draco guentheri , commonly known as günther 's flying lizard or guenther 's flying lizard , is a species of agamid " flying dragon " endemic to the philippines .

draco guentheri

draco guentheri boulenger 1885 : 257 draco rizali wandolleck 1900 : 15 draco rizali — taylor 1922 : 115 draco volans reticulatus — hennig 1936 ( part . ) draco volans — inger 1983 : 2 ( part . ) draco reticulatus — gaulke 1993 draco guentheri — mcguire & alcala 2000 : 100 draco guentheri — mcguire & kiew 2001
draco lizards , draco lizard pictures , draco lizard facts - - national . . .
this species was originally described in 1885 by the belgian - british zoologist george albert boulenger , who named it draco guentheri .
mcguire ja , alcala ac . 2000 . a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . herpetological monographs 14 : 81 - 138 . ( draco guentheri , p . 100 ) .
little is known about the natural history of draco guentheri . mcguire and alcala ( 2000 ) found this species in secondary - growth forest and on coconut trees adjacent to forest near the malagos eagle station , mindanao island .
in 1936 hennig considered this lizard to be part of what he called a subspecies , draco volans reticulatus . in 1993 gaulke raised it to full species status . and most recently , in 2000 , mcguire and alcala once again recognized boulenger ' s original draco guentheri as a valid species .
draco rizali and other lesser known facts about rizal | nation , news . . .
draco guentheri is known from the islands of basilan , bongao , jolo , mindanao , sanga sanga , siasi , and siminul ( taylor , 1918 , 1922 ; gaulke , 1993 , 1995 ) . the species is known primarily from the zamboanga region of mindanao and from the sulu archipelago .
draco guentheri has been observed in sympatry with d . bimaculatus , d . cyanopterus , and d . mindanensis , but is often considered uncommon relative to d . bimaculatus and d . cyanopterus ( mcguire and alcala , 2000 ) . at san roque and cabala , widely spaced localities in the eastern half of mindanao characterized by open coconut groves , d . guentheri was not found ( mcguire and alcala , 2000 ) . taylor ( 1918 , 1922 ) indicated that d . guentheri is the common species of the sulu archipelago and because it has been collected within the confines of the city of zamboanga , it seems likely that the species does occur in open habitats such as coconut groves in the western portion of its range ( text take from mcguire and alcala , 2000 ) .
herre , albert w . ( 1958 ) .
on the gliding of flying lizards , genus draco
.
hennig , w . 1936 . revision der gattung draco ( agamidae ) . temminckia , leiden 1 : 153 - 220
nota bene : a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than draco .
hennig , w . ( 1936 ) revision der gattung draco ( agamidae ) . : temminckia , leiden 1 : 153 - 220
boulenger g . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) . second edition . volume i . geckonidæ , eublepharidæ , uroplatidæ , pygopodidæ , agamidæ . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xii + 436 pp . + plates i - xxxii . ( draco guentheri , pp . 257 - 258 + plate xx , figure 2 ) .
herre , albert w . ( 1958 ) .
on the gliding of flying lizards , genus draco
. copeia 1958 ( 4 ) : 338–339 . jstor 1439979 .
wandolleck , b . ( 1900 ) zur kenntnis der gattung draco l . : abhandlungen und berichte des königlichen zoologischen und anthropologischn - ethnologischen museums zu dresden 9 : 1 - 16
wandolleck , b . 1900 . zur kenntnis der gattung draco l . abhandlungen und berichte des königlichen zoologischen und anthropologischn - ethnologischen museums zu dresden 9 : 1 - 16 - get paper here
inger , r . f . ( 1983 ) morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards ( genus draco ) . : fieldiana : zoology , new ser . 18 : vi , 1 - 35
inger , r . f . 1983 . morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards ( genus draco ) . fieldiana : zoology , new ser . 18 : vi , 1 - 35 - get paper here
inger , robert f . ( 1983 ) . morphological and ecological variation in the flying lizards ( genus draco ) . chicago : field museum of natural history . ( fieldiana zoology , new series , no . 18 ) .
mcguire , jimmy a . & heang , kiew bong ( 2001 ) phylogenetic systematics of southeast asian flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) as inferred from mitochondrial dna sequence data . : biological journal of the linnean society 72 : 203–229
mcguire , jimmy a . & heang , kiew bong 2001 . phylogenetic systematics of southeast asian flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) as inferred from mitochondrial dna sequence data . biological journal of the linnean society 72 : 203–229 - get paper here
mcguire , j . a . and heang , k . b . 2001 . phylogenetic systematics of southeast asian flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) as inferred from mitochondrial dna sequence data . biological journal of the linnean society 72 : 203–229 .
mcguire , jimmy a . and angel c . alcala ( 2000 ) a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . : herpetological monographs 14 : 81 - 138
mcguire , j . a . and alcala , a . c . 2000 . a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . herpetological monographs : 81 - 138 .
mcguire , jimmy a . and angel c . alcala 2000 . a taxonomic revision of the flying lizards ( iguania : agamidae : draco ) of the philippine islands , with a description of a new species . herpetological monographs 14 : 81 - 138 - get paper here
beolens b , watkins m , grayson m . ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( draco beccarii , p . 21 ) .
beolens b , watkins m , grayson m . ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( draco beccarii , p . 21 ) .
linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , diferentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata . stockholm : l . salvius . 824 pp . ( genus draco , p . 199 ) .
mcguire , j . a . ; dudley , r . ( 2011 ) .
the biology of gliding in flying lizards ( genus draco ) and their fossil and extant analogs
. integrative and comparative biology 51 ( 6 ) : 983–90 . doi : 10 . 1093 / icb / icr090 . pmid 21798987 .
goin cj , goin ob , zug gr . 1978 . introduction to herpetology , third edition . san francisco : w . h . freeman & company . xi + 378 pp . isbn 0 - 7167 - 0020 - 4 . ( genus draco , pp . 41 , 86 , 112 , 279 , 288 ) .
a phylogenetic framework of relationships among species was generated in 2001 . ongoing research includes biogeographical studies of the radiation , as well as flight mechanics and evolution , and prediction of gliding performance and capabilities of now extinct permian and triassic reptiles that share similar morphological adaptations for flight with the draco lizards ( mcguire and dudley 2011 ; mcguire and heang 2001 ; mcguire and dudley 2005 ) .
named after albert günther ( 1830 - 1914 ) , german - born zoologist at the british museum .
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
beukema , w . 2011 . herpetofauna of disturbed forest fragments on the lower mt . kitanglad rnage , mindanao isand , philippines . salamandra 47 ( 2 ) : 90 - 98 - get paper here
boulenger , g . a . 1885 . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . london : 450 pp . - get paper here
gaulke m . 1995 . der sulu - archipel - besiedlungsgeschichte , geologie und herpetofauna . natur und museum 125 : 217 - 226
obst , f . j . 1977 . die herpetologische sammlung des staatlichen museums für tierkunde dresden und ihre typusexemplare . zool . abh . mus . tierk . dresden 34 : 171 - 186 .
taylor , e . h . 1922 . the lizards of the philippine islands . department of agriculture and natural resources , bureau of science , government of the philippine islands , manila , publication no . 17 : 269 pp . - get paper here
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justification : listed as least concern since , although its extent of occurrence is possibly less than 20 , 000 km² , it is common and adaptable with a presumed large population , and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is endemic to the philippines , where it has been recorded from the islands of basilan , bongao , jolo , mindanao ( including atypical specimens from malagos and mount apo ) , sanga - sanga , siasi and simunul ; and is possibly present on the island of tawi - tawi . it ranges from sea level to about 1 , 500 m asl .
mcguire and alcala ( 2000 ) , report that this species has previously been found to be common in the sulu archipelago , and note that it is likely to remain common in view of its adaptability to modified habitats . it is a very common inhabitant of coconut groves and trees in cultivated areas of the zamboanga peninsula ( m . gaulke pers . obs . 2006 / 2007 ) , and was very common on several visited islands of the sulu - archipeligo at the beginning of 1990s ( m . gaulke pers . comm . 2008 ) . the population of this species may be increasing with the conversion of closed forest to more suitable open habitats .
populations of this species have been found in second growth forest and in coconut groves adjacent to secondary forest . it is an oviparous species .
there appear to be no major threats to this species . it is possible that some local declines have occurred through the use of pesticides , however , this requires verification .
this species has been recorded from the malagos watershed protected area , and may be present in additional protected areas . further taxonomic studies are needed into this species as a whole .
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listed as least concern since , although its extent of occurrence is possibly less than 20 , 000 km , it is common and adaptable with a presumed large population , and it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
it is found on the islands of basilan , bongao , jolo , mindanao , sanga - sanga , siasi , and simunul .
, thereby creating a synonym . rizal ' s specimens , subsequently , were destroyed during the
fadul , josé a . , ed . ( 2007 ) . encyclopedia rizaliana : student edition . lulu . p . 32 . isbn 1430311428 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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boulenger , g . a . , 1885 : null . catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( natural history ) , vol . 1 . 436 .
beukema , w . ( 2011 ) herpetofauna of disturbed forest fragments on the lower mt . kitanglad rnage , mindanao isand , philippines . : salamandra 47 ( 2 ) : 90 - 98
boulenger , g . a . ( 1885 ) catalogue of the lizards in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . geckonidae , eublepharidae , uroplatidae , pygopodidae , agamidae . : london : 450 pp .
gaulke m . ( 1993 ) beobachtungen an flugdrachen auf dem sulu - archipel . : salamandra 28 : 251 - 257
gaulke m . ( 1995 ) der sulu - archipel - besiedlungsgeschichte , geologie und herpetofauna . : natur und museum 125 : 217 - 226
obst , f . j . ( 1977 ) die herpetologische sammlung des staatlichen museums für tierkunde dresden und ihre typusexemplare . : zool . abh . mus . tierk . dresden 34 : 171 - 186 .
taylor , e . h . ( 1922 ) the lizards of the philippine islands . : department of agriculture and natural resources , bureau of science , government of the philippine islands , manila , publication no . 17 : 269 pp .
- and - other - lesser - known - facts - ab . . .
apogonia rizali ) had been named in honor of him ? that he also held . . .
jose rizal ' s huge correspondence—954 letters to and from him—were published chronologically in six volumes by t . m . kalaw before world . . .
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flying dragon
redirects here . for other uses , see flying dragon ( disambiguation ) .
. the ribs and their connecting membrane may be extended to create a wing , the hindlimbs are flattened and wing - like in cross - section , and a small set of flaps on the neck serve as a horizontal stabilizers .
. while not capable of powered flight they often obtain lift in the course of their gliding flights . glides as long as
. she descends the tree she is on and makes a nest hole by forcing her head into the soil . she then lays 2–5 eggs before filling the hole . she guards the eggs for approximately 24 hours , but then leaves and has nothing more to do with her offspring .
linnaeus derived the name of this genus from the latin term for mythological dragons .
piper , ross ( 2007 ) , extraordinary animals : an encyclopedia of curious and unusual animals , greenwood press .
. san francisco : w . h . freeman & company . xi + 378 pp . isbn 0 - 7167 - 0020 - 4 . ( genus
systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , diferentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata .
this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 23 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .
. while not capable of powered flight they often obtain lift in the course of their gliding flights . glides as long as 60 m ( 200 ft ) have been recorded , over which the animal loses only 10 m ( 33 ft ) in height , which is quite some distance , considering that one of these lizards is only around 20 cm ( 7 . 9 in ) in total length ( tail included ) .
1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 3 . artificial / terrestrial - plantations suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 4 . artificial / terrestrial - rural gardens suitability : unknown
2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management
1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats
gaulke , m . 1993 . beobachtungen an flugdrachen auf dem sulu - archipel . salamandra 28 ( 3 / 4 ) : 251 - 257 .
gaulke , m . 1995 . der sulu - archipel - besiedlungsgeschichte , geologie und herpetofauna . natur and museum 125 ( 7 ) : 217 - 226 .
iucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 november 2009 ) .
taylor , e . h . 1922 . the lizards of the philippine islands . philippines bureau of science publication 17 : 1 - 269 .


atrichozancla cosymbota is a moth in the lecithoceridae family .

it was described by meyrick in 1920 .

it is found in south africa .

the wingspan is about 15 mm .

the forewings are dark violet-grey , suffusedly irrorated with dark fuscous and with an obscure cloudy darker spot representing the second discal stigma , edged anteriorly by a small roundish ochreous-whitish spot .

the hindwings are grey , darker towards the apex .

atrichozancla cosymbota

this is the place for cosymbota definition . you find here cosymbota meaning , synonyms of cosymbota and images for cosymbota copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word cosymbota . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word cosymbota and , of course , cosymbota synonyms and on the right images related to the word cosymbota .
atrichozancla gymnopalpa janse , 1963 ; moths s . afr . 6 ( 3 ) : 246
atrichozancla janse , 1954 ; moths s . afr . 5 ( 4 ) : 368 ; ts : eridachtha phaeocrossis meyrick
eridachtha cosymbota meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 285 ; tl : cape colony , oudebosh ; table mountain
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a junior subjective synonym of mompha nathrota meyrick , 1911 ; synonymized by bradley ( 1965 : 101 ) .
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[ south africa , western cape ] , cape colony , oudebosch , 1500 ft , i , leg . k . h . barnard .
meyrick e . 1920c . descriptions of south african microlepidoptera . - annals of the south african museum 17 : 273—318 .
eridachtha phaeocrossis meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 96
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
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sattler , 1973 a catalogue of the family - group and genus - group names of the gelechiidae , holcopogonidae , lecithoceridae and symmocidae ( lepidoptera ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 153 - 282
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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grape phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae ( fitch 1855 ) ; family phylloxeridae , within the order hemiptera , bugs ) ; originally described in france as phylloxera vastatrix ; equated to the previously described daktulosphaira vitifoliae , phylloxera vitifoliae ; commonly just called phylloxera ( / fɪˈlɒksərə / ; from greek φύλλον , leaf , and ξερόν , dry ) is a pest of commercial grapevines worldwide , originally native to eastern north america .

these almost microscopic , pale yellow sap-sucking insects , related to aphids , feed on the roots and leaves of grapevines ( depending on the phylloxera genetic strain ) .

on vitis vinifera l. , the resulting deformations on roots ( " nodosities " and " tuberosities " ) and secondary fungal infections can girdle roots , gradually cutting off the flow of nutrients and water to the vine .

nymphs also form protective galls on the undersides of grapevine leaves of some vitis species and overwinter under the bark or on the vine roots ; these leaf galls are typically only found on the leaves of american vines .

american vine species ( such as vitis labrusca ) have evolved to have several natural defenses against phylloxera .

the roots of the american vines exude a sticky sap that repels the nymph form when it tries to feed from the vine by clogging its mouth .

if the nymph is successful in creating a feeding wound on the root , american vines respond by forming a protective layer of tissue to cover the wound and protect it from secondary bacterial or fungal infections .

currently there is no cure for phylloxera and unlike other grape diseases such as powdery or downy mildew , there is no chemical control or response .

the only successful means of controlling phylloxera has been the grafting of phylloxera-resistant american rootstock ( usually hybrid varieties created from the vitis berlandieri , vitis riparia and vitis rupestris species ) to more susceptible european vinifera vines .

phylloxera

phylloxera risk zone ( prz ) have an undetermined phylloxera status because they have not yet been surveyed .
the whole community can help prevent the spread of phylloxera by being aware of phylloxera management zones and what they mean .
the phenolic complex of vine roots infested by phylloxera as a factor in resistance .
fig . 2 . phylloxera galls on the underside of grape leaves are quite conspicuous .
when travelling by road , observe highway signage ( photo right ) and do not move any phylloxera host materials into the phylloxera exclusion zone ( pez ) without appropriate certification .
later stages of infestation with an aggressive strain of phylloxera showing weakened and dying vines .
interaction between vitis vinifera and grape phylloxera : changes in root tissue during nodosity formation .
when visiting vineyards in a phylloxera infested zone ( piz ) observe signage regarding movement around the vineyard ( photo below ) and do not remove any phylloxera host materials from the property .
étude de la distribution et des causes de la resistance au phylloxera radicole chez les vitacées .
phylloxera feeding on grape vine roots . joachim schmid , cc by 3 . 0 de .
an 1882 map of the spread of phylloxera throughout france . maurice girard , public domain .
phylloxera adults , crawlers and eggs on a match head . adults are about 1mm in length .
biology and management of grape phylloxera . annu . rev . entomol . 46 : 387 - 412
lucky ghislain de montgolfier , head of bollinger , in a vineyard that survived the phylloxera blight .
effects of infestation by grape phylloxera on sugars , free amino acids , and starch of grapevine roots .
phylloxera exclusion zone ( pez ) are areas which are declared to be free of the pest . pezs are used to improve biosecurity and market access for the industry and must be protected from the introduction of phylloxera .
phylloxera infested zone ( piz ) are areas in which phylloxera has been detected . they are established to prevent the spread of the pest from the area . a number of pizs exist in victoria and new south wales .
fig . 3 . phylloxera galls on the rootlets of ' concord ' and other american cultivars are not uncommon .
few chemicals are registered for control of foliar grape phylloxera . thiodan ( endosulfan ) is the standard for commercial growers , but no compounds are registered for homeowner use against grape phylloxera . ( endosulfan does burn some cultivars . )
( pdf ) biology and management of grape phylloxera . annu . rev . entomol . 46 : 387 - 412
the work with fungal isolates suggest that strongly resistant rootstocks are not immune to damage . although strongly resistant rootstocks have not failed to grape phylloxera , our work suggests they are subject to failure if a virulent fungal isolate and an aggressive phylloxera biotype were to co - exist . our compost work demonstrates that addition of organic matter to soils will not prevent phylloxera damage . our work with the plant hormones gives us insights into the way phylloxera form feeding sites .
phylloxera has continued to spread , infesting the majority of all grape growing areas of the world . california even the wine districts of argentina and chile , once thought to be phylloxera - free are beginning to show signs of infestation .
a number of natural enemies feed on grape phylloxera , but none are commercially available for use in biological control programs .
little information on biological control of grape phylloxera is available ; environmental and root conditions are more important than natural enemies .
feeding by phylloxera can damage a susceptible grapevine ' s root system to such an extent that the plant may die .
. . . grape phylloxera can also be found in geographically isolated locations in the southwestern united states . the classic life cycle of phylloxera is comprised of cyclic parthenogenesis with temporal polyphenism [ 2 , 4 ] . the mode of phylloxera reproduction in its native range is postulated to be sexual , based on the observations of different sexual forms of phylloxera in an earlier study ; however the efficacy of meiotically produced eggs is in question [ 2 , 5 ] . . . .
occasionally , winged phylloxera are seen in v . vinifera vineyards , but they are believed to be sterile under california conditions .
comments : multiple applications over several years reduces phylloxera numbers . soil moisture is important for effectiveness ; follow label instructions carefully .
wed 16 may 1894 - the bendigo independent ( vic . : 1891 - 1918 ) page 2 - the phylloxera plague .
• conclusions nodosities on v . vinifera potentially function as nutrient reservoirs , and defence responses to phylloxera attack were not detected .
further evidence of phylloxera biotypes : variations in the tolerance of mature grapevine roots related to the geographical origin of the insect .
. . . grape phylloxera , daktulosphaira vitifoliae fitch ( hemiptera : phylloxeridae ) , is a serious pest of grapevines ( vitis spp . ) worldwide ( granett et al . 2001 ) . a native of eastern north america , grape phylloxera feed on the roots and leaves of grapevines , depending on the phylloxera genetic strain ( powell et al . 2013 ) . . . .
this study set out to investigate changes in primary root tissue following infestation by phylloxera and formation of phylloxera‐induced galls , or ‘nodosities’ . these nodosities are nutrient reservoirs from which grape phylloxera , obligate biotrophs of grapevines , are able to obtain all their nutritional requirements . the feeding site of phylloxera within nodosities was confirmed by observation of stylet tracks in parenchyma cells in the outer region of the root cortex . most aphids feed directly from phloem , but there are a number of aphid groups ( e . g . adelgids ) that feed from parenchyma ( reviewed by pollard , 1973 ) . phylloxera appears to fall into this category of feeders .
the bendigo independent ( vic . : 1891 - 1918 ) , wed 16 may 1894 , page 2 - the phylloxera plague .
• background and aims the interaction between the gall‐forming grapevine parasite , phylloxera , and the susceptible grapevine species vitis vinifera was investigated .
phylloxera , a tiny aphid , kills vines by attacking their roots . the only effective remedy is to graft grapevines onto resistant rootstock . the devastating effect of phylloxera was recently felt in california when the common rootstock axr - 1 was found to be vulnerable to a new strain of phylloxera , biotype b . as a result , there was widespread vineyard replanting in california during the 1990s .
but phylloxera ' s arrival should not surprise central otago grapegrowers . as philip gregan , executive officer of the wine institute of new zealand , commented ,
as far as grapegrowers are concerned there are only three certainties : death , taxes and phylloxera .
this is best achieved by removing unviable , infested vineyards , replanting on rootstocks resistant to phylloxera , or preventing the spread of the pest .
a vineyard in chile - free of phylloxera , vines growing on original roots . mariano mantel , cc by - nc 2 . 0 .
a few areas managed to stay free of phylloxera ; the aphid cannot survive in very sandy soils , so the great plains of hungary , colares in portugal were immune from attack . chile , surrounded by the andes and pacific ocean has remained free of phylloxera and many other plant diseases .
comments : apply to soil . multiple applications over several years reduces phylloxera numbers . soil moisture is important for effectiveness ; follow label instructions carefully .
1 ) phylloxera population growth is influenced by vine phenology . we infested field vitis vinifera c . thompson seedless roots in sequential months from may - sept . and determined populations one month after each infestation . population was higher on excised roots than attached roots . three timings of harvest did not influence phylloxera populations disproving the hypothesis that harvest influences population growth . 2 ) we surveyed organic and conventionally managed vineyards over two years : phylloxera populations in conventionally managed vineyards correlated with root necrosis , a measure of damage . organic vineyards had variable phylloxera populations but root fungal necrosis was low . we need to investigate the mechanisms of this root protection . 3 ) field tests with an experimental systemic insecticide showed that root populations were decreased by drench treatments . we will replicate this work and use this tool to begin to determine what populations cause economic injury . 4 ) greenhouse tests with jasmonic acid treatment of grape vines demonstrated decreased phylloxera fecundity . 5 ) we completed a test of koch ' s postulates to demonstrate that fusarium caused root necrosis at phylloxera feeding wounds . rootstocks resistant to phylloxera also have resistance to fusarium . 6 ) rootstocks resistant to grape phylloxera include a component of antixenosis . 7 ) population dynamics of phylloxera in leaf galls of resistant cultivars was studied in hungary . populations appeared to spread from epicenters .
downie , d . and granett , j . 1998 . a life cycle variation in grape phylloxera daktulosphaira vitifoliae ( fitch ) . southwestern entomol .
also boasts a half - hectare vineyard of sangiovese , with vines dating back to the mid - 1800s , which inexplicably never succumbed to phylloxera .
for those trying to follow along , let me briefly explain that most grapevines in the world today are grafted onto phylloxera - resistant rootstock . phylloxera is a root - sapping aphid that can be devastating to vineyards . it ' s attracted to certain grapevines ( vitis vinifera , the species of most wine grapes ) , but not other rootstocks . grafting is the method of transplanting a young vinifera vine onto a phylloxera - resistant rootstock .
phylloxera also ravaged vineyards across europe , as either american vines , or newly - infected french vines , traveled east and south , as far as croatia and greece . australia and new zealand were eventually affected , too , though western australia and tasmania remain phylloxera free ( partially due to restrictions on the trade of grape vines ) . chile remains the sole major wine producer that has completely evaded phylloxera , perhaps because it is surrounded by mountains .
in the hot central valley , phylloxera damage may be reduced by good water management , fertilization , and other cultural practices that help limit plant stress .
by the time the new phylloxera ' s ruse was up , it had spread across california , decimating vineyards and requiring their reconstitution on newer phylloxera - resistant rootstocks . every vineyard had to replace every single one of its rootstocks . the cost to california ' s economy ? about $ 1 billion .
vignoles is a french hybrid that originated in the aftermath of the great european phylloxera epidemic of the late 1800’s . grafted from french grape strains from the vinus vinifera family onto american phylloxera - resistant root - stock vignoles became an early favorite of american growers and really flourishes in the missouri river valley .
grape phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae fitch ) originated on north american native vitis species . phylloxera ' s feeding and damage to wild american vitis is distinct from its feeding and damage to v . vinifera ( l . ) . its feeding on leaves of the american vitis is common and stunts cane growth , but feeding on the leaves of v . vinifera is rare . phylloxera feed on roots less than one year old of . . . [ show full abstract ]
granett , j . and kocsis , l . 2000 . populations of grape phylloxera gallicoles on rootstock foliage in hungary . vitis 39 : 37 - 41 .
starch accumulation , in the form of amyloplasts , was evident in the cortex of pas / tbo stained vwl‐1‐induced nodosities adjacent to phylloxera feeding sites ( fig .
eventually , methodical experimentation in southern france produced both types of genetic cures for phylloxera . hybrids and grafted vines soon achieved a true la réconstitution , and the rest is history ; and france ' s early experience with phylloxera provided many of the solutions that would later be used in other wine - making countries .
phylloxera vastatrix ( aka daktulosphaira vitifoliae ) is a yellow - colored species of root louse indigenous to the mississippi river valley . phylloxera feeds on vine roots and leaves , causing them to rot and the plant to die , driving the pests in search of new live hosts and spreading inexorably through entire vineyards and regions .
to escape the threat of phylloxera , wines have been produced since 1979 on the sandy beaches of provence’s bouches - du - rhône , which extends from the gard coast to the waterfront village of saintes maries de la mer . the sand , sun and wind in this area has been a major deterrent to phylloxera .
the phylloxera louse has a complex life - cycle of up to eighteen stages . many attempts have been made to interrupt this life cycle to eradicate phylloxera , but the louse has proven to be extremely adaptable , as no one stage of the life cycle is solely dependent upon another for the propagation of the species .
kellow av . 2000 . a study of the interaction between susceptible and resistant grapevines and phylloxera . phd thesis , the university of adelaide , adelaide , australia .
phylloxera is a nearly microscopic root louse or aphid , that primarily attacks the roots of vitis vinifera grapevines , in much the same way an aphid attacks a tomato plant & apos ; s stems and leaves , by puncturing the vessels and sucking out the plant & apos ; s sap . once infested with the phylloxera louse , the grapevine & apos ; s root system can become severely impaired , making it difficult for the plant to absorb the needed water and nutrients to sustain a vine . the final phylloxera outcome depends somewhat on  the type of soil structure that the vine is growing in . have clay soil and the vine is likely toast ; sandy soil and the vine stands a chance of surviving the phylloxera invasion , because of decent drainage and an unwelcoming environment for the phylloxera bug to thrive .
the insects were the same , even if their predilections differed between species of vine . and the absence of phylloxera on dead roots could be explained by the insects ' feeding strategies . phylloxera used a long mouth appendage to suck sap from vine roots , exposing the roots to a toxin that would prevent the roots ' wounds from healing , eventually killing them . by the time the roots were dead , phylloxera had moved on to healthier roots . and the insects left no calling card .
grape vines gain and pests suffer when tobacco and sagebrush grow in the same neighborhood . for example , chinese experiments show that when tobacco roots intermingle with grape roots , vineyards soils are progressively cleansed of the dreaded soil - dwelling phylloxera aphid ; the same phylloxera aphid that almost completely destroyed french grape growing in the 1800s , before resistant rootstocks were discovered . in recent decades , the phylloxera aphid has evolved new forms that destroy formerly - resistant rootstocks . but on the positive side , the phylloxera plague in nineteenth century french vineyards was a major catalyst for innovations such as the development of modern scientific agriculture and modern methods for fumigating or disinfesting sick soils .
south australia owes this extraordinary vine heritage to its isolated location and some enlightened governance . whereas most of the world suffered the ravages of phylloxera , the vine eating louse , in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , south australia protected its lucrative wine industry through strict quarantine laws . it remains phylloxera free to this day .
phylloxera crawlers can be spread on vineyard equipment . therefore , when mechanical operations are performed , equipment should not be moved from an infested block to a noninfested block .
abstract because the grape season in now passing away , it must not be supposed that the phylloxera is passing away along with it . unfortunately it is there , and
feeding by root phylloxera on european grapevines , vitis vinifera l . , is potentially devastating and nearly destroyed the french wine industry in the late 1800 ' s . the epidemic was eventually brought under control by grafting v . vinifera scions onto resistant american , vitis labruscana bailey , rootstocks . a major resistance breeding program conducted in europe against grape phylloxera resulted in grape cultivars commonly referred to as french - american hybrids . french - american hybrids are important in eastern north america for wine production , but they are particularly susceptible to foliar grape phylloxera . widespread planting of french - american hybrids in eastern north america has resulted in a heightened awareness of foliar phylloxera . foliar phylloxera reduce net photosynthesis of grape leaves . leaf galling by grape phylloxera causes distortion , necrosis , and premature defoliation of french - american vines . premature defoliation may delay ripening , reduce crop quality , and predispose vines to winter injury . grapevines heavily infested with foliar phylloxera may contribute to root infestations . research indicates that high population densities of foliar phylloxera can result in a reduction in yield and quality of the crop . populations must reach very high densities before yield is affected , and in most years yield will probably not be affected . it is not known , however , what impact infestations by the insect year after year have on the overall health and vigor of the vine .
phylloxera , small , sap - eating , greenish insect of the genus phylloxera , closely related to the aphid . phylloxeras feed on leaves and roots , and many species produce galls on deciduous trees . their life cycle is complex ; one species is known to pass through 21 different stages . most notorious of the group is the grape phylloxera , phylloxera vitifoliae , native to e north america . the species has winged and wingless generations , the former causing galls on grape leaves and the latter feeding on the roots , causing nodules and eventually killing the vine . the grape phylloxera came close to destroying the wine industry of france after its accidental introduction in about 1860 ; grafting of susceptible european vines onto resistant north american root stock saved the european vineyards . phylloxeras are classified in the phylum arthropoda , class insecta , order homoptera , family phylloxeridae .
spain’s elite ribera del duero producer vega sicilia recently released pintia , from bodegas pintia in toro , from ungrafted tinta de toro ( tempanillo ) vines . most of the vineyards here survived phylloxera thanks to a predominantly sandy soil – a natural obstacle to the parasite . ‘we consider the wines produced with grapes from such pre - phylloxera vines as
resistant rootstocks are the only completely effective means for phylloxera control in the most severely affected areas . a pesticide treatment will not eradicate phylloxera populations ; the chemical cannot easily penetrate the heavy soils that this pest prefers . also , effectiveness of a treatment is difficult to evaluate because although many phylloxera may be killed , populations may rebound rapidly and resume feeding on the vines . because it may take years of insecticide treatments to reverse severe damage , treatments to prevent damage may be a better strategy than curative treatments .
when university of california , davis professor austin goheen dug up a vine at the disease - stricken vineyard in 1982 , it bore the classic signs of phylloxera infestation . but all grape vines in california were being grown on presumably phylloxera - resistant rootstocks , developed a century earlier to prevent just this sort of problem . [ pictured at left :
the phylloxera , a true gourmet , finds out the best vineyards and attaches itself to the best wines .
punch , september 1890 , edward sambourne , public domain . ]
progress 01 / 01 / 93 to 12 / 30 / 93 outputs grape phylloxera : biotype b was confirmed in two additional counties , sacramentoand mendocino . we continued studying the weak strains discovered last year and collected additional ones . no rootstock allow these strains to outbreak , though they survive in immature roots . we continue providing phylloxera eggs to ma walker ( viticulture and enology ) for pcr ( dna ) analyses of biotypes and strains . we have collaborated with nasa / ames , mondavi winery and chico state to determine whether remote sensing can detect phylloxera before visual vine symptoms are seen . initial analyses suggest that leaf reflectances may presage phylloxera damage and very low populations may cause a systemic physiological plant change . a greenhouse experiment tested whether fungal infections cause the root damage associated with phylloxera populations : exclusion of fungi from phylloxera feeding sites prevents some damage associated with phylloxera . field trials of the soil insecticide enzone continued with e weber ( napa co . ) and unocal . vine damage is slowed but not to a great extent . lab screening of other chemical and biological agents against phylloxera produced no candidates for further testing . lab trials with electric shock have been negative . tests with heat and microwaves have given baseline data on lethal dosages . anagrus and grape leafhopper : field tests have been completed on the effect of prune refuges on efficiency of the parasite for controlling leafhopper populations . impacts ( n / a ) publications
comments : multiple applications over several years reduces phylloxera numbers . to protect honey bees , apply only during late evening , night , or early morning when bees are not present .
knowledge of the biology of phylloxera and phylloxera damage allows us to think about new ways to control this insect . we are testing the influence of soil management practices but have not excluded chemicals ( insecticides , fungicides and inducers of plant resistance ) . these alternatives will provide back - up tools to prevent massive vineyard losses that occur when resistant rootstocks fail .
outside north america , the effects of phylloxera were entirely unknown until 1863 , when species of native american grapevines were taken to botanical gardens in horticulture - crazed victorian england . unlike their american cousins , the euopean vinifera vines had not evolved any resistance or protection , so the stow - away phylloxera began a 30 - year rampage through the vineyards of europe .
aptly named phylloxera vastatrix or ‘the devastator’ by 19th - century french scientists , the pest was unknowingly imported into europe from america with live vines during the height of botanical imports from the new world . destroying nearly 2 . 5 million ha ( hectares ) in france alone , phylloxera raged throughout europe from the 1860s until the 1930s before being brought under control .
progress 01 / 01 / 84 to 12 / 30 / 84 outputs phylloxera : a strain of phylloxera ( b biotype ) was collected from napa valley and was able to survive and grow well on the resistant rootstock , ganzin i . this strain was demonstrated through life - table experiments to be different from other strains of phylloxera ( a biotype ) . the b biotype was also considerably more active on the highly resistant rootstock st . george in laboratory tests . a small field trial was established to determine activity of the b biotype on other rootstocks in the field . insecticide tests were conducted with carbofuran in the field and laboratory . in the field , carbofuran at registered rates somewhat inhibited the spread of phylloxera but did not kill existing populations . in the laboratory , bioassays were conducted to establish baseline susceptibilities with eggs and nymphs with 8 clone colonies from salinas valley . these tests will be of value should resistance to carbofuran develop . in addition , life - table experiments demonstrated that carbofuran had no effect on phylloxera fecundity at sublethal treatment concentrations . sticky panels were placed in salinas valley vineyards in june , august and october and demonstrated that first instar phylloxera appear in the windstream . it is not known whether windblown phylloxera are viable . impacts ( n / a ) publications
grape phylloxera : 1 ) we infested roots of mature vitis vinifera c . carignane monthly from may - sept . , and determined population after one month . infested roots were left physiologically attached to the vines and buried in place in petri dishes . controls were similarly treated excised roots . from may - aug . , the phylloxera on attached roots decreased in development and reproduction . after harvest , populations recovered . in contrast , the excised roots had stable population growth . results suggest that phylloxera compete with vine sinks for nutrients . 2 ) histology of parenchyma tissues of excised roots suggests that phylloxera activity decreases starch reserves over time , with the reserves being depleted at the feeding site first , then depleted at distances from the feeding . 3 ) studies comparing phylloxera - infested organically managed vineyards with conventionally managed vineyards found that fungal root infection ( the cause of damage ) was not correlated with phylloxera populations in the former but was in the latter . results suggest that soil components in the former suppress the damage . 4 ) with m . a . walker , we studied the dna variability of phylloxera on a transect from arizona to missouri and in a single site in new york . within - site variability was low at all sites but there were large differences between sites . these data , along with differences seen with the sexual aspect of the life cycle ( present in leaves in arizona but not elsewhere ) open the question of distinct grape phylloxera species .
at the end of the 19th century , the phylloxera plague started to seriously damage the alsatian vineyard . joseph cattin , having studied successfully , dedicated his time fighting against this plague .
grape phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae ) is a soft bodied insect that destroys vines by feeding on roots and leaves . in australia , more than 70 percent of commercial wine . . .
france , though central to the story of phylloxera and the upending of traditional viticulture , was not the sole victim to the wine blight . phylloxera was found in vineyards near the city of sonoma , california in 1874 . american vintners , just like the french , dithered in a state of denial for decades , resulting in phylloxera ' s spread throughout the state by 1900 . eventually , california ' s wine industry adopted the well - honed tactics of the french to stave off the bugs , often using vinifera grafts on top of american rootstocks .
the discovery of phylloxera in central otago has alarmed grape growers in this new zealand region , which was believed to be free of the destructive vine louse . central otago pinot noir has recently become a hot item in export markets such as the united states , and consumers can expect shortages of these wines as vineyard owners scramble to replant with phylloxera - resistant vines .
common sense of course suggests that that the vine’s root should influence its fruit , but i am even more persuaded by the experience of my own tastings of wines vinified from vines never affected by phylloxera and cultivated on their own roots . most recently , at a dinner with some friends i tasted cogno’s pre - phylloxera barbera , and an extraordinary experience it was .
these restrictions impose extra costs on the grower in addition to the loss of production caused by the pest . so it is crucial to the industry that the impacts of phylloxera are minimised .
. . . secondary damage can also be a consequence of soil - borne pathogens entering phylloxera feeding sites and causing root necrosis , although this association of secondary damage is variable ( granett 2000 , powell et al . 2013 ) . the first visible signs of a phylloxera infestation in vineyards are usually yellowing of vines and stunted canopy growth due to reduced root function ( granett et al . 2001b ) . phylloxera is not usually diagnosed until several years after its introduction into a vineyard and when populations have built up over time causing significant root damage . . . .
the close proximity to the ground and the wild profusion of vines actually facilitated phylloxera’s feasting frenzy in champagne , where the traditional layering technique once prevailed . virtually all its vines were annihilated .
according to augustin , the fruit from these three surviving plots is noticeably different : ‘our pre - phylloxera grapes are riper , rounder and more concentrated than the grafted pinot noir grapes . ’
although we never did find out with 100 % certainty that this was phylloxera . we showed it to a couple different professional ag people who deal with this sort of stuff and got a couple different answers . one person said yes , this definitely was phylloxera , one person said no , it wasn ' t , but couldn ' t give an answer to what it was , and one person told us that it was probably not the grape phylloxera , but another , very similar species of pest that does the same thing , but to cannabis instead of grapes .
severe phylloxera - caused vine damage is prevented by rootstocks . since we don ' t know how rootstocks work and have limited knowledge of the grapevine - insect interaction , we can not trouble shoot problems . this research provides a basic understanding of the nature of phylloxera damage and the plant - insect - soil microbiology interactions . this knowledge will help maintain trouble - free rootstock use .
progress 01 / 01 / 83 to 12 / 30 / 83 outputs phylloxera : the phylloxera work falls into 2 areas , phylloxera biology and chemical control of phylloxera . in the biology area , phylloxera population response to temperature was studied in the laboratory and complementary work was initiated in the field . in the laboratory lifetable experiments indicated that populations would grow between about 65 f and 90 f . temperatures at depths in vineyards indicate that in davis and napa there is probably a vertical movement of populations to attain these temperatures between may and october . trenches in a napa vineyard dug at different seasons so far confirm the laboratory findings . this work is continuing . work on the resistant - rootstock bioassay has been completed in the laboratory and will not be confirmed in the field . several laboratory experiments are underway with chemicals . in particular egg hatch , 1st instar establishment , and immature / adult mortality bioassays inresponse to the chemicals oxamyl and carbofuran have been conducted . confirmatory work is being done or has been done in the greenhouse and field . these experiments should indicate whether chemicals are a possible option in phylloxera management . impacts ( n / a ) publications
severe phylloxera - caused vine damage is prevented by rootstocks . since we do not know how rootstocks work and have limited knowledge of the grapevine - insect interaction , we can not trouble - shoot problems . the goal of this research is to understand the nature of phylloxera damage and the plant - insect - soil microbiology interactions . this knowledge will help maintain trouble - free rootstock use .
omer , a . d . , granett , j . , downie , d . a . and walker , m . a . 1997 . population dynamics of grape phylloxera in california vineyards .
for the study of nodosity development , nodosities with isolate vwl‐1 were sorted into four categories according to the developmental stages ( instars ) of the phylloxera present . stages two and four ( fig .
in 1870 , c . v . riley , an esteemed entomologist from missouri , read planchon ' s descriptions and realized that these insects were , in fact , american phylloxera . but the phylloxera riley knew preferred to live on the leaves of american grape vines . planchon ' s suspects had been found only on european vinifera – and they had been found on the plants ' roots .
very good , tom , and very enlightening . i just purchased some pre - phylloxera cogno barbera d’alba , available at zachy’s . i’ll give you a report on it when i taste one .
omer , a . d . and granett , j . 2000 . relationship between grape phylloxera and fungal infection in grape vine roots . journal of plant diseases & protection 107 : 285 - 294 .
granett , j . , omer , a . d . , pessereau , p . and walker , m . a . 1998 . fungal infections of grapevine roots in phylloxera - infested vineyards . vitis
phylloxera‐induced nodosities developed immediately behind the root tip , in or near the zone of elongation . examples representative of vwl‐1‐induced nodosities , stages two and four , including transverse sections , are shown in fig .
planchon would eventually connect his observations with riley ' s when it was discovered that , in france , the phylloxera preferred the leaves of imported american vines , and the roots of local french vines .
it took modern scientists at uc davis seven years before they determined that an evolved
biotype
of phylloxera had overcome the resistance of axr # 1 , the particular rootstock that was prevalent in california . and in fact , this american rootstock had been rejected by the french during la réconstitution for its mediocre phylloxera resistance , but was nevertheless used by california growers for their vine grafts for decades .
the vines of bordeaux were ravaged by the phylloxera outbreak from 1865 , a decade after the famous classification of great wines in 1855 , and had to be replanted with imported grafts on remaining stems .
grapevine phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae fitch ) is an insect that establishes populations on the root system of grapevines , causing the formation of galls on european grapevine vitis vinifera l . and ultimately resulting in plant death . as populations increase on the root system and vine health declines the chemical composition of the foliage , in the form of pigments , changes with the resulting leaf chlorosis often being the initial visual indication of phylloxera infestation . once chlorotic leaves are obvious , the infestation is already well established , and has generally spread to a broader area within the vineyard . being able to detect pre - visual phylloxera - specific chemical changes as an indicator of infestation would be a significant step in the direction of early phylloxera detection , and may aid in the containment of new infestations and minimise the potential for spread . a field trial was conducted in a newly detected phylloxera - infested vineyard in the yarra valley region of victoria , australia in 2007 . duplicate leaf samples were collected from phylloxera - infested and uninfested v . vinifera l . ' cabernet sauvignon ' and analysed using high performance liquid chromatography ( hplc ) for a variety of photosynthetic and photoprotective pigments . pigments quantified included neoxanthin , chlorophyll a + b , ß - carotene , violaxanthin ( v ) , antheraxanthin ( a ) and zeaxanthin ( z ) . statistical analysis of the results indicated changes in the ratios and the concentration of some leaf pigments appeared to be correlated with the relative abundance of phylloxera populations on the root system . in particular the proportion of the pool of xanthophyll photoprotective forms ( az / vaz ) increased exponentially as the abundance of emerging phylloxera increased . with further investigation photosynthetic pigment fingerprinting may prove to be useful for either a stand alone or an integrated ( linked to spectral analysis ) rapid , non - invasive , phylloxera detection system
why should the mosel be different from anywhere else in the world ?
asks loosen .
our best wines come from old vines planted in the top vineyard sites that give small crops .
he is lucky to have inherited nearly 25 acres of riesling vines up to 100 years old , all ungrafted . ( since the phylloxera epidemic of the late 19th century , nearly all european vines have been grafted on phylloxera - resistant american rootstocks . but in the mosel , the slate rock that covers the slopes weathers to a sharp , sandy material in which the destructive phylloxera lice cannot live . )
by 1865 , phylloxera had spread to vines in the rhône valley . over the next three decades , it inhabited and devastated nearly 70 % of the vineyards of europe . many methods were attempted to eradicate phylloxera : flooding , where possible , and injecting the soil with carbon bisulfide , had some success in checking the louse , but were costly and the pests came back as soon as the treatments stopped .
the bollinger champagne firm has two walled pre - phylloxera vineyards , which it uses in its rare vieilles vignes francaises . the 2000 vintage sold for 600 euro ( $ 751 . 76 ) a bottle .
as well as being one of the rarest , most expensive champagnes available , vieilles vignes françaises is also an oenological phenomenon . for no obvious reason , three tiny parcels of ungrafted pinot noir escaped phylloxera .
. . . temperature was found to influence the survivability of crawlers ( nymphs ) and asexual eggs [ 11 ] . across its native range , phylloxera feed on young leaves and root tips of american grape species [ 4 , 12 , 13 ] . the large number of genetically diverse american grape species and the highly variable environments they occupy plays an important role in the genetic diversity of phylloxera . . . .
the science was stacking up in favor of phylloxera being the cause of the blight . meanwhile , inadequate strategies were being devised to address the blight . some vintners discovered that flooding their vineyards could rid their vines of phylloxera , albeit at a high and unsustainable cost ; others managed to set up vineyards on mediterranean beaches , but the resulting wines were bland , and entire vineyards washed away during unusually high tides .
the vines are believed to be at least 190 years old and are among very few to have survived the phylloxera disease which devastated european vineyards in the late 19th century . it is thought they were saved by the sandiness of the soil in which they are planted , which kept the sap - sucking phylloxera louse at bay . they include some 20 different grape types , seven of which are unknown anywhere else .
severity of infestation will differ with the vigor of the grapevine as well as with soil texture and drainage . leaf - galling forms of phylloxera that are common in eastern states are extremely rare in california vineyards .
omer , a . d . , granett , j . , shebelut , c . w . 1999 . effect of attack intensity on host utilization in grape phylloxera . crop protection 18 : 341 - 347 .
phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae ) isolate vwl‐1 was collected from own‐rooted v . vinifera . ‘cabernet sauvignon’ vines at brown brother’s whitlands vineyard in the king valley , victoria , then maintained on excised roots of v . vinifera using methods described by granett et al . ( 1985 ) . sru‐1 phylloxera were collected from leaf galls on ‘schwarzmann’ ( v . riparia × v . rupestris ) vines at campbell’s vineyard , rutherglen , victoria , and applied directly to experimental ( v . vinifera ) grapevines . these two strains of phylloxera were selected as they were readily available and had both been genetically characterized ( corrie et al . , 1997 ) .
transverse sections through a stage four ( mature ) sru‐1‐induced nodosity in gma illustrate how the stylet penetrated through the cortical cells and terminated in a single cell , from which the phylloxera was presumably feeding ( fig .
fast - forward another hundred years and the regional roles are reversed . during the 1980s , california & apos ; s vines were under attack from the mighty phylloxera louse . knowing the rootstock solution was the only viable option , producers braced themselves for the exorbitant costs of replanting with phylloxera resistant rootstock . with over a billion dollars invested in new plantings , california producers effectively hit the reset button and planted with intention . grape varietals were now planted in climate zones and soils that were conducive to their specific growing requirements . the silver lining ? better wine , lower consumer costs , and ongoing research all due to that pesky phylloxera .
initial infestations of grape phylloxera appear as a few weakened vines . these insects are difficult to detect in an apparently healthy vineyard . therefore , monitor vines at harvest in an area of the vineyard that has consistently displayed weaker growth , especially vines at the edges of the weak areas . grape phylloxera are more readily identified on vines growing in poor soils because their impact is greater on these vines than on vigorously growing vines .
new technologies offer the potential to obtain more detailed knowledge of the interaction between phylloxera and the grapevine . the present study investigates the interaction between a susceptible grapevine , v . vinifera ‘shiraz’ , and two isolates of phylloxera , vwl‐1 and sru‐1 ( corrie et al . , 1997 ) . these isolates are genetically distinct , but the interaction of both with v . vinifera may be considered ‘compatible’ ( i . e . phylloxera are able to form galls and reproduce on the grapevine roots ; kellow et al . , 2002 ) . microscopic and biochemical methods were selected to investigate the role of nodosities as nutrient sinks , and the defence response , if any , of v . vinifera roots to phylloxera attack . northern blot hybridization , using a range of cdna probes , was used for preliminary screening of gene expression patterns in uninfested roots compared with nodosities .
phylloxera is again rearing its ugly head . most recently , it has been found in the american states of california and oregon , where years of grafting vines had somehow weakened them , allowing the pest to thrive .
t . l . roush . 2006 . genetic analysis of galling responses in vitis vinifera x v . rupestris hybrids to grape phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae ) phd thesis , univ . of calif . davis , 90pp .
kocsis , l . , granett , j . , and walker , m . a . 2002 . performance of hungarian phylloxera strains on vitis riparia rootstocks . journal of applied entomology . 126 : 567 - 571 .
downie , d . , and granett , j . 2000 . genetic divergence in geographically isolated populations of native grape phylloxera , daktulosphaira vitifoliae ( fitch ) . southwestern entomologist 25 ( 4 ) : 255 - 263 .
downie , d . a . and granett , j . 1999 . distribution , abundance , and short term persistence of grape phylloxera in two regions of the native range . environmental entomology 28 : 1004 - 1013 .
• methods phylloxera and grapevines were cocultivated using both potted and micropropagated grapevines . development of nodosities on primary roots was studied by microscopy and histochemistry , and nodosities were analysed for biochemical changes and changes in gene expression .
luckily , planchon refused to back down . he published his descriptions of the insects , suspecting that they might be related to an american species called phylloxera . to silence his critics , however , he needed confirmation .
we have no scientific reason that i know for why we don ' t have phylloxera ,
mr . de montgolfier said .
we might not be able to produce a single bottle next year .
our dolcetto boschi di berri is made from the fruit of vines that are immune to phylloxera , the pest that nearly destroyed european viticulture . it is an “ancient” wine that survived a major turning point in history .
progress 01 / 01 / 90 to 12 / 30 / 90 outputs biotype b , the new grape phylloxera , is devastating the rootstock axr # 1 in many parts of napa and sonoma counties . survey and assays to determine the california distribution of the normal phylloxera ( biotype a ) and the new one were completed . biotype b remains limited to napa and sonoma ; biotype a is in all other california viticultural regions where phylloxera are found . phylloxera from oregon appear similar to biotype a . an analysis of the survey data indicates that there are only two biotypes in the viticultural regions and that these have low variability . assays with a series of other root cultivars indicates that within - and between - biotype variation is very low except with regard to the former on the wild grape species v . californica and the latter on axr # 1 and the wild grape . these results suggest a single lineage for all biotype b ' s in the state , that biotype b arose from a biotype a population and that biotype b is a host race . the group studying phylloxera are considering the field recommendations that arise from these interpretations . we have tested enzone , an experimental insecticide . although it is of high toxicity to grape phylloxera , field trials with furrow irrigation applications give insufficient control . we are exploring various aspects of grape phylloxera biology and interaction with hosts . i am becoming involved in cooperative grape leafhopper research looking at the efficacy and optimization of prune trees as an overwintering site for parasites . impacts ( n / a ) publications
grape phylloxera , daktulosphaira vitifoliae ( fitch ) , is a serious pest of commercial grapevines worldwide . this tiny insect forms galls on leaves and roots of grapevines . it is believed that this insect originated in the eastern united states , where damage is now most prevalent on leaves of french - american hybrid grapevines . high populations of foliar phylloxera can result in premature defoliation , reduced shoot growth , and reduced yield and quality of the crop .
kocsis , l . , granett , j . , and walker , m . a . 2002 . performance of hungarian phylloxera strains in bioassays of vitis riparia and rootstocks . georgikon for agriculture 13 : 1 - 15 .
you may feel you know just about enough regarding phylloxera to get by on . bug eats vines , vines are grafted on to american rootstock , vines recover . some mystery lingers as to whether pre - phylloxera wine tasted any different , but on the whole this is a theoretical debate - and anyway , you drink wolf blass ' s excellent cabernet - shiraz on offer at a fiver a bottle from majestic , so who really cares ?
perhaps as close as a nineteenth century french grape grower came was bernardin casanova of corsica , france , who in 1881 patented a liquid mixture of grape distillates , corsican tobacco , spurge , laurel , grain straw , burnt cork and soap that was rubbed and poured on the base of grapevines to kill phylloxera . in california , which has native plants that are every bit as insecticidal as nicotine from tobacco , the only anti - phylloxera interplanting seems to have been new resistant rootstocks to eventually take the place of the old . in essence , a concession of failure and a starting over with new rootstock ( and pulling out the old phylloxera - infested vines ) .
most wine lovers also know that all european vines now grow grafted onto largely phylloxera - resistant american root stocks . that , however , is wrong : most european vines are so grafted , but not all . the spread of phylloxera through europe was gradual and uneven , and pockets of phylloxera - free vines have survived in a number of areas , notably italy and portugal . the intermittently authoritative oxford companion to wine mentions hungary ( the plain ) , listel on the french mediterranean coast , only one region of portugal , and italy not at all – that last an omission all too common in british writings on wine , and one of its most serious flaws .
m . a . fossen . 2006 . biological constraints affecting root damage on grapevines infested with grape phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae ( fitch ) [ hemiptera : phylloxeridae ] phd thesis , univ of calif . davis , 64 pp .
m . a . fossen . 2002 . resistance of grapevine rootstocks to root - pathogenic fungi vectored by grape phylloxera ( daktulosphaira vitifoliae fitch ) . ms thesis . plant protection and pest management , university of california , davis .
like mr . casanova in nineteenth century france , the modern chinese researchers started out with a watery solution containing tobacco ; but in a bit more scientific fashion with controlled tests of the tobacco solution on young greenhouse - grown grape vines . “the results showed that aqueous extracts of tobacco had certain alleviating effects on phylloxera infection , ” according to a 2014 abstract from the journal acta entomologica sinica . “both the aqueous extracts of tobacco at the concentration of 20 mg / ml and 50 mg / ml had an inhibition to phylloxera infection , ” with a 50 % reduction in phylloxera infection within 3 weeks ( along with a reduction of fungal invaders that kill injured grape roots ) .
eventually , it was established that the parasite had been accidentally imported from an american vine delivered to a wine merchant in roquemaure in 1862 . the solution , reached after decades of debate , was finally found to be the grafting of phylloxera - resistant american rootstock on to local vines . what could have been as dry as the dust into which the phylloxera turned the vines is rendered readable by campbell ' s keen eye for character and diverting detail .
grape phylloxera is the most economically destructive and geographically widespread pest species of commercial grapevines , on which it is an obligate biotroph of vitis species , occurring in almost all viticultural regions around the world ( powell , 2012 ) .
a statement from the gers government prefect ' s office said the sarragachies vineyard represented a
remarkable example of biodiversity and genetic heritage . . . as well as ancestral cultivation methods that died out with the phylloxera crisis
.


hallaxa fuscescens is a species of sea slug or dorid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family actinocyclidae .

there is some doubt regarding the correct taxonomic classification of this species .

hallaxa fuscescens

how to cite : köhler , e . ( 2017 ) , published 2 august 2017 , hallaxa fuscescens ( pease , 1871 ) available from urltoken
how to cite : köhler , e . ( 2017 ) , published 2 august 2017 , hallaxa fuscescens ( pease , 1871 ) available from urltoken
this is hallaxa fuscescens . in a recent message [ # 22626 ] i noted the characteristic shape of the gills in all species of hallaxa . you can see the same goblet - shaped gill circlet in your animal as well .
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : hallaxa fuscescens ( w . h . pease , 1871 ) - id : 2990050053
hi bill and everyone ! here is a record of hallaxa fuscescens found here in the intertidal zone at alexandra headland . we have found almost 100 species here . also included is a photo of the animal spawning .
this species clearly has a wide indo - west pacific distribution , and as i report in a separate message [ # 17533 ] it feeds on a species of halisarcid sponge . the appropriate name for this species would appear to be hallaxa fuscescens .
following your images of hallaxa fuscescens i am attaching a couple of photos of this species from heron island [ great barrier reef ] it was found under a dead coral slab at the reef crest at low tide and was 16 mm in size .
synonymy . doris fuscescens pease , 1871b : 14 , pl . 4 , fig . 3 , 3a - c . kentrodoris nigra risbec , 1928a : 91 , pl . 2 , fig . 6 . , risbec , 1953 : 37 . hallaxa nigra : pruvot - fol , 1930 : 231 . hallaxa atrotuberculata gosliner & johnson , 1994 : 159 - 163 , figs 1a , 6 , 7 .
hallaxa fuscescens is another species of hallaxa which i have found feeding on a species of the ' slime sponge ' halisarca . the sponges are so named because they are often form a thin smooth slimy film over the rock on which they are attached . often they are not noticed . in the upper photo , the sponge colony has been reduced to scattered fragments by the feeding activity of the 5 animals i found on it .
dear bill , i have spent a long time looking for a name for this one , now i found at least a shot from the above message which looks very similar . is it hallaxa fuscescens ? locality : kalanggaman , malapascua island , 11m , philippines , western pacific ocean , 13 march 2005 . length : 16mm . photographer : erwin koehler .
in gosliner & johnson ' s ( 1994 ) review of hallaxa , a new species hallaxa atrotuberculata is proposed for a species from madagascar and the marshall islands which is characterised externally by its rounded black tubercles . i have also found this species in tanzania , australia and new caledonia . as i show here , there would appear to be at least two earlier names for this species
gosliner , t . m . & johnson , s . ( 1994 ) review of the genus hallaxa ( nudibranchia : actinocyclidae ) with descriptions of nine new species . the veliger , 37 ( 2 ) : 155 - 191 .
this species has a translucent body with low rounded black tubercles scattered over the mantle . the bipinnate gills are arranged in a tight , upright circle around the anal papillae . in gosliner & johnson ' s ( 1994 ) review of hallaxa , a new species hallaxa atrotuberculata is proposed for this species based on specimens from madagascar and the marshall islands . i have also found this species in tanzania , australia and new caledonia . there appear to be at least two earlier names for this species
gosliner , t . m . & johnson , s . 1994 ,
review of the genus hallaxa ( nudibranchia : actinocyclidae ) with description of nine new species
, the veliger , vol . 37 , no . 2 , pp . 155–191
photos : upper right : arrawarra head , coffs harbour , nthn new south wales , australia . intertidal , on halisarca . 16 march 1982 . live length 18 mm . am c115783 . a . doris fuscescens pease , 1871 : plate 4 , fig . 3 , 3a - c . b . kentrodoris nigra risbec , 1928 : plate 2 , fig . 6
photos : upper right : arrawarra head , coffs harbour , nthn new south wales , australia . intertidal , on halisarca . 16 march 1982 . live length 18 mm . am c115783 . lower left : another animal photographed on halisarca at same time . photos : bill rudman . a . doris fuscescens pease , 1871 : plate 4 , fig . 3 , 3a - c . b . kentrodoris nigra risbec , 1928 : plate 2 , fig . 6
dear julie , thanks for this record . i don ' t know if you realised , but the translucent greyish ' film ' that the hallaxa has its head on in your photo , is a colony of the ' slime sponge ' halisarca on which i reported it feeding . in my photos , [ message # 17533 ] , only patches of the sponge colony remain . your message provides a valuable confirmation of my observations .
concerning finding three dull coloured species together . i am not sure if the colour similarity is significant , but these three dorids feed on sponges which can tolerate quite extreme ecological conditions . certainly h . fuscescens can be found high on rocky shores and similarly dendrodoris nigra can be found in luke - warm water in upper tidal pools . shallow sea - grass beds are also not the best places for sponges but those that are found there are tough and adaptible . so i would say these three species were found together because of the adaptibilty of the sponges they feed on - but i don ' t know if their similar colouration is an adaptation for such conditions .
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urltoken
pease , w . h . ( 1871 ) descriptions of new species of nudibranchiate mollusca inhabiting polynesia . no . 2 . american journal of conchology . 7 ( 1 ) : 11 - 19
pruvot - fol , a . ( 1930 ) diagnose provisoires ( incomplètes ) des espèces nouvelles et liste provisoire des mollusques nudibranches recueillis par mme . a . pruvot - fol en nouvelle calédonie ( ile des pins ) . bulletin du museum national d ' histoire naturelle paris , 2 : 229 - 232 .
risbec , j . ( 1928 ) contribution a l ' étude des nudibranches néo - calédoniens . faune des colonies francaises , 2 ( 1 ) : 328 , pls . 1 - 12 .
locality : arrawarra head , coffs harbour , nthn new south wales , australia . intertidal , 16 march 1982 , live length of pictured animal , 18 mm . on halisarca sp . am . c115783
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pease , w . h . 1871 ,
descriptions of new nudibranchiate mollusca inhabiting polynesia
, american journal of conchology , vol . 7 , pp . 11 - 20
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 01f63edf - 8d0c - 4b1a - ad8d - a05528fdd12d
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 131d379a - 5efe - 4d99 - a0b7 - ac7e9c23ab10
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5549141b - 1ce8 - 4c18 - bf9e - f78b35b78a88
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5c7b1767 - daa5 - 4979 - bdff - c08ea6d9b985
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 507118
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arrawarra head , coffs harbour , nthn new south wales , australia . intertidal - 18 mm
i found this little nudibranch moving among seagrass at low tide . it wasn ' t feeding . i have never seen it before , nor have i seen any picture of it , and it has not been recorded in philibert bidgrain ' s website .
locality : moutsoumbatsou reef , 1 metre , mayotte island , france , mozambique channel , indian ocean , 8 august 2009 , sand and seagrass . length : 15 mm . photographer : matthias deuss .
by the way , most of the nudibranchs i found on this reef , which is mostly covered by seagrass and seaweeds , were black or very dark , uncolored species : this one , actinocyclus verrucosus and dendrodoris nigra . is it more than a coincidence ?
locality : alexandra headland , mooloolaba , 100 mm , queensland , australia , pacific ocean , 10 april 2004 , intertidal . length : 20 mm . photographer : gary cobb .
it ' s nice to get a photo of its egg ribbon . in the middle photo we also get a good view of the ' goblet ' - shaped gill cluster which is so characteristic of this family . i would be interested in any photos you have of it on its food sponge [ see message # 17533 ] .
also nice to see the photo of the very colourful form of pectenodoris trilineata .
locality : heron island , intertidal , queensland , australia , pacific , 10 nov . 2000 , intertidal . length : 16 mm . photographer : julie marshall .
the 11 to 14 , small gills , are arranged in a tight , upright circle around the anal papillae . they are uniformly dark grey to black
the intensity of the background colour of the mantle apparently varies with the age of the individual ; juveniles are pale greyish because they posses relatively few dark pigment granules . whereas adults are black because they posses numerous pigment granules .
. the sponges are so named because they are often form a thin smooth slimy film over the rock on which they are attached .
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