crotalus scutulatus ( common names : mojave rattlesnake , mojave green , ) is a highly venomous pit viper species found in the deserts of the southwestern united states and central mexico .

it is perhaps best known for its potent neurotoxic-hemotoxic venom , which is considered the world 's most potent rattlesnake venom .

two subspecies are recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .

crotalus scutulatus

crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) caudisona scutulata kennicott 1861 : 207 crotalus scutulatus — cope 1875 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — gloyd 1940 crotalus scutulatus — cope 1883 crotalus confluentus kellyi amaral 1929 : 90 ( fide klauber 1930 ) crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — stebbins 1985 : 233 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — tanner 1985 : 664 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — conant & collins 1991 : 236 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — liner 1994 crotalus scutulatus — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 293 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 532 crotalus scutulatus scutulatus — dixon 2000 crotalus scutulatus — hoser 2009 crotalus scutulatus — wallach et al . 2014 : 194 crotalus scutulatus salvini günther 1895 crotalus salvini günther 1895 : 193 crotalus scutulatus salvini — gloyd 1940 crotalus scutulatus salvini — klauber 1952 : 98 crotalus scutulatus salvini — liner 1994 crotalus scutulatus salvini — beaman & hayes 2008
mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom .
mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom . - pubmed - ncbi
venomous ! crotalus scutulatus scutulatus and crotalus cerastes laterorepens hybridized in captivity . nomenclature : hoser’s 2009 classification and nomenclature has been rejected as unnecessary and unavailable by wüster & bernils 2011 .
crotalus scutulatus antivenin is derived and purified immunoglobulin fragments obtained from other domestic animals such as sheep previously immunized with crotalus scutulatus ( also known as the mojave rattlesnake [ 2 ] ) .
crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study .
kento furui added the japanese common name
モハベガラガラヘビ
to
crotalus scutulatus kennicott 1861
.
cardwell , michael d . 2006 . crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) . morphology . herpetological review 37 ( 4 ) : 477 - get paper here
strimple , pete 1993 . captive birth of mojave rattlesnakes , crotalus scutulatus scutulatus . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 5 ) : 166 - 168 - get paper here
crotalus scutulatus is restricted to the western edges of the state , from el paso to the big bend .
crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . - pubmed - ncbi
legal status : in utah , crotalus scutulatus scutulatus is listed as a wildlife species of concern . throughout the remainder of our region , the species is afforded no protected status . more
hardy , d . l . 1983 . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 21 : 111–118 .
bush sp , cardwell md . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) identification . wilderness environ med . 1999 spring . 10 ( 1 ) : 6 - 9 . [ medline ] .
bush , s . p . ; cardwell , m . d . 1999 . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) identification . wilderness and environmental medicine 10 ( 1 ) : 6 - 9 .
massey , d . j . , et al . 2012 . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . proteomics 75 : 2576 - 2587 .
strimple , pete 1996 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicott ) , the mojave rattlesnake . litteratura serpentium 16 ( 2 ) : 36 - 38
powell , r . ; inboden , m . & smith , d . b . 1990 . erstnachweis von hybriden zwischen den klapperschlangen crotalus cerastes laterorepens klauber 1944 und crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( kennicott 1861 ) . salamandra 26 ( 4 ) : 319 - 320 - get paper here
wilkinson , j . a . , et al . 1991 . distribution and generic variation in venom a and b populations of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in arizona . herpetologica . 47 : 54–68 .
hardy dl . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 1983 . 21 ( 1 ) : 111 - 8 . [ medline ] .
according to the three major herpetological societies in the united states ( american society of ichthyologists and herpetologists , herpetologists’ league , and society for the study of amphibians and reptiles ) , the standardized english name is northern mohave rattlesnake and the scientific name is crotalus scutulatus or crotalus scutulatus scutulatus , 1 if you consider our mohaves to be a subspecies distinct from the mexican rattlesnake crotalus scutulatus salvini . according to linguists , the english word mohave can be spelled with either an “h” or a “j . ” 2
glenn jl , straight rc . intergradation of two different venom populations of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in arizona . toxicon . 1989 . 27 ( 4 ) : 411 - 8 . [ medline ] .
scutulatus ) in arizona . toxicon . 1989 ; 27 ( 4 ) : 411 - 8 . . 14 . hardy dl . envenomation by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) in southern arizona , u . s . a . toxicon . 1983 ; 21 ( 1 ) : 111 - 8 . . more
murphy , r . w . ; crabtree , c . b . 1988 . genetic identification of a natural hybrid rattlesnake : crotalus scutulatus scutulatus x c . viridis viridis . herpetologica 44 ( 1 ) : 119 - 123 - get paper here
price a h 1982 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicott ) . mojave rattlesnake . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 291 : 1 - 2 - get paper here
rael , e . d . ; knight , r . a . ; zepeda , h . 1984 . electrophoretic variants of mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) venoms and migration differences of mojave toxin . toxicon 22 ( 6 ) : 980 - 984
massey dj , calvete jj , sánchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , boesen k . 2012 . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . journal of proteomics . urltoken
mrinalini , james j . hicks and wolfgang wüster . 2015 . crotalus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) maximum size . herpetological review 46 ( 2 ) : 270 - 271
cardwell , m . d . 2013 . behavioral changes by mohave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus ) in response to drought . unpublished thesis , california state university , sacramento .
table 4 : proteolytic activity inhibition of the c . s . scutulatus venoms by edta .
campbell , j . a . 1979 . crotalus scutulatus ( viperidae ) in jalisco , mexico . southwestern naturalist 24 ( 4 ) : 683 - 714 - get paper here
crotalids : crotalus sp . , sistrurus sp . ( agkistrodon sp . ) .
scutulatus scutulatus type b , found in a narrow range of arizona , lacks mojave toxins and has hemorrhagic activity . the same amounts of these two characteristically different snake venoms , c . more
glenn , j . l . ; straight , r . c . ; wolfe , m . c . ; hardy , d . l . 1983 . geographical variation in crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) venom properties . toxicon 21 ( 1 ) : 119 - 130
ed50 for the crotolus scutulatus snake evenomation is 8 mg antivenin / mg venom [ label ] .
borja , miguel ; gamaliel castañeda , jorge espinosa , edgar neri , alejandro carbajal , herlinda clement , osvaldo garcía , and alejandro alagon 2014 . mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) with type b venom from mexico . copeia 2014 ( 1 ) : 7–13 - get paper here
crotalus adamanteus , the eastern diamondback , is the biggest venomous snake in the americas .
a western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . photo by sean bush , md .
* mohave rattlesnake ( c scutulatus ) envenomation is among the most controversial topics in envenomation medicine . more
table 3 : antibody recognition : proteinase and hemorrhagic activities of the c . s . scutulatus venoms .
table 2 : primers used for amplifying metalloproteinase sequences from crotalus s . scutulatus . genomic dna and sequence comparison to other snake venom metalloproteinases ( mp ) . nonconserved nucleotides are indicated in bold .
davis , d . r . & cardwell , m . d . 2017 . crotalus scutulatus ( mohave rattlesnake ) arboreality and climbing behavior . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 670 - 671 .
mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) . note the diamond pattern fades into bands along the caudal third of the back and the white tail rings are wider than the black . photo by sean bush , md .
massey dj , calvete jj , sánchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , et al . venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . j proteomics . 2012 may 17 . 75 ( 9 ) : 2576 - 87 . [ medline ] .
fact : mohave rattlesnakes are no more unique than any other rattlesnake in the genus crotalus , which includes all rattlers except the little pigmy rattlesnakes and massasaugas . numerous genetic studies show that they are most closely related to the prairie and western rattlesnakes , crotalus viridis and crotalus oreganus , respectively . 3
salazar , jennifer d . , and carl s . lieb . geographic diet variation of mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) . diss . bs thesis , university of texas at el paso , el paso , 2003 .
crotalus scutulatus - ( kennicott , 1861 ) - proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , vol . 13 , p . 207 from original description citations for the reptiles and amphibians of north america © ellin beltz
massey dj , calvete jj , sánchez ee , sanz l , richards k , curtis r , boesen k : venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ( mojave rattlesnake ) from southern arizona . j proteomics . 2012 , 75 : 2576 - 2587 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2012 . 02 . 035 .
table 5 : dna sequence homology for different structural domains of the four groups of c . s . scutulatus metalloproteinase genes .
in the united states , crotalus scutulatus is found in the southern portions of california , arizona , new mexico , and texas . there are two subspecies of the mojave rattlesnake , though only one ( c . s . scutulatus ) is found in the u . s . the mojave rattlesnake also has an extensive range in the northern half of mexico .
in a retrospective study of patients bitten chiefly by crotalus atrox and c . s . scutulatus , those patients given only medical treatment suffered less local morbidity than those given a combination of medical and surgical treatment ( hardy 1988 ) .
crotalus scutulatus is viviparous , giving birth to live young in late july or august , often coinciding with the summer monsoons . there may be as many as nine young , measuring up to 25 cm ( 10 in ) in length .
crofab ( crotalidae polyvalent immune fab ( ovine ) ) is a sheep - derived antivenin used for the management of adult and pediatric patients with north american crotalid envenomation [ label ] , which includes the crotalus scutulatus snake ( mojave snake ) .
wooldridge bj , pineda g , banuelas - ornelas jj , dagda rk , gasanov se , rael ed , lieb cs : mojave rattlesnakes ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) lacking the acidic subunit dna sequence lack mojave toxin in their venom . comp biochem physiol b . 2001 , 130 : 169 - 179 . 10 . 1016 / s1096 - 4959 ( 01 ) 00422 - 5 .
carstairs sd , kreshak aa , tanen da . crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . acad emerg med . 2013 may . 20 ( 5 ) : 522 - 5 . [ medline ] .
ruben k . dagda , sardar e . gasanov , boris zhang , william welch , eppie d . rael . erratum to : molecular models of the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) venom metalloproteinases reveal a structural basis for differences in hemorrhagic activities , journal of biological physics , 2014 , 217 - 218 , doi : 10 . 1007 / s10867 - 014 - 9347 - y
peña - peniche , a . , d . lazcano , i . ruvalcaba - ortega , and l . d . wilson . 2017 . crotalus scutulatus ( kennicot , 1861 ) . diet . mesoamerican herpetology 4 ( 3 ) : 644–648 - get paper here
antivenom indications : rattlesnakes ( in particluar crotalus atrox , c . adamanteus , c . viridis , c . oreganus , c . horridus , c . scutulatus ) ( gold et al 2002 , 2004 ; norris 2004 , warrell 2010 ) systemic signs of envenoming :
patients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia , the etiology of which is not clear . laboratory studies have demonstrated that venom from several species , including the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus scutulatus ) , can inhibit platelet aggregation . in humans , administration of crotaline fab antivenom has been shown to result in transient improvement of platelet levels ; however , it is not known whether platelet aggregation also improves after antivenom administration .
envenomation by some rattlesnakes , such as the mojave rattlesnake ( formerly mohave rattlesnake ) ( crotalus scutulatus ) , may cause a different clinical presentation than that generally encountered after most rattlesnake bites . in addition , other species , such as the southern pacific rattlesnake crotalus oreganus helleri , ( formerly crotalus viridis helleri ) , may cause signs and symptoms consistent with typical rattlesnake envenomation combined with signs and symptoms similar to mojave rattlesnake envenomation . [ 1 ] ( see rattlesnake envenomation for a more complete discussion of typical rattlesnake envenomation . )
the objective was to determine the effect of c . scutulatus venom on platelet aggregation in vitro in the presence and absence of crotaline fab antivenom .
the scutulatus is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .
cardwell , m . d . , et al . 2013 . type specimen of crotalus scutulatus ( chordata : reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) re - examined , with new evidence after more than a century of confusion . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 126 : 11–16 .
carstairs sd , kreshak aa , tanen da : crotaline fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by crotalus scutulatus venom : an in vitro study . acad emerg med . 2013 may ; 20 ( 5 ) : 522 - 5 . doi : 10 . 1111 / acem . 12135 . [ pubmed : 23672368 ]
fact : like other rattlesnakes , mohaves have been evolving for millions of years . genetic evidence strongly suggests that mohave rattlesnakes diverged from an ancestor shared with crotalus viridis and crotalus oreganus before those lineages separated from one another between 26 . 4 and 3 . 9 million years ago . 3
after bites of the most dangerous rattelsnakes ( crotalus atrox , c . adamanteus , c . viridis , c . oreganus , c . horridus , c . scutulatus ) , antivenom should be given early , even before systemic envenoming has become obvious ( warrell 2010 ) . see also discussion kitchens and eskin 2008 .
t . chen and e . d . rael , “purification of m5 , a fibrinolytic proteinase from crotalus molossus molossus venom that attacks complement , ”
certainly not the biggest , nor the most widely ranging or populous of the rattlesnakes , the mojave rattler ( crotalus scutulatus ) has the most toxic venom and a reputation as extremely aggressive toward humans . physically similar to the western diamondback , the mojave rattler typically shades toward green , sparking the common name , mojave greens .
winchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( münster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here
the third most dangerous rattlesnake in north america , the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) lives in the densely populated northeastern area of the united states .
wang ym , parmelee j , guo yw , tsai ih : absence of phospholipase a2 , in most crotalus horridus venom due to translational blockage comparison with crotalus horridus atricaudatus venom . toxicon . 2010 , 56 : 93 - 100 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2010 . 03 . 015 .
the myth that mohave rattlesnakes have no scientific history and no “type specimen” ( the preserved animal used for the original description of a species ) has been fueled by an error in a publication in 1900 , 4 causing laurence klauber to correctly point out in 1956 that the type specimen designated for c rotalus scutulatus was not the correct species . 5 that confusion has recently and conclusively been resolved : the type specimen for crotalus scutulatus resides in the preserved collection of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia as specimen number ansp 7069 . 6
calvete jj , sanz l , cid p , de la torre p , flores - díaz m , santos mcd , borges a , bremo a , angulo y , lomonte b , alape - girón a , gutiérrez jm : snake venomics of the central american rattlesnake crotalus simus and the south american crotalus durissus complex points to neurotoxicity as an adaptive paedomorphic trend along crotalus dispersal in south america . j proteome res . 2010 , 9 : 528 - 544 . 10 . 1021 / pr9008749 .
a red diamond rattlesnake ( crotalus ruber ) . the postocular light stripe extends above the angle of the mouth in mojave rattlesnakes . photo by sean bush , md .
j . g . soto , j . c . perez , m . m . lopez et al . , “comparative enzymatic study of hplc - fractionated crotalus venoms , ”
means db : effects of rattlesnake roundups on the eastern diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus adamanteus ) . herpetol conserv biol . 2009 , 4 ( 2 ) : 132 - 141 .
in a retrospective study of patients who were primarily bitten by crotalus atrox and c . s . scutulatus , 64 had swelling that extended as far as the axilla or inguinal region . none of these patients required surgical intervention . none of them developed symptoms that could have been attributed to compartment syndrome . all patients regained full functionality of the affected limb ( hardy 1991 ) .
mackessy sp : fibrinogenolytic proteases from the venoms of juvenile and adult northern pacific rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis oreganus ) . comp biochem physiol b . 1993 , 106 : 181 - 189 .
mackessy sp : venom ontogeny in the pacific rattlesnakes crotalus viridis helleri and c . v . oreganus . copeia . 1988 , 1988 : 92 - 101 . 10 . 2307 / 1445927 .
brown ws : biology , status , and management of the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) : a guide for conservation . soc study amphibians reptiles cir . 1993 , 22 : 78 -
the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) is widely distributed in western north america , occurring from the mojave desert through the sonoran and chihuahuan deserts to central mexico ( stebbins , 1985 ) . it can be distinguished from other rattlesnake species by features of color pattern and scalation , and especially by the presence of enlarged plates ( scutes ) on the head between the eyes ( degenhardt , et al . 1996 ) .
the enzymatic and hemorrhagic activities of fourteen c . s . scutulatus venoms are shown in table 3 . for comparative purposes , we also included data obtained from venoms from c . atrox ( call - 1 ) and c . m . molossus ( cmm88 ) as positive controls for both proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities [ 26 , 27 ] . we found that c . s . scutulatus venoms from css28 , css31 , and css36 ( collected from el paso , tx , usa ) showed potent hemorrhagic activity . venom from three other c . s . scutulatus css68 , css71 , and css74 collected in maricopa county , az , usa , also induced hemorrhage to the same extent as venom derived from c . atrox . the other eight c . s . scutulatus venoms ( collected from various geographic locations including maricopa county , az , usa ) did not cause hemorrhage ( table 3 ) .
french , w . j . , et al . 2004 . mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 44 : 781–791 .
e . d . rael , m . martinez , and o . molina , “isolation of a fibrinolytic protease , m4 , from venom of crotalus molossus molossus ( northern blacktail rattlesnake ) , ”
hoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here
similar to and easily confused with the western diamond - backed rattlesnake - crotalus atrox , though there is little range overlap in california . compare the western diamond - backed rattlesnake to the northern mohave rattlesnake
straight rc , glenn jl : isolation and characterization of basic phospholipase ( pla2 ) and acidic subunits of canebrake toxin from crotalus horridus atricaudatus venom using hplc . toxicon . 1989 , 27 : 80 -
of ctenophorus scutulatus that i managed to dig up all showed quite colorful lizards , not dull gray ones like this . apparently it is one of many lizard species that attain a dark coloration when their body temperatures are lower . more
crotaline fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from c . scutulatus . it is unclear at this time whether this improvement in platelet dysfunction translates into improved clinical outcomes in envenomated patients .
cardwell , michael d . ; steve w . gotte , roy w . mcdiarmid , ned gilmore , and james a . poindexter 2013 . type specimens of crotalus scutulatus ( chordata : reptilia : squamata : viperidae ) re - examined , with new evidence after more than a century of confusion . proceedings of the biological society of washington mar 2013 , vol . 126 , no . 1 : 11 - 16 . - get paper here
glenn jl , straight rc , wolf tb : regional variation in the presence of canebrake toxin in crotalus horridus venom . comp biochem physiol c . 1994 , 107 ( 3 ) : 337 - 346 .
mackessy sp : kallikrein - like and thrombin - like proteases from the venoms of juvenile and adult northern pacific rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis oreganus ) . j nat toxins . 1993 , 2 : 223 - 239 .
patients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia , the etiology of which is not clear . it has been shown thatcrotaline fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from c . scutulatus [ 1 ] .
figure 1 : alignment of the four groups ( gp1 , gp2 , gp3 , and gp4 ) of c . s . scutulatus metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences . assignment of exon and intron ( underlined ) regions was made by comparing metalloproteinase cdna sequences from c . atrox [ 7 ] and a . contortrix [ 12 , 30 ] with metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences from c . s . scutulatus obtained in this study . differences among the dna sequences are denoted by an asterisk ( * ) .
neurological symptoms : if the patient is suspected of having been bitten by the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) , the patient may develop neurological symptoms including respiratory obstruction or failure which must be treated as an immediate emergency . the neurologic symptoms , as others , should be improved by antivenom . if breathing becomes impaired , respiratory assistance may be necessary , and intubation and ventilation may be appropriate adjuncts in certain clinical settings . secretions may become copious , necessitating suctioning .
amaral , a . do 1929 . studies of nearctic ophidia v . on crotalus confluentus say , 1823 , and its allied forms . bull . antivenin inst . amer . 2 ( 4 ) : 86 - 97
j . b . bjarnason and a . t . tu , “hemorrhagic toxins from western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) venom : isolation and characterization of five toxins and the role of zinc in hemorrhagic toxin , ”
in north america , local signs of envenoming , particularly swelling , are a reliable parameter of possible systemic envenoming in most crotalid bites . important exceptions are some populations of crotalus scutulatus (
type a
) , c . mitchelli , c . lepidus and c . tigris , which can cause systemic envenoming without significant local effects ( minton 1987a ) . c . adamanteus can cause incoagulability of the blood without significant local findings ( kitchens and van mierop 1983 ) .
snake venoms generally show sequence and quantitative variation within and between species , but some rattlesnakes have undergone exceptionally rapid , dramatic shifts in the composition , lethality , and pharmacological effects of their venoms . such shifts have occurred within species , most notably in mojave ( crotalus scutulatus ) , south american ( c . durissus ) , and timber ( c . horridus ) rattlesnakes , resulting in some populations with extremely potent , neurotoxic venoms without the hemorrhagic effects typical of rattlesnake bites .
wüster , w . & bérnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417–419
the following references are recommended for further indepth reading . this material includes case histories , guidelines , and recent findings in crotalus literature . these should be read only after treatment has begun , and the patient is in stable status .
r . a . martinez , s . y . huang , and j . c . perez , “antigenic relationships of fractionated western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) hemorrhagic toxins and other rattlesnake venoms as indicated by monoclonal antibodies , ”
the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) is one of the most lethal rattlers of north america . adults average 2 - 4 feet in length from head to tail ( shaw - cambell 1974 ) . it has a diamond shaped pattern that dissolves into an offset striped pattern towards the tail . the offset stripe pattern helps set it apart from the very similar diamond back . the color of the mojave rattlesnake varies from a greenish gray to a yellowish brown . these color variations provide camouflage in certain terrain .
this one is interesting . the large scales , relatively thick light tail bands , and ( only partially visible ) light stripe behind the eye all point to c . scutulatus . but the multiple small scales between the supraoculars , and the tail - most tail band being black are generally characteristics of c . atrox . it is possible i suppose that it is a hybrid , but i think it ' s much more likely that it ' s a somewhat aberrant c . scutulatus . several people have told me that they agree with this id .
klauber , l . m . 1930 . new and renamed subspecies of crotalus confluentus say , with remarks on related species . trans . san diego soc . nat . hist . 6 ( 3 ) : 95 - 144 - get paper here
o . zhou , b . j . smith , and m . h . grossman , “molecular cloning and expression of catrocollastatin , a snake - venom protein from crotalus atrox ( western diamondback rattlesnake ) which inhibits platelet adhesion to collagen , ”
judging by their appearance , you’d think both rattlesnakes were of the same species . you’d be right , being the clever person you are . they are in fact part of the same subspecies of southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) .
rokyta dr , lemmon ar , margres mj , aronow k : the venom - gland transcriptome of the eastern diamondback rattlesnake crotalus adamanteus . bmc genomics . 2012 , 13 : 312 - 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2164 - 13 - 312 .
m . anaya , e . d . rael , c . s . lieb , j . c . perez , and r . j . salo , “antibody detection of venom protein variation within a population of prairie rattlesnake crotalus v . viridis , ”
mackessy sp : evolutionary trends in venom composition in the western rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis sensu lato ) : toxicity vs . tenderizers . toxicon . 2010 , 55 : 1463 - 1474 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2010 . 02 . 028 .
nor are there any clinical trial results available on the efficacy of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors . c . s . scutulatus venom acts at the presynaptic level of neuromuscular transmission ( gopalakrishnakone et al . 1980 ) , while micrurus fulvius venom acts post - synaptically to depolarise the muscle fibre membrane ( brazil 1990 ) .
mackessy sp , williams k , ashton kg : ontogenetic variation in venom composition and diet of crotalus oreganus concolor a case of venom paedomorphosis ? . copeia . 2003 , 2003 ( 4 ) : 769 - 782 . 10 . 1643 / ha03 - 037 . 1 .
a majority of the fauna found in the mojave desert also extends into the sonoran or great basin deserts as well . however , the following avifauna and herpetofauna are characteristic of the mojave region in particular : leconte’s thrasher ( toxostoma lecontei ) , banded gecko ( coleonyx variegatus ) , desert iguana ( dipsosaurus dorsalis ) , chuckwalla ( sauromalus obesus ) , and regal horned lizard ( phrynosoma solare ) . snake species include the desert rosy boa ( lichanura trivirigata gracia ) , mojave patchnose snake ( salvadora hexalepis mojavensis ) , and mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutulatus ) ( brown 1994 ) .
e . d . rael , j . z . rivas , t . chen , n . maddux , e . huizar , and c . s . lieb , “differences in fibrinolysis and complement inactivation by venom from different northern blacktailed rattlesnakes ( crotalus molossus molossus ) , ”
l . a . hite , j . d . shannon , j . b . bjarnason , and j . w . fox , “sequence of a cdna clone encoding the zinc metalloproteinase hemorrhagic toxin e from crotalus atrox : evidence for signal , zymogen , and disintegrin - like structures , ”
french wj , hayes wk , bush sp , cardwell md , bader jo , rael ed . mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 2004 dec 1 . 44 ( 7 ) : 781 - 91 . [ medline ] .
there have been no clinical trials on the efficacy of antivenom in the treatment of micrurus fulvius and c . s . scutulatus (
type a
) bites . empirical data on the course of envenoming following micrurus bites give the impression that established symptoms of paralysis are not influenced by antivenom treatment ( kitchens and van mierop 1987 ) . likewise , there is no significant effect of the polyvalent wyeth anti - crotalid antivenom on the neurotoxic course of envenoming following c . s . scutulatus bites ( glenn and straight 1978 ) . this is not surprising , as neither
type a
venom nor mojave toxin is included in the manufacturing process of the polyvalent wyeth anti - crotalid antivenom .
w . j . french , w . k . hayes , s . p . bush , m . d . cardwell , j . o . bader , and e . d . rael , “mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) : molecular and geographic characterization , ”
o . molina , r . k . seriel , m . martinez , m . l . sierra , a . varela - ramirez , and e . d . rael , “isolation of two hemorrhagic toxins from crotalus basiliscus basiliscus ( mexican west coast rattlesnake ) venom and their effect on blood clotting and complement , ”
french wj , hayes wk , bush sp , cardwell md , bader jo , rael ed : mojave toxin in venom of crotalus helleri ( southern pacific rattlesnake ) molecular and geographic characterization . toxicon . 2004 , 44 : 781 - 791 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2004 . 08 . 008 .
the southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) is considered to be one of the most medically significant rattlesnakes in the usa . researchers from the university of queensland analyzed the venoms produced by two separate populations of this species . the populations studied are located in southern california , within a two hour’s drive from one another .
we identified four groups of c . s . scutulatus rattlesnake venoms with each having distinct biochemical profiles associated with metalloproteinase activity . rattlesnakes from each venom group had unique genomic nucleotide dna sequences for the mature metalloproteinase domain and noncoding regions . these findings support the genomic basis underlying diversity in venom metalloproteinase activities . this is the first report on genomic dna sequences of snake venom metalloproteinases .
certain populations of mojave rattlesnakes , c . scutulatus and the neo - tropical rattlesnake , c . durissus , have long been known to contain neurotoxins . if i recall correctly from my days at the bronx zoo , bites from these species were treated with a mix of 2 - 3 antivenins ( i’ve not checked current treatment recommendations ; please post below if you need further information ) .
douglas , m . e . , et al . 2002 . phylogeography of the western rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis ) complex , with emphasis on the colorado plateau . pp . 11–50 in : g . w . schuett , et al . ( eds . ) , biology of the vipers . eagle mountain publishing , eagle mountain , utah .
actually the third most dangerous rattlesnake in north america , the timber rattlesnake ( crotalus horridus ) lives in the densely populated northeastern area of the united states . the snake , gracing the famous gadsden flag ( don’t tread on me ) , certainly has spawned more fear and respect from settlers than any other through the history of the united states .
e entry crotalus admanteus ) . although defibrinogenation , caused by the direct fibrinogen - coagulating activity of the venom , generally has a benign course , there is nonetheless a risk of spontaneous haemorrhage with extensive loss of blood or focal bleeding ( e . g . intracranial ; kitchens and eskin 2008 ) as long as the haemostatic defect is not corrected
rokyta dr , wray kp , lemmon ar , lemmon em , caudle sb : a high - throughput venom - gland transcriptome for the eastern diamondback rattlesnake crotalus adamanteus and evidence for pervasive positive selection across toxin classes . toxicon . 2011 , 57 : 657 - 671 . 10 . 1016 / j . toxicon . 2011 . 01 . 008 .
douglas me , douglas mr , schuett gw , porras lw : evolution of rattlesnakes ( viperidae ; crotalus ) in the warm deserts of western north america shaped by neogene vicariance and quaternary climate change . mol ecol . 2006 , 15 : 3353 - 3374 . 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 294x . 2006 . 03007 . x .
calvete jj , pérez a , lomonte b , sánchez ee , sanz l : snake venomics of crotalus tigris : the minimalist toxin arsenal of the deadliest neartic rattlesnake venom . evolutionary clues for generating a pan - specific antivenom against crotalid type ii venoms . j proteome res . 2012 , 11 : 1382 - 1390 . 10 . 1021 / pr201021d .
valencia - hernández , ángel alberto ; irene goyenechea < br / > & jesús martín castillo - cerón 2007 . notes on scutellation , length , and distribution of rattlesnakes ( serpentes : viperidade : crotalus ) in the state of hidalgo , mexico . acta zoológica mexicana ( n . s . ) 23 ( 3 ) : 29 - 33 - get paper here
crotalus atrox may not be quite as massive as its eastern relative , but it makes up for that in numerous ways . the brownish “base” with cream outlines around the classic diamond shape and a quick to respond rattle announce its presence . the western diamondback has a massive range , extending well into mexico and stretching from the southeast to california and approximately halfway to canada .
it really doesn’t take much to make this list , if you’re a venomous snake in the united states . there are 21 species listed by the society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . nearly two thirds of the venomous snakes are true rattlesnakes ( crotalus ) along with one , sistrurus miliarius carrying the common name , pygmy rattlesnake , to bring the total to 14 .
with one exception , neurological manifestations following north american crotalid bites are limited to the signs and symptoms discussed above . in addition to local swelling and haemostatic defects , c . s . scutulatus (
type a
) bites can also cause neurological symptoms of envenoming , including paralysis . however , there are very few reports of obvious neurotoxic symptoms of envenoming following bites from this geographical variant of a single subspecies ( minton 1990a ) .
the mojave rattlesnake may be difficult to distinguish from the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) , which inhabits an overlapping geographical range . some mojave rattlesnakes are greenish , but they may have a similar color as western diamondbacks . in the mojave rattlesnake , the diamond pattern fades into bands along the caudal third of the back , whereas the diamonds continue to the tail in the western diamondback .
crotalus adamanteus , the eastern diamondback , is the biggest venomous snake in the americas , and may be the biggest in the world . with recorded lengths nearing eight feet and weights in excess of 35 pounds , this is a significant creature and is quite dangerous to humans with a fatality rate of 10 - 20 % ( although rates were claimed as high as 30 % at one time ) .
boldrini - frança j , rodrigues rs , fonseca fpp , menaldo dl , ferreira fb , henrique - silva f , soares am , hamaguchi a , rodrigues vm , otaviano ar , homsi - brandeburgo mi : crotalus durissus collilineatus venom gland transcriptome : analysis of gene expression profile . biochimie . 2009 , 91 : 586 - 595 . 10 . 1016 / j . biochi . 2009 . 02 . 001 .
this is most common in victims of russell ' s viper , tropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus subspecies ) and some species of bothrops . patients bitten by russell ' s vipers may become oliguric within a few hours of the bite . loin pain and tenderness may be experienced within the first 24 hours and , in 3 or 4 days , the patient may become irritable and hypertensive and may convulse and become comatose with evidence of metabolic acidosis .
pit vipers are the largest group of venomous snakes in the united states and are involved in an estimated 150 , 000 bites annually of dogs and cats . 1 approximately 99 % of all venomous snake bites in the united states are inflicted by pit vipers . in north america , members of the family crotalidae belong to three genera : the rattlesnakes ( crotalus and sistrurus spp . ) and the copperheads and cottonmouth water moccasins ( agkistrodon spp . ) .
blood was obtained from four healthy male adult volunteers not currently using aspirin , nonsteroidal anti - inflammatory drugs , or other platelet - inhibiting agents . c . scutulatus venom from a single snake with known type b ( hemorrhagic ) activity was obtained from the national natural toxins research center . measurement of platelet aggregation by an aggregometer was performed using five standard concentrations of epinephrine ( a known platelet aggregator ) on platelet - rich plasma over time , and a mean area under the curve ( auc ) was calculated . five different sample groups were measured : 1 ) blood alone , 2 ) blood + c . scutulatus venom ( 0 . 3 mg / ml ) , 3 ) blood + crotaline fab antivenom ( 100 mg / ml ) , 4 ) blood + venom + antivenom ( 100 mg / ml ) , and 5 ) blood + venom + antivenom ( 4 mg / ml ) . standard errors of the mean ( sem ) were calculated for each group , and paired t - tests were used to measure differences between groups .
kartik sunagara , eivind a . b . undheimc , holger scheibd , eric c . k . grene , chip cochrane , carl e . persone , ivan koludarov c , wayne kelln e , william k . hayes e , glenn f . king d , agosthino antunesa , bryan grieg fry . intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus oreganus helleri ) : biodiscovery , clinical and evolutionary implications . 2014 . journal of proteomics . urltoken
boldrini - frança j , corrêa - netto c , silva mms , rodrigues rs , torre pdl , pérez a , soares am , zingali rb , nogueira ra , rodrigues vm , sanz l , calvete jj : snake venomics and antivenomics of crotalus durissus subspecies from brazil : assessment of geographic variation and its implication on snakebite management . j proteomics . 2010 , 73 : 1758 - 1776 . 10 . 1016 / j . jprot . 2010 . 06 . 001 .
for example , the venom of timber rattlesnakes ( crotalus horridus ) living in new england is more effective against the most common local prey animal ( gray squirrels , i believe ) than against other creatures . further south , cottontail rabbits predominate in the diet , and the venom’s chemical make - up reflects this . timber rattlesnakes living on st . catherine’s island off georgia ( formerly used by the bronx zoo to breed endangered species ) seem to produce especially virulent venom , at least where dogs are concerned .
the mojave rattlesnake can easily be mistaken for the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) , which inhabits an overlapping range . they both have well - defined light - edged diamonds down the middle of their backs . the diamond pattern fades towards the last third of the mojave rattlesnake , whereas the diamonds continue to the tail in the western diamondback . the tail of the mojave has contrasting light and dark rings . the white rings are much wider than the black rings , while the diamondbacks have thick black rings .
neurotoxic symptoms : in the united states one species of rattlesnake , the mojave rattlesnake ( crotalus scutalatus ) , is known to produce a clinical picture with predominantly neurotoxic symptoms . the onset and progression of the symptoms may be rapid and subtle . in addition , they are more rapidly reversed in their early stages than when fully developed . it may be necessary to wake the patient and perform a brief neurologic check every hour or so to assure that breathing and other vital functions are not impaired . carefully note the progression of respiratory paralysis which may be present . be prepared to intubate and ventilate as necessary .
in a prospective study in which the majority of patients had been bitten by c . atrox and a smaller number by c . s . scutulatus , c . m . molossus and c . cerastes ( snakes identified according to geographical criteria ) , patients were investigated using non - invasive angiological methods ( pulse volume amplitude , blood pressure , skin temperature ) . in only one case was a reduced pulse volume amplitude recorded . this patient also had a decrease in blood pressure and the skin temperature of the bitten extremity . on angiography , thrombosis of the popliteal artery and the deep femoral artery was seen . the patient had applied a tourniquet following the bite , which may have caused the thrombosis . the thrombus was successfully removed using a fogarty catheter ( curry et al . 1985 ) .
6 h . the clotting time test is a simple means to regulate the antivenom dose . the initial dose should be repeated if the blood is still not coagulable 6 h after the first dose ( warrell 1990b ) . treatment of the haemostatic defect with blood product replacement should only be carried out if it is clearly indicated , i . e . there is already bleeding or there is an immediate risk of critical bleeding . in all other cases administration of antivenom should be a sufficiently effective and quick means of correcting the haemostatic defect ( burgess and dart 1991 ) . fabav has been evaluated in two clinical trial ( dart et al 1997 , 2001 ) . venom - induced abnormalities of the coagulation was reversible following antivenom treatment with recurrences as an important problem ( gold et al 2004 ) . see clinical entry ' crotalus sp . '
a thorough analysis of the dna nucleotide sequence showed that the fourteen metalloproteinase genomic dna sequences exhibited a perfect correlation with the biochemical classification of the rattlesnake venoms . the genomic dna sequences from css28 , css31 , css36 , and css68 were classified in group one ( gp1 ) , whereas genomic dna sequences belonging to css61 , css62 , and css64 were classified into group two ( gp2 ) . the genomic dna sequences belonging to css65 , css66 , css67 , css69 , and css75 were categorized into group three ( gp3 ) , whereas genomic dna sequences belonging to css71 and css74 were classified in group four ( gp4 ) ( figure 1 ) . this classification is identical to the classification that was based on the biochemical profiles of the fourteen rattlesnake venoms pointing to the existence of a genetic basis that gives rise to intra - species variation in metalloproteinase - associated activities in c . s . scutulatus . interestingly , the genomic dna sequence belonging to gp2 differed the most compared to the other three groups in that it contained a longer intron sequence ( table 5 ) .
all of the nucleotide sequences contained similar structural domains including a conserved “cysteine switch” sequence [ 34 ] located within the zymogen region , an n - terminal region of the proteinase domain , a zn 2 + - binding domain , and a spacer domain located between the proteinase and disintegrin domains . the homology among the genomic dna metalloproteinase sequences was greater than 95 % for the zymogen region ( nucleotides 1–82 ) , 100 % for the zinc - binding domain ( table 5 ) , and greater than 98 % for the spacer region ( nucleotides 1084 to 1147 ) . the dna sequence homology for the proteinase domain across all 14 c . s . scutulatus genomic metalloproteinase genes , excluding the intron ( nucleotides 83 to 474 and 909 to 1083 ) , was close to 89 % , and the sequence identity for the entire gene was at least 84 . 5 % homologous among the four groups of metalloproteinase genes ( table 5 ) . however , the sequence homology within the intron region among the fourteen snakes ( nucleotides 476 to 908 ) was highly variable ( ~ 67 % homology for some rattlesnakes , table 5 ) suggesting that differences in the splicing of introns and fusion of exons among the four different groups of rattlesnake venoms may contribute to variations in metalloproteinase activities as shown in table 3 .
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justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
the species ' range extends from southern california , southern nevada , and southwestern utah south through arizona ( lowe et al . 1986 ) , southern new mexico ( degenhardt et al . 1996 ) , western texas ( tennant 1984 ) in the united states , and central mexico to near the south end of the mexican plateau in puebla and adjacent veracruz ( stebbins 2003 , campbell and lamar 2004 ) . its elevational range extends from sea level to around 2 , 530 m asl ( 8 , 300 feet ) ( stebbins 2003 ) ; above 1 , 800 m asl at the southern end of the range ( campbell and lamar 2004 ) .
this species is represented by a large number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) . on a range - wide scale , campbell and lamar ( 2004 ) mapped hundreds of collection sites . the adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 100 , 000 . this snake is often locally common ( lowe et al . 1986 ) . its extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , number of subpopulations , and population size are probably relatively stable .
mendoza - quijano , f . & hammerson , g . a . 2007 .
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uetz , p . & jirí hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
flores - villela , oscar / mccoy , c . j . , ed .
mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
home » resources » categories and criteria » 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1
see below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .
the iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .
extensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .
before 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .
to give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .
since their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .
the proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :
version 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .
version 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .
version 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .


the costello tetra is a species of characin from the amazon basin and is found in brazil and peru .

the specific name comes from lake hyanuary in brazil .

other common names used in english are january tetra and green neon .

the name " green neon " is also used for paracheirodon simulans .

costello tetra

, the costello tetra is a species of least concern and has a stable population .
10 x yellow phantom ' four - eye ' tetra ( h . roseus )
also known as the costello or green neon tetra , this species is seen much less often in the hobby than it used to be . it’s occasionally confused with the common head and tail light tetra , h . ocellifer , as it resembles an elongated version of that species .
how to care for silvertip tetras . hasemania nana - silver tip tetra school size .
specimen from the german aquarium trade . © hippocampus - bildarchiv . hyphessobrycon roseus ( géry , 1960 ) yellow phantom tetra | freshwater fish | pinterest | aqu…
an elongate slender tetra which is pale in base colour with a vivid bright yellow lateral line from the gills to the caudal peduncle . at the caudal peduncle there is a large black dot . the caudal fin itself is sharply forked and and the fins are mainly translucent with a slight yellow tint .
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justification : assessed as least concern due to its sizeable distribution , which is probably wider than known , and the lack of any known major widespread threats .
known from floodplains lakes in the solimões river ( local name of the amazon river above its confluence with the negro in brazil ) . there are no reliable records in peru but the species probably more than likely occurs there ( lima pers . comm . 2007 ) .
h . hyanuary is a benthopelagic ( ecological region at the lowest level of water body ) species . occurs in flood plain lakes .
not a significant amount taken from the wild for the pet trade to cause threat .
even if ornamental and as such exploited for the aquarium hobby , the harvest of the species is probably negligible for the species as a whole , considering that the species is probably not harvested in most of its range . it is however a species poorly known in nature .
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5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 1 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent rivers / streams / creeks ( includes waterfalls ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 6 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater lakes ( over 8ha ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 7 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable
1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats
bassleer , g . 1997 . color guide of tropical fish diseases : on freshwater fish . bassleer biofish , westmeerbeek , belgium .
froese , r . and pauly , d . 2006 . fishbase . available at : urltoken .
géry , j . 1977 . characoids of the world . t . f . h . publications , inc . , neptune city , new jersey , usa .
grabda , e . and heese , t . 1991 . polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces . .
iucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 2 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 3 november 2009 ) .
klinkhardt , m , tesche , m . and greven , h . 1995 . database of fish chromosomes . .
lima , f . c . t . , malabarba , l . r . , buckup , p . a . , pezzi da silva , j . f . , vari , r . p . , harold , a . , benine , r . , oyakawa , o . t . , pavanelli , c . s . , menezes , n . a . , lucena , c . a . s . , malabarba , m . c . s . l . , lucena , z . m . s . , reis , r . e . , langeani , f . , cassati , l . and bertaco , v . a . 2003 . genera incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) in characidae . in : r . e . reis , s . o . kullander and c . j . ferraris , jr . ( eds ) , checklist of the freshwater fishes of south and central america , pp . 106 - 168 . porto alegre : edipucrs , brasil .
ortega , h . and vari , r . p . 1986 . annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of peru . smithsonian contributions to zoology 437 : 1 - 25 .
porto , j . i . r . , feldberg , e . , nakayama , c . m . and falcao , j . n . 1992 . a checklist of chromosome numbers and karyotypes of amazonian freshwater fishes . revue d ' hydrobiologie tropicale 25 ( 4 ) : 287 - 299 .
riehl , r . and baensch , h . a . 1991 . aquarien atlas . band 1 . : 992 .
riehl , r . and baensch , h . a . 1996 . aquarien atlas , band 1 . .
robins , c . r . , bailey , r . m . , bond , c . e . , brooker , j . r . , lachner , e . a . , lea , r . n . and scott , w . b . 1991 . world fishes important to north americans . exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada .
scheel , j . j . 1973 . fish chromosomes and their evolution . interval report of danmarks akvarium , charlottenlu .
swedish museum of natural history . 1999 . nrm ichthyology collection database . ichthyology section , department of vertebrate zoology , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden .
tello , s . and sánchez , h . 1995 . to be filled . unpublished .
varjo , m . , koli , l . and dahlström , h . 2004 . kalannimiluettelo ( versio 10 / 03 ) . suomen biologian seura vanamo ry .
wu , h . l . , shao , k . t . and lai , c . f . 1999 . latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . the sueichan press , taiwan .
the female is more full and rounded in the belly than males . the male has a small hook on its anal fin . this is not always easy to see .
a peaceful shoaling community fish that should be kept in groups of 6 or more . keep with other peaceful community fish .
prefers a densely planted tank with dark substrate and floating plants and some open swimming space .
this page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 18 .
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it hails from the amazon basin in peru and brazil . the type specimen was collected from lake hyanuary , near the brazilian city of manaus .
a standard 24″ x 15″ x 12″ ( 60cm x 37 . 5cm x 30cm ) – 70 litre tank is suitable for a small shoal .
a biotope setup would be very simple to arrange . use a substrate of river sand and add a few driftwood branches ( if you can’t find driftwood of the desired shape , common beech is safe to use if thoroughly dried and stripped of bark ) and twisted roots . a few handfuls of dried leaves ( again beech can be used , or oak leaves are also suitable ) would complete the natural feel . aquatic plants are not a feature of this species ‘ natural waters . allow the wood and leaves to stain the water the colour of weak tea , removing old leaves and replacing them every few weeks so they don’t rot and foul the water . a small net bag filled with aquarium - safe peat can be added to the filter to aid in the simulation of black water conditions . use fairly dim lighting .
alternatively , , it also does well in a well maintained , heavily planted tank . as any of these seen for sale will almost certainly be wild caught a more general setup is not really suitable .
ph : 6 . 0 - 7 . 0 . it tends to lose colour when kept in alkaline conditions .
feeds chiefly on small invertebrates in nature . in the aquarium it proves unfussy . feed a mixture of dried flakes and granules along with small live and frozen foods .
it’s a very peaceful species that won’t compete well with very boisterous or much larger tankmates . ideally , keep it with other south american species , such as other hemigrammus or hyphessobrycon species , pencil fish , apistogramma dwarf cichlids , corydoras and small loricariids . in a more general community it can be combined with smaller rasboras , barbs , anabantoids and west african dwarf cichlids such as pelvicachromis species .
always buy a group of at least 6 of these , preferably 10 or more . it is a shoaling species by nature , and will fare much better when in the company of its own kind . like most tetras it actually looks far more effective when maintained like this anyway .
adult males are slightly smaller and noticeably slimmer than females . the male also has a small hook on the anal fin , which is lacking in females .
it can be spawned in a group , with half a dozen specimens of each sex being a good number . condition these with plenty of small live foods and spawning should not present too many problems .
alternatively , it can be spawned in pairs . under this technique the fish are conditioned in male and female groups in separate tanks . when the females are noticeably full of eggs and the males are displaying their best colours , select the fattest female and best - coloured male and transfer them to the spawning tank in the evening . they should spawn the following morning .
in either situation , the adults will eat the eggs given the chance and should be removed as soon as eggs are noticed . these will hatch in 24 - 36 hours , with the fry becoming free swimming a 3 - 4 days later . they should be fed on an infusoria – type food for the first few days , until they are large enough to accept microworm or brine shrimp nauplii . the eggs and fry are light sensitive in the early stages of life and the tank should be kept in darkness if possible .
like all hemigrammus , its taxonomic status is currently incertae sedis , meaning uncertain . the genus is currently used as something of a catch - all for over 70 species of small characin . most experts agree that a full revision is required , with the likely outcome that many species will be placed into new or different genera .
from the day we opened the first store in maidenhead , we’ve firmly believed that one key to our success is employing fish keepers .
mature females are noticeably larger and fuller bellied . male fish also possess a tiny hook on the anal fin , which is absent in females .
soft and acidic . ph : 6 . 0 - 7 . 2 , dh : up to 12 degrees .
analysis of the five glycosylation sites of human alpha 1 - acid glycoprotein . - pubmed - ncbi
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myrmecia analis is a species of the myrmecia genus .

myrmecia analis is usually only found in western australia .

it was described by mayr in 1862 .

myrmecia analis are around 20-22 millimetres long on average , but some workers can be slightly smaller , and have the colour tone similar to myrmecia vindex , but the head is slightly darker .

the mandibles are around 3-4 millimeters long .

myrmecia analis

the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see myrmecia analis for further details
no one has contributed data records for myrmecia analis yet . learn how to contribute .
myrmecia analis : holotype , worker , australia ( as new holland ) , australia , naturhistorisches museum wien , vienna .
atriscapa . myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925b : 580 ( w . ) australia . junior synonym of analis : clark , 1927 : 34 ; clark , 1951 : 54 .
die gattung myrmecia ist unterteilt in 9 artengruppen damit sich die vielen arten dieser gattung leichter klassifizieren lassen .
senior synonym of myrmecia atriscapa : clark , 1927 pdf : 34 ; clark , 1951 pdf : 54 .
the genus myrmecia is sub - divided in 9 species groups for an easier classification of the many species .
myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925 : syntype , 1 worker , albany , western australia , australia , australian museum .
myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925 : syntype , worker ( s ) , albany , western australia , australia , oxford university museum of natural history .
myrmecia atriscapa crawley , 1925 : syntype , 4 workers , albany , western australia , australia , clark , j . , anic32 - 005960 , australian national insect collection .
heterick ( 2009 ) - the apex of the gaster in this red - and - black ant is a conspicuous yellow .
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .
crawley ( 1925 ) - length 14 mm . ( without mandibles ) ; length of mandibles 3 . 4 mm .
colour like a dark m . vindex , head somewhat darker ; mandibles castaneous with teeth dark brown ; scapes , except the extremities , dark brown ; legs slightly paler than thorax ; gaster deep black except the two apical segments and a wide lozenge - shaped patch on the middle of the second segment ( varying in distinctness in different specimens ) , which are castaneous .
legs pilose , but less so than in forficata , scapes with only a faint pubescence . there is a short pilosity on the body and a thin grey pubescence most abundant on gaster .
head broader than long , narrowing behind the eyes more than in forficata , the occipital angles not so rounded as in regularis , but more like a small forficata . clypeus emarginate , but not impressed in centre as in forficata . scapes pass the occiput by one - quarter of their length . epinotum moderately long , not sharply pointed in front . first node from above oval , narrower in front ; in profile rising abruptly in front ( even more so than in forficata ) , where it is highest , thence sloping down to the rounded posterior border . the stalk is intermediate between vindex and forficata , but nearer the former ; the length of the node is 1 . 4 that of the stalk , while in typical examples of vindex the proportion is 1 . 2 and in forficata 2 . 6 . the stalk is a little longer than in race simillima , sm . , of forficata . second node as broad as long , more than twice as wide behind as in front , the sides of the posterior third almost parallel .
entire head longitudinally rugose , with the space between eyes and antennal sockets reticulate . pronotum transversely striate , the striae not clean - cut , but wavy and arched . some specimens have one or two central longitudinal lines . rest of thorax : and epinotum with , similar but only transverse striation . petiole circularly rugose - striate ; postpetiole and first segment of gaster entirely smooth and shining , the remaining segments microscopically reticulate .
clark , j . 1927 . the ants of victoria . part iii . vic . nat . ( melb . ) 44 : 33 - 40 ( page 34 , queen described , , senior synonym of atriscapa )
clark , j . 1951 . the formicidae of australia . 1 . subfamily myrmeciinae : 230 pp . csiro , melbourne . [ ( 31 . xii ) . 1951 . ] pdf
crawley , w . c . 1925b . new ants from australia . - ii . ann . mag . nat . hist . 9 ( 16 ) : 577 - 598 pdf
heterick , b . e . 2009a . a guide to the ants of south - western australia . records of the western australian museum , supplement 76 : 1 - 206 . part 2 pdf
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mayr , g . , 1862 , myrmecologische studien . , verhandlungen der zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft in wien 12 , pp . 649 - 776
[ [ worker ] ] laenge : 19 mm - hellroth , mandibeln , geissel und beine gelb , die zwei knoten gelbroth , hinterleib schwarz , an der spitze gelb , die zaehne der mandibeln schwaerzlich , der schaft braun . die abstehende behaarung ist ziemlich spaerlich am ganzen koerper vertheilt , sie ist gelb , fein und nicht lang . die anliegende pubescenz ist sehr spaerlich , der hinterrand des ersten hinterleibssegmentes aber und die uebrigen segmente mit reichlicher gelber pubescenz . die mandibeln innen mit nur 4 groesseren zaehnen , die anderen sind klein , der aussenrand ist schwach concav , die oberseite fein und seicht laengsrunzlig und mit einer reihe grober puncte versehen . der kopf ist ziemlich grob streifig etwas nach hinten divergirend laengsgerunzelt ; das pronotum vorne quer bogig nach hinten gerunzelt , hinten laengsgerunzelt ; meso - und metanotum grob quergerunzelt . der erste knoten ist ziemlich grob quergerunzelt , wenig laenger als breit , seitlich gerundet , der zweite knoten und der hinterleib glatt und glaenzend , nur das mit reichlicher pubescenz versehene ende des hinterleibs ist fein punctirt . neuholland ( m . c . vienn . ) .
0 times found in low coastal scrub , 0 times found in banksia / nuytsia sandplain , 0 times found in swamp country , 0 times found in dry sclerophyll , 1 times found in heath , 0 times found in rainforest , 0 times found in sandplain heath .
0 times on track , 0 times ground forager , 0 times under rock , 1 times on shrub , 0 times on gyrostemon efn , 0 times mound nest , 0 times in termitarium , 1 times ground strays , 0 times forager on soil , 0 times flight intercept trap with trough .
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crawley , w . c . 1925 ,
new ants from australia . ii
, annals and magazine of natural history , ser . 9 , vol . 16 , pp . 577 - 598
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f2cfae3f - 2329 - 4aeb - 8890 - f863ae0213bb
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9b3c4d37 - 4f1f - 44a3 - 9710 - 18151a6d86ba
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 302813
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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