the scrawled butterflyfish ( chaetodon meyeri ) is a species of butterflyfish ( family chaetodontidae ) .

it is found in the indian ocean and pacific ocean from east africa to the line islands ; north to the ryukyu islands ; south to the great barrier reef ; including micronesia and the galapagos islands .

growing to a maximum length of 20 cm ( nearly 8 in ) , its body is whitish or blue-white with curved to oblique black bands on the sides .

a yellow-edged black bar runs through the eye , another is on the snout .

it is a close relative of the mailed butterflyfish ( c. reticulatus ) and the ornate butterflyfish ( c. ornatissimus ) .

together they make up the subgenus called " citharoedus " , but as this name had already been used for a mollusc genus when it was given to the fish , it is not valid .

they are probably quite close to the subgenus corallochaetodon which contains for example the melon butterflyfish ( c. trifasciatus ) .

like these , they might be separated in megaprotodon if the genus chaetodon is split up .

the scrawled butterflyfish is found at depths between 2 and 25 m in coral-rich areas of clear seaward and lagoon reefs .

they feed exclusively on coral polyps .

scrawled butterflyfish

meyer ' s butterflyfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5
, indian ocean
meyer ' s butterflyfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5
, indian ocean
meyer ' s butterflyfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5
, indian ocean
therefore it is important to choose the correct species in relation to the corals wanted , if one desires to keep butterflyfish in a coral - aquarium . bristleworms , tubeworms and other small invertebrates are also a part of the diet for many butterflyfish .
also known as coralfishes , maypole butterflyfish , meyeri butterflyfish , meyer ' s butterfly , meyer ' s coralfish , scrawl butterflyfish , scrawled butterflyfish . found singly or in pairs in clear water lagoons and seaward reefs rich in coral growth . they feed exclusively on coral polyps . length - 18cm depth - 2 - 25m widespread indo - pacific butterflyfishes have very fine hair like teeth that enable them to pick out small organisms inaccessible to most other fish for eating . they thrive mainly on a diet of coral polyps , tentacles of featherdusters and christmas - tree worms . as these food sources all zap back into their shells , butterflyfishes need to be able to hover motionless while picking at the coral and to dart swiftly over short distances to get the worm before it retracts . they do this by using their pectoral fins as oars to brake , sprint , turn and even reverse .
they ignore most other fish and are generally peaceful , therefore multiple butterflyfish will have no problem living together . one should however be cautious about keeping similar species together unless they are a couple .
the butterflyfish are known for their attractive patterns and colours . they are closely related to angelfishs , but can always be distinguished , as they lack the spines on each side of the head of the angelfish .
a smaller group of these fish will seek out primairily soft corals , like zoanthus . a larger part of the species will target different types of lps corals . butterflyfish are also known to seek out anemones , tubeworms and bristleworms .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
while there have been no declines documented , this species is dependent on live coral cover , which may therefore make it susceptible to habitat loss . however , it has a relatively wide distribution , apparently large population and no obvious major threats other than coral loss . it is therefore listed as least concern .
this species occurs throughout the indo - pacific ( pyle 2001 ) , from the east african coast from as far south as durban , south africa ( burgess 1978 ) , east to the line islands ( kiribati and usa ) and hawaii ( steene 1978 ) , north to the ryukyu islands ( southern japan ) and south to the great barrier reef ( australia ) , new caledonia and tonga ( g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . vagrants have been recorded as far east as the galapagos islands ( chile ) and the revillagigedo islands ( mexico ) . it has been recorded from depths of 2 - 30 m .
australia ; british indian ocean territory ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; comoros ; ecuador ( galápagos ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; japan ; kenya ; kiribati ( phoenix is . ) ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; réunion ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( us line is . ) ; vanuatu
this species is widespread , but generally uncommon . this species is reliant on live coral for food , but population trends in relation to coral loss have not been studied .
populations of this species are associated with areas of rich coral in clear water lagoons and on seaward reefs . adults occur as individuals or in pairs , and exhibit home - ranging behaviour . juveniles are usually observed among branching corals . it is an obligate corallivore , but probably feeds on coral mucus , rather than coral tissue .
this species is rarely exported through the aquarium trade ( pyle 2001 ) . this species is caught in artisanal fisheries .
2008 ) . currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss , and there appear to be no other major threats to this species .
there appear to be no species - specific conservation measures in place . this species is present within marine protected areas . monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring , as well as determination of the degree of co - dependence between this species and corals .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
this species eats mainly coral polyps and will not survive on a replacement food . therefore , unless one is willing to provide it with living corals , it will not survive in an aquarium !
some species of the chaetodon genus are grouped together in what is known as a
complex
, since they are so very similar .
regardless of resemblance , it is important to be able to distinguish them , as in some cases they vary greatly in their needs . sometimes there are just small differences in colour or pattern , but in other instances it is vital to know where the fish originally come from .
it can be problematic , with many of these species , to get them eating in the beginning , but many of the species cannot resist live zooplankton or live mussels with crushed shells . another option is to mimic their natural behaviour by stuffing their food into coral skeletons or stones .
as these fish can be difficult to acclimatize and get feeding , it is important to buy healthy fish , to avoid having to deal with more problems . make sure to check that they do not have parasites or any visible infections .
there are some species that should not be kept in an a aquarium , as they are food specialists and will almost always refuse to eat replacement foods . it can be possible to breed some species , which will eat frozen foods . otherwise the only way to keep food specialists is by feeding them their natural diet , which consists of live sps or lps corals for example .
indo - pacific : east africa to the line islands ; north to the ryukyu islands ; south to the great barrier reef ; including micronesia and the galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .
scott w . michael . 2004 . angelfishes and butterflyfishes ( reef fishes series book 3 ) tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) bob fenner . butterflyfishes ; separating the good ones and those you don ' t want - wet web media - ( english ) collection of links to additional information - wet web media - ( english ) tea yi kai . 2014 . reef nuggets 2 : aquatic lepidopterans for your reef ( revised edition ) - reef builders - ( english )
froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .
minimum volume
indicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .
this is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .
hardiness
indicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .
in this case , a
normal
aquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26°c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .
special aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .
always reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .
often reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .
reef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .
reef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .
not reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .
due to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .
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a heartbreak species for aquarists , needing live coral polyps in its diet to survive .
a heartbreaker , this glorious fish needs a daily diet of live coral polyps to survive and is virtually destined to perish in captivity . as with all of the obligate corallivore butterflyfishes , it should be left on the reef unless an expert aquarist can somehow meet its dietary needs .
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choristoneura improvisana is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in primorsky krai in the russian far east .

the habitat consists of bald mountain peaks and green moss-spruce forests .

the wingspan is 14 – 15 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is grey , with indistinct yellowish granulation and a dark brown pattern .

all spots and stripes are bordered with yellow scales .

the hindwings are uniform grey .

choristoneura improvisana

improvisana kuznetzov , 1973 ( argyrotaenia ) , trud vses . entomol . obshch . 56 : 153 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , south sikhote - alin ' . holotype : zmas . male .
freemani razowski , 2008 ( choristoneura ) , polskie pismo entomol . 77 : 246 .
africana razowski , 2002 ( choristoneura ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 347 no type
spruce budworms and rewatives are a group of cwosewy rewated insects in de genus choristoneura . most are serious pests of conifers , such as spruce . there are nearwy forty choristoneura species , and even more subspecies , or forms , wif a compwexity of variation among popuwations found droughout much of de united states and canada , and about again dis number in eurasia . in eastern norf america , choristoneura fumiferana is prevawent , whiwe in western norf america choristoneura freemani has devastated warge areas .
126 . chakrasana 127 . chaturanga dandasana 128 . chinnada simhasana 129 . choristoneura improvisana 130 . city of matlosana 131 . clavesana 132 . clepsis celsana 133 . cnephasia abrasana 134 . coccoloba caracasana 135 . conté lansana 136 . cornet [ a ] tolosana 137 . cornet tolosana 138 . cosana 139 . csana 140 . cyana formosana 141 . dandasana 142 . darsana 143 . david lansana 144 . de jager v sisana 145 . depressaria depressana 146 . desana 147 . dhanurasana 148 . dharasana 149 . dhisana 150 . diana ossana
pinus freeman , 1953 ( choristoneura ) , can . ent . 85 : 122 . tl : canada , manitoba , beausejour . holotype : cnc . male .
orae freeman , 1967 ( choristoneura ) , can . ent . 99 : 452 . tl : canada , british columbia , kitimat . holotype : cnc . male .
thyrsifera razowski , 1984 ( choristoneura ) , acta zool . cracov . 27 : 271 tl : china , yunnan province , likiang . holotype : zfmk . male .
spruce budworms and relatives are a group of closely related insects in the genus choristoneura . most are serious pests of conifers . there are nearly forty choristoneura species , and even more subspecies , or forms , with a complexity of variation among populations found throughout much of the united states and canada , and about again this number in eurasia .
spruce budworms and relatives are a group of closely related insects in the genus choristoneura . most are serious pests of conifers . there are nearly forty choristoneura species , and even more subspecies , or forms , with a complexity of variation among populations found throughout much of the united states and canada , and about again this number in eurasia .
jezoensis yasuda & suzuki , 1987 ( choristoneura ) , konty 55 : 232 . tl : japan , hokkaido , asahigawa [ asahikawa ] . holotype : opu . male .
metasequoiacola liu , 1983 ( choristoneura ) , entomotaxonomia 5 ( 4 ) : 290 . tl : china , hubei province , lichuan xian . holotype : izas . male .
propensa razowski , 1992 ( choristoneura ) , shilap revta . lepid . 20 : 21 . tl : afghanistan , 25 km n baarikot . holotype : nhmv . male .
spaldingana obraztsov , 1962 ( choristoneura ) , am . mus . novit . 2101 : 6 . tl : usa , utah , provo . holotype : usnm . male .
chapana razowski , 2008 ( choristoneura ) , polskie pismo entomol . 77 : 234 . tl : north vietnam , fan si pan mtns . . holotype : mnhu . male .
maritima freeman , 1967 ( choristoneura pinus ssp . ) , can . ent . 99 : 455 . tl : usa . pennsylvania , blain . holotype : cnc . male .
quadratica diakonoff , 1955 ( choristoneura ) , verff . zool . staatsamml . mnchen 8 : 46 . tl : nepal , mustangbhot , ghilinggoan . holotype : zsm . male .
biennis freeman , 1967 ( choristoneura ) , can . ent . 99 : 451 . tl : canada , monashee summit , 8 mi s cherryville . holotype : cnc . male .
expansiva wang & yang , 2008 ( choristoneura ) , zootaxa 1944 : 67 . tl : china , fujian province , mt . wuyi , sangang . holotype : nkum . male .
out of print : biosystematic studies of conifer - feeding choristoneura ( lepidoptera tortricidae ) in de western united states : edited by jerry a . poweww - university of cawifornia press
crawford , hewwette s . ; jennings , daniew t . ( 1989 ) .
predation by birds on spruce budworm choristoneura fumiferana : functionaw , numericaw , and totaw responses
.
africana razowski , 2002 ( choristoneura ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 198 tl : cameroon , cameroon ( mt . cameroon , buea ) . holotype : mrsn . male .
ferrugininotata obraztsov , 1968 ( choristoneura ) , j . new york ent . soc . 76 : 248 . tl : india , kukti , northwestern himalayas . holotype : bmnh . male .
ponderosana obraztsov , 1962 ( choristoneura lambertiana ssp . ) , am . mus . novit . 2101 : 14 tl : usa . colorado , sugar loaf . holotype : usnm . male .
viridis freeman , 1967 ( choristoneura ) , can . ent . 99 : 452 . tl : usa . california , modoc co . , bidwell creek . holotype : cnc . male .
occidentalis freeman , 1967 ( choristoneura ) , can . ent . 99 : 451 . tl : usa . washington , klickitat co . , yakima indian reserve . holotype : cnc . male .
argentifasciata heppner , 1989 ( choristoneura ) , fla . ent . 72 : 104 . tl : usa , florida , glades co . , fisheating creek , palmdale . holotype : usnm . male .
irina dubatolov & syachina , 2007 ( choristoneura ) , zhivotnyi mir dalnego vostoka 6 : 71 . tl : russia , khabarovskii krai , great khekhtsyr nature reserve , bychikha . holotype : smiase . male .
subretiniana obraztsov , 1962 ( choristoneura lambertiana ssp . ) , am . mus . novit . 2101 : 9 . tl : usa . california , tulare co . , monachee . holotype : usnm . male .
californica powell , 1964 ( choristoneura carnana ssp . ) , univ . calif . publ . ent . 32 : 179 . tl : usa . california , lake co . , anderson springs . holotype : cas . male .
palladinoi razowski & trematerra , 2010 ( choristoneura ) , j . entomol . acarol . res . ( ser . ii ) 42 : 53 . tl : ethiopia , bale mountains , harenna forest . holotype : tremc . male .
lindseyana obraztsov , 1962 ( choristoneura lambertiana ssp . ) , am . mus . novit . 2101 : 16 . tl : usa . california , modoc co . , warner mountains , 3 mi e davis creek . holotype : usnm . male .
irina syachina & budashkin , in dubatolov , syachina & budashkin , 2007 ( choristoneura ) , animal world of far east ( blagoveshchensk ) 6 : 71 . tl : russia , khabarovskii krai , great khekhtsyr nature reserve , bychikha . holotype : smiase . male .
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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western spruce budworm is the most destructive defoliator of coniferous forests in western north america . it is now widely distributed throughout the
, canada . since that year , infestations have frequently been reported in western canada .
. however , it was not initially recognized as a serious threat to coniferous forests in the western u . s . aerial spraying apparently terminated some smaller epidemics in the southern and central rockies ; others subsided naturally . the insect then appeared to be dormant in us forests until 1922 , when two outbreaks were reported near
have caused top - killing and serious economic losses in tree growth . tree mortality from budworm can occur in regeneration , sapling , and pole - sized trees . trees in mature stands severely defoliated by the western spruce budworm may become susceptible to bark beetles , which kill mature trees .
there is no typical pattern for western spruce budworm epidemics . most of the early epidemics subsided naturally after a few years . others persisted longer , but without spreading over large areas . an epidemic which began in 1949 in the northern rocky mountains has persisted for over 30 years despite insecticidal treatment of more than 6 , 000 , 000 acres ( 24 , 000 km
adult moths are about 1 / 2 inch ( 12 . 7 mm ) long and have a wing - spread of 7 / 8 to 1 1 / 8 inches ( 22 to 28mm ) . moths of both sexes are similar in appearance , although the females are a bit more robust than males . both sexes fly . the gray - or orange - brown forewings are banded or streaked , and each usually has a conspicuous white dot on the wing margin . eggs are oval , light green , and about 3 / 64 inch ( 1 . 2mm ) long and overlap like shingles .
larvae develop through six stages . newly hatched larvae are yellow - green with brown heads . in the next three stages , larvae have black heads and collars and orange - or cinnamon - brown bodies . in the fifth stage , larvae have reddish - brown heads marked with black triangles , black collars , and pale olive - brown bodies marked with small whitish spots . mature larvae are 1 to 1 1 / 4 inches ( 25 to 32 mm ) long , with tan or light chestnut - brown heads and collars and olive - or reddish - brown bodies with large ivory - colored areas .
pupae are 1 / 2 to 5 / 8 inch ( 13 to 16 mm ) long , broad at the head end , and narrower toward the tail . they are brownish - yellow or brownish - green at first , and later turn reddish - brown .
throughout most of its range , the western spruce budworm completes one cycle of development from egg to adult within 12 months . moths emerge from pupal cases usually in late july or early august ; in the southern rockies , adults often begin emerging in early july .
the adults mate , and within 7 to 10 days , the female deposits her eggs and then dies . each female deposits approximately 150 eggs , usually on the underside of conifer needles . eggs are laid in one to three - row masses containing a few to 130 eggs , with an average of 25 to 40 eggs per mass .
larvae hatch from eggs in about 10 days . larvae do not feed , but seek sheltered places under bark scales or in and among lichens on the tree bole or limbs . here , they spin silken tents in which they remain inactive through the winter .
in early may to late june , larvae leave their hibernacula to search for food . they first mine or tunnel into year - old needles , closed buds , or newly developing vegetative or reproductive buds .
new foliage , which is normally the preferred food , is usually entirely consumed or destroyed before larvae will feed on older needles . larvae become full grown usually in early july about 30 to 40 days after leaving their overwintering sites .
larvae pupate in webs of silk they have spun either at the last feeding site or elsewhere on the tree . the pupal stage usually lasts about 10 days .
the first recorded outbreak of the spruce budworm in the united states occurred in maine about 1807 . another outbreak followed in 1878 . since 1909 there have been waves of budworm outbreaks throughout the eastern united states and canada . the states most often affected are maine , new hampshire , new york , michigan , minnesota , and wisconsin . these outbreaks have resulted in the loss of millions of cords of spruce and fir . in 20th century eastern canada , the major outbreaks occurred in the time periods ~ 1910 - 20 , ~ 1940 - 50 , and ~ 1970 - 80 . longer - term tree - ring studies suggest that spruce budworm outbreaks have been recurring every three decades or so since the 16th century . paleoecological studies suggest the spruce budworm has been outbreaking in eastern north america for thousands of years .
is the species most severely damaged by the budworm in the eastern united states . white , red , and
are suitable host trees and some feeding may occur on tamarack , pine , and hemlock .
mixed with balsam fir is more likely to suffer budworm damage than spruce in pure stands .
the range of the spruce bud - worm includes the northern states east of montana but the budworm is found wherever host species grow .
budworm populations are usually regulated naturally by combinations of several natural factors such as insect parasites , vertebrate and invertebrate predators , and adverse weather conditions . during prolonged outbreaks when stands become heavily defoliated , starvation can be an important mortality factor in regulating populations .
, which also have a preference for budworm , lay more eggs and are more numerous in years of budworm abundance .
natural enemies are probably responsible for considerable mortality when budworm populations are low , but seldom have a regulating influence when populations are in epidemic proportions .
chemical insecticides such as malathion , carbaryl , and acephate can substantially reduce budworm . microbial insecticides such as the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis , a naturally occurring , host - specific pathogen that affects only the larvae of lepidopterous insects is environmentally safe to use in sensitive areas such as campgrounds or along rivers or streams where it may not be desirable to use chemical insecticides .
in the katharine hepburn / spencer tracy film desk set , the market cost of the annual depredations of the spruce budworm on united states forests is invoked as an example reference question in comparing the response times of human reference librarians and early computer databases .
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budworm populations are usually regulated naturally by combinations of several natural factors such as insect parasites , vertebrate and invertebrate predators , and adverse weather conditions . during prolonged outbreaks when stands become heavily defoliated , starvation can be an important mortality factor in regulating populations .
this species is a favoured food of the cape may warbler , which is therefore closely associated with its host plant , balsam fir . this bird , and the tennessee and bay - breasted warblers , which also have a preference for budworm , lay more eggs and are more numerous in years of budworm abundance .
in the katharine hepburn / spencer tracy film desk set , the market cost of the annual depredations of the spruce budworm on united states forests is invoked as an example reference question in comparing the response times of human reference librarians and early computer databases .
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101 . bhadrasana 102 . bharadvajasana 103 . bhekasana 104 . bhujangasana 105 . bhujapidasana 106 . boonsak ponsana 107 . bosana 108 . brian skosana 109 . brithysana 110 . bsana 111 . buddhasasana 112 . busana 113 . bussana 114 . cacoecia rosana 115 . calinaga sudassana 116 . calocedrus formosana 117 . camatkarasana 118 . camillo besana 119 . carta pisana 120 . casana 121 . catsana 122 . ceresana 123 . cesana 124 . cesare marchese de beccaria bonesana 125 . chakra bandhasana
151 . dimitsana 152 . dipya mongkollugsana 153 . disana 154 . dsana 155 . dushasana 156 . dushyasana 157 . dussasana 158 . dwi pada koundinyasana 159 . dwi pada viparita dandasana 160 . ear pressure pose - karnapidasana 161 . ear pressure pose karnapidasana 162 . eka hasta bhujasana 163 . eka hasta parshvasana 164 . eka pada baddha malasana 165 . eka pada galavasana 166 . eka pada sirsa bakasana 167 . eka pada sirsa prapadasana 168 . eka pada viparita dandasana 169 . elysia amakusana 170 . enric gensana 171 . ente upasana 172 . epiblema rimosana 173 . erika fasana 174 . esana 175 . euparypha pisana
176 . eutaenia formosana 177 . euthysana 178 . foussana 179 . frabosana 180 . francisco torrescassana 181 . franco cesana 182 . fred besana 183 . fs la massana 184 . fulgoraria formosana 185 . galavasana 186 . gaona tlhasana 187 . garbhasana 188 . garudasana 189 . garudinia successana 190 . gavesana 191 . george kosana 192 . gerardo masana 193 . ginsana 194 . giovanni francesco cassana 195 . gomukhasana 196 . grand hotel quisisana 197 . greenidea formosana 198 . grigia molisana 199 . gusana 200 . haasana
adumbratanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 382 tl : japan , holotype : bmnh . male .
teshionis matsumura , 1931 ( cacoecia ) , 6000 illust . insects japan - empire : 1066 tl : japan . hokkaido , teshio . holotype : eihu . male .
albaniana walker , 1863 ( teras ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 288 . tl : canada , ontario , albany river , st . martin ' s falls . holotype : bmnh . male .
albariana barrett , 1887 ( pandemis ) , ent . mon . mag . 24 : 35 . no type
arcticana moschler , 1874 ( tortrix ) , stettin . ent . ztg . 35 : 164 . tl : canada . labrador . holotype : mnhu . female .
kukakana kearfott , 1907 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 70 . tl : usa . alaska , kukak bay . syntype ( s ) : amnh . unknown .
lapponana tengstrom , 1869 ( tortrix ) , acta soc . fauna flora fenn . frh . 10 : 359 tl : sweden . lappland [ sweden ] . syntype ( s ) : zmh . unknown .
bracatana rebel , in rebel & rogenhofer , 1894 ( pandemis ) , ann . naturhist . hofmus 9 : 82 . tl : canary islands , canary islands ( tenerife , monte de agua garcia ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
carnana barnes & busck , 1920 ( tortrix ) , contrib . nat . hist . lepid . n . am 4 : 214 . tl : usa , california , san bernardino mountains , camp baldy . . holotype : usnm . male .
colyma razowski , 2006 ( coristoneura ) , acta zool . cracov . 49b : 123 . tl : india , jammu and kashmir ( indien j & k , kaschmir , sonamarg ) . holotype : isez . male .
conflictana walker , 1863 ( tortrix ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 323 . tl : canada , ontario , albany river , st . martin ' s falls . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .
diversana hubner , [ 1814 - 1817 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 . : pl . 40 , fig . 251 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
alfredana duponchel , 1846 ( paedisca ) , cat . mth . lpid . eur . : 300 . tl : russia . pri - morski territory . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
transitana guenee , 1845 ( tortrix ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( 2 ) 3 : 138 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .
viduana frolich , 1828 ( tortrix ) , enum . tortr . wrtemberg : 34 . tl : germany . wrtemburg . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
evanidana kennel , 1901 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 214 . tl : russia , far east , askold island . lectotype : mnhu . male .
fractivittana clemens , 1865 ( lozotaenia ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 136 . tl : usa , virginia . holotype : ansp . male .
fumosa robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 268 . tl : usa . ohio . lectotype : ansp . female .
fumiferana clemens , 1865 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 139 . tl : usa , virginia . holotype : ansp . male .
nigrida beutenmuller , 1892 ( tortrix ) , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 4 : 64 . no type
nigridia robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 268 . tl : usa . ohio , pennsylvania , massachusetts . lectotype : amnh . male .
griseicoma meyrick , 1924 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 115 . tl : india , kashmir , srinagar . lectotype : bmnh . male .
hebenstreitella muller , 1764 ( phalaena tinea ) , fauna insect . friedrichsd . : 58 . tl : germany , friedrichsdal . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
pyrana villers , 1789 ( phalaena tortrix ) , c . linnaei ent . faun . suec . descr . 2 : 416 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
sorbiana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 18fig . 113 . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
umbratilis geoffroy , in fourcroy , 1785 ( phalaena ) , ent . paris . 2 : 304 . tl : france . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .
heliaspis meyrick , 1909 ( cacoecia ) , ann . s . afr . mus . 5 : 349 . tl : south africa , natal . holotype : samc . unknown .
heliastis pinhey , 1975 ( cacoecia ) , moths south africa : 37 . no type
jecorana kennel , 1899 ( tortrix pandemis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 12 : 4 . tl : iran , schahrud . holotype : mnhu . female .
lafauryana ragonot , 1875 ( tortrix ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( bulletin ) ( 5 ) 5 lxxii . tl : france , dax . syntype ( s ) : mnhn . unknown .
inornatanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 6 : 442 tl : korea . gensan . holotype : bmnh . male .
lafauriana kennel , 1910 ( cacoecia ) , palaear . tortr . : 135 . no type
laufauriana kennel , in spuler , 1910 ( cacoecia ) , schmett . eur . : 248 . no type
lambertiana busck , 1915 ( tortrix ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 17 : 86 . tl : usa , oregon , jackson co . , ashland . holotype : usnm . male .
lambertianae keen , 1952 ( tortrix ) , u . s . dept . agric . for . serv . bimonth : 80 . no type
longicellanus walsingham , 1900 ( archips ) , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) 5 : 378 tl : japan , honshu , kanagawa prefecture , yokohama . holotype : bmnh . male .
disparana kennel , 1901 ( cacoecia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 216 . tl : russia . far east , primorsky krai , sutschan [ suchan ] . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .
luticostana christoph , 1888 ( tortrix ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 22 : 311 . tl : russia , primorsky krai , vladivostok . lectotype : bmnh . male .
gigantana kennel , 1899 ( tortrix ) , dt . ent . z . iris 12 : 6 . tl : russia . primorsky krai , ussuri , suifun . holotype : mnhu . female .
murinana hubner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] ( tortrix ) , samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 17fig . 105 . tl : europe , syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
besseri nowicki , 1860 ( tortrix ) , enum . lepid . haliciae orient . : 125 . tl : ukraine . ukraine ( stupnica , near drohobycz ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
caprimulgana koch , 1859 ( tortrix ) , vernachr . bohm . forst - jagd - u . naturk . 33 : 55 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
histrionana ratzeburg , 1868 ( tortrix ) , waldverd 2 : 13 . tl : europe . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
immaculana wachtl , 1882 ( tortrix murinana var . ) , mitt . forstl . vers . st 9 : 15 . tl : austria . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
neurophaea meyrick , 1932 ( tortrix ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 341 . tl : india , kashmir , killanmarg . lectotype : bmnh . male .
obsoletana walker , 1863 ( tortrix ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 288 . tl : north america , north america ( atlantic states ) . holotype : bmnh . male .
sanbornana robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 265 . tl : usa . texas / florida . syntype ( s ) : ansp . unknown .
seminolana kearfott , 1907 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 71 . tl : usa . florida . lectotype : amnh . male .
transiturana walker , 1863 ( cacoecia ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 312 . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .
vesperana clemens , 1865 ( lozotaenia ) , proc . ent . soc . philad . 5 : 136 . tl : usa . virginia . lectotype : ansp . male .
occidentalis walsingham , 1891 ( cacoecia ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1891 : 64 . tl : gambia , gambia ( bathurst ) . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .
parallela robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 267 . tl : usa , new york , putman co . . lectotype : amnh . male .
psoricodes meyrick , 1911 ( tortrix ) , ann . transvaal mus . 2 : 223 . tl : south africa , transvaal , haenertsburg . lectotype : bmnh . male .
retiniana walsingham , 1879 ( lozotaenia ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 12 . tl : usa , california , siskiyou co . , mt shasta . holotype : bmnh . male .
rosaceana harris , 1841 ( loxotaenia ) , rep . ins . mass . injurious veg . : 348 . tl : usa , massachusetts . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
gossypiana packard , 1869 ( lozotaenia ) , guide study ins . : 335 . tl : usa . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
vicariana walker , 1863 ( teras ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 287 . tl : north america . holotype : bmnh . male .
simonyi rebel , 1892 ( pandemis ) , ann . naturhist . hofmus . 7 : 263 . tl : canary islands , canary islands ( gran canaria , la palma ) . holotype : unknown . unknown .
mactana rebel , in rebel & rogenhofer , 1896 ( pandemis ) , naturhist . hofmus 11 : 116 . tl : canary islands . canary islands ( tenerife ) . lectotype : mgab . male .
persimilana rebel , in rebel & rogenhofer , 1894 ( pandemis ) , ann . naturhist . hofmus 9 : 82 . tl : canary islands . canary islands ( tenerife ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .
zapulata robinson , 1869 ( tortrix ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 2 : 264 . tl : usa , illinois . lectotype : amnh . male .
symphoricarpana kearfott , 1905 ( tortrix ) , can . ent . 37 : 92 . tl : canada . alberta , medicine hat . lectotype : amnh . male .
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the first recorded outbreak of de ( eastern ) spruce budworm in de united states occurred in maine in about 1807 , awdough it seems to have escaped notice of de entomowogists untiw 1865 . anoder outbreak fowwowed in 1878 . since 1909 dere have been waves of budworm outbreaks droughout de eastern united states and canada . longer - term tree - ring studies suggest dat spruce budworm outbreaks have been recurring approximatewy every dree decades since de 16f century . [ 1 ]
the first recorded outbreak of de western variety , which was in 2008 from occidentawis rechristened freemani , occurred in 1909 on de soudeastern part of vancouver iswand in british cowumbia , canada . since dat year , infestations have freqwentwy been reported in western canada . the budworm was first recorded in 1914 in de united states , in oregon . however , it was not initiawwy recognized as a serious dreat to coniferous forests in de western u . s . [ 2 ]
in atwantic canada , de spruce budworm probwem was noted as earwy as 1910 . [ 3 ]
in wocations such as new brunswick , ddt pesticide was appwied to over 3 . 6 miwwion hectacres from 1952 to 1958 and 1960 to 1967 . this use of chemicaw controw effectivewy decreased de spruce mortawity rate widin dis area and prevented significant economic impact . [ 4 ] in fact , de government of new brunswick formed forest protection limited ( fpl ) as an agent wif which
to fight de spruce budworm [ which was ] den dreatening to destroy much of new brunswick ' s fir - spruce forest
. [ 5 ]
the nova scotia iswand of cape breton was awso affected by de 1952 outbreak , but dey chose not to spray pesticides . the infestation cowwapsed from naturaw causes widin five years . estimates of de spruce mortawity were on de order of 100 , 000 cords , of which 60 % was recovered because de vawuabwe wood is weft untouched by de insect and can be harvested profitabwy . the budworm eats onwy de needwes , which have no economic vawue apart from being part of de mechanism for survivaw and growf . [ 3 ]
by de wate 1960s , fenitrodion had been devewoped to repwace ddt , whose adverse heawf and environmentaw effects were awready noted . [ 3 ]
by winter 1975 , medicaw staff at de kiwwam hospitaw for chiwdren in hawifax remarked dat every chiwd wif a diagnosis of reye ' s syndrome was a new brunswicker , and water proved a wink between de syndrome and de emuwsifier used to appwy de fenitrodion , uh - hah - hah - hah . as a conseqwence of de furore surrounding de discovery of de reye ' s syndrome wink wif pesticides , in 1976 de nova scotia minister of heawf , awwan suwwivan , cancewwed a pesticide spraying programme dat had onwy recentwy been approved by cabinet . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] erik sunbwad , den president of stora koppenberg , who controwwed de petitioner nova scotia forest industries , had dreatened to shut down de works if his spraying programme met wif officiaw disapprovaw . [ 3 ]
sunbwad den went on to push anoder pesticide cawwed sevin , a trade name of carbaryw , which apparentwy reqwired no emuwsifier but was more expensive . it was at de time registered for use in maine , but de environmentaw protection agency stated dat sevin was
suspect right now
, and by den severaw cases of sevin poisoning had been seen awready in nova scotia itsewf . [ 3 ]
betimes in 1977 , de now - deceased lucretia j . guerin , [ 8 ] president of a community organisation named
the concerned parents group inc .
pursued fpl in de provinciaw court of new brunswick . hughes cjnb stated , upon appeaw , dat
needwess to say , de so - cawwed ' spray programme ' constitutes an extremewy contentious issue due to confwicting concerns between dose who bewieve de spray is necessary for de survivaw of de spruce and fir forests of de province , and de economy based dereon , and dose who are concerned over de effect of de spray upon de environment .
amongst oder devewopments , a ministeriaw wetter was reqwired to save fpl from pursuit under de pest controw products act . [ 9 ]
an outbreak of de insect was seen on de norf shore of de st lawrence river in 2006 . the outbreak zone has moved soudwards and eastwards awong wif de prevaiwing wind . [ 10 ]
a fir tip on which feeding has started . b egg mass of budworm on fir needwe ( greatwy enwarged ) c larva of budworm , enwarged 1 . 5 times . d pupa of budworm , enwarged 1 . 5 times . e mof of budworm , enwarged 1 . 5 times .
budworm popuwations are usuawwy reguwated naturawwy by combinations of severaw naturaw factors such as insect parasites , vertebrate and invertebrate predators , and adverse weader conditions . during prowonged outbreaks when stands become heaviwy defowiated , starvation can be an important mortawity factor in reguwating popuwations .
this species is a favoured food of de cape may warbwer , which is derefore cwosewy associated wif its host pwant , bawsam fir . this bird , and de tennessee and bay - breasted warbwers , which awso have a preference for budworm , way more eggs and are more numerous in years of budworm abundance .
naturaw enemies are probabwy responsibwe for considerabwe mortawity when budworm popuwations are wow , but sewdom have a reguwating infwuence when popuwations are in epidemic proportions .
chemicaw insecticides such as mawadion , carbaryw , and acephate can substantiawwy reduce budworm . microbiaw insecticides such as bacterium species baciwwus duringiensis ( bt ) , a naturawwy occurring , host - specific padogen dat affects specific insect warvae based on de bacteria strain , uh - hah - hah - hah . bt insecticides are often used in sensitive areas such as campgrounds or awong rivers and streams , where it may not be desirabwe to use chemicaw insecticides wif modes of action dat affect fish and mammaws .
the eastern spruce budworm is one of de most destructive insects of fir and spruce forests droughout canada and de eastern united states . [ 14 ]
for biowogicaw medods , birds are important in controwwing popuwations of de eastern spruce budworm bewow outbreak wevews , [ 15 ] and de parasitic wasp trichogramma minutum was investigated as a sowution as weww . [ 16 ]
fewwin , d . and j . dewey ( march 1992 ) . western spruce budworm forest insect & disease leafwet 53 , u . s . forest service . retrieved on : september 14 , 2008 .
mike donovan :
the battwe of de year
. atwantic issues , february 1977 vowume 1 number 1 pp 4 - 5
macdonawd , d . r . 1968 . management of spruce budworm popuwations . for . chron , uh - hah - hah - hah . 44 ( 3 ) : 33–36 ( separate pagination ) .
kramer ms : kids versus trees : reye ' s syndrome and spraying for spruce budworm in new brunswick j cwin epidemiow . 2009 jun ; 62 ( 6 ) : 578 - 81 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jcwinepi . 2009 . 01 . 002 . epub 2009 apr 5 .
[ spitzer wo : report of de new brunswick task force on de environment and reye ' s syndrome ] cwin invest med . 1982 ; 5 ( 2 - 3 ) : 203 - 14 .
urltoken
forest protection ltd . v . guerin
, 1979 - 05 - 25 : 1979 canlii 2758 ( nb qb ) ; 25 nbr ( 2d ) 513 ; 104 dlr ( 3d ) 260
smif , s . m . ; hubbes , m . ; carrow , j . r . 1986 . factors affecting inundative reweases of trichogramma minutum riw . against de spruce budworm . j . appw . entomow . 101 ( 1 ) : 29–39 .
hudak , j . ( 1991 ) .
integrated pest management and de eastern spruce budworm
.
patrick m . a . james ; louis‐etienne robert ; b . mike wotton ; david l . marteww ; richard a . fweming ( 2017 ) .
wiwwiam j . mattson ; gary a . simmons ; john a . witter ,
, 2007 : on de type specimens of de tortricidae described by eduard friedrich eversmann from de vowgo - uraw region , uh - hah - hah - hah .
, 2013 : an iwwustrated catawogue of de specimens of tortricidae in de iziko souf african museum , cape town ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) .
marda h . brookes ; robert w . campbeww ; j . j . cowbert ; russew g . mitcheww ; r . w . stark ( 1987 ) .
. technicaw buwwetin no . 1694 ; canada / united states spruce budworms program - west . usda .
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