the roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) ( sometimes placed in its own genus ajaja ) is a gregarious wading bird of the ibis and spoonbill family , threskiornithidae .

it is a resident breeder in south america mostly east of the andes , and in coastal regions of the caribbean , central america , mexico , the gulf coast of the united states , and on central florida 's atlantic coast at merritt island national wildlife refuge , adjoined with nasa kennedy space center .

roseate spoonbill

at the tip of south america . the roseate spoonbill is one of six spoonbill
roseate spoonbill - big cypress national preserve ( u . s . national park service )
roseate spoonbill hatchlings are fat , with salmon - pink skin covered in sparse white down .
the roseate spoonbill is easily identified thanks to its bright pink plumage and spoon - shaped bill .
roseate spoonbill - j . n . ding darling - u . s . fish and wildlife service
, egrets and ibises which they are closely related to . the roseate spoonbill is a fairly large
the roseate spoonbill lives in mangrove swamps , tidal ponds , saltwater lagoons and other areas with brackish water .
the roseate spoonbill is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the roseate spoonbill is designated as a species of special concern in both florida and louisiana ( 3 ) .
inside them , enabling the roseate spoonbill to feed . although they will eat a number of both plant and
roseate spoonbill : flamingo is larger and has a short , thick , hooked bill and black on wings .
found across the world , and although they all inhabit warmer , tropical climates , the roseate spoonbill is the only one that is found in the western hemisphere . like all spoonbill
much of our general knowledge of the roseate spoonbill still comes from r . p . allen ' s monograph (
, the roseate spoonbill is named for its spatula shaped beak , which becomes flatter and broader towards the end , allowing the roseate spoonbill to scoop food out of the water with ease . they are closely related to other large wading
the roseate spoonbill feeds by walking slowly through the water , swinging its distinctive spoon - shaped bill from side to side .
the roseate spoonbill is a sociable bird , and is known to feed , roost and fly in formation with others of its kind .
the roseate spoonbill is found throughout the entire gulf of mexico coastline , south to central america , south america , and the west indies .
development of coastal habitats , climate change and polluted waters all currently threaten the habitat of the roseate spoonbill ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the roseate spoonbill article in your website content , school work and other projects .
the roseate spoonbill is a large wading bird most commonly found year round in southern florida . easily distinguishable by the large size and pink feathers ,
. the roseate spoonbill can be found in fresh , salt or brackish waters , where the water level is low and is close to roosting sites . the roseate spoonbill is most commonly found in shallow wetlands from bays and estuaries , to mangrove swamps and tidal ponds . despite drastic falls in population numbers in the usa in the late 1800s , the roseate spoonbill colonies there are now healthy and sustainable through much of their native regions .
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it ' s easy to confuse an adult roseate spoonbill with a flamingo , until you look at their bills . though both wading birds are bright pink , it ' s not hard to know which species is called
spoonbill .
keys birds like the reddish egret , roseate spoonbill , southeastern american kestrel , tricolored heron and white crowned pigeon are in the management plan as threatened .
the roseate spoonbill is found along north america ' s gulf coast , most notably in texas and florida . its range extends through central america , down to
allen , r . p . 1942 . the roseate spoonbill . new york : natl . audubon soc . res . rep . no . 2 . close
the roseate spoonbill can be found on the coasts of texas , louisiana and southern florida . it is also found in the tropics and in central and south america .
the roseate spoonbill is protected by the u . s . migratory bird treaty act and as a state - designated threatened species by florida’s endangered and threatened species rule .
like many other bird species with beautiful plumage , roseate spoonbills were nearly hunted to extinction during the 1800s . their striking pink feathers were popular on women ' s hats , and hunters from all over the united states competed for spoonbill plumes . in the early 1900s , roseate spoonbills began to recolonize areas along the gulf coast and slowly increase in number . today , threats to roseate spoonbill populations come as a result of habitat loss .
, both the male and female construct a nest in trees , thick bushes or reeds where up to four eggs are laid per clutch . the roseate spoonbill chicks usually hatch after an
sprunt , jr . , a . 1939b . the present status of the roseate spoonbill in the united states . fla . nat . no . 12 : 49 - 55 . close
roseate spoonbill : eats minnows , small crustaceans , bits of plants , and insects ; forages by swishing its spoon - like bill from side to side in shallow , muddy water .
the roseate spoonbill gets much of its pink color from the food it eats . the crustaceans that it eats feed on algae which contain pigments that impart a pink / red color .
roseate spoonbills have distinct physical characteristics that set them apart from other wading birds .
roseate spoonbills have varied behavioral traits pertaining to feeding , breeding and general living .
the roseate spoonbill’s post - breeding dispersal range can include georgia , alabama and mississippi ( 4 ) . in the past the species has been seen as far north as illinois ( 5 ) .
the roseate spoonbill spends a lot of its time in shallow water feeding . it sweeps its open bill from side to side in the water to sift up food like small fish , shrimp , mollusks , snails and insects . it has touch receptors in its bill that help it feel its prey . like the flamingo , the roseate spoonbill ' s pink color comes from the food it eats . some of the crustaceans it eats feed on algae that give the spoonbill ' s feathers their rosy pink color .
the specialized bill has sensitive nerve endings which help the birds search for food in shallow water . the diet of the roseate spoonbill primarily consists of crayfish , shrimp , crabs , and small fish .
the cypress swamp is home to our roseate spoonbills in our renovated 1904 flight cage .
one historical threat to the roseate spoonbill was hunting for their feathers , though this practice is now illegal which has allowed the population to rebound . another threat to the spoonbill is the availability of adequate food sources and habitat degradation . in the florida bay , the increased fresh water flow from the everglades may affect prey availability for the spoonbill . other threats include habitat loss and disturbance , pesticides , and illegal shootings ( dumas 2000 ) .
a spoonbill will also chase prey that it detects by sight , but its sense of touch is much more reliable .
the roseate spoonbill is a colonial nester , meaning that they gather in large numbers to produce and rear their young , possibly for protection . roseate spoonbills reach sexual maturity at the age of 3 or 4 , when they migrate to appropriate nesting grounds to find a mate . once paired up on coastal
ns , this bird species inhabits estuaries , marshes , and mangrove swamps along coastal areas . the pink coloration of spoonbill feather
, the legs of the roseate spoonbill are thin and very long , allowing them to walk about in the shallow waters without getting their head or feathers wet . their distinctively long beak is very sensitive to enable the
roseate spoonbill : large ibis with pink body and white upper back and neck . bill is long , gray , and spatulate . sexes are similar . juvenile is white with a hint of pink and has yellow bill .
) , and known locally as pink , pinky , or pink curlew , the roseate spoonbill is unmistakable and one of north america ' s most unusual looking wading birds . its plumage is truly flamboyant , combining a pink body with carmine red on the wings and tail - coverts with a rich tawny , almost orange , tail . the bill is shaped like a spatula , giving this species its name . the roseate spoonbill is one of 6 species of spoonbills worldwide , the only one found in the new world , and the only spoonbill that has brilliantly colored plumage ; the others are chiefly white . it is also the only spoonbill whose head becomes completely unfeathered and colorful as the bird matures .
dumas , j . v . ( 2000 ) roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) . in : poole , a . ( ed ) the birds of north america online cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
roseate spoonbill : one to five brown spotted white eggs are laid in a bulky nest made of sticks and built in a low bush or tree . incubation ranges from 22 to 24 days and is carried out by both parents .
most known breeding sites within florida occur within federally owned national parks , wildlife refuges and national audubon society sanctuaries , which started protecting the roseate spoonbill in 1902 ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the taking of roseate spoonbills , their eggs and their nests is prohibited by the us migratory bird treaty act of 1918 ( 4 ) .
the most distinctive characteristic of the roseate spoonbill is its long spoon - shaped bill . it has a white head and chest and light pink wings with a darker pink fringe and very long pink legs . the roseate spoonbill is about two and a half feet in length with a wingspan of about four and a half feet . both males and females have the same plumage and coloring . the male is slightly larger than the female and its bill is a little longer .
the adult roseate spoonbill is most noted for its stunning pink color and its uniquely - shaped bill . it is the only one of the six spoonbill species with brilliantly colored plumage . its wings , abdomen and feathers on the side of its tail are bright pink , its tail is orange , and its legs are ruby - colored . the feather colors brighten in breeding season .
the roseate spoonbill is known to nest in a wide variety of marine , brackish and freshwater habitats ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it requires shallow water in which it can feed using its long bill ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
dumas , jeannette v . 2000 . roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online .
or migrating to their annual nesting sites . the roseate spoonbill is often seen in small flocks when feeding but they have also been found to do this on their own as well . in the wild , they are known to be particularly shy
dumas , jeannette v . 2000 . roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
months between march and june are considered to be the mating season for the roseate spoonbills living in texas .
a spoonbill ' s nostrils are located at top of the bill , making it possible for the bird to breathe while the bill is under water .
roseate spoonbills forage in shallow waters for aquatic invertebrates sweeping their head side to side with the bill partly opened .
roseate spoonbills are very social . they live in large colonies with other spoonbills , ibises , storks , herons , egrets and cormorants . roseate spoonbills fly in flocks in long diagonal lines with their legs and neck stretched out .
to derive nutrition , roseate spoonbills consume a diet comprising aquatic invertebrates , small fishes , plant matter and amphibians .
, and has two small slits close to the top meaning that the roseate spoonbill can still breathe whilst its beak is submerged in the water . the skin on their head is featherless and often has a greenish tinge to it , leading to their lighter coloured beak .
roseate spoonbills roost and nest in colonies with other waterbirds in trees and shrubs at the edges of wetlands and estuaries .
from march through october , roseate spoonbills prefer the bays , marshes and estuaries along the gulf coast . occasionally they will travel inland through the eastern third of texas . in winter , most roseate spoonbills migrate to central and south america .
the roseate spoonbill population was once threatened by hunting . in the mid - to - late 1800s its feathers were used in ladies ' hats and fans . the population was also threatened by loss of habitat due to drainage and pollution in its habitat . by the early 20th century , the population had shrunk to only a few dozen nesting pairs in the united states . special protected areas were set aside for them and in the 1940s they were made a protected species . over time the population recovered and today the roseate spoonbill is no longer a protected species .
only this species amongst the other spoonbills are widely distributed in the western hemisphere . their range stretches from central to south america , along with coastal regions of mexico , bahamas and west indies . roseate spoonbill’s breeding range in usa spreads across louisiana , texas and southern ranges of florida .
touch receptors located in the bill of roseate spoonbill assist it to fathom its prey underwater . whenever they feel any other aquatic creature inside their mouth they reflexively close their bills . this helps them to survive in the wild by finding food easily in muddy water and also at nights .
roseate spoonbills eat primarily small fish and crustaceans . raccoons and coyotes eat roseate spoonbill eggs and young . spoonbills reach sexual maturity at approximately 16 weeks . in texas , their mating season lasts from march through june . nests are built in thick vegetation above water ; are well - built , and deeply cupped . females typically lay two to five brown - speckled white eggs , which hatch after about 24 days . in about eight weeks , the young roseate spoonbills are ready to fly . their life span is as long as ten years .
roseate spoonbill : resident along the pacific coast of mexico south and along the gulf coast from louisiana to the yucatan peninsula . also found in southern florida and throughout the west indies . may stray farther inland during migration . preferred habitats include mangroves , saltwater lagoons , and large , shallow lakes .
like all other spoonbills , the roseate spoonbill frequents shallow aquatic habitats and feeds by tactolocation : while walking , it swings its head and the slightly open “spoon” of its bill in the water from side to side in a semicircular motion . the bill snaps shut when it contacts prey , mainly fish and aquatic invertebrates . it is gregarious while feeding , nesting , and roosting . the full behavioral repertoire of the roseate has yet to be described .
the roseate spoonbill will sleep standing , usually on one leg , with its head buried beneath back and shoulder feathers . the female is also able to rest when lying down during incubation . it is generally a silent bird , although it is known to make calls during breeding displays and when flying ( 3 ) .
the roseate spoonbill nests in colonies . males and females pair off for the breeding season and build a nest together . they build large nests of sticks lined with grass and leaves . the nests are built in trees . the female spoonbill lays two to four eggs . both the female and the male incubate the eggs . the chicks hatch in about three weeks and fledge in around 35 to 42 days . both the male and female feed the chicks until they are about eight weeks old . young roseate spoonbills have white feathers with a slight pink tinge on the wings . they don ' t reach maturity until they are three years old .
spoonbills eat shrimp , shrimp eat algae , and the algae make their own red and yellow pigments , called carotenoids . some scientists believe that the pink coloration that roseate spoonbills acquire as they mature is due to their diet of carotenoid - rich organisms like shrimp . the more they eat , the pinker they get . flamingos are close relatives of the roseate spoonbill . they both have pink feathers , but the flamingos are much larger , with a longer neck .
this spoonbill species grows up to 38 inches tall with a 47 - 52 inch wingspan and can weigh up to 4 pounds . feeding primarily on small aquatic animals such as fish and crusta
s is caused by an abundance of carotenoids , or algae pigments , present in the food the birds eat . as the spoonbill ages , the caroteniods accumulate from all of the aquatic anim
the roseate spoonbill feeds in groups , in both fresh and marine shallow waters ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . it feeds by walking slowly through the water , swinging its distinctive spoon - shaped bill from side to side ( 3 ) . the bill has sensitive nerve endings , allowing it to detect when it comes into contact with prey and snap shut ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . this species is known to shake and beat prey against hard surfaces to break shells and facilitate swallowing and digestion if necessary ( 3 ) . the roseate spoonbill generally feeds on a range of aquatic animals including small fish , crustaceans and insects ( 3 ) .
sources : 1 . about roseate spoonbills ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 2 . christopher perrins , oxford university press ( 2009 ) the encyclopedia of birds [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 3 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 4 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 5 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 6 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 7 . roseate spoonbill breeding ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 8 . roseate spoonbill conservation ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 9 . roseate spoonbill information ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ] 10 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 13 apr 2011 ]
roseate spoonbills build bulky stick nests in trees and shrubs that often hang over standing water . they typically raise 3 to 4 chicks every year .
roseate spoonbills are among the most beautiful birds found in north america . they are often mistaken to be american flamingos due to their colored body type . these birds belong to the spoonbill family that are distributed largely across the coastal regions of america , mexico and caribbean . they are the only spoonbills that live beyond the tropical and warmer climates .
how you can help : join audubon florida’s online advocacy campaign at urltoken , where you will find tips on boating responsibly , creating backyard wildlife habitat , and reporting a sighting of a banded spoonbill .
the roseate spoonbill is generally an uncommon resident in the united states , depending on location and season . historical records indicate that the u . s . population was more abundant before the plume - hunting era than today . it was decimated by feather hunters beginning as early as the 1830s , when john james audubon saw roseate wings being sold as fans in st . augustine , florida , but disturbance at shared rookeries for the highly prized plumes of egrets probably took the greatest toll on the species (
the roseate spoonbill is the only spoonbill endemic ( native ) to the western hemisphere ( bjork and powell 1996 ) . this species can reach a length of 30 - 40 inches ( 76 - 102 centimeters ) with a wingspan of 50 - 53 inches ( 127 - 135 centimeters ) . it has pink wings and underparts ( with some red on the tops of the wings ) with a white neck and back , and pinkish legs and feet . while the species looks almost entirely pink in flight , they actually have no feathers at all on their heads . the pink coloration comes from the organisms on which they feed , which are full of caroteniods ( organic pigment ) ( texas parks and wildlife department , n . d . ) . as the name implies , the roseate spoonbill also has a large , spoon - shaped bill , which it sweeps back and forth in shallow water to capture prey .
gorgeous at a distance and bizarre up close is the roseate spoonbill . locally common in coastal florida , texas , and southwest louisiana , they are usually in small flocks , often associating with other waders . spoonbills feed in shallow waters , walking forward slowly while they swing their heads from side to side , sifting the muck with their wide flat bills .
the roseate spoonbill ( platalea ajaja ) is a striking wading bird that is easily identifiable thanks to its bright pink plumage and spoon - shaped bill ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it is a large bird , with a wingspan of over a metre , but is mid - sized in comparison to other species in the order ciconiiformes to which the roseate spoonbill belongs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . it is long - legged , long - necked ( 2 ) and has a bald head that is pale green in appearance , with a white neck , breast and back ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the rest of the plumage is mostly various shades of pink , with dark reddish - pink wing and upper tail feathers ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . there is a yellow patch near the bend of the wing , and the tail is orange ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . the roseate spoonbill’s bill is about 15 to 18 centimetres long and is grey , while the legs are reddish - pink ( 3 ) .
bjork r . , g . v . n powell . , 1996 . roseate spoonbill . pages 295 – 308 in j . a . rodgers , jr . , h . w . kale ii , and h . t . smith ( eds . ) . rare and endangered biota of florida , vol . v : birds . university press of florida , gainesville , fl .
the roseate spoonbill is a resident breeder in south america , generally east of the andes , and coastal areas of central america , the caribbean , and the gulf of mexico ( dumas 2000 ) . mangrove islands and occasionally dredge - spoil islands are the preferred nesting habitat for the species . in florida , the species is found in florida bay , tampa bay , and brevard county .
roseate spoonbills are usually quiet but make low grunting sounds while they are eating with others . young ones emit soft calls unlike the adults who have a raspy voice .
the most devastating threat to the roseate spoonbill has historically been hunting by man ( 3 ) . population numbers dropped dramatically between 1850 and 1890 as a result of hunters selling the feathers for use in fans and hat - making , as well as hunting for meat ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . this species has also suffered from disturbance at breeding colonies shared with heavily hunted egrets ( 3 ) .
roseate spoonbills fly with their head and feet outstretched elegantly looking straight . they form a long line and sometimes that line assumes a ‘v’ shape while flying in a flock .
distribution of the roseate spoonbill in north and middle america and the western caribbean . this species breeds locally within the distribution shown , and locally in south america . in the u . s . , it breeds during winter ( florida bay ) and spring ( elsewhere ) , and individuals regularly disperse north distribution shown during summer and fall . see text for timing of breeding and postbreeding dispersal in other regions .
not the roseate spoonbill ! having a
built - in
spoon on its beak can be a big help at mealtime . all spoonbills take advantage of this adaptation with a special feeding style known as
head - swinging .
the birds plunge their bill nearly vertically under water and swing it side to side in wide arcs . in this way , they snag a host of small animals from the lake bottom .
it ' s ironic that roseate spoonbills were hunted for their plumage : their feather color fades rapidly , so the fans and hats made from their plumes had only a limited lifespan .
the unique spoon - shaped bill of this species is also used in a courtship dance which includes nest material exchanges , dancing , and bill clapping . roseate spoonbills typically don ' t breed until they reach 3 years old , at which time they have reached full size and have grown breeding plumage . the attractive feathers used to attract a breeding mate also attracted plume hunters and poachers in the 1800s that used the feathers to make fashion pieces such as ladies hats . by the 1930s , poaching and low reproductive success rates lead spoonbill population numbers to frop to an estimated 30 breeding pairs . conservation efforts in the united states have allowed the species to reach an estimated 1000 breeding pairs along the florida coast , contributing to an estimated 4 , 000 total breeding pair population along the gulf coast of the united states including texas and louisiana populations . the biggest threat to the roseate spoonbill is now habitat loss , as coastal and estuary lands are drained for urban developments .
roseate spoonbills don ' t mate for life , but they do keep the same mate for an entire breeding season . before they breed , the male and female tempt each other in ritual courtship displays .
today the species has recovered so well that it has no special conservation status . yet scientists worry about a recent decline in the number of breeding pairs in various parts of its range . manmade causes are again suspected , specifically the broad use of pesticides to control mosquitoes and changes in the birds ' wetland habitats ( draining , pollution , etc . ) . with any luck , the roseate spoonbill will be able to cope and will have a rosy future for many centuries to come .
the roseate spoonbill is known to breed in southern usa in florida , louisiana and texas , along both coasts of central america , and south as far as central argentina ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it is found on most islands in the caribbean sea , with the exception of the lesser antilles , where it is rare ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . this is thought to indicate that the south american populations are distinct from the remaining populations in the usa and central america ( 3 ) .
roseate spoonbills forage in the shallows of fresh , brackish , and marine waters including bays , mangroves , forested swamps , and wetlands . they nest and roost in trees and shrubs along the water ' s edge .
white , d . h . , c . a . mitchell and e . cromartie . 1982b . nesting ecology of roseate spoonbills at neuces bay , texas . auk no . 99 : 275 - 284 . close
the u . s . fish and wildlife service today released its gulf coast vulnerability assessment ( gcva ) , a comprehensive report that evaluates the effects of climate change , sea level rise and urbanization on four gulf coast ecosystems and 11 species that depend on them . the ecosystems are mangrove , oyster reef , tidal emergent marsh and barrier islands . the species are roseate spoonbill , blue crab , clapper rail , mottled duck , spotted seatrout , eastern oyster , american oystercatcher , red drum , black skimmer , kemp’s ridley sea turtle and wilson’s plover .
even the size of the roseate spoonbills doesn’t save themselves from the predators present in water and natural surroundings who hunt them for flesh and eggs . some of them are alligators , pumas , coyotes , raccoons , jaguars , hawks and even humans .
this medium - sized bird ' s body is rather stocky ; its long legs allow it to wade into water . both male and female roseate spoonbills have the same bright pink plumage , though males are somewhat larger and have somewhat longer bills .
als it has eaten and the pink coloration becomes darker . a specialized spoon - shaped bill allows the bird to forage for its food by sweeping the head from side to side as it walks through shallow water . when sensitive nerves along the upper and lower bill feel prey move , the spoonbill clamps the bill shut and the prey is trapped .
) . breeders persisted in only a few locations in florida and louisiana into the 1940s , and the species was virtually extirpated in texas until the 1920s . despite eventual population increases throughout its u . s . range , this spoonbill remains vulnerable , especially in florida , and it is designated a species of special concern in both florida and louisiana .
male and female roseate spoonbills are similar in appearance and colour , although males are slightly larger ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . juvenile roseate spoonbills are mostly white , with dusky - pink wing tips which develop and darken as they mature ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . they have fully feathered heads and pale yellowish - pink bills ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . full adult plumage is thought to develop after four moults , which takes about three years ( 3 ) .
roseate spoonbills forage in the shallows of fresh , brackish , and marine waters with good sources of aquatic invertebrates . these include bays and mangroves to forested swamps and roadside ditches . they nest and roost in trees and shrubs along the water ' s edge .
robertson , w . b . , l . l . breen and b . w . patty . 1983b . movement of marked roseate spoonbills in florida with a review of present distribution . j . field ornithol . no . 54 : 225 - 236 . close
roseate spoonbills are medium - sized waterbirds with a football - shaped body and long legs . the long bill that is flattened into a spoon at the end protrudes from their small head . they fly with their long necks outstretched and often rest with it curled into an s .
roseate spoonbills are pale pink birds with brighter pink shoulders and rump . they have a white neck and a partially feathered , yellowish green head from which their red eyes shine . juveniles are paler pink and have a completely feathered head for 3 years until they attain adult breeding plumage .
roseate spoonbills fly in flocks with other spoonbills , usually in long , strung - out diagonal lines . those that live in the tropics tend not to migrate . in temperate and sub - tropical climates , spoonbills migrate somewhat , mostly as a response to food availability and rainfall patterns .
throughout their distributional range , these beautiful roseate spoonbills inhabit ponds , marshes , swamps and rivers . they can survive in freshwater as well as saltwater habitats , which is why they feed in tidal ponds and estuaries . shallow water bodies adjacent to their nesting sites are preferred feeding areas during nesting .
look out for a long - legged wading bird with pale - pink feathers , but don ' t confuse this big cypress resident with the greater flamingo in the florida keys . spoonbills get their names from the spatulate shaped bill that strains shallow water like a straining spoon . the roseate spoonbill stands 28 - 34 inches tall , and can stretch its wings 47 - 51 inches . both eyes and legs are red , and feathers of the neck , chest and upper back are white . the pale pink body is complimented by bright orange tail feathers and a pale - gray , flattened , spoon - shaped bill . the immature bird ' s feathers are paler colors and each chick has a feathered head unlike their parents .
roseate spoonbills grow to a height of 32 inches ( 81 cm ) , with an average wingspan of 50 inches ( 127 cm ) . their distinguishing characteristics include their pink body and legs , white neck and breast . pale green bald head , spoon - shaped bill , and bright red shoulder patch .
these migrate during the breeding season when they seek partners in distant areas . migratory range of roseate spoonbills extends to south and central america during the winters . it however does not travel beyond north carolina , towards the east . but not all of them are migratory , especially the ones inhabiting the tropical zones .
by the early 20th century , there were only a few dozen nesting pairs of roseate spoonbills on this continent . various groups , including the national audubon society , set aside preserves for the birds . spoonbills received legal protection in the1940s and their numbers slowly started rebounding in parts of the southern u . s .
in the 19 th century laws have been passed to prevent the killing of roseate spoonbills as they were becoming endangered during that time . there are no issues with its population now and hence at present iucn lists them as least concern birds . in louisiana and florida they have been enlisted as species of special concern .
breeding season of roseate spoonbills probably start in the beginning of summer . these spoonbills enter sexual maturity in the third year but some might take another year to start breeding . a typical cycle can be deciphered which can be classified into 4 phases including , formation of pair , phase of betrothal , copulation and nest formation .
roseate spoonbills forage in shallow waters typically less than 5 inches deep . they sweep their partly opened spoon - shaped bill through the water , feeling and looking for crustaceans such as shrimp , prawns , aquatic insects , and fish . once they feel the prey on their bill they snap it closed , often swallowing the item whole .
a spoonbill feeds more by touch than by sight - - a handy adaptation for an animal that often feeds in water that ' s muddy or clogged with dense vegetation . the horny bill is equipped with sensitive touch receptors that detect vibrations given off by prey . when something touches the inside of the spoon , the bill closes on it quickly . this keen sense of touch and fast reflexes allow the bird to feed in cloudy water , and at night .
roseate spoonbills nest in colonies with egrets , ibises , and herons , typically on islands or over standing water . they nest in mangroves , brazilian pepperbush , willows , sea myrtle , and other shrubs near the water . they tend to put their nests in the shadiest part of the tree or shrub , up to 16 feet high .
of around three weeks , and fledge after about a month . the young roseate spoonbills have white plumage with a slight pink tinge , and often won ' t develop the colourful adult feathers for at least a couple of years . both the incubating of the eggs and the feeding of the chicks is shared by the male and female parents .
cream colored eggs hatch in a month’s time , producing pinkish chicks with orange colored bills . after a month they start flying across low lying branches around the nest but can completely fly after a couple of more months . till 3 years the young roseate spoonbills refrain from mating and above that age they follow the same life cycle like the adults .
bjork , r . d . and g . v . n . powell . 1994 . relationships between hydrologic conditions and quality and quantity of foraging habitat for roseate spoonbills and other wading birds in the c - 111 basin . homestead , fl : south florida res . center , everglades natl . park , natl . park serv . , final rep . close
roseate spoonbills wade through shallow water swinging their head side to side with their bill under the water feeling for prey . they tend to forage with their bodies held in a horizontal position just above the water with head hanging down . they fly with the neck outstretched , dipping slightly below the body . spoonbills forage , roost , and nest in groups often with other ibises , herons , and egrets .
unlike most birds , roseate spoonbills are silent and often solitary when they feed . they swish their spoon - shaped bills back and forth in the water to find small invertebrates , fish and crustaceans . during breeding season , the male uses gifts of nesting material to attract the female . once mated , the pair remains monogamous . both male and female take turns sitting on the eggs and feeding the young .
roseate spoonbills are plentiful in much of their range , but that hasn ' t always been the case . in the mid - to late - 1800s , they were driven to the brink of extinction in north america and cuba . spoonbills were intensely hunted for their beautiful feathers , used for ladies ' hats , fans and screens . their numbers also suffered with the draining and pollution of their wetland habitat .
roseate spoonbills slowly walk through shallow water with their bodies held horizontally and their spoon - shaped bill underwater feeling for prey . they sleep while standing , often on one leg with the head tucked under a shoulder . roseate spoonbills are social birds that gather in small to large ( anywhere from 2 to around 400 ) groups when feeding and roosting . they fly to and from feeding and roosting areas with slow and deep wingbeats with their legs and neck fully extended . when foraging spoonbills spot a group of spoonbills flying overhead they stick their necks and bills straight up into the air in a posture called sky gazing . spoonbills share the roosting and nesting colony with egrets , herons , and ibises . at colonies males bob their heads up and down while shaking nearby twigs to get the attention of a female . interested pairs may bite each other ' s bills or may raise their outstretched wings above their body . once paired , males present females with sticks , which they shake while holding them in their bills . pairs generally stay together only for one breeding season .
there is no sexual dimorphism ( difference in form between individuals of different genders in the same species ) in roseate spoonbills . they nest in mixed colonies ( near other wading bird species ) in mangroves or trees and though most breed on the coast , some nest inland . nesting habitats include coastal mangroves and dredged - made islands . ( florida natural areas inventory 2001 ) . the female builds the nest while the male retrieves the nesting materials . the female lays up to three whitish - colored eggs and both adults incubate the eggs for up to 24 days ( smithsonian national zoological park , n . d . ) . the young remain in the nest for approximately 35 - 42 days and are fed by both adults .
roseate spoonbills nest and forage in areas that can be difficult to reach , so obtaining an accurate estimate of their population is difficult . the best available estimates come from the north american breeding bird survey and partners in flight . according to the north american breeding bird survey their populations have increased by nearly 6 . 5 % between 1966 and 2015 . partners in flight estimates the global breeding population at 120 , 000 individuals . the species rates a 10 out of 20 on the continental concern score , which means it is not on the partners in flight watch list and is a species of low conservation concern . in florida , much of their nesting habitat occurs in protected areas including the everglades national park and national wildlife refuges , but their foraging areas are not always under protection and can be affected by changes in water management that increase salinity and affect food availability . nesting spoonbills are also vulnerable to human disturbance from boating and other recreation activities that can result in nest abandonment .
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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
falkland islands ( malvinas ) ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; jamaica ; south georgia and the south sandwich islands ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .
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males collect sticks for females to build a bulky platform lined with finer plant material such as moss and strips of bark . the completed nest is about 22 inches wide and 4 . 5 inches deep .
pink skinned and covered with white down . eyed closed and unable to stand .
dunne , p . ( 2006 ) . pete dunne ' s essential field guide companion . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york , usa .
lutmerding , j . a . and a . s . love ( 2016 ) . longevity records of north american birds . version 2016 . 1 . patuxent wildlife research center , bird banding laboratory , laurel , md , usa .
sauer , j . r . , d . k . niven , j . e . hines , d . j . ziolkowski , jr . , k . l . pardieck , j . e . fallon , and w . a . link ( 2017 ) . the north american breeding bird survey , results and analysis 1966–2015 . version 2 . 07 . 2017 . usgs patuxent wildlife research center , laurel , md , usa .
sibley , d . a . ( 2014 ) . the sibley guide to birds , second edition . alfred a . knopf , new york , usa .
large , pink wading bird with a long , spoon - shaped bill . adults have brighter pink shoulders and a bare yellowish green head .
juveniles look similar to adults , but are paler pink and have a completely feathered head . spoon - shaped bill is distinctive .
nests and roosts in trees and shrubs including mangrove , sea myrtle , hackberry , and mesquite .
found in freshwater and saltwater wetlands , mangroves , forested swamps , rivers , bays , estuaries , mudflats , and lagoons .
very common in parts of the southeast until the 1860s , spoonbills were virtually eliminated from the united states as a side - effect of the destruction of wader colonies by plume hunters . began to re - colonize texas and florida early in 20th century . still uncommon and local , vulnerable to degradation of feeding and nesting habitats .
coastal marshes , lagoons , mudflats , mangrove keys . forages in shallow water with muddy bottom , in both salt and fresh water , including tidal ponds , coastal lagoons , extensive inland marshes . nests in colonies , in florida mainly in red mangroves , farther west in willows or on coastal islands in low scrub , including mesquite and salt cedar .
forages by wading in shallow muddy water , sweeping bill from side to side with mandibles slightly open , detecting prey by feel . sometimes picks up items that it has found by sight .
2 - 3 , sometimes 1 - 5 . white , spotted with brown . incubation is by both sexes , 22 - 24 days . young : both parents feed young . young clamber about near nest , may leave nest after 5 - 6 weeks , capable of strong flight at roughly 7 - 8 weeks .
both parents feed young . young clamber about near nest , may leave nest after 5 - 6 weeks , capable of strong flight at roughly 7 - 8 weeks .
small fish , aquatic invertebrates . diet is mostly small fish such as minnows and killifish , also shrimp , crayfish , crabs , aquatic insects ( especially beetles ) , mollusks , slugs . eats some plant material , including roots and stems of sedges .
breeds mainly during winter in florida , during spring in texas . nests in colonies . at beginning of breeding season , entire flock may suddenly fly up , for no apparent reason , and circle the area . in courtship , male and female first interact aggressively , later perch close together , present sticks to each other , cross and clasp bills . nest site is in mangroves , tree , shrub , usually 5 - 15 ' above ground or water , sometimes on ground . nest ( built mostly by female , with material brought by male ) a bulky platform of sticks , with deep hollow in center lined with twigs , leaves .
present all year in coastal texas but more common in summer , with some migrating to mexico in winter . there is thought to be some regular seasonal movement between florida and cuba . after breeding season , a few ( mostly immatures ) may stray far north and well inland . rarely strays into southwest from western mexico .
audio © lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .
in the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .
the darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .
each map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird’s “climatic range . ”


salmo trutta morpha fario is the riverine form of the brown trout salmo trutta that spends its entire life cycle in running water .

while previously considered a distinct subspecies or even species , it is currently not considered to be taxonomically different from other ecological or migratory forms of the brown trout , i.e. the sea trout ( salmo trutta morpha trutta ) or the lacustrine brown trout ( salmo trutta morpha lacustris ) .

the fario morph is often referred to as river trout in europe .

riverine brown trout average 20 to 80 centimetres ( 7.9 to 31.5 in ) but can reach lengths of 1 metre ( 3.3 ft ) .

they usually attain a weight of up to 2 kilograms , but sometimes up to 13 kilograms ( 29 lb ) .

their back is olive-dark brown and silvery blue , red spots with light edges occur towards the belly , the belly itself is whitish yellow .

they can live for up to 18 years .

salmo trutta fario

vittorio genovese added the italian common name
trota fario
to
salmo trutta fario linnaeus , 1758
.
variety salmo fario var . forestensis bloch & schneider , 1801 accepted as salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
no one has contributed data records for salmo trutta fario yet . learn how to contribute .
high rate of deformed larvae among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) doubled haploids
high rate of deformed larvae among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) doubled haploids
brown trout salmo trutta f . fario liver ultrastructure as a biomarker for assessment of small stream pollution .
the reproductive traits of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) from the yadong river , tibet
the reproductive traits of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) from the yadong river , tibet | springerlink
parental genetic diversity of brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) brood stock affects offspring susceptibility to whirling disease
seasonal and morphological variations of brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) kidney peroxisomes : a stereological study .
brown trout salmo trutta f . fario liver ultrastructure as a biomarker for assessment of small stream pollution . - pubmed - ncbi
the hepatocytes of the brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : a quantitative study using design - based stereology .
seasonal and morphological variations of brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) kidney peroxisomes : a stereological study . - pubmed - ncbi
you selected salmo trutta lacustris linnaeus , 1758 . this is a synonym for :
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salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758
.
the hepatocytes of the brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : a quantitative study using design - based stereology . - pubmed - ncbi
global invasive species database , “salmo trutta ( fish ) ” urltoken accessed november 2006 .
figure 1 : body deformities among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta ) doubled haploids .
parental genetic diversity of brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) brood stock affects offspring susceptibility to whirling disease | parasites & vectors | full text
seasonal comparison of wild and farmed brown trout ( salmo trutta forma fario l . , 1758 ) : crude lipid , gonadosomatic index and fatty acids .
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a common trout , salmo trutta , of n european streams : introduced in north america .
illinois state department of natural resources , “illinois exotic species : salmo trutta” urltoken accessed november 2006 .
acyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 and 3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : can peroxisomal fatty acid β - oxidation be regulated by estrogen signaling ?
seasonal comparison of wild and farmed brown trout ( salmo trutta forma fario l . , 1758 ) : crude lipid , gonadosomatic index and fatty acids . - pubmed - ncbi
fishingnet , 2004 . brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . online at urltoken accessed 16 november 2004 .
united states geographical survey , “nonindigenous aquatic species : salmo trutta , ” urltoken = accessed november 2006 .
with parasitic larvae ( glochidia ) encysting on the gills of juvenile brown trout ( salmo trutta f .
informations on salmo trutta has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .
the brown trout is found throughout europe ; those that live in rivers which empty into the north sea and the baltic sea belong to the subspecies salmo trutta fario , those that live in rivers that empty into the black sea are of the subspecies salmo trutta labrax , and those in rivers emptying into the mediterranean belong to the subspecies s . t . macrostigma ( 2 ) . the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) is found throughout the british isles ( 3 ) .
animal diversity web , 2004 . salmo trutta ( brown trout ) . online at urltoken accessed 15 november 2004 .
effects of angling on population structure of brown trout , salmo trutta l . , in mountain streams of northern spain
age and growth of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the north branch of the au sable river , crawford county , michigan . ( fisheries research report : 1223 )
acyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 and 3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : can peroxisomal fatty acid β - oxidation be regulated by estrogen signaling ? - pubmed - ncbi
by the genogenesis method of induction ( artifical ) through the thermal shocks , triple descendants ( 3n = 100 ) are obtained during the salmo gairdneri ( 2n = 58 ) and the salmo trutta fario ( 2n = 84 ) corss - breeding . the new triples possess higher growth rates than the descendants of salmo gairdneri
effects of angling on population structure of brown trout , salmo trutta l . , in mountain streams of northern spain | springerlink
billard , r . ( 1987 ) . the reproductive cycle of male and female brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) : a quantitative study . reproduction nutrition development , 27 ( 1a ) , 29 - 44 . urltoken
age and growth of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the north branch of the au sable river , crawford county , michigan . ( fisheries research report : 1223 ) tody , w . h .
the scientific name of the brown trout is salmo trutta . the specific epithet trutta derives from the latin trutta , meaning , literally ,
trout
. behnke ( 2007 ) relates that the brown trout was the first species of trout described in the 1758 edition of systema naturae by swedish zoologist carl linnaeus . systema naturae established the system of binomial nomenclature for animals . salmo trutta was used to describe anadromous or sea - run forms of brown trout . linnaeus also described two other brown trout species in 1758 . salmo fario was used for riverine forms . salmo lacustris was used for lake - dwelling forms . [ 5 ]
laikre et al , 1999 . conservation genetic management of brown trout ( salmo trutta ) in europe . report by the concerted action on identification , management and exploitation of genetic resources in the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . troutconcert , eu fair ct97 - 3882 .
froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2005 ) .
salmo trutta
in fishbase . 10 2005 version .
recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : salmo trutta . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .
although there are currently no recognized subspecies of brown trout , there are three basic morphs ( distinct behavioral populations within a species ) : those that in habit freshwater rivers ( salmo trutta morpha fario ) , lake populations ( salmo trutta morpha lacustrine ) , and anadromous forms ( salmo trutta morpha trutta ) . browns that spend their lives in the ocean before entering rivers to spawn are called sea trout . the species name means “salmon trout” and described the anadromous morph . resident and anadromous browns that inhabit the same river are genetically identical , and biologists do not yet understand why some migrate to the salt and some stay in the river .
the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) is a european species of salmonid fish that has been widely introduced into suitable environments globally . it includes both purely freshwater populations , referred to salmo trutta morpha fario and s . trutta morpha lacustris , and anadromous forms known as the sea trout , s . trutta morpha trutta . the latter migrates to the oceans for much of its life and returns to fresh water only to spawn . [ 3 ] sea trout in the uk and ireland have many regional names , including sewin ( wales ) , finnock ( scotland ) , peal ( west country ) , mort ( north west england ) , and white trout ( ireland ) .
a european freshwater game fish ( salmo trutta ) that is brownish or greenish with red and black spots on the sides . it is naturalized in north america .
table 2 : summary of the examination of the body morphology among gynogenetic doubled haploid ( dh ) and normal ( c ) brown trout ( salmo trutta ) .
czerniawski r . , pilecka - rapacz m . , domaga³a j . 2010 - growth and survival of brown trout fry ( salmo trutta m . fario l . ) in the wild , reared in the hatchery on different feed - ejpau , fisheries 13 ( 2 ) ; urltoken
( animals ) a common brownish variety of the trout salmo trutta that occurs in the rivers of n europe and has been successfully introduced in north america . compare sea trout 1
( of salmo fario linnaeus , 1758 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
czerniawski r . , domaga³a j . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2009 - rearing of sea trout fry ( salmo trutta m . trutta l . ) - as potential stocking material , with living zooplankton and dry prepared food - ejpau , fisheries 12 ( 4 ) ; urltoken
( of trutta fario ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
ferguson a , 1989 . genetic differences among brown trout ( salmo trutta ) stocks and their importance for the conservation and management of the species . freshwater biology , 21 : 35 - 46 .
testicular feed back on the hypothalamo - pituitary axis in rainbow trout ( salmo gairdneri r . )
department of fisheries , 2002 . the translocation of brown trout ( salmo trutta ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) . fisheries management paper no . 156 . western australia : department of fisheries .
elliott , j . m . ( 1967 ) . the food of trout ( salmo trutta ) in a dartmoor stream . journal of applied ecology , 4 ( 1 ) : 59 - 71 .
fauré , a . 1991 . la truite fario , une filière salmonicole marine à la française . aqua revue 35 : 7 - 13 .
czerniawski r . , domagala j . , krepski t . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2015 - impact of live food on survival and growth of hatchery - reared sea trout ( salmo trutta trutta l . ) parr in the wild - j . appl . ichthyol . 31 : 95 - 99 .
largiader , c . r . & scholl , a . 1996 . genetic introgression between native and introduced sea trout salmo trutta l . populations in the rhône river basin . molecular ecology 5 : 417 - 426 .
lack of genetic differentiation between anadromous and resident sympatric brown trout ( salmo trutta ) in a normandy population . . in aquatic living resources , volume 18 , n° 1 , january–march 2005 . pages 65 - 69 .
introduction of salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' ext . . .
bugeon , j . , lefevre , f . & fauconneau , b . 2003 . fillet texture and muscle structure in sea trout ( salmo trutta ) subjected to long - term exercise . aquaculture research 34 : 1287 - 1295 .
skaala o , j rstad ke , 1987 . fine spotted brown trout ( salmo trutta ) : its phenotypic description and biochemical genetic variation . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 44 ( 10 ) : 1775 - 1779 .
zimmerman , c . e . & mosegaard , h . ( 1992 ) . initial feeding in migratory brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) alevins . journal of fish biology , 40 ( 4 ) : 647 - 650 .
salmo trutta has been introduced around the world for aquaculture and stocked for sport fisheries . it is blamed for reducing native fish populations , especially other salmonids , through predation , displacement and food competition . it is a popular angling fish .
mambrini , m . , labbe , l . , randriamanantsoa , f . & boujard , t . 2006 . response of growth - selected sea trout ( salmo trutta ) to challenging feeding conditions . aquaculture 252 : 429 - 440 .
chevassus , b . , quillet , e . , krieg , f . , hollebecq , m . g . , mambrini , m . , faure , a . , labbe , l . , hiseux , j . p . & vandeputte , m . 2005 . improved mass selection for growth rate in sea trout ( salmo trutta fario ) : the
prosper
process . aquaculture 247 ; 8 .
arzel , j . , métailler , r . , kerleguer , c . , le delliou , h . & guillaume , j . 1997 . the protein requirement of sea trout ( salmo trutta ) fry . aquaculture 130 : 67 - 78 .
barbat - leterrier , a . , guyomard , r . & krieg , f . 1989 . introgression between introduced domesticated strains and mediterranean native populations of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) . aquatic living resources 2 : 215 - 223 .
quillet , e . , chevassus , b . , krieg , f . & burger , g . 1986 . données actuelles sur l ' élevage en mer de la truite commune ( salmo trutta ) . la pisciculture française 86 : 48 - 56 .
introduction of salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' extinction ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) .
in small streams , brown trout are important predators of macroinvertebrates , and declining brown trout populations in these specific areas affect the entire aquatic food web . [ 11 ] s . trutta morpha fario prefers well - oxygenated water in the temperature range of 60 to 65 °f ( 16 to 18 °c ) .
hansen , m . m . 2002 . estimating the long - term effects of stocking domesticated trout into wild sea trout ( salmo trutta ) populations : an approach using microsatellite dna analysis of historical and contemporary samples . molecular ecology 11 : 1003 - 1015 .
fjellheim a . , raddum g . g . , barlaup b . t . 1995 - dispersal , growth and mortality of brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) stocked in a regulated west norwegian river - regul . rivers 10 : 137 - 145 .
arzel , j . , metailler , r . , huelvan , c . , faure , a . & guillaume , j . 1992 . the specific nutritional requirements of sea trout ( salmo trutta ) . búvísindi , icelandic agricultural science 6 : 77 - 92 .
fishbase , 2003 . species profile salmo trutta trutta sea trout summary : fishbase is a global information system with all you ever wanted to know about fishes . fishbase on the web contains practically all fish species known to science . fishbase was developed at the worldfish center in collaboration with the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) and many other partners , and with support from the european commission ( ec ) . since 2001 fishbase is supported by a consortium of seven research institutions . you can search on search fishbase this species profile is available from : urltoken ; = salmo & speciesname ; = trutta % 20trutta [ accessed 7 september , 2004 ]
the native range of salmo trutta includes europe , northern africa and western asia . the species is found in iceland and on the northwest coast of europe , along the mediterranean and south to india . s . trutta has been introduced to appropriate streams all over the world ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) and today is found in rivers , lakes and coastal areas ( nova scotia , 2004 ) .
the bow trout ( salmo gairdneri ) and the brook trout ( salvenilus ) with the same harvesting period , grayling ( thymalus ) .
champigneulle , a . & cachera , s . 2003 . evaluation of large - scale stocking of early stages of sea trout , salmo trutta , to angler catches in the french - swiss part of the river doubs . fisheries management & ecology 10 : 79 - 85 .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .
chevassus , b . , quillet , e . , krieg , f . , hollebecq , m . g . , mambrini , m . , faure , a . , labbe , l . , hiseux , j . p . & vandeputte , m . 2004 . enhanced individual selection for selecting fast growing fish : the
prosper
method , with application on sea trout ( salmo trutta fario ) . génétique , selection , evolution 36 : 643 - 661 .
itis ( integrated taxonomic information system ) , 2005 . online database salmo trutta summary : an online database that provides taxonomic information , common names , synonyms and geographical jurisdiction of a species . in addition links are provided to retrieve biological records and collection information from the global biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) data portal and bioscience articles from bioone journals . available from : urltoken ; _ action = containing & taxa ; = salmo + trutta & p ; _ format = & p ; _ ifx = plglt & p ; _ lang = [ accessed march 2005 ]
( of salmo fario linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
arzel , j . , metailler , r . , le gall , p . & guillaume , j . 1998 . relationship between ration size and dietary protein level varying at the expense of carbohydrate and lipid in triploid sea trout fry , salmo trutta . aquaculture 162 : 259 - 268 .
domagala j . , krepski t . , czerniawski r . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2015 - prey availability and selective feeding of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . , 1758 ) fry stocked in small forest streams - j . appl . ichthyol . 31 : 375 - 380 .
table 1 : survival ( % ± sd ) of the normal ( c ) and gynogenetic doubled haploid ( dh ) brown trout ( salmo trutta ) ( bt ) produced with the use of uv - inactivated homologous ( bt ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) ( rt ) sperm .
jensen , h . , kiljunen , m . & amundsen , p - a . ( 2012 ) . dietary ontogeny and niche shift to piscivory in lacustrine brown trout salmo trutta revealed by stomach content and stable isotope analyses . journal of fish biology , 80 ( 7 ) : 2448 - 2462 .
charles , k . , guyomard , r . , hoyheim , b . , ombredane , d . & bagliniere , j . l . 2005 . lack of genetic differentiation between anadromus and resident sympatric sea trout ( salmo trutta ) in a normandy population . aquatic living resources 18 : 65 - 69 .
salmo trutta has been implicated in reducing native fish populations ( especially other salmonids ) through predation , displacement , and food competition ( taylor et al . , 1984 ) . there are some negative effects from s . trutta since the species was introduced in america ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' extinction . in california , usa , competition and predation from s . trutta may have contributed to the decline of the dolly varden , salmo malma , in the mccloud river ( moyle , 1976 ) , and of the golden trout , oncorhynchus aguabonita , in the kern river ( courtenay and williams , 1992 ) . s . trutta may have also depleted the modoc sucker , catostomus microps , an endangered species , in rush creek , modoc county ( moyle and marciochi , 1975 ) . s . trutta have commonly replaced cutthroat trout , o . clarki , in large rivers ( behnke , 1992 ) . another negative effect is their contribution to the lamprey population in many rivers . the increased lamprey populations since s . trutta were introduced have been considered as a negative impact on biodiversity ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) . s . trutta introductions may have caused the decline of the tasmanian mountain shrimp , anaspides tasmaniae , and have eliminated or reduced several plecoptera and trichoptera species in streams in victoria , australia ( arthington , 1989 ) .
. . . however , very few of the inter - specific and inter - generic hybrids of salmonids and cyprinids have any farming or restocking potential because of their low viability or inferior performance with respect to the parental species ( purdom , 1993 ) . studies on the hybridization between rainbow trout ( oncorhunchus mykiss ) and brown trout ( salmo trutta ) found that the hybrids of these two species resulted in poor hatching rate and survival ( blanc , 2003 ; blanc and maunas , 2005 ) . brown trout ( salmo trutta macrostigma ) is a salmonid species occurring in inland water habitats of southern europe , western asia , northern africa , and anatolia ( geldiay and balik , 1988 ) . . . .
quillet , e . , faure , a . , chevassus , b . , krieg , f . , harache , y . , arzel , j . , metailler , r . & boeuf , g . 1992 . the potential of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) for mariculture . búvísindi , icelandic agricultural science 6 : 63 - 76 .
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hansen , m . m . , nielsen , e . e . , ruzzante , d . e . , bouza , c . & mensberg , k . l . d . 2000 . genetic monitoring of supportive breeding in sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) , using microsatellite dna markers . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 57 : 2130 - 2139 .
guyomard , r . & krieg , f . 1986 . mise en évidence d ' un flux génique entre populations naturelles de truite fario et souche de repeuplement dans deux rivières de corse . bulletin français de la pèche et de la pisciculture 303 : 134 - 140 .
salmo trutta is a common trout known by two different common names reflecting the alternative ecological strategies and associated morphological characteristics of this species . the freshwater morphs ( salmo trutta morpha fario and s . trutta morpha lacustris ) are known as brown trout . sea trout is the anadromous morph which migrates between the ocean , where it spends most of its life , and freshwater spawning grounds . the two morphs , which often share the same breeding grounds ( sympatric distribution ) , have in the past been classified as distinct species . the morphs do interbreed , but the extent of reproductive isolation between them varies by location and some studies have found genetic differentiation between morphs inhabiting the same territory . although native to europe , northern africa and western asia , s . trutta has been widely introduced for aquaculture and recreational fishing purposes and is found in streams , lakes , and coastal areas throughout the world . brown trout commonly mature at 13 - 16 inches long ( often longer in large streams ) ; sea - run morphs are larger and can be found up to 30 pounds and 3 feet long . an aggressive species , s . trutta has been responsible for declines in native fish populations , for example in the great lakes , where they displaced arctic greyling ( thymallus arcticus ) and in california , where they threaten native golden trout oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita and dolly varden ( salvelinus malma ) . this species was nominated as one of the world’s 100 worst invasive species by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) . ( cabi 2010 ; charles et al 2005 ; fuller , larson and fusaro 2012 ; global invasive species database , invasive species specialist group ; idema 1999 ; wikipedia 2012 )
the covariation between diploid and triploid progenies from common breeders and the effect of triploidy on the parental variances were investigated in brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) using two progeny testing experiments , sampling , sires and dams respectively , from the same population . the traits studied were body weight , growth , condition factor and red spotting of the skin . triploidization . . . [ show full abstract ]
( of salmo faris ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
size , growth rate and fry mortality were compared for diploids and triploids of three genetic types , brook trout and the two reciprocal tiger trout hybrids ( salmo trutta × salvelinus fontinalis ) . fry mortality was higher for triploids of all three genetic types compared with the corresponding diploids . weights and fork lengths were recorded for three year classes at various times from 18 weeks . . . [ show full abstract ]
fishbase , 2004 . entry for salmo trutta . main ref . : svetovidov an , 1984 . salmonidae . in : whitehead pjp , bauchot m - l , hureau j - c , nielsen j , tortonese e , eds . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 , 382 - 383 . online at www . fishbase . org . accessed 26 november 2004 .
this study was approved by the local committee on the ethics of animal experiments in gdansk , poland ( number 28 / 2015 ) . gamete donors came from broodstocks of the brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) kept in the department of salmonid research , inland fisheries institute in olsztyn , rutki , poland . eggs ( = c . 2150 ) from one brown trout female ( bt♀ ) were stripped , collected in the plastic bowl , and kept in 10°c pending activation . spermatozoa from one brown trout male ( bt ♂ ) and one rainbow trout male ( rt ♂ ) were collected to separate plastic containers . the motility of the collected sperm was checked under a microscope .
. . . ally in salmonids , has been studied for a long time with the aim of obtaining nonmaturing individuals for ¢sheries and aquaculture ( blanc & maunas 2005 ) . hybrid viability , which is often poor , could be improved through arti¢cial triploidization ( chevassus , guyomard , chourrout & quillet 1983 ; scheerer & thorgaard 1983 ; gray , evans & thorgaard 1993 ) . blanc and maunas ( 2005 ) reported a drastic increase in the survival rate in hybrids of rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) â brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) after triploidization . diploid hybrids of these species show very high mortality within a month post hatch ( buss & wright 1956 ; blanc & chevassus 1982 ) , whereas triploidized hybrids survive better , an . . .
morrison b . r . s . 1983 - observations on the food of juvenile atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , reared in a scottish hill loch - j . fish biol . 23 : 305 - 313 .
s . trutta closely resemble atlantic salmon and rainbow trout , but salmon have no red coloration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail . young s . trutta ( parr ) have 9 - 14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line ( nova scotia , 2004 ) . s . trutta can grow to be quite large , especially sea - run fish . it can grow to a standard length of 140 cm ( muus and dahlström , 1967 ) . maximum published weight is 50 . 0 kg ( muus and dahlström , 1967 ) and maximum reported age is 38 years ( fishbase , 2004 ) .
the study has been carried in the year 2004 and describes fecundity , spawning season and sex ratio of brown trout , salmo trutta fario . a total of 121 brown trout ( 67 males and 54 females ) were captured by angling . gonad somatic index ( gsi ) confirmed that spawning lasted from october to december . the left ovary , with some exceptions , was found to be longer and heavier producing more eggs than the right one . the absolute fecundity of sampled population varied from 527 to 2445 and the relative fecundity had a mean value of 2 . 56 . fecundity was positively co - related with the total fish length ( r = 0 . 865 ) , fish weight ( r = 0 . 9426 ) ovary weight ( r = 0 . 952 ) and ovary length ( r = 0 . 845 ) .
muus , b . j . and p . dahlstrom 1967 guide des poissons d & quot ; eau douce et pãªche . gec gads forlag , copenhague . 242 p . muus , b . j . and p . dahlstrom 1967 guide des poissons d & quot ; eau douce et pãªche . gec gads forlag , copenhague . 242 p . svalastog , d . 1991 a note on maximum age of brown trout , salmo trutta l . j . fish biol . 38 ( 6 ) : 967 - 968 .
salmo trutta has a fusiform body with a small pointed head , large mouth , extending mostly after the eye ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . s . trutta or brown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies . body is grey - blue coloured with numerous spots , also below the lateral line ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . blackish coloured on upper part of body , usually orange on sides , surrounded by pale halos . adipose fin is with red margin ( fishbase , 2004 ) . sea - run s . trutta have a more silvery coloration and the spotting is less visible ( nova scotia , 2004 ) . it has 3 - 4 dorsal spines , 10 - 15 dorsal soft rays , 3 - 4 anal spines and 9 - 14 anal soft rays ( fishbase , 2004 ) . caudal fin has 18 - 19 rays ( spillman , 1961 ) . caudal peduncle is thick and rounded ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . it has a few scales ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) .
whirling disease , caused by the myxozoan parasite myxobolus cerebralis , has high economical and ecological importance worldwide . susceptibility to the disease varies considerably among salmonid species . in brown trout ( salmo trutta ) the infection is usually subclinical with low mortality , which increases the risk of parasite dissemination , especially when farm fish are used for stocking natural habitats . the influence of intraspecific genetic differences ( especially the level of homozygosity ) on susceptibility is unknown . therefore , we examined the possible correlations between parental genetic diversity and offspring susceptibility of brown trout stocks to whirling disease .
climate change influences air temperature and precipitation , and as a direct consequence , the annual discharge pattern in rivers will change as climate warming continues . this has an impact on bedload transport and consequently on aquatic life , because coarse sediments in streams provide important habitat for many species . salmonids , for example , spawn in gravel , and during their early life stages live in or on top of the substrate . we used a multiple model approach to assess how predicted discharge changes affect bedload transport and the vulnerable early life stages of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) in a prealpine catchment in switzerland . in the study area , future discharge scenarios predict an increased frequency of flood occurrence in winter and long - lasting low - flow periods in summer . as a result , bed erosion will become more frequent during winter , leading to less stable spawning grounds and deeper scouring , but during summer , an improvement in habitat diversity can be expected , which is advantageous for young - of - the - year fish . to face the future challenges of climate change , we recommend widening of riverbeds and improvements in longitudinal connectivity .
t he effects of environmental pollutants from two small streams in south - west germany on the liver of brown trout ( s almo trutta f . fario ) were studied as biomarkers by means of quantitative and semi - quantitative electron microscopy , and quantitatively by morphometrical measurements . cellular damage was assessed semi - quantitatively based on a classification of ultrastructural responses . both methods revealed more severe cellular effects in the liver of trout which had been exposed to the highly polluted stream than in those exposed to the lightly polluted river . morphometrical studies showed a significant reduction of glycogen storage and a significant increase in number of mitochondria , peroxisomes and cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum . the biomarker responses of this study were correlated with the results obtained by limnological and analytical investigations , and reflect the levels of pollution in each stream .
long dashes down stream taxed my unsteady footing ; the sharp click and whirr of the reel resounded in desperate efforts to hold him somewhat in check ; another headlong dash , then a vicious bulldog shake of the head as he sawed back and forth across the rocks . every wile inherited from generations of wily ancestors was tried until , in a moment of exhaustion , the net was slipped under him . wading ashore with my prize , i had barely time to notice his size—a good four - pounder , and unusual markings , large yellow spots encircled by black , with great brilliancy of iridescent color—when back he flopped into the water and was gone . however , i took afterward several of the same variety , known in the park as the von baer [ sic ] trout , and which i have since found to be the salmo fario , the veritable trout of izaak walton .
the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) has earned a reputation as the wariest and wiliest opponent a river angler can face . whereas a brookie or a cutthroat will often attack flies with gullible abandon , browns are usually more discriminating . the larger specimens , especially , are often reclusive—hiding beneath a cutbank or hunkering near the bottom until darkness falls , and only then emerging to hunt baitfish . because of these sporting qualities , the species has been stocked in waters well outside its range , a result of the recreation craze and empire - building of the 19th century . in fact , the british were so determined to bring the brown trout to tasmania that they made three attempts to ship trout eggs around the african continent , finally succeeding in 1864 . fly fishers can now test their wits against browns on six continents .
throughout its native range , there are populations that are considered unique , even if science doesn’t treat them as such . for instance , the ferox trout inhabits nutrient - poor lakes in great britain and ireland , and the gillaroo is a snail - eating trout of ireland’s lough melvin . some scientists from northern ireland consider the gillaroo a separate species ( salmo stomachicus ) , while irish authorities do not .
letcher b . h . , dubreuil t . , o’donnell m . j . , obedzinski , m . , griswold k . , nislow k . h . 2004 - long - term consequences of variation in timing and manner of fry introduction on juvenile atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) growth , survival , and life - history expression - can . j . fish . aquat . sci . 61 : 2288 - 2301 .
triploid hybrids between female rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss walbaum ) and male brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) were tested for farming performances , with reference to parental species . the main drawback of hybrids lay in embryonic and larval mortalities , amounting to 60 % on average , and displaying a large variability between spawns . further survival was inferior to that of diploid , but similar to that of triploid rainbow trout . hybrid body weight was intermediate between weights of rainbow and brown trout of the same age , mainly as a consequence of differences in precocious growth . analysis of relative growth rates from 6 to 18 months showed that hybrids were surpassed by rainbow controls in common rearing , but not in separate rearing . hybrid behaviour was similar to that of rainbow trout . these results are discussed in the scope of providing fisheries managers with original and sterile game fishes .
. . . where o indicates oncorhynchus mykiss , s indicates salmo labrax , c indicates unshocked control and t is shock - induced triploid . triploids were produced by a 26 . 5 1c thermal shock lasting 20 min and initiated 25 min after the fertilization of the eggs in each crossed groups ( blanc & maunas 2005 ) . fertilized eggs were incubated at 9 ^ 11 1c in spring water before and after shock treatment . . . .
genetic data indicate that s . trutta and some populations of hybrid origin are native in some rivers draining to the mediterranean , the black sea ( at least in upper danube drainage ) and the caspian sea ( at least in upper volga drainage ) . the present published data do not always enable to identify the head water populations of the different species on the basis of morphological characters ( they may be distinguishable , but this simply has not been investigated ) .
acyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 ( acox1 ) and 3 ( acox3 ) are key enzymes in the regulation of lipid homeostasis . endogenous and exogenous factors can disrupt their normal expression / activity . this study presents for the first time the isolation and characterization of acox1 and acox3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) . additionally , as previous data point to the existence of a cross - talk between two nuclear receptors , namely peroxisome proliferator - activated receptors and estrogen receptors , it was here evaluated after in vitro exposures of trout hepatocytes the interference caused by ethynylestradiol in the mrna levels of an inducible ( by peroxisome proliferators ) and a non - inducible oxidase . the isolated acox1 and acox3 show high levels of sequence conservation compared to those of other teleosts . additionally , it was found that acox1 has two alternative splicing isoforms , corresponding to 3i and 3ii isoforms of exon 3 splicing variants . both isoforms display tissue specificity , with acox1 - 3ii presenting a more ubiquitous expression in comparison with acox1 - 3i . acox3 was expressed in almost all brown trout tissues . according to real - time pcr data , the highest estrogenic stimulus was able to cause a down - regulation of acox1 and an up - regulation of acox3 . so , for acox1 we found a negative association between an estrogenic input and a directly activated pparα target gene . in conclusion , changes in hormonal estrogenic stimulus may impact the mobilization of hepatic lipids to the gonads , with ultimate consequences in reproduction . further studies using in vivo assays will be fundamental to clarify these issues .
some key aspects of the reproductive strategy of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the yadong river , tibet , including spawning season , age at sexual maturity , fecundity and egg size , have been studied . the majority of the samples were less than 215 mm and age ranged from 1 to 4 in both sexes , indicating that the majority of the fish were younger and the pressure by overfishing was high . the spawning periodicity was determined to be between the end of october and january , mainly in november and december . the ratio of male to female brown trout population ( 1 . 29 : 1 with p > 0 . 05 ) suggested no sex significant differences , although males were significantly more abundant than females in october ( p < 0 . 0001 ) on monthly basis . age and size of males and females at maturity was different and males matured earlier than females . fecundity was markedly correlated with their body weight ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9255 ) , standard length ( p < 0 . 01 , r = 0 . 8879 ) , and gonad weight ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9366 ) . the mean size of mature eggs in the spawning season was : 4 . 0 ± 0 . 45 mm and tended to increase along with the female spawners size ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9641 ) . further researches about the brown trout population in the yadong river should be conducted on issues such as artificial reproduction , culture , conservation , management , and restocking .
cowx i . g . , o’grady k . t . , sväsand t . , skilbre o . t . , van der meeren g . i . , holm m . 1998 - review of morphological and behavioural differences between reared and wild individuals : implications for sea - ranching of atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , atlantic cod , gadus morhua l . and european lobster , homarus gammarus l . - fish . manag . ecol . 5 : 1 - 18 .
sea trout is probably the first species of fish for which artificial reproduction was performed . this probably occurred in germany around 1739 and the first sea trout hatchery was established in 1841 in the uk . the technique of artificial fertilization was optimized in the 1850s . since then , sea trout has been produced extensively in europe and introduced to all continents as a sport fish . however , in north america sea trout is considered as invasive in many places as it can out - compete local species like brook trout ( salvelinus fontinalis ) . sea trout was never really domesticated for food fish production , as the principal aim of sea trout culture was always the restocking of natural waters . at the end of the 1980s the culture of sea trout in sea cages was seen as an alternative to salmon production in the french waters of brittany . this led to the development of sea trout strains selected for fast growth but the production of sea trout as a food fish never developed to a level other than for niche markets . fao statistics for ‘sea trout’ include the aquaculture production of salmo trutta in freshwater and sea water .
the aim of this study was to determine the best moment to stock trout , salmo trutta l . , larvae into the wild . this goal was accomplished by determining weekly changes in the growth parameters of larvae that were fed in seven variants : on the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the first week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the second week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the third week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the fourth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the fifth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the sixth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption . based on our results , we concluded the following : 1 ) trout larvae are ready to start eating at the time of the resorption of 2 / 3 of the yolk sac ; 2 ) trout larvae can live without food for three weeks following the resorption 2 / 3 of the yolk sac without any notable losses ; 3 ) the best moment to stock trout larvae into the wild is in the period from the resorption of 2 / 3 of the yolk sac to the third week after this resorption , so one week after full resorption . this is the optimal period to stock any waters with trout larvae .
on the other hand , some of the spinal deformities might be side effects of the physical treatments applied to the duplicate haploid genome in the gynogenesis process . crucian carp ( carassius auratus linnaeus 1758 ) eggs subjected to the hydrostatic pressure shock exhibited impaired embryonic development , including , for example , a delay of epiboly and suppression of the dorsoventral differentiation [ 36 ] . physical shock is also applied to newly fertilized eggs to produce polyploid fishes . triploid rainbow trout and atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) usually show higher incidences of deformities than diploids [ 37 – 39 ] , but it is difficult to evaluate which part of the malformation results from the triploidy itself and the physical treatment . moreover , studies performed on triploid rainbow trout showed that temperature shock induced a higher rate of deformities than hydrostatic pressure shock [ 40 ] .
the first introductions into the u . s . started in 1883 when fred mather , a new york pisciculturist and angler , under the authority of the u . s . fish commissioner , spencer baird , obtained brown trout eggs from a baron lucius von behr , president of the german fishing society . the von behr brown trout came from both mountain streams and large lakes in the black forest region of baden - württemberg . [ 6 ] the original shipment of
von behr
brown trout eggs were handled by three hatcheries , one on long island , the cold spring hatchery operated by mather , one in caledonia , new york operated by pisciculturalist seth green , and other hatchery in northville , michigan . additional shipments of
von behr
brown trout eggs arrived in 1884 . in 1885 , brown trout eggs from loch leven , scotland , arrived in new york . these
loch leven
brown trout were distributed to the same hatcheries . over the next few years , additional eggs from scotland , england , and germany were shipped to u . s . hatcheries . behnke ( 2007 ) believed all life forms of brown trout—anadromous , riverine and lacustine—were imported into the u . s . and intermingled genetically to create what he calls the american generic brown trout and a single subspecies the north european brown trout ( s . t . trutta ) . [ 6 ]
found in streams , ponds , rivers and lakes ( ref . 5951 ) . individuals spend 1 to 5 years in fresh water and 6 months to 5 years in salt water ( ref . 51442 ) . juveniles mature in 3 - 4 years ( ref . 6885 ) . lacustrine populations undertake migration to tributaries and lake outlets to spawn , rarely spawning on stone , wave - washed lake shores . spawns in rivers and streams with swift current , usually characterized by downward movement of water intro gravel ( ref . 59043 ) . spawning takes place normally more than one time ( ref . 51442 ) . they prefer cold , well - oxygenated upland waters although their tolerance limits are lower than those of rainbow trout and favors large streams in the mountainous areas with adequate cover in the form of submerged rocks , undercut banks , and overhanging vegetation ( ref . 6465 ) . life history and spawning behavior is similar to the salmon salmo salar ( ref . 51442 ) . each female produces about 10 . 000 eggs ( ref . 35388 , ref . 51442 ) . mainly diurnal ( ref . 682 ) . sea and lake trouts forage in pelagic and littoral habitats , while sea trouts mainly close to coast , not very far from estuary of natal river ( ref . 59043 ) . juveniles feed mainly on aquatic and terrestrial insects ; adults on mollusks , crustaceans and small fish ( ref . 26523 , ref . 51442 ) . marketed fresh and smoked ; eaten fried , broiled , boiled , cooked in microwave , and baked ( ref . 9988 ) .
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a widespread species and overall least concern . however , anadromous part of populations ( sea trout ) and many lacustrine stocks have in many cases markedly declined because of pollution ( and possibly from impacts from salmon farming ) . the phylogeographic structure is almost destroyed by stocking .
atlantic , north , white and baltic sea basins , from spain to chosha bay ( russia ) . present in iceland and in northernmost rivers of great britain and scandinavia . in rhône drainage , native only to lake geneva basin , which it entered after last glaciation . native to upper danube and volga drainages . introduced throughout europe , north and south america , southern and montane eastern africa , pakistan , india , nepal , japan , new zealand and australia .
locally threatened by water pollution and impacts from salmon farming ( sea lice etc . )
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brown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies . some of the other characteristics : their sides are silvery or yellow and bellies are white or yellowish ; dark spots , sometimes encircled by a pale halo , are plentiful on the back and sides ; spotting also can be found on the head and the fins along the back ; rusty - red spots also occur on the sides ; the small adipose ( or fatty ) fin in front of the tail has a reddish hue ; sea - run brown trout have a more silvery colouration and the spotting is less visible . brown trout closely resemble atlantic salmon and rainbow trout , but salmon have no red colouration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail . young brown trout ( parr ) have 9 - 14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line . brown trout can grow to be quite large , especially sea - run fish . fish weighing up to 31kg ( 68 lb ) have been recorded in europe ( fisheries & oceans canada , 2004 ) . wild trout reach sizes of 9kg ( 20 lbs ) .
life history and spawning behaviour is similar to salmon , ( fishbase , 2003 ) . spawning takes place in shallow freshwater ( kroon , f . pers . comm , jan 2004 ) . \
female covers the eggs by restirring the sand and fine gravel . after hatching at 12mm , larval brown trout remain in the gravel for 2 - 3 weeks until they are about 25mm long , when they emerge to begin feeding in the water column . brown trout are territorial and begin establishing territories as juveniles . juvenile trout from lake populations move from their natal inlets to lakes during the first 2 years of life . \
( fishbase , 2003 ) . juvenile brown trout either migrate to the ocean or stay in freshwater ( kroon , f . pers . comm , jan 2004 ) .
fisheries : commercial , aquaculture : commercial , gamefish , aquarium . marketed fresh and smoked ; eaten fried , broiled , boiled , cooked in microwave , and baked ( fishbase , 2003 ) .
brown trout are primarily a freshwater species , but can spend time in the sea , they hide in shallow water weed beds and rocky , boulder - strewn areas , and prefer a water temperature of 18 - 23 degrees c ( 65 - 75 degrees f ) . brown trout prefer cold , well - oxygenated upland waters although their tolerance limits are lower than those of rainbow trout ( fishbase , 2003 ) .