oncaea is a genus of copepods , containing the following species : oncaea africana shmeleva , 1979 oncaea alboranica shmeleva , 1979 oncaea atlantica shmeleva , 1967 oncaea bispinosa böttger-schnack , 2002 oncaea bowmani heron , 1977 oncaea brocha heron , 1977 oncaea brodskii shmeleva , 1968 oncaea clevei früchtl , 1923 oncaea compacta heron , 1977 oncaea convexa heron , 1977 oncaea cristata böttger-schnack , 2005 oncaea crypta böttger-schnack , 2005 oncaea curta g. o. sars , 1916 oncaea curvata giesbrecht , 1902 oncaea damkaeri heron , 1977 oncaea delicata heron , english & damkaer , 1984 oncaea englishi heron , 1977 oncaea furnestini shmeleva , 1979 oncaea glabra heron & frost , 2000 oncaea grossa heron & frost , 2000 oncaea heronae malt , 1982 oncaea illgi heron , 1977 oncaea infantula k. t. gordeeva , 1972 oncaea insolita heron & frost , 2000 oncaea lacinia heron , english & damkaer , 1984 oncaea latimana k. t. gordeeva , 1975 oncaea longipes shmeleva , 1968 oncaea longiseta shmeleva , 1968 oncaea macilenta heron , 1977 oncaea media giesbrecht , 1891 oncaea mediterranea ( claus , 1863 ) oncaea memorata k. t. gordeeva , 1973 oncaea minima shmeleva , 1968 oncaea minor shmeleva , 1979 oncaea mollicula k. t. gordeeva , 1975 oncaea notopus giesbrecht , 1891 oncaea oceanica k. t. gordeeva , 1972 oncaea olsoni heron , 1977 oncaea ornata giesbrecht , 1891 oncaea ovalis shmeleva , 1966 oncaea parabathyalis böttger-schnack , 2005 oncaea paraclevei böttger-schnack , 2001 oncaea parila heron , 1977 oncaea petila heron , 1977 oncaea philippinensis ( kazachenko & avdeev , 1977 ) oncaea platysetosa boxshall & böttger , 1987 oncaea prendeli shmeleva , 1966 oncaea prolata heron , 1977 oncaea pumilis heron , 1977 oncaea rimula heron & frost , 2000 oncaea rotata heron & frost , 2000 oncaea rotunda heron , 1977 oncaea rotundata boxshall , 1977 oncaea scottodicarloi heron & bradford-grieve , 1995 oncaea setosa heron , 1977 oncaea shmelevi k. t. gordeeva , 1972 oncaea tenella g. o. sars , 1916 oncaea tenuimana giesbrecht , 1891 oncaea tregoubovi shmeleva , 1968 oncaea venusta philippi , 1843 oncaea vodjanitskii shmeleva & delalo , 1965 oncaea waldemari bersano & boxshall , 1996 oncaea walleni heron , 1977 oncaea zernovi shmeleva , 1966 a number of nomina dubia and species inquirendae have also been described in oncaea : nomina dubia oncaea neobscura razouls , 1969 oncaea obscura farran , 1908 oncaea parobscura shmeleva , 1979 species inquirendae oncaea bathyalis shmeleva , 1968 oncaea crassimana ( dana , 1849 ) oncaea frosti heron , 2002 oncaea gracilis ( dana , 1852 ) oncaea obtusa ( dana , 1852 )

oncaea

species oncaea ancora gordeeva k . t . , 1973 accepted as epicalymma ancora ( gordeeva k . t . , 1973 )
species oncaea borealis sars g . o . , 1918 accepted as triconia borealis ( sars g . o . , 1918 )
species oncaea expressa gordeeva k . t . , 1973 accepted as conaea expressa ( gordeeva k . t . , 1973 )
species oncaea similis sars g . o . , 1918 accepted as triconia similis ( sars g . o . , 1918 )
shmeleva , a . a . ( 1967 ) . new oncaea species ( copepodia , cyclopoida ) from south - western part of the atlantic ocean . novyi vid oncaea ( copepoda , cyclopoida ) iz yugozapadnoi chasti atlanticheskogo okeana . zoologicheskii zhurnal 46 ( 4 ) : 621 - 622 , figs . 1 - 2 . ( 10 - iv - 1967 , russian with english summary ) . [ details ]
issued from : y . - b . go , b . - c . oh & m . terazaki in j . mar . syst . , 1998 , 15 . [ p . 480 , fig . 4 ] . attacking behaviors of oncaea spp . on the body of sagitta ( chaetognatha ) . fvl : head trunk in front fins ; vg : ventral ganglion ; cs : caudal septum nota : direct underwater observations with scuba were performed at night . the attack behavior of oncaea started mostly below the stationary sagitta in the field . the attack distance at which oncaea spp . approached sagitta from below was about 5 - 6 cm ; the attacking behavior from the upper side of sagitta was observed only occasionally , and the attack distance was about 1 - 3 cm . this behaviour suggests that oncaea is not a touch feeder . the attachment sites of oncaea on the body of sagitta spp . were for a total of 320 individuals : ventral side 56 . 3 % , lateral side 32 . 8 % and dorsal side 10 . 9 % . oncaea crept directly to the chaetognath tail or the head region using their second antennae , and pierced the body of chaetognaths with the long claw of the maxilliped , and moved maxillae and mandibles . the chaetognaths did not move at all when this copepod was crawling on the body .
arthur g . humes ; oncaea praeclara n . sp . ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) from deep - sea hydrothermal vents in the eastern pacific , journal of plankton research , volume 10 , issue 3 , 1 may 1988 , pages 475–485 , urltoken
common in the ? samples taken in the vicinity of the vents by means of box corers and slurp guns ? ( humes 1988 ) . oncaea sp . has been found in plankton over the mid - atlantic ridge among dirivultids and subadult calanoids ( ivanenko 1998 ) . most of more than 70 species of oncaea occur in the epipelagic zone , several species have been found in the deep bathypelagic zone . go et al . ( 1998 ) recently reported that oncaea feeds on the integuments of various planktonic animals and inflicts especially heavy injuries to chaetognaths ; the copepods of this group ? must gnaw or cut out pieces of host integument with their mandibles . to do this , they adhere tightly to the host by means of their antennae and maxillipeds ? ( heptner & ivanenko 2002 ) .
bottger - schnack , r . ( 2001 ) .
taxonomy of oncaeidae ( copepoda , poecilostomatoida ) from the red sea . ii . seven species of oncaea s . str .
bulletin of natural history museum 67 ( 1 ) : 25 - 84 .
non antaria gracilis dana , 1849 ; 1852 ; oncaea pyriformis lubbock , 1860 ; antaria coerulescens claus , 1866 ( p . 19 ) ; oncaea obtusa : brady , 1883 ( part . , p . 120 , figs . f , m ) ; thompson , 1888 d ( p . 148 ) ; kovalev & shmeleva , 1982 ( p . 85 ) ; oncäa venusta : giesbrecht , 1892 ( p . 590 , 602 , 774 , figs . f , m ) ; ? razouls , 1972 ( p . 95 , annexe : p . 111 , figs . f , m ) ; 1974 b ( p . 236 , figs . f , m ) ; oncaea praeclara humes , 1988 ( p . 475 , figs ; f , m ) ; suarez - morales & gasca , 1998 a ( p . 112 )
the female urosome of oncaea media figured by razouls 1974 ( his fig . 5a ) was obviously not based on an adult specimen ( deficient number of urosome segments ) . later on , this ( incorrect ) figure was also included in the publication by conway et al ( 2003 ) .
issued from : p . tutasi , s . palma & m . caceres in scienc . mar . , 2011 , 75 ( 4 ) . [ p . 798 , fig . 7a ] geographic distribution of oncaea venusta in september and october 2001 , associated with the weak la niña event of 2001 .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 50 , table 2 ] . body length ( mm ) of oncaea venusta f . typica and venella from the red sea . .
boxshall , g . a . & r . böttger . ( 1987 ) . two new species of oncaea ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) from the red sea and a redescription of o . atlantica shmeleva . journal of plankton research 9 ( 3 ) : 553 - 564 , figs . 1 - 6 . [ details ]
issued from : e . chatton in arch . zool . exp . & gen . , 1920 , 59 , [ p . 167 , fig . 68 ] . oncaea media female parasited by blastodinium mangini var . oncaae ( dinoflagellate ) . a , lateral view with the parasites inside the gut ; b , two individuals .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 37 , fig . 7 ] . oncaea venusta f . typica . male ( from red sea ) : a , p1 ( distal part of endopod ) ; b , p2 ( distal part of endopod ) ; c , p3 ( distal part of endopod ) . oncaea venusta f . venella . male ( from red sea ) : d , p1 ( distal part of endopod ) ; e , p2 ( distal part of endopod ) ; f , p3 ( distal part of endopod ) .
issued from : g . a . heron in hydrobiologia , 2002 , 480 . [ p . 153 , fig . 6 ] . female : pediger 2 - 4 and urosome ( lateral ) . a , oncaea venusta philippi ; b , oncaea frosti heron ; c , oncaea venella farran . nota : o . venusta is the largest of the three species . in preserved samples , it is rare to find either sex of the species where the urosome is not flexed at a 45° angle to the prosome , and the two postgenital segments and the anal seglment telescoped . exoskeleton strongly chitinized and ornamentation conspicuous ; pediger 2 without a conspicuous mid - dorsal dilationnin lateral view ; caudal ramus length variable , slightly shorter or longer than the sum of the three preceding segments . freshly collected specimens of o . venusta from the gulf of naples and new zeland areas both showed a purple - crimson shading on the widest portion of the prosome , posterior of genital segment , anterior of caudal rami , maxillipeds , and of the legs .
issued from : g . a . boxshall in brit . mus . nat . hist . , zool . , 1977 , 31 ( 3 ) . [ p . 125 , fig . 11 , c , h ] . as oncaea venusta forma typica . female ( fro 18°n , 25°w ) : c , habitus ( dorsal ) ; h , mxp .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 51 , table 3 ] . comparison of morphological characters of oncaea venusta gisbrecht from the gulf of naples with two forms , f . typica and f . venella from the red sea .
issued from : a . a . shmeleva in bull . inst . oceanogr . , monaco , 1965 , 65 ( n°1351 ) . [ table 6 : 42 ] . oncaea venusta ( from south adriatic ) . dimensions , volume and weight wet . means for 50 - 60 specimens . volume and weight calculated by geometrical method . assumed that the specific gravity of the copepod body is equal to 1 , then the volume will correspond to the weight .
3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - antaria note : on these cards , the genus antaria is erroneously placed in the family corycaeidae . ( from synonym antaria dana , 1846 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - myspictosum ( from synonym myspictosum kazachenko & avdeev , 1977 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - oncaea 3x5 j . s . ho taxonomic card - antaria ( from synonym antaria dana , 1846 ) 3x5 j . s . ho taxonomic card - myspictosum ( from synonym myspictosum kazachenko & avdeev , 1977 ) 3x5 j . s . ho taxonomic card - oncaea interactive ( multi - access ) identification key for female oncaeidae of the world ocean marine planktonic copepods ( banyuls / oob / upmc / cnrs ) note : including taxonomic identification plates , remarks , geographic distribution , ecological information & reference list to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to genbank to itis
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 34 , fig . 4 ] . oncaea venusta f . typica . female : a , p1 ( anterior ) [ a , 3rd endopod segment , showing aberrant spine number ) ; b , p2 ( anterior ) ; c , p3 ( anterior ) ; d , p4 ( anterior ) .
issued from : g . a . heron in hydrobiologia , 2002 , 480 . [ p . 152 , table 1 ] . length measurements ( : body length , pl : prosome length , in mm ) for adult females and males of oncaea venusta , o . frosti and o . venella . data are mean lengths ( bold ) , number of specimens measured ( parentheses ) , ranges , and standard error ( se ) at each locality ; - , no specimens .
issued from : a . g . humes in j . plankton res . , 1988 , 10 ( 3 ) . [ p . 477 , fig . 3 ] . as oncaea praeclara . female : a , area between mxp and p1 ( ventral ) ; b , idem ( lateral ) ; c , p1 and intercoxal plate ( anterior ) ; d , p2 ( anterior ) ; e , p3 ( anterior ) ; e , p3 ; f , p4 ( anterior ) ; g , p5 ( dorsal ) .
issued from : j . m . fuentes - reinés & e . suarez - morales in check list , 2017 , 13 ( 5 ) . [ p . 515 , figs . 4 , 5 ] . oncaea venusta female ( from rodadero bay , n colombia ) : 4 , urosome ( dorsal ) ; 5 , anal somite and caudal rami ( dorsal ) . nota : genital double - somite about 1 . 8 times as long as wide . - anal somite with paired dorsal pore on posterior margin . - caudal ramus about 3 . 5 times as long as wide .
a new species of planktonic copepod , oncaea praeclara , is described from a depth of 2003–2635 m at the east pacific rise , the galapagos rift , and the guaymas basin in the gulf of california . the species may be recognized by a combination of characters : its relatively large size ; the long caudal ramus , which is about two times longer than the anal segment and has a ratio of 4 . 96–6 . 7 : 1 ; the sexual dimorphism in the armature of the fourth segment of the second antenna ; and the labrum with a nearly straight posteroventral margin having four median teeth and lateral setules .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 33 , fig . 3 ] . oncaea venusta f . typica . female : a , a2 ( posterior ; lateral elements are numbered using roman numerals , distal elements indicated by capital letters ) ; b , labrum ( anterior , slit - like pores arrowed ) ; c , idem ( posterior ) ; d , md ( showing individual elements , identified using capital letters ) ; e , mx1 ; f , mx2 ; g , mxp .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 36 , fig . 6 ] . oncaea venusta f . typica . male ( from red sea ) : a , habitus ( dorsal ; arrows indicating position of lateral raised pores ) ; b , a1 ; c , mxp ( anterior ) ; d , urosome ( dorsal ) ; e , idem ( ventral ) ; f , idem ( lateral ; spermatophores fylly developed ) ; g , p5 ( dorsal ) ; h , a2 ( posterior ) .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 32 , fig . 2 ] . oncaea venusta f . typica . female ( from red sea ) : a , habitus ( dorsal ; lateral raised pore enlarged ) ; b , idem ( lateral left side ) ; c , urosome ( dorsal ) ; d , idem ( lateral left side ) ; e , a1 ( small sensory element arrowed ) ; f , caudal ramus ( dorsal ; setae and numbered using roman numerals ) ; g , p6 .
issued from : a . g . humes in j . plankton res . , 1988 , 10 ( 3 ) . [ p . 477 , fig . 2 ] . as oncaea praeclara . female : a , urosome with egg sac ( lateral ) ; b , rostrum and labrum ( ventral ) ; c , a1 ( postero - inner ) ; d , a2 ( antero - outer ) ; e , md ( anterior view ) ; f , paragnaths , mx1 and labial area ( ventral ) ; g , mx2 ( antero - outer ) ; h , mxp ( anterior ) ; i , claw of mxp ( posterior ) .
oncaea media giesbrecht is often mixed up with o . scottodicarloi and o . waldemari . morphological separation between the first two species are given in detail by heron & bradford - grieve ( 1995 ) , who also pointed out that giesbrecht´s drawing of the female urosome of o . media ( his plate 47 , fig . 11 ) in fact showed the urosome of o . scottodicarloi . thus , giesbrecht´s figure of the female urosome shown in this database ( above ) should be omitted or a corresponding remark should be added to the legend . for a morphological distinction between all three species of the media - complex see böttger - schnack ( 2001 ) .
issued from : a . g . humes in j . plankton res . , 1988 , 10 ( 3 ) . [ p . 477 , fig . 4 ] . as oncaea praeclara . male : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , idem ( lateral ) ; c , urosome ( ventral ) ; d , 3rd segment of a2 ( postero - inner ) ; e , mxp ( anterior ) ; g , spermatophore , partly extruded from male ( ventral ) . nota : p5 reduced to low ridge bearing 2 setae ( lengths 23 and 36 microm . ) , and 1 adjacent ( length 31 microm . p6 represented by posteroventral flap on genital segment bearing spiniform process but no setae
issued from : a . g . humes in j . plankton res . , 1988 , 10 ( 3 ) . [ p . 477 , fig . 1 ] . as oncaea praeclara . female ( from galapagos rift ) : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , idem ( lateral ) ; c , urosome ( dorsal ) ; d , genital area ( lateral ) ; e , caudal ramus ( dorsal ) . nota : ratio of length of prosome to that of urosome 1 . 49 : 1 . caudal ramus with fine setules along the inner margin , elongate , 125 microm . length , 23 microm . wide proximally ( 17 medially and 20 distally , ratio 6 . 7 : 1 based on medial width
oncäa media giesbrecht , 1891 ; 1892 ( p . 591 , 602 , 774 , figs . f , m ) ; no o . media : giesbrecht , 1892 ( pl . 47 : fig . 11 ) ; razouls , 1972 ( p . 95 , annexe : p . 113 , figs . f , non m ) ; 1974 b ( p . 238 , figs . f , non m ) ; o . curta : corral estrada & genicio de corral , 1970 ( p . 30 , pl . xii , figs . 1 - 5 ) oncaea media hymena peterson & miller , 1975 ( p . 642 , 650 , occurrence ) ; 1976 ( p . 14 , table 1 , 2 , abundance vs interannual variations ) ; 1977 ( p . 717 , table 1 , seasonal occurrence )
epi - to mesopelagic , also demersal and semi - parasitic . sampling depth ( antarct . , sub - antarct . ) : 400 m . overall depth range in sargasso sea : 0 - 500 m ( deevey & brooks , 1977 , station
s
) . 0 - 1236 m at station t - 1 ( e tori is , e middle japan ) from furuhashi ( 1966 a ) . this species presents 2 forms ( sub - species ? ) that are characterised by their dimensions . sewell ( 1947 ) suggests also that their spawning season is different . for this author the forma typica is characterized by : the proportional lengths of the anterior and posterior regions of the body as 59 : 41 , and the length and breadth of the anterior region are as 59 to 29 . . the proportional lengths of the segments of the posterior region ( 5th thoracic segment to caudal rami ) as 13 : 46 : 7 : 7 : 9 : 18 . in the forma venella the proportional lengths of the anterior and posterior regions of the body as 60 to 40 , and the length and breadth of the anterior region as 60 to 24 . the proportional lengths of the segments of the posterior region ( 5th thoracic segment to caudal rami ) as 13 : 43 : 7 : 8 : 9 : 20 = 100 . the proportions of the caudal rami are as 23 to 6 . for tanaka ( 1960 , p . 71 ) the two forrms : large and small , are present in his material . female : the proportional lengths of the anterior and posterior regions of the body are as 57 to 43 . the anterior region is 1 . 7 times as long as wide ( 63 : 37 ) . the proportional lengths of the segments of the posterior region ( caudal rami included ) as 13 : 48 : 5 : 5 : 9 : 20 = 100 . caudal rami 4 times as long as broad . heron ( 2002 ) considers the two varieties o . venusta typica and o . venusta venella as two species ( see remarks in oncaea venella and frosti ) , position objected to by böttger - schnack & huys ( 2004 ) . after kazkazmi ( 2004 , p . 232 ) , although free living and pelagic , the species has been found on fish gills ( kazatchenko & adeev , 1977 ) or in a sponge ( ho , 1984 ) and now from the sand ( kazmi & naushaba , 2000 ) . see in dvp conway & al . , 2003 ( version 1 )
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database .
( of myspictosum kazachenko & avdeev , 1977 ) kazachenko , v . n . & g . v . avdeev . ( 1977 ) . paraziticheskie kopepody ( copepoda , crustacea ) v sborakh 57 - go reisa nis ' vityaz ' v zapadnoi tropicheskoi chasti tikhogo okeana i moryakh indomalaiskogo arkhipelaga . parasitic copepods ( crustacea ) collected during the 57th cruise of the rv ' vityaz ' in the glubokovodnye biologicheskie issledovaniya v zapadnoi tropicheskoi chasti tikhogo okeana . , trudy inst . okeanol . 107 : 30 - 48 , figs . 1 - 10 . ( russian with english summary ) [ details ]
boxshall , g . ( 2001 ) . copepoda ( excl . harpacticoida ) , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 252 - 268 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of antaria dana , 1846 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of myspictosum kazachenko & avdeev , 1977 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of conaea atlantica ( shmeleva , 1967 ) ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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issued from : f . c . ramirez in contr . inst . biol . mar . , buenos aires , 1969 , 98 . [ p . 90 , lam . xviii , figs . 148 , 157 ] . female ( from off mar del plata ) : 148 , habitus ( lateral left side ) ; 157 , a2 . scale bars in mm : 0 . 3 ( 148 ) ; 0 . 05 ( 157 ) .
issued from : f . c . ramirez in contr . inst . biol . mar . , buenos aires , 1969 , 98 . [ p . 86 , lam . xvii , figs . 138 , 145 ] . female ( from off mar del plata ) : 138 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 145 , urosome ( dorsal ) . scale bars in mm : 2 ( 138 ) ; 0 . 2 ( 145 ) .
issued from : q . - c chen & s . - z . zhang & c . - s . zhu in studia marina sinica , 1974 , 9 . [ pl . 6 , figs . 1 - 5 ] . female ( from off - shore chekiang province ) : 1 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 2 , p3 ; 3 , p4 . male : 4 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 5 , posterior portion of abdomen .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack & r . huys in hydrobiologia , 2004 , 513 . [ p . 3 , table 1 ] . total body length ( mm ) of size variants of female in different areas of the atlantic , indian and pacific ocean . size groups exhibiting a dorsal swelling on the p2 - bearing somite are marked in bold . * = single specimen .
issued from : g . a . boxshall in brit . mus . nat . hist . , zool . , 1977 , 31 ( 3 ) . [ p . 124 ] . female : armature formula of swimming legs p1 to p4 . roman numeral : spine ; arabic numeral : seta .
issued from : g . a . boxshall in brit . mus . nat . hist . , zool . , 1977 , 31 ( 3 ) . [ p . 126 , fig . 12 , a - d ] . male : a , urosome ( ventral ) ; b , a2 ( anterior ) ; c , mx1 ( posterior ) ; d , mxp ( anterior ) . nota : caudal rami about 1 . 8 times longer than anal somite and about 2 . 2 times longer than broad . a1 4 - segmented . mx1 bilobed ; outer lobe with 4 setae , the outermost seta is slender and unarmed ; inner lobe with 3 setae .
issued from : j . h . wi , h . - l suh , h . s . yang & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2008 , 43 ( 4 ) . [ p . 185 , fig . 1 ] . female ( from yellow sea , korea waters ) : a - b , habitus ( dorsal and lateral , respectively ) ; c , a1 ; d , a2 ; e , md ( with 6 elements indicated by small letters ) ; f , mx1 ; g , mx2 ; h , mxp ; i , p5 ; j , p6 . nota : a1 6 - segmented . md : gnathobase with 5 elements ( a - e ) ; ventral element a shorter than ventral blade , with long , fine spinules along dorsal side ; ventral blade b strong and extensive spiniform , with row of setules on posterior part ; dorsal blade c strong and broad , with 3 dentiform processes along distal margin ; 2 dorsal elements setiform , of which ventral one d shorter , flat and densely setose , dorsalmost one e longer and multipinnate . mx1 single segmented , weakly bilobed : inner lobe ( = praecoxal arthrite ) with 3 elements and outer lobe with 4 elements ( outermost one long spiniform having row of spinules ) . mx2 2 - segmented : syncoxa unarmed ; allobasis produced distally into slightly curved claw bearing 2 rows of very strong spinules along medial margin ; outer margin with strong seta extending almost to tip of allobasal claw , ornamented with few minute spinules distally ; inner margin with slender pinnate seta and strong spine . mxp 4 - segmented , composed of syncoxa , basis extensive and robust , with 2 spiniform spinulose elements nearly equal in length and patches of long setules on inner margin ; 1st endopodal segment without ornamentation ; 2nd one with spinulose claw along concave margin , naked seta on outer proximal margin and unipectinate spine joined to inner margin . proportional lenths ( % ) of urosomal segments and caudal rami 9 . 52 : 47 . 6 : 6 . 7 : 9 . 52 : 20 . 0 . p5 with small plumose growing from lateral surface of somite , and small free exopod without ornamentation , exopod slightly longer than wide , bearing 2 naked setae . p6 expressed as operculum around each genital aperture with spine . caudal rami about 3 times as long as wide with 6 elements .
issued from : j . h . wi , h . - l suh , h . s . yang & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2008 , 43 ( 4 ) . [ p . 186 , fig . 2 ] . female : a - d , p1 to p4 .
issued from : j . h . wi , h . - l suh , h . s . yang & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2008 , 43 ( 4 ) . [ p . 185 , fig . 1 ] . female : armature formula , spines ( roman numerals ) and setae ( arabic numerals ) .
issued from : j . h . wi , h . - l suh , h . s . yang & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2008 , 43 ( 4 ) . [ p . 188 , fig . 3 ] . male : a - b , habitus ( dorsal and lateral , respectively ) ; c , a1 ; d , a2 ; e , mxp ; f - i , endopods of p1 to p4 , respectively ; j , p5 . nota : a1 4 - segmented ; distal segment corresponding to fused segments 4 - 6 of female ; a2 coxobasis having naked and short seta at innerdistal corner ; distal endopodal segment with seta iii more stout than in female , seta iv spiniform and curved , both elements shorter than in female . p6 expressed as posterolateral flap closing off genital aperture on either side ; covered by minute denticles .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 , 19 : 1 - 831 , atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , figs . 5 , 13 ] . as oncäa venusta . female : 5 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 13 , same ( lateral ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 , 19 , atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , fig . 19 ] . as oncäa venusta . female : 19 , a2 ( posterior view ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 , 19 , atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , figs . 50 , 54 , 58 ] . as oncäa venusta . female : 50 , mx2 ; 54 , mx1 ; 58 , md .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 , 19 , atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , fig . 44 ] . as oncäa venusta . female : 44 , mxp .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 , 19 , atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , fig . 39 ] . as oncäa venusta . female : 39 , p4 ( posterior view ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 , 19 , atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , fig . 2 ] . as oncäa venusta . male : 2 , urosome ( ventral ) .
issued from : c . razouls in th . doc . etat fac . sc . paris vi , 1972 , annexe . [ fig . 66 ] . female ( from banyuls , g . of lion ) : a , urosome ; b , mxp ; c , a1 ; d , a2 ; e , p4 ; f , endopodite of p3 ; g , p1 ; h , p2 .
issued from : c . razouls in th . doc . etat fac . sc . paris vi , 1972 , annexe . [ fig . 67 ] . male : a , urosome ; b , a2 ; c , mxp .
issued from : g . a . heron & j . m . bradford - grieve in new zealand oceanogr . inst memoir 104 . niwa , 1995 . [ p . 34 , fig . 14 , e - l ] female : e , habitus ( lateral ) [ q ] ; f , same ( dorsal ) [ q ] ; g , anterior of prosome ( ventral ) [ r ] ; h , right a2 [ s ] ; i , labrum ( ventral ) [ u ] ; j , right md [ u ] ; k , left mx1 [ u ] ; l , right mx2 [ w ] . scale bars : see p . 13 , fig . 2 . letter in brackets .
issued from : g . a . heron & j . m . bradford - grieve in new zealand oceanogr . inst memoir 104 . niwa , 1995 . [ p . 35 , fig . 15 , a - j ] female : a , right mxp [ s ] ; b , p1 [ y ] ; c , p2 [ y ] ; d , p3 [ y ] ; e , p4 [ y ] ; f , p5 [ s ] . male : g , habitus ( lateral ) [ q ] ; h , same ( dorsal ) [ q ] ; i , 3rd segment of right a2 [ s ] ; j , left mxp [ s ] . scale bars : see p . 13 , fig . 2 . letter in brackets .
issued from : s . - h . hsiao , j . - s . hwang & t . - h . fang in crustaceana , 2010 , 83 ( 2 ) . [ p . 184 , table i ] . copepods collected from the sea around northern taiwan and from southern east china sea extending to the okinawa trough , to study possible spatial heterogeneity . the content of the same metal shows considerable variation both intra - and inter - specifically . the metal concentrations in males are higher than in females . copepod metal quota display spatial variation : coastal water > southern east china sea > kuroshio water , suggesting that the metal contents of copepods are influenced by the water quality of their marine environment .
issued from : s . - h . hsiao , s . kâ , t . - h . fang & j . - s . hwang in hydrobiologia , 2011 , 666 . [ p . 326 , fig . 6 ] . variations in the most abundant copepod species ( mean ± se ) along the transect in the boundary waters between the northern part taiwan strait and the east china sea i march ( black bar ) and october ( grey bar ) 2005 ( mann - whitney u test , sig . * p < 0 . 05 . see drawings of hydrological conditions and superficial marine currents in calanus sinicus .
cosmopolite ( equatorial , tropical , sub - tropical , temperate ) . from north pacific , also : bering sea , gulf of alaska ; from south : se australia , new zealand . from the north atlantic it seems with difficulty reach the latitude 45° , although noted from east nova scotia ( in sameoto & al . , 2002 ) , from labrador and north hudson bay ( in wilson , 1936 d ) ; from the south of south africa and buenos aires , brazil ( s , off rio de janeiro , vitoria bay , ubatuba , off macaé , paranagua estuary , camamu , off natal ) , in antarctic ( weddell sea in voronina & kolosova ( 1999 ) , sub - antarctic ( indiian , se pacif . ) , arctic . ( continent ) , also : hawaii ( kaneohe bay ) , clipperton is . , galapagos rift , e pacif . rise , baja california ( bahia magdalena ) , g . of california ( guaymas basin ) , coyuca lagoon ( guerrero ) , acapulco bay , caribbean colombia , rodadero bay , w costa rica , g . of mexico , off mississipi river mouth , off bermuda ( station
s
) , delaware bay ( outside ) , bahia cupica ( colombi ) , peru , chile ( n , concepcion ) , australia ( north west cape ) , e korea , cheju island , china seas ( yellow sea , east china sea , south china sea , changjiang river estuary ) , off sw taiwan , taiwan strait , taiwan ( s , ne , e : kuroshio & oyashio currents ) , kueishan is . , korea strait , japan , kuchinoerabu is . , sagami bay , tosa bay , tokyo bay , malaysia ( sarawak : bintulu coast ) , se india ( mallipayyinam - manamelkudi , mediterranean sea ( black sea included ) , g . of guinea , off lagos , red sea
502 ? ( probably less because inadequacy précision with o . venella , if it is maintened )
see my comments on the taxonomic status of the form variants of o . venusta given in the database
world register of marine species ( worms )
.
razouls c . , de bovée f . , kouwenberg j . et desreumaux n . , 2005 - 2018 . - diversity and geographic distribution of marine planktonic copepods . sorbonne université , cnrs . available at urltoken [ accessed july 09 , 2018 ]
issued from : q . - c chen & s . - z . zhang & c . - s . zhu in studia marina sinica , 1974 , 9 . [ pl . 6 , figs . 12 - 15 ] . with doubt . female ( from off - shore chekiang ) : 12 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 13 , mxp ; 14 , p4 . male : 15 , habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 356 , fig . 16 ] . male ( from red sea ) : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , p5 ( dorsal ) ; c , p6 ( aberrant posterolateral corner arrowed ) ; d , a2 ( anterior ) ; e , md . nota : proportional lengths ( % ) of urosomites and caudal rami 10 . 9 : 58 . 7 : 3 . 8 : 3 . 3 : 3 . 8 : 7 . 6 : 11 . 9 .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 56 , table 4 ] . sexual dimorphism in spine length ( mm ) on distal endopod segment of p2 - p4 in o . media from the red sea . ( data represent single measurments ) .
issued from : r . böttger - schnack in bull . nat . hist . mus . lond . ( zool . ) , 2001 , 67 ( 1 ) . [ p . 57 , table 5 ] . list of important characters separating o . media and related species . data of o . curta after sars ( 1918 ) , remaining data from present study .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , figs . 32 , 33 ] . as oncäa media . male : 32 , endopodal segment 3 of p3 ; 33 , endopodal segment 3 of p2 .
issued from : g . a . boxshall in bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( zool . ) , 1977 , 31 ( 3 ) . [ p . 132 , fig . 16 , f - k ] . female ( from 18°n , 25°w ) : f , urosome ( dorsal ) ; g , a2 ( anterior ) ; h , md ( anterior ) ; h , md ( anterior ) ; i , mx1 ( anterior ) ; j , mxp ( anterior ; k , p4 ( posterior ) .
issued from : z . zheng , s . li , s . j . li & b . chen in marine planktonic copepods in chinese waters . shanghai sc . techn . press , 1982 [ p . 101 , fig . 59 ] . doubtful . female : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , mxp ; c , p4 . male : d , habitus ( dorsal ) ; e , urosome ( ventral ) ; f , endopodal segments 2 and 3 of p2 ; g , endopodal segments 2 and 3 of p3 . scale bars in mm .
issued from : j . h . wi , y . h . yoon & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2009 , 44 ( 2 ) . [ p . 106 , fig . 8 ] . female ( from s korea ) : a - b , habitus ( dorsal and lateral , respectively ) ; c , a1 ; d , a2 ; e , labrum ( posterior ) ; f , md ; g , mx1 ; h , mxp ; i , p1 ; j , p5 . scale bars in micrometers .
issued from : j . h . wi , y . h . yoon & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2009 , 44 ( 2 ) . [ p . 108 , fig . 9 , a - c ] . female : a , p2 ; b , p3 ; c , p4 . scale bar in micrometers .
issued from : j . h . wi , y . h . yoon & h . y . soh in ocean sci . j . , 2009 , 44 ( 2 ) . [ p . 108 , fig . 9 , d - j ] . male : d - e , habitus ( dorsal and lateral , respectively ) ; f , a2 ; g , mxp ; h , endopodite 3 of p2 ; i , endopodite 3 of p3 ; j , p6 ( represented by posterolateral flap closing off genital aperture on each side ) . scale bars in micrometers .
issued from : c . razouls in vie milieu , 1974 b ( p . , figs . m ) male from banyuls , g . of lion ) : a , urosome ( dorsal ) ; b , a1 ; c , mxp ; d , a2 ( setae on distal segment missing ) ; e , p4 ; f , distal expansion on genital segment ) .
issued from : g . a . heron & j . m . bradford - grieve in new zealand oceanogr . inst memoir 104 . niwa , 1995 . [ p . 37 , fig . 16 ] . female : a , habitus ( dorsal ) [ r ] ; b , right a1 [ s ] ; c , right a2 [ z ] ; d , labrum ( ventral ) [ t ] ; e , right md [ u ] ; f , left mx1 [ u ] ; g , left mx2 [ z ] ; h , right mxp [ z ] ; i , p1 [ z ] ; j , p2 [ z ] ; k , p3 [ z ] . scales in p . 13 , fig . 2 . letter in brackets . nota : a double scallop pattern of sclerotisation between gonopores , located at posterior margin of anterior third of genital segment . p6 probably represented by spiniform setule on external genital area . caudal ramus length about double that of width .
issued from : g . a . heron & j . m . bradford - grieve in new zealand oceanogr . inst memoir 104 . niwa , 1995 . [ p . 38 , fig . 17 , a - i ] . female : a , p4 [ z ] ; b , segment of p5 [ z ] . male ( from bay of naples ) : c - d , habitus ( lateral and dorsal , respectively ) [ r ] ; e , 3rd segment of left a2 [ t ] ; f , right mxp [ z ] ; g , 3rd endopodal segment of p2 [ z ] ; h , 3rd endopodal segment of p3 [ z ] ; i , 3rd endopodal segment of p4 [ z ] . scales in p . 13 , fig . 2 . letter in brackets . nota : p5 with small free segment ; 2 terminal setae , the outer 2 / 3 the length of inner seta ; seta on body near leg .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , figs . 29 , 30 ] . as oncäa media . female : 29 , endopodal segment 3 of p3 ; 30 , endopodal segment 3 of p2 .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 47 , fig . 1 ] . as oncäa media . female : 1 , habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : g . a . heron & j . m . bradford - grieve in new zealand oceanogr . inst . memoir 104 . niwa , 1995 . [ p . 35 , fig . 15 , k ] . female ( from gulf of naples ) : k , habitus ( lateral ) [ r ] scale bars : see p . 13 , fig . 2 . letter in brackets .
issued from : o . tanaka in spec . publs . seto mar . biol . lab . , 10 , 1960 [ pl . xxxi , 4 - 6 ] . female ( from south china sea and indian ocean ) : 4 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 5 , p4 ; 6 , p4 ( forma major ) . nota : the prsent females ranged in size from 0 . 55 mm to 0 . 79 mm prosome and urosome in the proportional lengths 63 to 37 . proportional lengths of the urosomal segments and caudal rami 10 : 54 : 4 : 7 : 8 : 16 = 100 . caudal rami 2 / 6 times as long as broad . the distal abdominal segments are of yellowish brown colour .
issued from : o . tanaka in spec . publs . seto mar . biol . lab . , 10 , 1960 [ pl . xxxi , 7 - 9 ] . male : 7 , abdomen ( dorsal ( specimen from 0 . 74 mm ) ; 8 , same ( specimen from 0 . 56 mm ) ; 9 , same ( specimen from 0 . 93 mm ) . length 0 . 51 - 0 . 60 and 0 . 70 - 0 . 93 mm . the males varies greatly in size . proportional lengths of the urosomal segments and caudal rami are two types : large form : 11 : 62 : 5 : 3 : 3 : 5 : 11 = 100 small form : 12 : 62 : 5 : 2 : 2 : 5 : 12 = 100 . caudal rami about 2 . 6 times as long as broad . remarks : in the present material the small form is much inferior in number ; these two forms differ only in size , and there is no structural difference .
issued from : a . v . kovalev in gidrobiol . zh . , 1970 , 6 ( 5 ) . [ p . 92 , table 1 ] . relation between the body length of females and number of eggs . a : species ; b : number of females ; c : length of females in mm ; d : number of eggs in relation to the lengths of females .
cosmopolite ( tropical , sub - tropical ) ; ? antarct . ( ross is . : in farran , 1929 ) , south africa ( off cape of good hope , e & w ) , angola ( baia farta ) , g . of guinea , ivorian shelf , off morocco - mauritania , cap ghir , portugal , brazil ( s , off rio de janeiro , cabo frio , vitoria bay , off vitoria - cabo de sao tomé , guarau estuary , off natal ) , caribbean colombia , bahia de mochima ( venezuela ) , sargasso sea , off bermuda ( station
s
) , delaware bay ( outside ) , off e nova scotia , north sea , nw spain , off w tangier , medit . ( m ' diq , alboran sea , baleares , gulf of annaba , g . of gabes , genova , gulf of taranto , taranto harbour , s adriatic sea ( vlora bay ) , w - e basins , w egyptian coast , lebanon basin , thracian sea , marmara sea , black sea ) , suez canal , g . of aqaba , n - s red sea , gulf of oman , g . of aden , arabian gulf , uae coast , arabian sea , karachi coast , laqccadive is . , maldive is . , sri lanka , madagascar ( nosy bé ) , seychelles , indian , gulf of mannar , palk bay , bay of bengal , straits of malacca , g . of thailand , indo - malaysia , sulu sea , china seas ( yellow sea , east china sea , south china sea ) , taiwan strait , taiwan ( e , s , sw , w , n , nw , ne ) , korea ( e , s ) , s japan sea , nagasaki , japan , kuchinoerabu is . , ariake bay , tokyo bay , seto inland sea , kuroshio & oyashio regions , oregon ( off newport ) , california , baja california ( bahia magdalena ) ; gulf of california , bahia de los angeles , g . of tehuantepec , clipperton is . , bahia cupica ( colombia ) , galapagos - ecuador , chile ( n , off santiago , concepcion ) , pacif . ( w equatorial ) , australia ( north west cape , g . of carpentaria , se , great barrier ) , new caledonia , tasman sea , n new zealand , georgia strait ( goat is . )
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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prosome 2 . 5 times length of urosome ( excluding caudal rami ) , 2 . 2 times urosome length ( including caudal rami )
caudal rami about 1 . 6 times longer than wide ( shorter than female )
prosome 2 . 8 times length of urosome ( excluding caudal rami ) 2 . 4 times urosome length including caudal rami
genital double - somite 1 . 5 times as long as maximum width & 2 . 5 times as long as postgenital somites combined ; almost square - shaped genital somite , stockier & broader
distinguish between female o . media by proportional lengths of urosome somites ( more elongated genital somite in o . media - genital somite is 2 times as long as the rest of urosome )
form and location of sclerotization between genital apertures ( in urltoken genital openings are closer to top 1 / 3 from the top while in o . scottodicarloi genital openings are almost ½ way from the top of genital somite )
heron , g . a . and j . m . bradford - grieve ( 1995 ) .
the marine faunaof new zealand : pelagic copepoda : poecilostomatoida : oncaeidae .
new zealand oceanographic institute memoir 104 .
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the mascarene grey parakeet or thirioux ’s grey parrot ( psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the mascarene islands of mauritius and réunion in the western indian ocean .

it has been classified as a member of the tribe psittaculini , along with other parrots from the islands .

subfossil bones of the mascarene grey parakeet found on mauritius were first described in 1973 as belonging to a smaller relative of the broad-billed parrot in the genus lophopsittacus .

apart from their size , the bones were very similar to those of other mascarene parrots .

the subfossils were later connected with 17th - and 18th-century descriptions of small grey parrots on mauritius and réunion , together with a single illustration published in a journal describing a voyage in 1602 , and the species was instead reassigned to the genus psittacula .

the mascarene grey parakeet was grey , had a long tail , and was larger than other species of the psittacula genus , which are usually green .

the grey parrots were said to be easy to hunt , as the capture of one would result in its calling out to summon the whole flock .

they were also considered to be crop pests and being such easy prey meant that they were extensively hunted .

coupled with deforestation , this pushed them into extinction .

this had happened by the 1730s on réunion and by the 1760s on mauritius .

mascarene grey parakeet

the mascarene grey parakeet or thirioux’s grey parrot ( psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the mascarene islands of mauritius and réunion in the western indian ocean .
dutch sailors hunting mauritius’ giant tortoise , dodo , and mascarene grey parakeet , all of which were extinct within 150 years of this 16th century woodcut .
upper magdalena parakeet is a proposed split from maroon - tailed parakeet ( donegan et al . 2016 , hbw )
cliff parakeet is split from monk parakeet ( collar 1997 , russello et al . 2008 , hbw alive , cf sacc 93 & 503 )
choco parakeet is a proposed split from maroon - tailed parakeet ( ridgely and greenfield 2001 , donegan et al . 2016 , sacc 524 , hbw )
to greyish chocolate , the tail from light grey to blackish grey - brown , and the head from bluish - grey to dove - grey . the plate also lacks two dark central tail feathers without white bases , a feature described by brisson , and these features have been repeated by subsequent artists . the illustration and buffon ' s description were perhaps based on the paris specimen which had its tail and wing feathers feathers severely damaged by
alleles were present in the majority of echo parakeet isolates . from early 2005 a new
. the cause and date of extinction for the mascarene parrot itself is uncertain .
by linnaeus in 1758 , who again synonymised it with the mascarene parrot in 1766 . because of this association , some authors believed it was from the mascarene islands as well , but this dark parrot ' s description differs from that of the mascarene parrot .
, so it was possible for species to colonise the mascarene islands from other areas .
a 2017 study found it to be close to the mascarene parrot . [ 10 ]
) . the coefficient of variation histograms indicated that for the echo parakeet isolates there is not sufficient evidence to reject the strict clock , but there is for the rose - ringed parakeet isolates .
there are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ réunion parakeet ] . there are great quantities , especially in the sainte - suzanne area and on the mountainsides . they are very good to eat , especially when they are fat which is from the month of june until the month of september , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat .
the mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) is an extinct species of parrot known from bones , specimens and descriptions to have occurred in the mascarene island of réunion , and possibly mauritius .
genus : scientific : mascarinus . . . english : mascarene parrot . . . dutch : maskarenenpapegaaien . . . german : mascarenen - papageien . . . french : perroquet de mascarene
specimens having aged and being exposed to light , which can turn grey and black to brown . such a transformation has also turned an aberrant
. moreover , these mutations were completely fixed in the echo parakeet host population very shortly after the outbreak . several
species : scientific : mascarinus mascarinus . . . english : mascarene parrot . . . dutch : maskarenpapegaai . . . german : mascarenen papagei . . . french : perroquet de mascarene . . . cites status : extinct
the affinities of the mascarene parrot are unclear , and two hypotheses have competed since the mid - 19th century .
i ' ve removed the alternate english names for nanday parakeet , aratinga nendaya ( black - hooded parakeet ) , and for rosy - faced lovebird , agapornis roseicollis ( peach faced lovebird ) . [ psittacidae , falconiformes & psittaciformes , 2 . 71a ]
the following cladogram shows the phylogenetic position of the seychelles parakeet , according to jackson et al . , 2015 : [ 9 ]
gene that we observed to be particularly polymorphic in the echo parakeet isolates ( codons 88 , 148 , 167 , 176 , and 234 ) appeared to be much less variable in the rose - ringed parakeet isolates . only codons 148 and 167 showed nonsynonymous polymorphism .
) in samples that tested positive for the presence of bfdv . the reaction volumes and cycling conditions were identical to the orf1 pcr except for the annealing temperature , which was reduced to 54°c . we sequenced 47 echo parakeet and 31 rose - ringed parakeet bfdv isolates at orf2 .
in 1779 under his entry for the mascarene parrot , in which he pointed out similarities and differences between the two . the english
the only endemic bird species on réunion that disappeared after the mascarene parrot was the hoopoe starling in the mid - 19th century .
gene in the echo parakeet isolates is well supported . this result indicates that as with other ssdna viruses , bfdv has a high evolutionary rate .
in 1973 , based on remains collected by louis etienne thirioux in the early 20th century , the english ornithologist daniel t . holyoak placed a small subfossil mauritian parrot in the same genus as the broad - billed parrot and named it lophopsittacus bensoni . in 2007 , on the basis of a comparison of subfossils , correlated with 17th and 18th century descriptions of small grey parrots , hume reclassified it as a species in the genus psittacula and called it thirioux ' s grey parrot . in 1967 , james greenway had speculated that reports of grey mauritian parrots referred to the broad - billed parrot .
a ( data not shown ) . the estimated nucleotide diversity ( π ) of bfdv in each echo parakeet breeding season from 2004 / 05 is shown in
the mauritius parakeet is the only extant of six parrot species once endemic to the mascarene islands in the southern indian ocean . its population gradually began to decline in the mid - 1800s and by 1986 it was estimated that about 8 - 12 individuals were living in the wild upland forest of mauritius .
contrary to feuilley ' s claims , dubois mentioned that the mascarene parrot was not edible which may have led to réunion visitors mostly ignoring it .
upperparts of head and neck clear ( ash ) grey . back , rump , underparts of neck , breast , belly , sides , legs , scapular feathers , uppercoverts of tail very - dark ( ash ) grey . wing feathers of the same colour . the tail is composed of 12 feathers : the two median ones are also very - dark ( ash ) grey . all the lateral ones are of the same colour , except that they have a little white at their base . the eyes are surrounded by a naked skin , bright red . pupil black , iris red . the base of the superior half of the beak is also surrounded by a red naked skin in which the nostrils are placed . beak similarly red . legs pale flesh . claws grey - brown . i am unaware from which country it is found . i have seen it living in paris .
the echo parakeet , psittacula echo , is lumped with the extinct p . eques , which has priority . [ psittacidae , falconiformes & psittaciformes , 2 . 62b ]
disappearing when they did , at a time when modern science was still emerging , the mascarene giant tortoises occupy a strange halfway house between poorly - understood human - induced casualties of the early modern era and better - known lost species of more recent times . unlike some of their vanished compatriots , such as the mascarene grey parakeet , their life appearance is fairly well - known , but there is still a deep air of mystery about them . the world’s only taxidermied specimen is kept in paris , in the sombre setting of the room of endangered & extinct species . below is a ( slightly blurred ) picture which seems a poignant reminder of these peculiar giants , now forever receding into the mists of time .
the seychelles parakeet or seychelles island parrot ( psittacula wardi ) is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the seychelles group in the indian ocean . it resembled the alexandrine parakeet but was smaller and lacked the pink colour in its collar . the species is suspected to have become extinct due to intense persecution by farmers and coconut plantation owners .
if hahn ' s account is disregarded , the mascarene parrot probably became extinct prior to 1800 . the last account of wild specimens on réunion is from the 1770s .
the scientific name of mascarene sheldgoose has been corrected to alopochen mauritiana , from mauritianus , as alopochen is feminine . [ anatidae , paleognaths and anseriformes , 2 . 60a ]
phylogenetic studies suggest that the species diverged from the alexandrine parakeet through isolation of populations that dispersed through the indian subcontinent into seychelles about 11 million years ago when sea levels were much lower . [ 8 ]
parrots . it also found that the mascarene parrot line diverged 4 . 6 to 9 million years ago , prior to the formation of réunion , indicating this must have happened elsewhere .
cheke , a . s . ( 1987 ) .
an ecological history of the mascarene islands , with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates
. in diamond ( ed . ) , a . w . studies of mascarene island birds . cambridge . pp . 5–89 . doi : 10 . 1017 / cbo9780511735769 . 003 . isbn 978 - 0521113311 .
the mascarene parrot or mascarin ( mascarinus mascarin ) is an extinct species of parrot that was endemic to the mascarene island of réunion in the western indian ocean . the taxonomic relationships of this species has been subject to debate . it has been connected to the psittaculini parrots based on anatomical grounds , but to the vasa parrots based on genetic grounds . the exact placement is unresolved .
the mascarene parrot was a medium - sized bird , about as large as an eclectus parrot and of a similar shape , although less heavyset and with a longer tail . it was dark greyish brown on the upperside , lighter on the underside . the bases of the tail feathers were white , and the head was colored a medium lavender grey . a ring of velvet - like short black feathers surrounded the bill , which was brilliant red . the feet were reddish brown .
henkel , f . m . , and w . schmidt . 2000 . amphibians and reptiles of madagascar and the mascarene , seychelles , and comoro islands . krieger publishing co . , florida .
the mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length . the wing was 211 mm ( 8 . 3 in ) , the tail 144–152 mm ( 5 . 6–6 in ) , the
of the two existing stuffed mascarene parrots made it possible to compare the remaining bones with the subfossils and showed these were intermediate in measurements in comparison to the modern specimens . the lesser vasa parrot was introduced to réunion as early as 1780 but , though the subfossil parrot bones were similar to that species in some aspects , they were more similar to those of the mascarene parrot and considered to belong to it .
many other endemic species of mauritius were lost after the arrival of man , so the ecosystem of the island is severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . before humans arrived , mauritius was entirely covered in forests , almost all of which have since been lost to deforestation . the surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . the broad - billed parrot lived alongside other recently extinct mauritian birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the mascarene grey parakeet , the mauritius blue pigeon , the mauritius owl , the mascarene coot , the mauritian shelduck , the mauritian duck , and the mauritius night heron . extinct mauritian reptiles include the saddle - backed mauritius giant tortoise , the domed mauritius giant tortoise , the mauritian giant skink , and the round island burrowing boa . the small mauritian flying fox and the snail tropidophora carinata lived on mauritius and réunion but became extinct in both islands . some plants , such as casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
among the extant mammals the only true endemic is the greater mascarene flying fox ( pteropus niger , vu ) . this species is now severely endangered due to deforestation , hunting , introduced species , and cyclones . another similar species of bat , the lesser mascarene flying fox ( pteropus subniger , ex ) , is already extinct . another rare mammal on these islands is the rare rodrigues flying fox ( pteropus rodricensis , cr ) .
many endemic species of mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans , so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct . before humans arrived , mauritius was entirely covered in forests , but very little remains of them today , because of deforestation . [ 57 ] the surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . [ 58 ] the dodo lived alongside other recently extinct mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail , the broad - billed parrot , the mascarene grey parakeet , the mauritius blue pigeon , themauritius owl , the mascarene coot , the mauritian shelduck , the mauritian duck , and the mauritius night heron . extinct mauritian reptiles include the saddle - backed mauritius giant tortoise , the domed mauritius giant tortoise , the mauritian giant skink , and the round island burrowing boa . the small mauritian flying fox and the snail tropidophora carinata lived on mauritius and réunion , but vanished from both islands . some plants , such as casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct . [ 59 ]
hume , j . p . ( 2007 ) .
reappraisal of the parrots ( aves : psittacidae ) from the mascarene islands , with comments on their ecology , morphology , and affinities
. zootaxa 1513 : 4–41 .
. to identify the mutations that may have elicited the 2005 / 2006 season ( 2005 / 06 ) pbfd outbreak , we constructed phylogenies using the echo parakeet bfdv isolates . we found no significant evidence for recombination using any method and , consequently , the
to assess the level of clock - like evolution in the data , we regressed the root - to - tip genetic distances , inferred from neighbor - joined trees , against sampling time by using path - o - gen . the results indicate that there is good evidence for temporal signal in the ca psid gene but not in the replicase : ( i ) echo parakeet isolate capsid gene , r 2 = 0 . 625 , residual mean square ( rms ) = 3 . 23 × 10 −6 , and replicase gene , r 2 = 0 . 122 , rms = 1 . 55 × 10 −6 , and ( ii ) rose - ringed parakeet isolate capsid gene , r 2 = 0 . 461 , rms = 4 . 32 × 10 −5 , and replicase gene , r 2 = 0 . 073 , rms = 7 . 21 × 10 −7 . following duffy and holmes ( 14 ) , to assess the temporal structure of the evolutionary rate , analyses were repeated for each data set , but with the sampling dates randomly shuffled among the tips . in both genes of the echo parakeet isolates the actual estimated mean evolutionary rates do not coincide with the 95 % hpd intervals for any of the randomized runs , indicating that there is good temporal structure ( fig . 4 ) . in contrast , there is little difference between the estimated evolutionary rates from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates and their randomized results , suggesting that there is no temporal structure . taken together , these results suggest that the high evolutionary rate estimated from the bfdv capsid gene from echo parakeet isolates is well supported . there is marginal support for the rate estimated from the rep gene in the echo parakeet isolates but no support for the results from the rose - ringed parakeet bfdv data .
to not correspond to the pbfd outbreak . this group includes rose - ringed parakeets sampled at the same time as the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeet population . the second group ( highlighted by the gray box ) , comprising just three isolates , have the 14h34l
the mascarene parrot was first mentioned in 1674 , and live specimens were later brought to europe where they lived in captivity . the species was scientifically described in 1771 . only two stuffed specimens exist today , in paris and vienna . the date and cause of extinction for the mascarene parrot is unclear . the latest account from 1834 is considered dubious , so it is probable that the species became extinct prior to 1800 , and may have become extinct in the wild even earlier .
the broad - billed parrot or raven parrot ( lophopsittacus mauritianus ) is a large extinct parrot in the family psittaculidae . it was endemic to the mascarene island of mauritius in the indian ocean east of madagascar . it is unclear what other species it is most closely related to , but it has been classified as a member of the tribe psittaculini , along with other mascarene parrots . it had similarities with the rodrigues parrot ( necropsittacus rodricanus ) , and may have been closely related .
newton , e . ( 1876 ) .
xxvii . - on the psittaci of the mascarene islands
. ibis 18 ( 3 ) : 281–289 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1474 - 919x . 1876 . tb06925 . x .
shows the rate estimated from the strict clock for the echo parakeet isolates and the relaxed clock ( uncorrelated lognormal ) for the rose - ringed isolates . the inferred rates do not differ substantially between the two genes or between the two host populations , although the 95 % hpd intervals for the
the seychelles parakeet was named palaeornis wardi as by the british ornithologist edward newton in 1867 . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] it was endemic to mahé and silhouette and was once sighted on praslin . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] ten specimens exist today . [ 7 ]
psittacula wardi was endemic to mahé and silhouette , seychelles , with a sight record from praslin . [ 1 ] the seychelles parakeet is believed to have had a diet of bugs found in the bushes or trees , [ 13 ] and probably also consumed fruit and seeds . [ 1 ]
considering the proximity of the two parrot populations in mauritius and the recent common ancestry of the host species ( 22 ) , we expected to find good evidence for viral transmission . indeed , the phylogenetic analyses indicated the presence of bfdv allele sharing between the two populations . although the literature ( 28 ) and field reports indicate behavioral and ecological separation between the parrot populations in mauritius , the environmental stability of bfdv ( 62 ) means that the virus still can be indirectly transmitted . the most recent common ancestor for all echo parakeet isolates dates to around 1959 ( or 1949 when the rose - ringed isolates are included in the analysis ) , which approximately coincides with a period when the rose - ringed parakeet started expanding into native forest , coming into direct competition with the echo parakeet for nest sites ( 6 ) . interestingly , the oldest rose - ringed parakeet isolate was taken from a bird housed in aviaries that were central to the initial recovery of the echo parakeets . thus , the apparent transmission of bfdv actually may in some cases be attributable to human intervention . although the evidence for viral transmission between the two parrot populations appears to be clear , the evidence for the rose - ringed parakeets being the source of the pbfd outbreak is more equivocal . we only identified three rose - ringed parakeet isolates that possessed the 14h34l rep allele , and all of them were collected at least one season after the outbreak . one possibility is that the mutations responsible for the outbreak originated in the echo parakeet population with subsequent transmission to the rose - ringed population . indeed , one of the three rose - ringed isolates was collected from an individual that most likely became infected after indirect contact with the endemic population ( it was found in an echo parakeet nest in the 2006 / 07 season ) . nevertheless , given the considerable size and distribution of the invasive population , it undoubtedly remains the likeliest source of the pbfd outbreak in the echo parakeets . it may be that our sampling of this population prior to 2005 / 06 was not sufficient to identify the 14h34l mutations .
mourer - chauviré , c . ; bour , s . ; ribes , r . ( 2006 ) .
recent avian extinctions on réunion ( mascarene islands ) from paleontological and historical sources
. bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club ( 126 ) : 40–48 .
evolutionary rate of the capsid and rep bfdv genes ( mean and 95 % hpd ) estimated from the true dates of sample isolation ( labeled as the “t” data point ) and from the shuffled dates of isolation . analyses using the shuffled dates were performed using a gtr + γ + i model of evolution and a relaxed ( uncorrelated lognormal ) molecular clock . ( a ) results from the echo parakeet data set indicate no overlap between the estimates from the true dates and from the shuffled dates , indicating good temporal signal . ( b ) results from the rose - ringed parakeet isolates indicate no clear temporal signal .
phylogenetic relationships between bfdv isolates from the echo parakeet and rose - ringed parakeet inferred from bayesian analysis using beast ( the tree was automatically rooted using a relaxed clock model ) . nodes with a posterior probability of ≥0 . 9 are indicated with an asterisk and with a double dagger for p ≥ 0 . 7 . inferred nonsynonymous substitutions at codons in the replicase ( in boldface ) and capsid ( in italics ) genes are indicated . to ease visualization , we include only 15 isolates from the echo parakeet population representing all of the major genotypes identified in fig . 1 . isolates from rose - ringed parakeets are indicated by the suffix “ ( r ) ” . as in fig . 1 , the gray - shaded box represents all of the isolates with the 14h and 34l replicase gene substitutions identified as corresponding to the outbreak . the estimated mean tmrca for all sequences is 1949 ( 95 % hpd = 1899 and 1983 ) .
mourer - chauviré , c . , r . bour , s . ribes , and f . moutou . 1999 . the avifauna of réunion island ( mascarene islands ) at the time of the arrival of the first europeans . smithsonian contributions to paleobiology 89 : 1 - 38 .
maximum clade credibility tree showing the inferred phylogenetic relationships between bfdv isolates collected from the echo parakeet population ( from bayesian analysis of the capsid and rep genes using beast ) . the tips are labeled with the echo parakeet breeding season from which the sample was collected . the tree was automatically rooted by using a relaxed clock model in beast . nodes with posterior probability of ≥0 . 9 are indicated with asterisks and with a double - dagger for p ≥ 0 . 7 . the dark grey vertical bar highlights the 2005 / 06 pbfd outbreak season . inferred nonsynonymous substitutions at codons in the replicase ( in boldface ) and capsid ( in italics ) are indicated at the appropriate lineages ( where the majority of isolates in a clade possess a particular substitution then the ancestral node has been labeled ) . the clade highlighted by the gray box represents all of the isolates with the 14h and 34l replicase gene substitutions identified by the present study as closely corresponding to the pbfd outbreak . the estimated mean tmrca for all of the isolates is 1959 ( 95 % hpd 1920 and 1988 ) .
j . p . , hume ; prys - jones , r . ( 2005 ) .
new discoveries from old sources , with reference to the original bird and mammal fauna of the mascarene islands , indian ocean
( pdf ) . zoologische mededelingen 79 ( 3 ) : 85–95 .
hume has expressed surprise at these findings due to the anatomical similarities between the mascarene parrot and other parrots from the islands that are believed to be psittaculines . he also points out that there is no fossil evidence found on other islands to support the hypothesis that the species evolved elsewhere before reaching réunion .
the
evidence
for this bird ' s former existence on mauritius rests on the testimony of peter mundy , who saw
russett parratts
in 1638 , and johann christian hoffmann , who saw
red crows with recurved beaks and blue heads
called indiaensche ravens (
indian crows
) in the early 1670s . an illustration in the report on van neck ' s 1598 voyage refers to
indian crows
twice the size of parakeets and being two - or three - colored , but the animal depicted does not agree well with the mascarene parrot . all these reports are often taken to argue that the broad - billed parrot was multicolored and that lophopsittacus bensoni was a valid species that was the
grey parrots
also mentioned by the early travellers .
polymerase ( 5 u / μl ) made up to 25 μl with dna - grade water . reactions were run as follows : 92°c for 3 min , followed by 30 cycles of 92°c for 30 s , 57°c for 30 s and 72°c for 45 s , with a final 10 min at 72°c . we included the extraction blank and a negative control in all of the pcrs to check for contamination . of the 163 echo parakeet samples that tested positive , 74 were sequenced at orf1 by macrogen ( korea ) using bigdye terminator reactions . of the 46 rose - ringed parakeet samples that tested positive , 31 were sequenced at orf1 . we targeted a 765 - bp region comprising most of orf2 (
the seychelles parakeet was a medium - sized parrot with a length of about 41 cm ( 16 . 1 in ) . it was green with a large red beak , a red shoulder patch and a long tail . the male had a narrow black cheek - band and black collar which the female and juvenile lacked . [ 7 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
the mascarene parrot was 35 cm ( 14 in ) in length with a large red bill and long , rounded tail feathers . its legs were red , and it had naked red skin around the eyes and nostrils . it had a black facial mask and partially white tail feathers , but the colouration of the body , wings and head is unclear . descriptions from life indicate the body and head were ash grey , and the white part of the tail had two dark central feathers . in contrast , descriptions based on stuffed specimens state that the body was brown and the head bluish but do not mention the dark central tail feathers . this may be due to the specimens having changed colour as a result of aging and exposure to light , as well as other forms of damage . very little is known about the bird in life .
subfossil remains show the dodo was about 1 metre ( 3 . 3 feet ) tall and may have weighed 10 . 6–21 . 1 kg ( 23–47 lb ) in the wild . the dodo ' s appearance in life is evidenced only by drawings , paintings and written accounts from the 17th century . because these vary considerably , and because only some illustrations are known to have been drawn from live specimens , its exact appearance in life remains unresolved . similarly , little is known with certainty about its habitat and behaviour . [ 2 ] it has been depicted with brownish - grey plumage , yellow feet , a tuft of tail feathers , a grey , naked head , and a black , yellow , and green beak . it used gizzard stones to help digest its food , which is thought to have included fruits , and its main habitat is believed to have been the woods in the drier coastal areas of mauritius . one account states its clutch consisted of a single egg . it is presumed that the dodo became flightless because of the ready availability of abundant food sources and a relative absence of predators on mauritius .
justification of ecoregion delineation the mascarene islands are composed of three main islands : réunion , mauritius , and rodrigues , and some islets . although each island contains distinct flora and fauna , they were included in a single ecoregion due to their possession of some shared endemic species , their similar volcanic history and geophysical characteristics , and their wide separation by sea from other land masses .
between 300 , 000 and 180 , 000 years ago . most recent and extant species would , therefore , probably be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from africa or madagascar after this event . if the mascarene parrot had , in fact , evolved into a distinct genus on réunion prior to the volcanic eruption , it would have been one of the few survivors of this
mauritius had previously been visited by arab vessels in the middle ages and portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , but was settled by neither . no records of dodos by these are known , although the portuguese name for mauritius ,
cerne ( swan ) island
, may have been a reference to dodos . [ 74 ] the dutch empire acquired mauritius in 1598 , renaming it aftermaurice of nassau , and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the dutch east india company henceforward . [ 75 ] the earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by dutch travelers during the second dutch expedition to indonesia , led by admiral jacob van neck in 1598 . they appear in reports published in 1601 , which also contain the first published illustration of the bird . [ 76 ] since the first sailors to visit mauritius had been at sea for a long time , their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary . the 1602 journal by willem van west - zanen of the ship bruin - vis mentions that 24 - 25 dodos were hunted for food , which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime , their remains being preserved by salting . [ 77 ] an illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal , showing the killing of dodos , a dugong , and possibly a mascarene grey parakeet , was captioned with a dutch poem , [ 78 ] here in hugh strickland ' s 1848 translation :
in spite of the mention of several colours , authors such as walter rothschild claimed that the gelderland journal described the bird as entirely blue - grey , and it was restored this way in rothschild ' s 1907 book extinct birds . later examination of the journal by julian hume has revealed only a description of the dodo . he suggested that the distinctively drawn facial mask may represent a separate colour . the head was evidently blue , and in 2007 , hume suggested the beak may have been red , and the rest of the plumage greyish or blackish , which also occurs in other members of psittaculini .
the mascarene islands of réunion , mauritius , and rodrigues are situated in a line along a submerged ridge , the seychelles - mauritius plateau , located 640 to 800 km east of madagascar in the western indian ocean . these islands are unique in their isolation , speciation processes and assemblages , and possess many endemic species . when these islands were first visited in the 16th century , passing ships hunted the native fauna , causing the extinction of the ground dwelling dodo and the related rodriguez solitaire . the ships also introduced european species such as rabbits and goats . later , people permanently settled these islands . the combination of hunting , species introductions , deforestation and farming has dramatically changed the habitats of these islands and caused the extinction of species on these islands . many of the surviving endemic mascarene species are seriously threatened with extinction .
while the mascarenes still support many endemic species , they are as well known for the large number of species that have become extinct since 1600 . these extinctions include the dodo ( raphus cucullatus ) of mauritius , rodrigues solitaire ( pezophaps solitaria ) , rodgrigues parakeet ( psittacula excul ) , mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) , réunion starling ( fregilupus varius ) , and the mauritius blue - pigeon ( alectroenas nitidissima ) ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) . there have also been a number of extinctions of endemic plants , possibly totaling as many as 100 species ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) . the remaining 500 - 600 endemic plant species are threatened from the considerable loss of habitat and invasion by more vigorous introduced species . some of these are reduced to handfuls of individuals , or even a single remaining plant . examples of plant species on the verge of extinction include : drypetes caustica , tetrataxis salicifolia , and xanthophyllum paniculatun .
unsurprisingly , such wanton slaughter soon turned beguiling plenty into vanishing rarity . even by the standards of a europe that burned , beheaded and hanged tens of thousands of its own as witches during this period , the treatment of mascarene tortoises was seen as reckless by officialdom . as early as 1639 , legislation was put in place on mauritius to protect its tortoises . sadly this proved ineffective and it would not be until 1771 that the remaining tortoises would receive meaningful protection .
however , the broad - billed parrot was in all likelihood flightless and thus it seems that the above - mentioned reports are more consistent with mascarinus mascarinus . hoffman states that the birds flew only
with difficulty
, though , whereas the wing bones of the mascarene parrot does not suggest a reduction in flying ability . the sternum of the bird is only insufficiently known and thus it may be that the species flew badly . this , on the other hand , is in disagreement with the theory that the same taxon occurred on both islands , although hoffman may have referred to a general unwillingness to fly until pressed , which was common for the unwary birds of the mascarenes . most strongly against the former existence of this species on mauritius , however , weighs the fact that no skeletal material has turned up in the extensive collections of subfossil bones recovered to date ; the fossil record of mauritius is the most complete of the mascarene islands .
description location and general description this ecoregion covers the three main islands , réunion , mauritius , and rodrigues , and a number of smaller islets of the mascarene islands . the largest islands are the french dependent territory of réunion ( 2 , 500 km2 ) , and the island of mauritius ( 1 , 900 km2 ) , which together with rodrigues ( 110 km2 ) forms the single independent nation of mauritius . the nearest landmass is madagascar , 680 km northwest of réunion .
french and dutch settlers arriving on réunion and rodrigues in the seventeenth century found great herds of native tortoises . one early arrival on rodrigues described whole fields covered in the creatures ! unfortunately for all five mascarene giant tortoise species , their large size combined with apparent tameness and slow movement to render them ridiculously easy prey . before refrigeration , islands served as gigantic larders for malnourished and hungry sailors . faced with abundance , humans responded as they so often have : with rampant plunder .
mourer - chauvire , c . ; bour , r . ; ribes , s . ; moutou , f . ( 1999 ) .
the avifauna of réunion island ( mascarene islands ) at the time of the arrival of the first europeans
. avian paleontology at the close of the 20th century : proceedings of the 4th international meeting of the society of avian paleontology and evolution , washington d . c . , 4–7 june 1996 . smithsonian contributions to paleobiology 89 : 8–11 .
) , including the limited number of host species and the presence of within host genetic diversity . a caveat to our own findings is the potential effect of the background mutation rate to inflate our estimates for the evolutionary rate . it is possible that some of the variation identified here may be from deleterious mutations that have yet to reach fixation . the randomization analyses of the rose - ringed parakeet isolates suggested that there is insufficient support for the evolutionary rate inferred from this data set . however , our analyses suggest that the rate estimated from the bfdv
the growing impact of emerging infectious disease in humans , livestock , and endangered species has increased the importance of understanding the changes that can elicit an outbreak and how a pathogen subsequently evolves during such a disease . although infectious disease in endangered populations represents a major problem for biodiversity , such events also present an excellent opportunity to resolve evolutionary patterns in pathogens . populations such as the echo parakeet , which have been sampled in a frequent and unbiased ( in terms of disease ) fashion , enable studies to access a level of detail not normally possible in a natural population .
managing the effects of virally mediated infectious disease in host populations requires an understanding of how these pathogens evolve . rapid evolution and selection can enable a virus to escape immune recognition and to reinfect individuals that have been previously exposed . however , logistical difficulties in surveying wild populations may undermine our ability to understand evolution in pathogens that do not infect humans or domestic livestock . endangered species , which are often monitored and regularly sampled over long periods of time , offer a resolution . using a data set of samples collected over 11 years from two populations of parrot , the endangered echo parakeet (
strewn across the indian ocean to the east of madagascar , the mascarene islands ( mauritius , réunion and rodrigues ) are well known as the former home of the dodo and other strange extinct birds . however , dodos and their kin were only part of the unique ecosystem encountered by early visitors to these islands . as with madagascar , the mascarenes had been geographically cut off from the rest of the world for millions of years prior to human discovery . this isolation combined with their tropical location to produce an abundance of singular forms .
as no complete dodo specimens exist , its external appearance , such as plumage and colouration , is hard to determine . [ 2 ] illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction ( 1598–1662 ) are the primary evidence for its external appearance . [ 35 ] according to most representations , the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage , with lighterprimary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end . the head was grey and naked , the beak green , black and yellow , and the legs were stout and yellowish , with black claws . [ 36 ] the bird was sexually dimorphic : males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks . the beak was up to 23 centimetres ( 9 . 1 in ) in length and had a hooked point . [ 37 ]
the pattern of changes that we observed in the rep gene suggests that there was a major selective sweep of bfdv mutations that coincided with the outbreak of pbfd in the echo parakeet . the speed and extent of this sweep is such that the rep allele occurring prior to the outbreak appears to be completely absent in the season immediately afterward . a number of factors may have contributed to the scope and rapidity of the sweep , including the environmental stability of circoviruses ( 62 ) , both vertical and horizontal modes of transmission ( 18 , 48 , 63 ) , and host population dynamics ( infection in a small population of a highly gregarious species ) .
“mindoro racket - tail” , prioniturus mindorensis , has been split from blue - crowned racket - tail , prioniturus discurus , based on schweitzer et al . ( 2012 ) . kundu et al . ( 2012 ) found that the mascarene parrot is part of the vasa parrot clade . as mascarinus has priority , coracopsis is merged into mascarinus . also , the seychelles black parrot , mascarinus barklyi , is split from lesser vasa - parrot , mascarinus niger . finally , psittacula has been rearranged per kundu et al . ( 2012 ) . [ psittacidae , falconiformes & psittaciformes , 2 . 63 ]
since 1993 , on an almost annual basis , a conservation program has collected blood samples from the echo parakeet population . by chance , the sampling periods have encompassed the pbfd outbreak , and consequently this archive presents a novel opportunity to monitor the evolution of a pathogen in a natural host population before , during , and after an outbreak . by reconstructing the phylogenetic history of bfdv in the echo parakeet population , we aimed to identify the mutation ( s ) that may have led to the outbreak . since the circovirus capsid is immunogenic ( 17 ) , we expected the outbreak to be defined by mutations in the capsid gene and for codons in this gene to show evidence for positive selection ( as opposed to the rep , which should be conserved due to its critical role in replication ) . we reconstruct the bfdv phylogeny using isolates from both parrot populations to identify any evidence for transmission and in particular for any indication that the outbreak was caused by the invasive species . finally , we take advantage of our extensive time - stamped archive of samples to estimate the evolutionary rate of bfdv . recent evidence from studies of other single - stranded dna ( ssdna ) viruses suggests that these pathogens are characterized by high rates of evolution , on a par with single - stranded rna ( ssrna ) viruses ( 14 , 55 , 56 ) .
many endemic mascarene birds , including the dodo , are derived from south asian ancestors , and the english palaeontologist julian hume has proposed that this may be the case for all the parrots there as well . sea levels were lower during the pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of the then less isolated islands . although most extinct parrot species of the mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . hume has suggested that they have a common origin in the radiation of the tribe psittaculini , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the indian ocean . the psittaculini may have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the mascarenes emerged from the sea . a 2011 genetic study instead found that the mascarene parrot ( mascarinus mascarinus ) of réunion was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot ( coracopsis nigra ) from madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the psittacula parrots , disputing the theory of their common origin .
though mauritius had previously been visited by arab vessels in the middle ages and portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513 , they did not settle on the island . the dutch empire acquired the island in 1598 , renaming it after maurice of nassau , and it was used from then on for the provisioning of trade vessels of the dutch east india company . to the dutch sailors who visited mauritius from 1598 and onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the mascarenes , only the echo parakeet ( psittacula echo ) of mauritius has survived . the others were likely all made extinct by a combination of excessive hunting and deforestation .
the veracity of hahn ' s claim was questioned as early as 1876 , and the illustration appears to be plagiarised from the plate by françois - nicolas martinet which was published at least 50 years earlier . after king maximilian died in 1825 , his collection was auctioned off , but no mascarene parrot was mentioned in the inventory list of species . hahn did not mention the date in which he actually saw the bird which could have been long before 1834 . however , the fact that martinet ' s image was copied and that no mounted specimen exists ( though such a rare bird would probably have been preserved ) makes hahn ' s account dubious .
tantalising scraps of evidence , including an alleged photograph of a living tortoise , survive from the late nineteenth century . however , the last generally - accepted record of mascarene giant tortoises was in 1844 . a british expedition to round island , off the coast of mauritius , found several living tortoises . a female was captured and laid eggs , with the hatchlings distributed amongst various friends of one of the explorers . there is no information available as to which of the two mauritian species was found on round island , nor is there anything known about what became of the hatchlings . given that goats and rabbits were introduced to round island shortly thereafter , it is probable that one of the hatchlings became the endling of the genus cylindraspis .
prevalence and nucleotide diversity ( average number of nucleotide differences per site ) of bfdv in the echo parakeets . ( a ) bayesian skyline plot showing the effective number of bfdv infections in the echo parakeet population since the estimated mean tmrca ( in 1959 ) . the plot shows a period of exponential decline in viral diversity ( highlighted as “a” ) coinciding with the 2005 / 06 pbfd outbreak ( highlighted by gray shading ) , followed by a subsequent increase ( “b” ) . ( b ) number of infected and uninfected echo parakeets for the breeding seasons between 1993 and 1998 and between 2003 and 2009 ( the estimated prevalence of bfdv per season from 2004 is also indicated ) . the estimated nucleotide diversity of bfdv is also shown from the 2004 / 05 season and indicates a reduction in genetic diversity during the pbfd outbreak and the following season ( 2006 / 07 ) .
types and severity of threats the habitats and species endemic to the mascarene islands are all under some level of threat . the threats to native vegetation and plant species on these islands are numerous and have been summarized in wwf and iucn ( 1994 ) . some species are critically endangered ( e . g . a few plant species are reduced to one individual ) . introduced animals are especially problematic . introduced grazers and herbivores , such as deer , pigs , crab - eating macaques ( macaca fascicularis ) ( the last is not on réunion ) , and even giant snails ( achantina spp . ) lead to the destruction of habitat and endemic plant species . introduced rats , cats , and mongooses ( although the last is not on réunion ) prey on adult and young endemic animals , and introduced birds prey on endemic birds .
current status mauritius has one of the highest human population densities in the world , 634 persons / km2 ( cia 2000 ) . on all of the mascarene islands , there has been a vast loss of the original forest habitat ( stuart et al . 1990 ) . on réunion , it is estimated that less than 40 percent of the island is covered with natural vegetation ; on mauritius , only about 5 percent of the natural vegetation survives ; and on rodrigues , the natural vegetation covers around 1 percent of the total land area . different agents have caused this loss of habitat . on réunion , forest and other habitat is cleared for agriculture and degraded through the introduction of alien plants . on mauritius , sugar cane , tea , and conifer plantations have replaced the natural vegetation . on rodrigues , the effects of feral animals and shifting cultivation have changed the forest habitats to a savanna with scattered trees , and introduced plants have then taken over the remaining habitats .
the broad - billed parrot possessed a distinct frontal crest of feathers . ridges on the skull indicate that this crest was firmly attached , and that the bird , unlike cockatoos , could not raise or lower it . the 1601 gelderland sketch was examined in 2003 by hume , who compared the ink finish with the underlying pencil sketch and found that the latter showed several additional details . the pencil sketch depicts the crest as a tuft of rounded feathers attached to the front of the head at the base of the beak , and shows long primary covert feathers , large secondary feathers , and a slightly bifurcated tail . measurements of sub - fossils known by 1893 show that the mandible was 65–78 millimetres ( 2 . 6–3 . 1 in ) in length , 65 mm ( 2 . 6 in ) in width , the femur was 58–63 mm ( 2 . 3–2 . 5 in ) in length , the tibia was 88–99 mm ( 3 . 5–3 . 9 in ) , and the metatarsus 35 mm ( 1 . 4 in ) . unlike other mascarene parrots , the broad - billed parrot had a flattened skull .
the echo parakeet is an endangered parrot species endemic to the indian ocean island of mauritius . by the early 1980s , this species had declined to such a degree ( around 20 individuals ) that it was regarded as the world ' s rarest parrot ( 28 ) . intervention by a conservation program has resulted in a period of population growth over the last decade , with the number of birds currently estimated at around 500 . between 2005 and 2006 the recovery was interrupted by the presence of a pathogen ; a large proportion of the population showed clinical signs consistent with pbfd . one suspected source of infection in the echo parakeets is a population of feral rose - ringed parakeets . since being founded in about 1886 ( 6 ) , this population has grown rapidly to number over 10 , 000 birds and is widespread throughout mauritius . in the context of infectious disease , invasive species represent an especially pernicious problem . besides the potential for introducing novel pathogens and pathogen strains for which the endemic species may have no immunity , in such large and growing host populations natural selection will tend to favor pathogen virulence ( 5 ) . the presence of such a large pathogen reservoir can also result in a persistence of disease outbreaks in small endemic host populations through a pattern of constant reinfection .