motyxia is a genus of cyanide-producing millipedes ( collectively known as sierra luminous millipedes or motyxias ) that are endemic to the southern sierra nevada , tehachapi , and santa monica mountain ranges of california .

motyxias are blind and produce the poison cyanide , like all members of the polydesmida .

all species have the ability to glow brightly : some of the few known instances of bioluminescence in millipedes .

motyxia

forma motyxia pior f . secca causey & tiemann , 1969 accepted as motyxia pior chamberlin , 1941
during the day , this millipede , motyxia sequoiae looks like another nonglowing critter .
glowing millipede ( motyxia sequoiae ) lights on , lights off . paul merek - youtube
the suggestion that motyxia ' s glow wards off marauding nocturnal predators is supported by the fact that motyxia are blind , so their visual signaling can only be seen by members of other species , such as predators .
analysis of xystocheir bistipita‘s dna revealed that the millipede actually belonged to a different genus , motyxia - the only genus of bioluminescent millipede in the western hemisphere . the identity - challenged millipede was then renamed motyxia bistipita .
this week , we published a study documenting the rediscovery of the millipede xystocheir bistipita , which turns out to be bioluminescent and a species of motyxia , the luminous mountain millipedes ( marek & moore , 2015 ) . a few folks have asked what the distribution looks like with these new data . here’s an updated distribution of the genus including motyxia bistipita ( we transferred the species into motyxia after determining it was more closely related to bioluminescent millipedes in the genus motyxia ) . the distribution of motyxia is overlaid on level iii usgs ecoregions .
at top , millipedes motyxia sequoiae ( left ) and motyxia bistipita ( right ) are seen normal light . in the bottom row , m . sequoiae , which has more predators , glows much stronger than m . bistipita .
motyxia ' s eastern cousins possess bright and conspicuous reds and yellows , apparently also to ward off daytime predators .
analysis of xystocheir bistipita ' s dna revealed that the millipede actually belonged to a different genus , motyxia — the only genus of bioluminescent millipede in the western hemisphere . the identity - challenged millipede was then renamed motyxia bistipita .
this entry was posted in uncategorized and tagged bioluminescent , california , cyanide , millipede , motyxia . bookmark the permalink .
interestingly , motyxia are blind , and so their visual signaling can only be seen by members of other species , such as predators . in addition , motyxia produce hydrogen cyanide , an extremely poisonous gas as a chemical defense . some of our research indicates that motyxia ’s bioluminescence serves as a warning signal to deter nocturnal mammals from eating these highly poisonous millipedes .
the researchers then sequenced several genes in each xystocheir and motyxia species to determine how the millipedes were related to each other .
a prolonged exposure taken in the darkroom , showing the greenish glow of a motyxia millipede . ( photo : paul marek )
their results , combined with x . bistipita ' s unexpected bioluminescence , showed that x . bistipita actually belongs to the motyxia genus . the scientists renamed it motyxia bistipita . ( also see
world ' s leggiest animal found near silicon valley .
)
the study also revealed that m . bistipita evolved before other motyxia —giving the team a theory for how millipedes got their glow .
when scientists discovered that this millipede , formerly named xystocheir bistipita , emits a faint bluish green glow , they renamed it motyxia bistipita .
in a previous article for nsf , i explained that motyxia ' s
glow means no
to predators . that is , the green glow of nocturnal motyxia - - which are exclusively found in the sierra nevada mountains of california - - wards off nocturnal predators . motyxia ' s bright coloring warns predators that when these millipedes feel threatened , they ooze toxins , including hydrogen cyanide , an extremely poisonous gas .
these discoveries provide the bases for a possible explanation of the evolutionary origins of bioluminescence in millipedes . over time , bioluminescence gradually escalated from the faintly glowing species of motyxia that live at low elevations to the brighter and more highly toxic species of motyxia that live at high elevations .
after we sequenced them we were able to place the millipede on an evolutionary tree with other bioluminescent species of motyxia ,
says marek .
after sequencing the bug’s dna , he found that it was in fact related to its luminous cousins , and changed its name to motyxia bistipita .
when you observe bioluminescence , you may wonder about the purpose of this illuminating phenomenon . my research on motyxia indicates that
glow means no !
to predators . that is , motyxia ' s glow warns nocturnal predators that these 60 - legged creatures are armed and dangerous ; any predator that riles a motyxia risks being squirted by toxins , including hydrogen cyanide , an extremely poisonous gas , which the millipede releases when it feels threatened .
at the field study site in giant sequoia national monument in calif . , paul marek assesses predator bite marks on clay models of the millipede motyxia .
in order to provide a context to the evolution of bioluminescence , my team and i sequenced the dna of x . bistipita , and positioned it on an evolutionary tree with other species of motyxia and their closest relatives . these and other analyses showed that x . bistipita should now be classified in the genus motyxia along with other glowing millipedes . so in honor of its family ties , i gave x . bistipita a new name : motyxia bistipita .
at the field - study site in giant sequoia national monument in california , paul marek assesses predator bite marks on clay models of the millipede motyxia .
entomologist paul marek rediscovered this faintly glowing millipede in san luis obispo and renamed it m . bistipita to reflect its connection the genus of bioluminescent millipedes called motyxia .
species in the genus motyxia are unique in being the only known bioluminescent millipedes . while all xystodesmids can fluoresce under ultraviolet light , motyxia creates its own glow , visible to the naked eye , in what is thought to be a warning signal to nocturnal predators indicating its noxious chemical defenses ( marek et al . , 2011 ) .
millipede motyxia photographed in natural light ( top ) and solely with its own light from bioluminescence ( bottom ) . the animal is an adult about 25 milimeters long .
supplemental information includes detailed experimental procedures and the phylogeny of motyxia species and close relatives ( figure s1 ) . it can be found with this article online at doi : xxxxxx .
only later in time , as motyxia colonized higher elevations with more predators , was the glow co - opted by evolution as a way to warn predators that the millipedes were toxic .
my research team , which is funded by nsf , explores the evolution of bioluminescence in a genus known as motyxia , the only millipedes in north america that are known to be bioluminescent .
a re - evaluation of the millipede genus motyxia chamberlin , with a re - diagnosis of the tribe xystocheirini and remarks on the bioluminescence ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) , rowland m . shelley
( of luminodesmus sequoiae loomis & davenport , 1951 ) causey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 31 ; note : motyxia sequoiae [ details ]
the researchers also collected real glowing millipedes from giant sequoia national monument in california , from the species motyxia sequoiae . these are each about 30 millimeters long and 1 gram in mass on average .
millipedes of the genus motyxia spend the day burrowed under soil and leaves . they come out to forage at night , when they are sought after by predators . ( photo : paul marek )
just like all other millipedes , motyxia are vegetarians , feeding mostly on decaying plant material , but in the course of adapting to a lifestyle primarily underground , they lost the ability to see .
many millipedes also have bright colours , but these would be useless to motyxia species . they spend the daytime buried in the leaf litter , emerging only at night to feed on decaying plants . “night is an excellent time to do millipede things like eating detritus and mating , ” says marek . when they’re active , predators wouldn’t be able to see bright colours anyway . as such , motyxia millipedes are a dull orange , and they publicize their defences by glowing in the dark . “i think that motyxia is better able to exploit this nighttime niche if bioluminescent & toxic , ” says marek .
of all these creepy crawlies , eight species are bioluminescent , meaning they can glow just like fireflies and glowworms . all are part of a genus known as motyxia . [ gallery of glowing creatures ]
interestingly , a few of the species in the glowing genus motyxia can switch their glow on and off . marek and his co - workers measured glowing intensity of species in the genus using darkroom photography and traced the results on an evolutionary tree . they determined that the ability to glow evolved only once in millipedes and is restricted to a set of closely related species , all in the genus motyxia .
one species they examined , xystocheir bistipita , had not been seen since its discovery back in 1967 and was assumed to be non - luminescent . but to their surprise , the bug began glowing in their laboratory , arousing suspicion that this millipede may actually be a mislabeled member of the motyxia group . later genetic analysis by the team revealed that this was indeed the case , so the enigmatic species was renamed motyxia bistipita .
previous research had shown that the ten known species of the motyxia genus glow at different levels of brightness . measuring just how much that brightness varies between species can reveal how luminescence evolved—an important goal of evolutionary biologists .
motyxia , which are the only known bioluminescent millipedes , are found solely in a small region of the sierra nevada mountain range in california . but various types of bioluminescent creatures live throughout the united states . they include :
luminescent millipede and results of the field experiment . a . motyxia sequoiae photographed in natural light , and b . entirely with light from luminescence ; c . mean proportion of millipedes attacked versus luminescence . number of individuals attacked above bars ; d . rodent incisor marks in clay millipede , e . live millipede ( arrows ) with anterior segments 1 – 14 missing . ( phylogeny of motyxia species and close relatives in supplemental information online , figure s1 )
one possible clue to the origins of bioluminescence is provided by a millipede species known as motyxia sequoiae , which inhabits habitats that are normally off - limits to other closely related millipedes . these habitats include exposed areas of the forest floor , open mountain meadows and the trunks of oak trees . so perhaps bioluminescence evolved in motyxia sequoiae to protect these creatures from predators in particularly vulnerable areas , and thereby enable these millipedes to expand their range to these favorable locations .
assistant professor of entomology paul marek rediscovered this faintly glowing millipede in san luis obispo and renamed it m . bistipita to reflect its connection the genus of bioluminescent millipedes called motyxia . photo : courtesy of the national geographic society expeditions council
motyxia are extremely common out there ,
marek said .
if you sit there in a moonless night , the ground will look like the starry night sky up above , from all those millipedes glowing in the dark .
according to my explanation for the origins of bioluminescence in millipedes , as their evolution progressed and motyxia colonized higher elevations that support more predators , the millipede repurposed and intensified its glow as a way to warn predators of its greater toxicity .
this is just the tip of the iceberg for the fascinating story of bioluminescence in motyxia ,
marek added .
we still don ' t know a lot of things about their biology and the circumstances under which luminescence evolved .
diminutive in size compared to other millipedes , the species lives at a lower elevation with few predators and was not thought to belong to the genus of millipedes that glow called motyxia — the only genus of bioluminescent millipedes in the western hemisphere .
the location i marked in keene , ca is where i collected the motyxia monica on march 10 , 2013 . the photos were taken the next day at santa barbara city college . my professor verified its bioluminescence and my id for a project of his .
however , my recent research indicates that millipedes may not have always used bioluminescence as a defense mechanism . rather , bioluminescence may have originated in a millipede species named xystocheir bistipita for an entirely different function and slowly evolved into its current defensive function for motyxia .
my research team and i ran an experiment to test whether motyxia ' s coloration warns predators to stay away . our experiment involved positioning 150 glowing clay millipede models and 150 clay non - glowing millipede models in motyxia ' s natural nighttime habitat in california . the results : predators attacked a significantly lower percentage of the glowing vs . non - glowing models ( 18 percent vs . 49 percent . ) the relatively greater ability of the glowing millipede models to repel predators supports the
glow means no !
idea .
my research team , which is funded by the national science foundation ( nsf ) , explores bioluminescence—the biological production of light by natural chemical reactions . specifically we focus on the evolutionary origins of bioluminescence in motyxia , the only millipede genus in california that is bioluminescent .
species such as m . bistipita , which live in low elevations of the sierra nevadas , have to cope with a much hotter , drier climate than other motyxia . their glow is also much dimmer , and they have fewer predators . ( see more pictures of glowing animals . )
but when the members of the motyxia group began to migrate to higher elevations with a greater risk of predation , the bugs repackaged this luminescence system as a warning signal . this was supported by the observation that species containing larger volumes of cyanide were brighter than their slightly less toxic counterparts .
“after we sequenced them we were able to place the millipede on an evolutionary tree with other bioluminescent species in motyxia , ” said marek . “we demonstrated the faint bioluminescence of the low - lying millipedes represented an older trait and the brighter luminescence of their mountain cousins represented a newer trait . ”
causey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 25 [ details ]
causey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 29 [ details ]
causey , n . b . ; tiemann , d . l . ( 1969 ) . a revision of the bioluminescent millipedes of the genus motyxia ( xystodesmidae polydesmida ) . proceedings of the american philosophical society , 113 ( 1 ) : 14 - 33 page ( s ) : 27 [ details ]
after we sequenced them we were able to place the millipede on an evolutionary tree with other bioluminescent species of motyxia ,
said marek .
the faint bioluminescence of the low - lying m . bistipita represented an older trait and the brighter luminescence of their mountain cousins represented a newer trait .
there are around 12 , 000 known species of millipedes , and only the eight motyxia species glow . marek says , “ [ they ] would definitely be on my top 10 for my imaginary “millipede biodiversity global tour” ( along with the shocking pink millipede in thailand & the longest millipede in africa ) . ”
video of my new motyxia cf . tiemanni , this is a rare species of millipede that can actually glow in the dark ! here is a video of them in the light of day , though i will be trying to get a video of them at night while they are glowing , so stay tuned !
( of motyxia pior f . secca causey & tiemann , 1969 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 377 [ details ]
our analyses of the chemical reaction used by m . bistipita to generate its faint glow suggests that this species might not have originally acquired bioluminescence as a defense mechanism . rather , it might have acquired its faint glow to help adapt to the dry heat of its habitat - - before other motyxia acquired bioluminescence .
every evening , these creatures — which remain hidden underground during the day — emerge and initiate a chemical reaction to produce a green - blue glow , a process called bioluminescence . the eerie night lights of these millipedes highlight nature ' s eccentricities , a fringe benefit as i research the millipede species known as motyxia .
our analyses also showed that the faint bioluminescence of the low - lying cousins of motyxia bistipita - - which i ' ll refer to as simply m . bistipita - - represents an older trait than the brighter bioluminescence of their mountain relatives . in addition , millipede species that live at higher elevations exhibit the brightest bioluminescence .
still , a number of poisonous millipede species active during the day are thought to display bright colors to warn predators that they possess toxins and to steer clear . since motyxia are instead out in the dark , marek and his colleagues reasoned
they use their greenish glow in place of a warning coloration ,
he said .
the researchers then began comparing the genomes of the members of the motyxia genus , including its newest member , in order to examine genetic relationships . after constructing an evolutionary tree , the researchers measured the brightness of their characteristic glow photographically and then investigated their toxicity levels by seeing how much cyanide they possessed in their specialized glands .
so the scientists collected several wild specimens all species of motyxia , plus a control group of non - glowing , related millipedes known as xystocheir . the team then set up experiments in the lab to measure the brightness of each species . ( related :
if you see a glowing millipede , best not to bite it .
)
unlike fireflies , whose gleam emanates from a specialized organ on its abdomen , millipedes in the motyxia genus give off a teal hue . these invertebrates have a special type of protein that allows them to produce light from beneath the tough cuticle that covers their bodies . ( also see
glow - in - the - dark millipede explained .
)
how did bioluminescence evolve ? this question is another focus of our ongoing research on motyxia . by helping to reveal the evolutionary origins of warning colorations — which , by necessity , contribute to some of the most blatant and complex appearances in the living world — we expect to improve our ability to investigate and understand how other complex traits arise in nature .
paul marek , a research associate in the university of arizona ' s department of entomology and center for insect science , and his team now provide the first evidence gained from field experiments of bioluminescence being used as a warning signal . they discovered that the nightly glow of millipedes belonging to the genus motyxia helps the multi - legged invertebrates avoid attacks by predators .
species phylogeny of xystocheirine millipedes showing a single origin of bioluminescence in the most recent common ancestor of motyxia species . tree was estimated by using a partitioned bayesian analysis of the concatenated dataset of five genes . gray branches indicate < 0 . 95 posterior probability . ( scale bar : 0 . 1 expected substitutions per site . ) bioluminescent intensity was back - transformed from log - scale .
when they are disturbed , they ooze toxic cyanide and other foul - tasting chemicals from small pores running along the sides of their bodies as a defense mechanism ,
marek explained .
some millipede species that are active during the day display bright warning colors to announce their defenses to predators , but because motyxia are out when it ' s dark , we hypothesized they use their greenish glow in place of a warning coloration .
the reason why these millipedes glow is a mystery . they are blind , adapted to a lifestyle primarily spent underground , so they cannot use their glow to send messages to other members of their species . also , while deep - sea angler fish dangle glowing lures in front of their mouths to attract prey , motyxia are vegetarians just like all other millipedes , feeding mostly on decaying plant material . so they have no need to pull in victims .
interestingly , they found that the millipedes’ bioluminescence originated in motyxia’s common ancestor and then grew brighter over time . furthermore , species living at lower elevations , such as m . bistipita , glow less than their relatives at higher elevations . since m . bistipita’s habitat is much hotter and drier than bugs living further up the mountains , the researchers reasoned that their glow may not have in fact evolved as a warning signal for predators , but instead to help them deal with the stresses of such a climate .
. . . animals may use colour signals in activities such as claiming advantage in maleemale combat ( e . g . eagle owl , bubo bubo , penteriani et al . , 2007 ; frog , phyllomedusa boliviana , jansen & k€ ohler , 2008 ) , defence ( e . g . glow - worm , lampyris noctiluca , de cock & matthysen , 2003 ; motyxia millipedes , marek , papaj , yeager , molina , & moore , 2011 ) , prey attraction ( e . g . . . .
here , we document the unexpected discovery of bioluminescence in m . bistipita and infer the evolutionary history of the species in the context of a comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the xystocheirini . based on the tree , and phylogenetic trait mapping , faint light originated in the most recent common ancestor of motyxia and gradually intensified through the evolutionary diversification of the genus . the linear escalation in luminescent intensity as a function of tree depth reverses in some crown group species and may indicate a shift in the functional role of luminescence over time .
to reconstruct the evolutionary tree , marek and his team included every species in the genus motyxia and all its closest nonglowing relatives and tested the relationship between them and m . bistipita . marek and his team measured light emission photographically in a darkroom by placing individual millipedes in a light tube . the researchers also measured toxicity of the bugs by measuring the volume of cyanide glands that line the sides of the millipedes . bugs with larger cyanide glands were also brighter , indicating a functional link between luminescent intensity of displays and toxicity .
the ability to make your own light , known as bioluminescence , has evolved around 40 to 50 times in the history of life . hundreds of animals can do the same thing , from fireflies to squid to deep - sea fish . they use this ability to attract their prey , to recognise their mates , and to hide from predators . motyxia millipedes are part of this extensive club , but they’re unusual in one important respect : they’re blind . they can’t see their own glows ; their light shows are aimed at a different audience .
marek collected 164 motyxia millipedes from california’s giant sequoia national monument and painted half of them to cover up their nightly glow . he then tethered them with a gently knotted string to specific places throughout the forest . marek also built 300 clay millipedes using a bronze cast made by his wife . he covered half of them with the same obscuring paint as the live millipedes , and the other half with a glow - in - the - dark hue . he scattered the fake millipedes throughout the forest just like the real ones , and waited .
if you go down to the woods of california today , you might be in for a big surprise . at night , the forests crawl with sinuous shapes that glow with an eerie greenish - blue colour . they are motyxia millipedes and they shine brightly whenever they’re disturbed . “if you go to the right forest and you let your eyes get adjusted to the night , then you can see them everywhere , ” says paul marek from the university of arizona . some big oak tress can shelter 1 glowing millipede in every square metre . they look like fields of stars .
despite our growing knowledge , much about motyxia remains mysterious . for example , how do these blind creatures find mates ? what triggers their nightly emergence ? with funding from the national science foundation , my team is working to answer these and other questions . this research is part of our larger effort to describe biodiversity and reconstruct the evolutionary histories of arthropods — a group that includes insects , spiders and crustaceans , and accounts for 80 percent of all living species . we contribute our findings to the tree of life , which is a worldwide effort to define the evolutionary histories of animals .
among the largest millipedes are the north american millipede and the giant african millipede . the north american millipede grows 10 cm ( 3 . 9 inches ) long , and is dark reddish - brown or black with a red line on each segment . females lay a single egg in a nest of regurgitated food , and wrap themselves around it to incubate the egg . giant african millipedes are the world ' s largest known millipedes , growing 30 . 5 cms ( 12 inches ) long . they live in rain forests and have 30 to 40 segments . millipedes belonging to the group motyxia live in mountain areas of california and glow greenish - blue at night , which seems to scare off predators .
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edited by may r . berenbaum , university of illinois at urbana–champaign , urbana , il , and approved march 31 , 2015 ( received for review january 5 , 2015 )
bioluminescent millipedes : m . sequoiae ( a and b ) and m . bistipita ( c and d ) . ( upper ) millipedes photographed under incident white light . ( lower ) millipedes photographed with light emitted from the cuticle . ( inset ) a 5× magnification of the granular photocytes of m . bistipita . ( scale bars : 5 . 0 mm . )
we then tested for a directional trend of luminescence through evolutionary diversification by estimating the relationship between light intensity and phylogenetic distance . if the hypothesis of a phylogenetic escalation of brightness is true , we predicted a strong positive correlation between a node’s luminescent intensity and its distance from the root , as opposed to the null hypothesis of no correlation ( one - tailed test , α = 0 . 05 ) . although trends can occur in both directions , in cases where novel predator / herbivore defense traits ( e . g . , plant secondary metabolites ) promote speciation or a shift into a new adaptive zone , than the quantity or intensity of these features will escalate and evolve in a directional and positive manner (
) . because the ecological phenomenon of defense - trait escalation underlying our hypothesis predicts that the sign of a relationship should be positive , we formulated a one - tailed hypothesis ( the two - tailed probability is also shown in parentheses ) . using the comparative framework afforded by the phylogeny , we also tested the null hypothesis with nonluminescent xystocheirini , predicting conformity with the null expectation . first , we estimated phylogenetic conservatism of luminescent trait values under a brownian motion model of character evolution with pagel’s λ (
) , where λ = 0 indicates a lack of fit between the data and the tree . we found that phylogeny strongly influences our observed luminescent data with a pagel’s λ = 0 . 718 ( not significantly different from 1 , with a bayes factor = 0 . 656 ; compare with λ = 0 , bayes factor = 3 . 53 ) . we then used the branch length scaling factor κ to differentiate between a gradual vs . punctuational mode of continuous trait evolution on the tree , where κ = 0 indicates a punctuational model with change associated with speciation events ( i . e . , clumped at nodes ) , as opposed to a gradual change model ( κ = 1 ) where character evolution is proportional to estimated branch lengths of the phylogram (
) . when the models are compared by using a bayes factor test , the empirical κ = 0 . 544 is not significantly different from κ = 1 ( bayes factor = 1 . 59 ; compare with κ = 0 , bayes factor = 3 . 49 ) . therefore , a gradual model of evolution better fits our observed luminescent trait values , given the phylogeny . we then assessed whether bioluminescence underwent a directional change on the phylogeny by testing a correlation between luminescent intensity and a node’s path length from the root ( calculated from branch lengths ) . using phylogenetically independent contrasts , we estimated the phenotype of the internal nodes of the tree and compared these values with their root - to - node distance using the pearson product moment rho (
) . we conducted the same analyses and tested for a correlation between toxicity ( estimated from cyanide gland area ) and phylogenetic distance . the tests were then repeated with the nonluminescent xystocheirine taxa . in
) . lastly , to test whether the observed correlation could have been due to the random association of traits with species , we generated a probability distribution by repeating the processes of node state reconstruction and correlation tests of light intensity ( or gland area ) and path length from the root for 10 , 000 datasets after shuffling the luminescent intensity data among the tips . we then evaluated whether our empirical pearson
was within the range of permuted values representative of the null distribution of random assignments between traits and species . if < 5 % of our permuted values were greater than our empirical value (
= 0 . 712 ) , then we rejected the null hypothesis that luminescent intensity or gland area is negatively related or unrelated to taxon assignment . because the proportion of instances in the randomized distribution where
= 0 . 045 ( significant as a one - tailed test α = 0 . 05 , but not as a two - tailed test ,
tests of phylogenetic escalation of bioluminescent intensity and cyanide gland area . ( a ) in luminescent millipedes , a positive linear relationship exists between a taxon’s luminescent intensity and its phylogenetic distance from the root . ( c ) a similar relationship is observed between its toxicity and phylogenetic distance . ( b and d ) a weak negative or no evidence of a correlation is evident between luminescence and toxicity with phylogenetic distance in nonluminescent taxa . raw luminescent data points are shown for clarity of illustration . open circles denote luminescent taxa , and dots indicate nonluminescent taxa . regression lines : phylogenetically corrected values ( dotted ) , uncorrected raw values ( solid ) .
we inferred the evolution of continuous traits on the tree using a least - squares parsimony method of estimating ancestral states where the cost of a state change is equivalent to the squared difference in values of the states , ( x – y ) 2 . to correct for the phylogenetic nonindependence of species , we used the pdap module in mesquite to produce a set of independent contrasts for statistical analysis ( 43 ) . if light and toxicity evolved in a directional manner , we expected a positive correlation between the trait value at a node and the distance of the node from the root of the tree . we calculated the nodal values of contrasts and the node’s path length from the root and tested for a correlation using the pearson product - moment correlation coefficient r .
the results of a stepwise multiple regression with bioluminescent intensity as the dependent y - variable and root - to - tip distance ( rt ) , cyanide gland area ( cn ) , and elevation ( el ) as independent predictor variables—and with a minimum akaike information criterion as a stopping rule to select the best model—indicate that cyanide gland area contributes most to the multiple regression equation of y = 18 . 000x rt + 0 . 722x cn + 0 . 0004x el - 3 . 690 , with an r 2 = 0 . 75 . to evaluate millipede body width as a possible confounding factor , because we expect it to covary with cyanide gland area as a result of isometric growth , we conducted a second multiple regression including width as a fourth predictor variable and found that cyanide gland remains the most significant contributor to the regression model .
two anonymous reviewers , charity hall , and jackson means provided improvements to earlier drafts . we appreciate the careful work of tim mccoy and elizabeth francis with dissections . tsutomu tanabe , deren ross , pavel stoev , michael jorgensen , derek hennen , avery lane , brent hendrixson and rob marek helped collect specimens for the project . this work was supported by national science foundation grant deb1410911 and national geographic society grant ec0564 - 12 .
author contributions : p . e . m . and w . m . designed research , performed research , analyzed data , and wrote the paper .
data deposition : the sequences reported in this paper have been deposited in the genbank database ( accession nos . kr135885 – kr136081 ) .
mesquite : a modular system for evolutionary analysis , version 2 . 73 . available at urltoken
pdap package of mesquite , version 1 . 15 . available at urltoken . accessed january 24 , 2014
bayestraits , version 2 . 0 ( beta ) . available at urltoken . accessed march 1 , 2014
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researchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .
a survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .
a study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .
the mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena—but this rigor hasn’t always been enough to spur policy changes .
but why do the californian ones glow ? marek knows the answer . with hundreds of millipedes , some clay , and a bit of paint , he has shown that they light up to ward off predators . you might expect that the light shows would make the millipedes easier to find and eat . in fact , it deters hungry mouths .
the next morning , he found that rodents like grasshopper mice , had savaged around a third of the millipedes . the dull ones took the brunt of the attacks – they had between two and four times as many bite marks as the glowing ones . nearly half of the dull clay millipedes bore the wounds of a rodent attack compared to just 22 percent of the glowing models . similarly , rodents had attacked around 18 percent of the painted live millipedes but only 4 percent of the glowing ones .
the experiment showed that the millipedes’ glow repels predators , and the models proved that it’s the light , rather than the smell or taste of the animals , that puts off attackers . the glow sends a clear message : “don’t eat me . i’m dangerous . ” and they are – the millipedes create cyanide in their bodies and secrete the poison through pores along their flanks . they make for an unpleasant and possibly lethal mouthful .
if doesn’t matter that an animal is poisonous if its predators have to bite it to find that out . the predator would get a mouthful of poison , but the prey would incur a serious wound . this is why many poisonous animals advertise their toxic payloads with bright colours .
now , marek wants to find out more about how the millipedes got their lights . by analysing the genes of all 8 species , he found that bioluminescence has evolved only once in this group . while many animals glow by harnessing luminous bacteria , the millipedes rely on their own light - producing protein . what that protein is , and how it’s related to those of other glowing animals , is still a mystery .
reference : marekt , papaj , yeager , molina & moore . 2011 . bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes . current biology . current biology ; citation tbc .
some california millipedes first evolved bioluminescence to cope with harsh desert living , according to scientists who may have cracked the mystery of glowing millipedes .
watch : when the lights go out , these millipedes emit a green glow .
in california ' s sierra nevada mountains ( map ) live a group of blind millipedes that glow in the dark—and now scientists have cracked the mystery of how their brightness evolved , a new study says .
these
species glow like a neon light . it ' s enough light to read something with if you get close enough ,
said rowland shelley , an emeritus scientist at the north carolina state museum of natural sciences who wasn ' t involved in the study .
scientists already knew that these creatures ' radiance serves as a warning to predators .
now , paul marek and wendy moore entomologists at virginia tech and the university of arizona , respectively , have discovered that the animals ' bioluminescence first evolved for another reason entirely : to help them cope with california ' s hot , dry environment .
i thought it was going to be just another boring day in the lab ,
said marek , who has received funding from national geographic ' s expeditions council .
but then he made a surprising discovery : a faint glow emanating from one supposedly non - luminescent millipede species : xystocheir bistipita , according to the study , published may 4 in proceedings of the national academy of sciences .
based on the research , the team thinks these millipedes ' low - watt glow isn’t a warning signal , but rather the result of their bodies ' responses to heat stress .
for instance , millipedes have trouble metabolizing oxygen when it ' s really hot , which creates chemical byproducts such as peroxide . the bioluminescent proteins help neutralize these byproducts and prevent harm to the millipede .
as evidence , the researchers found that the millipedes with the brightest glow also contained the most cyanide in their bodies . ( also see photos :
cyanide millipede , huge spider among new species .
)
the paper and work is very nice , and is a rare combination of real fieldwork with modest molecular methods ,
said peter vrsansky , a scientist at the slovak academy of sciences who was not involved in the new research .
for his part , marek calls the study
a surprising , unique evolutionary story .
, or the sierra luminous millipedes , is a genus of cyanide - producing millipedes in the order polydesmida endemic to the southern sierra nevada , tehachapi , and santa monica mountain ranges of california ( refs . 1 , 2 ) . members of this genus are blind and produce cyanide ( like
in the order polydesmida ) . one of the most remarkable features of these millipedes is their ability to glow at a peak wavelength of
, which are the only known bioluminescent species in the millipede class diplopoda ( about 12 , 000 known species , ref . 5 ) , spare
, are restricted to three counties in california ( los angeles , kern , and tulare ) . all 8 species of
the darkest ( 4 ) . light is emitted from the exoskeleton of the millipede continuously ( the light intensifies when the millipede is handled , ref . 3 ) . emission of light is uniform across the exoskeleton , and all the appendages ( legs , antennae ) and body rings emit light . the internal organs and viscera do not emit light . luminescence is generated by a biochemical process in the millipede ' s exoskeleton ( 3 ) . the light originates by way of a photoprotein , which differs from the photogenic molecule luciferase in firefly beetles ( 6 ) .
another animal that produces light from a photoprotein is the jellyfish aequorea victoria , which is notable for green fluorescent protein ( gfp ) and widely used as a biomarker in molecular biology ( 7 ) .
in size ( 6 , 8 ) . however , the structure of the luminescent photoprotein remains uncertain , and its homology to molecules of closely related arthropods is unknown .
. various functions were suggested : a nighttime aposematic warning signal , that it had no function at all , or that it inadvertently attracted predators ( 1 , 2 ) . a field study tested the hypothesis that bioluminescence acts as a warning signal . based on the results of the field experiment conducted in california , in a spot where
are native , researchers found that bioluminescence strongly deterred nocturnal mammalian predators ( 4 ) .
medium ( 3 cm in length ) ,
flat - backed
polydesmidan millipedes . typically orange - pink in color ( except
fluorescent ( millipedes in the tribe xystocheirini display some of the brightest fluorescence of the u . s . xystodesmidae species )
species occur in live oak and giant sequoia forests , and notably also in meadows . the presence of xystodesmid millipedes in meadows is atypical for the family . most species are observed under canopies of broad - leaf deciduous forests . all
species are exclusively nocturnal . during the day , individuals are burrowed beneath the soil . at night , they emerge ( by an unknown mechanism potentially not related to light since they ' re blind ) and feed on decaying vegetation . individuals of the species
have been observed climbing on tree trunks , possibly consuming algae , lichens , and other cryptogams adhering to the bark .
species are geographically restricted to 3 counties in california : los angeles , kern and tulare . species predominately occur in the santa monica , tehachapi , and southern sierra nevada mountains . the northernmost population of the genus is of the species
in sequoia national park near crystal cave ( 2 ) . the southernmost population is of the species
, collected in 1944 , was recorded from sherman oaks in los angeles county , california . a dubious historical record indicates a riverside county locality ; however , recent collections in the area have not confirmed this .
chamberlin , with a re - diagnosis of the tribe xystocheirini and remarks on the bioluminescence ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) .
p . e . marek , d . r . papaj , j . yeager , s . molina , w . moore ( 2011 ) . bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes . current biology 21 : r680–r681 .
p . sierwald & j . e . bond ( 2007 ) . current status of the myriapod class diplopoda ( millipedes ) : taxonomic diversity and phylogeny .
v . r . viviani ( 2002 ) . the origin , diversity , and structure function relationships of insect luciferases .
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marek , p . , papaj , d . , yeager , j . , molina , s . , & moore , w . ( 2011 ) . bioluminescent aposematism in millipedes . current biology , 21 ( 18 ) , r680–1 ( link )
finding glow - in - the - dark - millipedes . npr , science friday video
checklist of the millipeds of north and middle america richard l . hoffman . 1999 . virginia museum of natural history special publications .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
millipede , which scientists have found uses the glow to warn predators of their toxic oozing cyanide .
mysterious glowing millipedes apparently use their radiance to warn nighttime predators to stay away , scientists now find .
more than 12 , 000 species of millipede are currently known to science , but researchers suggest the vast majority remain undiscovered . the real number of species could actually be as high as 100 , 000 or so .
california is the only place on the planet where you can see glow - in - the - dark millipedes ,
said researcher paul marek , an evolutionary biologist at the university of arizona .
the santa monica mountains , the tehachapi mountains and the southern sierra nevada mountains , all of which are in southern california .
[ see photos of glowing millipede ]
they spend the day burrowed beneath the soil and leaf material , but even though they are blind , they somehow sense when night falls , and come to the surface to forage and mate and to go about their millipede business ,
marek said . it currently remains completely unknown how the millipedes detect the fall of night .


dentifovea fulvifascialis is a species of moth in the crambidae family .

it is found in greece , lebanon , israel and india .

the larvae feed heliotropium rotundfolium and probably other heliotropium species .

they mine the leaves of their host plant .

the mine has the form of a full depth blotch , usually starting at the tip of the leaf .

pupation takes place within the mine .

larvae can be found in may .

dentifovea fulvifascialis

2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by speidel , w . & segerer , a . nuss , m .
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a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .
the name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .
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and the number of omitted authors .
attribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .
all diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .
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saphenista subsphragidias is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in tungurahua province , ecuador .

the wingspan is about 21 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is creamy white with yellowish-creamy suffusions and some brownish dots .

the hindwings are white creamy , tinged with yellowish at the apex .

saphenista subsphragidias

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here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word subsphragidias . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word subsphragidias and , of course , subsphragidias synonyms and on the right images related to the word subsphragidias .
subsphragidias razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 298 tl : ecuador , tunggurahua province , patate . holotype : vbc . female .
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burreus razowski , in heppner , 1995 ( saphenista ) , atlas neotropical lepid . checklist 2 : 140 . no type
milicha razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 211 tl : mexico , veracruz , banderilla . holotype : eme . female .
mira razowski , 1989 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 17 : 206 . tl : guatemala , volcn santa maria . holotype : usnm . female .
dexia razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 454 tl : costa rica , volcn turrialba . holotype : mnrj . female .
novaelimae razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 104 . tl : brazil , nova lima . holotype : vbc . male .
perlaria razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 442 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
teopiscana razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 450 tl : mexico , chiapas , teopisca . holotype : mnrj . male .
alpha razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 101 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
beta razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 102 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
brunneomaculata razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 503 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , pululahua , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .
carchiana razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 299 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
chiriboga razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 502 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , chiriboga , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . female .
chlorfascia razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 103 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
contermina razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 298 tl : ecuador , tungurahua province , patate . holotype : vbc . male .
cryptogramma razowski & becker , 1994 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 28 . tl : brazil , par , belm . holotype : mnrj . female .
fluida razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 402 tl : mexico , veracruz , fortn de las flores . holotype : eme . female .
lineata razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 300 tl : ecuador , azuay province , cajas . holotype : vbc . male .
livida razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 402 tl : mexico , durango , 11 mi e revolcaderos . holotype : eme . male .
merana razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 299 tl : ecuador , pastaza province , mera . holotype : vbc . male .
nauphraga razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 422 tl : brazil , santa catarina , brusque . holotype : mnrj . male .
nongrata razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 397 tl : mexico , veracruz , fortn de las flores . holotype : eme . female .
nuda razowski & becker , 1999 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 323 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : mrsn . male .
ochraurea razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 296 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
pululahuana razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 503 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , chiriboga , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .
rufozodion razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 297 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
scalena razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 103 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
turguinoa razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 69 . tl : cuba , santiago , turguino . holotype : vbc . male .
absidata razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 216 tl : mexico , sinaloa , 8 mi w el palmito . holotype : eme . female .
ceteora razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 297 tl : brazil , minas gerais , nova lima . holotype : vbc . female .
cnemiodota razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 214 tl : mexico , mexico , 10 air km se amecameca . holotype : eme . female .
cyphoma razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 220 tl : mexico , mexico , 10 air km se amecameca . holotype : eme . female .
delapsa razowski , 1990 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 18 : 340 . tl : mexico , guerrero , 16 km nw iguala . holotype : eme . female .
embolina razowski , 1984 ( saphenista ) , ann . zool . 38 : 277 . tl : venezuela , merida , 4 km s santo domingo . holotype : usnm . female .
gilva razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 453 tl : costa rica , cartago province , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
glorianda razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 401 tl : mexico , nuevo leon , 4 mi w iturbide . holotype : eme . male .
illimis razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 400 tl : mexico , sinaloa , 8 mi w el palmito . holotype : eme . male .
imaginaria razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 452 tl : costa rica , cartago province , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
mediocris razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 398 tl : mexico , nuevo leon , 4 mi w iturbide . holotype : eme . female .
ochrapex razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 443 . tl : ecuador , napo prov . , baeza . holotype : vbc . female .
parabeta razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 441 . tl : ecuador , loja prov . , loja . holotype : vbc . male .
paraconsona razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 296 tl : brazil , minas gerais , nova lima . holotype : vbc . female .
ryrsiloba razowski , 1990 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 18 : 339 . tl : mexico , mexico , chilpango de los bravos . holotype : eme . female .
saragurae razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 8 . tl : ecuador , province loja , saraguro . holotype : mzuj . female .
solisae razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 104 . tl : mexico , tamaulipas , gomez farias . holotype : vbc . male .
subperlaria razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 443 . tl : ecuador , loja prov . , loja . holotype : vbc . male .
temperata razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 399 tl : mexico , tamaulipas , 12 mi sw ciudad victoria . holotype : eme . female .
tufinoa razowski , 1999 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 323 tl : ecuador , carchi province , 35 km w tufino . holotype : cmnh . male .
amusa razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 170 tl : peru , dept . puno , 5 km w limbani . holotype : zmuc . female .
chasia razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 444 . tl : brazil , rio de janeiro , nova friburgo . holotype : vbc . female .
consona razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 423 tl : brazil , paran , banhado , quatro barras . holotype : mnrj . male .
endomycha razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 96 . tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , monteverde . holotype : eme . female .
euprepia razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 171 tl : peru , dept . cajamarca , 10 km w huambos . holotype : zmuc . male .
juvenca razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 455 tl : costa rica , cartago province , volcn turrialba . holotype : mnrj . female .
lathridia razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 457 tl : costa rica , cartago province , volcn turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
orescia razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 456 tl : mexico , distrito federal , parque nacional zoquiapan . holotype : mnrj . female .
pyrczi razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 123 . tl : ecuador , prov . napo , papallacta . holotype : mzuj . male .
rosariana razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 70 . tl : cuba , pinar rio , sierra rosario . holotype : vbc . male .
runtuna razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 124 . tl : ecuador , tungurahua , banos , runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .
sclerorhaphia razowski & becker , 1994 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 29 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , so joaquin . holotype : mnrj . female .
solda razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 212 tl : mexico , veracruz , 22 rd km w ciudad mendoza . holotype : eme . male .
splendida razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 297 tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , indanza . holotype : vbc . female .
allasia razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 205 tl : ecuador , napo province , via santa barbara - la bonita . holotype : eme . female .
consectaria razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo ent . 62 : 118 . tl : mexico , sonora , cuchujaqui , 8 rd mi e alamos . holotype : lacm . male .
consulta razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 400 tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , 6 km s san vito . holotype : eme . male .
leuconigra razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 502 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .
multistrigata walsingham , 1914 ( saphenista ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 296 . tl : mexico , veracruz , atoyac . holotype : bmnh . male .
oreada razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 456 tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : mnrj . female .
praia razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 399 tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , 6 km s san vito . holotype : eme . male .
ambidextria razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 222 tl : mexico , veracruz , caon las minas , 13 km ne perote . holotype : eme . female .
burrens razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 169 tl : peru , huanuco , 25 km ne huanuco , cordillera carpish pattytrail . holotype : zmuc . female .
constipata razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 216 tl : mexico , veracruz , caon las minas , 13 km ne perote . holotype : eme . female .
cubana razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 71 . tl : cuba , santiago , sierra maestra p . cuba . holotype : vbc . male .
incauta razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 456 tl : costa rica , cartago province , santa cruz , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
onychina razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 452 tl : costa rica , cartago province , santa cruz , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . female .
rafaeliana razowski , 1989 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 17 : 206 . tl : colombia , cauca , paramo de parace , lake san rafael . holotype : usnm . male .
rawlinsiana razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 211 tl : ecuador , azuay province , azuay pass , 8 km ne giron . holotype : cmnh . male .
simillima razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 71 . tl : cuba , santiago , sierra maestra p . cuba . holotype : vbc . male .
cuscana razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 78 . tl : peru , prov . cusco , cordillera vilcanota , marcapata . holotype : mzuj . male .
eranna razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 453 tl : costa rica , san jos province , parque nacional braulio carrillo . holotype : mnrj . female .
erasmia razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 92 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , 7 km se caon . holotype : eme . male .
omoea razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 169 tl : peru , dept . puno , 15 km e ayaviri , laguna huascacocha . holotype : zmuc . male .
orichalcana razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 451 tl : costa rica , san jos province , parque nacional braulio carrillo . holotype : mnrj . male .
peruviana razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 170 tl : peru , dept . apurimac , 12 km n abancay , cerro turonmocco . holotype : zmuc . male .
epiera razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 96 . tl : costa rica , alajeula province , n slope volcn de rincon . holotype : eme . male .
phenax razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 198 tl : costa rica , san jos province , estacin carrillo , parque nacional braulio carrillo . holotype : eme . male .
semistrigata forbes , 1931 ( saphenista ) , j . dep . agric . p . r . 15 ( 4 ) : 355 . tl : puerto rico , luquillo mountains . holotype : cuic . female .
xysta razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 202 tl : costa rica , alajuela province , ro sarapiqui , 6 air km san miguel . holotype : eme . male .
campalita razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 171 tl : peru , dept . lima , 10 km n oyn , quabrada quichas , pueblo quichas . holotype : zmuc . male .
discrepans razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 196 tl : costa rica , alajuela province , ne slope volcn pos , 8 km n vara blanca . holotype : eme . male .
rufoscripta razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 78 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . male .
chloromixta razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 93 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . female .
eneilema razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 90 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
ephimera razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 88 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
epipolea razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 92 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
ereba razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 94 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
gnathmocera razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 92 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
melema razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 94 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . female .
storthingoloba razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 93 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
pascana razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 78 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , p . n . yanachaga chemillen , refugio el cedro . holotype : mzuj . male .
peraviae razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 202 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( peravia , 3 km sw la nuez , tributary ro las cuevas ) . holotype : cmnh . female .
bimaculata nishida & adamski , 2004 ( saphenista ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 106 : 136 . tl : costa rica , san jos province , cerro de la muerte , villa mills . holotype : inbio . male .
muerta nishida & adamski , 2004 ( saphenista ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 106 : 135 . tl : costa rica , san jos province , cerro de la muerte , villa mills . holotype : inbio . male .
chanostium razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 124 . tl : ecuador , prov . napo , morona - santiago , n . p . sangay , via guamote - macas . holotype : mzuj . female .
rivadeneirai razowski & pelz , 2001 ( saphenista ) , nachrbl . ent . ver . apollo ( n . f . ) 22 : 23 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , macas , proao , alshi , 5 km sw alshi . holotype : vpc . male .
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aculeata razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 171 tl : ecuador , chimborazo province , huigra . holotype : bmnh . male .
aeraria razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 170 tl : peru , cuzco mountains . holotype : bmnh . male .
anaxia clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 32 . tl : guatemala , volcn santa mara . holotype : usnm . female .
cinigmula razowski & becker , 1986 ( lasiothyris ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 462 tl : mexico , veracruz , estacin biologica las tuxtlas . holotype : mnrj . female .
cordifera meyrick , 1932 ( phtheochroa ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 267 . tl : bolivia , ro songo . holotype : nhmv . unknown .
delicatulana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 137 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .
deliphrobursa razowski , 1992 ( phalonidia ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 97 . tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , monteverde . holotype : eme . female .
domna clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 34 . tl : colombia , nario , volcn galeras . holotype : usnm . male .
frangula clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 30 . tl : venezuela , aragua , rancho grande . holotype : usnm . female .
lacteipalpis walsingham , 1891 ( conchylis ) , proc . zool . soc . london 1891 : 500 . tl : west indies , st . vincent ( westward side ) . holotype : bmnh . male .
lactaipalpis razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 175 no type
lassa razowski , 1986 ( aethes ) , ann . zool . 40 : 390 . tl : mexico , sinaloa , 8 mi w el palmito . holotype : eme . female .
nephelodes clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 27 . tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca , tropical cloud area . holotype : usnm . male .
nomonana kearfott , 1907 ( phalonia ) , can . ent . 39 : 84 . tl : usa , california , carmel . holotype : amnh . male .
voluntaria meyrick , 1912 ( phalonia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type
parvimaculana walsingham , 1879 ( cochylis ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 30 . tl : usa , california , shasta co . , hatchet creek . holotype : bmnh . male .
penai clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 28 . tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca , tropical cloud area . holotype : usnm . female .
praefasciata meyrick , 1932 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 266 . tl : costa rica , irazu . holotype : nhmv . male .
pruinosana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 129 . tl : colombia , bogot . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .
saxicolana walsingham , 1879 ( cochylis ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 29 . tl : usa , south oregon . lectotype : bmnh . male .
sphragidias meyrick , 1932 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 265 . tl : bolivia , andes . holotype : nhmv . female .
substructa meyrick , 1927 ( phtheochroa ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 367 . tl : colombia , mt . tolima . holotype : bmnh . female .
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the striated babbler ( turdoides earlei ) is a species of bird in the family leiothrichidae .

it is found in southern asia from pakistan to myanmar .

striated babbler

striated babbler : many types of calls given by an early morning foraging party of about 10 individuals .
babbler , nondescript in shades of pale brown and buff with heavy streaking above , lighter below . . . .
collar , n . & robson , c . ( 2018 ) . striated babbler ( argya earlei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be locally common ( grewal et al . 2002 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction and fragmentation .
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( koelz , 1954 ) – pakistan ( r indus plains ) and nw india ( punjab ) .
( blyth , 1844 ) – n india ( haryana e to n bihar and from west bengal s to ne odisha , also in assam and manipur ) , s nepal , bangladesh and sw , c & s myanmar .
song thought to be a loud , repeated series of “tiew - tiew - tiew - tiew” , interspersed with “quip - quip - . . .
insects , snails and some vegetable matter . found in flocks of 7–10 or more individuals , even during breeding season . does not descend . . .
all year , mainly mar–oct ; multi - brooded . co - operative breeder . nest a rather massive but neat and compact cup ( smaller and more . . .
not globally threatened . common and widespread in pakistan , including in dera ismail khan district . locally common in e nepal , uncommon elsewhere in country . locally common . . .
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tentatively separated from turdoides # r ; genetic screening of at least some component taxa required .
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this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : argya earlei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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adhemarius mexicanus is a species of moth in the family sphingidae .

it was described by balcázar-lara and beutelspacher , in 2001 , and is known from mexico , where it is found from oaxaca to jalisco .

adhemarius mexicanus

sphingidae , adhemarius sp . , in my eyes it is either adhemarius dariensis or adhemarius mexicanus . not really sure about the species , they look very similar . urltoken urltoken i try to get closer . . .
adhemarius globifer is a species of moth in the family sphingidae . it was described by dyar and 1912 , and is found from mexico to southern arizona . adults are probably on wing year round . . . .
: jalisco ; to puebla : patla ; veracruz : jalapa ; and oaxaca .
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there are many collectors from different countries whose intonations and accents would be different .
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, possibly chose the name from adhemarus , the fifth and last of the old counts of querci ( verdun , france ) who died in 880 ad .
probably produces at least two broods annually . hubert mayer reports a july flight in patla , puebla , mexico .
listed below are primary food plant ( s ) and alternate food plants . it is hoped that this alphabetical listing followed by the common name of the foodplant will prove useful . the list is not exhaustive . experimenting with closely related foodplants is worthwhile .
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dichomeris ustalella is a moth in the gelechiidae family .

it is found in south-eastern siberia , the caucasus , transcaucasia , korea , japan , china ( zhejiang , jiangxi , yunnan ) and europe , where it has been recorded from most of the continent , except for ireland , the iberian peninsula and scandinavia .

the wingspan is 15 – 20 mm .

adults are on wing in may and june .

the larvae feed on tilia cordata , corylus heterophylla var .

thunbergii , betula , carpinus and acer species , as well as fagus silvatica and quercus serrata .

they feed from in between leaves spun together .

dichomeris ustalella

a very local species , known only from a couple of localities in worcestershire and south wales . it was found in the 19th century in worcestershire , but remained undetected again until 1987 when it was rediscovered there . it is still a very rare and local species .
) , between leaves spun together , although on the continent a number of other foodplants are noted .
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tilia cordata ( small - leaved lime ) , see plant distribution map . in europe , also reported to use betula pendula ( silver birch ) , carpinus betulus ( hornbeam ) , corylus avellana ( hazel ) , fagus sylvatica ( beech ) , salix sp . ( willows ) , prunus sp . and acer campestre ( field maple ) .
between flatly spun leaves eating out holes between the veins or occasionally between a spun bract and leaf .
larva : feeds between flatly spun leaves or a leaf and a bract , overwintering from october in a folded leaf on the ground .
adult : has been known to rest in the sunshine on a leaf of the foodplant and comes to light .
distinctive palps and the dark , rich reddish - brown with the central golden - ochreous suffusion rule out any other species .
single - brooded , flying from late may to june , occasionally into early july .
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we have no records for this species in sussex in the sxbrc database as yet . . .
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notes : endangered ( proposed as a future red data book species ) and confined to shrawley wood , worcestershire , where rediscovered in 1987 after not having been seen for many years , and monmouthshire , where found for the first time in june 1999 . unlikely to be recorded in hampshire or on the isle of wight . wingspan 15 . 5 - 22 mm . larva feeds on small - leaved lime , living between leaves spun together with silk .
2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr ole karsholt
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pesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi
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a very local and rare species in belgium , except for old records from brabant and luxembourg lately only observed in namur .
the larva lives between spun leaves on carpinus , betula , or salix . pupation takes places amongst detritus on the ground .
belgium , namur , doische , 20 may 2005 . ( photo © chris steeman )