clibanarius digueti is a species of hermit crab that lives off the western coast of mexico , and is abundant in the gulf of california .

it is known under various common names such as the mexican hermit crab , the blue-eyed spotted hermit or the gulf of california hermit crab .

clibanarius digueti

clibanarius digueti , a mexican hermit crab , aka the blue - eyed spotted hermit . to less than an inch in length .
key words : hermit crabs , clustering behavior , clibanarius antillensis , shell utilization .
palavras - chave : caranguejos ermitões , comportamento de agrupamento , clibanarius antillensis , utilização de concha .
harvey aw ( 1988 ) size and sex - related aspects of the ecology of the hermit crab clibanarius digueti bouvier ( decapoda : anomura : diogenidae ) . ph . d dissertation , university of arizona .
during interspecific foraging bouts in the presence of food odor only , c . digueti showed significantly more aggressive behaviors than p . perrieri ( w = 171 . 0 , p = 0 . 0015 ; table 2 ) , while p . perrieri showed significantly more submissive behaviors than c . digueti ( w = −92 . 0 , p = 0 . 0172 ; table 2 ) . c . digueti frequently initiated the interactions by approaching p . perrieri , and c . digueti escalated the interactions by frequently attacking and grasping p . perrieri ( table 2 ) . p . perrieri routinely responded to c . digueti ’s aggressive behaviors by retracting into their shells ( table 2 ) .
the number of aggressive ( u = 54 . 0 , p = 0 . 0019 ) and submissive ( u = 85 . 0 , p = 0 . 0295 ) behaviors were significantly higher for c . digueti than p . perrieri during intraspecific foraging bouts ( table 3 ) . the frequencies of all measured behaviors were higher for c . digueti than p . perrieri ( table 3 ) .
in the absence of a competitor , the feeding times of c . digueti and p . perrieri were not significantly different ( u = 102 . 0 , p = 0 . 6738 ; table 4 ) .
data were drawn from lab populations of c . digueti ( n = 75 ) and p . perrieri ( n = 79 ) following acclimation in housing tanks . wet weights were measured from animals after removal of their shells . lines represent best fit lines from linear regression analyses . c . digueti best fit line : y = 0 . 2442 x− 0 . 3584 . p . perrieri best fit line : y = 0 . 2472 x− 0 . 3764 .
during interspecific food competition , c . digueti fed for significantly more time than p . perrieri ( w = 179 . 0 , p = 0 . 0238 ; table 4 ) . differences in feeding times between the species can partly be explained by the fact that c . digueti was the first animal to contact and feed on the food item in 20 of the 26 trials analyzed ( χ 2 = 7 . 54 , df = 1 , p = 0 . 006 ) .
clibanarius tricolor , the blue - legged hermit crab . to less than an inch in length . one of a few
reef - safe
hermits that stay small and almost exclusively feed on algae ( and cyanobacteria ! ) . good for aiding in aerating the substrate as well . aquarium photo .
four hermit crab species were collected in the intertidal region of grande beach : clibanarius antillensis ( stimpson , 1862 ) , paguristes tortugae ( schmitt , 1933 ) , pagurus criniticornis ( dana , 1852 ) , and calcinus tibicen ( herbst , 1791 ) , with c . antillensis being the most abundant ( 226 individuals in 261 ) .
family hippidae ( sand crabs ) superfamily paguroidea , have oval carapaces , usually asymmetrical . live either in shells or with abdomen tucked underneath . first pair of legs as chelipeds . includes the hermit crab genera : pomatocheles , petrochirus , clibanarius , coenobita ( land hermit crab ) , pagurus , pylopagurus , birgus ( the coconut crab ) , stone crabs like lithodes , paralithodes ( commercial king crab of the north pacific ) .
the results of this study highlight the need for detailed field experiments measuring the importance of food competition in structuring hermit crab assemblages . while we can infer based on our laboratory results that the differences in competitive abilities between c . digueti and p . perrieri may have important ecological implications , detailed field experiments are needed to determine if the trends observed in the lab hold true in natural settings . it is our hope that the results presented in this manuscript will help raise awareness of the need for field experimentation .
these hermits crabs are often highly recommended as maintenance critters for marine aquariums , and can be bought as part of a
clean up crew
package . large groups need plenty of extra shells to accommodate for growth . these are some of the most popular hermits in the marine aquarium trade . since they are a
bread and butter
item and are collected in large numbers , prices are kept very low . other species of hermits may be sold as
red legs
, but c . digueti is by far the most common .
size - matched pairs of conspecific animals were tested using the same procedure listed in the previous section . one c . digueti trial was excluded from analyses because the animals switched shells during acclimation , and we could not be sure that subsequent aggressive behaviors were not shell - related . seventeen trials for each species were used for analyses ( 34 trials total ) . we compared the number of ( 1 ) aggressive , and ( 2 ) submissive behaviors shown between species during intraspecific trials using a two - sided mann - whitney u - test . paired tests were not required for these statistical analyses because the species were tested independently of each other , and thus the behaviors of one species could not directly affect the behaviors of the other .
neste trabalho são avaliados o comportamento de agrupamento de caranguejos ermitões bem como os padrões de utilização de conchas por indivíduos agrupados e isolados . o estudo foi desenvolvido na região entremarés da praia grande , são sebastião , sudeste brasileiro . as amostras foram feitas tanto com transectos quanto com quadrados de 1 m 2 aleatorizados durante períodos de maré baixa . os ermitões foram contados , medidos ( comprimento do escudo cefalotorácico ) e sexados . as conchas foram identificadas e avaliadas quanto sua adequação e condição ( danos físicos e incrustrações ) . os agrupamentos ocorreram principalmente em áreas expostas ao ar e foram dominados ou compostos unicamente por indivíduos de clibanarius antillensis . paguristes tortugae , pagurus criniticornis e calcinus tibicen também ocorreram nos agrupamentos , mas em menor abundância . um único agrupamento monoespecífico de p . criniticornis foi registrado em poças de marés . a grande maioria dos ermitões estavam inativos , com exceção de alguns indivíduos que estavam submersos em poças de marés . a maioria dos indivíduos c . antillensis estava agrupada ( 70 , 88 % ) . indivíduos isolados foram maiores que os agrupados e utilizaram principalmente conchas de tegula viridula , as quais mostraram - se mais adequadas para os ermitões dessa população . indivíduos agrupados usaram conchas menos incrustadas que os isolados . no geral , o comportamento de agrupamento de ermitões na praia grande apresentou os mesmos padrões de distribuição de tamanho e sexo e de utilização de conchas que os já descritos na literatura , embora o tamanho dos agrupamentos nessa área tenha se apresentado menor .
off the western coasts of mexico , and very common in the gulf of california .
these hermits are easy to care for . they are hardy and tolerate a wide range of water parameters . however , they cannot handle copper well . as with most invertebrates , even low levels of this me tal are enough to cause death . this hermit crab may attack snails or other hermits in order to steal the shells . for this reason it is important to provide a number of extra shells of various sizes , to allow for growth . this will prevent shell - related killings . aside from mechanical damage to corals caused by wandering specimens crawling over the polyps , red leg hermits will typically not bother aquarium residents .
these hermits will feed on detritus , green algae , shed exoskeletons , and dead organic matter . they are also happy to eat any food the keeper chooses to add to their tank , live or frozen , flake or pellet . they are claimed to consume cyanobacteria and hair algae , though this may not be true .
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about 42 , 000 species of some of the most familiar arthropods ; crabs , shrimps , lobsters , crayfish , wood - lice ( sow - bugs , rolly - pollies , you know , terrestrial isopods , and aquatic , even parasitic marine ones ) . many small members in fresh and marine habitats of importance in aquatic food chains . primarily aquatic , mostly marine .
behind the mandibles there are two pair of accessory feeding appendages , the first and second maxillae . 2 ) their bodies trunks are composed of distinct segments covered by a chitinous exoskeleton
. 3 ) crustacean appendages are typically biramous ( two major elements ) . 4 ) they typically have a carapace covering the trunk of their bodies . enough of this detail . we ' ll cover this stuff in more general survey pieces of the mega - groups . on toward the lobsters .
a systematic resume of the crustacea is necessarily large and complex . allow me to semi - skirt around a full discussion here . the nine classes that don ' t include our family of interest enclose the primitive cephalocaridans ( c . cephalocarida ) , the class branchiopoda ( fairy shrimps , tadpole shrimps , water fleas ( daphnia ) ; the class ostracoda , class copepoda ( anchor worm , lernaea ) , classes mystacocarida , branchiura , tantulocarida , remipedia , cirripedia ( barnacles ) , whew ! & finally , our :
comprises almost three - fourths of all described species of crustaceans and most of the larger forms , such as crabs , lobsters , and shrimps . characteristics : trunks typically composed of 14 segments plus the telson (
tail
) ; the first 8 segments form the thorax , the last 6 the abdomen ; all segments bear appendages . four superorders : syncarida , hoplocarida , peracarida , and the one we want to talk about , the eucarida .
superorder eucarida contains many of the large malacostracans . they have highly developed carapaces displaying fusion of all thoracic segments ( the cepahalothorax ) . eyes are stalked . . . two living orders ; the euphausiacea ( krill ) and the :
order decapoda includes the familiar shrimps , crayfish , lobsters and crabs . this is the largest order of crustaceans with @ 10 , 000 species . decapods are distinguishable from euphausiaceans and other malacostracans in that their first three pair of thoracic appendages , the remaining five pairs are legs ( decapoda =
ten feet
) . decapods are further divided into two suborders , the dendrobranciata , with
tree - like
branched gills , body laterally compressed . . . , eggs planktonic , nauplius as the first larval stage ( as in artemia , our brine shrimp ) , infraorders , sections , superfamilies . . . see barnes re their higher taxonomy .
of animals that are crabs (
false
and true ) there are about eight thousand described species , with about 600 venturing into or living in freshwater .
infraorder anomura , families of hermit crabs , sand or mole crabs , crab - like crustaceans . depressed carapaces , third pair of legs never chelate , fourth and fifth pair reduced . . . . have a soft abdomen . . . live with bodies enclosed in discarded shells for the most part .
best ( most
reef - safe
) hermit crab species ( though no carte - blanche guarantees ) for algae control : even these cannot be absolutely trusted with small fishes , invertebrates if hungry . . . and they too can be meals for . . . puffers , triggerfishes , stomatopods ( mantis ) , alpheids ( pistol shrimp ) . . .
calcinus laurentae haig & mclaughlin 1983 , laurent ' s hermit crab , family diogenidae . orange - yellow antennae . claw - limbs brown , other legs pink with white junctions and black tips . hawaiian endemic . common . to about 1 / 5
carapace length . kona pic .
calcinus tibicen , the orangeclaw hermit crab , family diogenidae . tropical west atlantic . orange antennae and eyestalks . eye tips white , eyes with black pupils . unequal size claws . 1 / 2 to 1
.
a common gulf of mexico hermit crab . very hardy . . . can live out of water for days at times .
* c . vittatus * does get rather large , 10 cm at least ( adam j . said he had one ( actually , he said it was * p . holthuisi * in a 6
shell )
scott allen rauch pic .
bigger pix : the images in this table are linked to large ( desktop size ) copies . click on
framed
images to go to the larger size .
paguristes cadenati forest 1954 , the scarlet or red - legged reef hermit . tropical west atlantic . to one inch in length . red carapace and legs , eyes green , on yellow stalks . aquarium and cozumel photo .
never entirely
reef safe
. . . all hermits are to degrees opportunistic omnivores . . . they will eat your other livestock if hungry . . . here two
, the red - banded hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to four inches in length . claws about the same length with red spots or bands . antennae are golden , eyes blue .
paguristes puncticeps , the white speckled hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to 5 inches in length . claws about the same length with red spots . blue eyes . white speckled eye stalks and body . cozumel 2017 image .
, the blue eye hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to 2 . 5 inches in length . claws about the same length with red spots . small blue eyes on red speckled stalks .
phimochirus holthuisi , the red - striped hermit crab . tropical west atlantic . to one inch in length . one cheliped enlarged ( usually right ) ; movable pincer white . eyestalks white with dark band , eyes grayish blue .
trizopagurus ( ciliopagurus ) strigatus ( herbst 1804 ) , the striped or halloween hermit crab . indo - pacific and red sea . to a little over two inches in length . nocturnal . lives in empty cone shells . feed on live and dead animal material .
other species of hermits sometimes offered in the interest that are unusual , though not highly suitable for aquarium use .
manucomplanus varians ( benedict , 1892 ) , staghorn hermit . pix by sara mavinkurve . urltoken
other species of hermits sometimes offered in the interest that are trouble : for ( large ) fish - only systems .
aniculus hopperae mclaughlin & hoover 1996 , hopper ' s hermit crab . sometimes imported from hawai ' i . not a hardy aquarium species ; apparently a sponge feeder in the wild . to an inch in length . black eyes , yellow eye stalks , bright red claws bear black tips . hawaiian endemic . big island pic .
aniculus maximus , a large hermit crab . often imported from hawai ' i . to four inches in length .
dardanus gemmatus h . milne - edwards 1848 , jeweled anemone hermit crab . to two inches carapace length . with calliactis anemones on its shell . hawai ' i image .
dardanus lagopodes ( forsskal 1775 ) , the blade - eyed hermit crab . indo - pacific , including the red sea . to a little over two inches in length . white eye stalks , body mottled in maroon , brown , covered with white - tipped bristles . this one in aitutaki , cook islands and n . sulawesi .
dardanus megistos ( herbst 1789 ) , shell - breaking reef hermit crab , often sold as the white spotted . members of this genus are predaceous , and will gladly consume any fishes they can get their claws on . to six inches . place with large , aware fishes only . aquarium pic .
another reef hermit crab . indo - pacific . often with anemones placed on its movable home / shell . to a little over two inches in length . spiny chelipeds , red and white striped eye stalks are definitive . aquarium and n . sulawesi pix .
dardanus tinctor , a coral hermit crab . this one with its calliactis polypus anemones out at night in the red sea . to 10 cm . large left claw . nocturnal ; omnivorous . moves anemones when transferring to new shells .
dardanus venosus , the starry - eyed hermit crab . 3 - 5 inches . blue / green eyes , dark pupils that are star - burst like in close view . claws of lavender color generally . bristly . cozumel pic .
petrochirus diogenes , a giant hermit crab . to twelve inches ( not a mis - print ) . red / white banded antennae ; scale like covering of legs . blue / blue - green eyes . caribbean .
the superfamily paguroidea also includes stone crabs like lithodes , paralithodes ( commercial king crab of the north pacific ) .
if you use them , place about one , two small hermits per actual gallon of your system . use a mix of species and make sure and provide many
upgrade
homes ( empty shells ) for your hermits to move to .
baensch , hans & helmut debelius . 1994 . marine atlas , v . 1 . mergus , germany . 1215pp .
burgess , warren e . 1974 . salts from the seven seas ( on hermits ) . tfh 11 / 74 .
debelius , helmut . 1999 . crustacea of the world . atlantic , indian , pacific oceans . ikan , germany 321pp .
friese , u . erich . crustaceans in the home aquarium . hermit crabs . tfh 4 / 85 .
hoover , john p . 1997 . hawaiian hermit crabs , pts . i , ii . fama 9 , 10 / 97 .
jensen , christopher . 1998 . red legged hermit crab . fama 4 / 98 .
menten , bob . 1980 . the hermit crab . marine scavenger - par excellence . tfh 11 / 80
michael , scott . 1998 . hermit danger . some species of hermit crabs actually consider your fish their dinner . afm 5 / 98 .
general husbandry : these small hermit crabs are among the best at grazing algae , including slime algae .
keep in mind they do not have a shell of their own and therefore seek suitable size empty shells for protection , usually empty snail shells . the tip of their abdomen is then backed into the columella of the empty shell , calling it home . when danger exists , they retract further into the shell , disappearing from view . as they grow larger via the molting process in the wild , they must seek other slightly larger empty shells . its this process of living in someone else ' s shell that has led to their common name ' hermit , ' i . e . , a hermit living alone .
it ' s advisable to keep an assortment of different size empty snail shells in the aquarium when maintaining this species ( or any hermit ) , as they are very fussy about the space they have inside their selected shell and are always looking for something better / slightly roomier ! in fact , they often enter into battles with other hermits for their shells , with the loser either highly damaged or dead . they may also sometimes pick on live snails , however it is thought they are seeking the shell and not attacking the snail itself .
keep in mind they cannot tolerate copper treatments , therefore if they are in the same aquarium where fish need to be medicated with copper , they must be removed .
fyi : stocking level recommendations vary greatly for these little janitors / scavengers , e . g . , from 1 to 10 per gallon for reef aquariums . yet one should relate their need to the condition of the aquarium , as very well maintained systems need only a few in the entire system . overcrowded and / or overstocked systems no doubt need higher quantities . and new systems probably need none , as hermit nutritional needs will not be met until the aquarium ages somewhat .
in general , hermits can live for about 30 years in the wild , however , they don ' t last near that long in aquaria , with stays of about 1 - 2 years the average . keep in mind even though most hermits are born in the water , when molting they seek the land and bury themselves for protection from predators . depending on their age , the molting process can occur from once a month to once every 18 months , with the process taking about 10 days to complete . therefore , their lifespan in aquaria is questionable / quite limited .
the material on this site may not be reproduced , distributed , transmitted , cached or otherwise used , except with the prior written permission of bob goemans .
lemaitre , r . ; mclaughlin , p . ( 2018 ) . world paguroidea & lomisoidea database .
mclaughlin , p . a . ; komai , t . ; lemaitre , r . ; listyo , r . ( 2010 ) . annotated checklist of anomuran decapod crustaceans of the world ( exclusive of the kiwaoidea and families chirostylidae and galatheidae of the galatheoidea . part i – lithodoidea , lomisoidea and paguroidea . the raffles bulletin of zoology . supplement no 23 , 5 - 107 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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mix and match to save ! quantity discount applies to all eligible saltwater hermit crabs and snails on your order . the red leg hermit crab is an excelle . . .
care level : easy temperament : peaceful reef compatible : with caution water conditions : 72 - 78° f , dkh 8 - 12 , ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , sg 1 . 023 - 1 . 025 max . size : 1
diet : herbivore supplements : calcium , magnesium , iodine , trace elements
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conceived and designed the experiments : mvt rwh . performed the experiments : mvt mo jc kvn . analyzed the data : mvt . wrote the paper : mvt mo jc kvn rwh .
, which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
this research was funded by the dr . marvin hensley endowed scholarship in zoology awarded to mark v . tran by the zoology department at michigan state university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
this study used only invertebrate animals , which are not regulated by the institutional animal care and use committee at michigan state university .
following gender determination , animals were housed in small groups in plastic containers ( 20×13×14 cm or 26×16×17 cm ) containing asw and a gravel substrate for a minimum of 4 days to allow sufficient time to recover from handling stress . because we allowed a minimum of 4 days to recover from handling stress , it is highly unlikely that the different methods of sex determination used between species influenced the animals’ behaviors in our experiments . this , however , was not empirically tested . the size of the containers used to house experimental animals had no effect on either species for any of the measured behaviors ( mann - whitney u - tests , p > 0 . 05 ) .
relationship between wet weight ( g ) and shell length inhabited ( cm ) .
for experiments assessing feeding times in the absence of a competitor , we used animals of both sexes ( 11 males : 4 non - gravid females of each species ) that had previously been used in other behavioral experiments and were randomly drawn from mixed - species population tanks . we did this because we had a limited availability of p . perrieri males and had no a priori reason to believe that normal feeding behaviors ( 1 ) would be affected by the animals’ previous use in other experiments , or ( 2 ) differed between sexes when no competitors were present .
the testing apparatus consisted of a 250 ml glass erlenmeyer flask ( 8 cm bottom diameter ) containing 250 ml of asw and clean , white gravel substrate . this apparatus was large enough that the test animals could remain physically separated and were not forced to interact .
this experiment was done to determine if feeding times for both species were similar in the absence of a competitor . the same experimental procedure was used as explained in the previous section , except that only a single animal was placed in the apparatus during each trial . feeding times were compared between species using a two - sided mann - whitney u - test .
total counts of behaviors shown . counts were summed among test animals of the same species . n = 20 trials .
total counts of behaviors shown . counts were summed among test animals of the same species . n = 17 trials for each species .
feeding times when species fed together ( with competition ) and independently ( without competition ) .
we thank n . ostrom , g . mittelbach , and w . li for assistance and guidance on the planning of this study , and b . wagner for assistance with acquiring research animals .
sur quelques crustacés anomures et brachyures recueillis par m . diguet en basse - californie
sur une collection de crustacés décapodes recuellis en basse - californie par m . diguet
bouvier ( decapoda : anomura : diogenidae ) . ph . d dissertation , university of arizona .
because of the sheer size of our forum , we ' ve been forced to limit selling and trading to members who ' ve met a couple of criteria . ( if you ' re seeing this message , you haven ' t met them yet . ) please take a moment to acquaint yourself with our selling / trading rules to help make your stay a long and rewarding one .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i ' m not a noob , i just buy fish with a short life span . . . current tank info : 100 gallon plexy with 35 gallon sump
good to hear the frags are taking to the rubble , softies are always a little challenging . give them a little more time before you move them . thanks for the tip but i don ' t have any cyano bacteria in my tank . i do have some red turf algae , but there is a big difference . cyano is a living indicator of high nutrient levels and / or not enough flow . ultimately you want to address those issues and the cyano will dissapear and not come back . regarding hermits , i ' m not too fond of them . i much prefer snails which they will kill , it ' s only a matter of time . also be cautios with anything from mexico - the water there is temperate and unless you can maintain cool temps the critters won ' t live long .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ jacob . current tank info : retired from reefing . . .
jake , u still have that turf agae ? did the seahare and / or phosphate absorbant stuff make any dent ? yeah the little hermit crabs can kill snails but they are also fun to watch . scott
i ' ve lost 2 snails so far out of about 9 months and still have about 4 left . seems they only get picked on when my largest hermit desides he needs a
home upgrade
. they didn ' t have a picture of the algae so wasn ' t sure if it was the same but the description was dead on so i figured i ' d give it a post . i ' ll keep an eye out .
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turra , a . 1 , 2 and leite , f . p . p . 1
departamento de zoologia , ib , unicamp , c . p . 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil
programa de pós - graduação em ecologia , ib , unicamp , c . p . 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil
correspondence to : alexander turra , departamento de zoologia , ib , unicamp , c . p . 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil , e - mail : turra @ urltoken
hermit crabs display clustering behavior and daily movements ( hazlett , 1966 ; snyder - conn , 1980 ; gherardi & vannini , 1989 , 1992 and 1993 ) which are closely related to the tidal rhythm ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) . clusters are tipically formed during low tides when the hermit crabs stay in physical contact with each other , presenting low activity and preference for shady substrates ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) . at flood tide the hermit crabs disperse to foraging areas and present social activities ( gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) , while at high tide they remain generaly inactive under boulders and in crevices ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) . low and high tides are considered adverse periods due to the risks of desiccation and predation , respectively ( snyder - conn , 1980 ) , thus also leading the hermit crabs to look for refuges .
the clustering behavior is probably controlled by interactions between exogenous and endogenous factors related to the tidal cycle . in this way , environmental stimuli ( air exposure , hydrostatic pressure , light , food availability and small scale water movements ) seem to play an important role in determining the activity of the hermit crabs ( snyder - conn , 1980 ; gherardi & vannini , 1989 ) . the adaptative meaning of the clustering behavior was largely investigated by gherardi & vannini ( 1992 , 1993 ) . it is supposed that clusters serve as
shell exchange markets
or places were males and females can locate themselves easily . however , clustering may be a response to environmental factors , such as desiccation ( reese , 1969 ; gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) , and habitat heterogeneity ( snyder - conn , 1981 ; turra et al . in press ) .
the aim of this study was to describe the clustering behavior of hermit crabs in the brazilian coast , focusing cluster size ( number of individuals per cluster ) , species composition , and shell utilization pattern . comparisons of populational parameters and shell adequacy and condition between clustered and scattered individuals were used as evidences to discuss theories on the factors that regulate the clustering behavior in the area of study .
this study was conducted from september to december 1994 at the grande beach ( 45 o 24 ' w ; 23 o 49 ' s ) , são sebastião , northern coast of são paulo state , brazil . the area of study is an intertidal habitat of 160 m 2 composed by cobbles and boulders irregularly arranged forming natural refuges , holes and crevices . the tides are semidiurnal with maximal variation of 2 meters .
twenty two quadrats of 1 m 2 were sorted in the area of study in order to evaluate the dispersion pattern and the activity of the hermit crabs during low tide . a dispersion index was calculated to access the pattern of distribution of hermit crabs ( elliott , 1977 ) . active individuals were those that were feeding or walking . each quadrat was characterized in relation to air exposure ( total or partial ) or submersion ( presence of tide pools ) . hermit crabs and their shells were identified and the number and size of clusters ( number of individuals present in each cluster ) were registered . shell adequacy and condition were also evaluated .
the shell adequacy to the hermit crabs was evaluated using a visual index modified from abrams ( 1978 ) : 1 . hermit crab not visible ; 2 . pereopods visible but chelipeds not ; 3 . angle of 90 o between chelipeds and the plan of the shell aperture ; 4 . obtuse angle between chelipeds and the plan of the shell aperture ; 5 . chelipeds closing the aperture ; 6 . shield exposed . the shell condition was recorded using a modification of the condition index proposed by mcclintock ( 1985 ) . this index evaluates the degree of incrustation ( 1 . shell not incrusted ; 2 . until 50 % incrusted ; 3 . 50 % to 100 % incrusted ) and of physical damage in the shells used by the hermit crabs ( a . perfect ; b . perforations and / or less than 4 mm of the aperture damaged ; c . more than 4 mm of the aperture damaged and / or apex broken ) .
in order to compare the size distribution between clustered and scattered individuals , three 0 . 50 m wide transects were sampled during the low tide . the crabs were classified as clustered ( 5 or more individuals ) or scattered , removed from their shells , and sized ( shield length ) with a milimetric ocular under stereomicroscope . cluster size was also recorded . the two - way anova and the log - likelihood g test were both performed with a 0 . 05 significance level ( zar , 1984 ) .
the dispersion pattern of the crabs was contiguous ( i = 621 . 130 , d = 28 . 84 , df = 21 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and greatly influenced by the distribution of c . antillensis . most of the hermit crabs were present in clusters ( 70 . 88 % , g [ 1 ] = 46 . 96 , p < 0 . 001 ) , that were more frequently found in air exposed areas ( 14 clusters out of 15 ) . most of the aggregates ( 11 ) were monospecific , composed only by individuals of c . antillensis ( 10 ) or of p . criniticornis ( 1 cluster composed by 6 individuals in a tide pool ) . polyspecific clusters were dominated by c . antillensis but also presented individuals of p . tortugae , p . criniticornis and / or c . tibicen . the clusters composed or dominated by c . antillensis presented 5 to 42 individuals ( n = 14 , 12 . 78 ± 10 . 29 individuals ) .
the activity pattern of the hermit crabs was studied only during low tide . scattered and clustered individuals exposed to the air were inactive , differently from some isolated and submerged ones ( 3 individuals ) in tide pools . some isolated hermit crabs , exposed to the air and out of refuges , presented their shells with the aperture turned upward .
in the transects 31 males and 27 females ( 14 ovigerous , 44 . 44 % ) of c . antillensis were collected ( table 1 ) . both males and females were more frequently found in clusters than isolated ( females : g [ 1 ] = 14 . 85 , p < 0 . 001 ; males : g [ 1 ] = 3 . 98 , p < 0 . 05 ) . size showed to be more dependent on the behavioral situation of the crabs ( clustered or scattered ) than on their sex , although males were sligthly larger than females ( table 1 ) .
shell utilization differed between clustered and scattered individuals of c . antillensis ( g [ 5 ] = 262 . 14 , p < 0 . 001 ) ( fig . 1 ) . shells of tegula viridula ( gmelin , 1791 ) were more frequently occupied by scattered individuals , while shells of stramonita ( = thais ) haemastoma ( linnaeus , 1797 ) , morula nodulosa ( c . b . adams , 1845 ) , leucozonia nassa ( gmelin , 1791 ) , and cerithium atratum ( born , 1778 ) were used mainly by the scattered ones .
shell adequacy and incrustation also differed between clustered and scattered individuals ( table 2 ) . shells were more adequate and incrusted for isolated than clustered crabs .
physical damage did not show any relationship with the behavioral situation ( clustered or scattered ) of the crabs ( table 2 ) . shell adequacy also seemed to be dependent on the shell type ( g [ 16 ] = 33 . 65 , p = 0 . 006 ) , with shells of t . viridula and c . atratum presenting better adequacy than shells of s . haemastoma , l . nassa , and m . nodulosa ( fig . 2 ) .
as expected , all hermit crabs that were exposed to the air were inactive , even those that were clustered and in refuges . at low tide the hermit crabs store water inside their shells and occupy moist microhabitats to avoid the lack of oxygen and the risks of desiccation ( gherardi et al . , 1989 ) . inactive and scattered individuals of c . antillensis presented the aperture of their shells turned upward . this behavior results in a higher retention of water inside the shell as suggested by reese ( 1969 ) , thus enhancing their resistence to long time exposure periods . active individuals were registered only in tide pools . in this way , the activity pattern can be related to the easier locomotion in water due to the lightening of the shells ( gherardi et al . , 1989 ) , and to the physical stress imposed by the air exposure situation .
scattered individuals of c . antillensis were larger than clustered ones , as also showed in other studies with other species ( hazlett , 1966 ; gherardi & vannini , 1989 ; gherardi , 1991 ) . small individuals have a greater surface / volume ratio and are more susceptible to desiccation than the large ones ( gherardi & vannini , 1992 , 1993 ) . thus , clustering might also serve to reduce the risk of desiccation as also suggested by reese ( 1969 ) and snyder - conn ( 1981 ) .
both males and females of this c . antillensis population occurred mainly in clusters , and 44 , 44 % of the females were ovigerous . these results support the hypothesis that clusters may serve as places where males can easily find females ( gherardi & vannini , 1992 , 1993 ) . in addition , clustering may also protect ovigerous females and their eggs from desiccation .
the pattern of shell utilization of hermit crabs is frequently associated with shell availability as can be seen in this area ( leite et al . , 1998 ) , with c . antillensis occupying mainly shells of tegula viridula . however , scattered individuals of c . antillensis used shells of t . viridula in higher frequencies than do clustered ones , probably because these shells presented higher adequacy than the others , as also recorded in other studies ( gherardi , 1991 ; gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) . in addition , shells used by the scattered individuals of c . antillensis presented better adequacy , and higher incrustation and adequacy than that used by the clustered supporting the hypothesis that clusters may serve as
shells exchange markets
( gherardi & vannini , 1993 ) .
the small size of clusters in this area also seemed to be associated with the high availability of empty gastropod shells in this area ( leite et al . , 1998 ) . in this way , a high shell availability may indicate a good shell adequacy to this population , thus not forcing the crabs to look for new ones in dense aggregations .
the meaning of the clustering behavior is still controversal and doubtfull . it is more parsimonious and reasonable to think that many selective forces , such as shell limitation ( behavioral factor ) and environmental stress ( physical factor ) are influencing together the clustering behavior in hermit crabs . to evaluate the role of each factor in the cluster formation it is needed a fully experimental study , isolating all possible factors to test one each time .
acknowledgments  we wish to thank fapesp ( fundação de amparo à pesquisa no estado de são paulo ) by the fellowship n o 93 / 2439 - 4 , and cebimar - usp ( centro de biologia marinha da universidade de são paulo ) for logistic support . giuliano buzá jacobucci and antônio carlos cruz macedo revised the manuscript .
elliott , j . m . , 1977 , some methods for the statistical analysis of samples of benthic invertebrates .
hazlett , b . , 1966 , social behavior of the paguridae and diogenidae of curaçao .
leite , f . p . p . , turra , a . & gandolfi , s . m . , 1998 , hermit crabs ( crustacea , decapoda , anomura ) , gastropod shells and environmental structure : their relationship in southeastern brazil .
snyder - conn , e . , 1980 , tidal clustering and dispersal of the hermit crab
snyder - conn , e . , 1981 , the adaptive significance of clustering in the hermit crab
turra , a . , jacobucci , g . b . , araújo , f . m . p . & leite , f . p . p . ( in press ) , spatial distribution of four sympatric species of hermit crab ( decapoda , anomura ) .
r . bento carlos , 750 13560 - 660 são carlos sp - brazil tel . / fax : + 55 16 271 - 5726 bjb . iie @ urltoken
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mark v . tran , 1 , 2 , * matthew o’grady , 1 jeremiah colborn , 1 kimberly van ness , 1 and richard w . hill 1 , 2
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to test aggression and competitive abilities , we sized - matched pairs of animals . these pairs of animals were always drawn from separate plastic housing containers in order to alleviate the effects of any pre - existing dominance hierarchies that may have been formed among tankmates
. for all experiments assessing interspecific differences , we housed animals in containers with conspecifics only , and for experiments assessing intraspecific differences , we housed animals in mixed - species containers . on the day the experiments were conducted , experimental pairs of animals were formed by selecting one animal from separate containers . all pairs of animals were size - matched within 3 mm shell length . size - matching controlled for the effect of body size on aggression and competitive abilities . shell length was used as a proxy for body size because ( 1 ) the species show similar relationships between wet body weight ( g ) and length ( cm ) of shell inhabited (
, and ( 3 ) using animals of equal shell size helped to ensure that aggressive interactions observed during the trials were the result of food competition , and not the result of motivation to switch shells , which could confound the results of these experiments . this method was effective since test crabs rarely showed shell investigation behavior , and only one case of shell switching was documented during the trials . both species routinely occupied
shells . we did not assay for differences in behavior based on shell species occupied .
animals were given no food for 2 days prior to use to ensure motivation to forage during trials . on the day of the experiment a size - matched pair of heterospecific animals was formed , placed into the testing apparatus , and given a minimum of 15 minutes to acclimate . following acclimation , 2 ml fe were pipetted into the top of the apparatus using a glass pipette . the animals were allowed 30 seconds to initiate foraging behaviors , after which the numbers of aggressive and submissive behaviors (
) exhibited by each animal were counted for 10 minutes . only trials in which both animals showed obvious foraging behaviors ( e . g . , increased locomotion , substrate probing , feeding movements )
after the fe was introduced were included in analyses . this ensured that the animals were motivated to forage and in a healthy physiological state during the trials . twenty trials of this experiment met these criteria and were used for analyses . we compared the number of ( 1 ) aggressive behaviors , and ( 2 ) submissive behaviors observed during the trials between the species using a two - sided wilcoxon sign - ranks test for matched pairs . paired analyses were required because the behaviors of one species could directly influence the behaviors of the other species during the trials . these , and all other statistical tests mentioned in this report , employed a significance cutoff of


diaphania elegans is a moth in the crambidae family .

it was described by möschler in 1890 .

it is found in puerto rico , hispaniola , jamaica , cuba , costa rica , panama , guatemala , honduras , mexico and southern texas .

it is also found in south america , where it has been recorded from venezuela , trinidad , ecuador , peru , brazil , paraguay and argentina .

the length of the forewings is 11 – 14 mm for males and 12.5 – 15 mm for females .

there is a brown costal band , as well as an external brown band on the forewings .

there is also a translucent white area , with a light purple gloss and with a group of yellow scales on the anal margin .

the hindwings have an external brown band .

larvae have been recorded feeding on the flowers of cucurbita maxima .

diaphania elegans

home » guide » arthropods ( arthropoda ) » hexapods ( hexapoda ) » insects ( insecta ) » butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) » pyralid and crambid snout moths ( pyraloidea ) » crambid snout moths ( crambidae ) » spilomelinae » diaphania » diaphania elegans - hodges # 5207 . 1 ( diaphania elegans )
diaphania elegans ( möschler , 1890 ) is now recognized within the north american fauna ( texas ) , news lepd . soc . , 42 ( 1 ) : 3 .
diaphania hyalinata has abdomen mostly white and black border of forewing is narrower than d . indica .
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the brown outer band of the forewing has an enlarged area at the inner margin .
with black border of forewing is narrower . per capps in kimball ( 1965 )
möschler , h . b . 1890 : die lepidopteren - fauna der insel portorico . abhandlungen herausgegeben von der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft . 16 ( 1 ) : 229 , 1 pl .
the lepidoptera of florida : an annotated checklist . charles p . kimball . 1965 . florida dept . of ag . gainesville , fl . v + 363 pp .
contributed by maury j . heiman on 10 july , 2013 - 12 : 16am additional contributions by steve nanz , robert lord zimlich last updated 12 october , 2016 - 11 : 08am
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knudson , e . & c . bordelon . , 2008 . illustrated checklist of the lepidoptera of the lower rio grande valley , texas , vol . 3c : micro - moths and geometroids . . texas lepidoptera survey , houston . 30 pp
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method of identification : illustrated in black and white by amsel ( 1954 ) pl . 96 , fig . 11 .


lampropeltis getula brooksi ( also known as brooks ' kingsnake ) is a non-venomous snake in the lampropeltis genus .

it is one of seven subspecies of lampropeltis getula .

they are found in southern florida .

lampropeltis getula brooksi

coluber getulus linnaeus 1766 : 382 herpetodryas getulus — schlegel ophibolus getulus — baird & girard 1853 : 85 coronella getulus — duméril , bibron & duméril 1854 : 616 coronella getulus var . pseudogetulus – jan 1865 ophibolus getulus — cope 1875 : 11 ophibolus getulus — garman 1884 : 68 ophilobus [ sic ] getulus — cope 1892 : 335 triaeniopholis arenarius werner 1924 triaenopholis [ sic ] arenarius werner 1924 ( fide smith 1928 ) lampropeltis getula sticticeps barbour & engels 1942 lampropeltis getulus goini neill & allen 1949 : 101 lampropeltis getulus brooksi barbour 1919 lampropeltis getula floridana blanchard 1919 lampropeltis getulus sticticeps — lazell & musick 1981 lampropeltis getula — stebbins 1985 : 191 lampropeltis getula — conant & collins 1991 : 205 lampropeltis getula — liner 1994 lampropeltis getula getula — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 413 lampropeltis getula floridana — crother 2000 : 64 lampropeltis getula floridana — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 416 lampropeltis getula floridana — hallmen 2005 lampropeltis getula meansi krysko & judd 2006 lampropeltis getula meansi — skubowius 2009 lampropeltis getula — pyron & burbrink 2009 lampropeltis getula goini — renner in berg 2013 lampropeltis getula floridana — laita 2013 lampropeltis getula — wallach et al . 2014 : 357
steen , d . , l . smith . 2009 . eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) home ranges exhibit limited overlap .
zweifel , r . 1997 . alternating use of hemipenes in the kingsnake , lampropeltis getula .
allen , e . rross ; neill , wilfred t . 1954 . juveniles of brooks ' kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus brooksi . copeia 1954 ( 1 ) : 59 - get paper here
wund , m . , m . torocco , r . zappalorti , h . reinert . 2007 . activity ranges and habitat use of lampropeltis getula getula ( eastern kingsnakes ) .
leclere , jeffrey b . 1995 . lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 26 ( 2 ) : 110 - get paper here
brisbin , i . 1968 . evidence for the use of post anal musk as an alarm device in the kingsnake lampropeltis getula .
krysko , k . 2002 . seasonal activity of the florida kingsnake lampropeltis getula floridana ( serpentes : colubridae ) in southern florida .
van peenan , p . , t . birdwell . 1968 . coccidian parasites of the california nanded kingsnake , lampropeltis getula californiae .
hubbs , brian 2009 . common kingsnakes , a natural history of lampropeltis getula . tricolor books , tempe az , 436 pp .
groves , john d . 2014 . lampropeltis getula ( common kingsnake ) diet . herpetological review 45 ( 3 ) : 516 - 517
schmidt , d . 2004 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getula . natur und tier verlag ( münster ) , 64 pp . - get paper here
williams , p . , l . brisbin . 1978 . responses of captive - reared eastern kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getula ) to several prey odor stimuli .
clark , r . 2013 . cannibalism in the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) . sonoran herpetologist 26 ( 3 ) : 55 . - get paper here
burkett , doug ; painter , charles w . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula splendida . herpetological review 29 ( 2 ) : 113 - get paper here
klueh - mundy , sarabeth and mirtl , jason 2016 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula nigra ( eastern black kingsnake ) herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 630
skubowius , b . 2009 . haltung und nachzucht der kettennattern , lampropeltis getula , floridas . draco 10 ( 37 ) : 56 - 62 - get paper here
to cite this page : bartz , s . 2012 .
lampropeltis getula
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
collins , joseph t . ; sapienza , david c . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula nigra . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 177 - get paper here
mcallister , chris t . and henry w . robison . 2010 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 41 ( 3 ) : 380 - get paper here
phillips , christopher a . ; petzing , john e . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula holbrooki . herpetological review 29 ( 3 ) : 177 - get paper here
young , cameron a . ; iverson , john b . 1997 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula nigra . herpetological review 28 ( 1 ) : 52 - get paper here
boundy , jeff . 2011 . book review : common kingsnakes - a natural history of lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 453 - 455 - get paper here
zweifel , richard g . 1997 . alternating use of hemipenes in the kingsnake , lampropeltis getula . journal of herpetology 31 ( 3 ) : 459 - 461 - get paper here
comparison with other species : the eastern apalachicola lowlands kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula meansi ) has either fewer than 26 wide crossbands , or is non - banded ( striped or patternless ) , and 21 dorsal scale rows at midbody . the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) has fewer than 19 - 32 light crossbands on the body , no lightening of the black interband scales , a lateral chain - like pattern , and usually 21 dorsal scale rows at midbody .
renner , d . 2013 . die gesprenkelte kettennatter , lampropeltis getula holbrooki – eine unterschätzte schönheit . reptilia ( münster ) 18 ( 103 ) : 60 - 64 - get paper here
slevin , joseph r . 1950 . a remarkable concentration of desert snakes [ lampropeltis getula yumensis californiae nigrita ] . herpetologica 6 ( 1 ) : 12 - 13 - get paper here
thums , m . 2004 . die schwarze mexiko - kettennatter ( lampropeltis getula nigrita ) im terrarium . reptilia ( münster ) 9 ( 49 ) : 72 - 75 - get paper here
michaeli , a . s . , newman , j . c . & barrett , k . 2018 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula ( eastern kingsnake ) . herpetological review 49 : 77 .
smith , philip w . 1956 . a blotch - count gradient in snakes [ lampropeltis triangulum syspila calligaster getula getulus niger ] . herpetologica 12 ( 2 ) : 156 - 160 - get paper here
davenport , stephen r . ; stuart , james n . ; sias , don s . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula californiae . herpetological review 29 ( 1 ) : 53 - get paper here
lazell , j . d . & musick , j . a . 1981 . status of the outer banks kingsnake , lampropeltis getula sticticeps . herpetological review 12 ( 1 ) : 7 - get paper here
pyron , r . alexander ; frank t . burbrink 2009 . lineage diversification in a widespread species : roles for niche divergence and conservatism in the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getula . molecular ecology 18 : 3443–3457
range : in florida , it is found throughout the peninsula from volusia co . south to key largo . it intergrades ( interbreeds ) with the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula getula ) from nassau co . in the northern peninsula south to pinellas co . in the central peninsula . it is not found outside of florida .
knepton , j . 1951 . reproduction by a king snake lampropeltis getulus getulus , linneaus .
winne , c . , j . wilson , b . todd , k . andrews , j . gibbons . 2007 . enigmatic decline of a protected population of eastern kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula , in south carolina .
pyron , r . alexander ; frank t . burbrink 2009 . systematics of the common kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ; serpentes : colubridae ) and the burden of heritage in taxonomy . zootaxa 2241 : 22 - 32 - get paper here
godley , j . steve ; brian j . halstead , and roy w . mcdiarmid 2016 . ecology of the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) at rainey slough , florida : a vanished eden project simus , fl - get paper here
nemuras , k . 1966 . additional records of lampropeltis getulus getulus and lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata in anne arundel county , maryland . bull . maryland herp . soc . 2 ( 3 ) : 5 - get paper here
krysko , k . l . ; judd , w . s . 2006 . morphological systematics of kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula complex ( serpentes : colubridae ) , in the eastern united states . zootaxa 1193 : 1 - 39 . - get paper here
boback , scott ; link , shelly ; bergman , enoch ; hill , ben ; montgomery , chad ; hobert , justin ; mackessey , stephen p . 1996 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 27 ( 4 ) : 213 - get paper here
bergman , enoch ; montgomery , chad ; childers , theresa ; manzer , jerry d . ; sifert , james ; hill , ben ; mackessy , stephen p . 1998 . geographic distribution . lampropeltis getula . herpetological review 29 ( 2 ) : 113 - get paper here
godley , j . steve ; brian j . halstead , and roy w . mcdiarmid 2017 . ecology of the eastern kingsnake ( lampropeltis getula ) at rainey slough , florida : a vanished eden herpetological monographs 31 ( 1 ) : 47 - 68 . - get paper here
lara - gongora , guillermo ; beaman , kent r . ; grismer , l . lee ; lawler , howard e . 1993 . lampropeltis getula californiae ( california kingsnake ) . méxico : sonora . herpetological review 24 ( 2 ) : 67 - 68 - get paper here
manning , glenn j . , thomas j . belford , brad birchfield , jeremy r . sloan and james u . van dyke . 2015 . geographic distribution : lampropeltis getula splendida x holbrooki ( desert / speckled kingsnake intergrade ) . herpetological review 46 ( 4 ) : 574
price , a . , j . lapointe . 1981 . structure - functional aspects of the scent gland in lampropeltis getulus splendida .
krysko , kenneth l . ; leroy p . nuñez , catherine e . newman , brian w . bowen 2017 . phylogenetics of kingsnakes , lampropeltis getula complex ( serpentes : colubridae ) , in eastern north america . j hered . : esw086 . doi : 10 . 1093 / jhered / esw086 - get paper here
blaney , richard m . 1973 . lampropeltis . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 150 ) : 1 - 2 - get paper here
blom , m . 2003 . algemene verzorging en kweek van lampropeltis en elaphe soorten . lacerta 61 ( 1 ) : 32 - 39 - get paper here
seufer , h . & jauch , h . 1980 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getulus . herpetofauna 2 ( 6 ) : 11 - 14 - get paper here
not every king snake found in this area is a stunning example . many specimens are average in looks and can hardly be distinguished from a typical florida king snake from further north . kings are much less commonly seen than the exotic burmese python , which now shares the same habitat . i have seen a precious few specimens in many trips to south florida in the last decade . for even the most dedicated field herper , finding a nice brooksi in the wild is a true challenge .
thissen , r . & hansen , h . 2001 . königsnattern - lampropeltis . natur und tier verlag ( münster ) , 172 pp . - get paper here
the miami rim rock and southern everglades is the historic domain of brooksi . the king snake ' s coloration in this area is thought to be an adaptation to the light oolitic limestone background . as in other areas of florida , the king snake population here has been greatly reduced . several factors contributing to this reduction have been discussed , but the exact cause is still a mystery . one thing is for sure , finding a nice brooks ' king specimen in the wild is now quite a challenge .
seufer , h . & jauch , h . 1980 . die kettennatter lampropeltis getulus teil 2 . herpetofauna 2 ( 7 ) : 31 - 32 - get paper here
the specific name formerly was getulus ( see frost and collins 1988 ) . see blaney ( 1977 ) for the latest range - wide taxonomic treatment of this species . based on patterns of morphological variation , means and krysko ( 2001 ) concluded that the name l . g . goini is invalid , as is the hypothesis that apalachicola l . getula are relict populations of intergrades between l . g . getula and l . g . floridana . they believed that the polymorphic eastern apalachicola lowlands populations are most closely related to l . g . getula . see also crother et al . ( 2000 ) for further brief discussion of taxonomic issues involving this species .
meierkord , r . 2010 . haltung und zucht der kalifornischen kettennatter , lampropeltis californiae . reptilia ( münster ) 15 ( 82 ) : 52 - 55 - get paper here
blanchard , frank n . 1932 . a clutch of eggs of the speckled king snake , lampropeltis getulus holbrooki ( stejneger ) . copeia 1932 ( 2 ) : 98 - get paper here
hoser , r . t . 2012 . a three - way division of the new world genus lampropeltis fitzinger , 1843 . australasian j . herpetol . 12 : 54–57 . - get paper here
neill , wilfred t . ; allen , e . ross 1949 . a new kingsnake ( genus lampropeltis ) from florida . herpetologica 5 ( 5 ) : 101 - 106 - get paper here
blanchard , frank n . 1919 . two new snakes of the genus lampropeltis . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 70 ) : 1 - 11 - get paper here
conant , roger 1934 . observations on the eggs and young of the black king snake , lampropeltis getulus nigra ( yarrow ) . copeia 1934 ( 4 ) : 188 - 189 - get paper here
blaney , richard m . 1977 . systematics of the common kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus ( linnaeus ) . tulane studies in zoology and botany 19 ( 3 - 4 ) : 47 - 103 - get paper here
blanchard , frank n . 1920 . a synopsis of the king snakes : genus lampropeltis fitzinger . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 87 ) : 1 - 7 - get paper here
dessauer , herbert c . & pough , f . h . 1975 . geographic variation of blood proteins and the systematics of kingsnakes ( lampropeltis getulus ) . comp . biochem . physiol . 50b : 9 - 12
lazell , james d . , jr & musick , j . a . 1973 . the kingsnake , lampropeltis getulus sticticeps , and the ecology of the outer banks of north carolina . copeia 1973 ( 3 ) : 497 - 503 - get paper here
zweifel , r . g . and norris , k . s . 1955 . contributions to the herpetology of sonora , mexico : descriptions of new subspecies of snakes ( micruroides euryxanthus and lampropeltis getulus ) and miscellaneous collecting notes . american midland naturalist 54 : 230 - 249 - get paper here
austin , james d . ; gregory , patrick t . 1999 . relative roles of thermal and chemical cues in the investigative behavior of prey in colubrid ( elaphe guttata and lampropeltis getulus ) and boid ( python regius ) snakes . herpetological natural history 6 ( 1 ) : 47 - 50 [ 1998 ]
oviparous . kreutz ( 2005 ) reports hybrids between elaphe ( = pantherophis ) guttata and lampropeltis getulus californiae , between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . pyromelana , between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . triangulum sinaloae / nelsoni , and between e . ( p . ) guttata and l . zonata !
common kingsnakes are one of the only kingsnake species found throughout most of north america . there are seven subspecies of
( eastern kingsnake ) is found on the east coast of north america from southern new jersey and southeast pennsylvania to the eastern parts of west virginia , southwest to mobile bay , alabama , and east through northern florida .
( florida kingsnake ) is found on the peninsula of florida south to dade county .
( speckled kingsnake ) is found in southwestern illinois , eastern iowa , and south central alabama .
( black kingsnake ) is found west of the appalachian mountains and east of the mississippi river ; this includes the region from west virginia to southern ohio , southeastern illinois , and northern alabama .
( outer banks kingsnake ) is found only in north carolina from cape hatteras to cape lookout .
( black desert kingsnake ) can be found in southern arizona and northwestern mexico . subspecies overlap and interbreed in several different regions across north america .
( bartlett and bartlett , 2005 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mitchell , 1994 ; wright and wright , 1957 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mattison , 1995 ; wright and wright , 1957 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
varies so greatly across subspecies , each will be described in turn . one measure they all share is the length of hatchlings : 20 to 28 cm at hatching . adult eastern kingsnakes (
) can reach a length of 61 to 153 cm . they are large , solid , glossy black snakes with yellow ( sometimes white ) crossbars extending the length of the snake . the head is solid black with several yellow or white spots decorating the head scales . speckled kingsnakes (
) can reach a length of 51 to 132 cm as adults . they are black with yellow “specks” on and throughout its scales . the underside is pale yellow to white with some of the black scales curling around the sides . california kingsnakes (
) can reach lengths of 91 to 106 cm . they have white crossbars intercepting black patches along the length of the back . the head is normally white with a black top and a few black scales on the side . adult florida kingsnakes (
) can be 106 to 138 cm long . the only major difference between florida kingsnakes and eastern kingsnakes has 60 crossbands , whereas eastern kingsnakes have only 30 . the underbelly is pale yellow with alternating patterns of black scales in a “zigzag” pattern . black kingsnakes (
) , reach 91 to 122 cm and are rarely totally black . they normally have traces of approximately 50 to 95 faint crossbars of yellow or white spots . outer banks kingsnakes (
) can reach 123 to 153 cm . they can be easily mistaken for other subspecies including eastern , speckled , and florida kingsnakes . they have yellow crossbars and yellow “specks” between the crossbars , as well as a mostly pale yellow underbellies with some black scales extending to the sides . black desert kingsnakes (
) can reach lengths of 106 to 132 cm . they are black and glossy with approximately 75 thin yellow crossbars . this subspecies also has yellow spots on the black scales that extend to the sides of the snake .
snake eggs have a large amount of yolk that contains the fats and the carbohydrates necessary for embryo development . towards the final stages of development , the fetal snake absorbs the yolk . additionally , some of the calcium for the egg’s shell is extracted by the embryo and is used to form its skeleton . after the skeleton is formed , the shell becomes thinner and more flexible . oxygen exchange decreases over time , which in turn urges the hatchling to break out of the egg , using the deciduous egg
tooth
on the nose .
after common kingsnakes hatch , they stay in the nest until they shed their skin for the first time . this normally takes about a week . the hatchlings then disperse . information about post - hatching is scarce . common kingsnakes reach sexual maturity at approximately half their potential maximum size from 60 to 92 cm . in captivity , they can reach sexual maturity much sooner because of an abundant food source and limited parasites and disease .
male common kingsnakes compete for females . if two males are in the same area they will both raise their heads , necks , and fore parts of their bodies and entwine them . males then try to press each other to the ground . the losing male will retreat and lay coiled in a prone position with his head flat to the ground . the victorious male will return to the female who waits nearby and copulate . males are able to find females through pheromone trails . when mating , males lie atop females and bite their necks . males then coil their tails under the females until their cloacas align . the male uses his hemipenis to enter the females’ cloacae . copulation can last for several minutes to several hours .
common kingsnakes mate in the spring , allowing females time to lay their eggs when the weather is still warm enough for proper incubation . their gestation period is about 60 days . in warmer climates ( e . g . florida ) , courtship can begin as early as march . in northern portions of the range , courtship is delayed until april or may .
a female may produce a single clutch from multiple mates . females may also produce more than one clutch per season as a result of more than one mating . the female chooses the nesting site , which can include rotting logs and stumps , as well as sawdust piles . common kingsnakes breed yearly and have been known to produce more than one clutch per season . the breeding season is between march and august . the average number of offspring is 10 eggs per clutch ( range 3 to 24 ) . average gestation period for female kingsnakes is 60 to 62 days ( range 50 to 80 days ) . hatchlings can weigh between 9 and 14 grams . females reach sexual maturity at 2 to 4 years . males reach sexual maturity at age 1 to 4 .
breeding interval yearly , common kingsnakes have been known to produce more than one clutch per season .
after copulation the male will leave the female and not return to help with parental care . after the female lays her eggs she will disperse and not return to the nest .
little information is available on the longevity of wild common kingsnakes . most available information is from captive snakes . ernst and barbour ( 1989 ) found that the oldest wild common kingsnake was 9 years old ( reported in 1937 ) . anage reported that the longest living kingsnake in captivity was 33 . 3 years old .
common kingsnakes are diurnal . their annual activity period is between late march or early april to october and early november . they hibernate during the winter in caves , rock crevices , mammal burrows , hollow logs , and in old stumps . during the cooler days of the spring and fall they can be found out during the day sunning themselves . common kingsnakes spend a majority of their day under leaf litter and other debris ( 79 % ; wund et al . 2007 ) and the rest of the time is spent traveling , basking , and hunting ( 21 % ; wund et al . 2007 ) . common kingsnakes are not restricted to the ground , they can climb trees and swim quite well . combat between males is common ( during mating season ) .
( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; krysko , 2002 ; mattison , 1995 ; mitchell , 1994 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
a recent study proposed that common kingsnakes have home ranges of 330 to 350 square meters and can take up to 103 days to cover distances across their small ranges .
adult common kingsnake diet varies across subspecies and is very broad , but published reports are available for a few representative subspecies . eastern kingsnakes and florida kingsnakes feed mainly on other snakes , including venomous snakes (
) . they also eat other non - venomous snakes , birds , vertebrate eggs , lizards , mice , and rats . california kingsnakes prey on mice , gopher snakes (
) . common kingsnakes have several defenses against potential predators . the most common is hissing , striking , “s” shaped striking pose , biting , and flight . they flee when threatened , rather than hold their ground . they are also able to spread a pungent musk that serves as an alarm substance to other common kingsnakes in the area . the banded and striped pattern of california kingsnakes , and other subspecies , disguises their movement and body outline when they are fleeing from a predator . their coloration may make them cryptic in leaf litter and against other backgrounds .
common kingsnakes are beneficial for the ecosystem . they help keep rodent and frog populations in balance as well as other snakes like rattlesnakes (
) . they are also prey for larger snakes and predatory birds and mammals . snider and bawler ( 1992 ) conducted a study to find if parasites were the cause of common kingsnake declines in florida . they found suggestions of parasite activity but no direct evidence . van peenan and birdwell ( 1968 ) found evidence of several species of parasites affecting common kingsnakes . these include apicomplexan species (
( snider and bawler , 1992 ; ernst and barbour , 1989 ; oldak , 1976 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; van peenan and birdwell , 1968 ; winne , et al . , 2007 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
) . they play an important role in controlling populations of venomous snakes , which can pose a threat to humans .
( ernst and barbour , 1989 ; mitchell , 1994 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; winne , et al . , 2007 )
common kingsnakes are listed as a “species of concern” on the u . s . federal list . this may be because florida kingsnakes ,
, are in decline . reasons for declines include anthropogenic causes through extensive pet trade , road fatalities , and habitat loss . invasive fire ants (
( mitchell , 1994 ; snider and bawler , 1992 ; wund , et al . , 2007 )
sarah bartz ( author ) , radford university , rachelle sterling ( editor ) , special projects , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
in deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
this terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .
referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
living in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .
baker , r . , g . mengden , j . bull . 1972 . karyotypic studies of thirty - eight species of north america .
groves , f . , j . groves . 1972 . keratophagy in snakes .
megonigal , j . , c . w . h . , k . s . , s . r . r . . 1997 . aboveground production in southeastern floodplain forests : a test of the subsidy - stress hypothesis .
oldak , p . 1976 . comparison of the scent gland secretion lipids of twenty - five snakes : implications for biochemical systematics .
pough , h . 1977 . the relationship between body size and blood oxygen affinity in snakes .
stophlet , j . 1957 . nocturnal predation on summer tanager nestling by kingsnake .
wilson , w . , s . friddle . 1950 . the herpetology of hardy county , west virginia .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
description average adult size is 36 - 48 inches ( 91 . 4 - 121 . 9 cm ) , record is 69 . 5 inches ( 176 . 5 cm ) . adults are variable in coloration from brown to yellow . they have more than 40 yellowish dorsal crossbands and a degenerate lateral chain - like pattern . the scales between the crossbands lighten with age , starting as black , they may develop to be the same light color as the crossbands . the belly has a checkerboard pattern . the scales are smooth , and there are usually 23 dorsal scale rows at midbody ( some individuals have 21 ) . the pupil is round . juveniles are distinctly crossbanded ( sometimes with red pigment within crossbands ) and most of the scales between the crossbands are black .
a . top of the head ( notice the large plate - like scales on the top of the head ) b . smooth scales c . elongated scales below the tail ( subcaudal scales ) are typically divided d . front ( face view ) of the head e . side of the head
habitat : uncommon , it is found in pinelands , hardwood hammocks , cypress strands , prairies , marshes , estuaries , sugar cane plantations , and stands of melaleuca ( australian punk trees ) .
comments : harmless ( non - venomous ) , and seldom bites . the florida kingsnake is mainly terrestrial and active during the day , yet in the summer months individuals may be found moving at night .
it feeds on other snakes , lizards , frogs , rodents , turtle eggs , and birds and their eggs . it eats venomous snakes such as rattlesnakes , and is immune to their venom . it is even known to be cannibalistic , eating its own kind .
it lays eggs . it is primarily active from february - may , when breeding takes place . in the early summer , 3 - 30 eggs are laid . newborns from 5 - 8 inches ( 12 . 7 - 20 . 3 cm ) hatch in late summer .
division of herpetology • dickinson hall • gainesville , fl 32611 - 7800 • 352 - 273 - 1945 • dr . coleman sheehy , collection manager
holotype : unknown ( fide pyron & burbrink 2009 ) . holotype : florida state museum of natural history ; was : wtn 19211 ( wt neill , private collection ) [ goini ] holotype : uf 73433 ( field tag dbm 1360 ) , an adult male [ meansi ]
the generic name was derived from the greek words lampro , meaning
bright or clear
and pelte , meaning
a small shield ,
applied in reference to the shiny
scales .
the specific epithet refers to the getulian people of northern morocco , whose tribal insignia bears a resemblance to the ‘chain’ pattern of the kingsnakes of the eastern seaboard of the united states . l . g . meansi has been named after the collector of the type , d . bruce means .
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wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
wallach , v . 1988 . status and redescription of the genus padangia werner , with comparative visceral data on collorhabdium smedley and other genera ( serpentes : colubridae ) . amphibia - reptilia 9 : 61 - 76 - get paper here
werner , f . 1924 . neue oder wenig bekannte schlangen aus dem naturhistorischen staatsmuseum in wien . l . teil . sitzungsb . ber . akad . wiss . , wien , abt . l , 133 : 29 - 56 - get paper here
wilgers , d . j . ; horne , e . a . ; sandercock , b . k . & volkmann , a . w . 2006 . effects of rangeland management on community dynamics of the herpetofauna of the tall - grass prairie [ flint hills , kansas / oklahoma ] . herpetologica 62 ( 4 ) : 378 - 388 - get paper here
woodbury , angus munn 1928 . the reptiles of zion national park . copeia 1928 ( 166 ) : 14 - 21 - get paper here
yarrow , h . c . 1882 . description of new species of reptiles and amphibians in the us national museum . proc . us natl . mus . 5 : 438 - 443 - get paper here
younas , saqib ; shafiullah gul , hameed ur rehman , faisal junaid , wali muhammad achakzai , shagufta saddozai , khalid usman and zawar ahmad 2017 . zoological fauna of khurum dam and muhabbat khel dam of district karak , khyber pakhtunkhwa , pakistan journal of entomology and zoology studies 2017 ; 5 ( 1 ) : 380 - 387 - get paper here
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hammerson , g . a . , frost , d . r . & santos - barrera , g .
justification : listed as least concern in view of the large and probably relatively stable extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size . this species is not threatened across most of its range .
this species ' range extends from the pacific to the atlantic coast of north america , from southwestern oregon , nevada , southern utah , southern colorado , southeastern nebraska , southern iowa , illinois , southern indiana , southern ohio , west virginia , and new jersey in the united states , south to southern baja california , northern sinaloa , san luis potosi , tamaulipas , texas , the u . s . gulf coast , and southern florida , at elevations from sea level to around 2 , 130 m asl ( 7 , 000 feet ) ( conant and collins 1991 , stebbins 2003 ) .
this species is represented by hundreds of occurrences or subpopulations . the total adult population size is unknown but certainly exceeds 100 , 000 and probably exceeds 1 , 000 , 000 . its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size are probably relatively stable .
the species ' habitats vary geographically and include open coniferous forest , woodland , swamps , coastal marshes , river bottoms , farmland , prairie , chaparral , and desert . this snake is primarily terrestrial . periods of inactivity are spent in crevices or burrow , or under rocks , logs , stumps , vegetation , or other cover .
no major threats have been identified . local declines probably have occurred in areas where habitat has been intensively developed for human uses , but in most of the range this species is not threatened .
many occurrences of this species are in national parks and other well - protected areas .
hammerson , g . a . , frost , d . r . & santos - barrera , g . 2007 .
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though now recognized by herpetologists as merely a color morph of the florida king snake , the brooks ' king is a still a favorite among herpetoculturists because of its light coloration . adult brooks ' kings have yellowish or white cross bands on a yellow and black speckled background .
the nicest adults are so heavily speckled in yellow that the background color is not apparent . the babies start out looking much different . they have yellow bands on a dark brown or black background . many babies have red coloration in the bands , though this is usually lost with age . our stock descends from animals that we collected ourselves in southern miami - dade county , fl .
anthony flanagan inspects the edge of a path near a canal edge . king snakes are now rarely seen at this locale , though burmese pythons are common .