macrocheilus is a genus of beetles in the family carabidae , containing the following species : macrocheilus allardi basilewsky , 1957 macrocheilus alluaudi burgeon , 1937 macrocheilus angustatus basilewsky , 1949 macrocheilus asteriscus ( white , 1844 ) macrocheilus basilewskyi a. serrano , 2000 macrocheilus bensoni hope , 1838 macrocheilus bicolor andrewes , 1920 macrocheilus biguttatus gory , 1832 macrocheilus bimaculatus ( dejean , 1831 ) macrocheilus binotatus andrewes , 1931 macrocheilus biplagiatus ( boheman , 1848 ) macrocheilus burgeoni basilewsky , 1967 macrocheilus chaudoiri andrewes , 1919 macrocheilus clasispilus basilewsky , 1967 macrocheilus crampeli alluaud , 1916 macrocheilus cribrarius fairmaire , 1901 macrocheilus cruciatus ( marc , 1840 ) macrocheilus diplospilus basilewsky , 1967 macrocheilus dorsalis klug , 1834 macrocheilus dorsiger ( chaudoir , 1876 ) macrocheilus elegantulus burgeon , 1937 macrocheilus ferruginipes fairmaire , 1892 macrocheilus fuscipennis zhao & tian , 2010 macrocheilus gigas zhao & tian , 2010 macrocheilus hybridus peringuey , 1896 macrocheilus immanis andrewes , 1920 macrocheilus impictus ( wiedemann , 1823 ) macrocheilus labrosus ( dejean , 1831 ) macrocheilus lindemannae jedlicka , 1963 macrocheilus longicollis peringuey , 1904 macrocheilus macromaculatus louwerens , 1949 macrocheilus madagascariensis basilewsky , 1953 macrocheilus moraisi a. serrano , 2000 macrocheilus niger andrewes , 1920 macrocheilus nigrotibialis heller , 1900 macrocheilus ocellatus basilewsky , 1953 macrocheilus overlaeti burgeon , 1937 macrocheilus parvimaculatus zhao & tian , 2010 macrocheilus perrieri fairmaire , 1899 macrocheilus persimilis basilewsky , 1970 macrocheilus proximus peringuey , 1896 macrocheilus quadratus zhao & tian , 2010 macrocheilus quadrinotatus burgeon , 1937 macrocheilus saulcyi chevrolat , 1854 macrocheilus scapularis reiche , 1843 macrocheilus sinuatilabris zhao & tian , 2010 macrocheilus solidipalpis zhao & tian , 2010 macrocheilus spectandus peringuey , 1904 macrocheilus taedatus basilewsky , 1960 macrocheilus tripustulatus ( dejean , 1825 ) macrocheilus vanharteni felix & muilwijk , 2007 macrocheilus varians peringuey , 1904 macrocheilus viduatus peringuey , 1899 macrocheilus vinctus basilewsky , 1960 macrocheilus vitalisi andrewes , 1920

macrocheilus

assessing reproductive and endocrine parameters in male largescale suckers ( catostomus macrocheilus ) along a contaminant gradient in the lower columbia river , usa .
assessing reproductive and endocrine parameters in male largescale suckers ( catostomus macrocheilus ) along a contaminant gradient in the lower colu . . . - pubmed - ncbi
persistent organochlorine pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ) , dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene ( p , p ' - dde ) , and polybrominated diphenyl ethers ( pbdes ) are stable , bioaccumulative , and widely found in the environment , wildlife , and the human population . to explore the hypothesis that reproduction in male fish is associated with environmental exposures in the lower columbia river ( lcr ) , reproductive and endocrine parameters were studied in male resident , non - anadromous largescale sucker ( catostomus macrocheilus ) ( lss ) in the same habitats as anadromous salmonids having conservation status . testes , thyroid tissue and plasma collected in 2010 from longview ( lv ) , columbia city ( cc ) , and skamania ( sk ; reference ) were studied . sperm morphologies and thyrocyte heights were measured by light microscopy , sperm motilities by computer - assisted sperm motion analysis , sperm adenosine triphosphate ( atp ) with luciferase , and plasma vitellogenin ( vtg ) , thyroxine ( t4 ) , and triiodothyronine ( t3 ) by immunoassay . sperm apoptosis , viability , mitochondrial membrane potential , nuclear dna fragmentation , and reproductive stage were measured by flow cytometry . sperm quality parameters ( except counts ) and vtg were significantly different among sites , with correlations between vtg and 7 sperm parameters . thyrocyte heights , t4 , t3 , gonadosomatic index and fulton ' s condition factor differed among sites , but not significantly . sperm quality was significantly lower and vtg higher where liver contaminants and water estrogen equivalents were highest ( lv site ) . total pcbs ( specifically pcb - 138 , - 146 , - 151 , - 170 , - 174 , - 177 , - 180 , - 183 , - 187 , - 194 , and - 206 ) and total pbdes ( specifically bde - 47 , - 100 , - 153 , and - 154 ) were negatively correlated with sperm motility . pcb - 206 and bde - 154 were positively correlated with dna fragmentation , and pentachloroanisole and vtg were positively correlated with sperm apoptosis and negatively correlated with atp . bde - 99 was positively correlated with sperm counts and motility ; t4 was negatively correlated with counts and positively correlated with motility , thus indicating possible androgenic mechanisms and thyroid endocrine disruption . male lss proved to be an informative model for studying reproductive and endocrine biomarkers in the lcr .
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robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea , and w . b . scott . 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . american fisheries society , special publication 20 . 183 pp .
hybridizes with c . commersoni in a limited area in british columbia ( scott and crossman 1973 ) . see smith ( 1992 ) for a study of the phylogeny and biogeography of the catostomidae .
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range includes western north america , mainly west of the rocky mountains ; arctic basin from peace river drainage , british columbia , to smokey river drainage , alberta ; pacific slope from nass river , british columbia , to snake river drainage ( below shoshone falls ) , idaho and nevada , and coquille river , oregon ; an isolated occurrence record exists in the mackenzie river , northwest territories ( page and burr 1991 ) .
total adult population size is unknown but very large . this species is common in much of its range .
trend over the past 10 years or three generations is uncertain but likely relatively stable .
( 200 , 000 - 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 80 , 000 - 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) range includes western north america , mainly west of the rocky mountains ; arctic basin from peace river drainage , british columbia , to smokey river drainage , alberta ; pacific slope from nass river , british columbia , to snake river drainage ( below shoshone falls ) , idaho and nevada , and coquille river , oregon ; an isolated occurrence record exists in the mackenzie river , northwest territories ( page and burr 1991 ) .
usually mature by 4th or 5th year of life . usually spawns in the spring when water temperatures reach 46 - 48 f . a female may deposit as many as 20 , 000 eggs ; eggs hatch in about 2 weeks ( scott and crossman 1973 ) .
life span may be up to 11 years . predators of young suckers include fishes and fish eating birds . in shallow waters adults may be preyed upon by large mammals and birds ( e . g . , bears and eagles ) .
habitat includes lakes , and pools and runs of medium to large rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) . usually this sucker is in shallow water , but sometimes it occurs as deep as 80 feet . in lakes , it is often near stream mouths , along weedy shores , or in backwaters . fry move to shallows to feed by day and to deeper water at night . spawning may occur in sandy areas of streams ; also along lake shorelines in areas with sand or gravel substrate .
a bottom feeder . eats aquatic insect larvae , crustaceans , snails , algae , detritus , etc . young suckers feed primarily on plankton .
occurrences are based on evidence of historical presence , or current and likely recurring presence , at a given location . such evidence minimally includes collection or reliable observation and documentation of one or more individuals ( including eggs and larvae ) in appropriate habitat .
occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 15 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate migrations and seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that spawning areas and nonspawning areas for a single population are not artificially segregated as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .
data on dispersal and other movements generally are not available . in some species , individuals may migrate variable distances between spawning areas and nonspawning habitats . separation distances ( in aquatic kilometers ) for catostomids are arbitrary but reflect the presumption that movements and appropriate separation distances generally should increase with fish size . hence small , medium , and large catostomids , respectively , have increasingly large separation distances . separation distance reflects the likely low probability that two occupied locations separated by less than several kilometers of aquatic habitat would represent truly independent populations over the long term . because of the difficulty in defining suitable versus unsuitable habitat , especially with respect to dispersal , and to simplify the delineation of occurrences , a single separation distance is used regardless of habitat quality . occupied locations that are separated by a gap of 15 km or more of any aquatic habitat that is not known to be occupied represent different occurrences . however , it is important to evaluate seasonal changes in habitat to ensure that an occupied habitat occurrence for a particular population does not artificially separate spawning areas and nonspawning areas as different occurrences simply because there have been no collections / observations in an intervening area that may exceed the separation distance .
this specs group includes catostomids that typically are 20 - 40 cm in adult standard length .
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brown , c . j . d . 1971 . fishes of montana . big sky books , the endowment and research foundation , montana state university , bozeman . mt . 207 pp .
nelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - perez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea , and j . d . williams . 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico . american fisheries society , special publication 29 , bethesda , maryland . 386 pp .
page , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .
page , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 2011 . peterson field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . second edition . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston . xix + 663 pp .
scott , w . b . , and e . j . crossman . 1973 . freshwater fishes of canada . fisheries research board of canada , bulletin 184 . 966 pp .
smith , g . r . 1992 . phylogeny and biogeography of the catostomidae , freshwater fishes of north america and asia . pages 778 - 826 in r . l . mayden , editor . systematics , historical ecology , and north american freshwater fishes . stanford university press , stanford , california . xxvi + 969 pp .
wydoski , r . s . , and r . r . whitney . 1979 . inland fishes of washington . the university of washington press , seattle . 220 pp .
holton , g . d . , and h . e . johnson . 1996 . a field guide to montana fishes . 2nd edition . montana fish , wildlife and parks , montana state parks and wildlife interpretive association , helena , montana . 104 pp .
lee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , north carolina . i - x + 854 pp .
master , l . l . and a . l . stock . 1998 . synoptic national assessment of comparative risks to biological diversity and landscape types : species distributions . summary report submitted to environmental protection agency . the nature conservancy , arlington , va . 36 pp .
simpson , j . and r . wallace . 1982 . fishes of idaho . the university press of idaho , moscow , idaho . 238 pp .
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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jenkins ja 1 , olivier hm 2 , draugelis - dale ro 2 , eilts be 3 , torres l 4 , patiño r 5 , nilsen e 6 , goodbred sl 7 .
u . s . geological survey , national wetlands research center , 700 cajundome blvd . , lafayette , la 70506 , usa . electronic address : jenkinsj @ usgs . gov .
u . s . geological survey , national wetlands research center , 700 cajundome blvd . , lafayette , la 70506 , usa .
department of veterinary clinical sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .
department of biological sciences and texas cooperative fish and wildlife research unit , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 - 3131 , usa .
u . s . geological survey , texas cooperative fish and wildlife unit , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 - 2120 , usa ; department of biological sciences and department of natural resources management , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 - 2120 , usa .
u . s . geological survey , oregon water science center , 2130 s . w . 5th avenue , portland , or 97201 , usa .
u . s . geological survey ( emeritus ) , high point , nc 27262 , usa .
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occurs in pools and runs of medium to large rivers . also found in lakes . pelagic up to 1 . 8 cm in length ( ref . 1998 ) . young feed on planktonic cladocerans , copepods , ostracods , and mites ; chironomid , trichopteran and ephemeropteran larvae ; and bottom ooze ( ref . 1998 ) . adults feed on algae , diatoms , insects , amphipods , and mollusks ( ref . 1998 ) . may feed on salmonid eggs ( ref . 1998 ) . preyed upon by mergansers , osprey , eagles , and bears ( ref . 1998 ) . edible but not highly favored ( ref . 1998 ) .
c . michael hogan marked
columbia river demersal habitat
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lampetra richardsoni vladykov and follett , 1965
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c . michael hogan marked
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research curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3
nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .
full author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , héctor espinosa - pérez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
greek , kata = down + greek , stoma = mouth ( ref . 45335 )
freshwater ; demersal ; depth range 1 - 80 m ( ref . 1998 ) . temperate ; 54°n - 41°n
north america : arctic basin in canada from peace river drainage in british columbia to smokey river drainage in alberta ; pacific slope from nass river in british columbia to snake river drainage ( below shoshone falls ) in idaho and nevada , usa , and coquille river in oregon , usa .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 61 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . reported age : 15 years ( ref . 12193 )
occurs in pools and runs of medium to large rivers . also found in lakes . pelagic up to 1 . 8 cm in length ( ref . 1998 ) . young feed on planktonic cladocerans , copepods , ostracods , and mites ; chironomid , trichopteran and ephemeropteran larvae ; and bottom ooze ( ref . 1998 ) . adults feed on algae , diatoms , insects , amphipods , and mollusks ( ref . 1998 ) . may feed on salmonid eggs ( ref . 1998 ) . preyed upon by mergansers , osprey , eagles , and bears ( ref . 1998 ) . edible but not highly favored ( ref . 1998 ) .
page , l . m . and b . m . burr , 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston . 432 p . ( ref . 5723 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00501 ( 0 . 00207 - 0 . 01214 ) , b = 3 . 10 ( 2 . 88 - 3 . 32 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 ±0 . 41 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( tmax = 15 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 62 of 100 ) .
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we investigated occurrence , transport pathways , and effects of polybrominated diphenyl ether ( pbde ) flame retardants and other endocrine disrupting chemicals ( edcs ) in aquatic media and the foodweb in the lower columbia river . in 2009 and 2010 , foodweb sampling at three sites along a gradient of contaminant exposure near skamania ( washington ) , columbia city ( oregon ) and longview ( washington ) included water ( via passive samplers ) , bed sediment , invertebrate biomass residing in sediment , a resident fish species ( largescale suckers [
) . this paper primarily reports fish tissue concentrations . in 2009 , composites of fish brain , fillet , liver , stomach , and gonad tissues revealed that overall contaminant concentrations were highest in livers , followed by brain , stomach , gonad , and fillet . concentrations of halogenated compounds in tissue samples from all three sites ranged from < 1 to 400 nanograms per gram of wet tissue . several chemical classes , including pbdes , organochlorine pesticides , and polychlorinated biphenyls ( pcbs ) , were detected at all sites and in nearly all fish tissues sampled . in 2010 , only fish livers were sampled and inter - site concentration differences were not as pronounced as in 2009 . chemical concentrations in sediments , fish tissues , and osprey eggs increased moving downstream from skamania to the urbanized sites near columbia city and longview . numerous organochlorine ( oc ) pesticides , both banned and currently used , and pbdes , were present at each site in multiple media and concentrations exceeded environmental quality benchmarks in some cases . frequently detected oc compounds included hexachlorobenzene , pentachloroanisole , dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane ( ddt ) and its degradates , chlorpyrifos , and oxyfluorofen . biomagnification of bde47 , 100 , 153 , and 154 occurred in largescale suckers and osprey eggs . results support the hypothesis that contaminants in the environment lead to bioaccumulation and potential negative effects in multiple levels of the foodweb .
u . s . department of the interior | u . s . geological survey url : urltoken page contact information : pubs warehouse contact page page last modified : may 04 , 2017 10 : 50 : 24


cypraecassis testiculus , common name the reticulated cowry helmet , is a species of large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family cassidae , the helmet snails and bonnet snails .

there is one subspecies : cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 )

cypraecassis testiculus

a cypraecassis testiculus communal egg mass and eggs are illustrated below ; apparentlyfor the first time .
cassidae » cypraecassis testiculus senegalica , id : 160025 , shell detail « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc .
( of cypraecassis ( cypraecassis ) testiculus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) rolán e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
predators of e . lucunter include : ruddy turnstones , arenaria interpres ; conchs ; and fish including triggerfish , grunts , jacks and wrasses ( abbott et al . 1974 ) . predation by the reticulate cowrie - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus , has also been documented for individuals in panama ( hendler 1977 ) .
( of cypraecassis testiculus senegalica ( gmelin , 1791 ) ) bernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
predators of this urchin include : several species of fish ( randall 1967 ) , shorebirds such as ruddy turnstones , arenaria interpres ( hendler 1977 ) , and herring gulls , larus sp . ( moore et al . 1963 ) ; the reticulate cowrie - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus ( hendler 1977 ) ; and the caribbean helmet , cassis tuberosa ( engstrom 1982 ) .
someone in our group said that it was an emperor ' s helmet and i mentioned that when i sent the pictures to volunteer identifier bea in ontario . soon bea was back saying that the helmet part was right but not the emperor . it ' s the reticulate cowry - helmet , cypraecassis testiculus , a member of the helmet and bonnet snail family , the cassidae .
( of cypraecassis mamillata salmon , 1948 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cypraecassis neglecta verrill , 1949 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cypraecassis minima bernard , 1984 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
gofas , s . ; afonso , j . p . ; brandào , m . ( ed . ) . ( s . a . ) . conchas e moluscos de angola = coquillages et mollusques d ' angola . [ shells and molluscs of angola ] . universidade agostinho / elf aquitaine angola : angola . 140 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
rosenberg , g . ; moretzsohn , f . ; garcía , e . f . ( 2009 ) . gastropoda ( mollusca ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 579–699 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of buccinum senegalicum gmelin , 1791 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of buccinum plicatum gmelin , 1791 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassidea crumena bruguière , 1789 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassis mitellapolonica röding , 1798 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassis pileolus röding , 1798 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
( of cassis bicincta bayer , 1935 ) verbinnen g . , segers l . , swinnen f . , kreipl k . & monsecour d . ( 2016 ) . cassidae . an amazing family of seashells . harxheim : conchbooks . 251 pp . [ details ]
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one of the most intriguing patterns in mammalian biogeography is the “island rule” , which states that colonising species have a tendency to converge in body size , with larger species evolving decreased sizes and smaller species increased sizes . it has recently been suggested that an analogous pattern holds for the colonisation of the deep - sea benthos by marine gastropoda . in particular , a pioneering study showed that gastropods from the western atlantic showed the same graded trend from dwarfism to gigantism that is evident in island endemic mammals . however , subsequent to the publication of the gastropod study , the standard tests of the island rule have been shown to yield false positives at a very high rate , leaving the result open to doubt .
the evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .
the replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed—which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .
citation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the “island rule” and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken
copyright : © 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the island rule states that after island colonisation , animals undergo predictable patterns of body size evolution , with larger colonising species becoming smaller , and smaller species becoming larger . the result is a graded trend from dwarfism in the largest colonists to gigantism in the smallest [ 1 ] – [ 4 ] . because insular habitats are distinctive in a number of ways , this pattern might be variously explained , and a variety of hypotheses have indeed been proposed in the literature [ 1 ] – [ 11 ] . recently , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] made an important advance by testing for analogous patterns of body size evolution in a non - insular system . specifically , they compared body sizes of animals living in deep - sea benthic habitats with their shallow - water living congeners . using the malacolog database version 3 . 3 . 3 of rosenberg [ 13 ] , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] took the gastropods of the western atlantic as a case study , and reported that a highly significant trend from dwarfism to gigantism was evident in the deep - sea species .
here , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .
to demonstrate the liberal nature of the standard tests of the island rule , consider results when deep - sea habitation is defined via the midpoint of the recorded depth range , i . e . , “deep - sea species” have a range midpoint below 200m , and all other species are deemed “shallow - water” . with this definition , 254 genera contained both deep and shallow species , and their generic mean body sizes are plotted in figure 1a . applying the standard test [ 3 ] , [ 12 ] , the ordinary - least - squares regression slope ( dashed line ) is found to be highly significantly less than one ( n = 254 ; b = 0 . 902 ; t - test p = 0 . 0015 ) , which offers strong apparent support for the island rule . however , assigning species groups to the “deep” or “shallow” categories at random , showed that even stronger support was obtained with ∼43 % of 100 , 000 randomized data sets , suggesting that there is nothing exceptional in the trend observed in the true data . accordingly , the standardized - major - axis slope ( solid line ) was very close to one , and the permutation test showed no significant deviation from the pattern expected if deep - sea colonization had no effect on body size evolution ( n = 254 ; b = 1 . 020 ; permutation p = 0 . 476 ) .
part a shows how different tests of the ‘island rule’ can give qualitatively different results . “deep - sea” species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as “shallow - water” . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1∶1 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : “deep - sea” species are those never observed above 400m , and “shallow - water” species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .
averaging across species has untested statistical properties [ 30 ] , but it does have the advantage of reducing noise and the influence of anomalous data . for example , figure 1b plots results for balanced samples with “deep - sea” defined as > 400m . these data are clearly noisy , and the slope is strongly influenced by a single outlier ( the largest value on both axes ) . this point represents the genus fasciolaria , which contains just a single deep - sea species , the recently discovered fasciolaria tephrina [ 32 ] . to restrict the influence of such isolated observations , mcclain et al . [ 12 ] excluded from their analyses all genera with fewer than two shallow and two deep species . despite reducing sample size by ∼2 / 3 , this procedure strengthens the observed effect , with a highly significant departure from the null now apparent at the shallowest cutoff depth ( table 1 part b ; figure 2 ) .
the body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . “shallow - water” species were never observed below 200m , and “deep - sea” species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1∶1 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .
this study has confirmed the important findings of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] that the marine gastropods of the western atlantic show a pattern of body size evolution that is analogous to the island rule , with colonists of the deep - sea benthos tending to converge in size in a graded trend ( see also [ 16 ] ) . no evidence was found of phylogenetic heterogeneity in the strength of the observed effect , as results for the neogastropoda alone were indistinguishable from those for the remaining taxa . in contrast , the strength of the effect did increase systematically with range depth , with deeper - sea species showing a stronger tendency to converge in size . nevertheless , the effect is still apparent in species inhabiting the mesopelagic zone ( 200–1000m ) , and so cannot be attributed to unique features of abyssal ecology .
since the pattern was first identified [ 1 ] – [ 3 ] the island rule has been explained in a large number of ways [ 1 ] – [ 11 ] . a powerful method of distinguishing between the competing explanations is to test for the presence of analogous patterns in systems that share some , but not all of the ecological characteristics of island habitats [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 34 ] . for example , one putative contributor to the vertebrate pattern is “immigrant selection” , that is , between - lineage differences in the probability of reaching isolated islands , as opposed to differences in survival after colonisation [ 4 ] , [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] . the colonization of the deep - sea benthos differs clearly and qualitatively from the colonization of islands , and so if it is assumed that the similar patterns of body size evolution reflect a similarity of underlying cause [ 12 ] , this argues against immigrant selection as a key determinant of the graded trend that is observed in both cases .
similarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] – [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .
we are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed – and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .
many thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .
conceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .
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gastropod ( 1 shell ) , shell spiral in shape , ovate , tapering towards the bottom , short spire , body whorl takes up most of shell ; color background orangish brown to gray to pink , brown spots or blotches in spiraling rows with lighter color in between blotches ; radiating ribs crossed by widely space , shallow spiraling grooves ; aperture side smooth , lighter colored , an orangish band about 2 / 3 ' s down and orange spot on shoulder ; aperture long , narrow , outer lip of aperture thickened , toothed on inside , dark nearly black spots on back side of lip ; columella ( inner side of aperture ) crenulate ( ridged ) ; siphonal canal short , angled back and upturned .
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bernard , p . a . ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) . coquillages du gabon [ shells of gabon ] . pierre a . bernard : libreville , gabon . 140 , 75 plates pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
rolán e . , 2005 . malacological fauna from the cape verde archipelago . part 1 , polyplacophora and gastropoda . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
the green sea urchin , lytechinus variegatus . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .
lytechinus variegatus covering itself with fragments of algae and other debris . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .
please refer to the accompanying glossary for definitions of the descriptive terms used in this report .
the green sea urchin , lytechinus variegatus , is one of several urchin species common to florida and the caribbean . the spines of l . variegatus are characteristically short , and the underlying test is hemispherical with smoothly curving sides adorned with numerous small tubercles ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . tubercles are sparse on the aboral portions of the ambulacra and interambulacra , resulting in naked patches . globiferous pedicellariae are numerous and conspicuous , appearing as stalked and nearly spherical white or pink structures . the color of the test and spines is variable , and has been used to identify subspecies of l . variegatus ( serafy 1973 ) .
l . variegatus is similar in appearance to l . williamsi . however , the latter has purple pedicellariae instead of white or pink , fewer plates in each column of the test , and 12 wedges in the spines compared to the 24 found in l . variegatus ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
short - spined urchins like l . variegatus have fragile tests , which limit them to low energy areas with minimal wave impact ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . they are most common in quiet waters with rocky and sandy bottoms , and in beds of the turtle grass , thalassia testudinum . l . variegatus is reportedly intolerant of turbid waters with high quantities of suspended silt ( moore et al . 1963 ) .
the range of the green sea urchin extends from beaufort , north carolina southward throughout the caribbean to santos , brazil . l . variegatus atlanticus also occurs in bermuda ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . depths range from zero to 250 meters , although most individuals are found in waters less than 50 m ( serafy 1979 ) .
the distribution of l . variegatus within the irl remains undocumented . however , this urchin is likely most abundant in the southern lagoon , where turtle grass beds are more prevalent .
l . variegatus reaches a total diameter of about 110 mm , with a test diameter of about 85 mm ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
in turtle grass beds , l . variegatus can reach extremely high numbers . although little information is available concerning the abundance of this speciesin the irl , densities of l . variegatus in other locations have been reported at 636 individuals per square meter ( camp et al . 1973 ) .
the green sea urchin is normally gonochoric . reproduction of hermaphroditic individuals has been linked to abnormally low water temperatures ( moore et al . 1963 ) . the spawning period of the green sea urchin is shorter in northern latitudes ( moore et al . 1963 ) . in tropical locations like panama , l . variegatus is sexually ripe throughout the year ( lessios 1985 , 1991 ) . in florida , reproduction varies with season and environmental conditions ( ernest & blake 1981 ) . mazur & miller ( 1971 ) reported a reproductive season of march to october for florida urchins held in the laboratory . spawning in panama , and possibly other locations , tends to occur during the new and full moons ( lessios 1991 ) .
pearce & cameron ( 1991 ) provide a review of the extensive literature available describing fertilization and early development in l . variegatus . full development from zygote to metamorphosis takes 33 - 43 days in the laboratory ( mazur & miller 1971 ) , and can be accelerated by increasing the water temperature ( petersen & almeida 1976 ) . salinities below 35 ppt result in decreased larval survival and developmental rates , even when the parents are acclimated to such salinities ( roller & stickle 1993 ) . in response to low food supply , larvae can increase their feeding efficiency by enlarging their ciliated bands ( boideron - metairon 1988 ) . after metamorphosis , juveniles can grow to a test diameter of about 15 mm in 6 months , and to 25 mm in 9 months ( pawson & miller 1982 , michel 1984 ) . pearse & cameron ( 1991 ) found some evidence for a difference in the number of chromosomes between male and female urchins .
when population densities are high , l . variegatus can overgraze seagrass beds ( camp et al . 1973 ) . however , studies have shown that the majority of the reported 0 . 6 g dry weight of t . testudinum consumed daily by each urchin consists of dead blades , having a minimal effect on live turtle grass ( vadas et al . 1982 ) .
l . variegatus often covers itself with plant and shell debris , holding the material in place with its tube feet ( mortensen 1943 , millott 1956 , sharp & gray 1962 , kier & grant 1965 ) . millott ( 1956 ) documented a rise in covering behavior in response to increased light levels , suggesting that the collected debris acts to shade the animal from strong light .
the turbellarian , syndisyrinx collongistyla , has been reported to infest the body cavity and intestines of l . variegatus ( nappi & crawford 1984 , hertel et al . 1990 ) . protozoan parasites are also reported for this urchin ( mortensen 1943 ) . the polychaete , podarke obscura , has been listed as an occasional associate ( ruppert & fox 1988 ) .
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engstrom na . 1982 . immigration as a factor in maintaining populations of the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) in seagrass beds on the southwest coast of puerto rico . studies neotrop . fauna environ . 17 : 51 - 60 .
ernest rg & nj blake . 1981 . reproductive patterns within sub - populations of lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 55 : 25 - 37 .
hendler g . 1977 . the differential effects of season stress and predation on the stability of reef - flat echinoid populations . in : taylor dl ( ed . ) . 217 - 223 . proceedings : third international coral reef symposium . volume 1 ( biology ) . rosenstiel school of marine & atmospheric science , university of miami . miami , florida .
hendler g , miller je , pawson dl & pm kier . 1995 . sea stars , sea urchins , and allies : echinoderms of florida and the caribbean . smithsonian institution press . washington , d . c . 390 pp .
hertel l , duszynski dw & je ubelaker . 1990 . turbellarians ( umagillidae ) from caribbean urchins with a description of syndisyrinx collongistyla , n . sp . trans . amer . microscop . soc . 109 : 272 - 281 .
kier pm & re grant , 1965 . echinoid distribution and habits , kay largo coral reef preserve , florida . smithsonian misc . collect . 149 : 1 - 68 .
lessios ha . 1985 . annual reproductive periodicity in eight echinoid species on the caribbean coast of panama . in : keegan bf & bds o’connor ( eds . ) . 303 - 311 . echinodermata . proceedings of the fifth international echinoderm conference . galway , 24 - 29 september 1984 . belkema , rotterdam .
lessios ha . 1991 . presence and absence of monthly reproductive rhythms among eight caribbean echinoids off the coast of panama . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 153 : 27 - 47 .
mazur je & jw miller . 1971 . a description of the complex metamorphosis of the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus cultured in synthetic sea water . ohio j . sci . 71 : 30 - 36 .
michel hb . 1984 . culture of lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) from egg to young adult . bull . mar . sci . 34 : 312 - 314 .
millot n . 1956 . the covering reaction of sea urchins . 1 . a preliminary account of covering in the tropical echinoid lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) , and its relation to light . j . exp . biol . 33 : 508 - 523 .
moore hb , jutare t , bauer jc & ja jones . 1963 . the biology of lytechinus variegatus . bull . mar . sci . gulf carib . 13 : 23 - 53 .
mortensen t . 1943 . a monograph of the echinoidea . volume iii . ( 3 ) . camarodonta . i . orthopsidae , glyphocyphidae , temnopleuridae and toxopneustidae . ca reitzel , copenhagen . vii + 553 pp . 56 pls .
nappi aj & ja crawford . 1984 . the occurrence and distribution of a syndesmid ( turbellaria : umagillidae ) in jamaican sea urchins . j . parasitol . 70 : 595 - 597 .
pawson dl & je miller . 1982 . studies of genetically controlled phenotypic characters in laboratory - reared lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . in : lawrence jm ( ed . ) . 165 - 171 . echinoderms : proceedings of the international conference . tampa bay , 14 - 17 september 1981 . balkema , rotterdam .
pearse js & ra cameron . 1991 . echinodermata : echinoidea . in : giese ac , pearse js & vb pearse ( eds . ) . 513 - 662 . reproduction of marine invertebrates , volume vi , echinoderms and lophophorates . the boxwood press . pacific grove , ca .
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randall je . 1967 . food habits of reef fishes of the west indies . inst . mar . sci . univ . miami . studies in tropical oceanog . no . 5 : 665 - 847 .
roller ra & stickle . 1993 . effects of temperature and salinity acclimation of adults on larval survival , physiology , and early development of lytechinus variegatus ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 116 : 583 - 591 .
ruppert , ee & rs fox . 1988 . seashore animals of the southeast : a guide to common shallow - water invertebrates of the southeastern atlantic coast . university of sc press . columbia , sc . usa . 429 pp .
serafy dk . 1973 . variation in the polytypic sea urchin lytechinus variegatus ( lamarck , 1816 ) in the western atlantic ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . bull . mar . sci . 23 : 525 - 534 .
serafy dk . 1979 . echinoids ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . memoirs of the hourglass cruises 5 : 1 - 120 .
sharp dt & ie gray . 1962 . studies on factors affecting the local distribution of two sea urchins , arbacia punctulata and lytechinus variegatus . ecology 43 : 309 - 313 .
vadas rl , fenchel t & jc ogden . 1982 . ecological studies on the sea urchin lytechinus variegatus and the algal - seagrass communities of the miskito cays , nicaragua . aquat . botany 14 : 109 - 115 .
the rock - boring urchin , echinometra lucunter . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian institution .
two echinometra lucunter feeding on the floating alga , sargassum . photo by lh sweat , smithsonian institution .
the rock boring urchin , echinometra lucunter , has an elongate oval test with two rows of large tubercles along the ambulacra and interambulacra , pairs of pores arranged in arcs of six , and a large peristome ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . the spines are long and slender , thickened at the base , and sharply pointed at the tips .
on the aboral side , the primary and secondary spines are dark olive green , with greenish violet to purple tips ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . the general color of the spines is blackish , although some specimens may exhibit a reddish color . test and muscle bases of the spines are shades of red - brown . tube feet on the aboral surface are light brown , and the terminal disks are dark brown to blackish . oral spines have a lighter color than aboral ones , light olive green with a violet gradient near the tips . the test and peristome are flecked with creamy brown . the tube feet near the mouth are translucent , with terminal disks that are creamy white in color , lined with a narrow dark brown band , and measuring about twice the size of those on the aboral feet .
as with many intertidal organisms , studies have revealed differences in the structure of e . lucunter from environments with varying wave action . specimens from high - energy areas tend to have tests that are flatter , thicker , smaller , and narrower , and a distinctive pattern of insertion of ocular plates in the apical system ( lewis & storey 1984 ) .
the general shape and size of e . lucunter is similar to that of the reef urchin , e . viridis . however , the latter usually has a more circular test shape and longer spines , a reddish test , pore pairs in arcs of five instead of six , and conspicuously white milled rings around the base of each spine ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
the rock - boring urchin is commonly found on limestone reef rock in the surf zone ( hendler et al . 1995 ) . it can be very common in shallow , exposed fore reef or reef crest habitats , occupying shallow depressions or borrows created by the abrading action of the urchin’s spines and teeth on the rock surface . the success of e . lucunter in harsh environments may be partially due to its apparent resistance to stresses caused by increased temperature and salinity ( hendler 1977 ) .
the range of e . lucunter extends from beaufort , north carolina and bermuda southward throughout the caribbean and eastern central america to desterra , brazil . populations can also be found in west africa . the subspecies e . lucunter polypora pawson , is common at ascension and st . helena islands ( pawson 1978 ) . the depth range for this species is generally zero to 45 meters ( serafy 1979 ) .
the distribution of e . lucunter within the irl remains undocumented . however , this species appears to be concentrated mostly around rock jetties and other hard structures near inlets ( lh sweat , personal observation ) .
e . lucunter reaches a maximum size of 15 cm , though most individuals are about half that size ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
the abundance of e . lucunter in the irl is undocumented . however , studies have reported densities elsewhere of up to 129 individuals per square meter ( greenstein 1993 ) .
the annual spawning cycle for the rock - boring urchin has been reported to occur in late summer in the florida keys ( mcpherson 1969 ) , peaks in the fall in puerto rico ( cameron 1986 ) , and occurs variably throughout the year in panama ( lessios 1981 ) . lewis & storey ( 1984 ) documented one spawning event per year in urchins from high - energy environments , and two events annually in urchins from low - energy areas . tennent et al . ( 1931 ) reported that spawning in one individual takes about 15 minutes . fertilization and development are adversely affected by reducing salinity ( petersen & almeida 1976 ) . larvae of this species have been reared through metamorphosis in the laboratory ( e . g . mortensen 1921 ) .
the rock - boring urchin feeds mostly at night from their burrows , consuming clumps of drift algae , or venturing out of the burrow to feed and then usually returning to the same hole ( mcpherson 1969 , abbott et al . 1974 , ogden 1976 ) . in panama , individuals were observed to clear the area around their burrows of all organisms except calcareous algae ( hendler et al . 1995 ) .
antagonistic behaviors among conspecifics have been observed for this urchin . grunbaum et al . ( 1978 ) found that intruding urchins were pushed and bit by the individual originally inhabiting the burrow , and the inhabitant won most altercations . escape responses have been observed in individuals following exposure to chemical extracts from other echinometra spp . ( parker & shulman 1986 ) .
the eulimid gastropod , monogamus minibulla is a parasite of the rock - boring urchin ( warén & moolenbeek 1989 ) . the turbellarian , syndisyrinx collongistyla , has been reported to infest the intestines of e . lucunter in jamaica , s . evelinae has been found in specimens from st . barthélemy ( hertel et al . 1990 ) . protozoans have also been reported to infest e . lucunter ( mortensen 1943 ) . the rock - boring urchin has been observed to share its burrow with several associates , including a goby , a porcelain crab , and a brittle star ( schoppe 1991 ) .
the burrowing behavior of e . lucunter can contribute greatly to the breakdown of coral reefs and intertidal limestone shorelines , especially when urchin population densities are high . hoskin & reed ( 1985 ) estimated that burrows are excavated in approximately 3 years . rates of erosion on coral reefs due to this excavation have been reported at 3 . 9 kg per square meter annually in the virgin islands , 7 . 0 kg per square meter annually in bermuda , and 24 g per urchin per year in barbados ( ogden 1977 ) .
ablanedo et al . ( 1990 ) found that individuals of e . lucunter accumulate certain heavy metals in the gonads , test , spines , and lantern . therefore , they can be used as an indicator species to reflect the level of environmental pollution to which they are exposed .
abbott dp , ogden jc & ia abbott . 1974 . studies on the activity pattern , behavior , and food of the echinoid echinometra lucunter ( linnaeus ) on beachrock and algal reefs in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . west indies laboratory special publication no . 4 . fairleigh dickinson university . christiansted , st . croix . u . s . virgin islands . iv + 111 pp .
ablanedo n , gonzalez h , ramirez m & i torres . 1990 . evaluación del erizo de mar echinometra lucunter como indictor de contaminación por metales pesados , cuba . aquat . living res . 3 : 113 - 120 .
cameron ra . 1986 . reproduction , larval occurrence and recruitment in caribbean sea urchins . bull . mar . sci . 39 : 332 - 346 .
greenstein bj . 1993 . is the fossil record of regular echinoids really so poor ? a comparison of living and subfossil assemblages . palaios 8 : 587 - 601 .
grunbaum h , bergman g , abbott dp & jc ogden . 1978 . intraspecific agonistic behavior in the rock - boring sea urchin echinometra lucunter ( l . ) ( echinodermata : echinoidea ) . bull . mar . sci . 28 : 181 - 188 .
hoskin cm & jk reed . 1985 . carbonate sediment production by the rock - boring urchin echinometra lucunter and associated endolithic infauna at black rock , little bahama bank . symposia ser . underwater res . 3 : 151 - 161 .
lessios ha . 1981 . reproductive periodicity of the echinoids diadema and echinometra on the two coasts of panama . j . exp . mar . biol . ecol . 50 : 47 - 61 .
lewis jb & gs storey . 1984 . differences in morphology and life history traits of the echinoid echinometra lucunter from different habitats . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 15 : 207 - 211 .
mcpherson bf . 1969 . studies on the biology of the tropical sea urchins echinometra lucunter and echinometra viridis . bull . mar . sci . 19 : 194 - 213 .
mortensen t . 1921 . studies of the development and larval forms of echinoderms . g . e . c . gad . copenhagen , denmark . xxxiii + 266 pp .
ogden jc . 1976 . some aspects of herbivore - plant relationships on caribbean reefs and seagrass beds . aquat . botany 2 : 103 - 116 .
ogden jc . 1977 . carbonate - sediment production by parrotfish and sea urchins on caribbean reefs . stud . geol . 4 : 281 - 288 .
parker da & mj schulman . 1986 . avoiding predation : alarm responses of caribbean sea urchins to simulated predation on conspecific and heterospecific sea urchins . mar . biol . ( berlin ) 93 : 201 - 208 .
pawson dl . 1978 . the echinoderm fauna of ascension island , south atlantic ocean . smithsonian contrib . mar . sci . 2 . iv + 31 pp .
schoppe s . 1991 . echinometra lucunter ( linnaeus ) ( echinoidea , echinometridae ) als wirt einer komplexen lebensgemeinschaft im karibischen meer . helgoländ . meeresunt . 45 : 373 - 379 .
tennent dh , gardiner ms & de smith . 1931 . a cytological and biochemical study of the ovaries of the sea urchin echinometra lucunter . carnegie institution of washington publication no . 27 . 1 - 46 . pls . 1 - 7 .
warén a & r moolenbeek . 1989 . a new eulimid gastropod , trochostilifer eucidaricola , parasitic on the pencil urchin eucidaris tribuloides from the southern caribbean . proc . biol . soc . wash . 102 : 169 - 175 .
depth : 0 to 60 m ( live 0 . 3 to 3 m )
distribution : usa : north carolina , florida : east florida , west florida , florida keys ; usa : louisiana , texas ; mexico : quintana roo ; honduras : swan island ; colombia : offshore islands ; costa rica , panama , colombia , venezuela : islas los roques ; bermuda , bahamas : grand bahama island , abaco ( great or little ) , bimini , eleuthera , little san salvador , cat island , san salvador ( watling is . ) , long island , mayaguana ; cuba : north havana province , north matanzas , villa clara , cienfuegos , santiago de cuba , guantanamo ; jamaica , puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . john , st . croix , tortola ; st . barthelemy / st . bartholomew , barbuda ; st . vincent & the grenadines : grenada ; barbados ; trinidad & tobago : trinidad ; brazil : ceara , pernambuco , alagoas , bahia
distribution : cuba : pinar del rio , havana province ; puerto rico ; virgin islands : st . croix ; eastern atlantic : st . helena
shells of gabon 140 pp . published by the author : libreville , gabon . [ stated date : - - nov 1984 . ]
encyclopédie méthodique . histoire naturelle des vers encyclopédie méthodique . histoire naturelle des vers 1 345 - 757 . panckoucke : paris .
systema naturae per regna tria naturae . editio decima tertia systema naturae , 13th ed . , vol . 1 ( 6 ) 3021 - 3910 . lipsiae .
systema naturae systema naturae , 10th ed . , vol . 1 824 pp . laurentii salvii : holmiae [ stockholm , sweden ] .
museum boltenianum viii + 199 pp . hamburg . [ stated date : - - sep 1798 . ]
our collecting trip to the caribbees , including a list of shells collected mollusca 2 ( 5 ) 1 - 14 , 3 pls . [ numbered as 2 ] . [ stated date : 20 aug 1949 . ]
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national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
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maximum reported size : 85 mm . the rounded body whorl is purplish cream overlaid with dark purple brown . often this coloration is arranged spirally in the form of indistinct chevrons . the shell is solid with a long , narrow aperture and is shaped like a small helmet shell . the aperture is bordered with whitish raised lirae which appear as teeth on the inside of the thickened outer lip . the outerlip is crossed by orange bars that coincide with dark brown markings on the dorsal side . the parietal shield is glossy and rounded . it is yellowish and overlaid with three or four orange patches , one of which is always loated at the apical end . sculpture consists of narrow axial ridges that are depressed by shallow spiral grooves to form axially elongate beads .
little information available on this species . . . ripe for further investigation ! poca informacion sobre esta especie que nos lleva a investigar de una manera mas profunda !
redfern , c . 2001 . bahamian seashells . bahamianseashells . com , inc . boca raton , florida . page : 59 . olsson , a . a . & mcginty , t . l . 1958 . recent marine mollusks from the caribbean coast of panama with the description of some new genera and species . bulletins of american paleontology vol . 39 nº304
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description : f + + , very strange specimen ! looks like hybrid of vibex and turgida ! we had some before from b . cook !
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xylodromus concinnus is a species of rove beetle in the omaliinae subfamily , that can be found everywhere in europe , the near east , and australia .

xylodromus concinnus

xylodromus concinnus ( marsham , 1802 ) = omalium brunnipennis stephens 1834 = omalium brunnipes stephens 1834 = omalissus castaneus broun 1893 = omalium lacustris casey 1893 = omalium picinus stephens 1834 = omalissus scutosus broun 1915 = omalium ater gerhardt 1901 = xylodromus fuliginosus heer 1839 .
xylodromus concinnus ( marsham , 1802 ) family : staphylinidae size : 3 . 1 mm ( 3 , 0 to 3 , 5 mm ) distribution : west . palaearctic , australian region ecology : synanthropic in stables and barns location : germany , rheinland - pfalz , hunsrueck , loetzbeuren leg . j . scheuern , 28 . x . 1978 ; det . wunderle , 1993 photo : u . schmidt , 2016 xylodromus concinnus ( flickr )
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museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken
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broun , t . 1915 ,
descriptions of new genera and species of coleoptera . part iv .
, bulletin of the new zealand institute , vol . 1 , pp . 267 - 346
fauvel , a . 1878 ,
les staphylinides de l ' amérique du nord .
, bulletin de la société linnéenne de normandie , vol . 3 , no . 2 , pp . 167 - 269
blackburn , t . [ 1887 ] 1888 ,
further notes on australian coleoptera with descriptions of new species
, transactions and proceedings and reports of the royal society of south australia , vol . 10 , pp . 177 - 287
gerhardt , j . 1901 ,
neuheiten der schlesischen käferfauna aus dem jahre 1900 .
, deutsche entomologische zeitschrift , vol . 1901 , no . 1 , pp . 157 - 158
casey , t . l . 1894 ,
coleopterological notices , v .
, annals of the new york academy of sciences , vol . 7 , pp . 281 - 606 , pl . 1
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : a4137178 - d525 - 1d1d - e044 - 00144f3b4a43
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 43622716 - d0c9 - 43e7 - 85a4 - e5923c77adcf
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 519119
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[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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