the western chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata ) , also known as striped chorus frog , or midland chorus frog is a species of frog found in canada and the united states .

western chorus frog

boreal chorus frog looks like the western chorus frog , but they can be differentiated by looking at the legs .
western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence - canadian shield population )
general description : the western chorus frog is among minnesota ' s smallest frogs .
this is only about the western chorus frog found in many states around missouri .
the western chorus frog is one of the first species to call in the spring .
the boreal chorus frog is a relatively small frog , adults reaching 30mm in length .
the western chorus frog is minnesota ' s smallest frog . the world ' s largest frog , the giant frog of africa , can grow to be almost 12 inches long .
millburn , naomi .
western chorus frog diet
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
kramer , d . 1974 . home range of the western chorus frog pseudacris - triseriata - triseriata .
millburn , naomi .
western chorus frog diet .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / western - chorus - frog - diet - 4090 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
the boreal chorus frog is also known as the striped chorus frog because of the three dark , sometimes broken , stripes on its back .
millburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . western chorus frog diet . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / western - chorus - frog - diet - 4090 . html
the western chorus frog and boreal chorus frog are described as two individual species in some references , and as subspecies in others . their individual ranges in the state are not clearly known .
protecting the western chorus frog , great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population ( 2016 - 07 - 15 )
in spring 2000 , the western chorus frog was officially designated a vulnerable species under the act respecting endangered and vulnerable species .
the boreal chorus frog has the widest distribution of any amphibian in the province .
response statement - western chorus frog , great lakes / st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( 2008 - 11 - 26 )
sounds : the call of the western chorus frog is a rising creeee that sounds like a fingernail being dragged across a comb .
in ontario , aside from the 10 % of its habitat that is located in protected wildlife areas , the western chorus frog is not protected by any legislation ( cosewic , 2008 ) . protection of habitat is critical to the survival of the western chorus frog .
distribution map of the boreal chorus frog . image by stephen burton , ©1999 . .
confusing species : confusing species the western chorus frog is almost identical to the boreal chorus frog . it has longer hind legs but is best distinguished by its call or location . in canada their distributions do not overlap .
description of residence for the western chorus frog – great lakes , st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( pseudacris triseriata ) in canada
description of residence for the western chorus frog – great lakes , st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( pseudacris triseriata ) in canada
the ecomuseum zoo is proud to be associated with each of its partners , working actively in the protection of the western chorus frog .
cosewic assessment - western chorus frog , carolinian & great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield populations ( 2008 - 08 - 28 )
boreal chorus frog .
wikipedia . 2006 . 3 oct 2008 < urltoken > .
idaho distribution map of the boreal chorus frog . image by stephen burton , ©1999 . .
a new species of myxidium ( myxosporea : myxidiidae ) , from the western chorus frog , pseudacris triseriata triseriata , and blanchard ' s cricket frog , a . . . - pubmed - ncbi
diet : the western chorus frog feeds upon a number of small invertebrates , such as flies , springtails , spiders , snails , and ants .
emergency order for the protection of the western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence - canadian shield population ) ( 2016 - 07 - 15 )
emergency order for the protection of the western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence — canadian shield population ) ( 2016 - 07 - 13 )
the call of the western chorus frog , may be heard in spring or after a rainfall in many parts of minnesota . if you track it to its source you will find a small , dark frog .
outside alberta , the boreal chorus frog is found all across the prairies and into the northwest territories .
html version of
description of residence for the western chorus frog – great lakes , st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( pseudacris triseriata ) in canada
boreal chorus frog — pseudacris maculata . montana field guide . retrieved on october 3 , 2008 , from urltoken
description of residence for the western chorus frog – great lakes , st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( pseudacris triseriata ) in canada - species at risk public registry
summary – emergency order for the protection of the western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population ) ( 2016 - 07 - 05 )
despite being a member of the tree frog family , the boreal chorus frog is a poor climber and is rarely found higher than the branches of a low shrub .
name recovery strategy for the western chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata ) , great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population , in canada status final posting on sar registry
recovery strategy for the western chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata ) , great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population , in canada ( 2015 - 12 - 01 )
description of residence for the western chorus frog – great lakes , st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( pseudacris triseriata ) in canada ( 2016 - 07 - 18 )
landreth , h . , d . ferguson . 1966 . behavioral adaptations in the chorus frog , pseudacris triseriata .
statewide , except in southeastern missouri , where it hybridizes with and also is replaced by the upland chorus frog .
platz , j . e . 1989 . speciation within the chorus frog pseudacris triseriata : morphometric and mating call analyses of the boreal and western subspecies . copeia 1989 : 704 - 712 .
cosewic assessment & update status report on the western chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata ) carolinian population and great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population in canada ( 2015 - 11 - 30 )
this document assesses the threats to the western chorus frog , great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population ( western chorus frog ( glslcs ) ) , using the best available information , with the aim of informing an opinion as to whether or not this wildlife species faces imminent threats to its survival or recovery in canada , as per section 80 of the species at risk act ( sara ) .
a new species of myxidium ( myxosporea : myxidiidae ) , from the western chorus frog , pseudacris triseriata triseriata , and blanchard ' s cricket frog , acris crepitans blanchardi ( hylidae ) , from eastern nebraska : morphology , phylogeny , and critical comments on amphibian myxidium taxonomy .
in contrast to true frogs , the boreal chorus frog lacks dorsolateral folds and has little webbing between its toes on the hind feet .
description of critical habitat for the western chorus frog , great lakes / st . lawrence–canadian shield population , in wellers bay national wildlife area and thousand islands national park of canada ( 2016 - 01 - 09 )
western chorus frogs utilize a variety of habitats where dense thickets are available . these include marshes , swamps , open forests , and fields .
frogs - care sheets information about western chorus frogs aquatic / land frogs , characteristics and sexing , description of diet , diet - omnivorous , supplements , nutrition and usage - calcium and vitamins , lighting and uvb , tempatures and humidity , caging , substrate and water needs , this is only about the western chorus frog found in many states around missouri . , maintenance
western chorus frogs also have an array of predatory animals to worry about , such as striped skunks , great blue herons , raccoons , snakes and shrews . since western chorus frogs are so diminutive , bigger varieties of frogs also go after them as prey - - especially when they are juveniles .
[ westech ] western technology and engineering incorporated . 1998 . wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area 1997 . western technology and engineering , inc . , helena , mt .
description of residence for the western chorus frog – great lakes , st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( pseudacris triseriata ) in canada
( 2016 - 07 - 18 ) ( pdf format , 136 . 08 kb )
distributions : in canada , the western chorus frog is found only in southern ontario and along the ottawa and upper st . lawrence river valleys in quebec . it is also found through much of the eastern united states and overlaps with the boreal chorus frog in the central united states . it was introduced to corner brook newfoundland in the 1960’s but apparently is now extirpated from there .
wood frog the wood frog also has a stripe through the eye , but it is larger and has prominent dorsolateral folds ( ridges ) on its back .
this frog is very reclusive . it is very rarely seen outside of the breeding season . average life span for those that live to adulthood is 5 years . these frogs live and hibernate beneath logs , rocks , leaves , loose soil , and animal burrows . the western chorus frog is nocturnal and solitary .
alberta ' s smallest amphibian , the boreal chorus frog grows to only 20 to 40 millimetres ( 0 . 8 to 1 . 6 inches ) long .
rate this care sheet please keep all comments constructive to western chorus frogs husbandry methods and care . any degrading , sarcastic , or disrespectful comments will be removed .
the government of canada has made an emergency order for the protection of the western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence - canadian shield population ( glslcs ) in the bois de la commune in la prairie , quebec . the objective of the emergency order is to provide protection to the western chorus frog ( glslcs ) by addressing the imminent threat to its recovery , including by protecting the habitat identified in the order to stabilize the metapopulation and help the recovery of the species .
“the symbiocité project threatens the metapopulation ( of western chorus frogs ) of la prairie and this metapopulation is necessary for the recovery of the species , ” dionne explained .
although there are many types of reproduction in frogs , the boreal chorus frog is rather typical in that it reproduces via external fertilization through amplexus . mating usually occurs during the spring and is initiated by the males calling for females . the boreal chorus frog has a characteristic call ,
reeeek
( wikipedia ) . the boreal chorus frogs lay their eggs in clusters that range from 20 - 100 eggs .
conservation concerns : there is no evidence for decline in ontario populations of the western chorus frog , however , it has declined throughout the st . lawrence valley in quebec as a result of habitat loss . a population introduced to newfoundland is apparently now extirpated .
western chorus frogs thrive on a diet made up of small arthropods such as sowbugs , and also earth∼worms , beetles , grubs , ants , crickets , and even spiders .
the many names of this species can also be confusing . the common name
striped chorus frogs
comes from the characteristic 3 stripes down its back . until recently , this species was called western chorus frogs . due to the restricted range east of the mississippi , though , the proper common name is now midland chorus frogs .
presently , boreal chorus frogs are excluded from areas where pesticides are heavily used .
western chorus frog – carolinian population the species was considered a single unit and designated not at risk in may 2001 . split into two populations in april 2008 . the carolinian population was designated not at risk in april 2008 . western chorus frog – great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population the species was considered a single unit and designated not at risk in may 2001 . split into two populations in april 2008 . the great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population was designated threatened in april 2008 .
range includes portions of southeastern canada and the northeastern united states , from michigan ( lower peninsula ) , southern ontario , and western new york through indiana , ohio , and western pennsylvania to southern illinois , western kentucky , and northwestern tennessee ( lemmon et al . 2007 ) .
encyclopedia of life , 2016 .
pseudacris triseriata , striped chorus frog
( on - line ) . encyclopedia of life . accessed november 10 , 2017 at urltoken .
[ wesco ] western ecological services company . 1983a . wildlife inventory of the knowlton known recoverable coal resource area , montana . western ecological services company , novato , ca . 107 p .
the great lakes / st . lawrence and canadian shield population of western chorus frog is present in parts of southern ontario and southwestern quebec . it breeds in temporary wetlands in the spring , and when these areas dry up in summer , it moves to nearby land .
[ wesco ] western ecological services company . 1983b . wildlife inventory of the southwest circle known recoverable coal resource area , montana . western ecological services company , novato , ca . 131 p .
habitat : the western chorus frog’s preferred habitat is forest openings around woodland ponds . they will breed in almost any fishless pond with at least 10 cm of water , including roadside ditches , gravel pits , flooded fields , beaver ponds , marshes , swamps or shallow lakes .
amphibian monitoring in alberta the boreal chorus frog is being monitored under the alberta volunteer amphibian monitoring program ( avamp ) and the researching amphibian numbers in alberta ( rana ) program .
breeding interval midland chorus frogs breed once yearly , during a narrow early spring season .
[ westech ] western technology and engineering incorporated . 1991 . update on the wildlife resources of the little rocky mountains environmental study area . western technology and engineering , inc . , helena , mt .
the western chorus frog , great lakes / st . lawrence - canadian shield population , is protected under the federal species at risk act ( sara ) . more information about sara , including how it protects individual species , is available in the species at risk act : a guide .
they also think that a major factor in producing the frog’s cryoprotectant is high hepatic glycogen stores .
because this frog is a psedacris , you can find more help reading the pseudacris crucifer caresheet .
waage , b . c . 1998 . western energy company rosebud mine 1997 annual wildlife monitoring report december 1 , 1996 to november 30 , 1997 survey period . western energy company , colstrip , mt .
cook , f . r . 1964a . additional records and a correction of the type locality for the boreal chorus frog in northwestern ontario . canadian field naturalist 78 : 186 - 192 .
spencer , a . w . 1964 . the relationship of dispersal and migration to gene flow in the boreal chorus frog . phd dissertation . colorado state university , fort collins , co .
the purpose of this order is to address the imminent threat to the recovery of the western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence – canadian shield population ( glslcs ) ) by providing protection for the la prairie metapopulation through measures that include protection of the habitat identified in the order .
smith , p . w . 1956 . the status , correct name , and geographic range of the boreal chorus frog . proceedings of the biological society of washington 69 : 169 - 176 .
smith , d . c . 1983 . factors controlling tadpole populations of the chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata ) on isle royale , michigan . ecology 64 ( 3 ) : 501 - 510 .
call : the breeding call is very similar to the boreal chorus frog but is shorter and faster in pulse rate . it resembles the sound of drawing your finger down the teeth of a comb .
midland chorus frog home ranges average 2116 square meters , including the breeding pond . they migrate long distances in order to breed ( kramer et al . , 1974 ; landreth and ferguson , 1966 )
in an unprecedented move , canada’s minister of environment and climate change catherine mckenna issued an emergency protection order wednesday that will shrink the size of an approved housing development already under construction in the south shore community of la prairie in order to protect the habitat of a species at risk : the western chorus frog .
western chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata ) calling in illinois beach state park . there are thousands of this small but very vocal frogs but i had to spend a lot of time to actually see one of them . to record them the secret is to just leave the camera running and move away for 10 minutes .
frogs find out about the common traits of frogs , and about the different frog species found in alberta .
the biodôme , sainte - anne - de - bellevue ecomuseum and the ministère des ressources naturelles ( mrn ) are currently working with the western chorus frog restoration team . the aim of this collaboration is to develop expertise in keeping them in captivity , hibernation , reproduction and maintaining a captive population . such knowledge is necessary in case a survival population is needed in the event of a massive population loss in the frog’s natural habitat .
an excellent off∼site link to see the tadpoles and read more about the development of the boreal chorus frog would be to visit the home page of greg sievert . after clicking , scroll down to near page bottom and click on the link to development of boreal chorus frog embryos . the photography is as beautiful as the additional information you will read . he also has some . aiff sound files so you can hear him sing ! : )
turner , f . b . 1960 . population structure and dynamics of the western spotted frog , rana pretiosa pretiosa baird & girard , in yellowstone park , wyoming . ecol . monogr . 30 ( 3 ) : 251 - 278 .
macarthur , d . l . and j . w . t . dandy . 1982 . physiological aspects of overwintering in the boreal chorus frog ( pseudacris triseriata maculata ) . comparative biochemistry and physiology 72a : 137 - 141 .
western chorus frogs begin breeding in march and april . females attach clumps of up to 100 eggs to vegetation . the eggs hatch within 18 days , depending on water temperature . the tadpoles turn into frogs within 90 days after hatching .
mackessy , s . p . , r . donoho , j . hobert , c . montgomery and k . waldron . 1996 . pseudacris triseriata maculata ( boreal chorus frog ) . herpetological review 27 ( 1 ) : 30 .
western chorus frogs consume carnivorous diets - - with an emphasis on insects . some of these amphibians ' favorite bugs to eat are thrips , leafhoppers , beetles , flies and ants . they also frequently eat spiders , worms and tiny snails .
platz , j . e . and d . c . forester . 1988 . geographic variation in mating call among the four subspecies of the chorus frog : pseudacris triseriata ( wied ) . copeia 1988 ( 4 ) : 1062 - 1066 .
description : the western chorus frog is a small , smooth skinned treefrog . colour varies from green - gray to brown . there is a dark stripe through the eye and a white stripe along the upper lip . it is distinguished from most other treefrogs by the three dark stripes down the back . in some individuals the stripes are broken . maximum adult size about 4 cm .
i have had fun with this frog and raising tadpoles . always let the older frogs go just collect some eggs to raise .
on july 12 and 14 , 2016 , environment and climate change canada will host information sessions on the species at risk act emergency order for the protection of the western chorus frog ( great lakes / st . lawrence - canadian shield population ) . the order is intended to address the imminent threat to the species’ recovery in the municipalities of la prairie , candiac and saint - philippe .
boreal chorus frogs inhabit sloughs , woodlands , and even open meadows if there is sufficient vegetation to provide cover and moisture .
a 3rd grey tree frog pic shared with us . tomorrow we will be promoting # toadtuesday , maybe we should think about a… urltoken
boreal chorus frog tadpoles are quite small when hatched , about four to seven millimetres ( 0 . 16 to 0 . 28 inches ) , but grow to about 30 millimetres ( 1 . 18 inches ) before transforming into juvenile frogs in about two months time .
timken , r . no date . amphibians and reptiles of the beaverhead national forest . western montana college , dillon , mt . 16 p .
quebec’s environment minister noted that the province had already identified and protected 83 per cent of the land covered by the federal order as important habitat for the western chorus frog , and had worked out a plan with the developer to conserve it . as part of that compliance plan , the developer has already built three of four planned reproduction ponds , moved a stream and built a tunnel under a road for the frogs .
western chorus frogs are found throughout minnesota . they like open habitats such as wetlands and fields near trees , but they can also live in cities . these frogs breed in shallow water such as temporary wetlands and ditches . they overwinter under rocks and logs near their breeding ponds .
give the frog a glass or plastic bowl of water that is large enough for him to soak his entire body in , but not so deep that he can ' t easily climb out of . remember , they are terrestrial , so too deep and the frog could actually drown !
reproduction : western chorus frogs breed very early in the spring and may begin as early as march although most calling is in april . they may chorus during the day as well as at night . a series of small egg masses are laid and attached to vegetation . eggs hatch within a few weeks and tadpoles finish transforming by early summer . they are usually mature in one year and rarely live beyond three .
stebbins , r . c . 2003 . western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd ed . houghton mifflin co , new york , new york . 219 pp .
waage , bruce c . , 1993 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : annual wildlife monitoring report ; 1993 field season . april 1993 .
boreal chorus frogs are at their highest densities during the breeding season . in the spring , adults will congregate at breeding ponds and begin calling .
bergeron , d . j . 1978a . terrestrial wildlife survey divide mine area , montana 1977 - 1978 . western technology and engineering , inc . helena , mt .
butts , t . w . 1997 . mountain inc . wildlife monitoring bull mountains mine no . 1 , 1996 . western technology and engineering . helena , mt .
scow , k . l . 1980 . terrestrial wildlife survey american colloid study area phillips county , montana . western technology and engineering , inc . , helena , mt .
stebbins , r . c . 2003 . a field guide to western reptiles and amphibians . 3rd edition . houghton mifflin company , boston and new york . 533 p .
account compiled by : staci amburgey reviewed by : lauren livo and brad lambert last updated : 20 march . 2014 by s . amburgey suggested citation colorado partners in amphibian and reptile conservation . 2014 . species account for boreal chorus frog ( pseudacris maculata ) . compiled by staci amburgey . urltoken [ accessed date here ] .
boreal chorus frogs are not toxic and lack defenses , instead relying on predator avoidance . adults are primarily active at night when detection is more difficult , and coloration and patterning allows for camouflaging in the boreal chorus frog’s grassy habitats ( matthews , 1971 ) . males will cease calling when disturbed . tadpoles may use sudden bursts of speed in order to flee predators . both adults and tadpoles will dive to the bottom of ponds to hide under decaying vegetation and mud when startled .
bergeron , d . j . 1978b . terrestrial wildlife survey p - m mine area , montana 1977 - 1978 . western technology and engineering , inc . helena , mt .
bergeron , d . j . 1979 . terrestrial wildlife survey , coal creek mine area , montana 1977 - 1978 . western technology and engineering , inc . helena , mt .
farmer , p . 1980 . terrestrial wildlife monitoring study , pearl area , montana june , 1978 - may , 1980 . western technology and engineering , inc . helena , mt .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 1999 , wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area annual report , 1998 . smp 85005 . osmp montana 0007e . april 1999 .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 2000 , wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area annual report , 1999 . montana smp 85005 . osmp montana 0007e . february 2000 .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 2001 , wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area annual report , 2000 . montana smp 85005 . osmp montana 0007e . february 2001 .
hoppe , d . m . and d . pettus . 1984 . developmental features influencing color polymorphism in chorus frogs . journal of herpetology 18 : 113 - 120 .
the best way to survey for boreal chorus frogs is to listen for breeding calls from adult males during the breeding season . in the spring , adults will congregate at breeding ponds and begin calling as soon as most of the snow has melted . although boreal chorus frogs on isle royale can breed and lay eggs from may through early july , the best time for conducting frog call surveys appears to be in may . call surveys can be conducted in the evening or at night but also during the day . visual encounter surveys also can be conducted for adult boreal chorus frogs and their tadpoles at breeding sites in the spring and summer from may until mid - july to mid - august .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 1997 , wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area annual report , 1996 . montana smp 85005 . osmp montana 0007d . mar . 1997 .
tordoff , w . , iii . 1969 . gene frequency differences among semi - isolated proximate populations of chorus forgs ( pseudacris ) . journal of herpetology 3 : 194 .
smith , d . c . 1987 . adult recruitment in chorus frogs : effects of size and date at metamorphosis . ecology 68 ( 2 ) : 344 - 350 .
since chorus frogs are terrestrial , they require a longer than taller habitat in captivity . a vivarium that is 18 x 18 inches ( and larger ) . a height of 1 foot and up is necessary for the tank plantings . be sure to place several of the plants close enough together to create a good hiding place for your frog ( s ) .
waage , bruce c . , 2000 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 1999 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 1998 - november 30 , 1999 . february 2000 .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . 1994 . wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area annual report , 1993 . montana smp 85005 . osmp montana 0007c . mar . 12 , 1994 .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 1996 , wildlife monitoring absaloka mine area annual report , 1995 . montana smp 85005 . osmp montana 0007d . febr . 23 , 1996 .
mcdonald , m . 1982 . terrestrial wildlife inventory , dominy project area , july , 1979 - june , 1981 . draft tech . rep . for western energy co . by westech , helena , mt .
waage , bruce c . , 1995 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 1994 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 1993 - november 30 , 1994 . february 27 , 1995 .
waage , bruce c . , 1996 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 1995 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 1994 - november 30 , 1995 . february 28 , 1996 .
waage , bruce c . , 2001 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 2000 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 1999 - november 30 , 2000 . march 30 , 2001 .
maxim technologies , inc . , 2002 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 2002 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 2001 - november 30 , 2002 . febr . 24 , 2002 .
waage , bruce c . , 2002 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana . 2001 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 2000 - november 30 , 2001 . febr . 26 , 2002 .
platz , j . e . and a . lathrop . 1993 . body size and age assessment among advertising male chorus frogs . journal of herpetology 27 ( 1 ) : 109 - 111 .
waage , bruce c . , 1998 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 1997 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 1996 - november 30 , 1997 survey period . march 23 , 1998 .
waage , bruce c . , 1999 , western energy company rosebud mine , colstrip , montana : 1998 annual wildlife monitoring report ; december 1 , 1997 - november 30 , 1998 survey period . february 24 , 1999 .
these frogs will eat insects from rolly poly’s to anything small enough to fit in there mouth . no ants . they do prefer live food . dead food can get rotten and will not attract the frog .
as with other amphibians , midland chorus frogs can act as a critical indicator of environmental health . their permeable skin makes them susceptible to many contaminants , external stimuli and toxins that they are exposed to in both aquatic and terrestrial portions of their life cycle . since their larval and adult forms occupy very different habitats , a decline in frog numbers or population health could signify problems in either environment or both .
tordoff , w . , iii . 1980 . selective predation of gray jays ( perisoreus canadensis ) upon boreal chorus frogs ( pseudacris triseriata ) . evolution 34 ( 5 ) : 1004 - 1008 .
the data they found suggests that the chorus frogs store up liver glycogen to prepare for hibernation and body size and liver glycogen levels must reach a threshold for the animal to survive winter / freezing conditions .
midland chorus frogs serve as a food source for their predators and help keep prey populations under control . both adult and larval forms ( tadpoles ) have different but important ecological roles . in both environments these frogs and their larvae serve as predator and prey and do not compete with their parents or offspring . water - breeding amphibians such as midland chorus frogs can channel nutrients from the aquatic to the terrestrial environment .
western technology and engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 1991 , wildlife monitoring and additional baseline inventory : absaloka mine area annual report , 1991 . montana smp 85005 r1 . osmp montana 0007b . febr . 25 , 1991 .
boreal chorus frogs can be found throughout much of the state . occurrence becomes patchier to the southeast corner of the state ( after hammerson 1999 , shipley & reading 2006 , and colorado parks & wildlife ) .
hoppe , d . m . and d . pettus . 1974 . selection factors affcting dorsal color polymorphism in boreal chorus frogs . journal of the colorado - wyoming academy of science 12 ( 5 ) : 73 .
lemmon , e . , a . lemmon , j . collins , j . lee - yaw , d . cannatella . 2007 . phylogeny - based delimitation of species boundaries and contact zones in the trilling chorus frogs (
ongoing losses of habitat and breeding sites for this small frog due to suburban expansion and alteration in farming practices have resulted in losses of populations and isolation of remaining habitat patches . populations in quebec are documented to have declined at a rate of 37 % over 10 years and are expected to continue to decline . despite there being some areas where chorus frogs remain evident , surveys of populations in ontario indicate a significant decline in abundance of 30 % over the past decade .
lynch , catherine . 2000 . north american amphibian monitoring program ' s montana frog - call survey , a report on a pilot program in south - central montana started april , 2000 and completed in june 2000 . 36 pp ( unnumbered ) .
this frog is most abundant in prairies but also occurs on agricultural lands , in large river floodplains , and on the grassy edges of marshes . after breeding season , they take shelter in animals burrows ; under boards , logs , or rocks ; in clumps of grass ; or in loose soil . breeding sites are usually in flooded fields , ditches , woodland ponds , marshes , and river sloughs as well as farm ponds . this is often the first frog to become active in the spring .
behavior : migrations of adults from overwintering sites to breeding locations , and of metamorphs from breeding sites to nearby uplands have been documented , but not in arizona . the location and habitats of this frog outside of the breeding season are unknown in arizona .
day , d . , p . j . farmer , and c . e . farmer . 1989 . montco terrestrial wildlife monitoring report december , 1987 - july , 1989 . montco , billings , mt , and western technology and engineering , inc . helena , mt .
jenkins j . l . , swanson d . l . liver glycogen , glucose mobilization and freezing survival in chorus frogs , pseudacris triseriata . ( 2005 ) journal of thermal biology , 30 ( 6 ) , pp . 485 - 494 .
western technology & engineering , inc . ( westech ) . , 1991 , 1991 bull mountains mine no . 1 terrestrial wildlife monitoring study . in meridian minerals company bull mountains mine no . 1 permit application , musselshell county , montana . vol . 7 of 14 : section 26
natural history : chorus frogs hibernate beneath logs or underground and are freeze - tolerant . they are among the first frogs to emerge in the spring . they feed on small insects and other invertebrates and are eaten by a wide variety of predators .
lynch , c . 2000 . north american amphibian monitoring program ' s montana frog - call survey : a report on a pilot program in south - central montana started april 2000 and completed in june 2000 . zoo montana conservation through education program , billings mt . 39 p .
lynch , c . 2001 . north american amphibian monitoring program ' s montana frog - call survey : report on year two of a program in south - central montana started april 2001 and completed in june 2001 . zoo montana conservation through education program , billings mt . 12 p .
description : the green frog is a large , true frog with large , distinct tympanum and prominent dorsolateral ridges . it may be green , bronze or brown , or a combination but is typically green on the upper lip . the belly is white with darker lines or spots . there may be some irregular spotting on the back . it is distinguished from other frogs in that the dorsolateral ridges run only partway down the back and do not reach the groin . the hind legs have dark bars . males have a bright yellow throat . maximum adult size is 10 cm .
the call of midland chorus frogs is a short , rising , squeaky trill which sounds like “cree - ee - ee - ee - eek .
it can be roughly imitated by strumming the teeth of a small , stiff pocket comb from middle to end with a thumbnail ( harding and holman , 1992 ) . their calls are used mainly to attract females to breeding sites during their breeding season . they create a chorus of their calls during their breeding congresses . they also use visual and auditory cues for migration and breeding and rely on their keen vision for capturing prey .
muths , e . , d . h . campbell , and p . s . corn . 2003 . hatching success in salamanders and chorus frogs at two sites in colordao , usa : effects of acidic deposition and climate . amphibia - reptilia 24 ( 1 ) : 27 - 36 .
lemmon , e . m . , lemmon , a . r . , collins , j . t . , lee - yaw , j . a . , and d . c . cannatella . 2007 . phylogeny - based delimitation of species boundaries and contact zones in trilling chorus frogs (
keep the temperature of the vivarium comfortable , but not too hot . this frog naturally comes from a temperate climate , hibernating in winter digging into moist soil alongside the banks of water - ways . this makes him used to mild weather . usually , the temperature of your home will also be right for this species .
like most small frogs , the diet of midland chorus frogs includes a variety of small invertebrates , such as spiders , ants , flies , and moths . younger , smaller frogs will feed on smaller prey : mites , midges and springtails . tadpoles are herbivorous feeding mostly on algae ( harding and holman , 1992 ) .
habitat : this species is typically found on the ground or in low shrubs or grass at or near breeding ponds , which include often shallow and temporary ponds , cattle tanks , lake margins , wet meadows , and roadside ditches . sites without fish are preferred for breeding . the species sometimes breeds in permanent water . this frog is rarely encountered outside of the breeding season .
make sure to use a secure , vented lid on the top of the vivarium . if you live in a temperate zone yourself , and use heating in winter , make sure to partially cover up to 1 / 2 of the lid in winters to help hold in humidity . your frog will not hibernate in winters ( it will be too warm in the house to trigger this ) and will need humidity that the heating unit in your house may ' sap ' out of his home without the cover . a measured - cut sheet of acrylic or glass will do . if humidity in the room the frog is in goes below 40 percent , use a humidifier filled with only water in the room to raise it up to a level between 45 and 50 percent .
typical predators on adult midland chorus frogs would include birds ( herons , grackles , etc . ) , small mammals ( raccoons , mink , skunks ) , snakes , and larger frogs . young metamorphs and tadpoles are eaten by salamander larvae , crayfish , fish ( if present ) , turtles , and aquatic insects such as water scorpions , diving beetles , and dragonfly larvae .
basic frogcare ( choosing healthy frogs , species mixing , feeding , etc . ) vivariums ( to establish and maintain , lighting , substrate ideas , etc . ) vivarium disease - free , how to set up quarantine tank ) water 101 ( how to establish & maintain high quality water ) raising insects ( info about raising your own insects , including fruit flies ) frog breeding ( temperate style setup information )
the frog was listed as threatened under canada’s species at risk act in 2010 , by which time over 90 per cent of the species’ historical range in the montérégie region had already been lost to development . the metapopulation in la prairie — a metapopulation is a local population of a species that is linked to other local populations through the movement of individuals — has lost 60 per cent of its habitat between 1992 and 2013 .
adults are sexually dimorphic , with females lacking a vocal sac for calling and being generally larger ( 3 - 5 cm ) than males ( 2 . 5 - 4 cm ) in snout to vent length ( svl ) . tadpoles are 1 - 5 cm from snout to tail tip . chorus frogs metamorphose at about 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 cm svl , with no sexually distinguishing characteristics until 1 to 2 years of age ( amburgey ,
once a month carefully locate the frog ( s ) inside the tank , then gently place a glass container over them . this will allow you to thoroughly clean the entire tank without having to remove them . spray quat antifungal throughout now . remove any dying moss or other plants and replace . if you have used a sponge filter , then instead of daily water changes , you can change 1 / 2 the water every few days , scrubbing the pool with clean brush to remove scum . replace water with treated water only .
breeding begins in late february or early march and peaks in april . males chorus in temporary bodies of water and in fishless farm ponds . the male fertilizes the eggs as the female lays and attaches them to submerged grasses just below the surface , in clusters of 5–300 . these hatch within a week , depending on water temperature . metamorphosis occurs in 6–8 weeks . this species overwinters in the ground and does not burrow very deep . a natural antifreeze in their blood keeps them from freezing .
midland chorus frogs breed , sometimes in small to large congresses , in shallow pools and temporary waters in or adjacent to marshes , swamps , and swales . during axillary amplexus , males externally fertilize the eggs as they are laid by the female in a pattern typical of most hylids ( halliday and adler , 2002 ) . over most of the range , amplexus and egg laying takes place from late march to early april , but breeding occasionally extends into may in the north ( harding and holman , 1992 ) .
male chorus frogs are between 0 . 8 inches long , and females are anywehere between 1 . 2 and 1 . 5 inches from snout to vent . the skin on the dorsum is slightly tubercular , and on the venter it is granular , which is typical of many frogs . the snout is acutely rounded . the toes are only about one - third webbed . the dorsusm is a grayish tan , with brown mid - dorsal and dorsolateral stripes or rows of spots . there is a broad dark brown to black colored stripe from the snout through the eye and the ear ( tympanum ) to the groin . the venter is white .
recovery planning environment and climate change canada 15th floor , place vincent massey 351 st . joseph blvd . gatineau , qc k1a 0h3 send e - mail
to know if this species is protected by provincial or territorial laws , consult the provinces ' and territories ' websites .
please note : not all cosewic reports are currently available on the sara public registry . most of the reports not yet available are status reports for species assessed by cosewic prior to may 2002 . other cosewic reports not yet available may include those species assessed as extinct , data deficient or not at risk . in the meantime , they are available on request from the cosewic secretariat .
critical habitat descriptions in the canada gazette ( 1 record ( s ) found . )
her excellency the governor general in council , on the recommendation of the minister of the environment , acknowledges receipt , on the making of this order , of the assessments conducted pursuant to subsection 23 ( 1 ) of the species at risk act by the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada ( cosewic ) with respect to the species set out in the annexed schedule .
her excellency the governor general in council , on the recommendation of the minister of the environment , pursuant to section 27 of the species at risk act , hereby makes the annexed order amending schedules 1 to 3 to the species at risk act .
2008 annual report to the the minister of the environment and the canadian endangered species conservation council ( cescc ) from the committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada .
as part of its strategy for protecting wildlife species at risk , the government of canada proclaimed the species at risk act ( sara ) on june 5 , 2003 . attached to the act is schedule 1 , the list of the species that receive protection under sara , also called the list of wildlife species at risk . please submit your comments by march 20 , 2009 for species undergoing normal consultations and by march 19 , 2010 for species undergoing extended consultations .
public registry notice for s . 83 exceptions - former camp ipperwash ( 2015 - 03 - 06 )
as per the memorandum of understanding between dnd , environment canada , and the parks canada agency : 6 . 1 c ) activities occurring on defence establishments that are considered necessary for public safety in accordance with paragraph a ) and authorized under the national defence act and the explosives act are : remediation of contaminated sites ; and securing , handling , destruction or disposal of unsafe munitions , including unexploded explosive ordnance .
environment and climate change canada’s three - year recovery document posting plan identifies the species for which recovery documents will be posted each fiscal year starting in 2014 - 2015 . posting this three year plan on the species at risk public registry is intended to provide transparency to partners , stakeholders , and the public about environment and climate change canada’s plan to develop and post these proposed recovery strategies and management plans . however , both the number of documents and the particular species that are posted in a given year may change slightly due to a variety of circumstances . last update april 18 , 2018
if you are already a registered naturewatch user , you will be prompted to create a new password for the new website . your existing data / observations are still on file .
is a community that engages all canadians in collecting scientific information on nature to understand our changing environment .
lost your password ? get a new one . not registered ? create an account now .
biokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright © 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en
reproduction and calls : breeding begins in the spring , often when ice and snow are still present . probably breeds primarily from march to early june in arizona . the male has a surprisingly loud call that sounds like
pprreeep
or someone running a finger down the teeth of a comb . during peak breeding periods , males call during the day as well as at night . each female lays up to 1 , 500 eggs , which are deposited in small packets of 20 - 100 , and are attached to submerged sticks , leaves , or grass . tadpoles hatch in a few days to a week or more , and metamorphosis occurs in 6 - 13 weeks .
we request that if you make use of the textual contents of this site in reports , publications , etc . that you cite and credit the author ( s ) and photographer ( s ) . all photos on this website are copyrighted . however , those found in the species account and habitat sections may be used for any noncommercial scientific , educational , or conservation purposes provided that photographs are not altered and continue to bear the copyright symbol and name of the photographer . please contact the photographer regarding commercial use of copyrighted photographs .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of some forms of habitat alteration and presumed large population size , despite potential population declines .
these frogs are tolerant of some forms of habitat alteration ( e . g . clearing of forest ) , but loss of wetlands , and unknown factors ( possibly including agricultural chemicals , drought , and chytrid fungus ) have caused declines in some areas ( gibbs
conservation actions many occurrences are in protected areas . research needed in view of reported declines and taxonomic changes affecting the scope of the species , determination of current taxonomic and population status is appropriate .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
( green , et al . , 2013 ; lemmon , et al . , 2007 ; powell , et al . , 2016 )
( green , et al . , 2013 ; harding and holman , 1992 ; powell , et al . , 2016 )
( encyclopedia of life , 2016 ; harding and holman , 1992 ; powell , et al . , 2016 )
breeding season egg laying occurs mostly in april , but can extend into may .
typical for frogs that lay a large number of eggs , most of the offspring will die before reaching adulthood , though the exact numbers are unknown . however , once these frogs reach maturity , they may live for 2 to 5 years .
( harding and holman , 1992 ; kramer , 1974 ; pough , et al . , 2004 )
( encyclopedia of life , 2016 ; harding and holman , 1992 ; pough , et al . , 2004 )
( encyclopedia of life , 2016 ; pough , et al . , 2004 )
this species is considered to be mostly stable . although listed as
vulnerable
in quebec ( green et al . , 2013 ) , it has no special status in the united states . it is common in much of its large range . the iucn indicates there has been a decline but the degree is uncertain . like other frogs , they are very susceptible to agricultural chemicals and to baitfish and gamefish introduction into breeding wetlands . their breeding habitat is also vulnerable to destruction due to urban and suburban development ( green et al . , 2013 ) .


scotinomys is a genus of rodent , the singing mice , in the family cricetidae .

together with baiomys , it forms the tribe baiomyini .

it contains the following species : alston 's brown mouse ( scotinomys teguina ) chiriqui brown mouse ( scotinomys xerampelinus ) they are found in mountainous areas in central america , at altitudes of 1000 m to at least 3500 m .

as their common name indicates , they are notable for their acoustic communication .

they are insectivorous .

the two species show substantial divergence in behaviour and reproduction , with s. xerampelinus generally dominant over s. teguina where the species occur together .

scotinomys

kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
guatemalanruskohiiru
to
scotinomys teguina ( alston , 1877 )
.
reproduction , growth and development in two contiguously allopatric rodent species , genus scotinomys . misc . publ . mus . zool . univ . mich
citation : campbell p , pasch b , warren al , phelps sm ( 2014 ) vocal ontogeny in neotropical singing mice ( scotinomys ) . plos one 9 ( 12 ) : e113628 . urltoken
neotropical singing mice ( scotinomys ) are diurnal , insectivorous rodents that inhabit the cloud - cloaked mountains of middle america . males commonly emit elaborate vocalizations to attract mates & repel rivals . please visit urltoken for more information on current research
dimitri v . blondel , jorge pino , steven m . phelps ; space use and social structure of long - tailed singing mice ( scotinomys xerampelinus ) , journal of mammalogy , volume 90 , issue 3 , 2 june 2009 , pages 715–723 , urltoken
comparisons of mean home - range sizes of scotinomys xerampelinus across seasons for a , c ) 85 % minimum convex polygon and b , d ) 100 % minimum convex polygon . data shown are means ± 1 se . all comparisons are not statistically significant ( p > 0 . 05 ) .
home ranges for individual scotinomys xerampelinus located ( captured or fixed via telemetry ) on the study grid ≥4 times for ( a ) 2003 , 85 % mcp home ranges , ( b ) 2003 , 100 % mcp home ranges , ( c ) 2004 , 85 % mcp home ranges , and ( d ) 2004 , 100 % mcp home ranges . home ranges are calculated using the arithmetic mean method . home ranges for males ( solid lines ) and females ( dashed lines ) are shown ; 10 - m scale lines are indicated .
here , we characterize the vocal development of two sister species of neotropical mice in which vocal communication plays a major role in adult social behavior . commonly referred to as singing mice , scotinomys teguina and s . xerampelinus are small ( 10–15 g ) diurnal , insectivorous muroid rodents . both species are restricted to cool , montane habitats in middle america ; s . teguina ranges from southern méxico to panamá at 1000–2930 m , whereas s . xerampelinus occurs only in costa rica and panamá where it replaces s . teguina at altitudes between 2200 and 2900 m [ 31 ] .
comparison of expected versus observed areas of home - range overlap of scotinomys xerampelinus . analyses are based on 85 % minimum convex polygons calculated with the arithmetic mean method . comparisons of expected and observed values were according to batzli and henttonen ( 1993 ) . obs . overlap = observed home - range overlap on the study grid . exp . overlap = expected area of home - range overlap based on random placement of home ranges on the study grid . means are given ± 1 se . ♂♂ = males overlapped by males ; ♂♀ = males overlapped by females ; ♀♀ = females overlapped by females ; ♀♂ = females overlapped by males .
mean ± 1 se expected ( random ) and observed areas of home - range overlap of scotinomys xerampelinus . analyses are based on 85 % minimum convex polygons ; data from 2003 and 2004 were pooled . observed = observed average area of home - range overlap on the study grid . expected = average area of home - range overlap predicted from random placement of home ranges on the study grid . an asterisk ( * ) indicates p < 0 . 05 , wilcoxon sign rank comparisons of observed and expected areas of overlap . n = 10 males and 10 females . ♂♂ = males overlapped by males ; ♂♀ = males overlapped by females ; ♀♀ = females overlapped by females ; ♀♂ = females overlapped by males .
during the 1st field season , both livetrapping ( “trapping localities” ) and radiotracking ( “fixes” ) data were used to characterize individual home ranges . these data were collected over a period of 18 days , from 19 august to 5 september 2003 . because of technical problems , including receiver failure , we were unable to collect telemetry data during the 2nd field season , which continued over a period of 35 days , from 24 may to 27 june 2004 . thus , only livetrapping data were used for the 2nd field season . this difference in data sets should not have affected our statistical comparisons of home - range attributes , because our method of overlap analysis generated both expected and observed values from the same data set ( 2003 : livetrapping and radiotelemetry ; 2004 : livetrapping only ) . although our data collection was limited to may , june , august , and september , the mountainous regions of western panama have consistently wet weather throughout the year and scotinomys reproduces aseasonally ( hooper and carleton 1976 ) , suggesting that space use by members of the study population should not vary greatly over the course of the year .
study population attributes . —in 2003 , 24 adults ( 9 males and 15 females , sex ratio = 0 . 6 : 1 ) were trapped on the study grid . in 2004 , 20 adults ( 9 males and 11 females , sex ratio = 0 . 8 : 1 ) were trapped on the study grid . the density of residents ( i . e . , animals captured ≥4 times on the study grid ) in 2003 , when vegetation was overgrown , was 62 mice / ha ; in 2004 , when vegetation was grazed , density was 28 mice / ha . females were found to be pregnant or lactating or both from june to september 2003 and may to august 2004 ; this represents the entire study period as well as some pre - and poststudy trapping of animals on the site . this finding is consistent with the data of hooper and carleton ' s ( 1976 ) indicating that reproduction by scotinomys is aseasonal . the ratio of scrotal males to perforate , pregnant , or lactating females was 9 to 13 ( 0 . 7 : 1 ) in 2003 and 8 to 10 ( 0 . 8 : 1 ) in 2004 .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
baiomyini . until diagnosed by thomas , species associated here had been affiliated with akodon ( e . g . , bangs , 1902 ) and later the genus with akodontines ( vorontsov , 1959 ) . common ancestry with baiomys inferred on the basis of shared morphological traits ( carleton , 1980 ; carleton et al . , 1975 ; hooper , 1960 ; hooper and musser , 1964 b ) and phylogenetic evaluation of mitochondrial and nuclear genes ( d’elía , 2003 ; engel et al . , 1998 ) , a relationship weakened by karyological banding data ( rogers and heske , 1984 ) . also see comments under baiomys . revised by hooper ( 1972 ) ; for other aspects of biology and systematics , see carleton et al . ( 1975 ) , hooper and carleton ( 1976 ) , and rogers and heske ( 1984 ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
javascript is disabled for your browser . some features of this site may not work without it .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
your web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .
your list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .
note : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .
the e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .
the e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .
i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
please choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .
this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
add tags for
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference
.
you may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
worldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more ››
don ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
editor : brenton g . cooper , texas christian university , united states of america
copyright : © 2014 campbell et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
data availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .
funding : the research was funded by grants from the national science foundation to smp ( ios 0548404 , career 0845455 ) . pc was supported by a national institutes of health nrsa fellowship from the national institute on deafness and other communication disorders ( f32 dc008269 ) . bp was supported by a national science foundation ddig ( 0909769 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
offspring - to - parent signaling is among the most fundamental forms of communication [ 1 ] . for nocturnal mammals with altricial young ( e . g . , rodents , bats ) , acoustic signals produced by neonates ( isolation calls ) are integral to maternal localization and retrieval [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , and can promote maternal behaviors such as grooming and nursing . thus , across distantly related mammalian orders , both the intended receiver and the function of isolation calls seem to be conserved , and are unique to the period of maternal dependence . while vocal communication remains important to the adult social behavior of many species , the receivers and functions of acoustic signals are diverse and context - dependent , ranging from alarm calling , territorial advertisement and mate attraction , to courtship songs that encode individual identity [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] . the functional disconnect between neonate and adult vocal behavior raises several interesting questions . for example , are the acoustic properties of isolation calls unique or are elements retained as the animal matures and the social context and function of vocal behavior changes ? conversely , what is the developmental time course of adult vocal communication ? are adult vocalizations produced de novo post - weaning or can the trajectory of vocal development be traced back to isolation calls ?
breeding pairs were housed in polycarbonate cages bedded with wood chips . the mice were provided with sphagnum moss and a pvc tunnel for nesting ; water and food ( kitten chow , seeds , dried beans and peanuts ) were given ad lib . pups were housed with both parents until weaning and litter sizes were not manipulated . a total of 30 s . teguina from 27 litters were recorded for this study ; 16 of these were the offspring of wild - caught parents , captured in cartago , costa rica , and 14 were the progeny of either first generation or wild - caught individuals from boquete , panamá . s . xerampelinus ( n = 15 pups , 9 litters ) were the offspring of first , second or third generation lab - reared individuals , derived from mice captured in parque internacional la amistad , panamá . all mice were housed in the same room . all animal protocols were approved by the institutional animal care and use committee at university of florida ( no . e436 ) .
mice were recorded between 9 : 00 am and 6 : 00 pm in a room acoustically isolated from the rest of the colony . the recording chamber was a polycarbonate cage bedded with clean wood chips inside a 42×42×39 cm opaque plexiglas cube lined with anechoic foam . one side of the cube was left open to allow behavioral observations and a microphone was fitted through a small opening in the ceiling , 25 cm above the cage floor . calls were sampled at a rate of 195 khz , 16 bits with an aco pacific microphone and tucker - davis hardware . file sizes were set to 15 s . fifteen seconds is > 2× the average duration of adult advertisement songs [ 29 ] , and reliably captured pup calling bouts in preliminary recording trials .
species , sex ( f / m ) and population means ( sd ) for litter size and developmental landmarks in singing mice .
we use “isolation call” to refer to any vocalization produced by a pre - weaning pup that does not comprise the rapidly articulated series of fm sweeps characteristic of the adult advertisement song . we delineated the end of the isolation calling period for each individual as the last day on which an isolation call was produced . we define a note as a continuous sound , and a calling bout as a series of three or more notes occurring with an inter - note interval of less than 2 s . notes were classified manually according to quantitative differences in duration , bandwidth , number of changes in direction of frequency ( 0 , 1 or ≧2 ) , and the presence / absence of nonlinear elements ( e . g . , deterministic chaos and bifurcations ; [ 37 ] ) .
all measurements were made in raven pro 1 . 3 ( bioacoustics research program 2008 ) . we analyzed a maximum of three files / individual / day and took the average of all variables . when more than three files were available we used the first three good quality files ( i . e . , high signal : noise ) from that recording session . in each 15 s file we measured overall maximum , minimum and dominant frequency , and bandwidth . when harmonics were present , maximum and minimum frequency were always measured from the fundamental frequency ( i . e . , the lowest frequency in the harmonic series ) . we manually counted the total number of notes in each file , the number of notes in the first calling bout , and the number of notes of each type . in addition , note duration , bandwidth , and maximum , minimum and dominant frequency were measured for each of three notes in the first calling bout in the file . to avoid bias in note choice we measured bout duration , divided by three , and took measurements from notes that fell in the middle of each third ( i . e . , for a 6 s bout we measured the notes closest to 1 . 5 , 3 . 5 and 5 . 5 s ) . internote interval was measured from end of each focal note to the beginning of the next note in the file .
principle components analysis ( pca ) was used to visualize the distribution of age - and species - specific vocal parameters in acoustic space . because the same mice were recorded at multiple ages , call data for a given individual were statistically non - independent . we controlled for non - independence in several ways . to test for age - specific differences within and between species , we binned recordings into age classes ( postnatal days 1–3 , 4–6 , 7–9 , 10–12 , 13–15 , 30 + ) , and analyzed vocalizations from a single recording session for each individual within each age class . for the three - day age classes , we retained data for all individuals that were recorded in the middle of each age range ( e . g . , day 2 for days 1–3 ) , and otherwise picked one representative day / individual / age class at random . adult songs were analyzed from a single recording session / individual ( mean age , sd : 40 . 2 , 6 . 1 days ) .
repeated measures analysis of variance ( anova ) was used to test the effect of age on vocal development over time . in this case , only individuals that were represented in each age class were included in the analysis . to test for correlations between body mass and frequency measures from birth to maturity , we randomly assigned each individual to a focal age , such that total age range was maximized and each individual was used only once in the analysis .
we used the coefficient of variation ( defined as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean ) to describe change in vocal stereotypy across age classes . within each age class we took the average of the coefficient of variation for seven descriptors of frequency and timing ( maximum , minimum and dominant frequency , number of notes / bout , bout duration , note duration for a randomly selected note in the middle third of a bout , and internote interval to the next note ) from three different call files recorded from the same individual during a maximum time interval of three days ( birth to 15 days ) or 5 days ( > 30 days ) . in most cases , we were able to use calls captured during the same recording session . we used one - way anovas to test for species and sex differences in the coefficient of variation within each age class . the α value for all statistical analyses was set to 0 . 05 , with correction for multiple testing as appropriate .
in most individuals of both species , vocal behavior was developmentally disjunct with a non - vocal period separating the last recorded isolation call and the first production of the adult advertisement song ( table 1 ) . of the 30 s . teguina pups recorded in this study , 27 produced isolation calls when removed from the nest . the three pups that never called were males derived from the boquete population and were all from single pup litters . all 23 s . teguina that were recorded from birth to maturity produced adult songs , including the three males that did not call at earlier stages . of the 15 s . xerampelinus pups used in the study , one female from a single pup litter did not produce isolation calls . of the 11 individuals ( 5 females , 6 males ) recorded to maturity , three females and one male were never observed singing as adults .
unexpectedly , the largest differences in the duration of isolation calling and the timing of first adult song production were within s . teguina . on average , pups derived from the cartago population stopped producing isolation calls almost a week later than those from boquete ( mean , sd : 13 . 0 , 2 . 3 days vs . 7 . 5 , 1 . 7 days ; f 1 , 23 35 . 5 , p < 0 . 0001 ) and produced their first adult song over a week later than boquete mice ( 35 . 5 , 6 . 2 days vs . 26 . 7 , 9 . 7 days ; f 1 , 21 6 . 7 , p = 0 . 02 ) , whereas the duration of the non - vocal period did not differ between populations ( 22 . 1 , 6 . 5 days vs . 21 . 5 , 9 . 0 days ; f 1 , 18 0 . 03 , p = 0 . 9 ) ( table 1 ) . we asked whether these population differences in vocal development might be a secondary consequence of different rates of growth and development , or an artifact of social or sex - specific biases in our sample .
boquete litter sizes were smaller ( f 1 , 26 21 . 6 , p < 0 . 0001 ) and boquete pups ' eyes opened earlier ( f 1 , 39 167 . 0 , p < 0 . 0001 ) ( table 1 ) . therefore , between - population differences in vocal behavior could be explained by overall slower development in cartago mice due to proportionally less maternal resource allocation / pup . however , there was no effect of population on body mass for any age class ( all p ≧0 . 2 ) . likewise , the end of isolation calling was three days prior to when boquete pups opened their eyes , whereas these events were approximately coincident in cartago pups ( table 1 ) . we also considered that there might be an effect of litter size on motivation to vocalize ; pups in this study that did not vocalize had no siblings and a similar relationship between small litter size and low isolation call production was reported in microtus [ 22 ] . we could not test this hypothesis statistically since only one cartago single - pup litter was included in the study . however , this female produced isolation calls , albeit for a period less than the population mean ( 8 vs . 13 . 0 days ) . finally , the boquete sample was strongly female - biased for all pup age classes . therefore , if female s . teguina stop producing isolation calls earlier and start producing adult song later than males , population effects on vocal behavior might be an artifact of sex differences . within the cartago sample , however , there was no sex difference in the duration of the isolation calling period or age at first adult song production ( both p > 0 . 1 ) .
these results , together with population differentiation in acoustic properties of vocalizations ( [ 29 ] ; described below ) , suggest that this bimodal pattern of vocal behavior within s . teguina reflects population differences in nature , which persist across several generations of lab - rearing in a common environment . to avoid confounding intraspecific variation with interspecific divergence , we carried out between - species analyses both with and without the boquete samples . we report results for the full dataset unless exclusion of boquete mice changed significance .
there was no difference between s . xerampelinus and s . teguina in the duration of the isolation calling period ( f 1 , 37 2 . 4 , p = 0 . 1 ) , the duration of the non - vocal period ( f 1 , 25 0 . 9 , p = 0 . 4 ) , or the age at which the first adult song was recorded ( f 1 , 28 0 . 4 , p = 0 . 6 ) ( table 1 ) . with the boquete samples excluded , however , the isolation calling period was significantly longer in s . teguina ( f 1 , 30 9 . 4 , p = 0 . 005 ) .
adult s . teguina sing longer songs and are typically more vocal than adult s . xerampelinus , and males of both species sing longer songs and sing more often than females [ 32 ] , [ 35 ] . therefore , we asked whether species and sex differences in vocal production are established at earlier stages . s . teguina pups that produced isolation calls did so on a significantly higher proportion of days than s . xerampelinus pups ( f 1 , 36 12 . 0 , p = 0 . 001 ) ( table 1 ) . there was no species difference in bout length for any pup age class ( all p ≧0 . 3 ) , but 1–3 day old s . teguina pups from cartago tended to produce more notes / 15 s than age - matched s . xerampelinus ( f 1 , 22 4 . 0 , p = 0 . 06 ) .
within s . xerampelinus , there was no sex difference in pup vocal production ( proportion of days with isolation calls , bout length , note rate , all p ≧0 . 1 ) , but male pups stopped producing isolation calls significantly later than females ( f 1 , 13 13 . 9 , p = 0 . 003 ; table 1 ) . the small sample size for adult s . xerampelinus females that sang precluded tests for sex differences in the duration of the non - vocal period , or the first production of adult song . while there was no effect of sex on the proportion of days that s . teguina pups produced isolation calls , 4–6 and 7–9 day old s . teguina males produced more notes / 15 s ( f 1 , 18 4 . 5 , p = 0 . 05 and f 1 , 18 5 . 6 , p = 0 . 004 , respectively ) and produced longer bouts ( f 1 , 18 4 . 4 , p = 0 . 051 and f 1 , 18 8 . 9 , p = 0 . 008 , respectively ) .
we identified six distinct note types . representative spectrograms of isolation calling bouts are shown in figure 2 ; the five most common note types are shown in figure 3 .
notes a - e are indicated to the right of the first note of that type in each spectrogram .
change in the proportional abundances of common notes types during vocal development in singing mice .
representative examples of notes a–e ( dominant frequency only ; see fig . 2 for harmonics ) are shown on the x - axis . black ( s . teguina ) and white ( s . xerampelinus ) bars are species means for notes in each age class . error bars are + 1 se . sample sizes by age class are 20 ( 1–3 and 30 + days ) , 19 ( 4–6 and 7–9 days ) and 13 ( 10–12 days ) for s . teguina , and 9 ( 1–3 days ) , 11 ( 4–6 days ) , 7 ( 7–9 days ) , 4 ( 10–12 days ) and 8 ( 30 + days ) for s . xerampelinus . species differences in the proportional abundances of note types within age class were tested with one - way anova , * p < 0 . 05 , * * p < 0 . 01 .
a . long fm downward sweep with harmonics and ≧10 khz bandwidth . note a is the main component of the adult advertisement song of both species .
b . short fm downward sweep with < 10 khz bandwidth and no harmonics .
c . notes with nonlinear components , typically an fm downward sweep combined with one or more complex elements , all with multiple harmonics and deterministic chaos .
d . complex fm warble with harmonics and two or more directional changes in frequency ≧2 khz .
e . complex fm with harmonics and one directional change in frequency ≧2 khz .
we used pca to visualize age , species and population differences in frequency and timing . variables and loadings for the first two components are provided in table s2 , mean scores are plotted in figure 4 , species means for selected variables are in table s1 . all measures of frequency loaded strongly on the first axis , which accounted for 34 . 5 % of the total variance . this axis provided strong separation between s . teguina and s . xerampelinus , and between younger pup age classes within species , with positive scores for higher frequencies . there was a clear reduction in frequency with age in both species , with the largest change over time in s . xerampelinus , and a striking convergence in 10–12 day old pups of both species . this axis also provided minor separation between age - matched boquete - and cartago - derived s . teguina , with higher frequencies in boquete pups , but lower frequencies in boquete adults . the second axis ( 19 . 6 % total variance ) defined differences in bandwidth and note duration with positive scores reflecting larger bandwidth and longer notes . s . xerampelinus age classes were largely indistinguishable along this axis , whereas there was strong separation between boquete and cartago s . teguina , with cartago pups falling closer to age - matched s . xerampelinus than to boquete conspecifics . strikingly , while bandwidth and note duration in cartago mice increased from 4–6 day old pups to adults , boquete mice exhibited the opposite pattern , with a sharp decrease between 7–9 day old pups and adults . the third axis ( 8 . 2 % total variance , data not shown ) described among individual differences in timing and did not provide separation between species , populations or age classes .
plot of mean scores from the first ( pc1 ) and second ( pc2 ) principle components axes for age classes in s . xerampelinus ( white ) , and in s . teguina split by population ( cartago , black ; boquete , gray ) . age classes are indicated next to each point . pc1 explains 35 % of the total variance with higher scores corresponding to higher frequency . pc2 explains 20 % of the total variance with higher scores corresponding to larger bandwidth and longer notes . error bars are + / −1 se .
black ( s . teguina ) and white ( s . xerampelinus ) circles are species means for maximum ( max , dashes ) , dominant ( dom , dots ) , and minimum ( min , dots and dashes ) frequency in each age class . error bars are + / −1 se . sample size for s . teguina in the 13–15 day age class is 9 ; no calls were recorded for s . xerampelinus in this age class . see figure 3 caption for all other sample sizes .
interspecific differences in frequency across vocal development were generally larger than population differences within s . teguina . with boquete mice excluded , s . xerampelinus pup dominant and maximum frequencies were marginally higher at days 4–6 ( p = 0 . 03 ) and 7–9 ( p = 0 . 02 ) , respectively , but overall patterns were unchanged .
there were several marginal age - specific differences between s . teguina males and females ( table s3 ) , but these were not consistent either within or across age groups . this general lack of sex differences in spectral measures of pup isolation calls is consistent with the sexually monomorphic spectral features of adult song in both species . however , we cannot exclude the possibility of detecting sex differences with larger sample sizes , particularly for s . xerampelinus .
in both species , there was a significant negative relationship between body mass and all whole call frequency measures ( fig . s1 ) . in s . teguina ( n = 24 ) , the effect of body mass on dominant frequency was marginal ( f 1 , 23 4 . 7 , p = 0 . 04 ) , but highly significant for minimum frequency ( f 1 , 23 37 . 1 , p < 0 . 0001 ) and maximum frequency ( f 1 , 23 16 . 3 , p = 0 . 0006 ) . similarly , in s . xerampelinus ( n = 13 ) , the negative effect of body mass was weaker for dominant frequency ( f 1 , 12 6 . 3 , p = 0 . 03 ) than for minimum or maximum frequency ( f 1 , 12 15 . 5 , p = 0 . 002 and f 1 , 12 16 . 0 , p = 0 . 002 , respectively ) .
the advertisement songs of adult singing mice are highly stereotyped . therefore , we were interested in whether stereotypy increases with age as pups acquire greater motor control , or whether stereotypy is a unique feature of the adult song . for each age class , we used the coefficient of variation ( cv ) to summarize the within - individual repeatability of seven descriptors of frequency and timing . species means for each age class are shown in figure 6 . because the composition of pup vocal repertoires was heterogeneous relative to that of adults , our analysis was biased toward detecting lower stereotypy ( higher cv ) in pups vs . adults . nonetheless , if increase in stereotypy were an important component of pup vocal development , we would expect to observe a reduction in intra - individual variation across pup age classes .
black ( s . teguina ) and white ( s . xerampelinus ) cicles are species means for the coefficient of variation in each age class . error bars are + / −1 se . sample sizes by age class are 15 ( 1–3 days ) , 16 ( 4–6 days ) , 14 ( 7–9 days ) , 11 ( 10–12 days ) , 6 ( 13–15 days ) and 18 ( 30 + days ) for s . teguina , and 7 ( 1–3 days ) , 8 ( 4–6 days ) , 5 ( 7–9 days ) and 6 ( 30 + days ) for s . xerampelinus . there were insufficient data for s . xerampelinus in the 10–12 age class and no calls were recorded for the 13–15 age class .
contrary to this expectation , intra - individual variation increased from birth to the end of the isolation calling period in both species . however , the reduction in stereotypy with age was minor in s . teguina but pronounced in s . xerampelinus . the stereotypical properties of the adult song , evidenced by low cv , were present from the first song recorded in young adult mice ( fig . 6 , 30 + days ) . in the subset of individuals for which we had a second series of adult songs , captured at least 10 days after the first songs we recorded , there was no evidence for an increase in stereotypy with age ( n = 7 , paired t - test , p = 0 . 3 ) . there were no species differences in adult vocal stereotypy .
there was no effect of sex on stereotypy for any age class in either species . there was , however a species difference in age - matched pups , with higher repeatability in s . teguina . this difference was significant for age classes 1–3 ( f 1 , 21 8 . 01 , p = 0 . 01 ) and 7–9 ( f 1 , 18 22 . 01 , p = 0 . 0002 ) .
the survival of altricial neonates that are displaced from their nest depends on rapid maternal retrieval . therefore , selection should favor isolation calls that are localizable and readily detected by adult females . in general , frequency modulated sounds are easier to localize than constant frequency sounds : directional changes in frequency enhance detectability [ 38 ] , [ 39 ] , and nonlinearities ( e . g . , noise or biphonation ) are thought to prevent receiver habituation [ 37 ] , [ 40 ] . in keeping with these signal design rules , most singing mouse pup vocalizations are frequency modulated and , while the unidirectional fm sweep is the most common note type in both pup isolation calls and adult advertisement song , the vocal repertoire of pups includes notes with multiple directional changes in frequency and notes with nonlinear elements , which are rare or absent in adult songs .
singing mice are unusual among muroid rodents in that long distance acoustic communication is an important modulator of adult social interactions . this motivated our focus on the ontogeny of the spectral and stereotypic properties of the adult advertisement song . however , like many species of social mammals , including other rodents , adult singing mice vocalize during close - range interactions [ 32 ] . interestingly , complex fm warbles that resemble an elaborated version of notes d and e in young pups are the most common note type produced by adult s . teguina in close - range social interactions ( warren , campbell , pasch and phelps unpublished data ) . this suggests that the distinct vocal repertoires used by adults in long - distance vs . close - range communication arise from the same source during early development . similar patterns of vocal development , in which the heterogeneous repertoire of dependent young is modified and used in discrete contexts by adults , are reported in shrews , echolocating bats , and lab mice [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] .
female s . teguina produced their first advertisement song ( 34 . 3±8 . 2 d ) coincident with the onset of sexual receptivity indicated by vulval opening ( 33 . 8 d ; range 28–39 d ; [ 31 ] ) . this pattern suggests that steroid hormones associated with the estrous cycle activate female vocalizations . androgen manipulations indicate that dht , which cannot be aromatized to estrogen , is sufficient to activate male s . teguina vocalizations , suggesting that estrogens are not necessary for song production . interestingly , the minority of males who continued to sing following castration were those castrates with the highest levels of circulating testosterone , indicating that extra - gonadal androgens may influence song output [ 33 ] . periovulatory androgen release from the adrenals is associated with female sexual behavior in several mammalian species [ 43 ] , and may activate female vocal behavior [ 44 ] .
from an ultimate perspective , the non - vocal period corresponds to the span of time when pups of both species become ambulatory , are weaned , and initiate dispersal [ 31 ] . initially , silence reflects emancipation from immobility and the ability to actively suckle by day 12 [ 31 ] . subsequent silence in subadults likely facilitates competitor avoidance as individuals disperse in search of unoccupied habitat . because adult vocalizations advertise signaler presence to potential rivals , remaining silent reduces the probability of escalation of costly antagonistic encounters [ 35 ] . indeed , immigrant s . teguina males ( who were smaller and younger ) counter - sang less in response to playback of a conspecific male song compared to larger and older residents ( pasch and phelps , unpublished data ) . together , the data suggest that the emergence of adult vocalizations represents a compromise between proximate mechanisms that promote advertisement of the onset of sexual maturity , and selection that suppresses advertisement until the social environment is opportune .
the capacity for vocal learning is rare in non - human mammals . traditionally , rodents are classified as vocal non - learners , and recent studies using approaches such as deafening and cross - fostering indicate that the courtship songs of adult male lab mice require no auditory input for normal development and are invariant relative to the vocal environment in which animals are reared [ 45 ] , [ 46 ] , [ 47 ] . however , patterns of forebrain activation associated with lab mouse courtship song production , pitch convergence in songs of co - housed males from vocally distinct strains , and song degradation following deafening , suggest that the basic neural substrates and the capacity for vocal imitation ( plasticity ) may be present in some rodents ( [ 48 ] ; see also ref . 12 ) . arriaga and jarvis [ 49 ] proposed that these conflicting results could be reconciled if vocal learning is treated as a continuum , placing taxa like mice with a modest capacity for vocal plasticity at one end of the spectrum , and taxa like humans and song birds with the capacity to learn and subsequently modify complex vocal output at the other .
taken together , these observations suggest that singing mouse advertisement songs do not require extensive learning . testing this hypothesis awaits manipulation of early acoustic environments or auditory function . finally , given the evidence for pitch convergence in the close - range courtship songs of adult male lab mice [ 48 ] , it will be of particular interest to determine whether the close - range vocal repertoires of adult singing mice are similarly sensitive to auditory feedback .
the results of this study demonstrate that vocal development in sister species of singing mice follows the same basic trajectory as that described in other mammalian orders ( i . e . , chiroptera and soricomorpha ; [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] ) , and in laboratory mice [ 12 ] . while the acoustic structure , mechanistic basis , and social context of singing mouse vocalizations all undergo major shifts in the transition from isolation calls to adult advertisement songs , the basic elements of adult song are present from birth . likewise , spectral components of isolation calls that are rare or absent in adult long distance signals are common in adult close - range interactions . this suggests that the acoustic signals of need produced by altricial mammalian neonates provide the raw material for diverse forms of adult vocal behavior and communication .
the relationship between body mass and maximum ( black triangles ) , dominant ( open diamonds ) , and minimum ( gray squares ) frequency in a ) s . teguina , and b ) s . xerampelinus .
age - specific means ( sd ) for selected measures of frequency , timing , and vocal behavior in s . teguina ( st ) and s . xerampelinus ( sx ) .
principle component ( pc ) axis loadings for 25 acoustic variables measured from the isolation calls and adult songs of singing mice .
we are very grateful to amanda arner and molly phillips for their assistance with data collection ; we thank andreas george for his help with animal care . an earlier version of the manuscript was improved by comments from monica guerra .
conceived and designed the experiments : pc bp smp . performed the experiments : pc bp alw . analyzed the data : pc alw . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : smp . wrote the paper : pc bp .
haak b , markl h , ehret g ( 1983 ) sound communication between parents and offspring . in : willot jfeditor . the auditory psychobiology of the mouse . springfield : c . thomas . pp . 57–97 .
smith jc ( 1976 ) responses of adult mice to models of infant calls . j . comp . physiol . psychol 90 : 1105–1115 .
gaub s , ehret g ( 2005 ) grouping in auditory temporal perception and vocal production is mutually adapted : the case of wriggling calls of mice . journal of comparative physiology 191 : 1131–1135 .
blumstein dt , armitage kb ( 1997 ) does sociality drive the evolution of communicative complexity ? a comparative test with ground - dwelling sciurid alarm calls . american naturalist 150 : 179–200 .
hoffmann f , musolf k , penn dj ( 2012 ) spectrographic analyses reveal signals of individuality and kinship in the ultrasonic courtship vocalizations of wild house mice . physiology and behavior 105 : 266–771 .
suggests that the male courtship call develops from the caravanning call of the young . acta theriologica 59 : 149–164 .
grimsley jms , monaghan jjm , wenstrup jj ( 2011 ) development of social vocalizations in mice . plos one 6 : e17460 .
ey e , torquet n , le sourd am , leblond cs , boeckers tm , et al . ( 2013 ) the autism
mouse model displays quantitative and structural abnormalities in ultrasonic vocalizations . behavioural brain research 256 : 677–689 .
hoffmann f , musolf k , penn dj ( 2012 ) ultrasonic courtship vocalizations in wild house mice : spectrographic analyses . journal of ethology 30 : 173–180 .
branchi i , santucci d , vitale a , alleva e ( 1998 ) ultrasonic vocalizations by infant laboratory mice : a preliminary spectrographic characterization under different conditions . developmental psychobiology 33 : 249–256 .
branchi i , santucci d , vitale a , alleva e ( 2001 ) ultrasonic vocalisation emitted by infant rodents : a tool for the assessment of neurobehavioural development . behavioural brain research 125 : 49–56 .
brudzynski sm , kehoe p , callahan m ( 1999 ) sonographic structure of isolation - induced ultrasonic calls of rat pus . developmental psychobiology 34 : 95–204 .
ehret g ( 2005 ) infant rodent ultrasounds—a gate to the understanding of sound communication . behavior genetics 35 : 19–29 .
blake bh ( 1992 ) ultrasonic vocalization and body temperature maintenance in infant voles of three species ( rodentia : arvicolidae ) . developmental psychobiology 25 : 581–596 .
slobodchikoff cn , ackers sh , van ert m ( 1998 ) geographic variation in alarm calls of gunnison ' s prairie dogs . journal of mammalogy 79 : 1265–1272 .
holy te , guo z ( 2005 ) ultrasonic songs of male mice . plos biology 3 : e386 .
campbell p , pasch b , pino jl , crino ol , phillips m , et al . ( 2010 ) geographic variation in the songs of neotropical singing mice : testing the relative importance of drift and local adaptation . evolution 64 : 1955–1972 .
miller jr , engstrom md ( 2007 ) vocal stereotypy and singing behavior in baiomyine mice . journal of mammalogy 88 : 1447–1465 .
pasch b , george as , hamlin hj , guillette lj jr , phelps sm ( 2011 ) androgens modulate song effort and aggression in neotropical singing mice . hormones and behavior 59 : 90–97 .
pasch b , george as , campbell p , phelps sm ( 2011 ) androgen - dependent male vocal performance influences female preference in neotropical singing mice . animal behaviour 82 : 177–183 .
pasch b , bolker bm , phelps sm ( 2013 ) interspecific dominance via vocal interactions mediates altitudinal zonation in neotropical singing mice . american naturalist 182 : e161–173 .
fitch wt , neubauer j , herzel h ( 2002 ) calls out of chaos : the adaptive significance of nonlinear phenomena in mammalian vocal production . animal behavior 63 : 407–418 .
bradbury jw , vehrencamp sl ( 1998 ) principles of animal communication . sunderland : sinauer associates , inc . 882 p .
brudzynski sm ( 2005 ) principles of rat communication : quantitative parameters of ultrasonic calls in rats . behavior genetics 25 : 85–92 .
blumstein dt , récapet c ( 2009 ) the sound of arousal : the addition of novel non - linearities increases responsiveness in marmot alarm calls . ethology 115 : 1074–1081 .
badyaev av , ghalambor ck ( 2001 ) evolution of life histories along elevational gradients : trade - off between parental care and fecundity . ecology 82 : 2948–2960 .
snell - rood ec , badyaev av ( 2008 ) ecological gradient of sexual selection : elevation and song elaboration in finches . oecologia 157 : 545–551 .
sen a , prizant h , light a , biswas a , hayes e , et al . ( 2014 ) androgens regulate ovarian follicular development by increasing follicle stimulating hormone receptor and
expression . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 111 : 3008–3013 .
kikusui t , nakanishi k , nakagawa r , nagasawa m , mogi k , et al . ( 2011 ) cross fostering experiments suggest that mice songs are innate . plos one 6 : e17721 .
hammerschmidt k , reisinger e , westekemper k , ehrenreich l , strenzke n , et al . ( 2012 ) mice do not require auditory input for the normal development of their ultrasonic vocalizations . bmc neuroscience 13 : 40 .
mahrt ej , perkel dj , tong l , rubel ew , portfors cv ( 2013 ) engineered deafness reveals that mouse courtship vocalizations do not require auditory experience . journal of neuroscience 33 : 5573–5583 .
arriaga g , zhou ep , jarvis ed ( 2012 ) of mice , birds , and men : the mouse ultrasonic song system has some features similar to humans and song - learning birds . plos one 7 : e46610 .
arriaga g , jarvis ed ( 2012 ) mouse vocal communication system : are ultrasounds learned or innate ? brain and language 124 : 96–116 .
do these subject areas make sense for this article ? click the target next to the incorrect subject area and let us know . thanks for your help !
eagle rescue 101 . . . . the basics . . . . thumbs and all . . . águila de rescate 101 / sauvetage aigle 101
frontal view , showing head and feet , july 15 , 2010 . n ordonez - garza
distribution : intermediate elevations of middle america from e oaxaca , méxico , to w panamá .
this species occurs in intermediate elevations from eastern oaxaca , mxico to western panam ( musser and carleton 2005 ) . it occurs from 900 to 2 , 900 m ( reid 1997 ) .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
musser , guy g . , and michael d . carleton / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
with contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer
comments : level of differentiation and status of populations north ( teguina ) and south ( irazu ) of the nicaraguan depression merit reconsideration . hooper ( 1972 ) recognized four subspecies
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
we use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .
the spatial distribution of individuals may be strongly influenced by social processes and thus patterns of space use are often used to infer the mating and social systems of a population ( gaulin and fitzgerald 1988 ; shier and randall 2004 ; steinmann et al . 2005 ) . in particular , sex - specific differences in home - range use can yield insights into the mating system and can improve understanding of the behavior of little - studied species ( reviewed in clutton - brock 1989 , 1991 ; gaulin and fitzgerald 1988 ; heske and ostfeld 1990 ; ostfeld 1985 ; reichard 2003 ; schradin and pillay 2005 ; shier and randall 2004 ; steinmann et al . 2005 ) . for example , in polygynous mating systems , home ranges of males tend to overlap less than those of females , and a given female typically overlaps with only 1 male . in contrast , in promiscuous mating systems , home - range use by males and females is expected to be more equitable , with each individual ' s home range overlapping those of several members of the opposite sex . finally , socially monogamous systems should be characterized by exclusive ( nonoverlapping ) home ranges , each of which is shared by a male–female pair ( clutton - brock 1989 ; ophir et al . 2008 ; ostfeld 1985 ; shier and randall 2004 ) .