the yellow-headed brush finch ( atlapetes flaviceps ) is an endangered species of bird in the american sparrow and bunting family , emberizidae .

it is endemic to colombia .

the common name is a semi-literal translation of the scientific name , with atlapetes referring to the brush-finch genus , and flaviceps meaning " yellow-headed " .

this species has a yellow to dark olive head .

the throat , chin , malar streak , lores , eye-ring , and ear patch are bright yellow in any case .

the rest of the plumage is yellow with dark olive upperparts , wing and tail .

the variation in the head color is not well explained , but it is likely that the olive-headed individuals are females and/or immature birds .

yellow - headed brush finch

information on the yellow - headed brush - finch is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
17 cm . olive - and - yellow understorey passerine . mainly yellow head with conspicuous yellow lores , eye - ring and faint supercilium , dark olive upperparts , yellow underparts . there is unexplained variability in the amount of yellow on head .
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the pale - headed brush - finch is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
brush a . h , seifried h . pigmentation and feather structure in genetic variants of the gouldian finch ,
< 0 . 001 ) . for example , interactions between yellow - and black - headed birds tended to be more active and aggressive ( 79 . 7 % ) than those between either red - and yellow - headed birds ( 39 . 5 % ;
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 he was too yellow to stand up and fight .  you ' ll come with us into the cave , unless you ' re yellow
the black - spectacled brush - finch is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
there is little information recorded on differences between the male and female black - spectacled brush - finch ; however , males of the atlapetes genus tend to be slightly heavier than females ( 5 ) . brush - finch juveniles typically have mottled feathers ( 4 ) , and the juvenile black - spectacled brush - finch is thought to have yellowish underparts and greenish upperparts ( 3 ) .
17 cm . a relatively short - billed brush - finch with large head and distinctly graduated tail ; crown feathers often raised , giving round - headed appearance , and bill has even . . .
 the bridesmaids were dressed in yellow .  a room decorated in yellows and greens
marchetti k . the evolution of multiple male traits in the yellow - browed leaf warbler .
between the highly dominant red - headed and submissive yellow - headed males , black - headed birds have an intermediate dominance status . black - headedness is expressed by a recessive allele at the sex - linked locus , which masks the yellow / red colour determined by the autosomal gene . it is possible to distinguish the underlying yellow / red phenotype of black - headed birds by the colour of their beak tip ( yellow or red ) . therefore , an interesting possibility is that black - headed birds carrying the genes for red - headedness ( i . e . homozygous dominant and heterozygous on the autosomal locus ) are dominant , while those with yellow - headedness ( i . e . homozygous recessive ) are subordinate . however , beak tip colour , and thus the underlying phenotype , had no effect in any of the dominance trials , either within or among the different morphs , suggesting that black - headed birds are viewed as a separate phenotype rather than an intermediate expression between red and yellow .
krabbe , n . ( 2004 ) pale - headed brush - finch atlapetes pallidiceps : notes on population size , habitat , vocalizations , feeding , interference competition and conservation . bird conservation international , 14 : 77 - 86 .
the black - spectacled brush - finch is found in central peru at just five locations surrounding the mantaro river in huancavelica and junín ( 2 ) .
valqui , t . and fjeldsa , j . ( 1999 ) new brush - finch atlapetes from peru . ibis , 141 : 194 - 198 .
the yellow - headed brush - finch is unique looking ; it is dark olive on the back , wings and tail but has a yellow - head and underparts . it lacks a coronal stripe or dark face sides of most brush - finches . yet there is a bit of olive stippling on the crown and auriculars , enough that the head is not a brilliant yellow , but more subdued . at one time it was known as the olive - headed brush - finch , a rather inappropriate name . for a long time this species was known but from three specimens , then it was captured in 1967 at a new site . for many decades little else was known about it , but now known to be locally common in the type locality . this brush - finch is listed as endangered as it has a very small range and population ( estimated at 680 individuals ) . it is known from two areas , but has only been recorded once at the more southerly site . there is continuing habitat degradation in its range and this bears some concern .
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although , black - headed males are not socially dominant they are the most common head morph in wild populations ( 70 % ) , while red - headed males are moderately common ( 30 % ) and yellow - headed males extremely rare ( estimated at one in 3000–5000 ; brush & seifried 1968 ; franklin & dostine 2000 ) . the results from this dominance experiment do not completely explain these frequencies ; if dominant red - headed birds gained the greatest benefits they would be expected to be more common than the intermediate black - headed birds . however , it is unlikely that aggression and dominance alone , or in isolation , contributes to the observed morph frequencies .
the pale - headed brush - finch is usually seen in pairs , which have been recorded breeding from anywhere between mid - january and late june , although no pairs have been observed successfully producing more than one clutch within a season . the chicks hatch after an incubation period of 14 to 15 days , and then proceed to be fed by their parents every 5 to 25 minutes , depending upon their age . even after fledging , the young continue to depend upon their parents for food for at least a further four weeks ( 5 ) . the pale - headed brush - finch is frequently a victim of nest parasitism by the shiny cowbird ( molothrus bonariensis ) , in which the latter species removes the existing eggs from the nest and replaces it with its own virtually identical eggs , to be incubated and raised by the pale - headed brush - finch ( 4 ) .
oppel , s . , schaefer , h . m . , schmidt , v . and schröder , b . ( 2004 ) habitat selection by the pale - headed brush - finch ( atlapetes pallidiceps ) in southern ecuador : implications for conservation . biological conservation , 118 : 33 - 40 .
oppel , s . , schaefer , h . m . , schmidt , v . and schröder , b . ( 2004 ) cowbird parasitism of pale - headed brush - finch atlapetes pallidiceps : implications for conservation and management . bird conservation international , 14 : 63 - 75 . available at : urltoken
< 0 . 001 ) or between red - and black - headed birds ( 36 . 9 % ;
brush adjacent to cleared areas on mountainsides , also in undergrowth within moist montane forest ; . . .
the three head morphs ( yellow , red and black ) of male gouldian finches . ( photograph by sarah r . pryke . )
jaramillo , a . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . yellow - headed brush - finch ( atlapetes flaviceps ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the song of the black - spectacled brush - finch comprises a simple ‘ tew - whee ’ ( 3 ) , along with chattering ‘ chups ’ and squeaky , high - pitched calls ( 2 ) .
evans s . m , fidler m . e . indruss publications ; queensland : 2005 . the gouldian finch .
although , there were no differences in interaction type within dyads of the same head morph , there were significant behavioural differences among the three head morph dyads ( i . e . between the red , black and yellow dyads ; aic = 361 . 29 and a weight of 84 % compared to other models ; χ 47 2 = 15 . 59 , p < 0 . 001 ) . red - headed dyads had both more active ( 86 . 7 % ) and more frequent interactions than the black - ( 61 . 5 % ; t = 2 . 81 , p = 0 . 005 ) and yellow - headed birds ( 56 . 8 % ; t = 3 . 61 , p < 0 . 001 ) , the latter of which did not differ ( t = 1 . 55 , p = 0 . 12 ) . red - headed dyads also initiated aggressive conflicts earlier than either the black - ( mann–whitney u - test : z = 4 . 76 , n = 32 , p < 0 . 001 ) or yellow - headed dyads ( z = 4 . 18 , n = 32 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and black - headed dyads were quicker to interact than yellow - headed dyads ( z = 2 . 93 , n = 32 , p = 0 . 003 ) .
< 0 . 001 ) . this was because most supplants in the experimentally reddened group were passive ( 79 . 4 % ) , whereas the majority of supplants in the black - treated groups were active ( 71 . 3 % ) . for example , reddened yellow - headed birds were less aggressive ( 28 . 3 % active supplants ) , yet they successfully dominated black - headed birds ( see
the pale - headed brush - finch occurs in arid areas at 1 , 650 to 1 , 800 metre above sea level , favouring semi - open habitats with low scrub . fairly dense scrub is tolerated , but forests and completely open areas are avoided . nests are built within dense thickets of small bushes or bamboo , often covered with vines ( 2 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
schulenberg , t . s . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) black - spectacled brush - finch ( atlapetes melanopsis ) . in : schulenberg , t . s . ( ed . ) neotropical birds online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
franklin d . c , dostine p . l . a note on the frequency and genetics of head colour morphs in the gouldian finch .
this species has an extremely restricted range , being endemic to just a small semi - arid valley of the río jubones drainage in azuay and loja , south - western ecuador ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . most pairs occur in the yunguilla reserve ( 5 ) . the total population of the endangered pale - headed brush - finch was estimated to be just 50 pairs in 2005 ( 3 ) , but numbers are increasing ( 2 ) .
the black - spectacled brush - finch is typically seen in small groups of between one and three individuals , foraging for food from the ground all the way up to the sub - canopy ( 2 ) . its diet is thought to include seeds and insects ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
found primarily in areas of montane scrub and forest edge , the black - spectacled brush - finch requires open , bushy areas with relatively high seasonal rainfall ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . this species is found at elevations of between 2 , 500 and 3 , 400 metres ( 3 ) .
2014 , jaramillo & sharpe 2016 ) . found within four national parks : las hermosas , los nevados , nevado del huila and puracé ( molina - martínez 2014 ) . action for yellow - eared parrot
there are currently no known conservation measures in place for the black - spectacled brush - finch . however , it has been proposed that this species would benefit from further research to give a better understanding of its population size and requirements , as well as from measures to ensure that at least some of its habitat receives protection ( 2 ) .
relatively new to science , the black - spectacled brush - finch ( atlapetes melanopsis ) was first described in 1999 ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . while its body is a dull greenish - grey ( 2 ) , it can be distinguished by its tawny orange cap , black forehead and the black rings around its ochre eyes ( 4 ) , which presumably gave rise to its common name . two white , horn - shaped stripes known as supralorals can also be seen above its eyes ( 2 ) . the underside of the black - spectacled brush - finch is a paler grey , and the wings and tail are darker . its feet are grey and its bill is black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
) . the dominance of red - headed birds was further evident by the outcome of the triadic experiments ( aic = 21 . 4 and a weight of 69 % compared to other models ;
until its incredible rediscovery in 1998 , the pale - headed brush - finch ( atlapetes pallidiceps ) was thought to be extinct , having not been seen since 1969 ( 3 ) . as its common name implies , this small bird has a pale - coloured head , which is creamy white with ill - defined buff stripes on the sides of the crown and behind the eye . upperparts are a light brownish - grey , while underparts are usually whitish ( 2 ) . a small , distinctive white patch also exists on the side of the relatively dark wings .
with its small range and fragmented distribution , the main threat facing the black - spectacled brush - finch is habitat loss , with areas of scrub and forest being burnt to create and maintain pastureland . however , it is unlikely that this rate of habitat destruction is increasing , as humans are steadily leaving the region for larger towns and cities ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
schmidt , v . & schaefer , h . m . ( 2004 ) pale - headed brushfinch recovery project in southwestern ecuador 2002 - 2003 . institute for avian research , germany . available at : urltoken
schmidt , v . and schaefer , h . m . ( 2004 ) pale - headed brushfinch recovery project in southwestern ecuador 2002 - 2003 . institute for avian research , germany . available at : urltoken
) . there was no effect of experimental manipulation on the outcome of dominance , and thus , despite the treatments , naturally red - headed males remained dominant . furthermore , none of the other potentially interacting effects ( see
) , is important in settling dominance contests within each of the three discrete head morphs , and is also a primary target in female mate decisions ( irrespective of the male or female morph ; s . r . pryke & s . c . griffith 2005 , unpublished data ) . whereas the discrete head colour polymorphism may signal intrinsic genetically based behavioural characteristics , which appear to underscore a clear dominance hierarchy among males ; aggressive and dominant red - headed males and subordinate yellow - headed males . these differences , in a trait likely to be under strong selection , suggest that diverse selection pressures may vary across the morphs , balancing out net morph fitness and thus explaining the persistence of the three conspicuous morphs in wild populations .
the best - fitting glm of the binary ( win / loss food dominance ) dyadic experiments for the 90 trials among males of different morphs ( red , black and yellow ) identified head morph as the only significant predictor of contest outcome ( aic = 109 . 7 and a weight of 88 % compared to other models ;
the glm best explaining the win / loss outcome of the 48 trials involving males of the same head morphs ( aic = 100 . 86 and a weight of 72 % compared to other models ; χ 47 2 = 4 . 39 , p = 0 . 003 ) included a dominant effect of uv blue collar chroma ( t = 3 . 38 , p < 0 . 001 ) , a significant but weaker effect of head blue collar size ( t = 1 . 94 , p = 0 . 05 ) , and a positive , but not significant , effect of violet uv chroma ( t = 1 . 71 , p = 0 . 09 ) . in addition , within the red - headed male dyads , redder males dominated less chromatic opponents ( interaction between morph×chroma : t = 2 . 17 , p < 0 . 03 ) . replacing the dominance outcome at food bowls with that from the dominance hierarchy produced a similar but slightly weaker model ( aic = 84 . 78 and a weight of 67 % compared to other models ; χ 47 2 = 3 . 22 , p = 0 . 007 ) identifying both the uv chroma ( t = 2 . 47 , p = 0 . 001 ) and size ( t = 2 . 26 , p = 0 . 02 ) of the blue head patch as significant predictors .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
endangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , v ) ; c2a ( ii ) ver 3 . 1
this species has a very small range and population . it is known from two areas , but has only been recorded once at the more southerly site . there is continuing habitat clearance in its main area of occurrence , indicating that numbers and range continue to decline . it is therefore classified as endangered .
. it has been recorded once in the la plata vieja valley , huila , in 1967 . the type - series was collected in toche valley , tolima , where it is still locally common ( p . g . w . salaman
the population is estimated to number 250 - 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 375 - 1 , 499 individuals in total , rounded here to 350 - 1 , 500 individuals . trend justification : a slow and on - going population decline is suspected owing to rates of habitat loss .
in toche valley , tolima , it seems to have adapted well to degraded forest , thick secondary vegetation ( especially where vines and remnant forest trees are present ) and bushy , overgrown bean - fields at 1 , 300 - 2 , 500 m ( p . g . w . salaman
. an active nest was found in may ( molina - martínez 2014 ) . observations have been made of a juvenile with parents in june , adults collecting nesting material in october ( p . g . w . salaman
. however , when the type - series was collected , the higher valleys of the toche area , tolima , were heavily forested . since the 1950s , much of the original habitat in these valleys has been cleared and used for agriculture , including coffee plantations , potatoes , beans and cattle - grazing ( p . g . w . salaman
. mature secondary forest patches are scattered , and natural vegetation cover is judged to have been reduced to c . 15 % at elevations of 1 , 900 - 3 , 200 m , most of it occurring above 2 , 200 m ( p . g . w . salaman
. some forest clearance continues in remaining patches ( p . g . w . salaman
survey potential habitat in the upper magdalena valley , the la plata vieja valley and intervening areas . determine the extent of dependence on secondary vegetation , and sensitivity to vegetational succession and habitat destruction ( renjifo
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22721439a111139264 .
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classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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río toche , 6800 feet [ c . 2070 m ] , tolima , colombia
both slopes of c andes ( caldas , tolima and cauca ) and w slope of w andes ( risaralda , valle del cauca ) # r # r , in colombia .
song lasts 1·5–2 seconds , has two parts , some introductory notes and then a trilled end , “tseep - . . .
active nest found in may . juveniles with parents observed in jun , and collection of nesting material in nov . no other information .
endangered . restricted - range species : present in colombian inter - andean slopes eba . has a very small range and very small global population , estimated at fewer than 1000 . . .
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formerly included in a broader emberizidae . recent phylogeny # r has recovered evidence of eight major clades within this newly recognized grouping : ( i ) melospiza and allies ; ( ii and iii ) melozone , atlapetes , pipilo and allies , which form two sister - clades ; ( iv ) zonotrichia , junco and allies ; and ( v–viii ) all other species , which form a polytomy at base of tree , but can be split into ( a ) arremon , ( b ) spizella , amphispiza , chondestes and calamospiza , ( c ) peucaea , arremonops , ammodramus and rhynchospiza , and finally ( d ) two genera that have often been placed in thraupidae , oreothraupis and chlorospingus .
interspecific taxonomy still requires considerable research so sequence below is provisional , especially as some purported relationships lack strong molecular support . as presently configured , appears to be paraphyletic with respect to pselliophorus , and latter may be better merged herein # r .
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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : atlapetes flaviceps . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
cria de canarios ~ bronces piel negra . . . por fin . . .
score for 1 phrase . two types of phrase here abbaba . just north of town
new for the western andes of colombia . . . will be soon published : calderón - franco , zuleta marín & ayerbe - quiñones . 2011 . atlapetes flaviceps también se encuentra en la cordillera occidental de los andes en colombia . boletín sao .
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genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below ‘family’ and above ‘species’ . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a ‘binomial’ latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . montane of mountains , or growing in mountains .
schulenberg , t . s . ( 2007 ) birds of peru . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .
echeverry - galvis , m . a . , cordoba - cordoba , s . , perzaza , c . a . , baptiste , m . p . , and ahumada , j . a . ( 2006 ) body weights of 98 species of andean cloud - forest birds . bulletin of the british ornithologists’ club , 126 : 4 .
this bird usually forages in pairs , finding most of its food around two metres above the ground ( 2 ) . the diet consists of arthropods , fruit and a few seeds , with the arthropods almost invariably gleaned from twigs and small branches , while seeds are taken from the ground ( 7 ) .
authenticated ( 14 / 06 / 2006 ) by dr . niels krabbe , zoological museum , university of copenhagen , denmark .
arthropods a very diverse phylum ( a major grouping of animals ) that includes crustaceans , insects and arachnids . all arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton ( exoskeleton ) . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . incubation the act of incubating eggs , that is , keeping them warm so that development is possible .
silent skies
is an international collaborative super - mural mosaic featuring all 678 endangered species of birds of the world . the 100 - ft installation will form the artistic centrepiece of the 27th international ornithological congress in august 2018 at the vancouver convention centre , after which , the mural will tour internationally . learn more
a limited number of canvas giclee editions will be available for sale in spring 2018 with proceeds supporting bird conservation and environmental education . as it is completed , artwork will be posted . the mural will be on display at the # afcfestival2018 this august . check the schedule .
silent skies student mural project is a youth education program that builds on the silent skies mural . this free program focuses on the study of conservation and endangered species through research , art and community engagement . a selection of student artworks will be featured alongside the primary mural . interested schools must register online .
artists for conservation international foundation is a canadian registered charity ( # 860891761 rr 0001 ) .
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evaluates the conservation status of plant and animal species . the list is based on scientific assessment of an organism ' s status by experts .
mrs moreau ' s warbler , mrs . moreau ' s warbler , winifred ' s warbler
saint andrew vireo , san andres vireo , san andrés vireo , st . andrew vireo
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rainforest
is used interchangeably with
rain forest
on this site .
jungle
is generally not used .
in this project , selva will generate information to confirm known populations , identify new populations and define key habitats for these two species , with a view to prioritizing conservation actions .
assess the quality of currently available ecological and geographical information for leptotila conoveri and atlapetes flaviceps .
determine rates of habitat loss and identify habitat remnants for both species , using species distribution models ( sdm ) .
identify key areas for the two species throughout their likely geographical range , combining distribution models , occupancy models and estimates of population density .
identify the main local and regional threats to design effective conservation strategies for both species .
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* author for correspondence ( ua . ude . wsnu @ ekyrp . haras ) .
) . these traits are all expressed with continuous variation across a population ( and morphs ) , typical of standard sexually selected ornamental traits in other species . sexual dimorphism in these socially monogamous finches is pronounced with females displaying considerably duller and less chromatic plumage ( s . r . pryke & s . c . griffith 2005 , unpublished data ) and shorter pintail feathers ( 21 . 7 % shorter ;
< 0 . 001 ) . to test the function of the head colour polymorphism as well as the multiple sexually dichromatic ornaments in dominance interactions , three standardized experiments were performed , using unfamiliar birds staged in contests with : ( i ) males of different head morphs , ( ii ) males of the same morph , and ( iii ) males with experimentally manipulated head colours ( i . e . blackened and reddened ) . since social dominance is an important determinant of male mating success , with dominant males typically preventing subordinates from breeding (
) , any signal trait that increases the efficiency ( or decreases the cost ) of frequent dominance contests should be favoured by sexual selection .
male dominance was assessed using captive birds ( n = 153 ) sourced from a large number of wild - type aviculturists throughout australia . all birds were fitted with a single numbered white plastic band to minimize potential colour band effects on colour communication . birds from each locality were housed in groups of 8–12 individuals in separate sex and morph aviaries ( 2 . 1 m 3 ) , visually isolated from each other . within the holding cages the potential for dominant males to monopolize food resources was minimized by placing multiple food dishes within each cage .
lacking information on the optical physiology of gouldian finches , we computed objective reflectance parameters relevant to the opponency - based perceptual colour space ( see andersson et al . 1998 ; pryke et al . 2001 for further details on colourimetrics ) . brightness ( spectral intensity ) was estimated by r 320–700 , the sum of reflectance from 320 to 700 nm . hue ( spectral location ) was estimated as λ ( r 50 ) , the wavelength at which reflectance is halfway between its minimum ( r min ) and its maximum ( r max ) . using λ ( r 50 ) as the individual segment divider , we calculated overall chroma ( spectral purity : c r 50 as ( r 320−λ ( r 50 ) − r λ ( r 50 ) −700 ) / r 320–700 . to specifically address the strong contribution of ultraviolet ( uv ) to the blue and violet coloured patches , we also included a measure of uv chroma , calculated as the relative reflectance ratio of uv to human visual light ( r 320–400 / r 320–700 ) .
generalized linear models ( glm ) were used to evaluate the relative contribution of a number of potential interacting effects on the outcome of the dominance contests . for dyadic contests over food , the binary ( win / loss ) outcomes from each dyad were modelled as the bernoulli dependent variables with a logit link function (
= 0 . 001 ) . furthermore , substituting the relative dominance position of the birds in the linear dominance hierarchy produced a weaker , but qualitatively similar , model ( aic = 44 . 2 and a weight of 61 % compared to other models ;
within a dyad , the probability ( % ) of the male morph ( listed first on the bottom axis ) dominating his opponent ( mentioned second ) . probabilities are generated from the coefficients of the best - fit generalized linear model ( glm : probability = e ( coefficient ) / ( 1 + e ( coefficient ) ) ) for the win / loss outcome of the contests . the errors bars represent the 95 % confidence intervals , calculated from the standard errors of the coefficients ( upper ci = coefficient + ( 2×s . e . ) ; lower ci = coefficient− ( 2×s . e . ) ) . the dashed line indicates where the two males have an equal likelihood ( i . e . 50 % ) of dominating the dyad .
however , although feeding order identified head morph as the only significant predictor ( aic = 120 . 6 and a weight of 71 % compared to other models ;
= 0 . 11 ) , feeding order is unlikely to be a relevant predictor of dominance in gouldian finches . in addition to affecting the overall outcome of dominance interactions , head morph also affected the type of interaction and displacement ( i . e . active or passive ) within the three morphs ( glm with interaction type as the response variable : aic = 87 . 9 and a weight of 69 % compared to other models ;
the average ( ±s . d . ) number of active aggressive interactions in the dyadic contests among males of the three different coloured morphs . the percentage of active supplants ( i . e . aggressive displays and / or physical displacements ) in these interactions are provided above the bars . the remaining interactions involved passive supplants ( i . e . feeding bird retreats when approached by an opponent ) .
the best - fitting glm explaining the outcome of contests with manipulated males ( reddened and blackened ; 390 trials ) identified the same model for both response variables ; dominating the food bowl ( aic = 225 . 7 and a weight of 77 % compared to other models ;
< 0 . 001 ) and top position in the hierarchy ( aic = 228 . 9 and a weight of 68 % compared to other models ;
for list ) had any effect on the outcome of these contests . although , the colour treatments did not affect the outcome of contests , they did influence the type of aggressive interactions ( i . e . active or passive supplant ) used to settle disputes . replacing interaction type as the response variable in the model ( aic = 221 . 6 ,
the probability ( % ) of the colour treated male ( listed first ) dominating his colour treated opponent ( mentioned second ) . probabilities are calculated from the glm best fitting the data ( see
for details ) with error bars for the 95 % confidence intervals of the coefficient . the dashed line indicates where the two males have an equal chance ( i . e . 50 % ) of dominating the dyad .
although , the relative contribution and importance of different selective pressures remains speculative at present , given the dramatic colour polymorphism and striking multi - component colouration , it appears probable that an interaction of different selective pressures maintains both the continuous ( i . e . presumably condition - dependent colour patches ) and discontinuous ( i . e . head morphs ) colouration in this species . for example , the intensity of the uv / blue collar ( surrounding the head mask ) , the colour expression of which varies qualitatively across all morphs ( see
thanks to mike fidler for providing facilities , birds and avicultural expertise , and to ellen ketterson and two anonymous reviewers for comments that greatly improved this manuscript . funding was provided by a new south global postdoctoral fellowship to s . p . and by the australian research council to s . g . all experiments in this study were approved by the unsw animal care and ethics committee ( 04 / 108a ) .
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evans m . r , hatchwell b . j . an experimental study of the male adornment in scarlet - tufted malachite sunbirds . ii . the role of the elongated tail inmate choice and experimental evidence for a handicap .
evans m . r , norris k . the importance of carotenoids in signaling during aggressive interactions between male firemouth cichlids (
fisher r . a . clarenton press ; oxford : 1930 . the genetical theory of natural selection .
galeotti p , rubolini d , dunn p . o , fasola m . colour polymorphism in birds : causes and functions .
griffith s . c , pryke s . r . benefits to females of assessing color displays . in : hill g . e , mcgraw k . j , editors .
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losey j . e , uves a . r , harmon j , ballantyne f , brown c . a polymorphism maintained by opposite patterns of parasitism and predation .
maynard smith j . cambridge university press ; cambridge , uk : 1982 . evolution and the theory of games .
pryke s . r , andersson s . carotenoid - based epaulettes reveal male competitive ability : experiments with resident and floater red - shouldered widowbirds .
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pryke s . r , andersson s , lawes m . j . sexual selection of multiple handicaps in the red - collared widowbird : female choice of tail length but not carotenoid display .
pryke s . r , andersson s , lawes m . j , piper s . e . carotenoid status signaling in captive and wild red - collared widowbirds : independent effects of badge size and color .
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searcy w . a , yasukawa k . princeton university press ; princeton , nj : 1995 . polygyny and sexual selection in red - winged blackbirds .
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thuman k . a , griffith s . c . genetic similarity and the nonrandom distribution of paternity in a genetically highly polyandrous shorebird .


the semiplumbeous hawk ( leucopternis semiplumbeus ) is a species of bird of prey in the family accipitridae .

it is found in colombia , costa rica , ecuador , honduras , and panama .

its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .

semiplumbeous hawk

based on millsap et al . ( 2011 ) , the gray hawk , formerly asturina nitida , has been split into gray hawk , asturina plagiata and gray - lined hawk , asturina nitida .
plumbeous hawk recorded day before . unable to follow up with any demisemi or hemidemisemiplumbeous hawks
the tiny hawk is among the most poorly known members of its genus in the neotropics . name for its diminutive size , the male tiny hawk is only about 75 g although females exceed 100 g .
butastur teesa , commonly called the white - eyed buzzard , is a medium - sized hawk found in south asia .
fire island raptor enumerations… rather out of date site but with lots of useful links to hawk watching in the us of a .
the tiny hawk ( and presumably semicollared hawk ) do not seem closely related to accipiter ( kocum , 2006 ; olson , 2006 ) and have been removed from accipiter and placed in the genus hieraspiza ( kaup 1844 , type superciliosa ) . it has not been clear what they are related to .
bierregaard , r . o . , jr , boesman , p . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . semiplumbeous hawk ( leucopternis semiplumbeus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the cooper ' s hawk , northern goshawk , and closely related taxa are the closest relatives of the harriers . they go in genus astur ( lacépède 1799 , type gentilis ) . these are sister to a clade that includes the eurasian sparrowhawk and the sharp - shinned hawk complex . it retains the name accipiter ( brisson 1760 , type nisus ) . i have included the gray - bellied hawk with this group based on kocum ( 2006 ) , although the support for this is not strong .
the hawk migration association of north america ( hmana ) is a membership - based organization committed to the conservation of raptors through the scientific study , enjoyment , and appreciation of raptor migration . . .
the tiny hawk ( accipiter superciliosus ) is a small diurnal bird of prey found in or near forests , primarily humid , throughout much of the neotropics . it is primarily a bird - eater , and is known to prey on hummingbirds .
the key papers for the booted eagles ( aquilinae ) are bunce et al . ( 2005 ) , helbig et al . ( 2005 ) , lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , haring et al . ( 2007b ) , and lerner et al . ( 2017 ) . the spizaetus hawk - eagles belong in two different clades within aquilinae . thus spizaetus is divided into nisaetus and spizaetus . the black - and - chestnut eagle ( oroaetus ) must be merged into the remaining spizaetus . the rufous - bellied hawk - eagle ( lophotriorchis ) is separated from hieraaetus . while the spotted eagles are separated from aquila as clanga . hieraaetus loses a couple of species to aquila , which also gains cassin ' s hawk - eagle from spizaetus .
kocum ( 2006 ) includes several species from this group in her dissertation . her analysis places them in a weakly supported unresolved basal polytomy with accipitrini , harpagini , and the remaining buteoninae . griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) grouped together the lizard buzzard , gabar goshawk , long - tailed hawk , and the chanting goshawks . the group was basal to accipitrini and buteoninae , but did not include the tiny hawk . the analysis by nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) bundles them together as shown here , but their evidence for this seems weak .
the javan hawk - eagle ( nisaetus bartelsi ) ( earlier placed in spizaetus [ 2 ] ) is a medium - sized , approximately 60 cm long , dark brown raptor in the family accipitridae . its head and neck are rufous and it is heavily barred black below .
a small greyish brown hawk . adults have conspicuous white or yellowish white eyes , two dark cheek stripes , a black gular stripe , whitish neck patch , buff shoulder patches , barred brown and white underparts , orange - yellow cere and a long rufous tail . rounded longish slim wings with dark tips that look like those of a shikra in silhouette . sexes alike . juveniles have a buff head , brown iris , indistinct or absent cheek and throat stripes , dark - brown streaked breast , and more strongly barred rufous uppertail .
this list includes three relatives of the sharp - shinned hawk that sacc has not split ( although they are split in the sibley - monore list ) . they could be allopatric forms best treated as one species . however , although the combined analysis of kocum ( 2006 ) placed ventralis and erythronemius in a clade striatus , other arrangements were seen for some of the other genes ( chionogaster was not included ) . breman et al . ( 2013 ) also found a separation between striatus and erythronemius . this hints , but does not prove , that a species - level treatment is appropriate , as has been followed by various authors .
this slim and small sized hawk is easily identified by its white iris to the eye and the white throat and dark mesial stripe . a white spot is sometimes visible on the back of the head . when perched the wing tip nearly reaches the tip of the tail . the ceres are distinctly yellow and the head is dark with the underside of the body darkly barred . in flight the narrow wings appear rounded with black tips to the feathers and the wing - lining appears dark . the upper wing in flight shows a pale bar over the brown . the rufous tail is barred with a darker subterminal band . young birds have the iris brownish and the forehead is whitish and a broad supercilium may be present .
the white - eyed buzzard ( butastur teesa ) is a medium sized hawk , distinct from the true buzzards in the genus buteo , found in south asia . adults have a rufous tail , a distinctive white iris , and a white throat bearing a dark mesial stripe bordered . the head is brown and the median coverts of the upper wing are pale . they lack the typical carpal patches on the underside of the wings seen in true buzzards but the entire wing lining appears dark in contrast to the flight feathers . they sit upright on perches for prolonged periods and soar on thermals in search of insect and small vertebrate prey . they are vociferous in the breeding season and several birds may be heard calling as they soar together .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be small , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the population is estimated to number 1 , 000 - 10 , 000 individuals , roughly equivalent to 670 - 6 , 700 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
pair present , calling bird was perched 10 meters above ground . recorded during a respite in constant cold front rain .
moore et al . 2013 : bird sounds of ecuador dvd same bird as previous cut . intervals shortened
moore et al . 2013 : bird sounds of ecuador dvd perched . intervals shortened
selectively logged humid forest . reference : a : 208 - 212 ( leusemx1 ) . . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 21 side a track 41 seq . a )
recorded in 120 year - old forest , on two separate days . filtered to reduce wind noise .
calls from a pair perched , probably interacting with pair of buteo magnirostris . near end , one bird flew farther off to vocalize . disturbed forest edge .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
extreme e honduras # r and e nicaragua # r s to w colombia ( e to magdalena valley ) and nw ecuador ( esmeraldas and nw pichincha ) . several recently seen and heard in allpahuayo - mishana national reserve , n peru , possibly referring to present species or to a closely related new species # r .
31–36 cm ; male 250 g , female 325 g ; wingspan 51–64 cm . small , stocky , short - winged
quite vocal in breeding season , when gives a series of loud , piercing upslurred whistles :
kwee . . . . . .
humid forests of tropical and lower subtropical zones ; forest edge , in and around forest fragments . . .
almost no information . one anecdotal record of nest - building in crown of tall tree in costa rica in jan ; male in breeding condition taken . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . formerly classified as near threatened . although considered locally common in some areas of primary forest , and tolerant of . . .
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jose alvarez et al . reported the bird as a new report to peru in cotinga 34 ( 2012 ) : ol 61–84 , published online 10 march 2012 . avifauna de la reserva nacional allpahuayo mishana , loreto , perú
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has sometimes been incorporated within buteo . recent phylogenetic analyses suggested that only the three species listed below belong in leucopternis # r # r .
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distribution size : 3 , 900 , 000 km2 . global range : south east iran to myanmar , southern tibet . indian subcontinent range : north east afghanistan ( nuristan ) , north west pakistan , north west himalayas to himachal , sub - himalayas from south west baluchistan to west bengal , north central bangladesh , southern peninsula , south assam hills
clements , j . f . , t . s . schulenberg , m . j . iliff , d . roberson , t . a . fredericks , b . l . sullivan , and c . l . wood . 2014 . the ebird / clements checklist of birds of the world : version 6 . 9 . downloaded from urltoken
a . global : habitat systems : terrestrial ; freshwater . forest dependency : does not normally occur in forest . altitude : 0 - 1200 m . altitudinal limits : ( max ) 4000 m . general habitats : savanna - dry ; shrubland - subtropical / tropical dry ; grassland - subtropical / tropical dry ; artificial / terrestrial - arable land . b . indian subcontinent : open dry country and thin deciduous forest , scrub and cultivation . avoids humid and densely wooded tracts .
not a migrant . in india , it is a widespread resident that moves locally .
carnivorous . locusts , grasshoppers and other large insects ; as well as mice , lizards and frogs . also hunts for crabs near wetlands and larger prey like the black - naped hare or lepus nigricollis .
global : 100 , 000 mature individuals ( 2009 ) . india : 5000 birds in an area of 50 , 000 km2 around delhi ( 1950 ) .
usually solitary , they often sit upright on dry trees and telegraph posts etc for long periods of time . these rather sluggish birds soar on thermals in search of insect and small vertebrate prey . vociferous in the breeding season , pairs call , which sounds like plainitive mewing , while soaring in circles high up in the air .
breeding season : february to may in india . nest location : usually built by both parents in the fork of a thicky foliaged tree such as a mango , preferably one in a grove . nest : like a crows in being a loose unlined cup of twigs . clutch size : 3 . eggs : broad , greenish - white unspotted ovals with a smooth texture . parental investment : both parents share the responsibility of nest - building and feeding the young . only females incubate eggs however . incubation time : 19 days .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be fluctuating , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
red list category & criteria : least concern ( ver 3 . 1 ) year published : 2009 assessor / s : birdlife international reviewer / s : bird , j . , butchart , s .
cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) india listed species : yes . appendix : ii . cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) global listed species : yes . appendix : ii . aewa ( agreement on the conservation of african - eurasian migratory waterbirds ) listed species : no . iwpa ( indian wildlife protection act , 1972 ) listed species : yes . iwpa ( indian wildlife protection act , 1972 ) schedule : iv .
fledgelings are reddish brown unlike most other downy raptor chicks which tend to be white .
, an old name for the sparrowhawks . molecular phylogeny studies suggest that the genus is a sister group of the buteoninae .
. it is a resident in iran , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh and myanmar . it is absent from sri lanka and is probably absent from the andamans . it is a summer visitor in northeastern afghanistan . it is mainly found in the plains but may go up to 1200m in the foothills of the himalayas .
the usual habitat is in dry , open forest or cultivation . they are numerous in some areas but declining .
in flight , the dark wing lining and white throat are distinctive on the underside .
this species is usually seen soaring alone in thermals or perched still . groups of two or three may sometimes be seen . they have a mewing call or falling whistle ( transcribed as
they feed mainly on locusts , grasshoppers , crickets and other large insects as well as mice , lizards and frogs . they may also take crabs from near wetlands
the breeding season is february to may . the nest is loose platform of twigs not unlike that of a crow , sometimes placed in a leafless tree .
both sexes share nest - building and feeding young ; female alone incubates for about 19 days until the eggs hatch .
hume , ao ( 1869 ) . my scrap book : rough notes on indian oology and ornithology . baptist mission press , calcutta . pp . 286–288 .
rasmussen pc & jc anderton ( 2005 ) . birds of south asia . the ripley guide . volume 2 . smithsonian institution & lynx edicions . pp . 100–101 .
clark , william s ; schmitt , n john ( 1992 ) .
flight identification of indian raptors with pale bars on upper wings
. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 89 ( 1 ) : 1–3 .
gnanaselvan , p ( 1992 ) .
nesting of the white - eyed buzzard - eagle in pudukudi , thanjavur district
. newsletter for birdwatchers 32 ( 7 & 8 ) : 16–17 .
jerdon , tc ( 1862 ) . the birds of india . volume 1 . military orphan press , calcutta . pp . 92–93 .
lerner , hrl ; matthew c . klaver , david p . mindell ( 2008 ) .
molecular phylogenetics of the buteonine birds of prey ( accipitridae )
. the auk 125 ( 2 ) : 304–315 . doi : 10 . 1525 / auk . 2008 . 06161 .
galushin vm ( 1975 ) .
a comparative analysis of the density of predatory birds in two selected areas within the palaearctic and oriental regions , near moscow and delhi
. emu 74 : 331 .
whistler , hugh ( 1949 ) . popular handbook of indian birds . gurney and jackson . pp . 366–367 .
dewar , douglas ( 1912 ) . jungle folk : indian natural history . john lane . pp . 32–36 .
mackenzie , k ( 1894 ) .
food of the white - eyed buzzard
. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 9 ( 1 ) : 101 .
javed , salim ( 1995 ) .
hare in the diet of white - eyed buzzard eagle butastur teesa ( franklin )
. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 92 ( 1 ) : 119 .
kanoje , r ( 1997 ) .
nesting site of white - eyed buzzard in kanha national park
. newsletter for birdwatchers 37 ( 5 ) : 90 .
blanford , wt ( 1895 ) . the fauna of british india , including ceylon and burma . birds . volume 3 . london : taylor and francis . pp . 362–364 .
soni , rg ( 1993 ) .
breeding of white - eyed buzzard in the thar desert
. j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 90 ( 3 ) : 506–507 .
hume , ao ( 1890 ) . the nests and eggs of indian birds . volume 3 . r h porter , london . pp . 158–161 .
ali s & sd ripley ( 1978 ) . handbook of the birds of india and pakistan . volume 1 ( 2 ed . ) . new delhi : oxford university press . pp . 256–258 .
dharejo , a . m . bilqees , f . m . khan , m . m . ( 2007 ) .
uvitellina teesae , new species ( digenea : cyclocoelidae ) from liver of white - eyed buzzard butastur teesa ( accipitridae ) , in hala , hyderabad , sindh , pakistan
. pakistan journal of zoology 39 ( 6 ) : 385–388 .
levine , norman d ( 1982 ) .
the genus atoxoplasma ( protozoa , apicomplexa )
. journal of parasitology 68 ( 4 ) : 719–723 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 3280933 . jstor 3280933 . pmid 7119994 .
tendeiro , j ( 1988 ) .
etudes sur les colpocephalum ( mallophaga , menoponidae ) parasites des falconiforms 1 . groupe zerafae price & beer
. bonn . zool . beitr . 39 : 77–102 .
ansari ha & d kaul ( 1986 ) .
cytotaxonomic study in the order falconiformes ( aves )
. zoologica scripta 15 ( 4 ) : 351–356 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1463 - 6409 . 1986 . tb00235 . x .
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telluraves contains slightly more than 3 / 4 of all bird species . athough there ' s some residual uncertainty about the other main branches of passerea , the land bird clade telluraves is well - supported by jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) where it receives 100 % bootstrap support . further , hackett et al . ( 2008 ) and ericson et al . ( 2006a ) both found the hawks and american vultures to be closer to the picimorphae than to the falcons ( see also suh et al . , 2011 ; mccormack et al . , 2013 ; yuri et al . 2013 ) . other papers ( e . g . , morgan - richards et al . , 2008 ) are less supportive , putting all of them somewhere between the ardeae and the passerines . the order here follows jarvis et al .
the main division in telluraves is between the group containing the mousebirds , hawks , owl , and woodpeckers ( afroaves ) and the group containing the falcons , parrots , and passerines ( australaves ) ( ericson et al . , 2006a ; hackett et al . , 2008 ; ericson , 2012 ; jarvis et al . , 2014 ) . australaves is by far the larger group , containing about 64 % of all bird species . in contrast , afroaves only has about 11 & half ; % of the species . still , afroaves is much larger than any other high - level group than branches off sooner .
i ' m not fond of the names afroaves and australaves , mainly because the names suggest some knowledge of their origin that we don ' t have . as you will note in some of comments in the next few pages , some of the groups where the crown group appears to originate in africa or australia today ( ericson , 2012 ) have fossil records that are quite different . the earliest fossils throughout the clade come from the northern hemisphere . more precisely , they come from eupore and north america , which were connected in paleocene and early eocene .
in the tif list , afroaves is divided into four groups : coliiformes , accipitrimorphae , strigiformes , and picimorphae . there is some uncertainty about whether strigiformes are closer to accipitrimorphae or to picimorphae . suh ( 2016 ) and jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) prefer the latter , and that is followed here .
the coliiformes are a relict afrotropical group consisting of 6 species in 2 genera . it wasn ' t always so . there ' s a fairly extensive fossil record from europe and north america . primitive coliiformes ( sandcoleidae ) are known from the early eocence ( 48 - 56 mya ) . by the late eocene , only modern forms are known ( mayr , 2009 ) .
although new world vultures are rather similar to old world vultures ( part of accipitridae ) , they are not closely related . this was already recognized by huxley in 1876 based on morphological evidence . nonetheless , they were traditionally placed in falconiformes , as where the accipitridae and falconidae . there are also some superficial similarities to storks , and when sibley and ahlquist found support for this using dna hybridization techniques , they were removed from falconiformes and placed next to the storks . more recent analysis have shown this is incorrect , and have also broken up falconiformes . as mentioned above , more recent research ( e . g . , hackett et al . , 2008 ; han et al . , 2011 ; mccormack et al . , 2013 ; yuri et al . , 2013 ; jarvis et al . , 2014 ) puts the new world vultures close to the accipitriformes .
the phylogeny of cathartidae is based on johnson et al . ( 2016 ) .
those interested in ancient raptors should read darren naish ' s post on titan - hawks .
the secretarybird is the first branch of accipitriformes , followed by the osprey . after that , come the accipitridae ( hawks , kites , and eagles ) .
it is not clear whether the osprey is a single species . the ioc recognizes two osprey species , eastern ( indo - australasian cristatus ) and western ( everything else ) . some have suggested that the caribbean population ( ridgwayi ) should also be separated .
monti et al . suggest that the new world clade is basal , as suggested by the cyt - b analysis . however , combining nd2 with cyt - b yielded a different topology , with the old world clade basal . in any event , the separation of all 4 clades appears to have taken place over a short time interval . the cyt - b analysis suggested the new world clade is a million or so years old . a few of the samples showed a mismatch between geography and clade .
at present , it remains unclear whether or not the osprey should be considered a considered a single species , or 3 - 4 .
at the genus level , the order presented here attempts to synthesize the papers by amaral et al . ( 2006 , 2009 ) , barrowclough et al . ( 2014 ) , breman et al . ( 2013 ) , griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) , haring et al . ( 2007b ) , helbig et al . ( 2005 ) , kocum ( 2006 ) , lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , lerner et al . ( 2008 ) , nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) , oatley et al . ( 2015 ) , ong et al . ( 2011 ) , and wink and sauer - gürth ( 2004 ) . some of the genera were restructured based on these and other papers .
the accipitridae are a complicated family . you can see from the diagram that i treat them as consisting of ten subfamilies with large families accipitrinae and buteoninae at the end . the latter two subfamilies are further divided into tribes . the timing estimates of nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) have influenced what gets counted as a subfamily and what counts as a tribe . after reading jarvis et al . ( 2014 ) , i suspect nagy and tökölyi ' s divergence dates are a little short . nagy and tökölyi did not include the crested goshawk subfamily , lophospizinae , but indications are that it is near aquilinae ( oatley et al . , 2015 ) .
one thing that genetic results have made clear is that the kites are not a natural group . rather , they are scattered in three subfamilie . the first group is the elanine kites . kites also occur in three clades in perninae and four clades in buteoninae .
now that it is clear that henicopernis belongs within perninae ( barrowclough et al . , 2014 ) , this small primarily african clade is cleanly separated from perninae . the separation from perninae seems to be quite ancient ( nagy and tökölyi , 2014 ) , so i recognize both groups as subfamilies .
the honey - buzzards ( pernis ) have been sorted out by gamauf and haring ( 2004 ) , including the recently - split phillipine honey - buzzard . barrowclough et al . ( 2014 ) provided additional information concerning the australo - papuan species .
three groups of kites are part of perninae . the neotropical chondrohierax and leptodon kites , the swallow - tailed kite ( elanoides , sister to the pernis honey - buzzards ) , and the square - tailed kite ( lophoictinia , sister to the henicopernis honey - buzzards ) . note that the honey - buzzards are not a natural group either .
the name gypinae ( blyth , 1851 ) has priority over aegypiinae ( w . p . sclater , 1924 ) . the old world vultures are gathered here and fall into two clades . the first four species ( and genera ! ) are in one clade , with necrosyrtes and gyps in the other . the arrangement of species within gyps has taken both arshad et al . ( 2009 ) and nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) into account . i follow lerner et al . ( 2005 ) and nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) for the genera . arshad et al . is almost the same , while griffiths et al . ( 2009 ) is broadly consistent but less well - resolved .
in the serpent eagles , dryotriorchis has been merged into circaetus . exactly how many species are in spilornis remains an issue . there are six here , but ferguson - lees and christie ( 2001 ) list 13 ! i ' ve not accepted the ioc split of minimus because i don ' t see any evidence to split this and not the others .
what evidence there is suggests that the crested goshawk is not part of accipitrinae . barcoding suggested it is basal to the accipitrinae / buteoninae clade ( ong et al . , 2011 ; breman et al . , 2013 ) . raty , in a birdforum post got similar results when adding a partial cytochrome - b gene . more recently , oatley et al . ' s ( 2015 ) 4 - gene analysis found the crested goshawk near the aquilinae ( harpiinae was not in the analysis ) . i ' m not sure i ' m entirely convinced , but i ' ve double - down on this and put it in a trichotomy with harpiinae and aquilinae . besides , there ' s something that appeals to me in having the crested goshawks near the harpy eagles .
dna from the sulawesi ( crested ) goshawk has not been tested , but it is thought to be a very close relative of the crested goshawk , with the two forming a superspecies . the name lophospiza ( kaup 1844 , type trivirgata ) is available for these two species .
the split between the harpy eagles and booted eagles seems to have occurred about 20 million years ago ( nagy and tökölyi , 2014 ) , so i treat them as separate subfamilies .
although it is fairly basal , there is still some uncertain concerning the closest relatives of the crowned eagle , stephanoaetus coronatus .
i ' ve included the extinct haast ' s eagle of new zealand on the species tree since bunce et al . ( 2005 ) analyzed dna from it . however , it isn ' t included on the main list because it likely became extinct prior to 1500 , which is the cutoff for inclusion .
there is a deep division of the accipitrinae into two groups which i rank as tribes : melieraxini and accipitrini .
the name melieraxinae has appeared in the literature since at least lerner and mindell ( 2005 ) , but does not seem to be formally established .
the papers by wink and sauer - gürth ( 2004 ) , breman et al . ( 2013 ) , barrowclough et al . ( 2014 ) , nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) and kocum ' s dissertation ( 2006 ) allow us to make a rough draft of a species - level tree for the accipitters . doubtless it will need further adjustment .
the result is that the genus accipiter has been divided into 6 pieces . two of those , hieraspiza and lophospiza have been moved outside the accipitrini . kocum ( 2006 ) , griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) , lerner et al . ( 2008 ) , and nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) found that the circus harriers are embedded within the traditional accipiter . the options are to lump circus into accipiter or divide accipiter into at least three parts . i ' ve chosen to take the latter course , dividing accipter into four parts .
the arrangement of the harriers follows oatley et al . ( 2015 ) . i have split the hen and northern harriers . oatley et al . found that the northern harrier was closer to the cinereous harrier than to the hen harrier . oatley et al . also found that the last 5 harriers are very closely related , possibily conspecific . however , i distrust their estimated divergence dates . they are markedly shorter than comparable dates in nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) , which already seem a bit short compared to jarvis et al . ( 2015 ) .
the buteoninae are the largest subfamily of the accipitridae . according to nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) , the clade is roughly 20 million years old . there are three deep divisions ( 15 - 18 million years ago ) in the buteoninae which i have recognized as tribes : harpagini , milvini , and buteonini .
many of the changes between versions 2 . 00 and 2 . 01 of this page were due to the publication of lerner et al . ( 2008 ) . their results have subsequently been refined by amaral et al . ( 2009 ) and nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) . i have additionally consulted amaral et al . ( 2006 ) , barrowclough et al . \ ( 2014 ) , griffiths et al . \ ( 2007 ) , kocum ( 2006 ) , kruckenhauser et al . \ ( 2004 ) , ong et al . \ ( 2011 ) , and riesing et al . ( 2003 ) . although these sources are not in 100 % agreement , and there are still a few lacuna , i think the buteoninae are now in pretty good shape even at the species level .
there might still be a little modification of species boundaries to go , particularly in pseudastur and near buteo buteo . i ' ve modified the generic limits quite a bit in the buteoninae , but less drastically than suggested by riesing et al . ( 2003 ) and by lerner et al . ( 2008 ) . most of these changes were also adopted by amaral et al . ( 2009 ) , which prompted some further changes in version 2 . 15 . this has been further refined by considering nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) in version 2 . 61 .
harpagini consists of the two harpagus kites . nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) put harpagini in the basal position . griffiths et al . ( 2007 ) also included them in their analysis . they have harpagus basal to accipitrinae + buteoninae . however , resolution was poor , and other basal raptors from griffiths et al . have moved to accipitridae .
milvini consists of the milvine kites and sea and fish eagles . the kites are the second of the four kite clades in buteoninae .
the two - species version of icthyophaga turns out to be nested within haliaeetus . it could either be submerged into haliaeetus , or expanded to include four haliaeetus species . i ' ve taken the second option . this puts all of the northern fish - eagles and sea - eagles in haliaeetus , while the tropical fish / sea - eagles are in icthyophaga . the two groups are not only geographically separated , but are visually distinct—compare the relatively longer , narrower wings of haliaeetus to the shorter , broader wings of icthyophaga . there ' s a spelling issue here : icthyophaga or ichthyophaga ? both dickinson ( 2003 ) and peterson ( zoonomen . net ) give the former , which is the original spelling . peterson also argues that icthyophaga is correct . nonetheless , ichthyophaga is also in wide usage ( e . g . , hbw - 2 ) .
this brings us to buteonini . the first branch consists of butastur buzzards and the second branch is the ictinia kites ( third of the four buteoninae kite clades ) . the next clade contains busarellus , geranospiza , and the final kite clade , rostrhamus and presumably helicolestes . except possibly for the last two , they are all long - separated and deserving of genus status .
the clade starting at b is also flagged by lerner et al . as a good starting point for buteo . the former leucopternis , white , gray - backed , and mantled hawks are placed in pseudastur while the some of the remaining leucopternis are put in geranoaetus . this includes the white - tailed , and variable ( sometimes split as red - backed and puna ) hawks , formerly in buteo . it should be noted that the species boundaries in pseudastur seriously need adjustment , but it seems that further study will be needed to clarify the situation .
the clade at c is also a plausible way to delimit buteo . the sacc prefers to retain leucopternis . the balance of evidence suggests leucopternis is more basal than the gray and gray - lined hawks ( subgenus asturina ) . amaral et al . ( 2009 ) find asturina sister to buteo and nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) put the asturina hawks a little deeper in the buteos . i now follow both aou committees by including asturina in buteo .
as defined below , buteo consists primarily of species breeding in the old world and nearctic , with a few neotropical species . the other genera that might be included in buteo — leucopternis ( point a ) , pseudastur , geranoaetus ( point b ) , parabuteo , rupornis , and morphnarchus ( point c ) — are primarily south and middle american breeders .
amaral et al . ( 2009 ) and nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) help clear up the situation with the remaining buteo species , although some issues remain . the new world species split out nicely , up to the lagopus / regalis pair . then we get into the old world buteos , whose taxonomy remains somewhat murky . two species were not considered in their analysis , and the true species boundaries among the old world buteos remain somewhat uncertain . i expect that the treatment here will subject to a bit of revision as more is known .
riesing et al . ( 2003 , fig . 5 ) found evidence that archer ' s buzzard , buteo archeri is not part of the augur buzzard , buteo augur , but is sister to a clade consisting of the red - necked , augur and jackal buzzards , and possibly the madagascan buzzard , buteo brachypterus . other evidence in riesing et al . ( fig . 4 ) , and in nagy and tökölyi ( 2014 ) puts brachypterus in a slightly more basal position , out of this clade .
another apparently misplaced buteo was the forest buzzard , buteo trizonatus . it was considered a subspecies of the mountain buzzard , buteo oreophilus , but genetic data ( esp . kruckenhauser et al . , 2004 ) suggests it is closer to the common buzzard , buteo buteo . although the genetic distance is small , its distant separation from the common buzzard ' s breeding range and distinct plumage suggest it should be considered a distinct species .
although the breeding buzzards of the cape verde and socotra islands have been considered races of the common buzzard , genetic data ( clouet and wink , 2000 ) suggests they are more closely related to the long - legged buzzard , buteo rufinus . once again , the genetic distances are small , but this suggests treating them as distinct species : cape verde buzzard , buteo bannermani , and socotra buzzard , buteo socotraensis . oddly , although it had been studied for over a century , the socotra buzzard had not been formally named until 2010 when porter and kirwan dubbed it buteo socotraensis . this replaces the informal name ‘b . socotrae’ that some have used .
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hawks , eagles , kites , harriers and old world vultures are included in this group . the osprey is placed in a separate family ( pandionidae ) , as are the secretary bird ( sagittariidae ) and the new world vultures . the other bird of prey family , which includes caracaras and falcons , are a distinct and separate group .
the accipitridae are a diverse family with a great deal of variation in size and shape . they range in size from the tiny pearl kite
, which measures up to 120cm and weighs up to 14kg . wingspan can vary from 39cm in the little sparrowhawk to more than 300cm in the cinereous vulture and himalayan vulture
of new zealand , which is estimated to have measured up to 140cm and to have weighed 15kg to 16 . 5 kg in the largest females .
( possibly not closely related to other vultures ) , it may form more than half of the diet . most accipitrids will not eat plant material . insects are taken exclusively by around 12 species , in great numbers by 44 additional species , and opportunistically by a great many others . the diet of the honey - buzzards includes not only the adults and young of social insects such as wasps and bees , but the honey and combs from their nests . the snail kite
are specialists in consuming snails , which usually constitute 50 - 95 % of their diet .
occasionally , an eagle or other raptor that kills prey considerably heavier than itself ( too heavy for the raptor to carry and fly with ) will then have to leave prey where they ' ve killed and later return repeatedly to feed or dismember and bring to a perch or nest piece by piece . this has the advantage of providing a surplus of food but has the disadvantage of potentially attracting scavengers or other predators which can steal the kill or even attack the feeding accipitrid . using this method , accipitrids such as the golden eagle
have successfully hunted ungulates , such as deer and antelope , and other large mammals ( kangaroos and emus in the wedge - tailed ) weighing more than 30kg , 7–8 times their own mass . more typical prey for these powerful booted eagle species weigh between 0 . 5kg and 5kg . the haliaeetus eagles such as steller ' s sea eagle
is most closely related to the snake eagles . another handsome aberration of the snake - eagle lineage ( although , unlike the philippine , has long been known to be a snake - eagle ) is the bateleur
, which has evolved unusually bright plumage in adults , with a huge red cere , red feet , bright yellow bill , and boldly contrasting grey - and - white markings over black plumage . the bateleur has specialised to feed extensively on carrion and almost any other feeding opportunity that presents itself .
there are , according to the ioc , 255 species of hawks , buzzards , kites , eagles and old world vultures in the family accipitridae . they are :
the accipitridae , one of the four families within the order accipitriformes ( the other order of diurnal birds of prey being falconiformes ) , are a family of small to large birds with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet .
the bearded vulture ( gypaetus barbatus ) , also known as the lammergeier [ a ] or ossifrage , is a bird of prey and the only member of the genus gypaetus .
taxonomy : vultur barbatus linnaeus , 1758 , santa cruz , near oran , algeria . individual variation in plumage considerable , and geographical variation based largely on size . forms aureus ( europe and w asia ) and hemachalanus ( higher mountains of c asia ) sometimes recognized , but probably better subsumed within nominate barbatus . two subspecies tentatively recognized .
the cape griffon or cape vulture ( gyps coprotheres ) , also known as kolbe ' s vulture , is an old world vulture in the family accipitridae . it is endemic to southern africa , and is found mainly in south africa , lesotho , botswana and in some parts of northern namibia . it nests on cliffs and lays one egg per year . since 2015 , it has been classified as endangered .
vultur coprotheres j . r . forster , 1798 , south africa . traditionally thought to form a species - group with g . himalayensis , g . indicus ( with tenuirostris ) , g . rueppelli and g . fulvus , and formerly considered conspecific with g . fulvus . recent genetic data , however , indicate that present species forms a clade with g . indicus and g . tenuirostris and that these three are sister to a clade comprising g . rueppelli and g . fulvus ; this arrangement independently supported by study based on wider molecular sample from additional loci . an apparently mixed ( and probably successful ) pairing between present species and g . africanus was reported at last surviving colony in namibia . monotypic .
the egyptian vulture ( neophron percnopterus ) is a small old world vulture , found widely distributed from southwestern europe and northern africa to india… .
taxonomy : vultur perenopterus [ sic ] linnaeus , 1758 , egypt . original specific name incorrectly spelt , and officially emended . following the naming of a new subspecies from canary is , further work revealed that population of this species in balearic is is equally distinct genetically ; further work desirable . nw himalayan population included in nominate , but possibly separable ( as race rubripersonatus ) . three subspecies currently recognized .
taxonomy : spizaëtus nipalensis bartelsi stresemann , 1924 , western java . traditionally thought to form a species - group with n . nipalensis , n . alboniger ( with n . nanus ) , n . lanceolatus and n . philippensis ( with n . pinskeri ) . sometimes considered to be a race of n . nipalensis , but clearly distinct . monotypic .
the white - bellied goshawk ( accipiter haplochrous ) is a species of bird of prey in the accipitridae family . it is endemic to new caledonia . the species is also known as the new caledonia sparrowhawk…
taxonomy : accipiter haplochrous p . l . sclater , 1859 , nu island , off new caledonia . traditionally thought to form a species - group with a . melanochlamys , a . albogularis and a . rufitorques . monotypic .
narrated & filmed by paul doherty 90 minutes 28 species covered ? 17 . 95 bird images dvd guides , 28 carousel walk , sherburn in elmet , n yorks ls25 6lp , united kingdom urltoken see fatbirder review
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nyassachromis prostoma is a species of fish in the family cichlidae .

it is endemic to lake malawi and found in malawi and tanzania .

nyassachromis prostoma

nyassachromis prostoma is an mouthbrooding cichlid from lake malawi , africa . it was first typed by trewavas in 1935 .
a male of nyassachromis prostoma at gome rock , lake malawi [ malawi ] . photo by ad konings . determiner ad konings
conservation : nyassachromis prostoma is evaluated by the international union for the conservation of nature in the iucn red list of threatened species as ( lc ) least concern ( 2006 ) .
nyassachromis prostoma has is occasionally available on cichlid sellers website . wild - caught fish would be $ 60 - $ 80 each . two inch juveniles go for about $ 8 to $ 12 each .
in the wild , nyassachromis prostoma is an open water planktivore , but it is not difficult to feed in the aquarium . flake food , repashy spawn and grow , new life spectrum and xtreme pellets were all eagerly accepted by my group of fish .
nyassachromis prostoma is a not a very aggressive cichlid and presents few problems . this fish should definitely be kept over sand since bower building is a prelude to courtship . my group did great in ordinary chicago water ( ph 7 . 4 ) at 78f .
i obtained a group of eight , adult nyassachromis prostoma from a gcca rare fish auction in 2013 . the fish were a couple of inches long when i got them and i placed them in a 90 - gallon tank with substrate of quartz pool filter sand . this tank had only a few rocks for landscaping and was filtered by a tidepool ii wet / dry filter
this species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus copadichromis but is now valid in the genus nyassachromis ( konings 2016 ) . an amended assessment has been produced to reflect this taxonomic change .
members of the genus nyassachromis prostoma were formerly placed in the copadichromis genus , but konings advises that juvenile color pattern was one reason why these fish were split into a new genus . nyassachromis are characterized by a rather small head and narrow body and conspicuous line on the body . males get up to six or seven inches while females stay smaller . this is a mostly silvery fish , but males have a nice bright blue sheen to the front third of the body and over the flank . the orange cap variety can have reddish coloration on the head , but it is not always very visible . the dorsal offers some red coloration , but the anal fin is mostly nondescript with only an egg dummy or two . females are smaller by an inch or two and are silver with a blue sheen .
this species has a dark lateral stripe on the body . konings ( 1995 ) regards this species as belonging to the genus nyassachromis due to its basic pigmentation pattern as well as its habit of constructing spawning cones , since all other species in the genus copadichromis have spots or lack pattern on the flanks and are not known to build spawning cones on sand [ except for copadichromis likomae ( iles , 1960 ) ] . this species previously appeared on the iucn red list in the genus copadichromis but is now valid in the genus nyassachromis ( konings 2016 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
konings , a . 2016 . malawi cichlids in their natural habitat , 5th edition . cichlid press , el paso , usa .
snoeks , j . ( freshwater fish red list authority ) & darwall , w . ( freshwater biodiversity assessment programme )
justification : endemic to lake malawi . fairly widespread distribution with no major widespread threats identified .
endemic to lake malawi . recorded from the northwestern coast but also observed on the east coast near masinje .
it prefers shallow water and is rarely seen in large numbers at depths of more than 10 m . breeds from august to december . it constructs sand castle nests on the sand . a zooplanktivorous feeder .
( amended version of 2006 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t60873a120691485 .
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i have found repashy spawn and grow to be a great conditioning food for large malawians . when the males were about five inches long , i observed the largest individual digging pits in the sand . this large male dug a pit which was at least three inches deep and about a foot around . a couple of weeks later , i observed my first female holding . i allowed the female to hold for 14 days after which i stripped her of 22 large fry .
i offered live baby brine shrimp as a first food and the babies grew steadily .
the greater chicago cichlid association — gcca — is a not - for - profit , educational organization , chartered in the state of illinois , dedicated to the advancement and dissemination of information relating to the biology of the fishes in the family cichlidae , with particular emphasis on maintenance and breeding in captivity . we are simply cichlid hobbyists who love cichlids .
from lake nyassa + greek , chromis = a fish , perhaps a perch ( ref . 45335 )
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 4979 )
maréchal , c . , 1991 . copadichromis . p . 51 - 58 . in j . daget , j . - p . gosse , g . g . teugels and d . f . e . thys van den audenaerde ( eds . ) check - list of the freshwater fishes of africa ( cloffa ) . isnb , brussels ; mrac , tervuren ; and orstom , paris . vol . 4 . ( ref . 4979 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 13 of 100 ) .
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pam chin has been replying to cichlid questions for over twenty years . highly respected and experienced aquarist , pam has visited cichlid habitats around the world , and bred in her ' s and her husband gary fish house hundreds of cichlid species . besides her job , she still devotes time to help any person with a cichlid question !
articles for sale beautifully formatted and wonderfully illustrated pdf articles about all matters relative to cichlids .
books for sale cichlid books and dvds for sale at the cichlid room companion .
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trade section the master list of cichlid offers ordered by area and species name .
trewavas , ethelwynn . 1935 .
a synopsis of the cichlid fishes of lake nyasa
. annals and magazine of natural history . series 10 ; pp . 65 - 118 ( crc00118 )
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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format summary genbank genbank ( full ) asn . 1 xml insdseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3
this entry is the master record for a targeted locus set and contains no sequence data .
finds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .
finds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .