the serrated tortoise , psammobates oculifer , german : kalahari-strahlenschildkröte , is a species of tortoise that occurs in the kalahari desert regions of southern africa .

also known as the kalahari tent tortoise , it is one of three members of the genus , psammobates .

serrated tortoise

dana campbell set
file : psammobates oculifer - serrated tortoise - kalahari tent tortoise . jpg
as an exemplar on
psammobates
.
cunningham , peter . 2014 . psammobates oculifer ( kuhl , 1820 ) serrated tent tortoise . dormancy . african herp news ( 61 ) : 19
leopard tortoises are the fourth largest species of tortoise , after the african spurred tortoise , the galapagos tortoise , and aldabra giant tortoise . it is the only member of the genus stigmochelys , but in the past it was commonly placed in
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the kalahari tent tortoise is much smaller than the leopard tortoise . it has a pronounced nuchal scale and a very serrated edge to the shell . it is more common in the drier areas of botswana and not common in the okavango .
the serrated hinged terrapin is found in tropical east africa , along zambezi river to victoria falls , and south to zululand .
whilst in some areas the serrated hinge - back tortoise is hunted , in others this tortoise is worshipped by local communities . they believe it brings happiness , is a symbol of peace and a sign of abundant children ( 10 ) . this ‘holy’ status may afford some populations a degree of protection . the serrated hinge - back tortoise is listed on appendix ii of he convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this tortoise should be carefully monitored to ensure it is compatible with its survival ( 3 ) . however , as there is insufficient information to determine the status of the hinge - back tortoise in the wild ( 1 ) , it can not be determined if the tortoise is being taken from the wild at sustainable levels . therefore , further research and surveys are required to ensure that this trade is not putting the serrated hinge - back tortoise at risk of extinction .
heaton , jill s . , james o . juvik and kiinge amutenya . 2015 . psammobates oculifer kuhl , 1820 , serrated tent tortoise , winter activity . african herp news ( 62 ) : 28 - 29
whilst in some areas the serrated hinge - back tortoise is hunted , in others , this tortoise is worshipped by local communities . they believe it brings happiness , is a symbol of peace and a sign of abundant children ( 9 ) . this ' holy ' status may afford some populations a degree of protection . the serrated hinge - back tortoise is listed on appendix ii of he convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this tortoise should be carefully monitored to ensure it is compatible with its survival ( 3 ) . however , as there is insufficient information to determine the status of the hinge - back tortoise in the wild ( 1 ) , it can not be determined if the tortoise is being taken from the wild at sustainable levels . therefore , further research and surveys are required to ensure that this trade is not putting the serrated hinge - back tortoise at risk from extinction .
this is a small tortoise that comes in an amazing range of shapes and colours .
the serrated hinge - back tortoise can often be found under logs , in holes or in leaf litter , where it uses its strong legs and upturned shell edges to wedge itself into a protected shelter ( 2 ) . when in the open , the hinge - back tortoise can defend itself by withdrawing its limbs and closing its shell ( 2 ) . by resting and moving in the shade , the serrated hinge - back tortoise avoids overheating in its hot , tropical environment ( 7 ) . it is also a reasonable swimmer and will frequently seek out marshes and river banks in the forest ( 4 ) .
speke ' s hinged tortoise can close the hinged rear part of its carapace to protect its hindquarters .
the serrated hinge - back tortoise inhabits low to mid - altitude forest ( 2 ) , where it is nearly always observed in shady areas ( 7 ) . it is reportedly fond of swampy areas but in ghana it occurs mostly in dry clearings and open areas ( 2 )
the serrated hinge - back tortoise inhabits low to mid - altitude forest ( 2 ) , where it is nearly always observed in shady areas ( 7 ) . it is reportedly fond of swampy areas , but in ghana occurs mostly in dry clearings and open areas ( 2 ) .
luiselli , l . and diagne , t . 2014 . kinixys erosa ( schweigger 1812 ) – forest hinge - back tortoise , serrated hinge - back tortoise , serrated hinged tortoise . in : rhodin , a . g . j . , pritchard , p . c . h . , van dijk , p . p . , saumure , r . a . , buhlmann , k . a . , iverson , j . b . , and mittermeier , r . a . ( eds . ) . conservation biology of freshwater turtles and tortoises : a compilation project of the iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group . chelonian research monographs 5 ( 7 ) : 084 . 1–13 , doi : 10 . 3854 / crm . 5 . 084 . erosa . v1 . 2014 , urltoken
consists of five small , relatively flattened tortoise species ( maximum shell length 10 - 17 cm ) , including the world ' s smallest tortoise . males are smaller than females and have concave plastrons in some species .
hinge - backed tortoises ( species belonging to the genus kinixys ) have the remarkable ability to shut themselves entirely within their shells ( 4 ) . this is due to the hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) that can close off the tortoise ' s hind legs and tail ( 4 ) . the serrated hinge - back tortoise has a slightly concave shell that is reddish - brown and yellow ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the scales at the rear of the shell have upturned edges giving , as their name suggests , a serrated appearance ( 2 ) . the head is rounded and the tail has a small , claw - like protuberance at the tip . male serrated hinge - back tortoises can be distinguished from females by their longer and thicker tails ( 2 ) .
hinge - backed tortoises ( species belonging to the genus kinixys ) have the remarkable ability to shut themselves entirely within their shells ( 4 ) . this is due to the hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) that can close off the tortoise’s hind legs and tail ( 4 ) . the serrated hinge - back tortoise has a slightly concave shell that is reddish - brown and yellow in colour ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the scales at the rear of the shell have upturned edges , giving , as the common name suggests , a serrated appearance ( 2 ) . the head is rounded and the tail has a small , claw - like protuberance at the tip . male serrated hinge - back tortoises can be distinguished from females by their longer and thicker tails ( 2 ) .
the serrated hinge - back tortoise can often be found under logs , in holes or in leaf litter , where it uses its strong legs and upturned shell edges to wedge itself into a protected shelter ( 2 ) . when in the open , the hinge - back tortoise can defend itself by withdrawing its limbs and closing its shell ( 2 ) . by resting and moving in the shade , the serrated hinge - back tortoise avoids over - heating in its hot , tropical environment ( 7 ) . it is also a surprisingly reasonable swimmer and will frequently seek out marshes and river banks in the forest ( 4 ) . like all kinixys species , the serrated hinge - back tortoise is omnivorous , and feeds on fungi , fruits , plant matter , invertebrates and even carrion ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . during the breeding season it is thought that males fight ( 2 ) , competing for females to mate with . females lay several clutches of four eggs on the ground and cover them up with leaves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the hingeback tortoise are omnivores , feeding on edible leaves , grass , invertebrates , carrion , weeds , and fruits .
: home’s hinge - back tortoise is a forest tortoise , generally observed in shady places in lowland evergreen forest . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical swamps , plantations , and similar areas of high humidity .
the angulate tortoise inhabits a wide range of habitats , including fynbos , succulent karoo , nama karoo , and albany thicket .
a medium sized tortoise ; males are larger than females ; tortoises grow larger in the western regions than in the eastern part .
tortoise & freshwater turtle specialist group 1996 . kinixys erosa . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . ( downloaded on 29 july 2007 . )
the conservation biology of tortoises . edited by ian r . swingland and michael w . klemens . iucn / ssc tortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group
the angulate tortoise feeds on a variety of angiosperms ( flowering plants ) , as well as mosses , mushrooms , insects , snail shells and animal faeces .
hawksbills are named for their narrow , pointed beak . they also have a distinctive pattern of overlapping scales on their shells that form a serrated - look on the edges . these colored and patterned shells make them highly - valuable and commonly sold as
tortoiseshell
in markets .
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he serrated hinged terrapin is the largest hinged terrapin . the carapace and bridge are uniform black in colour . the plastron is yellow - centered , with a sharply defined , black , angular pattern around the edge . the skin of the neck and limbs is pale olive - grey .
the secretive home’s hinge - back tortoise has adapted its behaviour to tolerate the high heat of its tropical environment . overheating is a real risk , and so the tortoise rests and moves in the shade ( 6 ) . when water is not available , home’s hinge - back tortoise may bury itself below ground and emerge again when the rains come ( 5 ) . home’s hinge - back tortoise is omnivorous , consuming both animal and plant food , which is located using the sense of smell as the tortoise makes straight , darting jabs with the head ( 2 ) . interestingly , it is one of the most carnivorous terrestrial chelonians in the world ( 7 ) . home’s hinge - back tortoise lays oval , brittle - shelled eggs , which are incubated for at least five months . the tiny hatchlings , less than five centimetres long , have flattened , brown carapaces , with no hinge ( 2 ) . the sex ratio of adults is 1 : 1 , but the females are considerably larger in size than the males ( 8 ) .
the skin and background color is cream to yellow , and the carapace is marked with black blotches , spots or even dashes or stripes . each individual is marked uniquely . old adults are often uniform grey - brown . they may exceed 700 mm in length and 40 kg in weight . the carapace is domed and not hinged , with scutes only faintly raised . the gulars are paired and are as long as they are wide . the nuchal is absent . there are 10 - 12 marginals , with those on the rear edge usually serrated and often upturned . the beak is sometimes hooked , is unicuspid and often serrated .
this secretive tortoise has adapted its behaviour to tolerate the high heat of its tropical environment . overheating is possible , and so the tortoise rests and moves in the shade . when water is not available , home’s hinge - back tortoises may bury themselves below ground and emerge again when the rains come . it has a diverse diet , consuming both animal and plant food , which is located using the sense of smell as the tortoise makes straight , darting jabs with the head . interestingly , it is one of the most carnivorous terrestrial chelonians in the world .
: this tortoise has a medium to reddish brown angular shell which slopes greatly . some have yellow markings . both the limbs and head are brown to yellow . the most unique characteristic of the hingeback tortoise genus ( kinixys ) is the hinge that is across the rear of the carapace . they are the only living tortoises to have this type of hinge . it is a band of flexible connective tissue located between the 4th and 5th costals and the 7th and 8th peripherals in adults . the home’s hingeback tortoise is also known as the forest hingeback tortoise . kinixys homeana can be distinguished from the other hingebacks by its shell which is quite angular and comes to an abrupt end at the back , appearing to be cut off . this vertical drop is quite pronounced .
, and its range has retreated due to clearance of its rainforest habitat . the hinge - back tortoise is considered to be threatened in the long - term , primarily due to habitat destruction .
luiselli , l . ( 2003 ) seasonal activity patterns and diet divergence of three sympatric afrotropical tortoise species ( genus kinixys ) . contributions to zoology , 72 ( 4 ) : 211 - 220 .
like all kinixys species , the serrated hinge - back tortoise is omnivorous , and feeds on fungi , fruits , plant matter , invertebrates and even carrion ( 2 ) ( 8 ) . during the breeding season it is thought that males fight ( 2 ) , competing for females to mate with . females lay several clutches of four eggs on the ground and cover them up with leaves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the sex ratio is close to 1 : 1 , and females grow to a larger size than males ( 9 ) .
injury : most captive injuries are caused by dogs , lawn mowers , vehicles , aggressive companions and children dropping the tortoise . injury can also be caused by sharp glass or garden implements left lying around .
what’s available : most hingeback tortoises for sale in the united states are imported from africa . they usually land in pretty bad shape due to the collecting and shipping process . being shy to begin with , it is often hard to tell the difference between a tortoise on its death bed and one that is just really shy , but weight is a telling sign . the tortoise should feel hefty in your hand . avoid animals with discharge coming from the eyes , mouth or nose . take your tortoise to a qualified reptile veterinarian for a checkup and worming . babies are sometimes found for sale , but they are far and few . captive breeding is increasing , but at a tortoise pace . if you can find a captive - bred one for sale , buy it . you can find hingebacks at reptile shows , select pet and reptile stores , and sometimes online . reptiles
the hinge - back tortoise is indigenous to the tropical rainforests of sub - saharan africa . here it is often found in marshes and river banks , where it spends much of its time buried under roots and logs .
luiselli , l . ( 2003 ) seasonal activity patterns and diet divergence of three sympatric afrotropical tortoise species ( genus kinixys ) . contributions to zoology , 72 ( 4 ) : 211 - 220 . available at : urltoken
keswick , toby and margaretha d . hofmeyr . 2015 . sexual dimorphism and geographic variation in the morphology of a small southern african tortoise psammobates oculifer . amphibia - reptilia 36 ( 1 ) : 55 - 64 - get paper here
weigh your tortoise monthly , any undue weight loss can indicate problems ahead . keep a record book of his weight , any diet or disease problems can be noted down as well , this will help your vet diagnose any future problems .
a tip for vets from chris tabaka dvm : do you use gentamicin sulfate / betamethasone ophthalmic drops much there for tortoise urt disease ? i ' ve been using them two to three times daily in the eyes and also nostrils of a couple of recent cases in combination with the classic baytril 10 mg / kg every other day for two weeks with 100 % success in a couple of chronic cases here . i think it is primarily the betamethasone that is decreasing the inflammation in the airways and thus eliminating the classic wheezing but the antibiotic duo seems to be knocking out the responsible bugs at the same time . nothing like transforming
wheezy
the drippy eyed tortoise into a healthy , bright eyed tortoise . chris tabaka dvm
activity patterns depend largely on temperature : on cool or wet days and in winter , the angulate tortoise is most active during the middle of the day , while in spring and summer it is less active during this hottest part of the day .
in colour , males are frequently uniformly orange to light brown ( compared to the deeper olive brown of the females ) . males also have more lightly coloured bellies , though they do no exhibit the plastral concavity that many other tortoise species do .
due to its tiny size , this tortoise is heavily preyed on by crows , ostriches , jackals , baboons , dogs , and a wide range of other predators . consequently , it spends most of its time hiding under rocks , foliage , and other cover .
shy and light - sensitive , cover is important for this species . a standard tortoise tank measuring about 4 feet long , 2 feet wide and 18 inches tall can house up to three or four adults , or a bunch of babies . use ground or shredded coconut core as a substrate . place a shallow water bowl at one end that’s large enough for a tortoise to sit in . place various hides about the tank , making sure there’s enough to accommodate each tortoise . place a layer of sphagnum moss on top of the coconut bedding and under the hides . moisten the substrate with water to create a humid tank but not sopping wet . spray or pour water into the tank substrate as needed to keep a humidity of about 77 to 85 percent . an automatic mister can work well for this purpose .
conversely , during very hot summer days tortoises will aestivate ( go into a torpor ) and will not eat . available water during this time is critical as a tortoise can dehydrate quickly , although tortoises are very adept at storing water in anal pouches for use during drought .
enjoy ! your tortoise is unique , they are amongst the longest living animals on earth . each one has a different character and many become very tame with time . take time to get to know his habits and preferences , his health and general well being will reflect your care – so give him the best you can ! common sense and good hygiene will prevent any disease transferring to you or your family , and hand washing after handling is a good idea . limit children from handling the tortoise as they are more susceptible to worm infections .
although home’s hinge - back tortoise is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , meaning that international trade in this species should be carefully monitored ( 3 ) , further action is necessary to ensure its survival , such as declaring it a protected species in all countries of occurrence ( 1 ) . habitat conservation efforts , such as the establishment and enforcement of protected areas , are also important , but must be coupled with the control of hunting activities if populations of this remarkable tortoise are to survive ( 9 ) .
the shields are typical with 11 marginals but occasionally 10 - 14 may be present . the nuchal is normally present . the rear of the shell has a relatively smooth profile when viewed from underneath . when viewed from the side the shell slopes down rapidly from the edge of the last vertebral shield . the hinge in this species is very well developed and easily noticeable on the carapace . the carapace has a weak , disrupted medial keel , and posterior marginals that are neither strongly serrated nor reverted .
home’s hinge - back tortoise belongs to a unique group of tortoises that can close themselves entirely within their shells . as the name suggests , this group possess a hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) , that can close off the tortoise’s vulnerable parts , providing excellent protection from potential predators ( 4 ) . the carapace of home’s hinge - back tortoise varies in colour from dark brown to tan ( 2 ) , and is distinguished by the pronounced vertical drop at the end ( 5 ) . the shape of the carapace also cleverly channels rainwater towards its head for drinking ( 5 ) . each forelimb bears five claws and the small head has a hooked upper jaw . both the limbs and head are brown to yellow ( 2 ) . female home’s hinge - back tortoises are larger than males , but males possess longer and thicker tails ( 2 ) .
hingebacks legs are not as club shaped as other testudinidae . they are long and slender giving it an unusual gait when it walks . the tail ends in a claw - like tubercle . males have longer , thicker tails than the females and they have concave plastrons . these tortoises have relatively long skulls and a hooked upper jaw . hatchlings are flattened with serrated marginals and the hinge begins to develop when they are one year old . females are larger than males , but males possess longer and thicker tails .
the serrated hinged terrapin is a side - necked terrapin , which means that it does not pull it ' s head straight back into its shell , rather it turns its head to one side and tucks it into its shell . often seen sunbathing on rocks or logs , or on the backs of hippos . they can close up their shell which protects their head , legs and tail . they can also bite with their horny jaws or scratch with their sharps close as a defense . they secrete a very foul smelling odour when threatened .
the hingeback tortoise can arch its back 90 degrees downwards to protect its tail and hind legs while sleeping and to protect itself from predators . it is an excellent swimmer and can dive and navigate rainforest water - bodies to search for food . females lay up to 4 eggs on the ground , covered in leaves .
a small , rather flat tortoise . its shell usually has varied colouration , ranging between olive - green and brown . green shell with black margins in female , orange in male . the shields of the carapace are flat , with large raised areolae , and a thin black edging . dorsal scutes have depressed centres .
: in its native west africa , the home’s hingeback tortoise is threatened by habitat loss and intensive harvesting . ninety percent of its natural habitat of moist lowland forests and swamps has disappeared over the last 40 years . it is also harvested intensively for food ( bush meat ) , traditional medicines , and the international pet trade .
( karoo tent tortoise ) has a plastron with a solid , sharply defined dark brown or black central blotch , which has only very reduced areas of lighter pigmentary intrusion . the domed carapace has a geometric pattern of thin yellow rays on a black background with well - developed
knoppies .
it attains a maximum length of 125mm .
this is the most widely distributed tortoise in southern africa . it has a wide distribution in sub - saharan africa , but is absent from all of west africa and most of central africa . historically absent from south western cape and from former transkei , adjacent kwa - zulu natal , and lesotho , but now introduced in some areas .
the serrated hinged terrapin is the largest hinged terrapin , with females being larger than males . the males can be identified by their longer tail . the carapace ( the upper part of the shell ) of the females can be as long as 400mm and weigh as much as 7kg . the males are smaller with a carapace that does not usually exceed 350mm and 4 . 5kg . the carapace on both the male and female is elongated with the back wider than the front . it has a high dome and marked serrated posterior marginal shields . these make the back edge of the shell look much like a pie crust edge or scalloped trim . the colour of the carapace in adults is usually dark grey or black and light or orangeish brown in the juveniles . there may be small dark patches on the carapace . the plastron ( the lower part of the shell ) is hinged and can be completely closed . this hinge and the serrations of the carapace give this terrapin its name . the skin of the neck and limbs is pale olive - grey . the head is blackish - brown with yellow or brown vermiculations . the snout is rather pointed with a pair of barbels on the throat .
hofmeyr , margaretha d . ; melita vamberger , william branch , alfred schleicher and savel r . daniels 2016 . tortoise ( reptilia , testudinidae ) radiations in southern africa from the eocene to the present . zoologica scripta 46 : 389–400 , doi : 10 . 1111 / zsc . 12223 [ record online : 18 nov 2016 ] - get paper here
external parasites : if any ticks are found , remove manually by grasping with tweezers / forceps and flipping the tick onto its back , it will loosen its grip and can then be removed without the head remaining behind to cause infection . dab the spot with a little betadine to prevent infection . ticks can also be coated with mineral oil , this also causes them to lose their grip . the tortoise should be dipped in a solution of tritix ( amitraz ) 1 - 2ml per litre water . ensure this solution does not enter eyes , ears or mouth . this dipping will have to be repeated periodically to maintain effect as there will be ticks in the environment if you found any on your tortoise .
: mating occurs during the wet season of november to february and the main egg laying season also occurs during this period . clutches of one to three eggs are laid . these are incubated for a period of five months or more . the relatively large eggs are oval to almost spherical ( 46 x 35 mm ) and have brittle shells . the tiny hatchlings , less than five centimetres long , have flattened , brown carapaces , with no hinge . size varies between 42 and 47 mm long . they have very spiny rims , marginals are serrated . they have no hinge or cervical scute . the hinge begins to develop when they are one year of age .
: home’s hinge - back tortoises belong to a unique group of tortoises that can close themselves entirely within their shells . as the name suggests , this group possess a hinge at the back of the carapace ( or shell ) , that can close off the tortoise’s vulnerable parts , providing excellent protection from potential predators to both head and limbs . the shape of the carapace also channels rainwater towards its head for drinking .
populations of home’s hinge - back tortoise are currently declining throughout much of its range , primarily as a result of habitat loss and intensive harvesting ( 1 ) . the species is captured , even within protected areas , for human consumption , traditional medicine , and for the international pet trade ( 1 ) ( 9 ) . habitat loss is also occurring , as a result of industrial expansion , agriculture and deforestation ( 1 ) . nigerian populations appear to be particularly threatened , as they inhabit fragmented forest patches in the southern part of the country ( rather than the extensive forest found in the congo ) , and face stronger hunting pressure as a result of greater human populations ( 9 ) . the home’s hinge - back tortoise appears to be especially vulnerable to humans during the dry season when the swamps are dry , and humans can access nearly all areas of the forest ( 9 ) .
what to do if you think there is something wrong and you can’t get to a vet straight away : place your tortoise under heat of some sort ( temperature as advised higher above ) , and soak twice daily in tepid water with electrolytes added – any electrolyte solution from your pharmacy can be used . it is vital to maintain hydration , and to boost immune system by raising heat . keep eyes from drying out by using a bland eye ointment .
hinge - back tortoises are actively hunted by humans in sub - saharan africa , mainly for domestic consumption ( 9 ) . their flesh is highly prized as food by some forest peoples , and hunting is often carried out by dogs which locate the tortoise by its distinctive smell ( 2 ) . at present there are no other known threats to this species ; they are so widespread in the central african forests that they are probably not vulnerable to the impacts of habitat destruction ( 2 ) .
the angulate tortoise is endemic to south africa and southwestern namibia . it is particularly abundant in parts of the cape floristic region . found throughout the cape coastal regions from east londonin the east , around to the orange river mouth , and extendingperipherally into southern namibia . isolated records from luderitz and southern namibia may represent isolated , relict populations , or escaped captive specimens . a population in the karoo national park and adjacent farms at the base of the nuweveldberg may similarly represent a relict population or one derived from early escapees .
a very long - lived animal , the leopard tortoise reaches sexual maturity between the ages of 12 and 15 years . their life span is from 50 to 100 years . females usually lay 6 - 15 large , hard - shelled eggs . the hole , in which she lays her eggs , is refilled and the female may tamp down the soil by lifting and dropping her shell regularly on the spot . incubation takes 10 - 15 months , depending on the temperature . hatchlings weigh 23 - 50 g and measure 40 - 50 mm .
this chelonian is a grazing species of tortoise that favors semi - arid , thorny to grassland habitats , although some leopard tortoises have been found in rainier areas . in both very hot and very cold weather they may dwell in abandoned fox , jackal , or anteater holes . leopard tortoises do not dig other than to make nests in which to lay eggs . they occupy a large home range ( 1 - 3 sq . ams ) and have been known to undertake long return journeys ( 5 - 10 kms ) when translocated from their territories .
oxalic acid binds with calcium to yield insoluble calcium oxalate , which cannot be absorbed by the tortoise . avoid feeding any plants or vegetables high in oxalates especially to hatchlings and adult females ready to breed . the brassica family , which includes cabbage , collards , kale and broccoli can cause goiter if fed in excess because they tie up iodine - they do not contain high oxalic acid amounts like spinach and chard . goiters caused by this are rare and the feeding of a varied diet that is not heavily based on these plants should offset this tendency .
these small attractively marked tortoises are found in the kalahari , cape and namibia . the geometric tortoise is an endangered species and is subject to strong legal protection . these are all delicate small tortoises that are extremely difficult to maintain in captivity outside their natural areas . they are very prone to respiratory disease especially if housed with other species - as always , keep different species in isolated enclosures ! attempting to maintain psammobates species in damp or humid areas is invariably fatal ; they do best in an arid , sandy environment with as much natural food as possible .
for the duration of treatment keep him warmer than usual as this helps to dry up secretions and boosts immune system . ensure that any heat is fixed and that the tortoise is unable to dislodge it and thus cause a fire hazard . heat is especially important during cold and wet weather . do not stop the drops when you see his nose is dry , continue for at least a week to ensure the problem is well controlled . many tortoises who get rns relapse frequently , and then treatment has to begin again . any discharge from a single nostril often indicates a foreign body as the cause .
( bushmanland tent tortoise ) often has a uniformly pale yellow or light brown plastron , occasionally with an indistinct dark central blotch . the carapace is often uniform russet or dark brown , but usually faintly patterned with darker brown rays . the colour pattern is varied , but it is primarily a starred or rayed pattern . the number and size of the rays from the central point of each shield vary , and the rays are generally light to darker yellow on a dark - brown to black background .
knoppies
are rarely developed , the shell often low , smooth and rounded . the maximum length is 145mm .
hinge - back tortoises are actively hunted by humans in sub - saharan africa , mainly for domestic consumption ( 9 ) ( 10 ) . the flesh is highly prized as food by some forest peoples , and hunting is often carried out by dogs which locate the tortoise by its distinctive smell ( 2 ) . the species is also vulnerable to habitat fragmentation in parts of its range ( for example , in south - eastern nigeria ) ( 9 ) , but appears to still be relatively widespread in the central african forests . thus , it is possibly not particularly vulnerable to the impacts of habitat destruction at a large scale ( 2 ) ( 11 ) .
diet : home’s are omnivores . they do well on dark , leafy greens , such as mustard and collard greens and kale . they also enjoy fruit or melon once per week . offer fresh greens three times a week . in the wild , they have been found eating slugs , small rodents and carrion . in captivity , they will accept pre - killed mice , canned dog and cat food , and ours do well on canned tortoise & lizard diet by zoo med . they are also fond of softened monkey biscuits . we offer the meat - based diets about twice a week . we supplement food items with a calcium / multivitamin supplement at each feeding .
internal parasites : tortoises in captivity are infamous for harboring parasites , both worms and protozoa . some of them can harbor many different parasites without coming to any harm as long as the animal stays stress free and well nourished . many tortoises in the wild are infected with protozoa in small numbers . if this tortoise is removed from his habitat and kept in captivity , it is quite likely that this will cause stress , which in turn affects immune response . this creates an ideal environment for parasites to flourish and cause disease . a faulty diet can cause the same thing , for example too much fruit raises lactic acid levels in the gut providing the ideal breeding ground for many parasites .
once a month during summer give your tortoise an all over
scrub
with diluted betadine solution ( it should resemble weak black tea ) and a soft nail brush ( or a human baby hairbrush is ideal ! ) , at the same time examine shell for any defects or signs of scutes lifting . any loose scutes should be removed , and the area scrubbed and then allowed to dry . keep an eye on this area to ensure it does not develop into shell rot , and if any of the surrounding scutes loosen remove those too . do not apply any substance to the shell , as this can affect their ability to maintain body temperature . paint in particular can be harmful . if large areas of scutes start loosening it’s a sign of trouble and you should seek vet help immediately .
( namaqualand tent tortoise ) has a bright yellow or light brown plastron with the central figure sharply defined , but fragmented by lighter rays or broad pigmentary intrusions . the carapace is coloured with a geometric pattern of wide yellow to orange rays on a black background . the striking colour pattern of this species is typically starred or rayed . the number and size of the rays from the central point of each shield vary , and like the other starred tortoises , the colour ranges from light to darker yellow on a dark - brown to black background . in this species , however , there are bright orange - red infusions at the bottom of each ray that makes it very attractive indeed . the straw - coloured underside of the shell or plastron has a central black region . the domed carapace has well developed
knoppies
and reaches a maximum length 145mm .
general : at least once a month , examine your tortoise’s mouth , this allows him to get used to being handled and can help if ever you need to medicate or treat him . be gentle , grasp the head firmly and use thumb and index finger to create pressure at the corners of his mouth , at the same time pulling down on the bottom of his jaw with your right hand . once you have mouth open place a finger in the corner of his mouth at the back ( their
bite
is weakest here ) or prop the mouth open with a plastic spoon handle . examine the inside of his mouth , membranes and tongue should be a healthy pink . look for any yellow deposits or signs of debris collecting around the edges of his mouth . check on smell too as any foul odour indicates problems and should be attended to immediately . another less invasive technique is to
hand feed
a favoured diet item while lying in front of him , and while he eats examine mouth carefully .
if injury is minor , clean thoroughly with diluted betadine or chlorhexadine solution , remove any foreign bodies , then apply an ointment such as flammazine ( silver sulfadiazine ) . cover with gauze and micropore if possible . repeat daily till healing is well advanced and then keep up cleaning and leave to dry . remove any dead tissue that is visible . at this point necrospray ( available from any vet ) can be applied every two days or so , this will prevent infection and aid drying the wound . if any injury is major , do not attempt treatment yourself , take him to your vet as soon as possible . if your vet is unavailable , stop any bleeding and clean wounds until you can get help . most important is the quick removal of any foreign bodies as these can cause infection later . keep on hand some ky jelly , this can be applied to the wound after removal of foreign bodies and will prevent it drying out until you can get help . if any internal organs are exposed then quick veterinary help is vital . wrap the tortoise in a damp towel and get help immediately .
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continent : africa distribution : republic of south africa ( from extreme w transvaal and the w orange free state northwestward ) , botswana , namibia type locality :
vom cap dahin gebracht worden ,
[ i . e . republic of south africa ] .
classification from species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013 selected by c . michael hogan - see more .
c . michael hogan marked the classification from
species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013
as preferred for
psammobates oculifer kuhl 1820
.
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testudo oculifera kuhl 1820 testudo semiserrata smith 1840 testudo semi - serrata — duméril & bibron 1854 : 220 testudo oculifera — werner 1902 testudo oculifera — werner 1910 : 301 psammobates oculifer — pritchard 1967 psammobates oculifer — auerbach 1987 : 68 psammobates oculiferus — king & burke 1989 psammobates oculifer — bauer et al . 1993 psammobates oculiferus — valverde 2005 psammobates oculiferus — bonin et al 2006 psammobates oculifer — bates et al . 2015 : 81 psammobates oculifer — hofmeyr et al . 2016 psammobates oculifer — ttwg 2017 : 147
type locality :
vom cap dahin gebracht worden ,
[ i . e . republic of south africa ] .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
auerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .
bates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .
bauer , aaron m . ; branch , william r . & haacke , wulf d . 1993 . the herpetofauna of the kamanjab area and adjacent damaraland , namibia . madoqua ( windhoek ) 18 ( 2 ) : 117 - 145 .
bonin , f . , devaux , b . & dupré , a . 2006 . turtles of the world . english translation by p . c . h . pritchard . johns hopkins university press , 416 pp .
broadley , d . g . , . hunt , j . & cantle , g . 2010 . psammobates oculifer ( kuhl , 1820 ) . african herp news ( 51 ) : 24 - 25
conradie , w . , doucette - riise , s . , vanhooydonck , b . , engelbrecht , < br / > h . , measey , g . j . , & tolley , k . 2011 . herpetological survey of rooipoort nature reserve , northern cape , south africa . african herp news ( 53 ) : 35 - 41
duméril , a . m . c . , g . bibron & a . duméril 1854 . erpétologie générale ou histoire naturelle complète des reptiles . vol . 9 . paris , xx + 440 s . - get paper here
ernst , c . h . and barbour , r . w . 1989 . turtles of the world . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c . - london
greig , j . c . , and p . d . burdett . 1976 . patterns in the distributions of southern african terrestrial tortoises ( cryptodira : testudinidae ) . zool . africana 11 ( 2 ) : 250 - 267 .
herrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94–115 - get paper here
hughes , b . 1986 . longevity records of african captive amphibians and reptiles : part 1 : introduction and species list 1 - amphibians and chelonians . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 32 ) : 1 - 5 - get paper here
keswick , toby & margaretha d . hofmeyr 2013 . population ecology of psammobates oculifer in a semi - arid environment . african journal of herpetology 62 ( 2 ) : 63 - 77 - get paper here
keswick , toby and margaretha hofmeyr . 2014 . refuge characteristics and preferences of psammobates oculifer in semi - arid savanna . amphibia - reptilia 35 ( 1 ) : 41 - 51 - get paper here
kuhl , h . 1820 . beiträge zur zoologie und vergleichenden anatomie . hermannsche buchhandlung , frankfurt , 152 pp . - get paper here
loveridge , arthur & williams , ernest e . 1957 . revision of the african tortoises and turtles of the suborder cryptodira . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 115 ( 6 ) : 163 - 557 - get paper here
schleicher , alfred 2015 . reptilien namibias . namibia scientific society , 276 pp .
smith , a . 1840 . illustrations of the zoology of south africa , reptilia . smith , elder , and co . , london - get paper here
werner , f . 1910 . reptilia et amphibia . in schultze , l . , zoologische und anthropologische ergebnisse einer forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen südafrika . band iv , systematik und tiergeographie vertebrata b . denkschr . med . - nat . wiss . geseli . jena 16 : 279 - 370 [ 1910 ] - get paper here
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
occurs in west africa from the gambia , east to the democratic republic of congo and uganda , and south to southern angola ( 6 ) .
classified as data deficient ( dd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
turtles of the world ( cd - rom ) , by ernst , c . h . , altenburg , r . g . m . and barbour , r . w . : urltoken
authenticated ( 06 / 08 / 09 ) by dr luca luiselli , senior researcher in ecology , institute demetra , rome , italy . urltoken
carrion dead flesh . genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below ‘family’ and above ‘species’ . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a ‘binomial’ latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . invertebrates animals with no backbone . omnivorous an organism that feeds on both plants and animals .
spawls , s . , howell , k . , drewes , r . c . and ashe , j . ( 2004 ) field guide to the reptiles of east africa . christopher helm publishers ltd , london .
alderton , d . ( 1988 ) turtles and tortoises of the world . blandford press , london .
ernst , c . h . , altenburg , r . g . m . and barbour , r . w . ( 1997 ) turtles of the world . eti information systems ltd , netherlands . available at : urltoken
luiselli , l . ( 2005 ) aspects of comparative thermal ecology of sympatric hinge - back tortoises ( kinixys homeana and kinixys erosa ) in the niger delta , southern nigeria . african journal of ecology , 43 ( 1 ) : 64 - 69 .
luiselli , l . , politano , e . and akani , g . c . ( 2003 ) seasonal incidence , sex - ratio , and population cohorts of hinge - back tortoises ( genus kinixys ) in the wild and in bush - meat markets of the niger delta , southern nigeria : are human predation effects random ? . revue de ecologie - la terre et la vie , 58 : 243 - 248 .
luiselli , l . ( 2003 ) comparative abundance and population structure of sympatric afrotropical tortoises in six rainforest areas : the differential effects of “traditional veneration” and of “subsistence hunting” by local people . acta oecologica , 24 ( 3 ) : 157 - 163 .
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because of their small size they are best maintained in a secure enclosure situated in a dry sunny area with plenty of rocks both for climbing , basking upon , and hiding under . these species should have unlimited access to dry sandy soil , and the enclosure must be well planted with as much indigenous plant material as possible from their natural area . they have also been observed eating other plants and these can be chosen from the plant list below :
the chenopodiacea family which includes beet greens , spinach and chard should be avoided as they contain oxalates .
feeding on natural growing plants and ensure exercise and adequate nutrition . if they can be maintained totally on growing food , then this is desirable .
: grated / thinly sliced cucumber , grated carrot / butternut / pumpkin , diced tomato , lettuce / cabbage ( very small quantities ) , grated courgettes ( zucchini ) , fruit ( sparingly - paw - paw is the favourite ) . this food should be offered in the early morning , and any uneaten food removed by lunchtime . a good vitamin / mineral supplement should be added to the food about once a week . the odd bone and cuttlefish left lying in the enclosure will be chewed on , this helps keep their beak trim and provides additional calcium .


the mariana mallard or oustalet 's duck ( anas oustaleti ) is an extinct type of duck of the genus anas that was endemic to the mariana islands .

its taxonomic status is debated , and it has variously been treated as a full species , a subspecies of the mallard or the pacific black duck , or sometimes as a subspecies of the indian spot-billed duck .

mariana mallard

the mariana mallard is an extinct species of mallard that lived only on the mariana islands . the mariana mallard is classed as part of the anas genus however its taxodermic status is open to debate .
living exclusively on the mariana islands the mariana mallard is thought to have migrated between islands such as the saipan , guam , tinian and possibly even the rota island . the reports of mariana mallard on rota are unconfirmed and and allegedly reported two unidentified ducks , not necessarily the mariana mallard .
over the years debates have ranged about the mariana mallard with some claiming the mariana mallard as a subspecies of the indian spot - billed duck , some favoring the mariana mallard to be a subspecies of the pacific black duck while others believe it to be a stand alone species .
a final determination on the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill is published in today ' s federal register .
mariana mallard’s weighed in at around 1 kilograms and grew to around 55cm in length making them slightly smaller than common mallards . as is the case with male mallards , the male mariana mallard had a green head that was not as bright as today’s mallard .
u . s . fish and wildlife service
mariana mallard / anas platyrhynchos oustaleti . threatened and endangered species . urltoken
the mariana mallard was endemic to the mariana archipelago and documented to occur on the islands of guam , tinian , and saipan . there was some speculation that mariana mallards were once found on the islands of rota and pagan ( baker 1948 ; steadman 1992 ; reichel and lemke 1994 ) .
only one comment was received during the comment period . the commonwealth of the northern mariana islands division of fish and wildlife stated that they concurred with our conclusion that the mariana mallard is extinct and should be removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .
amend § 17 . 11 ( h ) by removing the entries for “mallard , mariana” and “broadbill , guam” under “birds” from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .
the similar appearance of female mallard with both sexes of grey duck makes identification difficult in reducing the mallard population , and interbreeding . the female mallard in flight may actually be a grey duck .
we also requested and received peer review from three experts on the waterbirds and forest birds of the mariana islands . all three peer reviewers concurred with our conclusion that the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill are extinct and should be removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .
this paper provides 70 species accounts documenting new bird records we obtained in the 14 mariana islands north of guam .
no population estimate was ever recorded for the mariana mallard prior to its decline . however , it was believed that they were never abundant due to the limited habitat availability of freshwater marshes and lakes in the mariana archipelago ( baker 1951 ) . the largest number of mariana mallards ever recorded was of 2 flocks of 50 to 60 mariana mallards at lake hagoi , tinian , in 1936 ( kuroda 1942 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ) . however , by the 1940s , most observations of mariana mallards on tinian , saipan , and guam were of 12 or fewer birds ( stott 1947 ; marshall 1949 ; kibler 1950 ) . the last mariana mallards observed on guam and tinian were observed in 1967 and 1974 , respectively ( drahos 1977 ; tenorio and associates 1979 ) . on
generally chestnut in color the mariana mallard sported light gray feathers on its underside and had a dark bill that reached a rich olive coloration at the front end . the mix of coloring gave the mariana mallard a distinct look similar to that of a pacific black duck but with a lighter underside . the females of the species looked like today’s female mallards with dark brown feathers and orange feet similar to the males .
saipan , the last wild mariana mallards were observed in 1979 by our biologist eugene kridler ( 1979 ) . at that time , mr . kridler also captured a pair of mariana mallards for captive propagation at pohakuloa , hi , which were then sent to sea world , san diego , ca . all attempts at propagation failed and the last known mariana mallard died there in 1981 ( engbring and pratt 1985 ) . since 1979 , surveys of all the known wetlands on guam , rota , saipan , and tinian have produced no observations of mariana mallards ( tenorio and associates 1979 ; stinson et al . 1991 , 1997 ; reichel
no confirmed sightings or vocalizations of the mariana mallard have been reported since 1979 , despite surveys , and the last captive bird died in 1981 . no confirmed sightings or vocalizations of the guam broadbill have been reported since august 1984 , despite surveys , and the last captive bird died in february 1984 . therefore , we believe enough evidence exists to declare the mariana mallard and guam broadbill extinct and to remove them from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife .
mariana mallards ( anas platyrhynchos oustaleti ) were endemic to the western pacific islands of guam , tinian , and saipan . surveys for this endangered subspecies that were conducted on tinian , saipan , and other islands in the u . s . commonwealth of the northern mariana islands ( cnmi ) from 1983 through 1989 show that the mallard no longer occurs there . following extirpation of mariana mallards on guam in the 1960s , this island subspecies is now extinct . the major causes of extinction appear to be overhunting of small populations and habitat loss .
males and females are alike in appearance , and similar to plumage of the female mallard . the grey duck ' s colouring is darker overall , and the head stripes more pronounced than the female mallard .
the mariana mallard is believed to have been a subspecies that originated as a hybrid between the common mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) and the grey duck ( anas superciliosa ) ( reichel and lemke 1994 ) . the majority of males and all female mariana mallards resembled the grey duck except their legs were orange , their bill was olive , and they lacked the grey duck ' s prominent brown streak below the eye ( yamashina 1948 ) . the remaining males resembled male common mallards , having green heads and purple - blue speculums ( yamashina 1948 ) .
the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill are protected by the government of guam ( pub . l . 15 - 36 ) . removal of these species from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife does not alter or supersede their designation by the government of guam as endangered species .
possible management actions include predator control , reduction of the mallard population , and protection of wetland habitats . reduction of the male mallard population would directly reduce cross - breeding , and is the surest way of reducing mallards .
the green head and yellow bill of the mallard duck is a familiar sight to many people living in the northern hemisphere . in fact , the mallard is thought to be the most abundant and wide - ranging duck on earth .
it was generally assumed that as the spectacular nuptial plumage of mallard drakes is obviously the result of sexual selection - most species in the mallard group being sexually monomorphic - , hybrid matings would preferentially take place between females of monomorphic relatives and mallard drakes instead of the other way around . but this generalization was found to be incorrect . [ 22 ]
most mallard species are common and not considered threatened . however one threat to their populations includes hybridization with other ducks .
draining and fragmentation of wetlands greatly reduced the quantity and quality of habitat available for the mariana mallard on guam , tinian , and saipan ( stinson et al . 1991 ; reichel et al . 1992 ; reichel and lemke 1994 ) . during the japanese occupation of saipan and tinian between 1914 and 1945 , most wetlands were channelized and converted to rice paddies . also during this time , sugar mill wastes were discharged into lake susupe on saipan , the last known location of the mariana mallard in the wild . since 1945 , many wetlands have been drained or filled in as a result of urban development on guam , tinian , and saipan ( stinson et al . 1991 ; reichel et al . 1992 ; reichel and lemke 1994 ) . the mariana mallard , never great in number , is believed to have lost most of its limited habitat with the decimation of wetlands , while being hunted with little to no enforcement of hunting restrictions .
the mallard / grey limit in taranaki is 10 , and in southland it is 15 from 4 may to 26 july .
after a thorough review and consideration of all information available , we have determined that the mariana mallard and guam broadbill are extinct and should be removed from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife . we determined that none of the five factors addressed in section 4 ( a ) ( 1 ) of the act now affects these species .
mallard plumage is predominant in most mallard / grey duck hybrids , suggesting that male mallards mate with grey duck females , as opposed to the other way around , however , the level of contribution to the hybrid ' s ancestry cannot be ascertained from plumage .
the marianas mallard has probably never been abundant in this small island chain where extensive wetland complexes do not occur . based on historical information the primary reasons for the decline of the marianas mallard are habitat destruction , over - hunting and inadequate regulatory mechanisms in the past .
this final rule revises § 17 . 11 ( h ) to remove the mariana mallard and the guam broadbill from the list of endangered and threatened wildlife due to extinction . the prohibitions and conservation measures provided by the act , particularly sections 7 and 9 , will no longer apply to these species . there is no designated critical habitat for these species .
marianas mallard .
beacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
based on recent surveys in the mariana islands , the marianas mallard is probably extinct . as a result of these findings a discussion of future threats is academic . however , the existing wetlands that support other wildlife species ( including the endangered race of common moorhen , gallinula chloropus guami ) will continue to suffer in the future from development projects similar to those mentioned above .
the marianas mallard also occurred on the northern marianas islands of tinian and saipan . this species has not been documented on any island north of saipan .
in the proposed rule to delist the mariana mallard and guam broadbill published on january 25 , 2002 ( 67 fr 3675 ) , we requested that all interested parties submit comments on the proposal . we also contacted all appropriate state and federal agencies , county governments , landowners , and other interested parties and invited them to comment . the comment period closed on march 26 , 2002 ( 67 fr 3675 ) .
mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) is the ancestor of almost all of the varieties of domestic ducks . domestic ducks belong to the subfamily anatinae of the waterfowl family anatidae . the wild mallard and muscovy duck ( cairina moschata ) are believed to be the ancestors of all domestic ducks . [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
marianas mallard .
beacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
located in mallard cove in the new hampshire region , lake winnipesaukee230 has a patio . guests staying at this holiday home have access to a fully equipped kitchen .
mariana mallards were recorded in freshwater marshes , lakes , and rivers , and were also observed in mangrove lagoons ( stott 1947 ; marshall 1949 ; kibler 1950 ) . little was known about their foraging habitat but they were observed foraging on green vegetation and seeds ( marshall 1949 ) . mariana mallards apparently bred from march to august ( kuroda 1941 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ; kuroda 1942 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ; marshall 1949 ) , and were believed to have laid 1 clutch of 7 to 12 eggs per year ( kuroda 1942 , cited in reichel and lemke 1994 ) .
the grey duck ' s legs and feet are greenish brown , but the legs of hybrids tend to be orange - brown , taking on the color of the mallard ' s legs .
the marianas mallard typically inhabits wet - lands , particularly freshwater / brackish lakes and ponds adjacent to marshes , but mangrove lagoons , streams and flooded fields are also used . in 1984 wetlands in the northern marianas were rated as primary or secondary mallard habitat on the basis of water levels , nesting cover and size . of the 12 surveyed wetlands only four ranked as having primary habitat potential .
grey duck have a white underwing and an iridescent turquoise green speculum on their wing ( lower right ) , whereas the mallard speculum is blue or purple . the blue speculum tends to predominate on hybrids .
in a strict sense this species is nonmigratory . the marianas mallard is known from only three small islands in the mariana archipelago ( guam , tinian , saipan ) . inter - island movement of ducks between saipan and tinian , which are separated by 3 mi ( 4 . 8 km ) of open ocean , does not occur . movements probably occur as a means of obtaining food or in reaction to human disturbances . inter - island movements between guam and rota ( 30 - 40 miles [ 48 - 64 km ] ) have been suspected but never proven .
the marianas mallard was found on guam in the talofofo river valley prior to the second world war with few verified sightings after the war . habitat destruction led to its probable extinction by the 1960s or early 1970s .
the mallard was first introduced into new zealand from europe in the 1860s but failed to acclimatise . after eggs were imported in 1930 from california , the population multiplied so quickly that mallards are now regarded as an invasive species .
grey duck were commonly found in shallow wetlands and fresh water streams , and occasionally in estuaries throughout new zealand until the 1950s . they have suffered severely from loss of habitat , and competition with the introduced mallard duck anas platyrhynchos .
in accordance with 5 u . s . c . 553 ( d ) , we have determined that this rule relieves an existing restriction and good cause exists to make the effective date of this rule immediate . delay in implementation of this delisting could cost government agencies staff time and monies in conducting formal section 7 consultation on actions that may affect a species no longer in need of protection under the act . relieving the existing restrictions associated with this listed species will enable federal agencies to minimize any delays in any ongoing or future project planning and implementation actions that may have affected the mariana mallard and guam broadbill .
while the rapid decline of grey duck has been caused by the loss of wetlands , and hunting , another principle cause is interbreeding with the very large population of introduced mallard anas platyrhynchos . very few pure - bred grey duck remain .
in the hawkes bay game region , fish & game new zealand have a mallard / grey daily bag limit of 6 , comprising no more than 2 hen mallards and 3 grey duck for the season 2 may to 14 june 2009 .
geographic area : united states alabama alaska american samoa arizona arkansas british columbia california colorado connecticut delaware dist . of columbia florida georgia guam hawaii idaho illinois indiana iowa kansas kentucky louisiana maine maryland massachusetts michigan minnesota mississippi missouri montana nebraska nevada new hampshire new jersey new mexico new york north carolina north dakota northern mariana islands ohio oklahoma oregon pennsylvania puerto rico rhode island south carolina south dakota tennessee texas utah vermont virgin islands virginia washington west virginia wisconsin wyoming
the chatham islands are a stronghold for the new zealand subspecies , as there appears to be a lower level of hybridisation with mallard ducks . although now thinly scattered throughout the mainland , more prominent populations are found in the northland , waikato , gisborne and westland regions .
populations of marianas fruit bats , pteropus mariannus , were surveyed on each of the 15 mariana islands in 1983–1984 . it is estimated that a minimum of 8 , 700–9 , 000 fruit bats occur in the archipelago , with about 8245 % of these bats found on the nine northernmost and largely uninhabited islands . the islands of anatahan , pagan , and agrihan had the largest populations , with minimum population . . . [ show full abstract ]
in addition to hybridisation with new zealand grey duck , mallard interbreeding is polluting the genes of its descendent relatives , the american black duck , hawaiian duck , meller ' s duck , florida duck , mexican duck and yellow - billed duck which are endemic to their local regions .
mallard groups can often be seen head dipping or completely upending in the water . they rarely dive though , spending their time near the surface and dabbling for invertebrates , fish , amphibians , and a variety of plants . they also graze on land , feeding on grains and plants .
recent surveys indicate that the marianas mallard is extinct within the northern marianas islands . similar conclusions have already been reached for the guam population . without a viable population it is impossible to describe the current biology of the species . the recovery potential for the species faded when the captive breeding program failed .
the release of feral mallard ducks in areas where they are not native sometimes creates problems through interbreeding with indigenous waterfowl . these non - migratory mallards interbreed with indigenous wild ducks from local populations of closely related species through genetic pollution by producing fertile offspring . complete hybridization of various species of wild ducks gene pools could result in the extinction of many indigenous waterfowl . the wild mallard itself is the ancestor of most domestic ducks and its naturally evolved wild gene pool gets genetically polluted in turn by the domesticated and feral populations . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
like elsewhere worldwide the alien mallards are also causing severe “genetic pollution” of south africa’s biodiversity by breeding with endemic ducks . the hybrids of mallard and the yellow - billed duck are fertile and can produce more hybrid offspring . if this continues , only hybrids will occur and in the long term this will result in the extinction of various indigenous waterfowl . the mallard duck can cross breed with 63 other species and is posing a severe threat to the genetic integrity of indigenous waterfowl . mallards and their hybrids compete with indigenous birds for resources such as food , nest sites and roosting sites . [ 10 ]
the mallard is a large and heavy looking duck . it has a body and a long and broad bill . the male has a dark green head , a yellow bill , is mainly purple - brown on the breast and grey on the body . the female is mainly brown with an orange bill .
the mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) is the best - known and most recognizable of all ducks . it can be found throughout most of north america , europe , asia , new zealand and australia . it is the most common and widespread duck . it can be found in almost any area with a wetland habitat , even in urban areas .
very little information about the food habits of the marianas mallard exists . a . oustaleti has been observed feeding on green vegetation and seeds in very shallow water . assuming the diet of a . oustaleti is similar to a . platyrhynchos , they probably consume floating , emergent , and submerged non - woody plants , grasses , seeds , insects , crustaceans and snails .
sometimes considered to include some or all of a . laysanensis , a . rubripes , a . fulvigula and a . wyvilliana . probable unstable hybrids of a . superciliosa and a . laysanensis , a . wyvilliana or present species , found on some micronesian islands , have been considered a different species , mariana duck ( a . oustaleti ) . hybridization recorded with at least 23 other species of anas , often producing fertile progeny , and also with several species of aix , alopochen , anser , branta , tadorna , cairina , aythya and somateria . proposed race neoborea is synonymized with nominate . two subspecies recognized .
genetic data , in particular the existing phylogenetic discord between mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna , suggest that the currently endangered hawaiian duck ( anas wyvilliana ) is descended from a hybridization event between the mallard ( a . platyrhynchos ) and laysan duck ( a . laysanensis ) that occurred around the pleistocene–holocene boundary # r . this is further supported by circumstantial evidence from the hawaiian subfossil record .
wild ducks were killed illegally by hunters on saipan and tinian as late as the 1970s . both migratory and the native species were subject to mortality from hunters when the marianas mallard population was very small . there was and still is a definite lack of enforcement of game laws at the local level , even though the duck has been protected by territorial and federal laws since the early 1970s .
the mallard inhabits most wetlands , including parks , small ponds and rivers , and usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or grazing ; there are reports of it eating frogs . [ 2 ] it usually nests on a river bank , but not always near water . it is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and will form large flocks , which are known as a sord . [ 6 ]
carboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the anas oustaleti ( marianas mallard ) is 20 - 22 in ( 50 . 8 - 55 . 88 cm ) in length with the silhouette of a mallard . the male ( platyrhynchos type ) has a dark green head with buff feathers intermingled along the sides . there is a dark brown streak running through the eye and a faint white ring on the lower neck . the sides of the body are vermiculated but some brown feathers are found even in the full nuptial plumage , with a lighter area under the wings . the upper breast is a dark reddish chestnut with dusky spots and the bill is black with an olive tip . the upper tail coverts are dark with white tail feathers , and the central upper tail coverts are dark and curled upward . the speculum is a dark blue , and the feet are a reddish orange color , darkening around the webs .
as expected , haplotypes typical of american mallard relatives and spotbills can be found in mallards around the bering sea . [ 26 ] interestingly , the aleutian islands turned out to hold a population of mallards that appear to be evolving towards a good subspecies as gene flow with other populations is very limited . [ 25 ] this unexpected result suggests that reevaluation of the greenland , iceland , and ne canada populations according to molecular and morphological characters is warranted .
excessive hunting and collecting during the prewar and post - war eras contributed to the decline of the marianas mallard . during their pre - war occupation the japanese collected 30 - 40 specimens which reduced an already small gene pool just prior to and during the peak of habitat destruction . during and immediately after island fighting in the second world war , people were forced to live off the land , including wildlife for sustenance . there is a distinct possibility that several mallards were killed during this period .
predation of vertebrates by mallards ( anas platyrhynchos ) seems to be a rare behaviour , only documented in a few cases in relation to fish and amphibians . mallards are largely vegetarian , although the species is considered omnivorous and it can take variable quantities of terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates . the foraging behaviour of mallard was observed at a reserve in southwest romania , where a group of mallards comprising one adult female and ten juveniles killed and consumed a grey wagtail ( motacilla cinerea ) and a black redstart ( phoenicurus ochruros ) . these are the first documented records of bird hunting by wild mallards # r .
when they pair off with mating partners , often one or several drakes will end up
left out
. this group will sometimes target an isolated female duck — chasing , pestering and pecking at her until she weakens ( a phenomenon referred to by researchers as rape flight ) , at which point each male will take turns copulating with the female . male mallards will also occasionally chase other males in the same way . ( in one documented case , a male mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after said male had been killed when he flew into a glass window . ) [ 7 ]
mallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the genus anas , such as the american black duck , and also with species more distantly related , for example the northern pintail , leading to various hybrids that may be fully fertile . this is quite unusual among different species , and apparently has its reasons in the fact that the mallard evolved very rapidly and not too long ago , during the late pleistocene only . the distinct lineages of this radiation are usually kept separate due to non - overlapping ranges and behavioral cues , but are still not fully genetically incompatible . mallards and their domesticated conspecifics are , of course , also fully interfertile .
dense cover associated with inhabited wetlands includes large stands of rushes scirpus juncoides , phragmites karka , and various sedges . also important for cover is the fern , acrostichum aureum , which forms hammocks in several marshes . the largest complex of mallard habitat lies in southern saipan , the lake susupe marsh area , a total of 150 - 200 acres ( 60 - 80 hectares ) with peripheral marsh habitat . other areas known to have been used by mallards are much smaller ( e . g . , breeding occurred on lake hagoi , a small pond of about 10 acres ( 4 hectares ) surrounded by 40 acres ( 16 hectares ) of marsh ) . nests have been located in reed swamps and in streamside wetlands .
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printed version : pdf publication date : 02 / 23 / 2004 agencies : fish and wildlife service dates : this rule is effective february 23 , 2004 . effective date : 02 / 23 / 2004 document type : rule document citation : 69 fr 8116 page : 8116 - 8119 ( 4 pages ) cfr : 50 cfr 17 rin : 1018 - ah50 document number : 04 - 3784
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the administrative record file for this rule is available for inspection , by appointment , during normal business hours at the u . s . fish and wildlife service , pacific islands fish and wildlife office , 300 ala moana boulevard , room 3 - 122 , honolulu , hi 96850 .
fred amidon , fish and wildlife biologist , pacific islands fish and wildlife office , at the above address ( telephone : 808 / 792 - 9400 ; facsimile : 808 / 792 - 9580 ) .
federal action on the guam broadbill began on february 27 , 1979 , when the acting governor of guam petitioned us to list the guam broadbill and five other forest bird species as endangered . we issued a notice of review for 12 petitioned animals , including the guam broadbill , on may 18 , 1979 ( 44 fr 29128 ) . in our december 30 , 1982 ( 47 fr 58454 ) , review of vertebrate wildlife , the guam broadbill was considered a category 1 candidate for federal listing . category 1 species were those for which we had substantial information on biological vulnerability and threats to support preparation of a listing proposal , but for which a listing proposal had not yet been published because it was precluded by other listing activities . we published a proposed rule to list the guam broadbill as endangered on november 29 , 1983 ( 48 fr 53729 ) . the final rule determining the guam broadbill to be an endangered species was published on august 27 , 1984 ( 49 fr 33881 ) , and a recovery plan for the guam broadbill and four other listed bird species on guam and rota was published in 1990 ( service 1990 ) .
on june 14 , 1991 ( 56 fr 27485 ) . this proposed rule was withdrawn on april 4 , 1994 ( 59 fr 15696 ) because most of the lands proposed as critical habitat had by this time been incorporated into the guam national wildlife refuge overlay lands . we determined that critical habitat designation was not prudent because it would not provide the guam broadbill with any benefit beyond that already provided by the refuge overlay lands . on april 3 , 2000 , the marianas audubon society and the center for biological diversity filed a suit to challenge our withdrawal of critical habitat for these species . on september 7 , 2000 , we filed a motion to voluntarily remand the nonprudency decision based on subsequent court decisions on critical habitat . this motion set a deadline of june 1 , 2003 , for us to redetermine prudency and designate final critical habitat , if prudent , for the guam broadbill and five other listed species . we published a proposed rule in the
) . on april 16 , 2002 , the guam district court issued a ruling that ordered us to comply with terms of the critical habitat settlement agreement by june 1 , 2003 .
section 4 of the act and regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the act ( 50 cfr part 424 ) set forth the procedures for listing , reclassifying , or removing species from listed status . we may determine a species to be an endangered or threatened species because of one or more of the five factors described in section 4 ( a ) ( 1 ) of the act ; we must consider these same five factors in delisting species . we may delist a species according to section 424 . 11 ( d ) if the best available scientific and commercial data indicate that the species is neither endangered nor threatened for the following reasons : ( 1 ) the species is extinct ; ( 2 ) the species has recovered and is no longer endangered or threatened ; and / or ( 3 ) the original scientific data used at the time the species was classified were in error .
national environmental policy act of 1969 , need not be prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4 ( a ) of the endangered species act of 1973 , as amended . we published a notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the
a complete list of all references cited herein is available upon request from the pacific islands fish and wildlife office ( see addresses section ) .
the primary author of this final rule is fred amidon , ecological services , pacific islands fish and wildlife office , u . s . fish and wildlife service ( see addresses section ) .
16 u . s . c . 1361 - 1407 ; 16 u . s . c . 1531 - 1544 ; 16 u . s . c . 4201 - 4245 ; pub . l . 99 - 625 , 100 stat . 3500 ; unless otherwise noted .
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males have dark green heads with buff feathers ; females are all brown with feathers edged with light brown .
the male superciliosa - type has a dark brown head with brown and buffy on the sides of the head . the scapulars , sides of body and the upper breast are all dark brown with light brown margins . the tail is dark brown with no white , and the central upper tail coverts are flat . the speculum is usually dark blue or purple as in a . platyrhynchos but two specimens had dark green speculums . the bill is olive with black spot in center of mandible and the feet are dark orange , growing darker in the joints and webs .
female platyrhynchos and superciliosa types are indistinguishable from each other and resemble a . superciliosa except for a blue speculum . they are all brown with feathers edged with light brown . the sides of face are marked with light yellow or buffy feathers , and a dark line runs through the eye with a buffy eye stripe above . the tail is brown and has flat feathers . the bill is either blackish or brownish .
a . oustaleti was first described in 1856 as a sub - species of a . boschas , based on one specimen from
les isles malouines
in the paris museum . thirty - eight years later the same specimen was examined and called a . oustaleti . the next six specimens were collected from guam in 1888 and described by oustalet . since then the taxonomy of the species has been debated from time to time . the u . s . fish and wildlife service considers anas oustaleti a true species .
anas oustaleti tend to use dense cover in the middle of the hot tropical day .
recovery actions underway include ongoing surveys and law enforcement by the commonwealth of northern marianas islands division of fish and wildlife and review of development projects affecting wetlands .
u . s . fish and wildlife service regional office , division of endangered species eastside federal building 911 n . e . 11th ave . portland , oregon 97232 - 4181 telephone : ( 503 ) 231 - 6121 urltoken
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you do wonder how a subspecies of duck can become extinct , but that is actually something that has happened here . it is a bit of a shame that it happened , but then who would actually have noticed if it had not been mentioned here ?
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chief , bird section , u . s . g . s . - b . r . d . - p . w . r . c .
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner
check - list of birds of the world , vol . 1 , second edition
considered a hybrid by peters , check - list of birds of the world , 2nd ed . , 1979 ( of anas platyrhynchos × a . superciliosa )
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
cramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .
anas platyrhynchos and a . fulvigula ( incorporating diazi ) ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously treated as a . platyrhynchos ( incorporating diazi ) and a . fulvigula following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .
ashpole , j , butchart , s . , ekstrom , j . , malpas , l .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , hence the species is not thought to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
antigua and barbuda ; brunei darussalam ; cayman islands ; cook islands ; djibouti ; dominican republic ; fiji ; gambia ; gibraltar ; guadeloupe ; jamaica ; kiribati ; mali ; martinique ; niger ; nigeria ; panama ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; senegal ; seychelles ; sri lanka ; svalbard and jan mayen ; thailand ; vanuatu ; virgin islands , u . s . ; zambia
where they undergo a flightless moulting period lasting for c . 4 weeks ( scott and rose 1996 )
. its diet consists of seeds and the vegetative parts of aquatic and terrestrial plants ( e . g . crops ) ( del hoyo
and even in abandoned nests of other species ( e . g . herons or crows ) ( flint
extensive
grazing of wetland grasslands ( c . 0 . 5 cows per hectare ) was found to attract a higher abundance of the species in hungary ( baldi
the species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss from pollution ( e . g . petroleum [ grishanov 2006 ]
) , wetland drainage , peat - extraction , changing wetland management practices ( e . g . decreased grazing and mowing in meadows leading to scrub over - growth )
. the species also suffers mortality as a result of lead shot ingestion ( e . g . in spain [ mateo
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22680186a119275821 .
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mallards prefer calm , shallow sanctuaries , but can be found in almost any body of freshwater across asia , europe , and north america . they’re also found in saltwater and brackish water and are commonly found in wetlands .
the male , or drake , is the more distinctively colored of the mallards . its iconic green head sits atop a white neckband that sets off a chestnut - colored chest and gray body . females are mottled drab brown in color , but sport iridescent purple - blue wing feathers that are visible as a patch on their sides . they grow to about 26 inches in length and can weigh up to 3 pounds .
mated pairs migrate to and breed in the northern parts of their range and build nests on the ground or in a protected cavity . they normally lay about a dozen eggs , and the incubation period lasts just under a month . mallards are territorial during much of this period , but once incubation is well underway , males abandon the nest and join a flock of other males .
this article is part of project aves , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each bird , including made - up species .
this article is part of project anseriformes , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each waterfowl , including made - up species .
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it breeds in all parts of the europe in summer and winter , wherever there are suitable wetland habitats , although it is scarcer in upland areas .
owing to their highly ' malleable ' genetic code , mallards can display a large amount of variation , as seen here with this female , who displays faded or ' apricot ' plumage .
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