tomarctus is a canid genus of the extinct subfamily borophaginae which inhabited most of north america during the late early miocene to the early barstovian age of the middle miocene ( 23 — 16 million years ago ) .

tomarctus existed for approximately 6.83 million years .

this animal shared a period and ecology with a variety of other bear dogs like the giant mustelid genus of bone-crushing canidae , cynarctoides .

as the bear dogs and giant mustelids became extinct , tomarctus further radiated to fill a line of dogs which filled the hyena-like fruit eating and bone-crushing niches .

tomarctus

another structural adaption of the tomarctus is its four - toed foot . this effectively narrowed the foot which meant the tomarctus could exert more force on the ground on a smaller surface . this would mean that the tomarctus would run faster . this is useful in catching smaller prey that are fast and more agile than the tomarctus .
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the eurasian branch was called tomarctus and is the progenitor of wolves , dogs , and foxes .
the only evidence of the tomarctus is found in north america , mainly within the usa . the
the tomarctus probably became extinct because it evolved into better versions of itself , each being able to survive better in its given environment . the tomarctus is the ancestor of all canids ranging from the fruit eating hyena - like animals to the bone crushing canids much like the bear and the wolf . as the tomarctus radiated into different branches , the original species had to compete with the more suited species . this meant there would be an insufficient amount of food to support both species and the tomarctus eventually died out . another reason could have been the size of the tomarctus . the size of thse tomarctus did not allow for speed so as slow moving animals started to become extinct , the food chain was disrupted and the tomarctus became extinct .
this is useful when the tomarctus is being pursued and does not look on what it is stepping on .
on earth for around 6 . 83 millions of years , tomarctus inhabited most of the north american continent . tomarctus had long tails for balance , sharp claws to catch preys while hunting and an appearance resembling our dogs of today .
) evolve from . it is also the starting place of the vulpes genus . there are two species of tomarctus and they are
the evolutionary pressure for this adaptation could perhaps have been the death of some tomarctus from infected cuts on the bottom of their feet . this caused the bottom of the tomarctus ' s feet to develop calluses which eventually turned into pads over the 7 million years of its existence .
another noticeable behavior of the tomarctus is that it is a carnivore . this is seen from the large canines and incisors in the tomarctus ' s mouth . this was a very good adaptation during this time as prey was abundant because of development grasslands across the great plains of north america .
the environmental pressure that could ' ve given rise to the size of the tomarctus could have been the need to survive in a time when everything when size dictated if you survived or not . the bigger the tomarctus the more chances it will have at surviving because of its greater strength and stamina .
one of the ways the tomarctus adapted physiologically is in its size . it was found to be massive in size , around the size of a bear . thus earning its name , tomarctus , which means
almost a bear
. the size of the tomarctus served it in many ways . having such a big body would mean that it was stronger than smaller animals , thus making it able to hunt for larger prey which means more it can hunt less .
osteoborus _ cyonoides , _ aelurodon _ taxoides , _ tomarctus _ temerarius , _ and _ cormocyon _ leptodus . jpg : ryan somma . derivative work : kevmin
tomarctus had an incredibly strong bite force that exceeded what was required to kill a wild animal , the conclusion that streams is that tomarctus’ diet was probably composed of a lot of scavenging . carcasses and bones must have been a primary source of alimentation for tomarctus as bone marrow by itself is one of the most nutritious food in the natural wild world . plus , when kept in the bone under the right conditions , it can last for years after the death of the animal .
age of the middle minocene which is around 23 - 16 million years ago . the tomarctus is estimated to have existed for nearly 7 million years before going extinct .
this adaptation was probably the result of the need to catch prey . as the tomarctus preyed on small rodents , it needed to run faster in order to catch up to it . this meant that the five toes in its foot were making its foot heavier and by losing this toe , the tomarctus could catch up to its prey .
one of the behavioral adaptations that is found in the tomarctus is that unlike other canids , the tomarctus is a solitary hunter which means it only comes into contact with others of its kind only in the breeding season . this means that it can spend time fending for itself and does not have to waste time and energy defending its pack .
this adaptation could have arisen due to the need for more energy . the diet of the tomarctus was small rodents which would meant that sharing food would have been difficult of everyone was to be satisfied . being a solitary hunter meant that the tomarctus does not need to hunt for more than one animal and thus able to consume more energy ,
the period of that the tomarctus lived in was the miocene epoch of the neogene period . this was a period where the climate of the earth was slightly cooler and drier then before . this meant the grasslands that existed all over the world were expanding as forests receded , the area that the tomarctus lived in were mostly grassland with mountains forming in some parts of western north america .
cynodictis gave rise to two branches , one leading to the modern african hunting dog ( 4 ) and one through tomarctus ( 5 ) to the wolves and domestic dogs . tomarctus ( of some 15 million years ago ) differed but little physically from the wolves and wild dogs , but doubtless had far to go in intelligence . in modern times many widely different dogs have been bred , but the intelligence and adaptability of the dog remain distinctive .
a possible pressure that caused this adaptation could have been the need for a better growth . as meat contains proteins needed to build strong muscles , the tomarctus needed to eat large amounts of it to be able to grow to its optimal size .
like another carnivore of the cenozoic era , cynodictis , tomarctus has long been the
go - to
mammal for folks who want to identify the first true prehistoric dog . unfortunately , recent analysis has shown that tomarctus wasn ' t any more ancestral to modern dogs ( at least in a direct sense ) than any of the other hyena - like mammals of the eocene and miocene epochs . we do know that this early
canid ,
which occupied a place on the evolutionary line that culminated in apex predators like borophagus and aelurodon , possessed powerful , bone - crushing jaws , and that it wasn ' t the only
hyena dog
of middle miocene north america , but other than that much about tomarctus remains a mystery .
one of the structural adaptations known about the tomarctus is common in most canids . these are pads on the bottom of their feet to protect them from sharp objects that they might step on . these include sharp rocks , oyster shells and sharp animal bones .
what did dogs look like before gray wolves were domesticated into modern poodles , schnauzers and golden retrievers ? on the following slides , you ' ll find pictures and detailed profiles of a dozen prehistoric dogs of the cenozoic era , ranging from aelurodon to tomarctus .
as the giant mustelids and bear dogs started to disappear , tomarctus further radiated to initiate a line of dogs which filled the hyena - like fruit eating and bone - crushing niches . we’ve been able to find specimens in california and up to the montana / canada line . we also found fossils as low as panama . more information about the fossils discovered here .
cynodictis was one of the first members in the mammalian predators , then much better known as ‘bear dogs’ .  this was a medium - sized long mammal , with a long tail and a fairly brushy coat . over the millennia cynodictis have then given rise to two branches , one in eurasia and the other one in africa . the eurasian branch , called tomarctus , is the progenitor wolves , dogs , and foxes originated from .
miacis branched into a number of species by 30 to 40 million years ago , giving rise to a more recent ancestor of modern wolves . cynodicits , however , was much smaller than the wolf of today , with shortened legs and a flexible body . between 15 and 30 million years ago , cynodictis split into cynodesmus and tomarctus to give yield to wolf - like animals with longer legs , more compact feet , a shortened tail , and a smaller big toe ( mech 1972 ) .
another group of early canids was the borophagines , or
bone - crushing dogs ,
equipped with powerful jaws and teeth suitable for scavenging the carcasses of mammalian megafauna . the largest , most dangerous borophagines were the 100 - pound borophagus and the even bigger epicyon ; other genera included the earlier tomarctus and aelurodon , which were more reasonably sized . we can ' t say for sure , but there ' s some evidence that these bone - crushing dogs ( which were also restricted to north america ) hunted or scavenged in packs , like modern hyenas .
for a prehistoric dog , aelurodon ( greek for
cat tooth
) has been given a somewhat bizarre name . this
bone - crushing
canid was an immediate descendant of tomarctus , and was one of a number of hyena - like proto - dogs that roamed north america during the miocene epoch . there ' s evidence that the larger species of aelurodon may have hunted ( or roamed ) the grassy plains in packs , either taking down diseased or aged prey or swarming around already - dead carcasses and cracking the bones with their powerful jaws and teeth .
name : tomarctus  ( cut bear )  . phonetic : toe - mark - tus . named by : edward drinker cope  -  1873 . synonyms : aelurodon francisi ,  aelurodon simulans . classification : chordata ,  mammalia ,  carnivora ,  canidae ,  borophaginae . species : t .  brevirostris ( type )  ,   t .  hippophaga . diet : carnivore . size : about 1 . 2 meters long . known locations : across north america . time period : aquitanian through to langhian of the miocene ,  possibly later into the miocene . fossil representation : multiple individuals .
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full reference : e . d . cope . 1873 . third notice of extinct vertebrata from the tertiary of the plains . paleontological bulletin 16 : 1 - 8
full reference : w . d . matthew and h . j . cook . 1909 . a pliocene fauna from western nebraska . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 26 ( 27 ) : 361 - 414
see also matthew 1924 , matthew and cook 1909 , olsen 1956 , skinner et al . 1977 and vanderhoof and gregory 1940
type specimen : amnh 13836 , a mandible . its type locality is trojan quarry , which is in a hemingfordian terrestrial horizon in the olcott formation of nebraska .
average measurements ( in mm ) : p4 17 . 2 x 8 . 4 , m1 12 . 7 x 15 . 3 , m2 7 . 95 x 11 . 93 , p4 11 . 2 x 6 . 2 , m1 19 . 8 x 8 . 1 , m2 10 . 5 x 6 . 8
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further reading -  phylogenetic systematics of the borophaginae ,  x .  wang ,  r .  h .  tedford & b .  e .  taylor  -  1999 . -  small mammal fossils from the barstow formation ,  california ,  e .  h .  lindsay  -  1972 .
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animal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from…
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is found within a range of as west as california , east as maryland , as north as montana and as far south as panama . the
it was first discovered in nebraska and later found in california and as north as the canadian border .
kathleen munthe ( 1989 ) . the skeleton of the borophaginae . retrieved 20th july 2010 from :
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true to its nickname , amphicyon , the
bear dog ,
looked like a small bear with the head of a dog , and it probably pursued a bear - like lifestyle as well , feeding opportunistically on meat , carrion , fish , fruit and plants . however , it was more ancestral to dogs than to bears ! see an in - depth profile of amphicyon
borophagus was the last of a large , populous group of north american predatory mammals informally known as the
hyena dogs .
closely related to the slightly bigger epicyon , this prehistoric dog ( or
canid ,
as it should technically be called ) made its living much like a modern hyena , scavenging already - dead carcasses rather than hunting live prey . borophagus possessed an unusually big , muscular head with powerful jaws , and was probably the most accomplished bone - crusher of its canid line ; its extinction two million years ago remains a bit of a mystery . ( by the way , the prehistoric dog formerly known as osteoborus has now been assigned as a species of borophagus . )
until recently , it was widely believed that the late eocene cynodictis (
in - between dog ) was the first true
canid ,
and thus lay at the root of 30 million years of dog evolution . today , though , its relationship to modern dogs is subject to debate . see an in - depth profile of cynodictis
one of the apex predators of pleistocene north america , the dire wolf competed for prey with the saber - toothed tiger - - as evidenced by the fact that thousands of specimens of these predators have been dredged up from the la brea tar pits in los angeles . see 10 facts about the dire wolf
not only was dusicyon the only prehistoric dog to live on the falkland islands ( off the coast of argentina ) , but it was the only mammal , period - - meaning it preyed not on cats , rats and pigs , but birds , insects , and possibly even shellfish that washed up along the shore . see an in - depth profile of dusicyon
the largest species of epicyon weighed in the neighborhood of 200 to 300 pounds - - as much as , or more than , a full - grown human - - and possessed unusually powerful jaws and teeth , which made their heads look more like those of a big cat than a dog or wolf . see an in - depth profile of epicyon
to simplify matters just a bit , the late miocene eucyon was the last link in the chain of prehistoric dog evolution before the appearance of canis , the single genus that encompasses all modern dogs and wolves . the three - foot - long eucyon was itself descended from an earlier , smaller genus of dog ancestor , leptocyon , and it was distinguished by the size of its frontal sinuses , an adaptation linked to its diverse diet . it ' s believed that the first species of canis evolved from a species of eucyon in late miocene north america , about 5 or 6 million years ago , though eucyon itself persisted for another few million years .
dogs were only domesticated about 10 , 000 years ago , but their evolutionary history goes back way further than that - - as witness one of the earliest canines yet discovered , hesperocyon , which lived in north america a whopping 40 million years ago , during the late eocene epoch . as you might expect in such a distant ancestor , hesperocyon didn ' t look much like any dog breed alive today , and was more reminiscent of a giant mongoose or weasel . however , this prehistoric dog did have the beginnings of specialized , dog - like , meat - shearing teeth , as well as noticeably dog - like ears . there ' s some speculation that hesperocyon ( and other late eocene dogs ) may have led a meerkat - like existence in underground burrows , but the evidence for this is somewhat lacking .
for all intents and purposes , ictitherium marks the time when the first hyena - like carnivores ventured down from the trees and skittered across the vast plains of africa and eurasia ( most of these early hunters lived in north america , but ictitherium was a major exception ) . to judge by its teeth , the coyote - sized ictitherium pursued an omnivorous diet ( possibly including insects as well as small mammals and lizards ) , and the discovery of multiple remains jumbled together is a tantalizing hint that this predator may have hunted in packs . ( by the way , ictitherium wasn ' t technically a prehistoric dog , but more of a distant cousin . )
among the earliest ancestors of modern dogs , various species of leptocyon roamed the plains and woodlands of north america for a whopping 25 million years , making this small , foxlike animal one of the most successful mammalian genera of all time . unlike larger ,
bone - crushing
canid cousins like epicyon and borophagus , leptocyon subsisted on small , skittering , live prey , probably including lizards , birds , insects and other small mammals ( and one can imagine that the larger , hyena - like prehistoric dogs of the miocene epoch themselves weren ' t averse to making an occasional snack out of leptocyon ! )
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dogs and canines were domesticated between 10 , 000 and 35 , 000 years ago through selective breeding , suggesting the earliest dogs presumably arose once we , humans , were still searching and gathering , way before the appearance of agriculture . history did not wait for our fancy ( and amazing ) articles to understand how to breed dogs .
the prehistoric development of the wolf , from which the dog sprang , is typified chiefly by increase in running speed . while we are having an attempt here at climbing the domestic dog’s evolution tree , it is important to remind our readers that the origin of the domestic dog , the canis lupus familiaris , is not clear as per today , 2015 . mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna evidences are not confirming each other’s conclusions :
regardless of the exact timeline and dates , it seems like domestic dogs appeared simultaneously in various areas of the world and each from their own wolf - like ancestors that were genetically similar . this is why there are a few extinct animals that are highlighted here , in this article . these have been recognised as being part of the evolution of the domestic dog , in a way or another .
biology & conservation of wild canids – simplified phylogenetic relationships of canids at the generic level . species ranges are indicated by individual
bars enclosed within grey rectangles , detailed relationships among species in a genus is not shown . relationships for the hesperocyoninae is modified from wang ( 1994 , fig . 65 ) , that for the borophaginae from wang et al . ( 1999 , fig . 141 ) , and
the dog’s ancestor cynodictis ( 2 ) of some 20 or 30 million years ago was a slender , short - legged animal perhaps no larger than a mink . this animal began a line of evolution characterized by ever - increasing leg length and the development of an almost unique ability to run down prey mile after mile and seize it . this led to important “social” developments , involving group hunting . competition , in turn , stimulated the growth of intelligence , along lines quite different , for instance , from that of the solitary cat .
according to this reprint from the national history magazine ( 1939 ) , the dogs has evolved from the now extinct miacis , to the the gray wolf or canis lupus .
the miacis was a relatively mammal with a weasel - like body , five toed legs , a very long thin tail and sharp pointy ears . miacis is known as one of the first ancestors of the coyote and the great grandmother of all carnivores including hyenas , canines , felines , bears , and racoons . it appeared around 60 - 55 million years ago , at the late paleocene era . miacis lived in the north american and european continents just like coyotes today . close to the miacis are the creodonts who show similar physical features and characteristics .
daphoenus also belonged to the family of bear dogs , scientifically named as the amphicyonidae family . these had the size of our coyotes today and shared important similarities with today’s dogs and bears . daphoenus could only perform short accelerations and sprints due to their short legs , thus daphoenus were ambushing their preys and scavenging .
african wild dog or african painted dog are the two other names used to designate the lycaon pictus . member of the biological family canidae , this sub - saharan canid differs from its cousin group , canis , with a body designed for a predominantly hyper - carnivorous diet with fewer toes and dentition . still with us today , the lycaon is now an endangered species .
african wild dogs have disappeared from much of their former range . their population is currently estimated at approximately 6 , 600 adults in 39 subpopulations , of which only 1 , 400 are mature individuals . population size is continuing to decline as a result of ongoing habitat fragmentation , conflict with human activities , and infectious disease .
from the greek “voracious eater” , the borophagus genus is the last known of the line of bone - crunching dogs , also called hyena - like dogs . measuring around 80cm in length , they are smaller than their other bone - crushing ancestors but their jaws are way more developed so we think they relied on scavenging other predators’ kills more than proactively hunting new preys . because their meal was already eaten by the predators who actually killed the dead animal , they had to content themselves with the leftovers , usually the bones .
historians have not yet understood why the borophagus got extinct but the prehistoric dog formerly known as osteoborus has now been assigned as a species of borophagus . based on figure 141 of wang et al . ( 1999 ) , other species within this genus are :
borophagus diversidens existed for 2 . 5 million years ( synonymous with felis hillianus , hyaenognathus matthewi , hyaenognathus pachyodon , hyaenognathus solus , porthocyon dubius )
borophagus hilli existed for 0 . 5 million years ( synonymous with osteoborus crassapineatus , osteoborus progressus )
the grey wolf is the one , the one that is the direct ancestor of our dogs , all of them , from teacup chihuahuas to great danes , from alaskan malamutes to arabian salukis .
all that happened because , around 33 , 000 years ago , men domesticated the tamest wolves by adopting their cubs into human tribes , fed them and bred them selectively . these wolves were raised amongst people , they were given tasks that would facilitate the tribe’s life such as hunting , guarding , herding , etc .
while transitioning and adapting to their entirely new environment , these wolves who are used by humans to be selectively bred start to genetically change which manipulates all their offsets . over several generations , the original wild grey wolf has changed and a new species appeared that is genetically different from the founding stock that was adopted by the humans : the canis familiaris .
not considered wild anymore , the new species has been selected over time to be docile , tamed , and work - driven . from that point on , humans have started to use the same methods of selective breeding to develop desirable characteristics to get the dogs better at what a given tribe and environment need .
huskies’ ancestors were bred to endure ice - cold temperatures and long , draining , races in the snow . whereas the salukis , arabian greyhounds , were bred for speed so they could hunt quarry such as gazelles and hares . this is why , today , we have over 400 dog breeds that specialise at retrieving , pointing , hunting , pulling , swimming , pulling , searching , etc .
how the heck did we take a wolf and come up with bulldogs , yorkshires , collies , golden retrievers , whippets , goldendoodles , and otterhounds ? designed by parisian artist alice bouchardon , the “evolution of dogs” tries to make sense of the complicated darwinian ( and not - so - darwinian ) machinations that have led us to the kinds of dog breeds that can be toted in paris hilton’s handbag . ( credits :
only today , the trend shifts from breeding dogs for a given purpose to breeding dogs for looks . it leads to a lot of severe medical conditions and it should be a matter of time before the authorities and international canine organisations become stricter about breeding standards .
to read more about the origin and evolution of the domestic dog , you should check out the wikipedia page as it has the most up - to - date dna discoveries and updates .
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in many ways , the story of dog evolution follows the same plot line as the evolution of horses and elephants : a small , inoffensive , ancestral species gives rise , over the course of tens of millions of years , to the respectably sized descendants we know and love today . but there are two big differences in this case : first , dogs are carnivores , and the evolution of carnivores is a twisty , serpentine affair involving not only dogs , but prehistoric hyenas , bears , cats , and now - extinct mammals like creodonts and mesonychids . and second , of course , dog evolution took a sharp right turn about 15 , 000 years ago , when the first wolves were domesticated by early humans . ( see a gallery of prehistoric dog pictures )
as far as paleontologists can tell , the very first carnivorous mammals evolved during the late cretaceous period , about 75 million years ago ( the half - pound cimolestes , which lived high up in trees , being the most likely candidate ) . however , it ' s more likely that every carnivorous animal alive today can trace its ancestry back to miacis , a slightly bigger , weasel - like creature that lived about 55 million years ago , or 10 million years after the dinosaurs went extinct . miacis was far from a fearsome killer , though : this tiny furball was also arboreal and feasted on insects and eggs as well as small animals .
modern dogs evolved from a line of carnivorous mammals called
canids ,
after the characteristic shape of their teeth . before ( and alongside ) the canids , though , there were such diverse families of predators as amphicyonids ( the
bear dogs ,
typified by amphicyon , which seem to have been more closely related to bears than dogs ) , prehistoric hyenas ( ictitherium was the first of this group to live on the ground rather than in trees ) , and the
marsupial dogs
of south america and australia . although vaguely dog - like in appearance and behavior , these predators weren ' t directly ancestral to modern canines .
even more fearsome than bear dogs and marsupial dogs were mesonychids and creodonts . the most famous mesonychids were the one - ton andrewsarchus , the largest ground - dwelling carnivorous mammal that ever lived , and the smaller and more wolflike mesonyx ; oddly enough , mesonychids were ancestral not to modern dogs or cats , but to prehistoric whales . the creodonts , on the other hand , left no living descendants ; the most noteworthy members of this breed were hyaenodon and the strikingly named sarkastodon , the former of which looked ( and behaved ) like a wolf and the latter of which looked ( and behaved ) like a grizzly bear .
paleontologists agree that the late eocene ( about 40 to 35 million years ago ) hesperocyon was directly ancestral to all later canids—and thus to the genus canis , which branched off from a subfamily of canids about six million years ago . this
western dog
was only about the size of a small fox , but its inner - ear structure was characteristic of later dogs , and there ' s some evidence that it may have lived in communities , either high up in trees or in underground burrows . hesperocyon is very well - represented in the fossil record ; in fact , this was one of the most common mammals of prehistoric north america .
here ' s where things get a bit confusing . shortly after the appearance of hesperocyon 40 million years ago , leptocyon arrived on the scene—not a brother , but more like a second cousin once removed . leptocyon was the first true canine ( that is , it belonged to the caninae subfamily of the canidae family ) , but a small and unobtrusive one , not much bigger than hesperocyon itself . the immediate descendant of leptocyon , eucyon , had the good fortune to live at a time when both eurasia and south america were accessible from north america —the first via the bering land bridge , and the second thanks to the uncovering of central america . in north america , about six million years ago , populations of eucyon evolved into the first members of the modern dog genus canis , which spread to these other continents .
but the tale doesn ' t end there . although canines ( including the first coyotes ) continued to live in north america during the pliocene epoch , the first plus - sized wolves evolved elsewhere , and
re - invaded
north america shortly before the ensuing pleistocene ( via that same bering land bridge ) . the most famous of these canines was the dire wolf , canis diris , which evolved from an
old world
wolf that colonized both north and south america ( by the way , the dire wolf competed directly for prey with smilodon , the
saber - toothed tiger .
)
the end of the pleistocene epoch witnessed the rise of human civilization around the world . as far as we can tell , the first domestication of the gray wolf occurred somewhere in europe or asia anywhere from 30 , 000 to 15 , 000 years ago . after 40 million years of evolution , the modern dog had finally made its debut !
rocky mountain geology ( 1965 ) 4 ( 1 ) : 21 - 25 .
m . r . voorhies ; the carnivora of the trail creek fauna . rocky mountain geology ; 4 ( 1 ) : 21–25 . doi :
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have you ever looked around and wondered how so many different animals can all be related ? in fact , scientists believe that all animals—and all forms of life—share a common ancestor . gray wolves are only one out of billions of different species that live or used to live on the earth .
although there are many different types of animals , most of the ones that you will be familiar with belong to the smaller group of vertebrates : animals with a true backbone .
gray wolves are part of the order carnivora , which is grouped largely based on their predatory diet habits . carnivora consists of over 260 species , including dogs , cats , bears , foxes , skunks , and raccoons . they all have long , pointed teeth and sharp claws used to attack their prey . they are also fairly intelligent animals with highly developed brains .
wolves belong to the family canidae and are most closely related to domestic dogs , foxes , coyotes , dingoes , lycaons , and jackals . there are 14 total living subgroups of canidae , and they are often referred to as canids . a derived trait for canids is that they have 42 teeth , although bears also share this characteristic . there are , however , other distinguishing features between canids and bears . canids tend to have long tails , walk on their toes , and have four toes to each hind foot , while bears have short tails , walk on their soles , and have 5 toes to each hind foot .
the gray wolf looks very similar to other canids , so differentiating species isn’t always straightforward . throughout its evolution , the wolf has been increasing in size , so wolves tend to have a larger body that most other canids . furthermore , after collecting skull measurements from the wolf , scientists have found that it has a broader snout and wider nose pad than its other close relatives .
we believe that the some of the early ancestors of the gray wolf were a group of generalized carnivores named the creodonts that first walked the northern hemisphere of the earth between 100 and 120 million years ago . about 55 million years ago , the creodonts gave rise to the carnassials , a group of wolf - like animals that had specialized jaws for eating meat . one member of this family , miacis , is thought to be the ancestor for all present - day wolves , dogs , weasels , bears , and raccoons .
when did the wolf become a wolf ? somewhere between 4 . 5 and 9 million years ago during the miocene , the recent ancestors of wolves split off from the ancestors of foxes . by 1 . 8 million years ago , wolves in north america had split from coyotes , and looked very much like they still do today . just think of this : when you look at a wolf , you are in a way looking at an animal that is 2 million years old !
how do we know this ? of course , there were no people alive 120 million years ago to help us out . so we use the fossil record , which means that we look for evidence of the ancestors of wolves through bones or other remains that have been preserved by the earth over time .
for wolves , the evidence is pretty convincing , although it is incomplete . scientists have tracked changes in skull size and shape , limb length , the evolution of sharp teeth for tearing meat , and evidence of changes in wolf population and habitat distribution over very long periods of time . in fact , researchers’ use of the fossil record has led them to believe that north american wolves crossed the land bridge to eurasia and established themselves there 130 to 300 million years ago to evolve into canis lupus before returning to north america ! the wolf species that never left north america became different from those who had left and then returned ( boitani & mech 2003 ) .
the sheer diversity of canids is amazing . some of them are more closely related than others , but all share an amazing evolutionary history that might even make you howl !
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phylogenetic systematics of the borophaginae ( carnivora , canidae ) . bulletin of the amnh ; no . 243
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bulletin of the american museum of natural history the bulletin , published continuously since 1881 , consists of longer monographic volumes in the field of natural sciences relating to zoology , paleontology , and geology . current numbers are published at irregular intervals . the bulletin was originally a place to publish short papers , while longer works appeared in the memoirs . however , in the 1920s , the memoirs ceased and the bulletin series began publishing longer papers . a new series , the novitates , published short papers describing new forms .
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the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) , known in the united states as the greater rice weevil , is a species of beetle in the family curculionidae .

it can be found in numerous tropical areas around the world , and in the united states , and is a major pest of maize .

this species attacks both standing crops and stored cereal products , including wheat , rice , sorghum , oats , barley , rye , buckwheat , peas , and cottonseed .

the maize weevil also infests other types of stored , processed cereal products such as pasta , cassava , and various coarse , milled grains .

it has even been known to attack fruit while in storage , such as apples .

maize weevil

english : maize weevil , greater grain weevil , northern corn weevil , greater rice weevil .
factors contributing to resistance of exotic maize populations to maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais .
rearing the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais , on an artificial maize - cassava diet .
resistance of maize landraces to the maize weevil sitophilus zeamais motsch . ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) .
efficacy of diatomaceous earth to control internal infestations of rice weevil and maize weevil ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) .
maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) . the maize weevil is slightly larger than the rice weevil and has more distinct colored spots on the forewings . it is a stronger flier than the rice weevil . the habits and life cycle are similar to the rice weevil ( figure 3 ) .
the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais . © gary alpert , harvard university , urltoken
the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais adult . ©georg goergen ( source cabi cpc )
against the maize weevil on three maize varieties in the laboratory . this formulation protected stored bambara groundnut against the infestation of
ancient origin and recent range expansion of the maize weevil sitophilus zeamais , and its genealogical relationship to the rice weevil s . oryzae .
pleiotropic impact of endosymbiont load and co - occurrence in the maize weevil sitophilus zeamais .
j . a . ojo and a . a . omoloye , “rearing the maize weevil ,
the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais adult . photo : usda , ars ( public domain )
periodic physical disturbance : an alternative method for controlling sitophilus zeamais ( maize weevil ) infestation .
insecticide resistance and size assortative mating in females of the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) .
rice and maize weevils are widely distributed in tropical and sub - tropical areas and will be carried to temperate areas on imported commodities . the maize weevil will breed on maize in the field
the maize weevil is commonly associated with feeding on corn , rice and on other raw or processed cereals .
use of neempro ® , a neem product to control maize weevil sitophilus zeamais ( motsch . ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on three maize varieties in cameroon
emergence holes of the rice weevil are smaller than those of the granary weevil , and tend to be smooth and round .
“there is only a shell left after a maize weevil completes development , ” toews said . “losses up to 10 percent can occur as result of maize weevils . ”
a comparison of two methods of assessment of maize varietal resistance to the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky , and the influence of kernel hardness and size on susceptibility .
maize weevil image by usda - ars - gmprc image database - license : public domain . ( view image details )
maize weevil pupa image by usda - ars - gmprc image database - license : public domain . ( view image details )
demissie g , tefera t , tadesse a . efficacy of silicosec , filter cake and wood ash against the maize weevil ,
nukenine en , goudoungou jw , adler c , reichmuth c . efficacy of diatomaceous earth and botanical powders against the maize weevil ,
the origin of the maize weevil is not known but now it is found in all warm and tropical parts of the world .
behavioural responses of the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais , to host ( stored - grain ) and non - host plant volatiles .
siwale j , mbata k , mcrobert j , lungu d . comparative resistance of improved maize genotypes and landraces to maize weevil . afr crop sci j . 2009 ; 17 : 1–16 .
use of neempro® , a neem product to control maize weevil sitophilus zeamais ( motsch . ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on three maize varieties in cameroon | agriculture & food security | full text
the maize weevil can develop on a range of cereal crops . it is a serious pest of stored maize , dried cassava roots , yam , common sorghum and wheat in the east african region .
detection of gamma radiation - induced dna damage in maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) assessed using the comet assay .
distribution of the related weevil species sitophilus oryzae and s . zeamais in brazil .
1 / 8 - to 3 / 16 - inch long . the maize weevil is similar to the rice weevil , but larger accessed 26 september 2007 . very similar in appearance to the rice weevil with characteristics described above , except that the insects are longer , adults reaching a length of 3 - 3 . 5mm
also known as the greater rice weevil . maize weevils are frequently regarded as primary pests of grain since they are able to infest otherwise undamaged grain .
“the maize weevil’s entire life cycle is centered on one kernel of corn , ” said michael toews , the uga entomologist working to control the pest .
detection methods because the maize weevil larvae develop inside the grain it is difficult to detect the pest by visual inspection unless its numbers are very high .
it is possible to confuse the maize weevil with other storage insect pests such as the larger grain borer – lgb ( prostephanus truncatus ) . the end of the body of the maize weevil is more rounded than that of the lgb , and its mouthparts are ' beak - like ' and antennae elbowed .
gelosi a ; arcozzi l , 1983 . maize weevil ( sitophilus zea - mays motschulsky ) . informatore fitopatologico , 33 ( 12 ) : 27 - 30
maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky , is a cosmopolitan pest of stored products ( longstaff 1981 ) , and prior to the introduction of the larger grain borer , prostephanus truncatus , it was reported as the most important pest on stored maize in africa . sitophilus zeamais is the dominant species on maize
biological pest control there have been various studies on biological control agents for the maize weevil . various parasitoids ( anisopteromalus calandrae , cephalonomia tarsalis , lariophagus distinguendus and theocolax elegans ) could be effective if introduced early in the storage period . the fungus beauveria bassiana can be used as a biological insecticide to control maize weevil in stored maize . the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis can be used on adults .
this weevil is a cosmopolitan pest of grain , preferring whole grain to flour or meal .
szeoke k , 1989 . the occurrence of the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais motsch . ) in hungary . novenyvedelem , 25 ( 4 ) : 162 - 166
detection of gamma radiation - induced dna damage in maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) assessed using the come . . . - pubmed - ncbi
a small weevil that lives inside corn kernels is costing georgia growers millions of dollars each year . a university of georgia scientist has teamed up with farmers and county extension agents to put a stop to the maize weevil , the no . 1 insect pest of stored corn .
on the one hand and completely hindered or significantly reduced progeny emergence on the other hand , indicating its potential use in the management of maize weevil . earlier , the same neempro
zhang lili , 1997 . the sensitivity of various development stages of maize weevil to phosphine . acta phytophylacica sinica , 24 ( 4 ) : 347 - 350 ; 6 ref .
j . a . ojo and a . a . omoloye , “life history of the tamarind weevil ,
arnason jt ; beyssac bcde ; philogfne bjr ; bergvinson dj ; serratos ja ; mihm ja , 1997 . mechanisms of resistance in maize grain to the maize weevil and the larger grain borer . insect resistant maize : recent advances and utilization . proceedings of an international symposium held at the international maize and wheat improvement center , 27 november - 3 december 1994 . , 91 - 95 ; [ 11 ref ] .
a female maize weevil chews a hole and then lays an egg inside the kernel . she seals the egg in the kernel so that it’s hidden from view , making detection difficult . when the egg hatches , the young , hungry weevil starts eating away at the valuable commodity . an adult weevil emerges at the end of the life cycle and chews its way out of the kernel .
avoiding infestation is key for corn growers to maintain grain quality , especially when dealing with the threat of the maize weevil , the most dangerous pest a corn grower faces every year .
li ruming ; kang ms ; moreno oj ; pollak lm , 1998 . genetic variability in exotic x adapted maize ( zea mays l . ) germplasm for resistance to maize weevil . plant genetic resources newsletter , no . 114 : 22 - 25 ; 15 ref .
emergence holes of the granary weevil are fairly large and tend to be more ragged than smooth and round .
resembles rice weevil , only bigger and the red - brown spots on wing covers are more clearly marked .
cultural practices the severity of a maize weevil infestation can be reduced by good store hygiene : cleaning the store between harvests , removing and burning infested residues , fumigating the store to eliminate residual infestations and the selection of only uninfested material for storage . harvesting the maize as soon as possible after it has reached maturity will reduce the chances of attack by maize weevil and other storage pests . the use of resistant cultivars may also reduce the severity of an infestation .
nukenine en , monglo b , awasom i , tchuenguem ffn , ngassoum mb . farmers’ perception on some aspects of maize production , and infestation levels of stored maize by
avoiding infestation is key for corn growers to maintain grain quality , especially when dealing with the threat of the maize weevil , the most dangerous pest a corn grower faces every year . download image
cabi . ( 2010 ) . sitophilus zeamais ( maize weevil ) datasheet . crop protection compendium , 2010 edition . cab international publishing . wallingford , uk . urltoken accessed on 28 jan 2010 .
the maize weevil is found in all warm and tropical parts of the world . it is a pest of stored maize , dried cassava , yam , common sorghum and wheat . both adults and larvae feed on internally on maize grains and an infestation can start in the field ( when the cob is still on the plant ) but most damage occurs in storage .
v . choubey , r . bhandari , and n . kulkarni , “life history and morphology of seed weevil ,
maize weevils , for a long time were referred to as a larger strain or race of the rice weevil , but are now recognized as a distinct species . the maize weevil is slightly larger , up to one - eighth inch ( four mm ) long , and darker than the rice weevil ; the degree of variation within each species makes them difficult to tell apart . the thorax of the maize weevil is densely and uniformly pitted with round punctures . an egg hatches in a few days into a soft , white , legless , fleshy grub which feeds on the interior of the grain kernel . after the larval stages are completed the grub changes to a white pupa and later emerges as an adult beetle .
david e . legg , robert j . barney , philip w . tipping , j . g . rodriguez ; factors influencing the distribution of maize weevil ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) eggs on maize , environmental entomology , volume 16 , issue 3 , 1 june 1987 , pages 809–813 , urltoken
achiano ka ; giliomee jh ; pringle kl , 1999 . the use of ash from aloe marlothii berger for the control of maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in stored maize . african entomology , 7 ( 1 ) : 169 - 172 ; 13 ref .
uga grains agronomist dewey lee said maize weevils have been a big problem for corn growers . lee suggests that growers look for maize weevils around the edges of the field first .
the maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) can be separated from the granary weevil ( s . granarius ) by the presence of wings beneath the elytra ( absent in s . granarius ) and by having circular , rather than oval , punctures on the prothorax . the larvae of the two species are not easy to separate .
adults are reddish brown beetles with a characteristic long weevil snout and have 4 yellow to red spots on the elytra .
protected the three maize varieties . these results corroborate earlier findings of demissie et al . [
the greater rice weevil is a pest of stored product . they are small brown black weevils with a long slender snout and four reddish brown spots on the wing covers ( two spots on each wing cover ) . the head and thorax are nearly as long as the wing covers . it is similar to the rice weevil ( sitophilus oryzae ) but slightly larger with more clearly marked red - brown spots on the wing covers . the greater rice weevil is a stronger flier than the rice weevil
adults are identical in external appearance to the rice weevil ( sitophilus oryzae ) ; dissection required to distinguish between the species .
and since maize weevils can grow from egg to egg laying adult in less than one month , they can be a formidable foe in and around the home . if you suspect you have maize weevil activity , there are several things you must do to knock out current activity and insure new populations won’t quickly emerge .
perez - mendoza j , 1999 . survey of insecticide resistance in mexican populations of maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . journal of stored products research , 35 ( 1 ) : 107 - 115 .
weevil - damaged grain can be readily recognised by the presence of large holes which are the exit holes of the emerging adults .
the weevil infests the corn in the field and continues to develop after the corn is placed in the grain bin for storage .
the greater rice weevil is a serious pest of stored grain and seeds . they are a primary pest of grain as they can infest undamaged grain . they feed on grain , maize , rice , peas , cottonseed and other stored products . in america , they are a major pest of corn and known as maize weevils .
) . genetic variability for resistance to s . zeamais in domestic us maize germplasm has been identified by
ndungu mw ; chhabra sc ; lwande w , 1999 . cleome hirta essential oil as livestock tick ( rhipicephalus appendiculatus ) and maize weevil ( sitophilus zeamais ) repellent . fitoterapia , 70 ( 5 ) : 514 - 516 ; 7 ref .
the mechanism of resistance in maize to s . zeamais was investigated in relation to secondary chemistry and other biochemical and physical characteristics of maize genotypes . phenolic acid content was correlated strongly with hardness of the grain (
( coleoptera : bostrichidae ) in stored maize grains . plant protect sci . 2013 ; 49 : 34–43 .
the effect of different isolates and formulations of beauveria bassiana on s . zeamais in stored maize are reported by
oliveira ee ; guedes rnc ; tótola mr ; marco júnior pde , 2007 . competition between insecticide - susceptible and - resistant populations of the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais . chemosphere , 69 ( 1 ) : 17 - 24 . urltoken ; = 13b6470a7ee489fc35340c08d01cb34e
motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on maize . jul . kühn . archiv . 2010 ; 425 : 881–7 .
plus , do you want to be feeding your family something that’s laced with dead maize weevils ? probably not .
maize damaged by sitophilus zeamais . photo : frank peairs , colorado state university , urltoken ( cc - by )
the deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) comet assay , being a quick , simple , sensitive , reliable and fairly inexpensive method for measuring dna strand breaks , has been used to assess dna damage caused by gamma radiation in developmental stages of maize weevil sitophilus zeamais motschulsky .
adult maize weevils are 3 – 3 . 5 mm long , dark brown – black in colour and shiny and pitted with numerous punctures . the punctures on the thorax are in an irregular pattern while those on the elytra ( wing cases ) are in lines . the elytra also usually have four pale reddish - brown or orange - brown oval markings . the maize weevil has the characteristic rostrum ( snout or beak ) and elbowed antennae of the family curculionidae ( weevil family ) . the antennae have eight segments and are often carried in an extended position when the insect is walking . the larvae of maize weevils are white , fleshy and legless .
motschulsky ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on three maize genotypes . j stored prod res . 2008 ; 44 : 227–31 .
the female lays an average of 10 eggs on a grain of maize and the hatched larvae bore into the grain .
sitophilus zeamais is a key pest of stored maize causing serious economic damage . the predominant control of this pest is the use of synthetic residual pesticides , which have adverse effects on consumers and environment . the use of phytochemicals for controlling storage pests constitutes an attractive alternative to synthetic products , since plant may be more biodegradable and safer . the aim of this study was to evaluate the activity of neempro ® against the maize weevil on three maize varieties in the laboratory and the effect of the insecticide on seed germination .
minimum life cycle : 28 days eggs - laid in stored cereal grains and in cereals in the field by flying adults ( more prolific than granary weevil ) . larvae - feed in grain . adults - also feed ; normally cannot over winter in temperate areas unless grain heats . good flyer ; larger than rice weevil .
floyd eh ; newsom ld , 1959 . biological study of the rice weevil complex . annals of the entomological society of america , 52 : 687 - 695 .
neempro ® may be used as alternative to malagrain for the protection of stored maize against the infestation of s . zeamais .
. in brazil , tests were carried out with maize cultivars to evaluate the attractiveness and oviposition preference of s . zeamais (
ukeh , d . a . , birkett , m . a . , bruce , t . j . a . , allan , e . j . , pickett , j . a . , and mordue luntz , a . j . 2010 . behavioural responses of the maize weevil ,
progeny were achieved at 12 g / kg . all tested concentrations completely suppressed the population increase of the weevil , had no damaged grains and recorded no weight loss .
arthur fh ; throne je ; maier de ; montross md , 1998 . feasibility of aeration for management of maize weevil populations in corn stored in the southern united states : model simulations based on recorded weather data . american entomologist , 44 ( 2 ) : 118 - 123 ; 17 ref .
the adult rice weevil is 2 . 5 - 3 . 5 mm long and has a slender , hard - shelled bodies that appear pitted or scarred with tiny holes .
maize weevil populations build up the longer the maize is kept in store so it is important to inspect the stock regularly . if the pest is found then some form of treatment will be required . synthetic pyrethroid insecticides such as permethrin and deltamethrin are not very effective against maize weevils which are more susceptible to organophosphorus insecticides such as fenitrothion and pirimiphos - methyl . fumigation with phosphine or methyl bromide is very effective in large - scale stores . also grain stocks may be fumigated with phosphine . pesticides are poisons so it is essential to follow all safety precautions on labels .
maier de ; adams wh ; throne je ; mason lj , 1996 . temperature management of the maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motsch . ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in three locations in the united states . journal of stored products research , 32 ( 3 ) : 255 - 273 ; 27 ref .
the responses of s . zeamais to pheromone and synthetic maize volatiles as lures in crevice or flight traps have been studied in kenya (
partridge ij , 1973 . the control of insects in stored maize . fiji agricultural journal , 35 ( 2 ) : 100 - 101
a . merville , a . vallier , s . venner et al . , “determining the instar of a weevil larva ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) using a parsimonious method , ”
howe rw , 1952 . the biology of the rice weevil , calandra oryzae ( l . ) . annals of applied biology , 39 ( 1 ) : 68 - 180 .
there is generally no external evidence that the larvae have been eating and growing inside the seed until after about one month when the adult weevil chews through the seed coat and emerges .
a sterilizing dose of gamma radiation from cobalt - 60 was determined for adults of s . zeamais on rice , maize and wheat grains (
investigations concerning the influence of four weevil densities , three oviposition / feeding periods , two maize genotypes ( susceptible and resistant ) , and three kernel densities on the aggregation of maize weevil ( mw ) , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky , eggs indicated that each had a significant impact on egg distribution . results showed that egg aggregation generally increased with increasing mw density and duration of oviposition / feeding period , but the specific response depended on kernel density and maize genotype . these findings serve to illustrate the influence of four environmental factors on the biology and ecology of the mw , as quantified by changes in egg distribution , and may aid in the identification of factors ( such as resistant varieties ) that can be manipulated to the detriment of the insect pest in a pest management program on stored grains .
the adult granary weevil is a somewhat cylindrical beetle about two - tenths of an inch ( two to three mm ) long . the head is prolonged with a distinct snout extending downward from the head for a distance of about one - fourth the length of the body . the weevil is polished red brown to black with ridged wing - covers and a well - marked thorax with oval pits . unlike the rice and maize weevils , the granery weevil cannot fly . the egg hatches in a few days into a soft , white , legless , fleshy grub which feeds on the interior of the grain kernel . the grub changes to a naked white pupa and later emerges as an adult beetle .
li zhaohui ; zheng fangqiang ; ye baohua ; liu guilin , 1998 . bionomics of lariophagus distinguendus foerster ( hym . : pteromalidae ) and its control effect on maize weevil , sitophilus zeamais motschulsky ( col . : curculionidae ) . journal of shandong agricultural university , 29 ( 4 ) : 427 - 430 ; 5 ref .
adult granary weevil live an average of about seven to eight weeks . each female lays 50 to 200 white eggs during this period . the female uses her strong mandibles to chew a small hole in the grain kernel , where she deposits a single egg in the hole and seals it with a gelatinous fluid . in warm weather , the granary weevil can develop from egg to adult in about five weeks . cold weather prolongs development . the granary weevil cannot fly and so is most likely to be found where grain is stored , and moves with infested grain .
e . n . nukenine , b . monglo , l . awason , l . s . t . ngamo , f . f . n . tchuenguem , and m . b . ngassoum , “farmer ' s percppection on some aspects of maize production , and infestation levels of stored maize by
] where 30 undamaged grains of each maize variety seed in each jar were randomly selected . the number of germinated seeds was recorded after 10 days .
to make matters worse , maize weevils can complete a new generation in just 25 days . their maximum rate of increase is a factor of 25 , meaning if there are only 25 maize weevils in january , they can reproduce to 625 by february and 15 , 625 by march , he said .
natural carbon dioxide production in stored maize is affected by moisture content , the amount of broken corn and foreign materials and infestation by s . zeamais (
pantenius cu , 1988 . storage losses in traditional maize granaries in togo . insect science and its application , 9 ( 6 ) : 725 - 735
the granary weevil is among the most destructive of all stored grain insects . the larvae develop inside kernels of whole grain in storage . this makes an infestation difficult to remove in the milling process .
category : lw minimum life cycle : 28 days . distribution : tropical and temperate areas on cereal grains . biology : eggs - laid in stored cereal grains and in cereals in the field by flying adults ( more prolific than granary weevil ) . larvae - feed in grain . adults - also feed ; normally cannot overwinter in temperate areas unless grain heats . good flyer ; larger than rice weevil .
4 ) now that you’ve treated all cabinets , pantries , rooms and baseboards where adults may be hiding , install some of our maize weevil pheromone traps where you have or suspect activity . these traps use strong pheromones and sex attractants to lure adults . once they crawl or fly into the holding tray , the thick catching oil will hold them for good .
in stored maize , heavy infestations of these pests may cause weight losses of as much as 30 - 40 % , although losses are commonly 4 - 5 % . s . zeamais has been found to be amongst the most important pests of maize in a number of studies ; in south carolina , usa , (
o . e . bailez , a . m . viana - bailez , j . o . g . de lima , and d . d . o . moreira , “life - history of the guava weevil ,
) . mortality increased with powder content and time post - exposure . at the highest dosage of 6 g / kg , 100 , 95 and 89 % adult weevil mortality was achieved in clh103 , cms8501 and shaba , respectively , within 14 days of exposure . for the same time - point and in the same order , the lowest dosage of 0 . 75 g / kg caused 43 , 18 and 10 % weevil mortality . the lc
describes use of carbon dioxide - controlled atmosphere in brazil for the control of s . zeamais on maize and wheat . carbon dioxide at concentrations of 50 % and 60 % killed all life stages of the weevil after 10 days of exposure . in another study with fumigation periods of 15 and 20 days , the concentrations of 40 % , 50 % and 60 % eliminated all stages of the insects (
as the name implies , they like maize . however , maize weevils can be found eating just about anything in the home . more common food stuff they like include seeds of all types , dried beans , cotton , nuts , cereal , any wheat product , corn , flour , pasta , bread and other grain products found in any home .
pupation takes about 1 week at which time adults will emerge . maize weevils present more of a nuisance than other pantry pests because adults feed just as much as their larva preferring a wider range of things to eat . since they fly well and are small , maize weevils can move throughout the home easily finding all kinds of things to eat .
mohammed - dawd e ; morallo - rejesus b , 2000 . heat treatment for the control of corn weevil , sitophilus zeamais motsch . in stored corn . shashpa , 7 ( 1 ) : 57 - 62 ; 13 ref .
“farmers should harvest the edges of their field and separate that grain from the rest to try and prevent maize weevils from infesting the rest of the crop , ” he said .
revetti lm , 1972 . irradiation of grains . i . irradiation of maize ( zea mays l . ) . agronomia tropical , 22 ( 5 ) : 497 - 507 .
nansen c ; phillips tw ; palmer mw , 2004 . analysis of the insect community in a maize storage facility . ecological research , 19 ( 2 ) : 197 - 207 .
variation was observed in the developmental biology and description of sitophilus zeamais cultured on the selected cereal grains . s . zeamais has seven life stages comprising egg ( ) , four larval instars ( ) , prepupa / pupa ( ) , and adult ( ) . no significant difference ( > 0 . 05 , f = 0 . 56 , and df = 3 ; > 0 . 05 , f = 0 . 17 , and df = 3 ) were observed in maize weevil oviposition and egg incubation period across the maize , rice , sorghum , and millet tested . the oviposition period ranged from 9 to 29 d , with the lowest and highest mean oviposition period of 20 . 3 and 22 . 2 d on millet and maize , respectively ( table 1 ) . the egg incubation period ranged between 3 and 7 d ; the lowest mean was recorded on rice with 5 . 1 d and the highest was observed on millet with 5 . 4 d . total average number of eggs laid was not significantly varied ( > 0 . 05 , f = 1 . 22 , and df = 3 ) among the cereal grains , with the highest and lowest mean fecundity being found on maize ( ) and millet ( ) , respectively . also , there was significant different ( < 0 . 05 , f = 3 . 99 , and df = 3 ) adult longevity found among the cereals used ; adult maize weevil significantly lived longest on maize and millet ( and d ) than on rice and sorghum ( and . 07 days ) , respectively ( table 1 ) .
) . however , there were slight differences of all the parameters in shaba variety . moreover , no undamaged grain was found in untreated tests and that was for the three maize varieties .
) . from the dosages of 1 . 5 g / kg in clh103 and 3 g / kg in cms8501 , the populations of the weevil were completely suppressed as in malagrain . no alive insects were recorded after 4 months of maize storage , while with the highest content of 6 g / kg , 15 alive weevils were registered in shaba variety . in addition , there were no significant differences between the main effects of the rate , neempro
progeny emergence in clh103 , cms8501 and shaba , respectively . higher concentration levels roughly achieved complete suppression of progeny emergence in the three maize varieties . no progeny emergence was observed in malagrain treatments .
throne je . life history of immature maize weevils ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on corn stored at constant temperatures and relative humidities in the laboratory . environ entomol . 1994 ; 23 : 1459–71 .
adult beetle is a pest of stored maize , but also infests other types of grain . larva bores tubular passages into the grain , typically making one main tunnel with smaller ones branching off .
values of 0 . 04 and 0 . 13 g / kg , respectively . within 1 day of exposure , adult weevils exposed to malagrain were dead and that was on the three maize varieties .
maize weevils are a small insect , about 1 / 16 to 1 / 8 of an inch long . they are mostly brown to black in color and can have spots on their thorax and abdomen .
the larval feeding cause the most damage due to contamination with excrement and cocoons is immense . besides tobacco , the pest infests cocoa , nuts , dried fruits , coffee , corn maize , wheat and spice
found throughout the world , maize weevils are a pest which can be controlled like many other pantry pests . find the route of entry , discard infested food or belongings and treat with both residual insecticides and traps .
throne je , 1994 . life history of immature maize weevils ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) on corn stored at constant temperatures and relative humidities in the laboratory . environmental entomology , 23 ( 6 ) : 1459 - 1471
) . three trap types ( probe , cone and sticky ) were used to monitor s . zeamais populations infesting shelled maize housed in galvanized steel storage bins . the results of this study were similar to those reported by
) , and oils of coconut , sunflower , sesame and mustard , alone and in combination with eucalyptol , eugenol or camphor have been found to be toxic to s . zeamais in wheat and maize - treated grains (
] reported similar findings where neemazal did not have negative effects on maize seed germination ( germination rates of 92 . 23 % at 3 g / kg to 97 . 77 % at 12 g / kg were recorded ) .
arbogast rt ; throne je , 1997 . insect infestation of farm - stored maize in south carolina : towards characterization of a habitat . journal of stored products research , 33 ( 3 ) : 187 - 198 ; 30 ref .
ayuk - takem ja ; chheda hr ; eckebil jp , 1982 . problems and potentials of maize research and production in cameroon ( zea mays l . ) . revue science et technique , 2 ( 4 ) : 5 - 16
there are many pantry pests which can infest homes and businesses . though meal moths , grain beetles and flour beetles are very common , maize weevils are just as likely to be the unwanted insect in such areas . maize weevils are small and easy to kill , but they can complete their life cycle quickly . adult females will start laying eggs almost immediately so once you have some activity in a structure , its sure to blossom into a problem which will need attention .
hamel d , 2007 . storing maize in stores and protection from pests . ( cuvanje kukuruza u skladi ? tu i za ? tita od ? tetnika . ) glasilo biljne za ? tite , 7 ( 5 ) : 344 - 349 .
hidalgo e ; moore d ; patourel gl , 1998 . the effect of different formulations of beauveria bassiana on sitophilus zeamais in stored maize . journal of stored products research , 34 ( 2 / 3 ) : 171 - 179 ; 21 ref .
richter j ; biliwa a ; henning - helbig s , 1998 . efficacy of dust formulated insecticides in traditional maize stores in west africa . journal of stored products research , 34 ( 2 / 3 ) : 181 - 187 ; 16 ref .
dobie p , 1974 . the laboratory assessment of the inherent susceptibility of maize varieties to post - harvest infestation by sitophilus zeamais motsch . ( coleoptera , curculionidae ) . journal of stored products research , 10 ( 3 / 4 ) : 183 - 197
moreno - martinez e ; jiménez s ; vázquez me , 2000 . effect of sitophilus zeamais and aspergillus chevalieri on the oxygen level in maize stored hermetically . journal of stored products research , 36 ( 1 ) : 25 - 36 ; 33 ref .
now if you’ve been seeing maize weevils foraging on kitchen counter tops or the floor , the xlure trap will be better suited for these “out in the open” placements . the xlure trap has a protective , hard plastic body to the trap and the catching gel , bait and pheromone is located safely inside out of sight . maize weevils will readily find their way inside and get caught but because of it’s design , the xlure traps are best suited for trap placements that need to be done out in the open .
brown sl ; lee rd , 2002 . effect of planting date , variety and degree of ear maturation on the colonization of field corn by maize weevils ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) . journal of entomological science , 37 ( 2 ) : 137 - 142 .
weevils were shown to carry significant a . flavus contamination , as well as f . moniliforme and p . islandicum and others . dry maize is not for human consumption but for animal feed and export . because of problems with aflatoxin contamination and insect infestation , recent crops have met with reduced prices maize weevils carried a great collection of other fungi including a . niger , a . glaucus , a . candidus , penicillium islandicum , p . citrinum , paecilomyces , acremonium , epicoccum , f . semitectum , yeasts and many others .
helbig j , 1998 . ability of naturally occurring parasitoids to suppress the introduced pest prostephanus truncatus ( horn ) ( coleoptera , bostrichidae ) in traditional maize stores in togo . journal of stored products research , 34 ( 4 ) : 287 - 295 ; 26 ref .
sone jin , 1999 . carbon dioxide production in stored maize as affected by moisture content , level of broken corn and foreign materials and infestation by sitophilus zeamais motschulsky . journal of asia - pacific entomology , 2 ( 2 ) : 133 - 141 ; 23 ref .
oduor gi ; smith sm ; chandi ea ; karanja lw ; agano jo ; moore d , 2000 . occurrence of beauveria bassiana on insect pests of stored maize in kenya . journal of stored products research , 36 ( 2 ) : 177 - 185 ; 25 ref .
figure 1 : relationship between head capsule width and larval development of s . zeamais on cereals ( 24–30°c ; 60 ± 10 % rh ; 12 h photophase ) : ( a ) maize , ( b ) rice , ( c ) sorghum , and ( d ) millet .
) . respiration by fungi including aspergillus spp . appears to have a greater influence on carbon dioxide production in stores than the presence of insects . under sealed storage conditions in maize , insects and fungi both deplete the oxygen supply , creating an unfavourable atmosphere for their own survival (
the rice weevil is a small snout beetle which varies in size , but it averages about three thirty - seconds inch in length . it varies from a dull red - brown to black , and is usually marked on the back with four light red to yellow spots . the rice weevil has fully developed wings beneath its wing covers and can fly readily . the thorax is densely pitted with somewhat irregularly shaped punctures , except for a smooth narrow strip extending down the middle of the back . the larval stage of this insect is a soft , white , legless , fleshy grub which feeds on the interior of the grain kernel . when mature , the grub changes to a naked white pupa and later emerges as an adult beetle .
kossou , d . k . , and bosque - berez , n . a . 1998 . insect pests of maize in storage : biology and control , 3rd ed . iita research guide 32 . training programme . international institute of tropical agriculture ( iita ) , ibadan , nigeria .
maize weevils were reared on whole clean , undamaged and disinfested maize grains shaba , the composite mostly grown by adamawa farmers under ambient laboratory conditions . adult weevils were obtained from a colony kept since 2005 in the laboratory of entomology at the university of ngaoundere . maize grains were sterilised in cold chamber at −14 °c for 21 days to kill any incipient infestation . the sterilised grains were conditioned during 14 days prior to rearing or bioassay processes . twenty adults were released into ten glass jars ( 900 ml capacity ) containing 500 g of conditioned grains each . the adults were removed after 2 weeks and the grains were kept under ambient laboratory conditions [ temperature ( t ) = 21 . 9–24 . 4 °c and relative humidity ( rh ) = 75 . 3–78 % ] for the development of progenies . adults aged 7–14 days and mixed sexes were used for all bioassays .
maize weevils lay eggs with a glue like excretion which helps to attach them to surfaces where food is likely to be available . this helps to keep them in place so that just “wiping” a damp rag over the area is never enough ; vacuuming will no doubt help to remove more .
apply it with one of our pump sprayers which will allow you to get good coverage quickly . focus in on baseboards , moldings and floor joists if accessible . since rodenticide is one of their favorite foods , be sure to check any bait placements you have done in the last couple of years . attics are common areas where maize weevils thrive and then find their way inside living areas . if you have an attic with rodenticide , be sure to remove any suspected of feeding maize weevils and treat with defense to insure migrating adults won’t be able to find their way inside .
prior to filling the bins , it is essential that growers thoroughly clean out any old grain and clear vegetation around the outside of the bin where insects could be , he said . maize weevils are strong fliers and can easily move from spilled grain and residues into the newly harvested crop .
figure 2 : frequency distribution of the head capsule width of larval instar of s . zeamais on different cereal grains ( 24–30°c ; % rh ; 12 h photophase ) : ( ( a ) maize ; ( b ) rice ; ( c ) sorghum ; and ( d ) millet ) .
estimated the toxicity of deltamethrin to a number of resistant and susceptible populations of s . zeamais in traditional maize stores in togo . in another study , a treatment with pirimiphos - methyl and deltamethrin was most effective in traditional granaries after pirimiphos - methyl , deltamethrin and permethrin were applied in various combinations (
the female weevil chews a hole in the grain and deposits a small oval white egg inside . the egg hatches into a white legless grub which feeds inside the grain . the larvae pupate inside the grain and emerge as adult beetles by biting a circular exit hole through the grain . a female can lay 300 - 400 eggs in her life time . adults live for five to eight months .
if you are not sure if something has activity , store it in a plastic bag and check it every day to two . if there are any maize weevils in the food , they will try to get out within a week or two . if some are found , throw away the entire bag immediately .
to control the pest , toews is evaluating grain protectants — insecticides that are applied at very low rates ( as low as 1 part per million ) to prevent maize weevils from eating stored corn . “we are looking at different chemistries to find solutions that are most appropriate for south georgia and alabama conditions , ” he said .
adda , c . , borgemeister , c . , biliwa , a . , meikle , w . g . , markham , r . h . , and poehling , h . - m . 2002 . integrated pest management in post - harvest maize : a case study from the republic of togo ( west africa ) .
meikle wg ; markham rh ; holst n ; djomamou b ; schneider h ; vowotor ka , 1998 . distribution and sampling of prostephanus truncatus ( coleoptera : bostrichidae ) and sitophilus zeamais ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) in maize stores in benin . journal of economic entomology , 91 ( 6 ) : 1366 - 1374 ; 41 ref .
means in the same column for the same maize variety , followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p = 0 . 05 ( tukey’s test ) ; number of replicates : 4 ; * * * p < 0 . 001 ; f value : a ratio of two variances—the “between group” variance and the “within - group” variance
means in the same column for the same maize variety , followed by the same letter do not differ significantly at p = 0 . 05 ( tukey’s test ) ; number of replicates : 4 ; * * * p < 0 . 001 ; f value : a ratio of two variances—the “between group” variance and the “within - group” variance
both s . oryzae and s . zeamais are able to develop on a wide range of cereals and also on processed cereal products such as pasta . however , food preferences of the two species are variable ; it is clear that s . zeamais is predominantly found associated with maize grain , whereas s . oryzae is associated with wheat .
hodges rj ; hall dr ; mbugua jn ; likhayo pw , 1998 . the responses of prostephanus truncatus ( coleoptera : bostrichidae ) and sitophilus zeamais ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) to pheromone and synthetic maize volatiles as lures in crevice or flight traps . bulletin of entomological research , 88 ( 2 ) : 131 - 139 ; 29 ref .
the egg incubation period of five days observed among food hosts was similar to what was obtained in other related coleopterans , three to four days for s . rugicollis [ 21 ] and five days for s . oryzae when it was cultured on maize grains [ 22 ] , whereas it was three days for s . linearis cultured on tamarind [ 17 ] and four days for conotrachelus psidii [ 23 ] . there was variation in mean egg laid by mated female s . zeamais in relation to food hosts ( range between 54 and 67 eggs ) with more eggs laid on maize over a period of almost 22 days . s . zeamais could live for 117 to 126 days on cereals , with longest duration occurring on millet , maize , rice , and sorghum in that order . this variation could be a result of food hosts used and prevailing environmental conditions . the developmental biology of s . zeamais could be influenced by this moderate fecundity and oviposition , shorter larval period , and ability to breed easily on any cereal crop .
maize weevils start their life as a small caterpillar like larva which hatches on some type of food like a wheat grain , seed or nut . eggs will hatch within a couple of days of being laid and feed immediately . feeding will occur for 1 - 3 weeks and then larva will spin a cocoon in which they will pupate to an adult .
richter j ; biliwa a ; henning - helbig s , 1997 . losses and pest infestation in different maize storage systems with particular emphasis on prostephanus truncatus ( horn ) ( col . , bostrichidae ) in togo . anzeiger fu ^ umlaut ~ r scha ^ umlaut ~ dlingskunde , pflanzenschutz , umweltschutz , 70 ( 6 ) : 112 - 116 ; 21 ref .
maize weevils are small , fast and quick to hide when ever people are around disturbing where they have been feeding . many will go unnoticed and missed so it is best to treat every cabinet to be sure you get proper coverage . let the treatment dry for 1 hour and all dishes and food stuff can then go back away without hazard to people or pets .
good store hygiene plays an important role in limiting infestation by s . oryzae and s . zeamais . the removal of infested residues from last season ' s harvest is essential . the use of resistant maize varieties has also shown some potential in slowing the build - up of insect densities in stores . phenolic compounds have been associated with grain resistance to s . zeamais .
okonkwo eu ; okoye wi , 1996 . the efficacy of four seed powders and the essential oils as protectants of cowpea and maize grains against infestation by callosobruchus maculatus ( fabricius ) ( coleoptera : bruchidae ) and sitophilus zeamais ( motschulsky ) ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) in nigeria . international journal of pest management , 42 ( 3 ) : 143 - 146 ; 13 ref .
were 0 . 75 , 1 . 5 , 3 and 6 g / kg after preliminary studies . these rates were obtained by adding 0 . 0375 , 0 . 075 , 0 . 15 and 0 . 3 g of the insecticide powder to 50 g of maize grains of each variety in a glass jar and shaken well by hands during 4 min to get uniform coating . twenty ( 7–14 days old ) adult weevils of mixed sexes were introduced into each jar . each treatment was repeated four times . treated and untreated controls were included . in the treated control , 0 . 025 g of malagrain was introduced in 50 g grains of each maize variety ( 0 . 5 g / kg , recommended dose ) . for untreated control , neither neempro
the study shows that neempro ® is very effective against s . zeamais on the grains of three maize varieties ( clh103 , cms8501 and shaba ) . this insecticide , not only kills the adult weevils , but also affects their progeny production . additionally , it protects stored grains of the three varieties for 4 months without affecting the seed germination power . however , the product seems to have protected clh103 and cms8501 varieties more than shaba . therefore , neempro ® can be used as post - harvest grain protectant against the infestation of the noxious s . zeamais . with this in mind , further research is needed in the future to investigate the effect of this botanical insecticide on other stored products pests and to determine the biochemical parameters of the three maize varieties .
the only way to control these pests is fumigation . since it is an internal pest , residual control will only kill exposed adults . to kill the internal stages ( larval and pupal ) , you must fumigate . heating grain to 60c can kill larvae , however , this may decrease germination and baking quality of flour . “if you dry corn in the field , the corn will become infested with maize weevils , ” says extension agricultural engineer paul sumner . “once a weevil feeds on an ear of corn it ' ll emit a pheromone which will attract other maize weevils to that area . they subsequently lay eggs in the mature kernels , and adult weevils emerge within 2 - 3 weeks . ” by delaying harvest in the field , growers allow a second infestation of weevils in the corn , says sumner . “it ' s going to occur anyway in our part of the country . do you leave corn in the field and let it dry , or do you harvest it after it has field dried ? then , do you store it or sell it immediately ? ” if you plan on storing corn , then you ' ll have to place some insecticide on it to prevent a regular occurring infestation of weevils inside the storage bin , he says .
s . oryzae and s . zeamais are very important pests of cereals . in maize or sorghum , attack may start in the mature crop when the moisture content of the grain has fallen to 18 - 20 % . subsequent infestations in store result from the transfer of infested grain into store or from the pest flying into storage facilities , probably attracted by the odour of the stored grain .


telphusa amphichroma is a moth of the family gelechiidae .

it is found in south africa .

the wingspan is about 13 mm .

the forewings are grey irrorated with whitish and with an ochreous-brownish streak along the costa from the base , on the median third becoming an irregular patch reaching half across the wing , the apical third represented by some indefinite brownish suffusion .

there is a blackish-grey patch occupying the basal two-fifths of the dorsum and reaching half across the wing , where a dark grey streak extends along the dorsum to the tornus , its posterior portion enlarged as an irregular patch to meet the costal ochreous-brown patch , and terminated by some raised blackish scales .

the plical and first discal stigmata are cloudy , blackish , the plical slightly anterior , resting on the edge of the dorsal streak , the first discal on the edge of the costal patch .

the hindwings are grey , paler and thinly scaled anteriorly .

telphusa amphichroma

telphusa amphichroma meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 286 ; tl : barberton
telphusa iosticta meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 3 ) : 92
telphusa necromantis meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 194
telphusa xyloptera meyrick , 1932 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 11 ) : 350
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telphusa chloroderces meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 487 ; tl : manchuria
telphusa semiusta meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 16 ) : 500 ; tl : china , shanghai
nuntia omelko , 1995 ; biol . issled . gornot . stants . 2 : 242 ; ts : telphusa necromantis meyrick
telphusa calathaea meyrick , 1913 ; ann . transv . mus . 3 ( 4 ) : 286 ; tl : barberton
telphusa conviciata meyrick , 1929 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 487 ; tl : assam , cherrapunji
telphusa improvida meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 275 ; tl : bombay , karwar
telphusa melanozona meyrick , 1913 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 3 ) : 65 ; tl : bengal , pusa
larva on ( for telphusa agrifolia ) quercus agrifolia braun , 1921 , ent . news 32 ( 1 ) : 9
telphusa auxoptila meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 276 ; tl : colombia , san antonie
telphusa microsperma meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . lép . 2 : 69
telphusa phaulosema meyrick , 1920 ; in alluaud & jeannel , voyage afr . orientale , ins . lép . 2 : 70
telphusa delatrix meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 17 ; tl : peru , iquitos
telphusa nephelaspis meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 276 ; tl : kumaon , muktesar , 7000ft
telphusa objecta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 70 ; tl : rhodesia , salisbury
telphusa orgilopis meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 16 ; tl : brazil , para
telphusa retecta meyrick , 1921 ; ann . transv . mus . 8 ( 2 ) : 70 ; tl : natal , karkloof
telphusa smaragdopis meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 275 ; tl : costa rica , san josé
= telphusa longifasciella ; sattler , 1973 , bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 258
telphusa iriditis meyrick , 1920 ; ann . s . afr . mus . 17 ( 4 ) : 282 ; tl : sw . protectorate , narugas
telphusa melanoleuca walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 56 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft
telphusa obligata busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 15 ; tl : la chorrera , panama
telphusa nigrimaculata braun , 1923 ; proc . calif . acad . sci . ( 4 ) 12 ( 10 ) : 118 ; tl : escondido bay , california
telphusa medulella busck , 1914 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 47 ( 2043 ) : 15 ; tl : porto bello and trinidad r . , panama
telphusa ochrifoliata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 56 , pl . 2 , f . 15 ; tl : mexico , vera cruz , cordova
telphusa ripula walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 57 , pl . 2 , f . 16 ; tl : guatemala , totonicapam , 8500 - 10500ft
telphusa alexandriacella ; [ nacl ] , # 1855 ( ident . uncert . ) ; [ nhm card ] ; lee & brown , 2008 , zootaxa 1818 : 54 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 9 ( incertas sedis )
telphusa fasciella ; [ nacl ] , # 1856 ( ident . uncert . ) ; [ nhm card ] ; lee & brown , 2008 , zootaxa 1818 : 54 ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 9 ( incerate sedis )
telphusa - species dictionary - southern africa : ispot nature - your place to share nature . ispot is a website aimed at helping anyone identify anything in nature . once you ' ve registered , you can add an observation to the website and suggest an identification yourself or see if anyone else can identify it for you .
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urltoken
adrasteia alexandriacella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 8 ) : 149 ; tl : alexandria , kentucky
atomatma ( meyrick , 1932 ) ( phthorimaea ) ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 7 ) : 196
larva on prunus persica meyrick , 1929 , exot . microlep . 3 ( 16 ) : 487
canary is . , morocco , sweu , s . france , s . italy , greece . see [ maps ]
lita cistiflorella constant , 1890 ; bull . soc . ent . fr . 1889 : cxxv
distictella forbes , 1931 ; j . agric . porto rico 15 ( 4 ) : 372
adrasteia fasciella chambers , 1872 ; can . ent . 4 ( 8 ) : 149 ; tl : kentucky
larva on odina wodier meyrick , 1926 , exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 276
gelechia incognitella caradja , 1920 ; dt . ent . z . iris 34 ( 1 / 2 ) : 100 ; tl : kasakewitsch
nuntia incognitella ; bae , lee & park , 2014 , ent . res . 44 : 19 ( list )
larva on ( mines ) euphorbia neriifolia meyrick , 1913 , exot . microlep . 1 ( 3 ) : 65
melitocyela meyrick , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 65
penetratrix meyrick , 1931 ; j . linn . soc . lond . ( zool . ) 37 : 279
gelechia perspicua walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 72 ; tl : west indies , haiti
pistaciae sattler , 1982 ; ent . gaz . 33 ( 1 ) : 17
gelechia prasinoleuca meyrick , 1921 ; zool . meded . leyden 6 : 161 ; tl : java , preangor , 5000ft
gelechia quinquedentata walsingham , 1911 ; biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 63 , pl . 2 , f . 19 ; tl : mexico , guerrero , amula , 6000ft
larva on ( for gelechia nigrorosea ) rhus dioica walsingham , 1904 , ent . mon . mag . 40 : 267
syncratopa meyrickin , 1935 ; mat . microlep . fauna chin . prov . : 66
tetragrapta meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 121
bryotropha translucida walsingham , [ 1892 ] ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1891 : 520 ; tl : west indies , st . vincent ; dominica
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
expedition of the california academy of sciences to the gulf of california in 1921 . the tineid moths
voyage de ch . alluaud et r . jeannel en afrique orientale ( 1911 - 1812 ) . résultats scientifique . insectes lépidoptères . 2 . microlepidoptera in alluaud & jeannel ,
walsingham , 1911 lepidoptera , heterocera . tineina , pterophorina , orenodina and pyralidina and hepialidina ( part ) biol . centr . - amer . lep . heterocera 4 : 1 - 482 , pl . 1 - 10
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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