linckia laevigata ( sometimes called the " blue linckia " or blue star ) is a species of sea star ( commonly known as a starfish ) in the shallow waters of tropical indo-pacific ( a biogeographic region of the earth 's seas , comprising the tropical waters of the indian ocean , the western and central pacific ocean , and the seas connecting the two in the general area of indonesia .

linckia laevigata

what type of species is linckia laevigata ? below , you will find the taxonomic groups the linckia laevigata species belongs to .
forma linckia laevigata f . hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 accepted as linckia hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 accepted as linckia laevigata ( linnaeus , 1758 )
which photographers have photos of linckia laevigata species ? below , you will find the list of underwater photographers and their photos of the marine species linckia laevigata .
how to identify linckia laevigata marine species ? below , you will find the list of main identification criteria and physical characteristics of marine species linckia laevigata . for each identification criteria , the corresponding physical characteristics of marine species linckia laevigata are marked in green .
where is linckia laevigata found in the world ? below , you will find the list and a world map of the geographic distribution where the marine species linckia laevigata can be found .
linckia laevigata . dendrogram showing genetic relationships of ten reef . . . | download scientific diagram
1 . linckia laevigata ' s reproductive strategy is not well - suited to a heavy fishery .
yamaguchi m . 1977 . population structure , spawning , and growth of the coral reef asteroid linckia laevigata ( linnaeus ) . pac sci 31 ( 1 ) : 13 - 30 .
based on data from a paper by micael , alves , costa and jones from 2009 , it turns out that linckia laevigata is the most commonly collected seastar in the aquarium trade .
linkia laevigata from the solomons . this one was in deeper water and was brown . photo : julian sprung .
linckia browni gray , 1840 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )
linckia typus nardo , 1834 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )
aquarium invertebrates : sea stars - - linckia spp . — advanced aquarist | aquarist magazine and blog
a paper by masashi yamaguchi ( 1977 ) who studied population and reproductive biology of lincki a laevigata had an answer that was not encouraging .
williams , s . t . , and j . a . h . benzie . 1993 .
genetic consequences of long larval life in the starfish linckia laevigata ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) on the great barrier reef .
marine biology 117 : 71 - 77 .
fig . 2 linckia laevigata . dendrogram showing genetic relationships of ten reef populations based on nei ' s ( 1978 ) unbiased genetic distance d . populations with the same superscript are not significantly different ( p < 0 . 01 ) ( abbreviations , see table 1 )
laxton , j . h .
a preliminary study of the biology and ecology of the blue starfish linckia laevigata on the australian great barrier reef and an interpretation of its role in the coral reef ecosystem .
biological journal of the linnean society 6 ( 1974 ) : 47–64 .
minale , l . , c . pizza , r . riccio , f . zollo , j . pusset , and p . laboute . 1984 .
starfish saponins 13 . occurrence of nodososide in the starfish acanthaster planci and linckia laevigata .
journal of natural products 47 : 558 .
riccio , r . , o . s . greco , l . minale , j . pusset , and j . l . menou . 1985 .
starfish saponins : 18 . steroidal glycoside sulfates from the starfish linckia laevigata .
journal of natural products 48 : 97 - 101 .
probably one of the most widespread and incorrect assumptions ( like this one ) about tropical sea stars , such as linckia laevigata is that it eats clams and meat in a manner similar to cold - water starfish species such as asterias forbesi or pisaster ochraceus . i have complained about this misunderstanding in other blogs . .
egloff , d . a . , d . t . smouse , jr . , and j . e . pembroke . 1988 .
penetration of the radial hemal and perihemal systems of linckia laevigata ( asteroidea ) by the proboscis of thyca crystallina , an ectoparasitic gastropod .
veliger 30 : 342 - 346 .
bouillon , j . , and m . jangoux . 1984 .
note on the relationship between the parasitic mollusk thyca crystallina ( gastropoda , prosobranchia ) and the starfish linckia laevigata ( echinodermata ) on laing island reef ( papua new guinea ) .
annales de la societe royale zoologique de belgique 114 : 249 - 256 .
williams , s . t . 2000 .
species boundaries in the starfish genus linckia .
marine biology . 136 : 137 - 148 .
zagalsky , p . f . , f . haxo , s . hertzberg , and s . liaaen - jensen . 1989 .
studies on a blue carotenoprotein , linckiacyanin , isolated from the starfish linckia laevigata ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) .
comparative biochemistry and physiology b comparative biochemistry and molecular biology 93 : 339 - 354 .
so , here ' s the thing - l . laevigata feeds on bacterial biofilm , algae and / or whatever nutritious goo it can get its stomach on . they are considered herbivorous .
williams , s . t . ( 2000 ) . species boundaries in the starfish genus linckia . marine biology 136 : 137 - 148 . [ details ]
( of linckia laevigata f . hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 ) domantay , j . s . and roxas , h . a . ( 1938 ) . the littoral asteroidea of port galera bay and adjacent waters . philippine journal of science . 65 ( 3 ) : 203 - 237 , 17 plates . page ( s ) : 221 [ details ]
my guess is that feeding l . laevigata clams without any of their primary food - would be like feeding any human pork rinds for a whole year . it might be
food
but it would be a slow death . . .
as i mentioned above , there are several species of linckia , and not all of them are blue , red or purple , and some of the stars commonly sold in pet shops under the name of linckia may very well belong to other genera . i have no doubt as to the authenticity of these reports - i . e . , that some people have been sold a sea star that was labeled
purple linckia
and have subsequently had problems with that animal in their tanks . however , that does not mean that the
purple linckia
in their tank is the same species as the one in yours or mine . the variation reported in the behavior of these stars may represent a case of individual variation , or it could indicate that there is a lot of misidentification going on .
most of these attached shells are apparently female and the degree of infection of thyca tends to be correlated with the degree of water movement with more active water associated with fewer thyca per individual linckia . .
( of linckia typus nardo , 1834 ) nardo , j . d . ( 1834 ) . de asteriis . isis von oken . 1834 : 716 - 717 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 717 [ details ]
usually five arms with a body diameter that can reach 12 in ( 30 cm ) . adults have brilliant blue coloration . juveniles are blue - green , purplish with dark spots . the genus linckia has many color morphs , making it difficult to identify species .
although these stars require extra care in the initial selection , once a blue linckia is successfully introduced into a large , well established aquarium with plenty of live rock to explore , they are usually quite hardy and are certainly a beautiful addition to a reef aquarium .
ok , so even now that we ' re all aware that there is an important distinction between the true linckia and other look - alike sea stars , we ' re still only slightly further ahead in terms of understanding exactly what they need in an aquarium . even if we limit the discussion here to only the true linckia stars , the problem is that there is just not a lot of good information on their biology . despite the beauty and obvious widespread interest in these stars , surprisingly little is really known about the exact feeding behaviors or preferences of these animals in the wild , and only anecdotal accounts are available for their needs in the aquarium . that is kind of surprising , given that linckia is one of the most common and obvious sea stars on many indo - pacific reefs .
( of linckia miliaris ( muller & troschel , 1840 ) ) clark , a . m . & courtman - stock , j . ( 1976 ) . the echinoderms of southern africa . publ . no . 766 . british museum ( nat . hist ) , london . 277 pp . [ details ]
this is an intrinsic part of their biology . some papers such as this one by laxton ( 1974 - i told you information was few and far between ! ) determined that l . laevigata ' s ecological significance may lie in its relationship to become more widespread following algal growth on coral following a big predatory binge by the coral eating crown - of - thorns starfish ( acanthaster planci ) .
( of linckia rosenbergi von martens , 1866 ) martens , e . von ( 1866 ) . ueber östasiatiche echinodermen . i . asteroiden ( fortsetzung ) . 3 . seesterne des indischen archipels . ii . ophiuren . archiv für naturgeschichte 32 : : 57 - 88 ; 133 - 189 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of linckia suturalis von martens , 1866 ) martens , e . von ( 1866 ) . ueber östasiatiche echinodermen . i . asteroiden ( fortsetzung ) . 3 . seesterne des indischen archipels . ii . ophiuren . archiv für naturgeschichte 32 : : 57 - 88 ; 133 - 189 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of linckia hondurae domantay & roxas , 1938 ) domantay , j . s . and roxas , h . a . ( 1938 ) . the littoral asteroidea of port galera bay and adjacent waters . philippine journal of science . 65 ( 3 ) : 203 - 237 , 17 plates . page ( s ) : 221 [ details ]
( of linckia browni gray , 1840 ) gray , j . e . ( 1840 ) . xxxii . a synopsis of the genera and species of the class hypostoma ( asterias , linnaeus ) . annals of the magazine of natural history . 6 : 275 - 290 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 285 [ details ]
( of linckia crassa gray , 1840 ) gray , j . e . ( 1840 ) . xxxii . a synopsis of the genera and species of the class hypostoma ( asterias , linnaeus ) . annals of the magazine of natural history . 6 : 275 - 290 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 284 [ details ]
( of linckia miliaris ( muller & troschel , 1840 ) ) jangoux , m . ( 1973 ) . les astéries de lile inhaca ( mozambique ) ( echinodermata , asteroidea ) . i . les espèces récoltées et leur répartition géographique . kmma annalen serie in - 8o - zoologische wetenschappen nr 208 . 50 pp , 7 pl . [ details ]
( of linckia typus nardo , 1834 ) clark , a . m . ; downey , m . e . ( 1992 ) . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman & hall identification guides , 3 . chapman & hall . london , uk . isbn 0 - 412 - 43280 - 3 . xxvi , 794 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of asterias laevigata ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
although these stars require extra care in the initial selection , once a blue linckia is successfully introduced into a large , well established aquarium with plenty of live rock to explore , they are usually quite hardy and are certainly a beautiful addition to a reef aquarium . in closing , i just want to thank everyone at the omaha marine society for some great discussions about sea stars that have helped with this article .
like the majority of other sea stars , the sexes appear to be separate in linckia , and the animals spawn gametes freely into the water column . most often , they will hold onto the substrate with the tips of their arms , arch the body high into the water and spray either sperm or eggs into the water above them . if a male and female happen to spawn in close proximity to one another , the fertilized eggs develop into feeding larvae within a couple of days . these larvae spend about 28 - 30 days in the water column before settling onto a hard surface on the reef and metamorphosing into a tiny version of the adult star . spawning of these stars in home aquaria is rare , and although larval culture techniques for echinoderms are well - established ( see toonen 1996 for details ) , the long planktonic lifespan of the larvae of linckia makes raising them at home a difficult prospect .
the blue starfish has a bright blue or light blue body , more seldom green , pink or yellow , and there are also red linckia , which are still widely referred to as l . multifora ( see under “did you know” ) . the animals get their colour from a blue pigment called linckiacyanin and some accessory yellow carotenoids . depending on the exact ratio and combination of pigments in the star , the colours of the starfish can vary . although certain colour variations are more common in some areas than others , it is not clear whether there are any behavioural or ecological differences among sea stars that have these different colours .
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benjamin mueller 1 , 2 , 4 , * , arthur r . bos 2 , 3 , gerhard graf 1 , girley s . gumanao 2
cite this article as : mueller b , bos ar , graf g , gumanao gs ( 2011 ) size - specific locomotion rate and movement pattern of four common indo - pacific sea stars ( echinodermata ; asteroidea ) . aquat biol 12 : 157 - 164 . urltoken
published in ab vol . 12 , no . 2 . online publication date : april 28 , 2011 print issn : 1864 - 7782 ; online issn : 1864 - 7790 copyright © 2011 inter - research .
ophidiaster clathratus grube , 1865 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )
ophidiaster crassa ( gray , 1840 ) ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )
ophidiaster miliaris müller & troschel , 1842 ( synonym according to h . l . clark ( 1921 ) )
note unknown ( ' mediterranean and ? indian seas
) . . . .
type locality unknown ( ' mediterranean and ? indian seas
) . also recorded from ' coin peros ' by bell ( 1909 ) - locality can ' t be traced . type data : syntypes whereabouts undetermined ( rowe & gates , 1995 ) . [ details ]
description colour in life : uniformly blue , grey , pink , purple or fawn . this contrasts with pacific specimens from palao examined by . . .
( of ophidiaster clathratus grube , 1865 ) grube , a . e . ( 1865 ) . der resultate seines aufenthaltes auf der insel lussin . jahres - bericht der schlesischen gesellschaft für vaterländische cultur . 42 : 47 - 54 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 51 [ details ]
( of ophidiaster miliaris müller & troschel , 1842 ) müller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 30 [ details ]
( of ophidiaster propinquus livingstone , 1932 ) livingstone , a . a . ( 1932 ) . asteroidea . british museum ( natural history ) scientific reports / great barrier reef expedition 1928 - 29 . 4 ( 8 ) : 241 - 265 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 255 [ details ]
clark , a . m . ; rowe , f . w . e . ( 1971 ) . monograph of shallow - water indo - west pacific echinoderms . trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . london . x + 238 p . + 30 pls . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
ludwig , h . ( 1899 ) . echinodermen des sansibargebietes . abhandlungen der senckenbergischen naturforschenden gesellschaft , bonn . 21 ( 1 ) : 537 - 563 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of ophidiaster laevigatus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) müller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 30 [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
clark , a . m . ( 1982 ) . echinoderms of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the first international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . hong kong university press , hong kong . 1 : 485 - 501 . [ details ]
unknown , but it is one of the most common and obvious sea stars on many indo - pacific reefs although some populations declined significantly due to harvesting for pet trade and by tourists .
blue starfish are notoriously delicate shippers , and post - transport mortality is rather high . therefore , it is exceptionally important to acclimate these animals carefully . for air transport , container note 51 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed .
zoos and aquariums keep blue star fish for educational reasons as part of their efforts to familiarise visitors with invertebrate biodiversity . sea stars may be kept in touch pools where they will come into close contact with visitors and may play a role as ambassadors for marine and coastal conservation .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
rowe , f . w . e . & pawson , d . l . 1977 ,
a catalogue of echinoderm type - specimens in the australian museum , sydney
, records of the australian museum , vol . 30 , no . 14 , pp . 337 - 364
livingstone , a . a . 1932 ,
asteroidea
, scientific reports of the great barrier reef expedition 1928 - 1929 , vol . 4 , pp . 241 - 265 figs 1 - 2 pls 1 - 12
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2d802d5f - 33df - 4315 - 98ef - bf592bc6999b
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fb5a195d - 37e8 - 4b39 - 8446 - 29fa728852de
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 328698
explore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .
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mah , c . l . ( 2014 ) world asteroidea database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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echinodermata ! starfish ! sea urchins ! sea cucumbers ! stone lillies ! feather stars ! blastozoans ! sea daisies ! marine invertebrates found throughout the world ' s oceans with a rich and ancient fossil legacy . their biology and evolution includes a wide range of crazy and wonderful things . let me share those things with you !
for such a well - known species , i was surprised at how little was known about it . .
aka
finger starfish
occurs widely throughout the tropical pacific and indian oceans in shallow - water reef type settings .
and made into garishly - colored ornaments , such as the ones below . . .
is heavily trafficked in the aquarium trade and can be seen in many tropical fish tank videos . . .
most specimens are taken from the wild throughout its indo - pacific range . it can be commonly encountered and easy to collect . few if any are the result of captive breeding programs .
yamaguchi both surveyed individuals in the field and also grew out juveniles and inferred growth rates based on the overall changes in size of those lab - grown specimens .
plus - smaller individuals were often absent from population surveys - suggesting that the number that reach breeding age ( i . e . , are
adults
) is relatively low .
a large sized animal ( and these approach about 1 . 5 feet in diameter ) could easily be several years old . . .
so - bottom line is that these guys grow slowly and have a low turnover rate with few juveniles ascending into
adulthood
at a given time . .
it seems likely that the reason for the abundance of these animals is largely due to long - term accumulation of those adults over time . and when those guys are wiped out - they ' re gone .
yamaguchi noted that days after releasing marked individuals for his study - several of the tagged animals had vanished - likely taken by
reef - gleaners
. . . .
yes , some of the more experienced aquarists are probably saying
but i have seen and fed this species clam meat ( or fish or whatever ) before . . .
and yes - that may be true - but honestly , how long do those animals live after that ? ? ?
i ' ve reactions by people that this is some kind of bad thing . truth is , these critters would only be found on a healthy animal . discovering one of these is basically like an extra bonus - so , best to leave em ' be . . .
probably one of the most noticeable is thyca crystallina - a parastic snail that lives attached to the ( usuallly oral ) surface of an individual starfish . data on this relationship can be found here in a paper by hugh elder ( 1979 ) . the snails are attached to the coelom via a proboscis .
yup . it actually belongs to a family of snails that are parasites on echinoderms . .
they tend not to do well in aquaria based on what i ' ve experienced .
i have a blue star - fish in my fish tank and it has been doing great for a year , now in the last 2 weeks it has dropped 2 limbs , what is going on , can anyone explain ? i don ' t want to loose him he is awesome . thanks in advance .
its unfortunately not likely to do well after this point . there are multiple reasons for why this cold be happening ranging from environmental stress to starvation and they are all quite difficult to ascertain . sorry . . but its most likely you will lose your starfish .
i pursue starfish related adventure around the world with a critical eye and an appreciation for weirdness . support has been courtesy of the national science foundation but the views and opinions presented herein are mine and do not reflect the opinions of them or any affiliated institutions . need to hire an invertebrate zoologist / marine biologist ? please contact me !
( photo by km6xo ) so , last week , i was contacted by an intrepid member of the public who was quite interested in finding out more about s . . .
if you ' ve ever enjoyed the fine diversity of japanese cuisine , and are a serious sushi connaisseur ( as i am ) you have probably experienc . . .
last week the foks over at newswatch national geographic proclaimed that they had the
5 weirdest antarctic species
. hyperbo . . .
( from clipart etc - florida educational claringhouse ) i was casually checking the numbers for the echinoblog over a july 4th weekend in . . .
( photo by emily miller kauai ) so , recently i ' ve gotten a bunch of questions about these peculiar sea urchins via email - and so i thou . . .
the other day , i was thinking of big stuff . and then , a bit later , i was thinking of starfish stuff . and then i thought of cake . ( mmm . . . .
images here from the encyclopedia of life this week , something about the many different kinds of asteroids ( aka sea star or starfish ! ) t . . .
today ' s topic : starfish defense ! ! its curious how often this question comes up . people see starfish and other echinoderms that are just . . .
from wikipedia ! sea urchins ! who doesn ' t love em ? the spiny balls of the sea ! we eat em ! they ' re important to marine ecosystems . . .
toxopneustes ! aka the
flower urchin
is one of four species of toxopneustes ( all of which occur throughout the tropical pacifi . . .
the blue sea star has 5 cylindrical arms with rounded tips and an eye at each end . the eyes see only light and darkness . the mouth is found in the centre of the body on the underside . animals less than 5 cm wide are blue - green with dark spots . as they mature they most commonly acquire a bright blue colour , although there are colour variants throughout the indo - pacific ranging from bright blue to green , pink or yellow . juveniles have pale yellow tube feet and adults have dark yellow feet . maximum size is approximately 30cm .
when sea stars eat , they sit on top of the food and push their stomach out through their mouth to cover the food and digest it externally . the blue sea star is an omonivore ( eats both plants and animals ) . it is predominantly a scavenger , living on dead organisms within the coral reef and on rocks , but also feeds on algae and microbes .
sea stars move very slowly using their water filled tubes and tube feet that stick out through the skin to hold onto surfaces . they use a water - vascular system that works on water pressure , creating a network of tube feet that look like hundreds of tiny , hydraulically operated legs .
commonly found on coral reef flats , rocky reefs and other shallow areas , especially in areas with wave action .
blue sea stars have separate sexes ( male and female ) . to reproduce , they release large numbers of eggs into the water . sea stars are restricted to their home reef as adults , but are able to disperse as larvae .
a special feature about sea stars is that they can regenerate their arms if damaged or lost , growing back into a full sea star ( although they are fragile and often do not survive a lot of damage to their limbs ) . the blue sea star frequently plays host to a tiny shrimp and sometimes a small gastropod snail that are identical in colour to the sea star . the shrimp or snail live in the grooves on the underside of the arms .
they are found throughout the indo - pacific region from eastern africa ( absent from the red sea ) to hawaii , the south pacific islands , australia , thailand , and japan .
thumbnail description conspicuous and successful bottom - dwelling animals that can survive without food for months and feed on almost every type of marine organism encountered on the seabed ; they range in size from 0 . 4 in ( 1 cm ) in diameter to more than 3 ft ( 91 cm ) across and inhabit virtually every latitude and ocean depths
the class asteroidea is a highly diverse group comprised of seven orders , 35 families , and an estimated 1 , 600 known living species , although their precise phylogenetic relationship and hence classification still proves challenging to taxonomists .
asteroids belong to a major group of other bottom - dwelling animals called echinoderms . collectively this group includes echinoids ( sea urchins ) , holothurians ( sea cucumbers ) , crinoids ( feather stars ) , and ophiuriods ( brittle stars ) , the latter group closely resembling sea stars . all echinoderms share similar pentamerous radial symmetry and spiny skin characteristics , although sea stars differ slightly because they have five or more arms large enough to contain space for digestive and reproductive glands . another group of animals thought to belong to echinoderms are concentricycloids , or sea daisies . these small disc - shaped animals discovered in the abyssal seas off new zealand and bahamas in the late 1980s are considered an evolutionary forerunner to asteroids .
sea stars have an ancient linage that shows embryologically they are not too distantly related to the phylum chordata ( back - boned animals ) . the fossil record places a form of asteroid over 300 millions years before the dinosaurs , sharing a common ancestry with ophiuroids , yet within 50 million years of their appearance they became clearly differentiated . their evolutionary path has included some bizarre taxa that have been hard to classify , yet this successful group has persisted and remain ecologically important to many marine communities worldwide .
the skeleton of a sea star consists of small calcium carbonate plates called ossicles . these are often studded and spiny , and provide a firm but flexible skeleton of connective tissue . flexibility enables a variety of postures to be adopted without muscular effort , thus providing an effective means to capture and handle prey and allow individuals to closely follow irregular substrates in search of food . alternatively , their flexibility can enable sea stars to upright themselves if over - turned .
the surface of a sea star looks and feels rough because of the numerous small and transparent sacs called papulae that cover the body , which provide a respiratory surface for exchanging oxygen . the upper and lower body surfaces also contain pincer - like structures called pedicellariae , which come in a variety of forms from simple modified spines to highly specialized opposing hooks . their function is to rid areas around the papulae of small organisms and debris , and in some species capture prey by detecting their presence . these are
usually small fish or shrimp - like crustaceans on which the sea star feeds . the shape of pedicellariae is an important characteristic for asteroid taxonomy .
sea stars have an unusual way of moving . water is taken in through the madreportite , a small , perforated plate on the upper surface of the disc , and into the water vascular system , a canal of tubes connected to the tube feet . following muscular contraction water is directed under pressure to the tube feet , which then extend under its force . movement is achieved through a coordinated stepping motion where , on muscle contraction , the feet adhere to the sediment surface , pushing the individual forward . depending on the species , tube feet have suckers that help stick the sea star to hard surfaces or assist in prying open the shells of its mollusk prey . besides involvement in prey capture ; tube feet also have a respiratory function . species with more than five arms and reproduce asexually will have numerous madreportites .
as a group , sea stars live in virtually every habitat found in the sea , ranging from tidal pools , rocky shores , sea grass and kelp beds , beneath rock rubble , on coral reefs , sand , and mud . in some species a broad and flattened body may act as a snowshoe when foraging on very soft mud . in the upper shore , they are periodically exposed by the retreating tide , resulting in extended periods of desiccation . the only refuge is cover in moist crevices beneath rocks . by contrast , in the deep sea at depth greater than 29 , 530 ft ( 9 , 000 m ) they are found inhabiting sandy bottoms and steep cliffs .
they are prominent seafloor predators . perhaps their success and influence comes from a unique combination of attributes . these include indeterminate growth , a morphology and digestive system generalized enough to capture , handle , and ingest many different prey types and sizes , and a sensory ability sophisticated enough to respond quickly to the presence of prey and changes in the prevailing environment . moreover , their flexible bodies and suckered tube feet enable them to adhere firmly to the seabed whilst manipulating prey , thus enabling them to survive in high stress environments by withstanding the full force of crashing waves .
sea stars have a
central nervous system ,
or diffuse nerve net , but lack anything identified as a brain . despite this , they are sophisticated enough to adapt to change based on previous experiences ( conditioning ) , whereby behavior that is persistently unsuccessful , usually a feeding one , is stopped .
they are not considered social animals , yet many species tend to aggregate or swarm in large numbers during certain times of the year . these events tend to be triggered during spawning periods , feeding frenzies , or seasonal migrations to deeper waters offshore . some sea stars show avoidance behavior to other species or attraction towards members of the opposite sex . feeding is perhaps the most common cause of aggregation , where sea stars can appear in thousands to prey on mussels , oysters , or coral .
the daily activity patterns in many sea stars are synchronized to changes in light intensity , usually around dawn and dusk . such activity may help to avoid predators and coincide sea star foraging activity with the activity of their preferred prey . in others such as astropecten irregularis , daily activity patterns are synchronized to periods of slack water on a high and low tide when velocities are low enough to optimize foraging success .
sea stars are carnivorous , preying on sponges , shellfish , crabs , corals , worms , and even on other echinoderms . most are generalists , feeding on anything that is too slow to escape , such as mussels and clams , whilst others are specialized feeders preying exclusively on sponges , corals , bivalves , or algae . prey is located by the chemical odors emanating from its waste products or by small movements that betray its presence when detected by a sea star . food preferences can change depending on availability of prey , which change geographically and seasonally . even weather conditions in temperate species and reproductive state ( usually during gonad growth ) affects dietary requirements .
feeding strategies can be divided into those that are scavengers , feeding mainly on decaying fish and invertebrates ; those that are deposit feeders , filling their stomachs with mud from which they extract microscopic organisms and organic matter ; and those that are suspension feeders , filtering prey and food particles from the water ( e . g . , novodinia antillensis ) .
depending on the species , sea stars have two different feeding methods . intra - oral feeders ingest their prey into their stomach alive , sometimes distending or rupturing their disc in the process . the burrowing sand star astropecten irregularis , for example , can swallow hundreds of live juvenile mollusks during one foraging period . in some cases prey such as clams
they have few predators as adults due to their armored spiny skeleton and rigid nature . in less heavily armored and juvenile sea stars , protection from predators comes from having a cryptic coloration . other defensives include toxic spines or skin ( e . g . , crossaster papposus and acanthaster planci ) and predator avoidance by burrowing beneath the sediment surface ( e . g . , astropecten irregularis and anseropoda placenta ) . some crabs , fish , birds , and other echinoderms are known to prey on sea stars . usually , they feed on arm tips , as their calcified bodies are difficult to eat and not very nutritious .
some sea stars brood their young , where females hold their fertilized eggs in a brood space under the arm ( e . g . , asterina phylactica ) , in the stomach ( e . g . , leptasterias hexactis ) , or incubate them in the gonads ( e . g . , patiriella parvivipara ) . in the last two cases , young develop internally and escape through small openings the female ' s body wall called gonopores . many brooding sea stars inhabit polar and deep - sea regions . some brooding sea stars , however , produce unguarded egg masses that they attach to the seabed ( asterina gibbosa ) .
no asteroid is listed in the iucn red list of threatened species . some species are protected , however , at local levels , particularly in tropical destinations where souvenir hunters have lead to a decline in numbers . in the caribbean , for example , the sea star oreaster reticulatus has protection .
however , sea stars do have some commercial value . in denmark , asterias are used as an ingredient in fish meal , which is fed to poultry . the ancient indians of british columbia and the egyptians used them as fertilizer . some companies collect sea stars for biological supplies to schools and collectors . their multi - rayed image is emblematic of the sea , making their dried bodies a valuable commodity to the souvenir trade .
the sea star has between 10 and 14 arms with rows of spines and teeth - like pedicellaria . arms are long and thin . red brick coloration .
atlantic ocean , west indies down to depths of 1 , 970–2 , 625 ft ( 600–800 m ) .
found attached to hard substratum with steeply sloping rocky surfaces ; under cliffs . prefers areas where current speeds are relatively strong . often associated with large semi - sedentary filter - feeding animals such as large sponges , sea fans , and stony corals .
semi - sedentary . spiny arms and pedicellaria act like velcro ® by sticking the sea star to virtually any surface .
an opportunistic suspension - feeder . characteristic arm posture creates a basket - like appearance as arms extend into the water column and their tips curl inwards over its mouth , providing maximum exposure to currents . food is captured as it becomes impinged on the array of arm spines and hook - like structures adapted to piercing and gripping objects . feeds on planktonic crustaceans such as copepods , mysids , and amphipods . remain relatively inactive whilst in the feeding posture , but slowly bend their arms to envelope captured prey .
diameter of 16–20 in ( 40–50 cm ) , with five arms that are distinctly turned up at the tips . colors can include rosy brown , ochre and yellowish brown , red , and purple . the underside is very flat . skin covered with numerous unevenly arranged small spines with jagged ends .
far east , russia , korea , japan , china , alaska ( north and south of the alaska peninsula ) , and ranges from british columbia , canada , and the northern pacific down to a depth below 820 ft ( 250 m ) .
found in shallow water on sheltered coasts . it can tolerate a range of temperatures ( 45°f [ 7°c ] and 72°f [ 22°c ] ) and salinities , which is unusual in many sea stars ; hence is also found living in estuaries . found on sandy , mud and rock sediments , among stones and algae thickets .
forms dense spawning aggregations , where the females have been observed lifting themselves above ground on their rays and release the eggs between the arms while the male sea star crawls beneath . polychaete actonoe has a symbiotic relationship with the sea stars and serves to clean its surface of unwanted microorganisms .
a generalist feeder . diet includes scallops , oysters , mussels , shrimp , and even other echinoderms . juvenile king crab paralithodes shelter between its arms , presumably for protection against predators . feeds by using its tube feet and arms to pull apart the shells of its prey before everting its stomach .
sexual reproduction . spawning geographically variable ; in russia , june–july and september , and in australia , july–october . estimated 20 million eggs are released , and develop into free - living larvae .
accidentally introduced into southeastern australia and tasmania , causing extensive commercial and ecological damage .
large central disc with stout tapering arms , varying from four to seven , but usually five . size variable but can reach 11 in ( 28 cm ) . commonly yellow , orange , brown , and purple in color . body covered with numerous small white spines .
pacific coast from alaska to california and down to a depth of 328 ft ( 100 m ) .
intertidal rocky shores exposed to strong wave action ; predator of kelp forests . also found inhabiting tide pools at low tide .
keystone predator because it has impact on its marine community that is disproportionately large . can withstand 50 hours exposed to air if among moist algae .
feeds mainly on the mussel mytilus californinus , although can feed on other bivalves , snails , limpets , and chitons . uses tube feet to pull apart shells and everts stomach to digest soft tissue . few predators , but some are eaten by sea otters and gulls .
sexual reproduction , shedding eggs and sperm into water column . spawn between april and may . free - swimming larvae that feed on small planktonic organisms until they settle out on rocks . can regenerate arms .
adults usually have between 10 and 24 arms , while juveniles have only 5 . one of the largest and heaviest sea stars ; sizes can range between a radius of 16 in ( 40 cm ) and 35 in ( 90 cm ) . color variable from pink , purple , brown , red , orange , or yellow . a broad central disc and armed with over 15 , 000 tube feet . skeleton has few ossicles , so the species has a soft and flexible body wall ideal for stretching mouth to accommodate large prey .
northeast pacific coastal waters . found inhabiting the intertidal and subtidal zones from alaska to california down to a depth of 1 , 640 ft ( 500 m ) .
commonly found in dense seaweeds in low intertidal zones on rocky shores because their fragile bodies need the support of surrounding water .
solitary . a fast - moving predator that can reach speeds of 5 ft ( 1 . 6 m ) per minute . when two individuals meet , they display aggressive or combative behavior .
feeds on bivalves , polychaetes , chitons , snails , crabs , sea cucumbers , sea urchins ( e . g . , strongylocentrotus purpuratus ) , sand dollars , sea stars ( e . g . , leptasterias ) , and dead or dying squid when seasonally available . uses sucker feet when capturing prey and swallows whole , although has the ability to partly evert stomach . main predator is the king crab paralithodes .
sexual reproduction . shed eggs and sperm into water column . spawn from march to july , peaking in may and june . planktonic larvae stage lasts between 2 and 10 weeks . have the ability to regenerate arms .
varies in size , but commonly between 2 in ( 5 cm ) and 4 in ( 10 cm ) , but up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) in deep waters . pale violet to yellowish color with five relatively short and tapering arms that form stiff and distinct angles . it has well - developed upper and lower marginal plates fringed with small spines . the tube feet are pointed and sucker - less .
geographical range extends from norway to morocco and found sub - tidally between 16 ft ( 5 m ) and 3 , 281 ft ( 1 , 000 m ) .
inhabits a variety of different substratum ranging from coarse gravel to fine mud , although it is more commonly found in sandy substrata . usually buried either partially or completely within the sediment .
migrates offshore into deeper water during the winter months to avoid cooling seawater temperatures and being dislodged by strong onshore storm surges . they show quadri - diurnal pattern of locomotory activity that coincide with periods of slack water during high and low tidal cycles , enabling prey buried in sediment to be detected more easily . it has a commensal worm acholoe squamosa , which freely enters the stomach and lives in the ambulacral grooves .
intra - oral feeder , prey are excavated from the sediment and swallowed whole . voracious predators of mollusks , particularly the clam spisula subtruncata , polychaetes , crustaceans , and other echinoderms . it has a limited olfactory ability and relies on detecting prey by touch .
sexual reproduction . spawning occurs between may and july following a rise in seawater temperature . prior to spawning sea stars aggregate together to reproduce .
size over 16 in ( 40 cm ) in diameter with between 10 and 30 arms covered in dense thorn - like spines , which are mildly venomous ; can inflict painful wounds that are slow to heal . red and green coloration with reddish tips to spines . juveniles are cryptic in color . tube feet can function in gas exchange and feeding .
pacific and indian coral reefs , particularly associated with reefs in hawaii , australia , the red sea , india , and south africa .
adults found on open sand and feed among coral , whilst juveniles tend to hide among the coral , under rocks , and coral rubble .
sedentary dwellers of reef habitats . large numbers may suddenly appear feeding on coral and then disappear .
solitarily , generally feeds at night . a voracious predator of hard corals . digests food by everting its stomach over coral , releasing a digestive enzyme and then absorbing liquefied tissue . can survive without food for six months and feed on an estimated 3 . 1 mi 2 ( 8 km 2 ) of coral per year , leaving behind dead coral skeletons .
sexual reproduction . planktonic larvae undergo bipinnaria and brachiolaria development . regenerates broken arms to form another individual .
have caused widespread damage to coral reefs in the indo - pacific ocean , red sea , and australia ' s great barrier reef . toxic spines capable of stinging humans , inflicting pain at site of sting and causing nausea .
one of the world ' s smallest known sea stars , measuring up to 0 . 4 in ( 1 cm ) in diameter with stout arms . they are conspicuous yellow - orange color . morphologically , they are similar to a co - occurring species patiriella exigua .
among sea stars , this species has the most restricted distribution . currently found only within the coastal waters of southern australia .
in either sheltered or exposed shores , usually under small boulders . at low tide , they remain covered with a few centimeters of water , although occasionally they are completely exposed .
slow - moving and spends most of their time beneath the underside of boulders to avoid predators and desiccation at low tide .
opportunistic feeder , consuming essentially algal growth and detritus , although small epifaunal organisms and decaying animals are also eaten .
unusual life - history . it is simultaneous hermaphrodite ( self - fertilizing ) , has intragonadal fertilization , and incubates its young in the gonads . the strategy is to produce few eggs and small amounts of sperm at any one time . the advantage is a higher survival rate of offspring compared to the more usual strategy of broadcasting species . cannibalism by juveniles feeding on other juveniles is common in this species . most juveniles crawl away from the parent when sufficient size is reached . emergence of juveniles appears to be influenced by temperature increases during the summer months .
broad central disc with five short arms tapering to a blunt tip . can reach a size of 5 . 5 in ( 14 cm ) in diameter and adopts a characteristic position with arm tips slightly raised . colors variable , ranging from dark brown , purple , purple - red , orange , red - orange , red , brick red , dark carmine , and pink . it may have light - colored arm tips with yellowish white under surface .
found throughout antarctica and the antarctic peninsula , south shetland islands , south orkney islands , south sandwich islands , south georgia island , shag rocks , marion and prince edward islands , and bouvet island at depths down to 2 , 950 ft ( 900 m ) .
commonly found inhabiting the shallow shelf waters of antarctica , usually occurring between 49 ft ( 15 m ) and 660 ft ( 200 m ) depths .
attack large prey in gangs ( e . g . , the sea urchin sterechinus neumayeri and sea star acodontaster conspicuus ) . recognizes chemical odor of individuals from the same species during feeding , minimizing the risk of cannibalism .
an omnivore , capable of filter - feeding and eating a varied diet , including detritus , weddell seal feces , diatoms , algae , crustaceans , mollusks , hydroids , bryozoans , sponges , polychaetes , and sea urchins . everts stomach to feed . predator is another sea star macroptychaster accrescens and anemone urticinopsis antarcticus .
sexual reproduction . broadcast spawning . larvae feed on bacteria and algae , and have exceptionally low metabolic rates , which are ideal for long - term survival . slow - growing , taking up to nine years to reach normal adult size .
common in shallow waters of indo - pacific oceans . in particular , eastern africa to hawaii and the south pacific islands to japan .
adults found along coral gravel substrates of reef terraces in direct sunlight , sandy sediments , and under rocks .


acrolophus davisellus is a moth of the acrolophidae family .

it is found in north america , including arizona .

the wingspan is about 25 mm .

acrolophus davisellus

acrolophus tapuja ; mielke & grehan , 2012 , nachr . ent . ver . apollo n . f . 32 ( 3 / 4 ) : 152
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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dalaca tapuja pfitzner , 1914 ; ent . rundschau 31 ( 19 ) : 110 ; tl : southern brazil , leopoldina
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
pfitzner in seitz , 1937 die amerikanischen spinner und schwärmer ( 186 pls ) gross - schmett . erde 6 : 1 - 32 ( 1913 ) , : 33 - 192 ( 1915 ) , : 193 - 240 ( 1917 ) , : 249 - 280 ( 1918 ) , : 241 - 248 , 281 - 320 ( 1919 ) , : 321 - 336 ( 1920 ) , : 337 - 376 ( 1921 ) , : 377 - 416 ( 1922 ) , : 417 - 424 ( 1924 ) , : 425 - 528 ( 1925 ) , : 529 - 616 ( 1927 ) , : 617 - 672 ( 1928 ) , : 673 - 768 ( 1929 ) , : 769 - 840 ( 1930 ) , : 841 - 904 ( 1931 ) , : 905 - 1016 ( 1932 ) , : 1017 - 1048 ( 1933 ) , : 1049 - 1088 ( 1934 ) , : 1089 - 1112 ( 1935 ) , : 1137 - 1256 ( 1936 ) , : 1113 - 1136 , 1257 - 1296 ( 1937 ) , : 1297 - 1304 ( 1938 ) , : 1305 - 1328 ( 1939 ) , : 1329 - 1452 ( 1940 )
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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robinson , g . s . 1986 . fungus moths : a review of the scardiinae ( lepidoptera : tineidae ) . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) , entomology 52 ( 2 ) : 37 - 181 .
record : sta cruz co . , coll . j . f . lawrence ( bmnh )
hasbrouck , frank f . 1964 . moths of the family acrolophidae in american north of mexico . proceedings of the united states national museum ( vol 114 , pp . 487 - 706 ) number 3475 .
likely in se arizona ( tl = yuma , records in texas as well ) .
likely in se arizona ( tl =
hot springs , az
. records in texas as well ) .
bruce walsh . jbwalsh @ urltoken . comments , correction and additions most welcome . to get to my home page .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .


pseudolaguvia tenebricosa is a species of catfish .

it is only known from a fast-flowing hill stream called pathe chaung , near taungoo in southern burma .

this is a very small catfish ( 2.9 centimetres ( 1.1 in ) sl ) with almost black upperparts and paler underneath .

it is similar to pseudolaguvia tuberculata but differs in having a distinct gap between the dorsal and adipose fins and a narrower head with a shorter snout .

it is adapted to the fast-flowing waters of its habitat by the presence of an adhesive apparatus in the form of folded pleats of skin , rather similar to that seen on members of the sisorid genus glyptothorax .

pseudolaguvia tenebricosa

type : [ large ] upl _ 95284 . tif [ 7715204 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 04 - 26 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm photo , lateral view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .
type : [ large ] upl _ 95285 . tif [ 2794440 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 04 - 26 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm photo , dorsal view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .
type : [ large ] upl _ 95290 . tif [ 3003640 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 04 - 26 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm photo , ventral view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .
type : [ large ] upl _ 318614 . tif [ 7715204 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2006 - 07 - 13 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm photo , lateral view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .
type : [ large ] upl _ 318616 . tif [ 10529852 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2006 - 07 - 13 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm photo , ventral view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .
type : [ large ] upl _ 318612 . tif [ 10290968 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2006 - 07 - 13 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm photo , dorsal view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . natural hist . , si , all rights reserved .
pseudolaguvia tenebricosa was described from the pathe chaung in the sittang river drainage in southern myanmar ( britz and ferraris 2003 ) . however , the non - type material from the irrawaddy river drainage mentioned in the original description of this species may not be conspecific with the type material from the sittang river drainage . there is currently insufficient material of the former to verify if this is the case .
type : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 93929 . jpg [ 1063419 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 04 - 20 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm xray , lateral view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . nat . hist . , smithsonian institution . all rights reserved .
type : [ large ] [ zoom ] upl _ 93932 . jpg [ 1517916 ] approved = yes submission by : raredon , sandra j . on 2005 - 04 - 20 photographed by : raredon , sandra j . pseudolaguvia tenebricosa usnm 373293 holotype standard length : 29 . 4 mm x - ray , dorsal view copyright©div . fishes , nat . mus . nat . hist . , smithsonian institution . all rights reserved .
britz , r . and c . j . ferraris jr . , 2003 . a new species of the asian catfish genus pseudolaguvia from myanmar ( teleostei : ostariophysi : siluriformes : erethistidae ) . zootaxa 388 : 1 - 8 . ( ref . 50586 )
justification : there is insufficient information regarding the distribution of pseudolaguvia tenebricosa , since it has only been collected from two widely separate localities . information about its biology and potential threats facing this species is also lacking . furthermore , whilst the species may be present in basins between the two known localities , the conspecificity of the populations from the irrawaddy and sittaung river drainages requires further study . given the lack of knowledge regarding the distribution , biology and the threats facing this species , as well as the taxonomic uncertainty surrounding the two known populations , it is assessed as data deficient .
dorsal spines ( total ) : 2 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 6 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 10 . differs from the only other member of the genus pseudolaguvia tuberculata in having an adipose fin not reaching posterior insertion of dorsal fin , a narrower head ( 23 . 8 - 25 . 1 versus 26 . 7 % sl ) , and a shorter snout ( 12 . 8 - 14 . 3 versus 16 . 7 % sl ) ( ref . 50586 ) .
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rema devi , k . r . , arunachalam , m . , vishwanath , w . , dahanukar , n . , daniel , b . a . & molur , s .
this species is known only from two localities in the sittaung and irrawaddy river drainages respectively . the type locality ( pathe chaung ) is a left bank tributary of the sittang river in southern myanmar ( britz and ferraris 2003 ) , while the other locality in which it has been recorded lies in the middle irrawaddy river drainage in northern myanmar .
there is no information on the population size and trend of this species , since it is only known from 17 specimens .
the type locality ( pathe chaung ) is a small hill stream , with fast running , clear water , a sandy bottom and numerous rocks and boulders . aquatic vegetation was absent . water temperature was 24°c , with a ph of 8 . 5 and a conductivity of 70 μs ( britz and ferraris 2003 ) .
this species is apparently not utilized either as a food or an aquarium fish .
the threats to this species are unknown , since there is no information on the biology of this species and therefore the impact of potential threats ( especially those of an anthropogenic nature ) remains unknown . the current threats to aquatic biodiversity in all of its known distribution have also not been adequately identified .
more research about the distribution and the biology of this species is needed , as there is insufficient information available . potential threats to this species also need to be identified . furthermore , the taxonomic status of the material from the irrawaddy river drainage needs to be further investigated and its conspecificity with the type material from the sittang river drainage needs to be verified .
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from the latin tenebricosus alluding to the dark , gloomy coloration of this species ( ref . 50586 )
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 3 . 2 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 50586 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 1 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 10 of 100 ) .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref .
) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( ) .
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chikilidae is a family of indian caecilians , the 10th and most recent ( 2012 ) family of caecilians ( legless amphibians ) to be identified , although the type species , chikila fulleri ( formerly herpele fulleri ) was first described in 1904 .

the discovery that this was a separate lineage resulted from genetic analyses of specimens collected during about 250 soil-digging expeditions over five years that covered every northeast indian state .

a team of biologists led by university of delhi herpetologist sathyabhama das biju described the family as representing as many as seven species apparently endemic to the region .

in september 2012 , some of these species were also found in lawachara national park in the sylhet region of northeastern bangladesh .

the family 's lineage is believed to have originated in africa , where their closest living relatives are found .

chikilids grow to about 4 in ( 10 cm ) in length .

they have very limited eyesight and skulls adapted for burrowing .

their eggs hatch into adult caecilians , with no larval stage in between .

until this discovery , only nine families of caecilians were known from across the wet tropical regions of southeast asia , india , sri lanka , parts of east and west africa , the seychelles , central america and northern and eastern parts of south america .

from morphological and dna analyses , the researchers concluded the new family had evolved independently of other caecilians since the time of the dinosaurs .

chikilidae

dana campbell selected
chikilidae
to show in overview on
chikilidae
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an adult chikilidae with eggs and hatchlings . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )
the name chikilidae was chosen because it mirrors what the locals call it in their garo language .
the chikilidae is a caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .
his first effort in conserving the chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their garo language . the chikilidae is a caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .
biju ' s team worked best during monsoon season , when the digging is easier and chikilidae lay eggs in waterlogged soils .
dr . biju and his colleagues named the new family chikilidae and describe it in the proceedings of the royal society b .
the chikilidae stems from the caecilians family and is the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include frogs and salamanders .
according to relaxed molecular clock analyses , the lineage of chikilidae diverged in the early cretaceous , about 140 million years ago .
delhi professor sathyabhama das biju displays an adult chikilidae in his laboratory in new delhi , india . ( mustafa quraishi / ap )
his first effort in conserving the chikilidae was to give it a scientific name mirroring what the locals use in their garo language .
systematics of the caecilian family chikilidae ( amphibia : gymnophiona ) with the description of three new species of chikila from northeast india .
an egg of a chikilidae , which researchers found digging through mud in north - eastern india . ( sathyabhama das biju / getty images )
within the chikilidae family , the team has already identified three species , and is on its way to classing three more , he said .
an adult chikilidae , a new species of legless amphibian known as a caecilian , with eggs and hatchlings . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )
systematics of the caecilian family chikilidae ( amphibia : gymnophiona ) with the description of three new species of chikila from northeast india . - pubmed - ncbi
a possibly superfluous set of eyes is shielded under a layer of skin , and may help the chikilidae gauge light from dark as in other caecilian species .
an indo - european team of scientists has discovered a new family of legless amphibians called chikilidae , adding a major branch to the amphibian tree of life .
over five years of digging through forest beds in the rain , the team has identified an entirely new family of amphibians - called chikilidae - endemic to the region but with ancient links to africa .
in fact , the chikilidae is harmless , and may even be the farmer ' s best friend — feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops , and churning the soil as it moves underground .
the chikilidae ' s discovery , made along with co - researchers from london ' s natural history museum and vrije university in brussels , brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10 .
in fact , the chikilidae is harmless , and may even be the farmer ' s best friend - feasting on worms and insects that might harm crops , and churning the soil as it moves underground .
chikilidae is the latin version of the word chikilid , which originates from the garo language , kamei said . the garo language is used in the indian state of meghalaya , as well as in neighboring bangladesh .
asianscientist ( mar . 5 , 2012 ) – an indo - european team of scientists has discovered a new family of legless amphibians which they called chikilidae , adding a major branch to the amphibian tree of life .
unexpected to many , molecular phylogenetic analyses of dna ( mitochondrial and nuclear ) and comparative cranial anatomy showed a sister - group relationship with the herpelidae , african relatives found more than 7 , 000 miles away from the chikilidae .
the chikilidae ' s home in long - ignored tropical forests now faces drastic change under programs to cut trees , plant rice paddy , build roads and generate industry as india ' s economic growth fuels a breakneck drive in development .
so far , biju ' s team has determined that an adult chikilidae will remain with its eggs until they hatch , forgoing food for some 50 days . when the eggs hatch , the young emerge as tiny adults and squirm away .
commonly known as tailless - burrowing caecelians , the chikilidae is a legless , snake - like caecilian , the most primitive of three amphibian groups that also include salamanders and frogs . all 180 species of caecelians are restricted to the wet tropics of the world .
dna testing suggests the chikilidae ' s closest relative is in africa — with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called gondwana , since separated into today ' s continents of africa , antarctica , australia , south america and the indian subcontinent .
dna testing suggests the chikilidae ' s closest relative is in africa - with the two evolutionary paths splitting some 140 million years ago when dinosaurs roamed what was then a southern supercontinent called gondwana , since separated into today ' s continents of africa , antarctica , australia , south america and the indian subcontinent .
“for the last four or five years , we have extensively studied all kinds of habitats . we have received tremendous support from the local people . we found a group of animals ; we gave them a new family status , and we named it chikilidae , ” said lead author rachunliu g . kamei .
biju ' s team worked best during monsoon season , when the digging is easier and chikilidae lay eggs in waterlogged soils . gripping garden spades with blistered hands , the researchers along with locals they hired spent about 2 , 600 man hours digging for the elusive squigglers , usually found about 16 inches ( 40 centimeters ) deep .
but this legless amphibian ' s time in obscurity has ended , thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by university of delhi professor sathyabhama das biju . over five years of digging through forest beds in the rain , the team has identified an entirely new family of amphibians — called chikilidae — endemic to the region but with ancient links to africa .
family chikilidae jurassic ( 200–145 . 5 million years ago ) to present ; perforate stapes ; septomaxillae and prefrontals absent ; lower jaws possess two rows of teeth ; 1 genus , 7 species ; northeastern india . family dermophiidae cretaceous ( 145 . 5–65 . 5 million years ago ) to present ; secondary annuli and annular scales present ; viviparous ; 4 genera , …
the chikilidae ' s discovery , made along with co - researchers from london ' s natural history museum and vrije university in brussels , brings the number of known caecilian families in the world to 10 . three are in india and others are spread across the tropics in southeast asia , africa and south america . there is debate about the classifications , however , and some scientists count even fewer caecilian families .
the chikilidae ' s home in long - ignored tropical forests now faces drastic change under programs to cut trees , plant rice paddy , build roads and generate industry as india ' s economic growth fuels a breakneck drive in development . more industrial pollutants , more pesticides and more people occupying more land may mean a world of trouble for a creature that can be traced to the earliest vertebrates to creep across land .
a taxonomic review of the monogeneric northeast indian caecilian family chikilidae is presented based on 64 specimens . chikila fuilleri ( alcock , 1904 ) , known previously only from a single specimen collected more than 100 years ago , is rediagnosed and characterised based on recent collections . we describe three additional species new to science , chikila alcocki sp . nov . , chikila darlong sp . nov . , and chikila gaiduwani sp . nov . this species - level taxonomy is consistent with mitochondrial dna sequence data . a key to the species of chikila is presented .
a team of scientists led by dr . sd biju of university of delhi ( urltoken ) has discovered an entirely new family of legless amphibians from india and named it chikilidae . their closest relatives are found around 7 , 000 miles away in africa highlighting ancient biogeographical links between india and africa . chikilids live exclusively under the soil and hence the common name tailless burrowing caecilians . this rare find is a result of over 2000 person hours of digging in more than 250 localities in northeast india . chikilids show interesting parental care : mother lays transparent eggs and she guards her egg clutch constantly without feeding for up to 70 days .
this family was recently described in 2012 ( kamei et al ) after extensive survey efforts in the northeast india . a total of 1177 person hours were dedicated in the discovery of the caecilian chikila fulleri , the first described species in the new family chikilidae . from molecular phylogenetic analyses ( both mitogenomic and nuclear dna ) and comparative cranial anatomy , they determined chikilids were more closely related to the african family herpelidae than indotyphlidae , diverging about 140 ± ca 20 ma . further , they propose this family represents an ancient radiation in wet tropical forests and thus evidence for the persistence of cretaceous period habitat in the northeastern india region .
new delhi — since before the age of dinosaurs it has burrowed unbothered beneath the monsoon - soaked soils of remote northeast india — unknown to science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly , miniature snake .
their discovery , published wednesday in a journal of the royal society of london , gives yet more evidence that india is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country ' s industry - heavy development agenda .
it also gives exciting new evidence in the study of prehistoric species migration , as well as evolutionary paths influenced by continental shift .
this is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored ,
biju said in an interview with the associated press .
we hope this new family will show the importance of funding research in the area . we need to know what we have , so we can know what to save .
an egg clutch of the new species . ( sathyabhama das biju / ap )
we hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal ' s importance and join in trying to save it ,
biju said .
india ' s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy .
biju — a botanist - turned - herpetologist now celebrated as india ' s
frogman
— has made it his life work to find and catalog new species . there are too many cases of
nameless extinction ,
with animals disappearing before they are ever known , he said .
we don ' t even know what we ' re losing .
amphibians are particularly vulnerable , and have drastically declined in recent decades . the same sensitivity to climate and water quality that makes them perfect environmental barometers also puts them at the greatest risk when ecological systems go awry .
biju , however , is working the reverse trend . since 2001 , he has discovered 76 new species of plants , caecilians and frogs — vastly more than any other scientist in india — and estimates 30 - 40 percent of the country ' s amphibians are yet to be found .
because they live hidden underground , and race off at the slightest vibration , much less is known about them than their more famous — and vocal — amphibious cousins , the frogs . only 186 of the world ' s known amphibious species are caecilians , compared with more than 6 , 000 frog species — a third of which are considered endangered or threatened .
even people living in northeast indians misunderstand the caecilians , and rare sightings can inspire terror and revulsion , with farmers and villagers chopping them in half out of the mistaken belief that they are poisonous snakes .
much remains to be discovered in further study , biju said , as many questions remain about how the creatures live .
they grow to about 4 inches ( 10 centimeters ) , and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region ' s tougher soils , shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration .
it ' s like a rocket ,
biju said .
if you miss it the first try , you ' ll never catch it again .
it was backbreaking work ,
said research fellow rachunliu kamei , who even passed out in the forest once , and some days found not even one specimen .
but there is motivation in knowing this is an uncharted frontier ,
said kamei , lead researcher and main author of the study paper .
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since before the age of dinosaurs it has burrowed unbothered beneath the monsoon - soaked soils of remote northeast india - unknown to science and mistaken by villagers as a deadly , miniature snake .
but this legless amphibian ' s time in obscurity has ended , thanks to an intrepid team of biologists led by university of delhi professor sathyabhama das biju .
their discovery , published today in a journal of the royal society of london , gives yet more evidence that india is a hotbed of amphibian life with habitats worth protecting against the country ' s industry - heavy development agenda .
' this is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored , ' biju said .
' we hope this new family will show the importance of funding research in the area . we need to know what we have , so we can know what to save . '
' we hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal ' s importance and join in trying to save it , ' biju said .
' india ' s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy . '
more industrial pollutants , more pesticides and more people occupying more land may mean a world of trouble for a creature that can be traced to the earliest vertebrates to creep across land .
biju - a botanist - turned - herpetologist now celebrated as india ' s ' frogman ' - has made it his life work to find and catalog new species .
there are too many cases of ' nameless extinction , ' with animals disappearing before they are ever known , he said . ' we don ' t even know what we ' re losing . '
the same sensitivity to climate and water quality that makes them perfect environmental barometers also puts them at the greatest risk when ecological systems go awry .
biju , however , is working the reverse trend . since 2001 , he has discovered 76 new species of plants , caecilians and frogs - vastly more than any other scientist in india - and estimates 30 - 40 percent of the country ' s amphibians are yet to be found .
three are in india and others are spread across the tropics in southeast asia , africa and south america .
there is debate about the classifications , however , and some scientists count even fewer caecilian families .
because they live hidden underground , and race off at the slightest vibration , much less is known about them than their more famous - and vocal - amphibious cousins , the frogs .
only 186 of the world ' s known amphibious species are caecilians , compared with more than 6 , 000 frog species - a third of which are considered endangered or threatened .
they grow to about 4 inches , and can ram their hard skulls through some of the region ' s tougher soils , shooting off quickly at the slightest vibration . ' it ' s like a rocket , ' biju said . ' if you miss it the first try , you ' ll never catch it again . '
gripping garden spades with blistered hands , the researchers along with locals they hired spent about 2 , 600 man hours digging for the elusive squigglers , usually found about 16 inches deep .
' it was backbreaking work , ' said research fellow rachunliu kamei , who even passed out in the forest once , and some days found not even one specimen .
' but there is motivation in knowing this is an uncharted frontier , ' said kamei , lead researcher and main author of the study paper .
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family named for chikila , a northeastern ( meghalaya state ) indian tribal name for the included caecilians .
kamei , r . g . , d . san mauro , d . j . gower , i . van bocxlaer , e . sherratt , a . thomas , s . babu , f . bossuyt , m . wilkinson , and s . d . biju . 2012 . discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa . proceedings of the royal society of london . series b , biological sciences 279 : 2396–2401 .
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a new family of limbless , tail - less amphibians has been discovered in northeastern india .
over the course of five years , researchers identified five species belonging to the family in 250 locations throughout the vast region .
“the complete life cycle , everything , is happening under the soil , ” said s . d . biju , an environmental scientist at the university of delhi who led the research . “so far we don’t have much information about feeding ; we think they eat earthworms . ”
the amphibians look like earthworms themselves , or small snakes , though they are not poisonous . unlike worms , they also have strong backbones .
the researchers suspect that the amphibians’ reach extends into myanmar , bhutan and nepal , dr . biju said ; they also appear to be related to another family of limbless amphibians in africa that diverged from the indian family 140 million years ago .
dr . biju said the discovery underscored the need for amphibian conservation in india , where larger , charismatic species like the tiger and the elephant get far more attention .
“the northeast india region is having a great habitat destruction simply because of human indifference , ” he said . “this area is a major biodiversity hot spot . ”
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a new family of legless amphibians has been found burrowing in the earth of a remote northeastern village in india .
the worm - like creatures evolved separately from other caecilian species more than 140 million years ago and are endemic to the region , although with ancient links to africa .
the find is significant in the study of prehistoric species migration , as well as evolutionary paths influenced by continental shift , cbs news said .
the discovery , published this week in a journal of the royal society of london , was made by a team of biologists , led by professor sathyabhama das biju , of the university of delhi .
professor biju told ap : “this is a major hotspot of biological diversity , but one of the least explored . ”
he added : “we hope when the locals see the name , and their language , being used across the world , they will understand this animal’s importance and join in trying to save it .
“india’s biodiversity is fast depleting . we are destroying these habitats without mercy . ”
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systematics lab , department of environmental studies , university of delhi , delhi , 110 007 , india .
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described the family as representing as many as seven species apparently endemic to the region .
, with no larval stage in between . the mothers stay wrapped around their developing eggs for two to three months , apparently not eating at all during this period .
kamei , r . g . ; san mauro , d . ; gower , d . j . ; van bocxlaer , i . ; sherratt , e . ; thomas , a . ; babu , s . ; bossuyt , f . ; wilkinson , m . ; biju , s . d . ( 2012 - 02 - 22 ) .
discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa
. proceedings of the royal society b : biological sciences 279 ( 1737 ) : 2396–2401 . doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2012 . 0150 . issn 0962 - 8452 . pmc 3350690 . pmid 22357266 .
new amphibian family find for india
. bbc news . february 22 , 2012 .
new family of legless amphibians found in india
. boston globe . february 21 , 2012 .
frost , darrel r . 2011 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 5 ( 31 january 2011 ) url = urltoken
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led by dr . s . d . biju of the university of delhi – also fondly known as india’s frogman – the team explored more than 250 locations in northeast india , leading to the discovery of the new amphibians described in the journal , proceedings of the royal society b , london .
this surprising ancient geographical link to africa adds to growing evidence of how continental movements have affected the geographical distribution of floral and fauna , the authors say in the youtube video .
an interesting factoid about chikilids : in a wonderful show of parental care , the chikilid mother lays transparent eggs and guards her egg clutch constantly without feeding for up to 70 days .
the article can be found at : kamei rg et al . ( 2012 ) discovery of a new family of amphibians from northeast india with ancient links to africa .
source : systematics lab , university of delhi . disclaimer : this article does not necessarily reflect the views of asianscientist or its staff .
juliana is the founder and editor - in - chief of asian scientist magazine , and a young global leader of the world economic forum . she received a phd in biology from mit and a ma , ba ( first class hons . ) in natural sciences from cambridge university , uk . juliana regularly moderates scientific panel discussions and gives talks on science communications .
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