the slender-billed white-eye ( zosterops tenuirostris ) is a species of bird in the family zosteropidae .

it is endemic to norfolk island .

its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

slender - billed white - eye

other english names : long - billed silvereye or white - eye ; slender - billed white - eye ; grinnell .
nobody uploaded sound recordings for slender - billed white - eye ( zosterops tenuirostris ) yet .
robinson , d . ( 1988 ) . ecology and management of the scarlet robin , white - breasted white - eye and long - billed white - eye on norfolk island . report to australian national parks and wildlife service , canberra .
robinson , d . ( 1988 ) . ecology and management of the the scarlet robin , white - breasted white - eye and long - billed white - eye on norfolk island . report to the australian national parks and wildlife service , canberra .
the white - chested white - eye can be distinguished from the norfolk island white - eye by its slightly larger size , white throat and breast and darker and more extensive brown markings on the flanks ( higgins et al . , 2006 ) .
is grey on back and chest , has shorter , straighter bill , is less yellow overall . white - chested white - eye
the taxonomy presented here follows the international consensus in treating the norfolk island white - eye as a separate species .
van balen , b . ( 2018 ) . slender - billed white - eye ( zosterops tenuirostris ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the norfolk island white - eye feeds in noisy flocks that move through the forest with much calling and agitation ( hermes 1985 ; hermes et al . 1986 ) . its appearance , behaviour and calls are generally similar to the silvereye , which occurs in the same habitats as the white - eye and with which the white - eye sometimes associates ( bell 1990 ; mees 1969 ; moore 1981 ; smithers & disney 1969 ) . the norfolk island white - eye is also similar in appearance and calls to the white - chested white - eye , which is thought to be extinct ( higgins et al . , 2006 ) . the norfolk island white - eye can be distinguished from the silvereye by its greater size , greyish back and underparts and longer , decurved bill ( hermes 1985 ; mees 1969 ) .
bell , b . d . ( 1990 ) . the status and management of the white - breasted white - eye and other birds on norfolk island . royal australasian ornithologists union , melbourne .
rooke , i . ( 1986 ) . survey of the white - breasted white - eye and the norfolk island boobook owl on nofolk island , october - november 1985 . raou report 20 . royal australasian ornithologists union , melbourne .
the majority of the norfolk island white - eye population occurs in and around the mount pitt section of norfolk island national park . the management plan for the park contains provisions for the management of all resident species , including norfolk island white - eye ( r . ward july 2005 , pers . comm . ) .
the norfolk island white - eye , zosterops tenuirostris , is not listed under the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 , or any state / territory government legislation .
the foraging behaviour of the white - eye and silvereye also differs , even at sites at which both species occur : the white - eye forages more often in native plant species and takes most of its food by probing bark and crevices of branches and trunks , whereas the silvereye uses exotic plants more often and forages mainly by gleaning from foliage ( bell 1990 ; gordon 1983 ; robinson 1988 ; rooke 1986 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) . the white - eye also appears to take less nectar than the silvereye ( bell 1990 ) .
there have been no confirmed records of cross - breeding between the norfolk island white - eye and other zosterops species . cross - breeding could potentially occur between the norfolk island white - eye and the silvereye z . lateralis , which colonised norfolk island in 1904 ( paynter 1967 ) . minor hybridisation may have occurred between the norfolk island white - eye and the immigrant silvereyes z . lateralis in the early stages of the 20th century ( gill 1970 ; grant 1978 ; mees 1969 ) , but there is no evidence of this now ( gill 1970 ; schodde & mason 1999 ) .
it has been recommended that the white - eye be introduced to phillip island once the vegetation there is considered capable of maintaining an introduced population ( bell 1990 ; garnett & crowley 2000 ; robinson 1988 ) .
at present , introduced predators probably pose the greatest potential threat to the white - eye population . rats and cats are common on norfolk island , even within the national park and other forested reserves ( bell 1990 ; robinson 1988 ) , and although the impact of predation upon the white - eye population is not known ( robinson 1988 ) , their small population size renders them vulnerable to any increase in predation pressure ( robinson 1988 ; rooke 1986 ) .
the calls of the two species are easily distinguished by experienced observers ( bell 1990 ) , with the white - eye said to have a higher pitched , wheezier and more sibilant call than the silvereye ( birdlife international 2000 ) .
no recovery or conservation plans exist specifically for the norfolk island white - eye although a multi species recovery plan is currently being prepared for the island by deh in consultation with norfolk island administration ( r . ward july 2005 , pers . comm . ) . both robinson ( 1988 ) and bell ( 1990 ) contain recommendations for the direction of conservation efforts for the species . as a resident of norfolk island national park , the white - eye is covered under norfolk island national park ' s plan of management .
the white - eye prefers to forage in native plants such as norfolk island pine , white oak , maple , beech , ironwood and norfolk island palm , but they will also use introduced species including eucalypts , red guava , african olive , lantana and wild tobacco solanum mauritianum . they nest in trees , shrubs and saplings ; nests have been recorded in eucalypts and ironwoods nestegis apetala .
gill , f . b . ( 1970 ) . hybridization in norfolk island white - eyes ( zosterops ) . condor . 72 : 481 - 2 .
at rocky point reserve , the white - eye inhabits regenerating forest consisting of norfolk island pines and a sparse understorey of native hardwoods ( mainly white oak ) and a few weed species ( rooke 1986 ; smithers & disney 1969 ) . the species has also been recorded in degraded pasture that had been invaded by thickets of woody weeds ( smithers & disney 1969 ) , though they typically avoid lower thickets as well as garden and forest edges ( schodde et al . 1983 ) .
13 - 14 cm . medium - sized , warbler - like bird with long , slightly decurved bill . sexes similar . greyish - brown upperparts , including head and flanks , with olive cast . white eye - ring . black lores . suffused olive - yellow upperwing - coverts . yellow - tinged undertail - coverts . grey bill , paler lower mandible .
the norfolk island white - eye population in norfolk island national park has been censused by having an observer walk a series of 250 m long transect routes through four different habitats , between 05 : 00 and 09 : 00 , at five to eight day intervals , and recording any birds within 20 m on either side of the transect ( robinson 1988 , 1997 ) .
the norfolk island white - eye is usually seen in small flocks of up to 20 birds , but has also been recorded singly and in pairs ( bell 1990 ; hermes 1985 ; mees 1969 ; moore 1981 , 1985 ; smithers & disney 1969 ) . it is sometimes seen in company with silvereyes ( moore 1981 ) . no data is available on territories or breeding dispersion .
13–15 cm ; 16–18 g . has black lores continuing under and behind medium - sized white eyering , latter interrupted at front by the black of lores ; forehead , crown , . . .
the norfolk island white - eye has been surveyed on five occasions : in 1978 , as part of the raou census of norfolk island ( schodde et al . 1983 ) ; and in 1985 , 1987 , 1989 and 1996 , during investigations of the status of native birds in norfolk island national park and at selected sites outside of the park ( bell 1990 ; robinson 1988 , 1997 ; rooke 1986 ) .
the norfolk island white - eye is non - migratory ; it is present on norfolk island throughout the year ( hermes 1985 ) . banding data suggests that they roam over small areas ; of 18 birds re - sighted after trapping during spring and early summer in 1987 , none were seen more than 60 m from the trapping sites , and some were observed near their trapping sites six weeks after banding ( robinson 1988 ) .
because the estimated total population size of the norfolk island white - eye is so small , all populations are important to the survival and recovery of the species . of particular importance is the population that occurs in and around the mount pitt section of norfolk island national park , which is the largest of the species ' populations on norfolk island ( bell 1990 ; hermes 1985 ; hermes et al . 1986 ; robinson 1988 , 1997 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) .
the norfolk island white - eye breeds from september to december ; eggs have been recorded in october and november ( hermes 1985 ; mathews 1928 ; mees 1969 ; north 1899 ; robinson 1988 ) . it builds a cup - shaped nest of moss , roots and grass , lined with hair , that is suspended by the rim from thin twigs or branchlets in trees , shrubs and saplings , including eucalypts eucalyptus spp . and ironwoods nestegis apetala ( bell 1990 ; hermes 1985 ; north 1899 ; robinson 1988 ) .
area of occupancy is estimated at 8 km² ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . this estimate is considered to be of high reliability . though no baseline data exists , area of occupancy has apparently declined since european settlement due to the degradation and clearing of habitat ( smithers & disney ) ; and recent studies show that area of occupancy is still decreasing today ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . in the past century the white - eye has disappeared from several sites throughout the central and eastern parts of norfolk island , e . g . ball bay , steels point , and near burnt pine and point blackbourne .
the norfolk island white - eye occurs only on norfolk island ( christidis & boles 1994 ; mees 1969 ; paynter 1967 ; sibley & monroe 1990 ) , where it occurs mainly in areas of tall , native forest ( hermes 1985 ; mills 2003 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) . the largest numbers are found in and around the mount pitt section of norfolk island national park , in the north - west corner of the island ( bell 1990 ; hermes 1985 ; hermes et al . 1986 ; robinson 1988 , 1997 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) . it is recorded only at scattered sites elsewhere on the island ( bell 1990 ; robinson 1988 , 1997 ; schodde et al . 1983 ) , including at rocky point reserve on the south - west coast , where it is common ( hermes 1985 ; hermes et al . 1986 ; mills 2003 ; robinson 1988 ) . there have been no recent records from the eastern side of the island ( bell 1990 ; mills 2003 ; robinson 1997 ) .
they show a preference for foraging in native plant species , such as norfolk island pine , white oak , maple , beech , ironwood and norfolk island palm ( bell 1990 ; gordon 1983 ; robinson 1988 ) , though they will occasionally feed on introduced plants including red guava , eucalypts , african olive , lantana and wild tobacco ( robinson 1988 ) . the preference for foraging in native vegetation makes them vulnerable to habitat modification and the replacement of indigenous plants by introduced species ( robinson 1988 ) .
these birds are highly mobile with movement possibly driven by food sources and shelter requirements which would change regularly as the island is subject to winds from all quarters . when an owl is disturbed in daylight hours it is not unusual for white - eyes in the immediate area to attempt to harass the owl out of their area . the noise they make whilst pressuring the owl attracts many other individuals which observers would otherwise not see or be aware of ( r . ward july 2005 , pers comm . ) .
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christidis , l . and boles , w . e . 2008 . systematics and taxonomy of australian birds . csiro publishing , collingwood , australia .
this species is listed as near threatened because although it has a very small range and population on a single island ( and has declined historically ) , its population is estimated to have been stable for several decades . it has not been significantly affected by introduced predators , including rats , and therefore there is not thought to be any plausible threat likely to lead to very rapid future declines . if such a plausible future threat were to be identified it would warrant classification as vulnerable .
, where it is thought to number c . 4 , 500 mature individuals . the species is mostly restricted to the norfolk island national park but is also found in the botanic garden and one hundred acres reserve ( m . christian
2016 ) . it underwent declines since the 1960s , particularly outside the park , which continued in the period 1987 - 1997 , however numbers since appear to have stabilised .
a survey in 2010 estimated a population of c . 4 , 000 birds in the national park on the basis of 74 records in point counts at a density of c . 900 / km
the species has been declining since the 1960s , particularly outside the norfolk island national park , a decline which has continued in the period from 1987 to 1997 ( garnett and crowley 2000 ) . numbers are since thought to have stabilised , as a 2010 survey found detected similar numbers along transects to previous surveys ( garnett
it lives in rainforest and tall secondary growth . it uses its long , down - curved bill to probe fissures in bark for insects , although it also takes fruit , including those of exotic species . it is also observed feeding on nectar from flowers of the endemic
the species has gradually disappeared from all parts of the island that have been extensively cleared for timber , cultivation , pasture and continued development ( m . christian
. this species is also presently threatened by the replacement of cleared native forest with invasive weeds ( m . christian
the norfolk island national park was declared in 1986 , encompassing most of the main remaining stands of native trees on the island . rat baiting and cat trapping is carried out within its boundaries . in 2006 , it was noted that control measures for rats were budget - constrained and limited in their effectiveness ( s . garnett
. responsible cat ownership is being encouraged , through sponsorship of a cat neutering clinic . the norfolk island region threatened species recovery plan ( director of national parks 2010 ) recommends a set of recovery measures required to reduce or remove threats to native species on the island . rabbits have been removed from phillip island .
monitor trends in the population through analysis of birdwatchers ' records . consider introducing the species to phillip island . eliminate mammalian predators from areas in which there is strong community support ( m . christian
2016 ) , and prevent reintroduction ( director of national parks 2010 ) . carry out research into the impacts of introduced predators ( m . christian
. the idea of installing a predator - proof fence around the national park , hundred acre reserve and other important areas of habitat was once proposed but hasn ' t gained traction , likely due to the costs and maintenance this would involve ( m . christian
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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : zosterops tenuirostris . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
closely related to z . lateralis ; extinct † z . strenuus ( formerly occurring on lord howe i ) sometimes treated as conspecific with present species . monotypic .
sept–dec . nest a cup - shaped structure composed of mosses , fibrous roots and grasses , lined with hair , suspended by rim from thin . . .
endangered . restricted - range species : present in norfolk island eba . confined to small island of norfolk , less than 35 km² in extent , where moderately abundant in its . . .
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internal structure much clarified by recent genetic studies # r # r , which also show that speirops and woodfordia do not represent monophyletic assemblages and are best subsumed within present genus ; one species previously included herein ( wallacei ) is better transferred to heleia .
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hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
the action plan for australian birds 2010 ( garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson , 2011 ) .
listed as near threatened ( global status : iucn red list of threatened species : 2017 . 1 list )
at present , the extent of occurrence is considered stable based on documented data ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .
these birds are highly mobile and there would need to be a lot of monitoring to get a reliable perspective on their numbers ( r ward july 2005 , pers . comm . ) .
this species occurs at only one location , norfolk island . a single threatening event such as the introduction of a predator , wildfire or severe storm activity may affect all individuals present .
the species ' distribution on the island is severely fragmented by cleared land such as farmland and the airstrip which does not provide suitable habitat for this forest - dwelling bird ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; r . ward july 2005 , pers . comm . ) .
the total population size of the species has most recently been estimated at 2000 breeding birds . however , this estimate is considered to be of low reliability ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . no attempt at surveying populations of these birds has been made in recent times ( r . ward july 2005 , pers . comm . ) .
generation length is estimated at three years . this estimate is considered to be of low reliability due to a lack of reliable life history data ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .
there is no information on ages of sexual maturity or natural mortality . one adult banded at norfolk island was recaptured at its banding place more than 13 months after banding ( unpublished data from australian bird and bat banding scheme in higgins et al . , 2006 ) .
clutch - size is said to range from two to six ( basset hull 1909a ; hermes 1985 ; mathews 1928 ; mees 1969 ; north 1899 ; robinson 1988 ) . the eggs are pale blue , slightly glossy and elongated oval in shape , and measure 19 . 5 - 23 . 2 x 13 . 5 - 16 . 3 mm ( basset hull 1909a ; mathews 1928 ; mees 1969 ; north 1899 ) . one nest appeared to have been preyed upon by rats ( bell 1990 ) .
recovery objectives should focus on maintaining a viable population on norfolk island , with a view to introducing the species to phillip island in the future ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .
control of introduced predators in norfolk island national park through rat baiting and cat trapping .
encouragement of responsible cat ownership through sponsorship of a cat de - sexing clinic . there is also support for a ban on the importation of reproductively - capable cats .
the conservation of remaining suitable habitat and the restoration or creation of suitable habitat through the removal of introduced weeds and the encouragement of native tree - planting programmes on both norfolk and phillip islands . this is critical and is occurring in the national park including phillip island .
the introduction of birds to phillip island once revegetation is established . to be assessed when vegetation has advanced to provide for the species ' requirements .
the implementation of co - operative rodent control programs across norfolk island , with the aim of eradicating rats from the island .
enhancement of the current rat baiting and cat trapping programs on norfolk island and monitoring of their efficacy and the need for this to be undertaken beyond the national park area .
gordon , m . ( 1983 ) . feeding ecology of two silvereyes zosterops lateralis and zosterops tenuirostris on norfolk island with different bill sizes . unpublished report , wildlife management department , south australian college of advanced education .
anpws ( 1994 ) . plan of managment norfolk island national park and norfolk island botanic garden . australian national parks and wildlife service . australian national parks and wildlife service .
basset hull , a . f . ( 1909a ) . the birds of lord howe and norfolk islands . in : proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . 34 : 636 - 93 .
birdlife international ( 2000 ) . threatened birds of the world . barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk : . birdlife international and lynx edicions .
christidis , l . & w . e . boles ( 1994 ) . the taxonomy and species of birds of australia and its territories . royal australasian ornithologists union monograph 2 . melbourne , victoria : royal australasian ornithologists union .
garnett , s . t . & g . m . crowley ( 2000 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2000 . canberra , act : environment australia and birds australia . available from : urltoken .
gordon , m . ( 1983 ) . feeding ecology of two silvereyes , zosterops lateralis and zosterops tenuirostris , on norfolk island with different bill sizes . unpublished report . wildlife management department , south australian college of advanced education .
grant , p . r . ( 1978 ) . recent evolution of zosterops lateralis on norfolk island , australia . canadian journal of zoology . 56 : 1624 - 6 .
hermes , n . ( 1985 ) . birds of norfolk island . wonderland publications , norfolk island .
hermes , n . , o . evans & b . evans ( 1986 ) . norfolk island birds : a review . notornis . 33 : 141 - 149 .
higgins , p . j . , j . m . peter and s . j . cowling ( 2006 ) . boatbill to starlings . in : the handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . 7 . melbourne : oxford press .
mathews , g . m . ( 1928 ) . the birds of norfolk and lord howe islands and the australasian south polar quadrant . h . f . & g . witherby , london .
mees , g . f . ( 1969 ) . a systematic review of the indo - australian zosteropidae ( part iii ) . zoologische verhandelingen . 102 : 1 - 390 .
mills , k . ( 2003 ) . a survey of the birds of norfolk island - unpublished report .
moore , j . l . ( 1981 ) . norfolk island notes 1971 to 1980 . notornis . 28 : 50 - 56 .
moore , j . l . ( 1985 ) . norfolk island notes . notornis . 32 : 311 - 318 .
north , a . j . ( 1899 ) . nests and eggs of birds found breeding on lord howe and norfolk islands . australian museum catalogue . 12 : 407 - 416 .
paynter , r . a . ( 1967 ) . check - list of birds of the world . paynter , r . a . , ed . 12 . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .
robinson , d . ( 1997 ) . an evaluation of the status of the norfolk island robin following rat - control and weed - control works in the norfolk island national park .
schodde , r . & i . j . mason ( 1999 ) . the directory of australian birds : passerines . melbourne , victoria : csiro .
schodde , r . , p . fullagar & n . hermes ( 1983 ) . a review of norfolk island birds : past and present . australian national parks and wildlife service special publication . 8 .
sibley , c . g . & b . l . monroe ( 1990 ) . distribution and taxonomy of the birds of the world . new haven , connecticut : yale university press .
smithers , c . n . & h . j . disney ( 1969 ) . the distribution of terrestrial and freshwater birds on norfolk island . australian zoologist . 15 : 127 - 140 .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( dewha ) ( 2008zzp ) . non - current threat abatement plan for predation by feral cats . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 01 - oct - 2008 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 23 - jul - 2015 .
garnett , s . , j . szabo & g . dutson ( 2011 ) . the action plan for australian birds 2010 . csiro publishing . available from : urltoken .
epbc act email updates can be received via the communities for communities newsletter and the epbc act newsletter .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . zosterops tenuirostris in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 04 : 38 : 28 + 1000 .
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, where it is thought to number c . 4 , 500 mature individuals , mostly restricted to the norfolk island national park . it underwent declines since the 1960s , particularly outside the park , which continued in the period 1987 - 1997 , however numbers since appear to have stabilised .
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aperture : f4 . 0 shutter speed : 1 / 250 sec focal length : 500 . 0 mm


the wingspan is 17 – 20 mm .

the forewings are light purplish-grey .

the hindwings are deep purplish-brown in the apical third .

apsidophora

this is the place for apsidophora definition . you find here apsidophora meaning , synonyms of apsidophora and images for apsidophora copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word apsidophora . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word apsidophora and , of course , apsidophora synonyms and on the right images related to the word apsidophora .
apsidophora is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily olethreutinae of the family tortricidae . it contains only one species , apsidophora purpurorbis , which is found in thailand , the malay peninsula , sumatra and new guinea .
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by t . m . gilligan 1 , j . baixeras 2 , j . w . brown 3 , and k . r . tuck 4
urltoken is pleased to offer the complete world catalogue of the tortricidae ( t @ rts ) ! this is a complete list of all world species , utilizing the world catalogue published in 2005 as the foundation for the database . version 3 . 0 of the online catalogue contains 15 , 099 records representing 10 , 883 species . more than 1 , 600 records have been updated from ver 2 . 0 ( jul , 2012 ) , and more than 3 , 000 records have been updated from the original catalogue . the database is completely searchable and contains photos of over 1 , 200 type specimens .
t @ rts will be updated regularly both with corrections from the original world catalogue and with additions since its publication . as such , these pages will serve as the most up to date information on current tortricid nomenclature . if you find any errors in the data presented here or have any questions / comments , please use the contact form to send the authors an email .
we are indebted to all of the original authors of the world catalogue ( j . w . brown , j . baixeras , r . brown , m . horak , f . komai , e . metzler , j . razowski , and k . tuck ) for providing the basis for this project . we would also like to thank the dozens of individuals who have provided corrections or updates to the database since it was first placed online in 2007 .
gilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2014 . t @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 3 . 0 ) . urltoken
1 colorado state university , bioagricultural sciences and pest management , 1177 campus delivery , fort collins , co 80523 , usa 2 institut cavanilles de biodiversitat i biologia evolutiva , universitat de valencia , apartat oficial 2085 , 46071 valencia , spain 3 systematic entomology laboratory - usda [ retired ] , smithsonian institution , p . o . box 37012 , national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa 4 curator - microlepidoptera [ retired ] , entomology department ( dc2 - 2n ) , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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the wingspan is 17 - 20 mm . the forewings are light purplish - grey . the hindwings are deep purplish - brown in the apical third .
notable tortricids include the codling moth and the spruce budworm , which are among the most well - studied of all insects because of their economic impact . [ 3 ]
the head is where many sensing organs and the mouth parts are found . like the adult , the larva also has a toughened , or sclerotized head capsule . [ 22 ] here , two compound eyes , and chaetosema , raised spots or clusters of sensory bristles unique to lepidoptera , occur , though many taxa have lost one or both of these spots . the antennae have a wide variation in form among species and even between diffe
though the true dimensions of species diversity remain uncertain , estimates range from 2 . 6–7 . 8 million species with a mean of 5 . 5 million . [ 42 ]
the embryos of all arthropods are segmented , built from a series of repeated modules . the last common ancestor of living arthropods probably consisted of a series of undifferentiated segments , each with a pair of appendages that functioned as limbs . however , all known living and fossil arthropods have grouped segments into tagmata in which segments and their limbs are specialized in various ways . [
nearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction . [ 20 ] they produce haploid gametes by meiosis ; the smaller , motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger , non - motile gametes are ova . [ 21 ] these fuse to form zygotes , [ 22 ] which develop via mitosis into a hollow sphere , called a blastula . in sponges , blastula larvae swim to a new location , attach to the seabed , and develop into a new sp


megalictis ( great weasel ) is an extinct genus of large predatory mustelids , which existed in north america during the " cat gap " in the miocene period .

it is thought to have resembled a large wolverine , with a body mass of up to 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) .

megalictis

lower tooth measurements ( in mm ) of megalictis ferox , megalictis simplicidens , megalictiss frazieri , and “megalictis” petersoni .
relationships between lengths ( l ) and widths ( w ) of lower dentition in megalictis ferox , megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , and “ megalictis ” petersoni .
s5 video . video of the mandible of megalictis simplicidens ( cm 1553 ) and megalictis frazieri uf 23928 .
megalictis ferox , hunt and skolnick , 1996 ( pars ) . [ 7 ]
sequential reconstruction of the head of megalictis ferox based on f : am 25430 .
craniomandibular measures of megalictis ferox and other giant mustelids and extant north american carnivorans .
s6 video . video of the reconstructed head of megalictis ferox f : am 25430 .
cranium and mandibles remains of f : am 54079 and amnh 54076 of megalictis ferox .
image - megalictis by hodarinundu - d52eqrr . jpg | dinopedia | fandom powered by wikia
s1 video . video of the cranium and mandible of megalictis ferox f : am 25430 .
s2 video . video of the cranium and mandible of megalictis ferox f : am 54079 .
included species : megalictis simplicidens ( = paroligobunis simplicidens ) ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] and megalictis frazieri ( = paroligobunis frazieri ) ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] .
type species : megalictis ferox matthew , 1907 p1 . ii , fig . 1 [ 1 ]
relationships between lengths ( l ) and widths ( w ) of upper dentition in megalictis ferox .
i think megalictis is an ancestor to the present day wolverine . say , how about drawing a megalictis attacking a prehistoric elephant , horse , rhino , or camel of the same time period ?
s3 video . video of the cranium and mandible of the holotype of megalictis ferox amnh - 12880 .
searches were performed using the branch and bound and a bootstrap analysis through 1000 replicates to test the clade support in the analysis . the outgroup was c . lupus . strict consensus tree of 6 trees ( length 194 steps , consistency index ( ci ) = 0 . 41 , retention index ( ri ) = 0 . 65 ) for knowing the relationships between the different specimens of megalictis ferox , megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , “ megalictis ” petersoni , oligobunis crassivultus , and a sample of extant musteloids and a canid . numbers below nodes are bremer indices , and numbers above nodes are bootstrap support percentages ( only shown when ≥ 50 ) . character / taxa matrix is detailed in the – appendices . silhouette of megalictis ferox based on hunt and skolnick [ ] , silhouette of megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , “ megalictis ” petersoni and oligobunis crassivultus based on megalictis ferox but rescaled according the size of the dentition .
searches were performed using the branch and bound and a bootstrap analysis through 1000 replicates to test the clade support in the analysis . the outgroup was c . lupus . strict consensus tree of 6 trees ( length 194 steps , consistency index ( ci ) = 0 . 41 , retention index ( ri ) = 0 . 65 ) for knowing the relationships between the different specimens of megalictis ferox , megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , “ megalictis ” petersoni , oligobunis crassivultus , and a sample of extant musteloids and a canid . numbers below nodes are bremer indices , and numbers above nodes are bootstrap support percentages ( only shown when ≥ 50 ) . character / taxa matrix is detailed in the s1 – s3 appendices . silhouette of megalictis ferox based on hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] , silhouette of megalictis simplicidens , megalictis frazieri , “ megalictis ” petersoni and oligobunis crassivultus based on megalictis ferox but rescaled according the size of the dentition .
virtual models of the mandibles and skulls of megalictis ferox ( f : am 25430 , f : am 54079 , amnh 12880 and amnh 22632 ) as well as megalictis frazieri uf 23928 and megalictis simplicidens ( cast of cm 1553 ) were derived by means of a 3d nextengine hd laser surface scanner ( s1 – s6 videos ) .
s4 video . video of the cranium and mandible megalictis ferox amnh - 22632 ( cast of cm 1590 ) .
three views of megalictis : restoration , skull reconstruction , and original skull . art by adam hartstone - rose .
both wolverines and megalictis are members of the weasel family mustelidae . so , informally , you could say a wolverine ( or megalictis ) is a giant weasel , same way you could say a lion or tiger is a giant cat . if you want to be technical , megalictis was megalictis , and it was neither a wolverine nor a weasel , but was related to both of them ( and probably looked more like a wolverine and less weasel - y than seen here )
megalictis , the bone - crushing giant mustelid ( carnivora , mustelidae , oligobuninae ) from the early miocene of north america .
there are no derived characters uniting the three named species of paroligobunis that are not shared with megalictis ( s2 appendix ) . our phylogenetic analysis ( fig 5 ) shows that these three species are paraphyletic with m . ferox . the larger p . frazieri and p . simplicidens are both referred to megalictis . the differences in morphology and size between the three species of megalictis with respect to “ m . ” petersoni ( fig 6 ) suggest that “ m . ” petersoni could be excluded from the genus megalictis .
( a ) megalictis simplicidens , type specimen , cm1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ ] , lateral view of the mandible , ( b ) megalictis simplicidens cm 1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ ] , medial view , ( c ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ ] , lateral view of the mandible , ( d ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ ] , medial view , ( e ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ ] , holotype uf 23928 , lateral view of the mandible , ( f ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ ] , uf 23928 , medial view , ( g ) “ megalictis” petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ ] , holotype acm 2011 , lateral view of the mandible , ( h ) “ megalictis” petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ ] acm 2011 , medial view , ( i ) megalictis simplicidens cm1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ ] , occlusal view , ( j ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ ] , occlusal view , ( k ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ ] , uf 23928 , occlusal view , ( l ) “ megalictis” petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ ] acm 2011 , occlusal view . scale bar equals 5 cm . a - d , i and j courtesy of the carnegie museum of natural history . e - f and k courtesy of the florida museum of natural history . g - h and l , beneski museum of natural history at amherst college , courtesy of the trustees of amherst college .
un megalictis a la entrada de su guarida . : > megalictis fue una comadreja gigante - segun ciertos autores , algunas especies alcanzaban el tamaño de un oso negro . era incluso mas grande que ekorus , pero tenía proporciones distintas , mas similares a las de un mustélido moderno . los mustelidos modernos son depredadores temerarios que atacan presas a veces mucho mayores que ellos mismos ; imaginen si megalictis existiera todavia . . . a megalictis by its lair : > megalictis was a giant weasel - according to certain authors , some species could grow up as big as a black bear . it was even bigger than ekorus , but had different proportions , more like a modern day mustelid . modern day mustelids are fearless predators that attack prey sometimes much larger than themselves . imagine if megalictis was still around . . .
( a ) megalictis simplicidens , type specimen , cm1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] , lateral view of the mandible , ( b ) megalictis simplicidens cm 1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] , medial view , ( c ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ 29 ] , lateral view of the mandible , ( d ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ 29 ] , medial view , ( e ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] , holotype uf 23928 , lateral view of the mandible , ( f ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] , uf 23928 , medial view , ( g ) “ megalictis” petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] , holotype acm 2011 , lateral view of the mandible , ( h ) “ megalictis” petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] acm 2011 , medial view , ( i ) megalictis simplicidens cm1553 ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] , occlusal view , ( j ) megalictis simplicidens cm 2389 ( peterson , 1910 ) [ 29 ] , occlusal view , ( k ) megalictis frazieri ( frailey , 1978 ) [ 28 ] , uf 23928 , occlusal view , ( l ) “ megalictis” petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] acm 2011 , occlusal view . scale bar equals 5 cm . a - d , i and j courtesy of the carnegie museum of natural history . e - f and k courtesy of the florida museum of natural history . g - h and l , beneski museum of natural history at amherst college , courtesy of the trustees of amherst college .
a , and b megalictis ferox holotype amnh 12880 , lateral view ( a ) , ventral view ( b ) ; c , and d megalictis ferox cm 1590 ( genotype of aelurocyon brevifacies ) , lateral view ( c ) , ventral view ( d ) ; megalictis ferox f : am 25430 lateral view ( e ) , ventral view ( f ) ; g , and h megalictis ferox f : am 54079 lateral view ( g ) , ventral view ( h ) . scale bar equals 5 cm . c and d courtesy of the carnegie museum of natural history .
megalictis , the bone - crushing giant mustelid ( carnivora , mustelidae , oligobuninae ) from the early miocene of north america . - pubmed - ncbi
awesome ! nice to see a picture of megalictis . y ' know , ya don ' t don ' t see many of that around .
finally , a second megalictis restoration ! until now , there was only one i knew of , and it was part of a childrens ' coloring book . wonderful job on the artwork , as usual .
but now paleontologist alberto valenciano and colleagues have discovered that megalictis was no feline wannabe . through a new analysis of previously - undescribed skull material , the researchers not only refine the evolutionary relationships of america’s giant weasels , but they also make the case that the teeth and jaws of megalictis were more like those of hyenas and some deep - jawed dogs than to cats . in other words , this huge weasel was a bone - crusher .
oh , ok , thanks for clearing it up . so you ' re saying that megalictis would appear more like a wolverine than a stoat ? so bacically you ' re saying your drawing is innacurate ? ( still an awesome drawing though )
name : megalictis . phonetic : meg - ah - lik - tiss . named by : william diller matthew  -  1907 . synonyms : aelurocyon brevifacies ,  brachypsalis simplicidens ,  megalictis brevifacies ,  megalictis simplicidens ,  paroligobunis ,  simplicidens . classification : chordata ,  mammalia ,  carnivora ,  mustelidae ,  oligobuninae . species : m .  ferox ( type )  ,  m .  frazieri ,  m .  petersoni . diet : carnivore . size : estimated between 20 and 60 kilograms ,  but opinions amongst palaeontologists can vary greatly . known locations : usa . time period : harrisonian ( late chattian of the oligocne to aquitanian of the miocene )  . fossil representation : multiple individuals .
paleontologist william diller matthew named carnivore megalictis ferox way back in 1907 . the mammal’s teeth and osteology clearly showed it to be a cousin of martens and stoats , yet their dimensions “indicate an animal which may best be described as a gigantic wolverene [ sic ] , equaling a jaguar or a black bear in size . ” and given that cats were meek little things at the time megalictis lived , paleontologists thought that this weasel had evolved to take on a lion - like lifestyle during north america’s long cat gap .
it was rendered almost exactly like a modern wolverine , right down to the pattern of its coat . yours has more of a chunky bear - like quality to it , which makes a bit more sense than simply upsizing a wolverine to megalictis ' proportions .
valenciano , a . , baskin , j . , abella , j . , pérez - ramos , a . , álvarez - sierra , m . , morales , j . , hartstone - rose , a . 2016 . megalictis , the bone - crushing giant mustelid ( carnivora , mustelidae , oligobuninae ) from the early miocene of north america megalictis , the bone - crushing giant mustelid ( carnivora , mustelidae , oligobuninae ) from the early miocene of north america . plos one . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0152430
“megalictis” petersoni ( fig 6g , 6h and 6l ) differs from m . simplicidens and m . frazieri in the absence of mesial accessory cuspids on p3–4 , a relatively stouter p4 with a shorter mesial part and a relatively more robust m1 with a taller and stouter metaconid .
. . . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] synonymized megalictis , aelurocyon , and paroligobunis simplicidens into a single , sexually - dimorphic chronospecies m . ferox . this hypothesis has been generally accepted ( e . g . , [ 3 , 13 , 42 ] ) . . . .
i like how you drew him cute . at least until he bites someone ' s face off ! it just baffles me that bear - sized wolverines once walked the earth . i mean , modern day wolverines can drive off bears and kill moose , so imagine what this creature was capable of ! megalictis don ' t care !
citation : valenciano a , baskin ja , abella j , pérez - ramos a , álvarez - sierra má , morales j , et al . ( 2016 ) megalictis , the bone - crushing giant mustelid ( carnivora , mustelidae , oligobuninae ) from the early miocene of north america . plos one 11 ( 4 ) : e0152430 . urltoken
hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] did not consider the other two species referred to paroligobunis : the small p . petersoni loomis , 1932 [ 27 ] and p . frazieri frailey , 1978 [ 28 ] . as discussed below , we consider the material referred to both p . simplicidens and p . frazieri to be valid species : megalictis frazieri and m . simplicidens .
megalictis ferox [ 1 ] was described from the black bear formation , stanley county , south dakota , usa . a second giant oligobunine , aelurocyon brevifacies peterson , 1907 [ 5 ] , was described from the niobrara canyon local fauna , anderson ranch formation in sioux county , nebraska , usa . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] established that the actual publication date for a . brevifacies was one week after matthew described m . ferox in 1907 , not in 1906 as indicated in the journal . after these initial descriptions , riggs [ 6 ] described new cranial and postcranial material of both taxa . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] synonymized megalictis ferox , aelurocyon brevifacies , and the large oligobunine mustelid paroligobunis simplicidens ( peterson , 1907 ) [ 5 ] .
here , we describe an important unpublished sample of craniomandibular remains of megalictis ferox ( f : am 25430 , f : am 54079 , and amnh 54076 ) , housed at the american museum of natural history ( new york , usa ) . although f : am 25430 and f : am 54079 were found in the late 1930s and have been used to obtain metric , morpho - functional and phylogenetic data ( e . g . , [ 2 , 7 , 12 – 16 ] ) , they have never been fully described . therefore , the main objective of the present paper is to describe these unpublished skulls and mandibles , and provide new data on the taxonomy and systematics of the genus in order to shed new light on the paleobiology of megalictis .
all the three species that have been referred to paroligobunis ( fig 6 ) are known from limited material . the genotype of paroligobunis , megalictis simplicidens ( cm 1590 , peterson , 1907 , 1910 ) [ 5 , 29 ] comes from the “agate stock farm” , sioux county nebraska . the exact locality is unknown and it is either from the harrison formation ( ar3 ) or the basal part of the anderson ranch formation [ 7 ] . additional material first referred to p . simplicidens [ 29 ] and later to megalictis ferox [ 7 ] is from quarry 3 , beardog hill , agate fossil beds national monument , from the basal part of the anderson ranch formation . the small “m” . petersoni ( loomis , 1932 ) [ 27 ] is from a locality near van tassel , wyoming , “upper harrison beds” ( = anderson ranch formation ) and p . frazieri frailey , 1978 [ 28 ] is from the sb - 1a local fauna , florida , latest oligocene , early late arikareean ( ar3 ) . hunt ( in tedford et . al , 2004 : p . 205 [ 3 ] ) recognized that “‘ paroligobunis’ frazieri is an earlier form preceding the late arikareean species of megalictis ” .
the new specimens of megalictis ferox described here ( f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 ) give us a broader understanding of the morphology of m . ferox and lead us to conclude that the holotypes of both m . ferox ( amnh 12880 ) and aelurocyon brevifacies ( cm 1590 ) are conspecific and thus the latter should be subsumed into m . ferox . we argue that there are 3 species ascribed to megalictis : m . ferox , m . frazieri and m . simplicidens . however , the fourth potential congener , “m” . petersoni , might be best ascribed to a different genus . our cladistic analysis suggests that m . ferox is the sister taxon of the clade composed by m . simplicidens — m . frazieri . our phylogenetic hypothesis supports the subfamily oligobuninae as being a stem mustelid .
megalictis frazieri ( fig 6e , 6f and 6k ) differs from m . simplicidens ( fig 6a–6d , 6i and 6j ) in having a less massive mandible and a more distinctive distal cingulum with a higher crown in p2–4 than m . simplicidens . the c and p2 of m . frazieri are also more robust . the m1 hypoconid is higher and the talonid is relatively larger , slightly basined with a very low internal rim .
synonyms : senior subjective synonym [ 7 ] of aelurocyon brevifacies peterson , 1907 , p . 68 [ 5 ] , “upper harrison formation” , sioux county , nebraska and paroligobunis peterson , 1910 [ 29 ] . hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] synonymized megalictis , aelurocyon , and paroligobunis simplicidens into a single , sexually - dimorphic chronospecies m . ferox . this hypothesis has been generally accepted ( e . g . , [ 3 , 13 , 42 ] ) .
hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] partially described and measured some of the unsm and cm specimens of megalictis from the basal part of the anderson ranch formation at beardog hill that we refer to m . simplicidens . aside from their more primitive morphology ( e . g . , presence of a metaconid on m1 ) , they are smaller than m . ferox from the upper anderson ranch formation . the upper and lower dental measurements indicate a size similar to g . gulo .
thanks . yeah , i don´t think i had ever seen a megalictis reconstruction when i drew this , so yes , it probably looks little like the real thing . there ' s quite a few drawings in my gallery that are really just my first impresison of what x creature would look like , because quite simply there were no other reconstructions available ( or i didn´t find any ! ) the drawing ' s over three years old , i think it may be time to draw a new version
diagnosis : baskin [ 2 ] diagnosed of aelurocyon brevifacies ( which he considered the senior subjective synonym of megalictis ferox because of the presumed earlier publication date at the time he submitted the chapter ) . new or revised characters follow . megalictis ferox is the largest of the oligobunines ; coronoid process high and caudally curved ; enlarged masseteric fossa with a robust crest extending from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to below the m2 ; laterocaudal area of the ventral edge of the mandibular corpus laterally projected ; p2 with distal accessory cusp ; robust p3 ; robust p4 with strong parastyle and protocone ; p4 carnassial notch present ; m1 with enlarged stylar area ; m2 with paracone and protocone ; p2–4 with high - crowned distal cingula ; p3 with mesial and distal accessory cuspid ; p4 relatively enlarged with presence of mesial accessory cuspid and stout distal accessory cuspid ; m1 trigonid widened ; m1 with strong lingual concavity between paraconid and protoconid ; m1 protoconid higher than paraconid ; m1 hypoconid short , trenchant and buccally located ; m1 with a lingual cingulum in the entoconid position ; m2 reduced with metaconid .
dental nomenclature follows ginsburg [ 17 ] and smith and dodson [ 18 ] . anatomical descriptions are based primarily on scapino [ 19 ] , turnbull [ 20 ] , barone [ 21 , 22 ] , waibl et al . [ 23 ] , evans and de lahunta [ 24 , 25 ] , and hartstone - rose et al . [ 26 ] . the terminology conforms to the standard of the nomina anatomica veterinaria [ 23 ] with the exception of the masseter and temporalis muscle complexes for which we follow hartstone - rose et al . [ 26 ] . the megalictis material ( figs 1 – 4 ) has been compared to all the other material of megalictis and paroligobunis on the basis of published descriptions , figures , measurements and photographs . we have re - measured the dentition of amnh 12880 and 22632 ( cast of cm 1590 ) measured initially by matthew [ 1 ] and peterson [ 5 ] and completed the measures of paroligobunis petersoni loomis , 1932 [ 27 ] using a cast tmm 40966–1 . measurements were made using mitutoyo absolute digital calipers to the nearest 0 . 1 mm ( tables 1 and 2 ) .
the preservation of the of m . ferox specimen f : am 25430 represents by far the most complete and best preserved craniomandibular specimen of any giant mustelids . based on the size of the skull , m . ferox emerges as the largest terrestrial mustelid ever known–even larger than the extinct late miocene giant mustelid ekorus , eomellivora , and plesiogulo [ 13 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 70 ] . this new material sheds light on a new paleobiological interpretation of megalictis as a hyena - like , bone - crushing mustelid , instead of the cat - like ecomorphotype previously ascribed to the genus .
metrically the new megalictis ferox sample described above ( f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 ) together with amnh 12880 and cm 1590 form a single picture of m . ferox with dental biometric variability similar to the largest extant terrestrial mustelids gulo and mellivora ( figs 7 and 8 ) . however , if m . simplicidens is considered as a synonym of m . ferox , this variability exceeds the extant one . such variability is much more pronounced when all the specimens of m . simplicidens , m . frazieri and the small “ m . ” petersoni ( figs 7 and 8 ) are included .
megalictis ferox matthew , 1907 [ 1 ] is a giant mustelid of the subfamily oligobuninae and belongs to the paraphyletic group of “paleomustelids” [ 2 ] . it lived in the early miocene during the late arikareean ar4 north american land mammal age 22 . 7–18 . 5 mya [ 3 , 4 ] of the central great plains of united states in the states of nebraska , south dakota , and wyoming [ 1 , 5 – 7 ] . the ar4 lithostratigraphic units containing giant oligobunines have been revised . hunt [ 8 ] named the anderson ranch formation for the terminal formation of the arikaree group in nebraska and wyoming formerly referred to as the upper harrison beds of peterson [ 5 , 9 ] and the lower marsland formation of schultz [ 10 ] . the black bear formation replaces the upper rosebud formation of south dakota [ 11 ] .
in order to better understand the phylogenetic relationships of the oligobunines megalictis ferox ( amnh 12880 , cm 1590 , f : am 25430 and f : am 54079 ) , m . simplicidens ( = paroligobunis simplicidens ) ( cm 1553 and cm 2389 ) , m . frazieri ( = paroligobunis frazieri ) ( uf 23928 ) , “ m . ” petersoni ( = paroligobunis petersoni ) ( acm 2011 ) , and oligobunis crassivultus ( amnh 6903 ) , we have performed a cladistic analysis ( fig 5 ) including 18 taxa ( m . ferox is represented in the analysis as 4 separate operational taxonomic units ( otu ) ) and 73 equally weighted and unordered craniomandibular characters ( s1 – s3 appendices ) . cladistic analysis was performed using in paup * 4 . 0b10 [ 38 ] . the analysis was rooted using c . lupus as the outgroup .
differential diagnosis : megalictis ferox differs from m . simplicidens , m . frazieri , “m . ” petersoni and oligobunis crassivultus in its larger size , m1 without metaconid and m1 talonid with a closed lingual morphology with a lingual cingulum between the metacristid and entocristid . additionally , it differs from m . simplicidens and m . frazieri in having a higher and more robust mandibular symphysis , a reduced p2 and a more robust p4 and m1 . it further differs from “m . ” petersoni in much larger size and p3–4 with mesial accessory cuspids . it further differs from oligobunis crassivultus in having a more rectangular p2 , smaller m1 than p4 , enlarged m1 stylar area , higher paracone than metacone on the m1 , reduced p2 , p2–3 high - crowned distal cingula , more developed p3 distal accessory cuspid , relatively enlarged p4 , and higher protoconid than paraconid on the m1 .
megalictis simplicidens and m . frazieri ( fig 6 ) resemble m . ferox in several characters , such as a high , wide and distally curved ascending ramus , and a deep masseteric fossa with a robust crest that extends from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to below the m2 . both taxa have a p1 , the distal cingula of p2–4 are high - crowned , and the p4 is relatively enlarged with mesial and distal accessory cuspids . the m1 trigonid is widened , with a strong lingual concavity between the paraconid and protoconid , a low , and narrow talonid with a short , trenchant and labially located hypoconid , and a reduced m2 with presence of a metaconid . however they differ from m . ferox in having a non - reduced p2 , the presence of a stout m1 metaconid , relatively more slender p4 and m1 , m1 talonid with an open lingual morphology between the metacristid and entocristid , and a lower and more slender mandibular symphysis .
megalictis ferox ( figs 1 – 4 ) is characterized by several traits : long external auditory meatus ; high and caudally curved coronoid process ; enlarged masseteric fossa with a robust crest from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to just beneath the m2 ; latero - caudal area of the ventral edge of the mandibular corpus is laterally projected , with the ventral edge of the angular process also laterally projected ; i3 is enlarged ; p2 with a distal accessory cusp ; robust p3 ; robust p4 with carnassial notch ; enlarged stylar area of m1 , and a m2 with paracone and protocone differentiated ; p2–4 distal cingula high - crowned ; distal accessory cuspid on p3 ; relatively enlarged p4 with a stout mesial accessory cuspid ; relatively stout m1 with a widened trigonid , a strong lingual concavity between the paraconid and protoconid , no metaconid , protoconid higher than paraconid , with a short , trenchant and buccally located hypoconid and a lingual rim in the entoconid position ; reduced m2 with a metaconid .
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full reference : w . d . matthew . 1907 . a lower miocene fauna from south dakota . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 23 ( 9 ) : 169 - 219
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copyright : © 2016 valenciano et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
data availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .
funding : a . v . has received funding from the european union’s seventh framework programme ( fp7 / 2007 - 2013 ) under grant agreement n° 226506 ( synthesys ; se - taf - 3637 ) , the usc school of medicine ( columbia , south carolina , usa ) , the amnh ( collection study grant program 2014 ) and the international travel grant 2015 from the vertebrate paleontology department of flmnh from uf . a . v . is researcher in formation in the csic program jae - pre _ cp2011 ( csic program
junta para la ampliación de estudios
) , co - funded by the european social fund . a . p . r . is a pre - doctoral fpi fellowship ( bes - 2013 - 065469 ) of the project cgl2012 - 37866 . this study was also supported by the spanish ministerio de economía y competitividad ( research project cgl2015 - 68333 , cgl2011 - 28877 and cgl2011 - 28681 ) , the research group bsch - ucm 910607 and university of south carolina school of medicine ( columbia , south carolina , usa ) .
abbreviations : acm , amherst college beneski museum of natural history , massachusetts , usa ; ahr , comparative anatomy research collection , university of south carolina school of medicine , columbia , usa ; amnh , american museum of natural history , division of paleontology and division of mammalogy , new york , usa ; cm , carnegie museum of natural history , pittsburgh , usa ; f : am , collection housed in the frick collection of the division of paleontology , amnh , new york , usa ; lgput , laboratory of geology and palaeontology , university of thessaloniki , greece ; mncn , museo nacional de ciencias naturales madrid , spain ; mncncomp , comparative anatomy research collection of paleobiology department of museo nacional de ciencias naturales madrid , spain ; nrm , naturhistoriska rikmuseet , stockholm , sweden ; pin , palaeontological institute , russian academy of sciences , moscow , russia ; sam - pql , iziko south african museum , cape town south african museum , south africa ; tmm , texas memorial museum at the vertebrate paleontology laboratory , the jackson school of geosciences , university of texas , austin , usa ; uf , vertebrate paleontology collection of the florida museum of natural history ( flmnh ) , university of florida , gainesville , usa ; unsm , university of nebraska state museum , lincoln , nebraska , usa ; usnm , united states national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , d . c . , usa
a lateral view ; b rostral view ; c dorsal view ; d caudal view ; e ventral view . scale bar equals 5 cm .
a right mandible lateral view ; b occlusal view ; c left mandible lingual view of lower dentition . scale bar equals 5 cm .
a1–4 cranium f : am 54079 , lateral view ( a1 ) , dorsal view ( a2 ) , ventral view ( a3 ) , and caudal view ( a4 ) ; b1–3 right hemimandible f : am 54079 , lateral view ( b1 ) , medial view ( b2 ) , and occlusal view ( b3 ) ; c1–3 left hemimandible f : am 54079 lateral view ( c1 ) , medial view ( c2 ) , and oclussal view ( c3 ) ; d1–3 right hemimandible of amnh 54076 , lateral view ( d1 ) , medial view ( d2 ) , and occlusal view ( d3 ) . scale bar equals 5 cm .
f : am 25430 ( figs 1 and 2 , s1 video ) : relatively complete skull with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 , missing only its left zygomatic arch , a broken frontal area plus a portion of the right parietal region missing and filled with plaster , a hole in its right parietal bone , and a complete mandible with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 ; f : am 54079 ( fig 3 , s2 video ) : right side of a partial skull without the premaxilla , with worn c , p2 - m1 and partial mandibles with a nearly complete right one with c - m2 and a broken mandibular symphysis and a left one just with the mandibular corpus preserved and a broken p2 , and a complete both p3 and m1 ; amnh 54076 ( fig 3 ) : partial mandibular corpus with m1 - 2 .
diagnosis : large to giant size mustelid ; robust mandible with a high , wide and distally curved ascending ramus ; deep masseteric fossa with a stout crest that extends from the dorsal border of the coronoid process to below the m2 ; robust dentition ; p1 present ; p2–4 with distal cingula high - crowned ; p4 relatively enlarged with mesial and distal accessory cuspids ; m1 trigonid widened , with a strong lingual concavity between the paraconid and protoconid ; m1 metaconid reduced to absent , present in the older and smaller forms and absent in the giant forms , m1 talonid low and narrow with a short , trenchant and labially located hypoconid ; and m2 with reduced metaconid .
holotype : amnh 12880 , a partial reconstructed skull ( fig 4 , s3 video ) with right p4 , m1 - 2 , a fragmented right mandible with almost complete coronoid process , m1 trigonid and m2 , and very few postcranial remains figured by matthew , 1907 , p . 196 , fig . 10–13 , 15 [ 1 ] .
type locality : rosebud 22 , porcupine butte , black bear formation , stanley county , south dakota .
other localities : rosebud 5 , porcupine butte , stanley county , south dakota , usa ( amnh 12881 ) ; niobrara canyon local fauna , sioux county , nebraska , usa ( cm 1590 ) , “high daemonelix beds” , niobrara canyon local fauna , sioux county , nebraska , usa ( f : am 25430 ) ; j - m district , south of lusk , goshen county , wyoming , usa [ 6 ] ; “high brown sand” , 16 mile district , goshen county , wyoming , usa ( f : am 54079 ) ; 8 north of lusk , goshen county , wyoming , usa ( f : am 54076 ) .
age : upper part of the anderson ranch formation and its equivalents , south dakota , nebraska , and wyoming , late late arikareean ( ar4 ) , 22 . 7–18 . 5 mya [ 4 ] early miocene .
comments : specimens that can be referred to m . ferox s . s . are from the latest arikareean ( ar4 ) upper part of the anderson ranch formation and its equivalents .
a nearly complete skull with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 ( fig 1 , s1 video ) and a complete mandible with i1 - 3 , c , p1 - 4 and m1 - 2 ( fig 2 , s1 video ) . the left zygomatic arch is missing . part of the frontal and a region of the right parietal bones are missing and filled with plaster . there is a subrectangular and anthropogenic hole in its right parietal bone located above the most caudal area of the zygomatic arch .
locality : “high daemonelix beds” , anderson ranch formation , niobrara canyon local fauna , sioux county , nebraska , usa .
the zygomatic arches are robust , especially caudally near the glenoid cavity . both m . masseter pars superficialis and m . masseter pars profunda have their origin on the ventrolateral side of the zygomatic arch . the frontal processes of the zygomatic arches are triangular and dorsoventrally high .
ventrally ( fig 1e ) , the incisive foramina are preserved . the palate is broad and expanded mediolaterally between the p4–m2 . the posterior border of the palatine is expanded caudally behind the molars . the pterygoid region and the hamulus pterygoideus processes are relatively well preserved . the hamulus pterygoideus processes are large and caudally expanded ( fig 1e ) . the foramen ovale is located in line with the glenoid fossa . the alisphenoid canal is absent . the glenoid fossa is relatively strong . the auditory bullae are large and swollen . the external auditory meati are rounded ( fig 1a ) . the ventral wall of the auditory bullae has been partially destroyed , and the tympanic chamber is exposed . the postglenoid foramen is large , rounded and located caudally to the postglenoid process and medially to the external auditory meatus . the rostral foramen lacerum or external carotid foramen is a large double foramen located on the rostromedial corner of the auditory bullae . the caudal carotid foramen is almost hidden and is located in line with the external auditory meatus , midway along the medial margin of the auditory bullae . the large rounded caudal foramen lacerum is located on the caudal - most corner of the skull . the suprameatal fossa is absent . the condyloid foramen is located caudally to the caudal foramen lacerum and is clearly separated from it . the stylomastoid foramen is not preserved . the occipital condyles are strong and their dorsal parts are broader than the ventral ones . the foramen magnum is large and subquandrangular ( fig 1d ) . the mastoid process is highly expanded ( fig 1c and 1e ) ; measuring 106 . 1 mm in width . the caudal area of the skull is very broad . the nuchal crest has a great caudal development . its dorsal part is projected caudally . in dorsal view the ventral parts of the nuchal crest in conjunction with the mastoid process are laterally widened , which creates large attachment areas for m . zygomatic temporalis on the dorsal side ( fig 1c ) and m . obliquus capiti cranialis on the caudal side ( fig 1d ) . the mastoid process is robust and is situated caudal to the external auditory meatus . the supraoccipital bone is very enlarged . the paroccipital process is not preserved .
mandible and lower dentition : the mandible of f : am 25430 is very robust ( fig 2a and 2b ) . it has a total length of 149 . 0 mm . the tooth row is slightly convex and is aligned with the articular process . the mandibular corpus is high and robust . the ventral margin is convex at the level of the m1 . there is single rounded mental foramen under p2 . the ascending ramus is tall and rostrocaudally broad ( fig 2a ) . its tip is distally oriented . the coronoid process is laterally rotated with an angle of ~ 75 degrees , compared to the articular process . there is a robust crest from the dorsal border of the coronoid to beneath the m2 where the tendon of the m . temporalis is attached . this area is especially enlarged and laterally projected around the area of the m2 ( fig 2a and 2b ) . the masseteric fossa is large and deep . its rostral margin lies at the level of talonid of m1 , and ventrolaterally is limited by a strong area where the m . masseter pars superficialis and m . masseter pars profunda insert . the articular process is large and robust . the angular process is robust and shows a medial crest for the muscular attachment of the m . pterygoideus medialis .
the lower dentition ( 3 / 1 / 4 / 2 ) is also preserved in its entirety ( fig 2 ) . the lower incisors are heavily worn . the canine is large , stout and markedly curved distally ( fig 2a and 2b ) . it has a swollen base and is oval in cross - section . the p1 is oval , single - cusped and distally wide ( fig 2b ) . the p2–4 are stout , subrectangular and wider distally . these premolars have strong cingula at their bases , and the distal cingula are high - crowned . the p2 has a single messially - located cuspid . the p3 has a low mesial accessory cuspid and a more developed distal one . the p4 is the largest lower premolar and has more strongly developed mesial and distal accessory cuspids . the m1 is a relatively short and stout tooth ( fig 2 ) . the very robust trigonid occupies almost three fourths of the total length of the tooth , with the greatest width at the base of the protoconid . the paraconid is lower than the protoconid and there is no metaconid . the m1 shows a markedly lingual concavity in the base of the crown between the trigonid cuspids ( fig 2b ) . the stout talonid lacks an entoconid . the hypoconid is low , trenchant and buccally located . there is a smooth cristid from the top of the protoconid to the hypoconid that encloses a deep lingual depression ( fig 2c ) . the m2 is rounded and low ( fig 2b ) . the paraconid is low , and located in the mesial corner . the protoconid is the highest cuspid , located buccally in the middle of the tooth . the metaconid is situated over the lingual corner . it is less developed than the protoconid . the hypoconid is low and located in the distal corner . there is a cingulum around the whole tooth .
partial skull with worn c , p2–m1 and partial mandible with worn p1–4 and m1–2 ( fig 3a1–4 , 3b1–3 and 3c1–3 , s2 video ) .
locality : “high brown sand” , 16 mile district , anderson ranch formation , goshen county , wyoming , usa .
c , p2–4 and are preserved . the p1 is missing . they are more worn than are those of f : am 25430 . the c has a large lingual wear facet . the morphology of p2–4 ( fig 3a3 ) is almost identical to that of f : am 25430 . the p3 is more quadrangular than that of f : am 25430 , but the mesiolingual corner of the p3 is missing . the p4 paracone , protocone and metastyle are greatly - worn ( fig 3a3 ) . the m1 ( fig 3a3 ) has the same development of the cusps as that found in f : am 25430 , and shows a very similar morphology as that of amnh 12880 . the m2 and its alveoli are not preserved .
mandible and lower dentition : the right hemimandible ( fig 3b1–3 ) has a fragmented corpus that is missing its symphyseal end but includes a complete ascending ramus with p1–4 and m1–2 . its morphology is almost identical to that of f : am 25430 . the left hemimandible ( fig 3c1–3 ) is missing its ascending ramus but includes a complete mandibular corpus , a complete p1 , a fragmented p2 , a highly worn p3 , a complete m1 and a fragmented m2 . the p1–4 and m1 are almost identical to those of f : am 25430 though there is more substantial occlusal wear in p2–4 and m1 than in f : am 25430 . the m2 is oval and has a more developed metaconid than the m2 of f : am 25430 .
locality : 8 north of lusk , goshen county , anderson ranch formation , wyoming , usa .
mandible and lower dentition : amnh 54076 is a fragmented mandibular corpus missing its symphysis ( fig 3d1–3 ) . it has roots for p2–3 , and complete m1–2 . the mandibular corpus is high and robust . the m1 is identical to those of f : am 54079 and f : am 25430 . it has a stout trigonid , and a low talonid composed of a trenchant hypoconid , lingually located and a lingual depression . the m2 is rounded and low . it has a distinguishable protoconid and metaconid , and a continuous basal cingulum .
the results of the cladistic analysis indicate that the specimens we assign to m . ferox form a monophyletic group ( fig 5 ) . we agree with hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] in that m . ferox and a . brevifacies are the same taxon , and that m . ferox has priority . morphologically , the specimens f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 , as well as cm 1590 and amnh 12880 , are practically identical to each other ( figs 1 – 4 ) . f : am 54079 differs from f : am 25430 and cm1590 in having a more robust p3 and a relatively longer m2 . cm 1590 has a reduced lingual expansion of p3 and a stronger parastyle of p4 than f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 12880 . the morphology of f : am 25430 is clearly different from the skull of amnh 12880 , and shows that the reconstructed parts of the latter were incorrect , in which the temporal , frontal and a part of the zygomatic arch bones are misinterpreted ( fig 4a and 4b ) . f : am 25430 allows us to complete the knowledge about the morphology of the skull of m . ferox and showing that the holotype of m . ferox ( amnh 12880 ) and the holotype of a . brevifacies ( cm 1590 ) belong to the same species . consequently , f : am 54079 , f : am 25430 and amnh 54076 should be assigned to m . ferox . we agree with hunt and skolnick [ 7 ] that the difference observed in the specimens of m . ferox can be explained by intraspecific variability ( sexual dimorphism and intrapopulational differences ) or small temporal differences .
a life appearance ; b , reconstructed skull and mandible ; c , skull and mandible f : am 25430 . artwork by adam hartstone - rose .
s1 table . list of the extant specimens of carnivorans used in this paper .
conceived and designed the experiments : av jm ahr . performed the experiments : av jab jm . analyzed the data : av jab ja maas jm ahr . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : av ja apr . wrote the paper : av jab ja maas jm ahr .
matthew wd . a lower miocene fauna from south dakota . bull am mus nat hist . 1907 ; 23 : 169–219 .
baskin ja . mustelidae . in : janis cm , scott km , jacobs ll , editors . evolution of tertiary mammals of north america , volume 1 : terrestrial carnivores , ungulates , and ungulate - like mammals . cambridge : cambridge university press ; 1998 . pp . 152–173 .
tedford rh , albright lb iii , barnosky ad , ferrusquia - villafranca i , hunt rm jr , storer je , et al . mammalian biochronology of the arikareen through hemphillian interval ( late oligocene through early pliocene epochs ) . in : woodburne mo , editor . late cretaceous and cenozoic mammals of north america : biostratigraphy and geochronology . new york : columbia university press ; 2004 . pp . 169–231 .
albright lb iii , woodburne mo , fremd tj , swisher cc iii , macfadden bj , scott gr . revised chronostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of the john day formation ( turtle cove and kimberly members ) , oregon , with implications for updated calibration of the arikareean north american land mammal age . j geol . 2008 ; 116 : 211–237
peterson oa . the miocene beds of western nebraska and eastern wyoming and their vertebrate faunae . ann carnegie mus . 1907 ; 4 : 21–72 .
riggs es . some early miocene carnivores . publ - field mus nat hist , geol ser . 1945 ; 9 : 69–114 .
from the early miocene carnivore dens at agate fossil beds national monument , nebraska : earliest evidence of dimorphism in new world mustelidae ( carnivora , mammalia ) . univ wyoming contrib geol . 1996 ; 31 : 35–48 .
hunt rm jr . new amphicyonid carnivorans ( mammalia , daphoeninae ) from the early miocene of southeastern wyoming . am mu novit . 2002 ; 3385 : 1–41 .
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ginsburg l . order carnivora . in rössner ge , heissig k editors . the miocene land mammals of europe . friedrich pfeil : münchen ; 1999 . pp . 109–148 .
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the northern zigzag salamander ( plethodon dorsalis ) is a species of salamander in the family plethodontidae .

it is endemic to the united states .

it is one of 55 species in the genus plethodon .

its natural habitats are temperate forests , rocky areas , and caves .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

northern zigzag salamander

eastern red - backed salamander has a straight - edged dorsal stripe . southern zigzag salamander distinguished from identical northern zigzag salamander by range and genetic analysis .
occurs in the eastern two - thirds of tn below 2500 ft . zigzag salamander fairly recently split into northern and southern zigzag ( p . ventralis ) salamander , which appear identical .
this species was once considered a subspecies of the northern zigzag salamander ( p . dorsalis ) . but the ozark zigzag salamander is both geographically isolated and genetically divergent from that species , so scientists elevated it to full species status .
a little different from my other videos , this is just some plain footage of northern zigzag salamanders .
n . feeding behavior . spiders and beetles comprised most of the diet of a fall and winter sample of northern zigzag salamander adults ( holman , 1955 ) .
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . in areas of syntopy , there is habitat separation between northern zigzag salamanders and eastern red - backed salamanders ( reinbold , 1979 ) . minton ( 2001 ) notes segregation between these species in indiana , with northern zigzag salamanders exhibiting a preference for moist rocky habitats . bausmann and whitaker ( 1987 ) note more earthworms ( annelida ) and fewer beetles ( insecta : coleoptera ) in the stomachs of northern zigzag salamanders when compared to eastern red - backed salamanders .
4 . conservation . northern zigzag salamanders are listed as a species of special concern in north carolina , at the eastern edge of their distribution ( levell , 1997 ) . as with other members of the plethodon dorsalis complex , comprehensive life history and natural history studies of northern zigzag salamanders are necessary to obtain the knowledge required to make informed and effective management decisions .
northern zigzag salamanders breed terrestrially during the fall and spring . females lay 3 - 9 eggs in underground cavities or in cave entrances during the spring and summer . females remain with the eggs until hatching in the fall .
i . seasonal migrations . unknown . however , in arkansas , closely related ozark zigzag salamander adults migrate to sandstone cedar glades from the forest during the courting season . immature individuals are not found on the glade ( meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .
similar species : the dorsal stripe of the southern red - backed salamander ( p . serratus ) is uniform in width , wider , and has serrated ( toothed ) edges . its range overlaps but mostly occurs north and east of the ozark zigzag’s range .
l . age / size at reproductive maturity . mature female northern zigzag salamanders in indiana measure at least 35 . 6 mm svl ( sever , 1978b ; minton , 2001 ) . both sexes of closely related ozark zigzag salamanders are mature at 35 mm svl and reproduce for the first time in the winter of their third year of life ( meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .
a small , dark - colored salamander ( 2 . 5 to 3 . 5 inches in length ) with a red or orangish wavy pattern , or “zigzag” , extending from the neck down the back to the base of the tail where it straightens out . this species also occurs
2 . historical versus current abundance . northern zigzag salamanders are seasonally abundant under moist leaf litter and flat rocks , often on wooded hillsides and ravines , along shale banks , and associated with sinkholes ( minton , 2001 ) . they have also been found in caves ( miller et al . , 1998 ) .
in a brownish - gray color morph without the zigzag . small white flecks occur on back and sides giving a metallic appearance . belly is gray or black with orange or reddish speckles .
like other amphibians in our state , this salamander depends on humans to restrain from destroying , degrading , and fragmenting their native habitat . salamanders are both literally and figuratively voiceless . people who care about their survival must speak up for them when it comes to public policy .
usually occurs in or near caves in the ozark highlands . it hides in or under rotten logs , under rocks , and under leaf litter in seepages near small streams and on steep hillsides . it seems to prefer cooler and damper habitats than the closely related southern red - backed salamander .
courtship and breeding may occur in autumn , winter , and early spring . from may through august , females deposit eggs deep underground , in places where accumulated small rocks create many small cavities or in other cool , damp niches . there are 2–5 eggs per clutch . females remain with the eggs until they hatch . like all other species of their genus , ozark zigzag salamanders go through complete development in the egg and hatch as tiny replicas of the adults , less than 1 inch long .
a small , dark , slender , woodland salamander with a narrow , somewhat lobed mid - dorsal stripe . the dorsal stripe is thin , usually has irregular or wavy edges , and may be yellow , yellow orange , orange , or red . dark brown or black pigment may invade the dorsal stripe , making it look lobed , or it may cover a large part of the stripe . the dorsal stripe is usually less than 1 / 3 the width of the body ; it is widest near the hind limbs . sometimes there is no dorsal stripe . the belly has white and black mottling . the sides are dark or brownish gray with some orange or red , and small white flecks . there are 17–19 costal grooves ( vertical grooves on the sides of the body ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 ( 27 january 2014 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 27 january 2014 ) .
plethodon ventralis and p . angusticlavius were formerly included in p . dorsalis ( see highton 1997 ) .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution and presumed large population .
this species can be found in the central united states from illinois and indiana southward through western and central kentucky to central tennessee ( conant and collins 1991 , highton 1997 ) .
it can be found in the vicinity of moist rocky crevices in ravines , canyons , rubble , seepages , caves , and wooded slopes . under rocks , logs , or leaves during day . it is a terrestrial breeder with direct development .
there are no known threats to the global population . some subpopulations are locally impacted by deforestation .
it occurs in many protected areas . habitat protection of locally impacted subpopulations may be required .
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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
the following account is modified from amphibian declines : the conservation status of united states species , edited by michael lannoo ( ©2005 by the regents of the university of california ) , used with permission of university of california press . the book is available from uc press .
ii . breeding habitat . same as adult habitat . in indiana , spermatozoa are present in vasa deferentia in october and april ( sever , 1978a ) , and sperm are present in females in november and march ( minton , 2001 ) and in april ( sever , 1978b ) . egg laying in indiana occurs in the spring , collections indicate from april–june ( sever , 1978b ) .
i . egg deposition sites . clutches are deposited within rock crevices , subterranean cavities , and in caves ( mohr , 1952 ; smith , 1961 ; mount , 1975 ; miller et al . , 1998 ) . logs appear to be avoided as nesting sites . eggs rest on the substrate and are attended by the female ( mohr , 1952 ; miller et al . , 1998 ) .
ii . clutch size . clutches of closely related ozark salamanders in arkansas average 5 . 3 eggs ( range = 3–9 ) and are produced annually ( meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .
ii . parental care . females attend the nest during the summer , at which time they are absent from foraging sites ( wilkinson et al . , 1993 ; meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) . hatchlings appear in the fall ( wilkinson et al . , 1993 ; meshaka and trauth , 1995 ) .
h . aestivation / avoiding dessication . aestivation is unknown , however under dessicating conditions animals likely move under cover objects or into burrows .
o . predators . centipedes in the genus scolopendra sp . are likely predators of the closely related ozark salamanders ( personal observations ) .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
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moist habitat of rocky hillsides , forested slopes , leaf litter , and entrances to caves .
during the warmer months of the summer , these salamanders retreat to the mouths of caves and to underground burrows where it is cooler and moist .
conant , r . and collins , j . 1998 . peterson field guides : reptiles and amphibians ( eastern / central north america ) . houghton mifflin company , new york . 616pp .
dodd , jr . , c . k . 2004 . the amphibians of great smoky mountains national park . university of tennessee press , knoxville tn .
jensen , j . b . , camp c . d . , gibbons , w . , and elliot , m . j . 2008 . amphibians and reptiles of georgia , university of georgia press , athens , ga . 575pp .
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home to 138 species of salamanders , frogs , turtles , lizards , and snakes .
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reddish or yellowish back stripe broadly zig - zagged , or narrow and straight edged ; orange marks around bases of front legs .
angusticlavius , grobman , 1944 ( ann . new york acad . sci . , 45 : 302 ) , which was later elevated to full species .
moist , rocky forests . seasonally abundant in woodlands around rocky springs and cave entrances .
natural history : in late autumn and spring , during rainy periods , it may be abundant under rocks on forested hillsides . during mid - summer , individuals move deeper into soil , sometimes encountering moist cave passages where they accumulate in large numbers . females have been observed brooding eggs in rock crevices in a southern illinois cave june through september .
distribution notes : only two specimens are known from vermilion co . , il , both in the collection of the university of illinois museum of natural history , and both collected by alvin cahn in 1926 from
strip mines near danville
. repeated attempts to find more specimens in this area have failed . however , the species is known from parke co . , indiana , two counties due east .
cope , e . d . 1889 . batrachia of north america . bulletin of the united states national museum 34 : 5 - 525 ( p . 138 ) .
type specimen : syntypes are usnm 3776a - d ; usnm 3776a was designated the lectotype by highton ( 1962 . bull . florida state mus . , biol . sci . , 6 : 277 )
* nomen nudum is latin for
naked name
. this means that the name was published without an acceptable description .
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very small arthropods , including insects , spiders , and other joint - legged invertebrates .
occurs in the south and southwestern portion of the missouri ozarks , mainly southwestern counties along the arkansas border .
these and other lungless salamanders are integral parts of the caves and forested streams , springs , and seeps they occupy . as predators , they help control the numbers of the insects and other creatures they eat . as prey , the adults , eggs , and young help feed larger predators .
missouri’s herptiles comprise 43 amphibians and 75 reptiles . amphibians , including salamanders , toads , and frogs , are vertebrate animals that spend at least part of their life cycle in water . they usually have moist skin , lack scales or claws , and are ectothermal ( cold - blooded ) , so they do not produce their own body heat the way birds and mammals do . reptiles , including turtles , lizards , and snakes , are also vertebrates , and most are ectothermal , but unlike amphibians , reptiles have dry skin with scales , the ones with legs have claws , and they do not have to live part of their lives in water .
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