the northern common cuscus ( phalanger orientalis ) , also known as the grey cuscus , is a species of marsupial in the family phalangeridae native to northern new guinea and adjacent smaller islands , but is now also found in the bismarck archipelago , south-east and central moluccas , the solomons and timor , where it is believed to have been introduced in prehistoric times .

it was formerly considered conspecific with the allopatric p. intercastellanus and p. mimicus .

northern common cuscus

hemes and a pet northern common cuscus ( phalanger orientalis breviceps ) in bougainville .
of the cuscus as natives hunt the cuscus for both the meat of the cuscus and the thick fur of the cuscus .
( southern common cuscus ) were thought to belong to the same species ( flannery , 1995 ) .
the cuscus is thought to breed throughout the year rather than having a strict breeding season . the mother cuscus gives birth to between 2 and 4 baby cuscus after a
from just 15cm to more than 60cm in length , although the average sized cuscus tends to be around 45cm ( 18inches ) . the cuscus has small ears and large eyes which aid the cuscus through its
inhabits northern australia , the aru islands , and the louisade archipelago ( strahan , 1995 ) .
tail which is naked ( has no fur ) at the end . this allows the cuscus to be able to grip onto the tree branches more easily when the cuscus is moving from tree to tree and resting during the day . the cuscus also has long , sharp claws which help the cuscus when it is moving around in the trees . the cuscus has thick , woolly fur which can be a variety of
in which the cuscus exists . more and more of the secluded forests where the cuscus dwells are being cut down , with the trees being sold to logging companies .
the cuscus is an arboreal mammal and spends its life almost exclusively in the trees . the cuscus rests in the trees during the day , sleeping in the dense foliage and awakens at night to start moving through the trees in search of food . the cuscus is an omnivorous
of just a couple of weeks . as with all marsupials , the female cuscus has a pouch on her tummy which the newborn cuscus babies crawl into and stay until they are bigger , less
due to the way that the cuscus moves through the trees and uses its tail to grip onto branches . it was later discovered that the cuscus was actually most closely related to the possum .
common brushtail possums have a naked patch on the underside of their bushy tail which helps them to grip on to branches .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the cuscus article in your website content , school work and other projects .
and able to start feeding themselves . typically only one of the cuscus babies will survive and emerge from the pouch after 6 or 7 months .
the common brushtail possum is very vocal , producing a range of sounds including clicks , grunts , hisses , alarm chatters , coughs and screeching .
that are extremely difficult to spot in the wild . it is said to be one of the most rewarding sights , if you spot a cuscus in its natural
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common brushtail possums are only around 1 . 5 cm long when they are born , continuing development in the mothers pouch for another 4 - 5 months .
despite facing no major threats , the common brushtail possum has declined drastically in some areas , particularly in arid and semiarid areas of australia ( 1 ) ( 4 ) , and is now considered endangered in the northern territory ( 3 ) ( 8 ) . the main causes of these declines are believed to be predation by dingoes , cats and foxes , as well as habitat fragmentation , the loss of suitable denning sites , and changed fire regimes in some areas ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) .
cuscus mounted on a historic wooden base , in a crouched standing on a y - shaped tree branch . the tail is held down and is wrapped around the branch . body is slightly arched upward and the head and tail are held down .
is thought to have originated on new guinea and then to have been distributed primarily by prehistoric humans to the range it currently occupies ( nowak , 1999 ) . that range now includes the south west pacific islands of buru , seram , the solomon and molucca islands , northern new guinea , and the bismark archipelago ( nowak , 1999 ) . until recently ,
the common brushtail possum is widespread throughout australia , and is also found on tasmania and a number of other offshore islands , including barrow island and kangaroo island . the species has also been introduced to new zealand , where it is now widespread ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the fur of the common brushtail possum is thick and woolly ( 2 ) ( 5 ) , and quite variable in colour , ranging from silvery - grey , to brown , black , red or cream , lighter on the underparts , and with a brown to black tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the ears are large and pointed , and there are dark patches on the muzzle ( 3 ) . a number of subspecies are recognised , based on variations in colour and body size , with individuals in tasmania generally being the largest , with dense , often black coats , and particularly bushy tails ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the male common brushtail possum is generally larger than the female , and the male’s coat usually blends to reddish across the shoulders . the female common brushtail possum has a well - developed , forward - opening pouch ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) .
the common brushtail possum is not currently considered threatened as it still has a wide distribution , large population , is present in many protected areas , and is able to adapt well to human settlements ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . conservation measures recommended for the more vulnerable populations include fox control , provision of nest boxes , and population monitoring ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 8 ) ( 9 ) . in tasmania , a management programme is in place for the species , which aims to maintain viable populations of the common brushtail possum across its range , while managing the species as an ecologically sustainable resource , and trying to reduce economic losses and damage to natural ecosystems ( 10 ) .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
in some areas the common brushtail possum is considered a pest species , causing damage to pine plantations and to regenerating eucalypt forest , as well as to flowers , fruit trees and buildings . it may also carry diseases such as bovine tuberculosis . the species has long been harvested for its valuable fur , although commercial hunting is now restricted to tasmania ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . there are also removal permits in place on kangaroo island , where the common brushtail possum is considered a pest species and a threat to other vulnerable wildlife ( 1 ) . the species was introduced to new zealand in the mid - 1800s for its fur , where it has thrived despite attempts to control its numbers , and is thought to have potentially damaging effects on native vegetation ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the digits are of different lengths and are tipped by long , curved claws . their paws are syndactylous , with the first and second digits opposable to the rest . the soles of their feet are naked and striated . the female pouch has four mammae ( nowak , 1999 ) . the facial features include large eyes , long canines and a snout longer than that of spilocuscus maculatus ( spotted cuscus ) . the teeth are simple , low crowned and used for grinding ( flannery , 1995 ) .
, this manuscript employs common species names , although the scientific name for each species discussed is also provided at first mention . for humans , the scientific name is further specified when it is important to distinguish from other hominid species . ) vegetation burning also enhanced hunting opportunities by drawing game and other faunal resources to new plant growth . a human contribution to the shaping of early fire regimes has been demonstrated for africa and , after human arrival , in borneo , australia , and the americas (
the spread of human populations and the species they favored altered the distributions of existing species , sometimes in synergy with holocene climatic changes . numerous regional studies demonstrate the link between neolithic agriculture and the creation of more open landscapes , facilitated through various means from fire to the cutting and coppicing of trees ( 73 , 74 ) . for example , the early neolithic corresponded with shifts away from deciduous tree cover in various regions of central and northern europe ( e . g . , ref . 74 ) . the spread of farmers into central africa caused an encroachment on rainforest by some expanded savannah species ( 75 ) . early rice cultivation in the coastal wetlands of eastern china was linked to clearance of alder - dominated wetland scrub ( 76 ) .
population justification in a well - studied area at tirotonga on isabel , three nests were about 2 km apart ( g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 , m . hafe verbally 1998 ) , which would extrapolate to an approximate total population of c . 3 , 000 pairs , but it appears to be unusually common in this area ( g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 ) . elsewhere , there have been records only of singles or single pairs . it is plausible that the subpopulations on the three islands each number less than 1 , 000 mature individuals .
this species occupies a wide range of habitats , including rainforest , woodland , dry eucalypt forest , pine plantations , semiarid areas and even urban gardens and parks ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . although generally found in forest habitats , it may also inhabit treeless areas ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the common brushtail possum shelters by day in a den , which may be located in a tree hollow , log , dense undergrowth , cave , animal burrow , or even in the roof - space of a house ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 )
brushtail possums are the most abundant , widely distributed and frequently encountered of all australian marsupials ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . as its name suggests , the common brushtail possum has a rather bushy tail , which is prehensile at the tip and has a naked patch on the underside , helping it to grip branches ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the foreclaws are sharp and the hind foot bears an opposable , clawless first toe which gives a good grasp ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the second and third toes are fused , with a long , split claw , used in grooming ( 3 ) .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
this species is distributed from the islands of timor ( indonesia and timor leste ) , wetar and leti ( both to indonesia ) through the kai islands and a number of the moluccan islands of indonesia ( including : ambon , buru , and seram ) ; it is present on the islands of misool , waigeo , batanta , and salawati ( all indonesia ) , and ranges over much of the northern part of the island of new guinea ( indonesia and papua new guinea ) , including a number of offshore islands . it ranges as far east as the bismarck archipelago , papua new guinea , where it is present on many islands including the islands of new britain and new ireland . it also occurs on many of the solomon islands . many of the insular island populations are the result of prehistorical introductions , possibly including : timor , seram , buru , sanana , the kai islands , the bismarck archipelago , and the solomon island chain .
extinctions and extirpations were a common consequence of island colonization in prehistory . thousands of bird populations in the pacific went extinct after polynesian colonization ( 92 ) . one recent study of nonpasserine birds on 41 pacific islands shows that two - thirds went extinct between initial prehistoric colonization and european contact ( 93 ) . bird species extinctions impact important ecosystem processes like decomposition , pollination , and seed dispersal , leading to trophic cascades ( 94 ) . human impacts have been primarily responsible for the extinction of four genera of giant sloths in the caribbean , as well as nine taxa of snakes , lizards , bats , birds , and rodents on antigua between 2350 and 550 b . c . e . ( 82 , 95 ) . floral extinctions have not been as well - studied , but a range of island plant species went extinct on islands in prehistoric times . pollen and wood charcoal analyses demonstrate at least 18 plant extinctions on rapanui ( easter island ) , for example , and show dense palm forest disappearing within 200 y of human settlement ( 96 ) .
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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to degraded areas , lack of major threats , and because it is unlikely to be declining .
it occurs primarily in disturbed habitats such as secondary forest , plantations , and gardens . the species is also present in primary tropical forest . the female usually gives birth to two young .
there are no major threats to this species . it is threatened in some parts of its range by hunting for food by local people and by collection for the pet trade .
it occurs in a number of protected areas . further studies are needed into the taxonomy and distribution of this species . this species is listed on appendix ii of cites .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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is resitricted to tropical rainforests and thick scrub in the south west pacific ( nowak , 1999 ) . they have also been spotted in gardens , probably due to the high abundance of edible plants ( flannery , 1995 ) .
, like others in the family phalangeridae , is heavy and powerfully built ( nowak , 1999 ) . the average mass is about 2 . 1 kg . this is slightly lower in females ( grizmek , 1990 ) .
the tail is prehensile naked at the end . it is covered with horny papillae . the tail length varies from 28 to 42 cm ( grizmek , 1990 ) . the male tail is completely white but female tails are white only on the tips .
in adult males , the thick , wooly fur ranges in color from white to medium or dark grey ( nowak , 1999 ) . in adult females , the color ranges from reddish - brown to brownish - grey . the stomach area is commonly white . the male has a distinct yellowish chest gland . usually a dark stripe runs from the head to the lower back . the young of this species are reddish - brown . ( flannery , 1995 ; nowak , 1999 )
lasts around 13 days . normally the females births twins , but the number of young ranges from one to three ( grizmek , 1990 ) . usually , one of the twins dies before weaning ( nowak , 1999 ) . the weight at birth is less than 1 gram ( grizmek , 1990 ) .
normally , the reproductive cycle occurs only once a year . mating and reproductive seasons are from june through october , though march and november births have been observed ( tyndale - brisco , 1987 ) .
is nocturnal , spending the day in a tree hollow . while foraging for food at night , it travels through the forest in a slow deliberate climb ( nowak , 1999 ) .
grips with three feet at a time and the tail wraps around the branch ready to hold weight . ground travel - - though rare - - is characterized by a slow , bounding gait . if necessary ,
moves quickly through the canopy and even jump across gaps ( flannery , 1995 ) .
is more tolerant of humans , and it is commonly kept as a pet ( flannery , 1995 ) .
climbs slowly through the rainforests and locates mainly leaves , tree seeds , fruit , buds and flowers on which they feed ( girzmek , 1990 ) . it has been spotted eating the green fruit of the red cedar (
) was found in the stomach of one animal . while in captivity it primarily eats leaves and fruit ( flannery , 1995 ) .
had not been closely studied due to its secluded lifestyle . the following are a few specific predators that have been documented : white - bellied sea - eagle (
) ( flannery , 1995 ) , and possibly dasyurids ( grizmek , 1990 ) . the assumption is that these and other species like them prey upon
is hunted for food by native tribes , though this is rare ( flannery , 1995 ) .
laura merlo ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , ondrej podlaha ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
islands that are not part of continental shelf areas , they are not , and have never been , connected to a continental land mass , most typically these are volcanic islands .
rainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
. chatswood , nsw : reed books as a part of reed books australia .
heinsohn , t . september 2000 . predition by the white - breasted sea eagle , haliaeetus leucogaster , on phalangerid possums in new ireland , papua new guinea .
nowak , r . 1997 .
walker ' s mammals of the world online 5 . 1
( on - line ) . accessed 7 october 2001 at urltoken .
to cite this page : merlo , l . 2002 .
phalanger orientalis
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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image processing : ms . amira abdul - hafiz publication date : 16 nov 2010
this specimen , a female , was collected from the north slopes of mt . dayman , maneau range , papua new guinea . it was made available to the university of texas high - resolution x - ray ct facility for scanning by dr . ted macrini of st mary ' s university . funding for scanning was provided by dr . nancy simmons of the american museum of natural history . funding for image processing was provided by the jackson school of geosciences .
the specimen was scanned by matthew colbert on 14 april 2007 along the coronal axis for a total of 720 slices . each 1024x1024 pixel slice is 0 . 121 mm thick , with an interslice spacing of 0 . 121 mm and a field of reconstruction of 55 mm .
to cite this page : dr . ted macrini , 2010 ,
phalanger orientalis
( on - line ) , digital morphology . accessed july 9 , 2018 at urltoken
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sources : 1 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ] 2 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 01 jan 2011 ] 3 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 01 jan 2010 ] 4 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ] 5 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ] 6 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 18 sep 2009 ]
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this enigmatic species is classified as vulnerable on the basis of a small subpopulations on three island which are declining through habitat degradation . however , its total population size and habitat requirements are poorly known .
trend justification forest loss and degradation are suspected to be causing this species to decline at a moderate rate .
. there are also possible reports from buka . it is presumed to be a species of low population density as it is rarely seen and no more than one bird has been heard calling from any location . all records are from old - growth forest .
. all records are from old - growth lowland and hill forest , usually in primary forest but also in adjacent secondary forest and forest edge to at least 2 , 000 m ( gardner 1987 , webb 1992 , g . dutson pers . obs . 1998 , dutson 2011 )
survey to determine population densities in primary and logged forest , hunted and unhunted areas and at various altitudes . monitor population trends around tirotonga . research diet and breeding success at tirotonga . lobby for tighter controls of commercial logging , especially on choiseul . discuss possibilities of large - scale community - based conservation areas on all three islands . promote this species as a figurehead species for community - based conservation and ecotourism initiatives .
38 cm . massive forest owl . golden eyes framed by prominent creamy eyebrows , otherwise warm brown . streaked dark underparts and barred dark upperparts .
is much smaller ( 25 - 30 cm ) with plainer facial mask , dark eyes and faintly patterned underparts .
similar to clear human cry , increasing in volume and tone , given as series at 10 second intervals .
rarely seen unless a local guide knows of regular roost or nest - sites .
text account compilers derhé , m . , dutson , g . , mahood , s . , o ' brien , a . , stattersfield , a . & north , a .
contributors dutson , g . , hafe , m . & webb , h .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : nesasio solomonensis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
edited by richard g . klein , stanford university , stanford , ca , and approved march 18 , 2016 ( received for review december 22 , 2015 )
the reshaping of global biodiversity is one of the most significant impacts humans have had on earth’s ecosystems . as our planet experiences its sixth “mass extinction event” (
) . these transformations are linked largely to the industrial economies , burgeoning populations , and dense transport networks of contemporary human societies . accordingly , the human - mediated alteration of species distributions has been characterized as a modern phenomenon with limited , and largely insignificant , historical antecedents . this conventional understanding fails to account for several decades of archaeological , paleoecological , and genetic research that reveal a long and widespread history of human transformation of global biodiversity (
fossil evidence demonstrates that h . sapiens was present ∼195 , 000 y ago ( 195 ka ) in east africa ( 19 ) and that , by 12 ka , our species had dispersed to the far corners of eurasia , australia , and the americas ( 20 ) . mounting evidence indicates that these late pleistocene dispersals , and the increase in global human populations with which they are associated , were linked in complex ways with a variety of species extinctions , extirpations , translocations , and new modes of niche modification . evaluating pleistocene anthropogenic impacts remains challenging , but novel methods and approaches are providing solutions to long - standing problems posed by limited preservation and chronological resolution .
to fire regime change and transformations to plant community composition . for example , pollen and microcharcoal records indicate that the early colonists of new guinea deliberately burned and disturbed tropical rainforests to promote the growth of useful plants , especially gap colonizers like yams (
evidence of human overexploitation has been suggested for some late pleistocene faunal sequences . diverse archaeological assemblages , from africa , europe , and south asia , for example , document the late pleistocene appearance of small , quick , and difficult - to - catch game , such as fish , birds , rabbits , rodents and monkeys , that may signal anthropogenic impacts to resource availability ( 28 , 29 ) . other studies document decreases in the size of certain species , such as limpets and tortoises , that may also reflect resource overexploitation ( e . g . , refs . 8 and 30 ) . some of these changes may result from the expansion of bone , stone , shell , fiber , and other tool repertoires in the late pleistocene , enabling new forms of intensive exploitation ( e . g . , refs . 31 and 32 ) .
) . of particular importance are new global analyses drawing on higher resolution data and computational modeling approaches . these studies indicate an important role for humans and an inverse relationship between severity of extinction and duration of hominin–megafauna coevolution , with uniformly high extinction rates in areas where
proportions of megafauna known to be extinct in each region of the globe relative to the length of coevolution and contact with humans ( genus homo ) ( adapted from figure 1c in ref . 39 and figure 1 in ref . 40 ) . the numbers next to each pie chart indicate the total number of megafauna genera originally present within each region .
cascade effects of changes to species , showing long - term transformation of landscapes . (
the beginning of the holocene ( < 11 . 7 ka ) witnessed fundamental shifts in climatic and geological regimes globally , as well as in human societies . the early to middle holocene in many regions worldwide saw the beginning of agricultural economies , placing new evolutionary pressures on plants , animals , and microbes , and resulting in major demographic expansions for humans ( 55 ) . this neolithic period opened the way for a radical transformation in the human capacity for niche construction , increasingly demonstrated through the accumulation of zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical data , as well as the application of biomolecular techniques .
global spread of selected food crops ( red ) and domesticated and commensal animals ( blue ) through time . ( a ) wheat ( triticum spp . ) . ( b ) sorghum ( sorghum bicolor ) . ( c ) rice ( oryza sativa , oryza glaberrima ) . ( d ) cattle ( bos taurus , bos indicus ) . ( e ) dog ( canis familiaris ) . ( f ) rat ( rattus rattus , rattus tanezumi , rattus norvegicus , rattus exulans ) . the major spread of rats to global islands beginning by 3 ka is not apparent at the scale shown . ( note that maps use different temporal scales , appropriate to individual species and their temporality of spread ; hatching indicates natural distribution . )
neolithic dispersals also featured pathogens . ancient dna , stable isotope , and other studies are clarifying the spread of pathogens favored by shifts in diet , lifestyle , mobility , and human–animal relationships with the onset of agriculture . ancient dna from yersinia pestis and mycobacterium tuberculosis has been identified from neolithic human skeletons ( e . g . , refs . 69 and 70 ) and linked to large - scale population movements ( 69 , 71 ) . plant and animal pathogens also spread in the neolithic . the northwest european elm decline ( 3700–3600 b . c . e . ) may have been caused in part by the spread of a pathogen , such as the fungal disease ophiostoma , carried by the elm bark beetle ( scolytus scolytus ) , which saw habitat expansion with clearance for agriculture ( 72 ) .
new chronometric data are revealing the rapidity with which prehistoric extinctions sometimes unfolded ( 80 ) . new zealand saw numerous vertebrate extinctions after polynesian arrival ( e . g . , refs . 80 and 92 ) , including the elimination of various species of moa ( dinornis ) within two centuries of human colonization ( 97 ) . recent studies of sea lion and penguin adna show that several new zealand species once thought to have survived early human impacts were extirpated soon after human arrival and replaced within a few centuries by nonindigenous lineages from the subantarctic region ( 98 ) .
extinction and extirpation rates underestimate human impacts because not all species under pressure went extinct . although hawaiian geese ( branta sandvicensis ) , unlike other species , survived the prehistoric colonization of hawaii by humans , adna research points to a drastic reduction in their genetic diversity after human arrival ( 99 ) . zooarchaeological data from the caribbean point to the overharvesting and decline of a variety of island marine species beginning ∼2 , 000 y ago , with biomass , mean trophic level , and average size all radically altered ( 86 ) . research on california’s channel islands points to similar impacts on a broad range of marine animals as a result of overexploitation by prehistoric hunter - gatherers ( 81 , 82 ) , patterns increasingly recognized on islands around the world .
by the middle to late holocene , agriculture and the production of food surpluses paved the way for the emergence of larger human populations , increasingly dense , urbanized settlements , and more complex and intensive networks of trade , travel , and dispersal in many parts of the world . cultural niche construction became intense and elaborate , with dramatic implications for species diversity and distributions .
multidisciplinary datasets reveal that agricultural intensification , in response to factors like growing populations and emerging markets , was a major driver of ecological change across the old world from the bronze age onwards ( 100 ) . in the near east , bronze age datasets reveal pervasive turnover from deciduous to evergreen oak and replacement of indigenous forest with cultivated orchard crops like olive ( olea europea ) , grape ( vitis vinifera ) , and fig ( ficus carica ) ( e . g . , refs . 101 and 102 ) . cereal crops and vegetation indicative of grazing and other anthropogenic disturbance ( e . g . , rumex , plantago , and artemisia ) increased . archaeological study of wood charcoal points to a decline in tree taxa richness from the middle bronze age to the late iron age ( 103 ) . by 1000 b . c . e . , one archaeologically tested model suggests that 80–85 % of areas suited to agriculture in much of the near east were cultivated ( 104 ) .
similar trends can be seen for all early urban societies that have been studied . increased deforestation , linked to agricultural intensification and urbanization in the iron age , is evident in diverse sedimentary and paleoecological records in china ( e . g . , refs . 105 and 106 ) . european and near eastern landscapes in the roman period also saw significant transformation , with expansion of cultivation into previously marginal areas , growth of the cash crop industry , and a new emphasis on high yield agro - pastoralism ( 100 ) . sedimentary sequences across the eastern mediterranean record the highest holocene rates of soil erosion and sedimentation during the classical era ( 102 ) . population growth and political expansion in lowland mayan civilization have been linked to forest removal and erosion ( 107 , 108 ) .
deforestation and the expansion of species favoring anthropogenic disturbance were not continual processes , and many sequences reveal temporary reversals in these long - term trends . for example , the arrival of plague in europe at several points from the late neolithic onwards , as now confirmed by recovery of yersinia pestis adna from human skeletons ( 69 , 109 ) , seems to have been linked to episodes of forest regrowth due to abandonment of agricultural fields ( 104 , 110 ) . by the iron age and sometimes earlier , however , changing species compositions were often irreversible . recent multidisciplinary research in “ancient” forests in france demonstrated a strong correlation between roman sites and present - day forest plant diversity , with areas altered by roman agriculture and settlement favoring nitrogen - demanding and ruderal species ( e . g . , refs . 50 and 51 ) ( fig . 2 c ) . grassland diversity in present - day estonia maps closely to late iron age human population density ( 111 ) .
a review of global archaeological , paleoecological , and historical datasets , distilled here into key trends and examples , suggests a number of general patterns concerning the long - term human shaping of biodiversity . first , human niche construction activities have had a major impact on the abundance , composition , distribution , and genetic diversity—as well as extinction rates and translocation pathways—of species globally . late pleistocene human impacts are the most difficult to assess , but , placed in the context of longer - term trends , they seem highly likely , especially given that even conservative estimates of anthropogenic contribution to megafaunal extinctions , extirpations , and depletions imply significant ecosystem impacts ( 38 , 47 ) .
second , there is a strong link between present - day patterns of biodiversity and historical processes ( fig . 2 ) . the combined effects of human activity over the millennia include the creation of extensively altered , highly cosmopolitan species assemblages on all landmasses . “pristine” landscapes simply do not exist and , in most cases , have not existed for millennia . most landscapes are palimpsests shaped by repeated episodes of human activity over multiple millennia ( 5 , 36 , 100 ) .
third , there is widespread evidence for increasing rates of human - mediated species translocation , extinction , and ecosystem and biodiversity reshaping through time . this acceleration is not constant but is characterized by pulses and pauses that reflect cultural , ecological , and climatic transformations at local , regional , and global scales . these changes have increasingly concentrated biomass into particular sets of human - favored plants and animals ( 134 ) .
fourth , archaeological and paleoecological data are critical to identifying and understanding the deep history and pervasiveness of such human impacts ( 6 , 36 , 135 ) . ecologists and other researchers are often insufficiently aware of archaeological and other historical datasets . the continued default position among many researchers is that a landscape or seascape that does not have obvious , contemporary human alterations has experienced little human manipulation ( 136 ) . in fact , as exemplified by the revelation of dense prehistoric human settlements in parts of the amazon , the more appropriate default expectation is one of anthropogenic transformation , regardless of how pristine a modern landscape may superficially seem .
finally , negative consequences of human activity , such as extinction , reduced biodiversity , and habitat destruction , tend to receive more attention from researchers than examples of resilience and sustainability ( 100 ) , probably because these transformations are more dramatic and visible in the archaeological record ( 137 ) . the anthropogenic reshaping of species distributions , however , has been central to the creation of landscapes capable of supporting increasingly dense human populations through time . domesticated ecosystems enhance human food supplies , reduce exposure to predators and natural dangers , and promote commerce ( 138 ) . the creation of novel ecosystems ( 139 ) has enabled the provision of ecological goods and services , not just in the modern era but throughout the holocene and in the late pleistocene as well ( 5 , 100 , 140 ) .
another important consideration is the role of human niche construction as a major evolutionary force on the planet . processes of human niche creation have reshaped , and continue to influence , the evolutionary trajectories of a broad array of species . except for studies of domestication and antibiotic / pesticide resistance , however , investigation into processes of gene - culture coevolution has otherwise minimally explored the role of human culture in driving evolution in nonhuman species . however , human activities have exerted novel selection pressures that have had important evolutionary consequences not just for humans but also for the rest of the natural world ( 143 ) .
we thank ardern hulme - beaman and heidi eager for information regarding rattus distributions . we thank the fyssen foundation ( paris ) for supporting the symposium from which this paper emerged and thank the other participants for their stimulating contributions . this paper reflects the output of european research council funding to n . l . b . ( grant 206148 - sealinks ) , d . q . f . ( grant 323842 - compag ) , g . l . ( grant 337574 - undead ) , and m . d . p . ( grant 295719 - palaeodeserts ) .
author contributions : n . l . b . , m . a . z . , d . q . f . , a . c . , g . l . , j . m . e . , t . d . , and m . d . p . wrote the paper .
erlandson jm , braje tj , eds ( 2013 ) when humans dominated the earth : archaeological perspectives on the anthropocene . anthropocene 4 ( december ) : 1–122
regional ecological variability and impact of the maritime fur trade on nearshore ecosystems in southern haida gwaii ( british columbia , canada ) : evidence from stable isotope analysis of rockfish ( sebastes spp . ) bone collagen
heinsohn te ( 2010 ) marsupials as introduced species : long - term anthropogenic expansion of the marsupial frontier and its implications for zoogeographic interpretation . altered ecologies : fire , climate and human influence on terrestrial landscapes , terra australis 32 , eds haberle s , stevenson j , prebble m ( anu e press , canberra , act , australia ) , pp . 133–176
pollen evidence for plant introductions in a polynesian tropical island ecosystem , kingdom of tonga . altered ecologies : fire , climate and human influence on terrestrial landscapes , terra australis 32 , eds haberle s , stevenson j , prebble m ( anu e press , canberra , act , australia ) , pp 253–271
no fruit on that beautiful shore : what plants were introduced to the subtropical polynesian islands prior to european contact . islands of inquiry : colonisation , seafaring and the archaeology of maritime landscapes , terra australis 29 , eds clark gr , leach f , o’connor s ( anu e press , canberra , act , australia ) , pp 227–251
coconut ( cocos nucifera l . ) dna studies support the hypothesis of an ancient austronesian migration from southeast asia to america
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researchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .
a survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .
a study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .
the mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena—but this rigor hasn’t always been enough to spur policy changes .
classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
nowak , r . m . ( 1991 ) walker’s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore and london .
cronin , l . ( 2008 ) cronin’s key guide australian mammals . allen & unwin , sydney .
macdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .
burton , m . and burton , r . ( 2002 ) international wildlife encyclopedia . third edition . marshall cavendish , new york .
clout , m . n . and efford , m . g . ( 1984 ) sex differences in the dispersal and settlement of brushtail possums ( trichosurus vulpecula ) . journal of animal ecology , 53 : 737 - 749 .
maxwell , s . , burbidge , a . a . and morris , k . d . ( 1996 ) the 1996 action plan for australian marsupials and monotremes . wildlife australia , canberra .
tasmanian parks and wildlife service , 1996 . management program for the brushtail possum trichosurus vulpecula ( kerr ) in tasmania - review of background information ( may , 2009 ) urltoken
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phtheochroa baracana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from new jersey , missouri , alberta , illinois , indiana , kentucky , maine , ohio , pennsylvania and vermont .

the wingspan is 14 – 18 mm .

adults have been recorded on wing from june to august .

phtheochroa baracana

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poole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 3 ( diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md .
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hodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .
metzler , e . h . and j . w . brown . 2014 . an updated check list of the cochylina ( tortricidae , tortricinae , euliini ) of north america north of mexico including greenland , with comments on classification and identification . journal of the lepidopterists ? society 68 ( 4 ) : 274 - 282 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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