodlands are too cold in summer while east - facing meadows get too hot and dry whereas in the much more continental climates of eastern europe , the hot summers enable them to live in woodlands which dessicate less rapidly than open meadows . mountains of course , make their own local climates so that for example , in the carpathians populations favour more open meadow habitats at higher altitudes that are ecologically very similar to the prime habitat in western europe .
diez et al . ( 2015 ) , a study examining pathogens and colony hygiene - abstract : ants have developed prophylactic and hygienic behaviours in order to limit risks of pathogenic outbreaks inside their nest , which are often called social immunity . here , we test whether ants can adapt the “social immune response” to the level of pathogenic risk in the colony . we challenged myrmica rubra colonies with dead nestmates that had either died from being frozen or from infection by the fungus metarhizium anisopliae . ant survival was compromised by the presence of the fungus - bearing corpses : workers died faster with a significantly lower survival from the 4th day compared to workers challenged with freeze - killed corpses . when faced with fungus - bearing corpses , workers responded quickly by increasing hygienic behaviours : they spent more time cleaning the nest , moving the corpses , and self - grooming . ants in fungus - threatened colonies also decreased contact rates with other workers , and moved corpses further in the corners of the nest than in colonies in contact with non - infected corpses . these results show that ant colonies are able to assess the risk level associated with the presence of corpses in the nest , and adjust their investment in terms of hygienic behaviour .
m . rubra is a eurytopic species distributed widely throughout europe and west siberia where it can dominate some habitats . it thrives in damp habitats , especially soils with high water tables or habitats in areas of high rainfall . however , it is seldom found living in tussocks on true bogs , in the manner of some populations of m . scabrinodis and m . ruginodis . in western europe it is considered to be a species of damp meadows and is rarely found in woods and forests , the largest populations usually occur on west - facing slopes with heavy clayey ( often limestone ) soils , where it builds nests in the soil and under flat stones . these sites often have high rainfall and the moisture is held in the heavy soils . in eastern europe ( russia , ukraine etc . ) it is considered to be more of a forest species inhabiting many different kinds of forests ( except those with light , dry soils ) , where it builds nests in the soil under moss and in or under rotten wood . in central europe m . rubra is often very abundant in grass on forest , woodland and hedgerow edges , and in germany , poland and france etc . it is particularly abundant in the longer vegetation at the edges of water meadows used for haymaking and grazing . throughout its entire range it is associated with meadows bordering rivers and lakes . in recent years it has become important in nature conservation as the primary ant host of the endangered butterfly species phengaris nausithous ( bergstrasser ) ( see papers in settele et a ! . 2005 ) .
winged sexuals ( gynes and males ) are produced in june and “mature” inside the nest until july . the ontogeny of larval development and caste determination has been extensively studied by m . v . brian using m . rubra as a model species and has been found to be very complex ; for example , the hormonal state of the queen influences larval hormone production and ontogeny ( brian 1959 , 1974 ) , trophic conditions are involved ( brian and abbott 1977 ) as are the age and numbers of workers ( brian and jones 1980 ) , seasonality has an effect ( pearson and raybould 1997 ) and even gut parasite load might have some impact ( pearson and raybould 1998 ) . a model based on these interactions show that gyne production might be periodic ( brian et al . 1981 ) and this may account for the observation that the mean size of workers and queens in nests is positively correlated with worker number and negatively correlated with queen number ( elmes 1974b ) .
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since 2001 , entomologists at the university of maine have conducted periodic surveys to determine the movement of and the area colonized by the ant . in maine , the ant is restricted to humid places along the coast . however , colonies have been reported at inland locations and there is a concern that the ant is capable of establishing in these new areas .
in europe , nuptial flights occur during mid - august to mid - september depending on the latitude . queens overwinter before laying eggs for the first time . some queens overwinter alone , others as groups of newly mated queens , and some join an existing colony . in the following spring , queens search for food to begin reproduction . queens that are part of a group have an advantage in foraging for food , and these queens will usually experience higher survival than solitary queens .
in the united states , the situation is different . no nuptial flights have been reported , and new infestations appear to be caused by human - aided dispersal , particularly with the movement of infested soil , mulch , and potted plants . colonies that are already established spread to adjacent areas via budding . this occurs when one or more queens and a group of workers , frequently with brood , move from an existing colony to a new nest site to form a satellite colony . maine populations overwinter with slow brood ( third instars ) , but it is not certain whether colonies produce rapid as well as slow brood .
chemical control . if chemical control is necessary , the label of an insecticide labeled for ants should be followed precisely . currently , the most effective materials to use are the food bait - based insecticides . unfortunately , none of the insecticides screened by the entomology program at the university of maine have successfully eliminated these ant populations . low concentrations ( less than 1 % ) of boric acid mixed with a sugar attractant have been successful in the laboratory ; however , results in the field have been inconsistent . other control tactics are currently under evaluation .
for more information about the management of european fire ants , or any other pestiferous ants in gardens , yards , landscapes , or parks , please contact the local cooperative extension service office .
this featured creature publication is a cooperative effort between entomologists at the university of maine and the university of florida ( uf ) . the senior author received his ph . d . at uf in fall 2006 . the research he and his colleagues are doing on this species of ant is important as its potential range includes florida .
the authors thank dr . frank drummond from the university of maine for his constructive comments to an earlier version of this manuscript , and to the university of maine ' s ant team for their collaboration with the project .
bolton b , alpert g , ward ps , naskrecki p . 2006 . bolton ' s catalogue of ants of the world : 1758 - 2005 . harvard university press , cambridge , ma .
czechowski w , radchenko a , czechowska w . 2000 . the ants ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) of poland . warszawa , poland . 200 p .
mouquet n , belrose v , thomas ja , elmes gw , clarke rt , hochberg me . 2005 . conserving community modules : a case study of the endangered lycaenid butterfly maculinea alcon . ecology 86 : 3160 - 3173
photographs : e . groden , f drummond and h . a . arevalo , university of maine
, the common black garden ant , it certainly is known by our gardeners and household owners due to its tendency to enter houses . it tends to nest under pavements , in soil , along the edges of lawns , in fact almost anywhere . it is a very quick , robust and prolific ant , using formic acid and its jaws as a means of attack / defence . its colonies can grow up to a size of 15 , 000 workers , though about 4000 to 7000 is perhaps the average . they eat insects , nectar , and even the bodies of their own dead , or ants from other colonies . they are also very fond of sugary substances but eats a variety of insects including flies , beetles , the larvae of various flies and beetles , fruit and honeydew .
they are perhaps one of the easiest ants to keep in captivity due to the fact that they are harmless and possess no sting . they are a very interesting and active ant .
, the yellow meadow ant . these ants build small mounds in our lawns and are often mistaken for red ants due to their yellow -
it is the most skilled nest builder found in the uk and can also be found in fields and meadows where they build much larger mounds .