crassostrea ingens is a species of fossil oyster , a marine bivalve mollusk in the family ostreidae , the oyster .

this species lived during the pliocene .

fossils have been found in new zealand shallow-water limestone and shellbeds .

locations include the wairarapa , whanganui basin , gisborne district , north canterbury , and hawke 's bay ( especially in the te aute limestone ) .

crassostrea ingens

a fossilised oyster ( crassostrea ingens ) shell . it is a large , amorphous , thick , scaly , laminate shell .
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : crassostrea ingens ( c . a . von zittel , 1865 ) † - id : 7661000837
species crassostrea graphoides auct . non schlotheim accepted as crassostrea cuttackensis ( newton & smith , 1912 ) accepted as magallana cuttackensis ( newton & smith , 1912 ) ( misspelling and misidentication )
[ footnote ] * o . ingens , however , has since been collected at kaawa creek .
( 1995 ) stable - isotope and amino acid profiles of the new zealand giant pliocene oyster crussostreu ingens .
species crassostrea belcheri ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1871 ) represented as magallana belcheri ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1871 )
species crassostrea hongkongensis lam & b . morton , 2003 represented as magallana hongkongensis ( lam & b . morton , 2003 ) ( original combination )
the present investigation goes to show how necessary it is not to neglect the evidence that small molluscs may have to offer , for it modifies very materially the earlier estimate of the age of the wilkie ' s bluff beds , which was based solely on the large and obvious fossils . the masses of crassostrea ingens and the large pectens and the corals at first glance appear to provide a faunule so different from that at nukumaru that stage distinction seems apparent , but closer study has shown that the difference is mainly a superficial one .
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exceedingly large ( 200 mm to more than 300 mm high ) , exceedingly thick and heavy , calcitic ; exterior irregularly foliose , without true radial or commarginal sculpture ; cemented to hard substrates by umbonal area of left valve . some specimens oval ( length up to 0 . 7 height ) but most narrowly elongate , length half height or less , and relatively deeply dished . left valve exceedingly thick , deep ( inflation of left valve 60 - 80 mm or more ; interior cavity 30 - 40 mm or more deep ) , most specimens curved weakly to left over ventral half ; ligamental area large , in most specimens elongate ( a little higher than wide ) , depressed medially and with a margining groove and ridge up each side ; no sign of chomata in any adult specimens . adductor scar at centre of cavity height , a little in front of centre , gently to steeply inclined ( dorsal side depressed ) , dorsal margin straight to slightly irregular , ventral margin deeply convex , i . e . , a rounded semicircular outline ; retaining bright purplish red colour in most pliocene specimens . ventral area of internal cavity with a wide shallow groove in most specimens , extending from posterior of adductor scar to antero - ventral extremity of shell . right valve almost flat , more weakly foliose than left , about 15 to 40 mm thick ( i . e . , considerably thinner than corresponding left valve ) ; hinge a mirror image of left one ; adductor scar as in left valve but less steeply inclined .
( early nukumaruan ) occur in the base of hautawa shellbed at hautawa road , north of hunterville , rangitikei valley , and in the base of pukenui limestone in southern wairarapa . the oldest specimens referred here ( tentatively ) are relatively small ( to c . 150 mm long ) , narrow , laterally compressed specimens from the basal grit member of the hurupi formation in putangirua stream , eastern palliser bay ( early tongaporutuan ) ; we are not aware of any kapitean records . rare , poorly preserved ?
occurs exceedingly abundantly in
reefs
( e . g . , in wilkies shellbed , wanganui ( mangapanian ) , in a bank up to eight metres thick found continuously over more than 45 km ) and scattered in very near - shore , subtidal shellbeds , and apparently occupied much the same semi - estuarine , near - shore niche as
tongaporutuan - kapitean ? ; opoitian - early nukumaruan .
wanganui river
, type , almost certainly from the
reef in wilkies shellbed , mangapanian . widespread and abundant in shallow - water , near - shore limestone and shellbeds of pliocene age ( opoitian to early nukumaruan ) in wanganui basin , gisborne district , hawke ' s bay ( particularly abundant in te aute limestone facies ) , wairarapa , and north canterbury .
cite this publication as :
a . g . beu and j . i . raine ( 2009 ) . revised descriptions of new zealand cenozoic mollusca from beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) . gns science miscellaneous series no . 27 .
© gns science , 2009 isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 19705 - 1 issn 1177 - 2441 ( included with a pdf facsimile file copy of new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin 58 in cd version from : publications officer , gns science , p . o . box 30368 lower hutt , new zealand )
north chanter island , kermadec group , raoul island sector , pacific ocean , n . z .
waipatiki limestone , south side , waipatiki beach , hawkes bay , n . z .
bartrum bay , motutara , south muriwai coast , rodney district , west auckland , n . z .
mathesons bay , leigh , rodney district , north auckland , n . z .
keyhole rock , spit beach , aromoana , dunedin heads , n . z .
matanganui limestone , south rocky side , tarawhenua peninsula , pitt island , chatham islands .
fossil point , bosquet bay , kawau island , hauraki gulf , auckland , n . z .
awapapa limestone , te mata peak , havelock north , hawke bay , n . z .
modern pholad bivalves which have bored into a piece of rock from a coastal shore platform . pholads use the edge of their shells to mechanically drill / cut into the rock . fossil examples like this image exist in rocks from the wanganui basin .
this specimen shows gastropod shells which have accumulated in muddy sediment , and then been ' current aligned ' , i . e . , the movement of the water has turned them so they face the same direction . this specimen comes from the cenozoic of new zealand . image shown in both plan and cross - sectional views . see also
scallop shells embedded in a sandy limestone , from cenozoic sediments of hawke ' s bay .
) . this specimen is formed from casts and molds . these fossils are often found in the port waikato area .
tracks in sandstone . probably made by an echnoderm ( like a sea urchin or kina ) grazing on organic detritus on a sandy sea floor . these tracks can be see in waitamata group sediments , dated at about 20 - 18 million years old .
this group of microfossils is interesting as we don ' t really know what they are - we think they are algae .
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urltoken
mitchell , l . , curry , g . b . , and fallick , a . e .
several beaches in the taranaki province of the north island are famous for fossils . this ancient oyster shell lived between 3 . 6 and 2 . 6 million years ago , and was buried in marine sediment that has since been uplifted .
by comparison with an image and description in ' cenozoic mollusca of new zealand ' by beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) .
to download this volume and to learn more about ancient molluscs in new zealand .
dr daniel thomas from the institute of natural and mathematical sciences , massey university , made this model using a structured light 3d scanner ( 2015 ) . this fossil shell is from sediment that also contains fossil penguin bones . this specimen was found by daniel when he was looking for fossil penguins .
please do not reproduce without permission from puke ariki . contact images @ urltoken for more information . order images online here .
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urltoken
[ read before the auckland institute , august 18 , 1939 ; received by the editor , october 5 , 1939 ; issued separately , june , 1940 . ]
years ago the writer closely studied the fossils occurring at kaawa creek , south of waikato heads , in beds that on palaeontological grounds have been assigned to the waitotaran stage of the wanganui system . these beds were found to be rich in small molluscs , in addition to the larger forms that had already been recorded by bartrum and powell (
, p . 40 ) : —“the high percentage of species that are peculiar to the beds , together with the small number found in pliocene rocks elsewhere in new zealand , shows that the faunule is definitely an isolated one , — . when the faunule is compared with that at hawera the difficulty of correlation becomes further apparent , for the kaawa and hawera beds belong to different facies , and on the whole the assemblage of species differs at each locality , there being only 19 species that are common to both . a striking feature of the faunule at kaawa is the entire absence of such typical waitotaran fossils as the large pelecypods
, vol . 1 , no . 2 , p . 87 , 1931 ) shows a total absence of minutae , and as these are well represented in the faunule at kaawa , correlation is made still more difficult . not until a facies of the taranaki waitotaran is found in which minutae are represented can precise comparisons be made . ”
an attempt to obtain minutae from several localities along the section between , and including , nukumaru beach and waihi beach , hawera , was recently made with moderate success . shortage of time made it necessary to limit collecting to a very brief interval ( two to three hours ) at each locality , and to devote most of this time to searching for matrix that appeared likely to yield small shells , little attention being given to collecting the larger species . collections of matrix were thus made at nukumaru beach , wilkie ' s bluff ( waitotara ) , mangapani ( 12 miles by road upstream from waitotara township ) , and waihi beach , hawera .
the present paper includes description of new species and furnishes new records ; in addition to these , an attempt is made to define more precisely than has been possible in the past the limit that should be drawn between the nukumaruan and waitotaran stages of the wanganui system .
park ( repts . geol . explor . during 1886 - 87 , no . 18 , p . 57 , 1887 ) placed the rotella beds at nukumaru in the newer pliocene , the nukumaru limestone in older pliocene , and the coralline series at waitotara in the upper miocene . the palaeontological observations made in this paper go to show that actually these three horizons are not so widely separable as park thought , but are sufficiently close in faunal characteristics to be grouped together .
although based originally on park ' s waitotara coralline series as developed at wilkie ' s bluff , waitotara ( park , loc . cit . , pp . 55 and 64 ) , as conceived at present the waitotaran includes the succession of beds from waitotara to beyond hawera ; it is here shown , however , to contain two distinct faunal communities . certain upper members of the sequence must be withdrawn from the waitotaran stage ; but they need not be recognised as an additional stage for they contain a faunule that is essentially nukumaruan .
the lists given below ; with the exception of that for waihi beach , hawera , do not represent the full muster of species at the various localities , those for wilkie ' s bluff and mangapani including only those species obtained during the visits recently made by the writer . though not comprehensive , these lists supply strong evidence regarding the correlation of certain beds along part of the nukumaru - hawera coastal section , and , as will be shown , assist in indicating more accurately than has hitherto been possible the sectional division between the nukumaruan and waitotaran stages .
[ footnote ] * recorded by marshall and murdoch ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 52 , p . 123 , 1920 ) .
the presence of nukumaruan faunas in hawke ' s bay as well as in taranaki demonstrates that a continuous sea - way united these areas in nukumaruan times . this has already been shown by ongley ' s ( n . z . jour . sc . tech . , vol . 16 , no . 5 , p . 260 , 1935 ) recent demonstration that near manawatu gorge nukumaruan sediments once formed a continuous sheet across the mountain axis of mesozoic rocks which is shown on current geological maps of new zealand as intervening between extensive areas of pliocene strata on either side of this axis . it is not unreasonable to suppose that the sea
connection existed in the form of a great strait , for , as mr . powell has remarked to the writer , the conditions under which the oyster beds of the coralline series accumulated probably were analogous to those obtaining in foveaux strait at the present day ; such supposition is not opposed to a nukumaruan age for the beds at waitotara .
the outcrop collected from at mangapani extends for a chain or two along the left wall of mangapani valley , which enters the valley of the waitotara river approximately from the west at a point about 12 miles by road upstream from waitotara township . the fossils were obtained from loose , brown , micaceous quartzsands of shallow water character , underlying six or eight feet of a flaggy limestone ( upper limit not seen ) which contains large pectens here and there near its base .
of the 64 species collected at mangapani , 43 ( 67·1 per cent . ) are found at nukumaru or higher wanganuian horizons , or are recent , and do not occur at waipipi or hawera ; the following eight species ( 12·5 per cent . ) occurring at mangapani are found also at waipipi or hawera , and not at nukumaru or higher wanganuian horizons : — chlamys ( phialopecten ) triphooki , eumarcia ( atamarcia ) benhami , polinices waipipiensis , polinices pateaensis , cerithioderma mangawera n . sp . , zelandiella pliocenica , alcithoe whakinoensis , stiracolpus haweraensis , taniella planisuturalis . of the species not entering into these percentages seven range from recent or from upper or mid - pliocene into the lower pliocene , and therefore cannot be used to show the affinity of these beds with either the nukumaruan or waitotaran . there are no species that are peculiar to the mangapani faunule .
[ footnote ] * marwick ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 57 , p . 621 , 1927 ) states that c . orassitesta is a species important to the stratigrapher as it seems to be characteristic of the nukumaruan .
at nukumaru , wilkie ' s bluff , mangapani , and in nukumaruan beds in hawke ' s bay are essentially alike , yet distinct from that at hawera ( which shows affinity with that at kaawa creek ) . at least 56 . 5 per cent . of the species of mollusca found at wilkie ' s bluff , and at least 53·1 per cent . of those at mangapani , occur also at nukumaru .
in view of all these facts there seems little reason for hesitation in assigning the mangapani beds to the nukumaruan stage .
the downward sequence between nukumaru and waitotara ( park , loc . cit . , p . 64 ) is : —
soft brown micaceous sandstones ( park makes no reference to these being fossiliferous ) .
? ? ? ( no exposure , but if coralline beds are present one would expect them to outcrop ) .
direct stratigraphical evidence on the correlation of the beds of the two areas is not at present available , though this may yet be obtained by search inland from waitotara . park ( loc . cit . , p . 67 ) has noted the similarity in succession of the strata in the sections at scinde island and pohui , hawke ' s bay , to that at waitotara ; in each case there is an upper and a lower limestone separated by about 150 feet of soft brown sandstone , the lower limestone
at waitotara being a shell limestone passing down into brown calcareous sands ( i . e . , the upper part of park ' s coralline series ) . may it not be that the limestone at mangapani is equivalent to the lower calcareous beds at waitotara ? if so , the fossiliferous sands at the former locality must be lower in the sequence than the coralline beds at wilkie ' s bluff ; and this is in accord with the palaeontological evidence discussed below .
b . percentage of species found in nukumaru and younger wanganuian beds , or recent , but not on waipipi–hawera section .
both sets of beds are more nearly related faunally to mid - and upper wanganuian than to the waipipi - hawera beds , so nearly in fact that one is justified in assigning them to the nukumaruan .
the beds at mangapani are slightly older than those of the coralline series at waitotara .
of the older series exposed to erosion increased as uplift continued . this would account for the greater number of derived forms in later rather than in the earlier beds of the younger sequence . another possibility is that the upper beds of the strata uplifted might be sparsely fossiliferous , and those exposed later to erosion rich in fossil species ; in which case any fossils derived from the older rocks would be more commonly found in later rather than in earlier members of the younger sequence . so far as is known , however , there is no evidence of unconformable relations or of notable disconformity at the requisite horizon along the wanganui section , but there is no stratigraphic evidence that such do not exist in the obscured portion of the coastal section between waitotara heads and the point some miles north - west , where the pliocene beds reappear from under drifts of sand . in fact , it is here that the stratigraphic equivalent of the mangapani beds is to be expected , if , as has been suggested above , these latter constitute a horizon that is lower than that of the coralline beds at waitotara .
to the 73 species recorded by powell ( rec . auck . inst . mus . , vol . 1 , no . 2 , pp . 87–89 , 1931 ) from waihi beach , hawera , the following 40 have now to be added : —
( k indicates that the species is peculiar to the hawera and kaawa creek faunules ) .
it is interesting to note that 11 of the species listed above occur also at kaawa creek , 10 of them being found only in the hawera and kaawa creek faunules . as a result of these additions the total number of species common to the two faunules now stands at 29 , and there is little doubt that further search for small molluscs will show additional connection between them . the presence at hawera of the hitherto exclusively kaawa creek species indicated in the above list strengthens the argument for correlation of these
two horizons . the pyramidellid unit in the beds at hawera affords the same evidence , for it has much in common with that at kaawa creek , such species as chemnitzia ngatutura , odostomia bartrumi , and waikura n . sp . in particular being distinctive .
the additions in the above list bring the total number of species at hawera to 113 , and reduce the percentage of recent species from 35·62 , as determined by powell ( rec . auck . inst . mus . , vol . 1 , no . 2 , p . 89 , 1931 ) , to 23·0 ; compared with this the percentage of recent species at kaawa creek is 21·6 . continued collecting at hawera , however , no doubt will still further reduce this percentage .
the writer is greatly indebted to professor j . a . bartrum , of auckland university college , for his ready assistance with photography , and for the suggestions he kindly made during preparation of the manuscript . to mr . j . n . anderson , engineer to the patea county council , he is also considerably indebted for help in locating certain fossiliferous outcrops along waitotara valley , including that at mangapani . mr . anderson kindly conducted the writer by car for many miles from waitotara township .
nucula ( linucula ) wanganuica n . sp . ( fig . 10 ) .
shell moderately inflated , beaks about posterior third , small , directed backwards . antero - dorsal margin short , curving downwards ; anterior end truncated , the margin straight , oblique ; ventral
margin regularly curved ; posterior margin convex , lightly sinused at its middle ; postero - dorsal margin very short , curved , descending rapidly . upper portion of valve smooth , weak concentric sculpture developing ventrally ( seen only under hand - lens ) . very fine microscopic radials are also developed , and these cut the concentric ridges in a fashion reminiscent of the sculpture of limopsis . only very good specimens show the lunule ornamented by weak radial threads as described by marwick for linucula . chondrophore triangular , oblique , broadening considerably below ; teeth moderately heavy , 7 posterior to pit , about 12 in front . margins finely crenate .
nucula ( linucula ) aptera n . sp . ( fig . 1 ) .
from n . wanganuica n . sp . this shell differs in having greater inflation of valve and fuller beak , stronger concentric sculpture , no antero - dorsal wing , and much finer teeth . tutamoensis , waipaoa and ruatakiensis lack the regular concentric sculpture , and have the outline different . beak at posterior fourth . divaricating radials well seen under microscope . hinge very light , there being 8 or 9 fine anterior teeth and about 7 posterior ones . margins finely crenate . radial threads present as in wanganuica .
shell small , solid , a little oblique , prodissoconch not quite central , but not so laterally situated as that of h . kaawa , the species it most resembles . kaawa has the beak notably broader and is a thinner shell , more circular in outline . the radials of kaawa , though widely spaced like those of the new shell , are heavier and not of the nature of delicate fine threads . waitotara has the flat inter - spaces crossed by close - set concentric threads , which cause fine nodulation of radials where they cross them . the beak rises prominently above hinge , which is fairly broad . ligamental pit triangular ; on each side of it the hinge bears about 20 vertical taxodont teeth , extending for equal distances on each side of the pit . internally the whole of the ventral margin and the ventral parts of anterior and posterior margins are crenulated .
height , 1·7 mm . ; length , 1·7 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 0·6 mm .
of neozelanic species this fossil most resembles g . coccinea hedley , a macquarie island species . it differs from other local species in the almost total absence of sinuation on ventral margin , the beaked effect at anterior being much less obvious than in coccinea , forsteriana and aucklandica . it is notably smaller than coccinea , and equally notably larger than the last two species . except for the unsinuated ventral margin and for the rather more
erect posterior one , the outline is that of coccinea . the beak , however , is more turned inwards . in characters of hinge these two species resemble one another very closely . the fossil has tooth of left valve rather better developed . the right valve has a lamellar tooth developed below and just in front of beak ; above this there is a groove that engages the tooth of the left valve . coccinea has these teeth barely developed ( right valve ) . sculpture consists of concentric growth - ridges and striae and weak radial lines and very low folds , mostly towards posterior end , much as in coccinea . there is a broad fold running from umbo to postero - ventral margin .
height , 5·0 mm . ; length , 6·1 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 1·6 mm .
height , 2·2 mm . ; length , 2·05 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 0·6 mm .
closely allied to marshalli marwick , but is a larger and more heavily built species with much coarser ribbing and dorsal side drawn up a good deal more . the ribs are broad and heavy , and are separated by wide , shallow , almost flat - floored interstices , which are broader in relation to width of axials than are those of marshalli . the ribs are only 8 or 9 in number as compared with 11 or 12 in marshalli , from which species the large , heavy , shell and different ribbing provides ready separation .
localities : nukumaru ( nukumaruan ) ; devil ' s elbow , napier - wairoa road ; kawau island , in 20 fathoms ( recent ) .
type from nukumaru . the type - material consists of odd right and left valves .
shell auriform , imperforate , spire very slightly elevated . sculpture of thin , spaced spiral threads and curved axials , these two elements of equal strength , giving a fenestrated effect . in fact , the sculpture very closely indeed resembles that of scissurella geoffreyi , a fossil from kaawa creek . the present shell , however , has the broadly spreading aperture , concave columella and almost completely covered umbilicus of s . rosea ( hedley ) , the genotype of scissurona . slit deep , situated above periphery , not crossed by lamellae .
[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]
shell large , last whorl enlarging rapidly ; upper surface convex . spire low , its whorls lightly rounded ; sutures distinct . protoconch closely coiled , its nucleus minute . surface smooth to unaided eye , but hand - lens shows numerous fine spiral threads . periphery sharply rounded low down , almost angled . base practically smooth . umbilicus small , its width about 1 / 7 ; to ⅛ that of least diameter of shell .
distinct in its lack of prominent sculpture ; large size and sharply angulated , narrow periphery ; laterally spreading aperture , in which respect it resembles edomita marwick .
spire very low , whorls cenvex , suture channelled broadly , umbilicus wide and perspective . the body - whorl bears about eight distinct regular spiral cords , the first from suture being on rim
of channel , the last forming a keel well below periphery and almost on outer edge of base . these cords become stronger and more distant from suture downwards . base smooth .
localities : wilkie ' s bluff ( type ) ; mangapani ; devil ' s elbow , napier - wairoa road .
not unlike the recent sub - tatei ( suter ) , but the smooth base distinguishes it . albolapis laws has spirals on the base . politus ( suter ) has the spirals much finer . the specimen of unicarina from hawke ' s bay has the channel around suture not so strongly excavated .
one shell , probably a new species , close to finlayi , but with few axials and the umbilicus rather more open . specimen not good enough for description .
several dozen very well preserved specimens have been collected . these show the surface to be sculptured with very numerous , dense radial threads , a feature not commented on at the time of description , owing no doubt to lack of the best material .
related to subtilicosta marwick , but notably smaller and with relatively larger aperture , which is circular . spire lightly convex in outline , sutures moderately distinct ; whorls clasping , faintly convex and rather bulging anteriorly . height of body greater than half that of shell . body - whorl narrow ; aperture with its rim trumpet - like , heavily thickened on parietal wall ; aperture as wide as , or perhaps rather wider than , the body .
this species has relationship with both rekohuana powell and minor ( suter ) . from rekohuana it differs in having the whorls more clasping and sutures tangential , the height of body not so great relative to height of shell , and the aperture different , its posterior border being more nearly horizontal . minor is smaller and has the whorls bulging , those of rekohuana and of rekominor being flat .
shell small , narrow , outline pupoid , whorls flat to very lightly convex , often bulging a little below , and thus slightly overhanging suture . periphery sub - angled , the angulation bearing a fine spiral groove . suture below periphery , the spiral thus in evidence above suture . not unlike morioria powell in shape , but the presence of peripheral angulation and of supra - sutural spiral distinguishes it . porrectoides is also a tapering species , but has not the angulation and coarse spiral . e . ngatutura is consistently much smaller .
this is an exquisitely fashioned little species , taller than either fricta or castlecliffensis , and having the heterostrophe protoconch similar to that described by powell for expansa . the embryo of fricta has the nucleus minute , that of both nukumaruensis and castlecliffensis being much larger . whorls well rounded , sutures strongly cut in , the summit of whorls being shouldered close in to suture . all adult whorls crossed by close , fine ( hair - like under hand - lens ) straight , slightly oblique axials , which extend well down on to base . numerous fine spiral threads , rather finer than the axials , are universally developed . aperture typical , elongate - oval , lips thin , peristome discontinuous . height of body - whorl about half that of shell .
shell minute , attenuate , whorls convex , sutures distinct . protoconch with five thin raised spiral threadlets , spaced widely on posterior part of whorl , but closer together in front . axial sculpture almost obsolete , indicated by exceedingly low corrugations , and present on all post - nuclear whorls . body - whorl long , its height not quite half that of shell . aperture similar to that of analoga powell ; peristome continuous ; parietal callus thick .
shell minute , spire elevated ( about twice height of aperture ) , whorls lightly convex to flat , sutures moderately defined , impressed , situated slightly below periphery . aperture roundly ovate ; outer
lip thin , slightly effuse ; columella arcuate , set vertically , a slight umbilical chink present near its insertion . outer lip antecurrent to suture , which descends to meet aperture . good specimens show low , faint spirals over surface of last two whorls .
five specimens from mangapani are undoubtedly marshall and murdoch ' s ataxocerithium perplexum . like nukumaru shells they are considerably worn , but one is sufficiently preserved to show the sculpture and carination of zeacumantus lutulentus ( kiener ) , to which marshall and murdoch ' s name must fall in synonymy .
shells from nukumaru and mangapani have characters close to those of this species . the protoconch , however , seems less bulging , but this may be due to wear , and the nodules are finer .
the protoconch is described in the generic diagnosis above . the embryonic volutions ( about 2 ½ in number ) increase slowly ; the early post - embryonic whorls increase rapidly at first and then gradually ; thus the protoconch as a whole projects in mucronate fashion . the embryo closes at an ill - defined varix , issuing from which there are three spirals , a third now appearing between the original embryonic ones . all adult whorls with three spiral keels , evenly and regularly nodulated , the nodules connected axially by ridges , weaker than the spirals , giving a fenestration of squares . sutures margined above by a thin thread , which issues from suture on body - whorl as a distinct cord marking the sharply angled periphery . base with two spiral threads .
the resemblance to isotriphora is superficial . it is more likely that the new zealand shell has arisen from a local group , such as notosinister or cautor , possibly the latter .
height ( estimated ) , 15·0 mm . ; width , 5·0 mm . larger specimens occur .
numerous topotypes have been obtained . the writer has this species also from mangapani , wilkie ' s bluff , and from an outcrop near devil ' s elbow ( napier - taupo road ) . the keels on the shells from these localities are slightly heavier and a little more distant one from the other , but otherwise they agree well with topotypes . hawera specimens show some variation in regard to the strength and number of secondary spirals ; some shells have the secondaries fine , even dense ; others have only one or two rather stronger secondaries between the pairs of keels .
three specimens were collected at hawera . the species occurs also at kaawa creek .
one very striking specimen with the umbilical perforation deep and entering right to the top of the shell , seeming to be more penetrating than that of sagenus the parietal callus is worn and outer lip badly broken back .
these shells carry the same number of spirals as octocarinata ( powell ) and also like that species lack the prominent shoulder of inornata . unlike the former , however , the posterior of spire - whorls
has two distinct , though fine , spirals developed , and not a broad swelling as in octocarinata . further , octocarinata has the aperture almost equal in height to that of the spire , whereas the new species has the height of the whole body about half that of the shell . the shell of cavatocarinata is thus more attenuate .
localities : off otago heads , in 72 fathoms ( type ) ; nukumaru ; mangapani . the shells from nukumaru , though stumpier than the recent ones from otago heads , lack the shoulder of inornata and have fewer spirals .
the protoconch is large , its summit flattened and blunt ; smooth . the nucleus on the flattened summit is minute , closely coiled in planorboid fashion . after the first 1 ½ turns the coiling descends in helicoid volutions , the whorls enlarging rapidly , becoming strongly convex , and persisting for just over two turns to close of embryo . the large protoconch appears out of proportion to the size of the early adult whorls . the anterior canal is better defined than that of inornata , being not so open , and longer ; the beak is twisted somewhat to left ; umbilicus entirely closed ; there is no swollen rib comparable with that on inornata and related forms running from beak and bordering left side of umbilicus .
cerithioderma ( miplioderma ) mangawera n . sp . ( fig . 17 ) .
the form of this pliocene species is entirely that of trichosirius finlayi laws , a fossil occurring in hutchinsonian and awamoan beds in the south island . the new species , however , is smaller , more lightly built , and has the axials much less oblique with respect to posterior suture . the posterior one of the three strongest spirals is higher up on whorl in mangawera , and above it there is one fairly strong spiral . finlayi has two , and sometimes three , spirals between suture and the posterior of the three heavy cords ; and these spirals are always much finer than the cords , appearing as spaced , thin but distinct thread .
so far as the writer is aware this species has been known up till now only from the pliocene beds at petane . it is extremely close to f . maxwelli finlay , occurring in deep water off otago heads .
shell very small , spire staged , body - whorl equal to spire in height , of about three post - nuclear whorls , the last one disproportionately long and narrow ; outlines straight . whorls convex , a little flattened around suture , which is distinct . protoconch
heterostrophic , paucispiral , planorboid , well rounded and considerably tilted . spiral sculpture of weak , irregular striae here and there , but rather better developed than in the genotype ( g . dolichostoma ) ; growth - stages well seen . body - whorl long , widely convex in one broad sweep from suture to base ; aperture elongately oval , narrowly angled behind , rather broadly rounded in front ; columella set vertically , strongly arcuate , its fold indicated externally by a low swelling near junction with parietal wall , and becoming more strongly differentiated within aperture ; inner lip with a narrow , well developed pad of callus ; outer lip thin , lightly convex .
the shells from wanganui localities scarcely show the slight anterior bulge typical of christyi .
shell of moderate size , attenuate , body not unduly inflated . whorls convex ; sutures distinct , margined by a low , moderately broad spiral . whorls rising steeply above shoulder . axials developed on all whorls , the interspaces rather narrower than the ribs ; 12 axials on last whorl , no obsolescence of axials evident . the whorls are higher in relation to width than are those of marshalli and imperator , more like those of attenuatus . axials are not so sharply defined as those of imperator and the spirals ( about 28 on body - whorl , each pair with an interstitial threadlet ) are finer . anterior canal long . protoconch typical of the genus .
a very delightfully preserved shell , more slender than any of its associates in zeadmete , quite devoid of axial sculpture , and having fine , close , evenly spaced and regular spiral cords over whole adult surface ; 12 spirals on penultimate whorl . whorls strongly shouldered , the suture almost channelled . the two folds on columella are equal in strength . protoconch normal .
closely allied to m . maoria ( marshall and murdoch ) , an awamoan fossil from target gully . it is , however , considerably larger , has the sutures very deeply channelled and the fenestration of sculpture closer . the spire - whorls have three spiral cords ( two in maoria ) ; the body - whorl four heavy ones ( three in maoria ) , and four or five fine spaced threads anterior to them . axials on body 14 in number ( 12 in maoria ) . nodules at intersections of spirals and axials present on all whorls . columella with three strong , evenly
spaced plaits . inner lip fairly thickly callused . the protoconch is polygyrate , closely coiled , and has the nucleus tiny and central . outer lip broken .
height ( estimated ) , 20·0 mm . ; width ( estimated ) , 10·0 mm .
related to z . opihiensis laws , a fossil from awamoan beds in south canterbury , but separable on account of the more numerous and finer axials ( 18 or 19 on penultimate whorl ; 11 or 12 on that of opihiensis ) , more cut in suture , and less swollen sub - sutural spiral . in apical characters the two forms are identical , the protoconch being conical , polygyrate and sharply pointed , its nucleus minute and base broad . both also have the two small denticles on mid - portion of columella , separated by a light groove . were it not for the protoconch these species would fall into macrozafra , for they agree in build , sculpture and denticulation of columella with m . subabnormis ( suter ) , the genotype of macrozafra .
localities : mangapani ( type ) , common ; wilkie ' s bluff ; petane ; hawera .
just as these shells placed in zafra differ from macrozafra in nuclear characters , so zemitrella inconspicua ( marshall ) , a fossil from the pakaurangi point beds , differs from other neozelanic zemitrella , as has been remarked by the writer ( trans . roy . soc . n . z . , vol . 68 , p . 496 , 1939 ) . if group - names are not already available for those forms with polygyrate apices , it seems that generic distinction should be accorded them .
shell with spire very elongate and slowly tapering , whorls as high as broad , shouldered above posterior third , the shoulder concave and rising steeply to suture , which is clasping . below shoulder whorl descends vertically and is practically straight . shoulder with a swollen border around suture , and a thin spiral thread at about its anterior third , elsewhere with fine spiral striae and curved growth - lines . antepenultimate whorl with six strong , sharply raised and evenly spaced spiral cords , nodulated weakly where crossed by axials , the nodulation strongest on posterior cords , hardly visible on anterior one or two . body - whorl with 14 strong , spaced spiral cords , the upper few faintly nodulated ; interstitial spirals absent . axials very weakly developed , indefinite , indicated chiefly by nodulation on spirals ; some better developed than others , persisting weakly across spiral grooves ; all axials weakening and many dying out entirely towards anterior of whorls . sinus moderate , as indicated by growth - lines on shoulder . anterior notch broken away , but growth - lines on fasciole show it was moderately deep . aperture narrowly ovate , angled behind . sutures very oblique to the horizontal .
separable at a glance from all other neozelanic austrotoma on account of its tenuity of whorl and spire , and large size .
shell tall and slender , outline of spire straight , protoconch missing . whorls with a broad , prominent rounded median keel carrying three or four spiral cinguli ; above keel three fine subequidistant spirals ; below keel two spirals , the lower the heavier . suture margined below by a swollen band consisting of two strong close nodular spirals , the nodules connected axially across interspace . body - whorl with 15 raised and spaced spiral cords , the last half - dozen or so becoming finer , though still well elevated ; most of the inter - spaces with an interstitial threadlet . sinus normal .
pliocene shells from several localities differ in a number of ways from the recent p . zelandica ( smith ) . they are more attenuate ( body much less swollen ) than zelandica , have whorls not so strongly shouldered , and lack the broad smooth zone on whorls .
three shells differing from sata in that they are notably less slender and have the protoconch larger and broader across the base .
l . sata , a kaawa creek species , has been collected also at waihi beach , hawera .
shell small , elevated , outlines convex above , straight below . whorls broadly sulcate medially ; sutures narrow at periphery . whorls axially ribbed , the ribs vertical , straight , nodulated at both extremities , the nodules at anterior ends rather sharper and stronger than those behind . penultimate whorl with 12 to 14 ribs , spaced at intervals greater than their own width . body - whorl swollen and pouting around periphery , contracting rapidly over short base to strongly twisted neck and well developed fasciole .
somewhat like z . biplex ( hutton ) , and z . turpicula marwick .
( of dioeciostrea orton , 1928 ) orton j . h . ( 1928 ) . the dominant species of ostrea . nature . 121 ( 3044 ) : 320 - 321 . , available online at urltoken note : names in this paper are unavailable because there is a disclaimer p . 121 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
coan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]
( of dioeciostrea orton , 1928 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]


the plain maskray or brown stingray ( neotrygon annotata ) is a species of stingray in the family dasyatidae .

it is found in shallow , soft-bottomed habitats off northern australia .

reaching 24 cm ( 9.4 in ) in width , this species has a diamond-shaped , grayish green pectoral fin disc .

its short , whip-like tail has alternating black and white bands and fin folds above and below .

there are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail , but otherwise the skin is smooth .

while this species possesses the dark mask-like pattern across its eyes common to its genus , it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays .

benthic in nature , the plain maskray feeds mainly on caridean shrimp and polychaete worms , and to a lesser extent on small bony fishes .

it is viviparous , with females producing litters of one or two young that are nourished during gestation via histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) .

this species lacks economic value but is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , which it is thought to be less able to withstand than other maskrays due to its gracile build .

as it also has a limited distribution and low fecundity , the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed it as near threatened .

plain maskray

plain maskray , neotrygon annotata . source : australian national fish collection , csiro . license : cc by attribution - noncommercial
the plain maskray , neotrygon annotata , also known as the brown stingray , is a species of fish in the dasyatidae family .
the speckled maskray ( neotrygon picta ) was thought to be a regional colour variant of neotrygon ( formerly dasyatis ) leylandi ( last , 1987 ) until described as a new species by last and white ( 2008 ) . the latter publication also resurrected the genus neotrygon for the maskray species , bluespotted maskray ( n . kuhlii ) , painted maskray ( n . leylandi ) , plain maskray ( n . annotata ) , ningaloo maskray ( n . ningalooensis ) and the speckled maskray .
* plain maskray , neotrygon annotata ( last , 1987 ) . * bluespotted stingray , neotrygon kuhlii ( müller & henle , 1841 ) . * painted maskray , neotrygon leylandi ( last , 1987 ) . more
* plain maskray , dasyatis annotata ( last , 1987 ) . * bennett ' s stingray , dasyatis bennetti ( müller & henle , 1841 ) . more
the grouping of neotrygon spp . , and recent split of the speckled maskray from the painted maskray , has obscured species - specific population trends .
n . sp . ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae ) , a new maskray from australia .
the speckled maskray is not harvested commercially in australia ( last and stevens 2009 ) .
this annual report complies with parliamentary standards of presentation and printing , and uses plain english and clear design .
the plain maskray is found in australia and papua new guinea including the arafura sea and timor sea . the australian distribution extends from the gulf of carpentaria ( queensland ) through the northern territory to at least the bonaparte archipelago , western australia ( last and stevens 2009 ) . specimens from new guinea have also been reported from bycatch surveys in the gulf of papua ( w . white , pers . comm . 2015 ) . this species has yet to be recorded in the torres strait ( pitcher et al . 2007 , jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) , although the presence of this maskray in the gulf of carpentaria and the gulf of papua suggests it may inhabit these areas , albeit more sparingly . while a single plain maskray specimen was observed in east java ( indonesia ) , the original catch location was not known ( w . white , pers . comm . , 2015 ) . as such , further investigations are required into the presence of this species in indonesia . when compared to other maskray species , the distribution of this maskray overlaps with the bluespotted maskray ( n . kuhlii species - complex ) , the painted maskray ( n . leylandi ) and the peppered maskray ( n . picta ) . there appears to be no obvious depth partitioning between these species , although the plain maskray is rarely taken in the coastal zone and generally occurs further offshore . the extent of any overlap between the distributions of the plain maskray and the ningaloo maskray ( n . ningalooensis ) is currently unknown and requires further investigation .
the plain maskray , neotrygon annotata , also known as the brown stingray ( leading to easy confusion with the pacific dasyatis latus ) , is a species of fish in the dasyatidae family . it is endemic to northern australia . more
multiple cryptic species in the blue - spotted maskray ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae : neotrygon spp . ) : an update
plain maskray , dasyatis annotata ( last , 1987 ) . . . giant stumptail stingray , dasyatis gigantea ( lindberg , 1930 ) . . . urltoken 6 dasyatis izuensis species summary : dasyatis izuensis izu stingray , you can sponsor this page , . . . more
★ plain maskray , ' ' dasyatis annotata ' ' ( last , 1987 ) . ★ ★ bennett ' s stingray , ' ' dasyatis bennetti ' ' ( müller & henle , 1841 ) . ★ ★ short - tail stingray or bull ray , ' ' dasyatis brevicaudata ' ' ( hutton , 1875 ) . more
the speckled maskray ( neotrygon picta ) is a small maskray species that is regularly caught as a bycatch of prawn trawl fisheries in northeast australian coastal waters . this species was previously regarded as a colour morph of the painted maskray ( n . leylandi ) . the speckled maskray appears to be reasonably common over much of its range , although species - specific population assessment is hampered by the lumping of catches into generic divisions and the recent split of this species from the closely - related painted maskray from western australia . recent studies indicate that the species has a low rate of fishing mortality overall in the northern prawn fishery . in addition , the speckled maskray is protected within some of the great barrier reef region in its east coast range . however , due to its small size , the speckled maskray is unlikely to be effectively excluded by the turtle exclusion devices presently used by the tropical australian prawn trawl fleet . individuals caught in these fisheries have a moderately high mortality rate . the species has a low fecundity of 1–3 pups , with preliminary results suggesting an annual reproductive cycle . the speckled maskray is listed as least concern , with a caveat that this is dependent on the presence of large unfished areas and minimal fisheries effort over some other parts of its range .
n . sp . ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae ) , a new maskray from australia . aqua intnl j ichthyol . 2010 ; 16 ( 2 ) : 37–50 .
a 2012 phylogenetic study , based on mitochondrial and nuclear dna , concluded that the ningaloo maskray and the plain maskray ( n . annotata ) are the most basal members of their genus . in addition , the coral bay population showed deep differences in mitochondrial dna from the shark bay population , indicating that they belong to different lineages . whether they represent separate species is ambiguous , as rays from the two locations do not differ physically or in known nuclear dna markers . this genetic divergence suggests that the ningaloo maskray population had once been divided by sea level changes ; using different methods of estimation , this event is thought to have occurred either c . 11 ma , during the miocene , or 3–2 ma , during the pliocene .
keywords : pisces , dasyatidae ; neotrygon australiae ; neotrygon caeruleopunctata ; neotrygon kuhlii ; neotrygon orientale ; n . varidens ; bluespotted maskray ; new species ; species complex ; indo - west pacific
compared to other maskrays , the ningaloo maskray has more protruding eyes that allow it to bury itself deeper in the substrate and still remain aware of its surroundings . within its favored habitat , its coloration makes it well camouflaged against predators .
. . . this paper focuses on the blue - spotted maskray , previously neotrygon kuhlii ( müller and henle , 1841 ) [ 7 ] , a stingray species that inhabits indo - west pacific coral reefs , lagoons and slopes [ 8 ] . the blue - spotted maskray is heavily exploited in southeast asia , but its catch rate and mortality rates are poorly known and its population trends are unknown [ 9 , 10 ] . authors have distinguished the
java
( java sea ) form of blue - spotted maskray from the
bali
( kedonganan ) form , based on differences in size at birth and male size at maturity and treated them as different species [ 9 ] . . . .
. . . this paper focuses on the blue - spotted maskray , previously neotrygon kuhlii ( m ? ller and henle , 1841 ) [ 7 ] , a stingray species that inhabits indo - west pacific coral reefs , lagoons and slopes [ 8 ] . the blue - spotted maskray is heavily exploited in southeast asia , but its catch rate and mortality rates are poorly known and its population trends are unknown [ 9 , 10 ] . authors have distinguished the
java
( java sea ) form of blue - spotted maskray from the
bali
( kedonganan ) form , based on differences in size at birth and male size at maturity and treated them as different species [ 9 ] . . . .
neotrygon indica sp . nov . , the indian ocean blue - spotted maskray ( myliobatoidei , dasyatidae ) = neotrygon indica sp . nov . , la raie masquée à points bleus de l & 8217 ; océan indien ( myliobatoidei , dasyatidae )
there are no species - specific conservation measures in place for the plain maskray . the species will derive some benefit from broader management initiatives including fisheries - based spatial and temporal closures and the use of bycatch reduction devices . however , research has shown that bycatch reduction devices including turtle exclusion devices ( teds ) are less effective for smaller species ( griffiths et al . 2006 ) . furthermore , the effectiveness of fisheries closures ( spatial and temporal ) will be dependent on their location and the proportion of the plain maskray population protected from fishing effort . however , this cannot be quantified from the data currently available . the gulf of papua trawl the fishery is managed under national laws and regulations ( png ) , and there are some seasonal closures in place ; although bycatch reduction devices are not currently in place , there are plans to implement in the near future ( l . baje , national fisheries authority , pers . comm . 2015 ) . detailed species composition data for the bycatch is not currently available , but this is currently being investigated ( l . baje , national fisheries authority , pers . comm . 2015 ) .
the speckled maskray is found in northeastern australia ( possibly also new guinea ) from the wessel islands ( northern territory ) to hervey bay ( queensland ) . the western limit of its distribution has still not been well defined ( last and stevens 2009 ) .
a greyish - green maskray , becoming pinkish towards the disc margins , with a dark mask - like marking around the eyes , a pair of small dark blotches behind the spiracles , and alternating black and white variable bands and a black tip on the tail .
ningaloo reef is the largest fringing reef system in the southern hemisphere and extends along 270 km of coastline in the north of western australia . the reef is separated from the coast by a 0 . 2 to 7 km wide sandy lagoon , which is backed by a dry coastal plain [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] .
the speckled maskray is protected over some of its east coast range within no - fishing areas of the great barrier reef marine park . although turtle exclusion devices ( teds ) are mandatory within all australian prawn trawl fisheries , this small species is unlikely to be effectively excluded by current devices . the speckled maskray would benefit from a careful evaluation of alternative or additional ted options . generally , evaluation of the species ' conservation status would be facilitated by improved monitoring of bycatch , in terms of both the absolute numbers caught and trends in abundance .
. . . the blue - spotted maskray is heavily exploited in southeast asia , but its catch rate and mortality rates are poorly known and its population trends are unknown [ 9 , 10 ] . authors have distinguished the
java
( java sea ) form of blue - spotted maskray from the
bali
( kedonganan ) form , based on differences in size at birth and male size at maturity and treated them as different species [ 9 ] . molecular population genetics offer the concepts and the practical tools for delineating populations , diagnosing closely related species , and detecting cryptic species . . . .
. . . two batoid species were examined for this study ; the oriental bluespotted maskray ( neotrygon orientalis last , white & séret 2016 ) , and the bluespotted fantail ray ( taeniura lymmaforsskål , 1775 ) . these species were selected because they were the two most frequently ob - served batoids on malaysian bruvs . . . .
endemic to northwestern australia , the ningaloo maskray has been found from shark bay in western australia to the gove peninsula in northern territory . this bottom - dwelling species appears to have very restricted habitat preferences : it inhabits areas of fine reddish sand close to reefs , in inshore waters less than 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep .
. . . two other species in the genus , the nominal n . kuhlii from vanikoro and n . trigonoides possess distinctive spot patterns [ 3 , 15 , 16 ] that tell them apart from the blue - spotted maskray as it was originally described by j . mü ller and f . g . j . henle [ 4 ] . based on the only available information on colour patterns , one cannot exclude that n . kuhlii as it has been redefined by last and co - authors [ 14 ] and n . trigonoides are synonyms [ 16 ] . the genetically distinctive indian ocean maskray reported in the recent phylogeographic literature [ 6 , 7 , 10 ] remains undescribed . . . .
. . . two other species in the genus , the nominal n . kuhlii from vanikoro and n . trigonoides possess distinctive spot patterns [ 3 , 15 , 16 ] that tell them apart from the blue - spotted maskray as it was originally described by j . müller and f . g . j . henle [ 4 ] . based on the only available information on colour patterns , one cannot exclude that n . kuhlii as it has been redefined by last and co - authors [ 14 ] and n . trigonoides are synonyms [ 16 ] . the genetically distinctive indian - ocean maskray reported in the recent phylogeographic literature [ 6 , 7 , 10 ] remains undescribed . . . .
. . . the genetically distinctive indian ocean maskray reported in the recent phylogeographic literature [ 6 , 7 , 10 ] remains undescribed . some authors have attempted to use morphological characters as primary information for the description of cryptic species in the blue - spotted maskray complex [ 14 ] , and a recent revision has ostensibly ignored genetic evidence ( e . g . , [ 17 ] ) even though not a single morphological character among those utilized for the description or redescription of four species in the complex [ 14 ] was indisputably diagnostic of any of the species [ 7 ] . also , the apportion of environmental vs . genetic determination in these morphological characters had not been evaluated [ 7 ] . . . .
orsa p , arlyza is , chen w - j , durand j - d , meekan mg , shen k - n ( 2013 ) resurrection of new caledonian maskray neotrygon trigonoides ( myliobatoidei : dasyatidae ) from synonymy with n . kuhlii , based on cytochrome - oxidase i gene sequences and spotting patterns . comptes rendus biologies 336 ( 4 ) : 221 - 232
some abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .
. . . puckridge et al . ( 2013 ) m ? ller and henle ( 1841 ) referred to . however , last et al . ( 2016 ) did not specify how they were able to identify this specimen as a blue - spotted maskray . actually , m ? ller and henle ' s ( 1841 ) leiden syntype cannot be traced with certainty . . . .
. . . the blue - spotted maskray is an indo - pacific maskray of up to 50 cm in disc width ( w d ) ( last & stevens , 2009 ) . currently recognized as neotrygon trigonoides ( castelnau 1873 ) ( eschmeyer et al . , 2017 ) , in australia it has previously been known as neotrygon ( or dasyatis ) kuhlii , a name that is now reserved for individuals of this species complex found in the solomon islands ( last et al . , 2016b ) . this species inhabits coastal soft substratum environments , in association with coral and rocky reefs , to depths of 90 m ( last & stevens , 2009 ; pierce et al . , 2009 ; jacobsen & bennett , 2010 , 2012last et al . , 2016b ) . . . .
because it lives in such shallow waters , the ningaloo maskray is generally not susceptible to fisheries . conversely , its narrow habitat preferences may render it vulnerable to habitat degradation . this species is protected to some extent as its range includes the world heritage sites of ningaloo reef and shark bay . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) presently lacks sufficient data to assess its conservation status .
in the scallop sector of the queensland east coast trawl fishery , fishery - independent surveys between yeppoon and hervey bay revealed that the speckled maskray was the third most common elasmobranch species by number in the bycatch ( 15 . 6 % of elasmobranch bycatch ) ( kyne 2008 ) . also , the effect of trawl fishing on the macrobenthos , which is the primary habitat of this species , is another concern .
the bluespotted maskray , neotrygon kuhlii ( muller & henle , 1841 ) , once thought to be widely distributed in the indo - west pacific , consists of a complex of several species and the type series consists of multiple species ; its nomenclature is discussed . a lectotype and paralectotype are designated and the species rediagnosed based on the types and a fresh specimen from honiara ( solomon islands ) , near to the collection locality of the lectotype ( vanikoro , solomon islands ) . molecular and morphological data provide confirmatory evidence that this maskray is distinct from some other regional forms . three members of the complex from the western pacific identified in earlier studies are confirmed to be new species ; neotrygon australiae sp . nov . ( australia , new guinea and eastern indonesia ) , n . caeruleopunctata sp . nov . ( indian ocean ) , and n . orientale sp . nov . ( north - west pacific ) . these species differ from each other and n . kuhlii in their adult size , anterior angle of the disc , number and distribution of blue spots on the dorsal disc , and other more subtle morphometric and meristic characters . another largely plain - coloured neotrygon , also currently misidentified as n . kuhlii , is sympatric with n . orientale sp . nov . in the south china sea and off taiwan . neotrygon varidens ( garman ) is resurrected as the valid name for this ray . a key is provided to species of the genus .
the bluespotted maskray , neotrygon kuhlii ( müller & henle , 1841 ) , once thought to be widely distributed in the indo - west pacific , consists of a complex of several species and the type series consists of multiple species ; its nomenclature is discussed . a lectotype and paralectotype are designated and the species rediagnosed based on the types and a fresh specimen from honiara ( solomon islands ) , near to the collection locality of the lectotype ( vanikoro , solomon islands ) . molecular and morphological data provide confirmatory evidence that this maskray is distinct from some other regional forms . three members of the complex from the western pacific identified in earlier studies are confirmed to be new species ; neotrygon australiae sp . nov . ( australia , new guinea and eastern indonesia ) , n . caeruleopunctata sp . nov . ( indian ocean ) , and n . orientale sp . nov . ( north - west pacific ) . these species differ from each other and n . kuhlii in their adult size , anterior angle of the disc , number and distribution of blue spots on the dorsal disc , and other more subtle morphometric and meristic characters . another largely plain - coloured neotrygon , also currently misidentified as n . kuhlii , is sympatric with n . orientale sp . nov . in the south china sea and off taiwan . neotrygon varidens ( garman ) is resurrected as the valid name for this ray . a key is provided to species of the genus .
the bluespotted maskray , neotrygon kuhlii ( müller & henle , 1841 ) , once thought to be widely distributed in the indo - west pacific , consists of a complex of several species and the type series consists of multiple species ; its nomenclature is discussed . a lectotype and paralectotype are designated and the species rediagnosed based on the types and a fresh specimen from honiara ( solomon islands ) , near to the collection locality of the lectotype ( vanikoro , solomon islands ) . molecular and morphological data provide confirmatory evidence that this maskray is distinct from some other regional forms . three members of the complex from the western pacific identified in earlier studies are confirmed to be new species ; neotrygon australiae sp . nov . ( australia , new guinea and eastern indonesia ) , n . caeruleopunctata sp . nov . ( indian ocean ) , and n . orientale sp . nov . ( north - west pacific ) . these species differ from each other and n . kuhlii in their adult size , anterior angle of the disc , number and distribution of blue spots on the dorsal disc , and other more subtle morphometric and meristic characters . another largely plain - coloured neotrygon , also currently misidentified as n . kuhlii , is sympatric with n . orientale sp . nov . in the south china sea and off taiwan . neotrygon varidens ( garman ) is resurrected as the valid name for this ray . a key is provided to species of the genus .
the speckled maskray is most common in shallow water less than 25 m depth but probably to about 100 m ( last and stevens 2009 , i . p . jacobsen , pers . obs . , 2010 ) . it is a small species , attaining a disc width ( dw ) of up to around 32 cm ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . the most comprehensive analysis of the species ' biology was undertaken by jacobsen and bennett ( 2010 ) based on prawn trawl bycatch specimens from northeast australia . size at 50 % maturity in females was 18 . 1 cm dw , and age at maturity was 3–4 years . the smallest gravid female was 17 . 2 cm dw ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . the species has a low fecundity with 1–3 embryos per litter ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . preliminary investigation ( jacobsen 2008 ) suggested that the speckled maskray undergoes a single reproductive event annually .
inhabiting inshore waters less than 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep , the bottom - dwelling ningaloo maskray has highly specific habitat preferences . it is found on reddish sand near reefs , upon which its coloration grants it excellent camouflage . it is able to bury itself deeper than other maskrays thanks to its protruding eyes . the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has listed this species as data deficient due to lack of information . it is not vulnerable to fisheries but may be impacted by habitat degradation .
the first known sighting of the ningaloo maskray was during a study of ningaloo marine park ' s sharks and rays ( hence its common name and scientific epithet ) , funded by the western australian marine science institute ( wamsi ) . it was described by peter last , william white , and melody puckridge in a 2010 article for the scientific journal aqua . the type specimens are two adult males , one 30 cm ( 12 in ) and the other 29 cm ( 11 in ) across , both collected from five fingers reef near coral bay , western australia .
. . . in the present paper , we compile all co1 and cytochrome b gene sequences published thus far for the blue - spotted maskray and we add new sequences from samples collected in the western indian ocean and throughout the indo - malay archipelago , to construct a robust mitochondrial phylogeny and establish an updated distribution of the clades previously uncovered in the coral triangle region [ 14 , 15 , 17 , 19 ] . we assess whether the different clades , including those recently resurrected or erected as new species [ 24 ] correspond to evolutionary significant units that deserve the status of separate species . . . .
the plain maskray inhabits continental shelf waters between 12 and 62 m ( last and stevens 2009 ) , although the species is more prominent in deeper water environments . while the species can reach up to 45 cm disc width ( dw ) , it is more commonly encountered at smaller sizes . it is typically found in environments with sandy or soft substrates ( jacobsen and bennett 2012 ) . this species likely has an annual reproductive cycle ( jacobsen 2007 ) , producing 1 - 3 embryos ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . size at birth is 12 - 14 cm dw ( last and stevens 2009 ) with the smallest recorded free - living animal measured at 13 . 7 cm dw ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . age and size at 50 % maturity is estimated to be four years and 20 . 4 cm dw in males and 3 - 4 years and 19 . 1 cm dw for females ( jacobson and bennett 2010 ) . size at first sexual maturity is 19 . 2 cm dw in males and 18 . 4 cm dw in females ( jacobsen and bennett 2010 ) . males are estimated to live to at least 9 years and females to at least 13 years , both with an estimated maximum size of 45 . 2 cm dw ( stobutzki et al . 2002 ) . generation length is calculated as 8 . 5 years based on the above female age at maturity and maximum age figures .
as with many other small demersal stingrays , the speckled maskray is highly susceptible to capture in trawl fisheries . it is a common component of prawn trawl bycatch ( which is discarded ) within its range . survivorship is generally unknown , and probably dependent on the method of capture . stobutzki et al . ( 2002 ) reports that 27 % of females and 95 % of males ( 57 % total ) captured in the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) died in the trawl net . this species does not appear to be robust in heavy trawl gear with scallop catch , where it is often crushed , resulting in reasonable mortality ( kyne 2008 ) .
the speckled maskray is a highly abundant species within some parts of its distribution ; commonly caught as trawl bycatch within the northern prawn fishery ( npf ) in the gulf of carpentaria ( zhou and griffiths 2008 ) . on the east coast , common on queensland scallop trawling grounds between yeppoon and hervey bay ( kyne et al . 2005 ) , but not commonly encountered on east coast prawn trawl grounds north of cairns ( kyne 2008 ) . also a prominent species in the torres strait ( pitcher et al . 2007 ) and a likely component of elasmobranch bycatch in the torres strait prawn fishery ( i . p . jacobsen , pers . obs . , 2010 ) .
the ningaloo maskray has a diamond - shaped pectoral fin disc about 1 . 1 times wider than long , with straight to slightly convex leading margins and rounded outer corners . the snout is short and rounded . the eyes are large and protruding , with large crescent - shaped spiracles behind . between the slender nostrils is a curtain - shaped flap of skin with a deeply fringed rear margin that is divided into two lobes . the small mouth has shallow grooves at the corners and is surrounded by papillae ; there are also two long papillae on the floor of the mouth . the teeth range from long and pointed to short and blunt . there are five pairs of s - shaped gill slits . the pelvic fins are narrow and triangular .
. . . australiae , n . caeruleopunctata , n . orientale ) previously under n . kuhlii and resurrected a fourth one , n . varidens ( garman 1885 ) [ 25 ] . diagnostic morphological differences between the species were proposed but no in - depth assessment of inter - specific against infra - specific differences was included [ 24 ] . in the present paper , we compile all co1 and cytochrome b gene sequences published thus far for the blue - spotted maskray and we add new sequences from samples collected in the western indian ocean and throughout the indo - malay archipelago , to construct a robust mitochondrial phylogeny and establish an updated distribution of the clades previously uncovered in the coral triangle region [ 14 , 15 , 17 , 19 ] . . . .
. . . the maskrays of genus neotrygon castelnau ( family : dasyatidae ) is resurrected as a valid generic name form the genus dasyatis ; have dispersed widely in the indo - west pacific and represented largely by an assemblage by a narrow - ranging coastal endemics ( last and white 2008 ; puckridge et al . 2013 ) . the species blue - spotted maskray / stingray , neotrygon kuhlii ( muller & henle , 1841 ) is consid - ered to be common across the indo - west pacific region forming an important component of artisanal and commercial fisheries in a number of areas ( compagno and last 1998 ; white and dharmadi 2007 ) . this species has lots of taxonom - ic ambiguity at present and it is classified as ' data deficient ' . . . .
a new maskray , neotrygon ningalooensis n . sp . , is described from material collected near coral bay in the ningaloo marine park , off the central coast of western australia , where its distribution appears to be restricted and patchy . however , other recently accessed material , collected further south ( shark bay , western australia ) and east ( gove , northern territory ) , suggest that this species is more widespread . like other members of the genus neotrygon , it lives primarily on sandy substrates but often hides partly concealed beneath small coral bommies during the day . its eyes are relatively more protrusible than its congeners enabling it to bury deeply in soft sediments with its eyes still exposed . the type specimens were speared in shallow water near the shore in close association with two congeners , n . leylandi and n . kuhlii , from which it differs in colour and morphology . neotrygon ningalooensis and n . leylandi both have an ornate dorsal coloration but lack the vivid blue spots typical of n . kuhlii . molecular analysis has confirmed that the three sympatric species at ningaloo are specifically distinct .
. . . this species complex consists of up to eleven parapatrically - distributed lineages representing separate species [ 6 , [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] of which nine have already been formally described [ 7 , [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] . these are n . australiae last , white and séret 2016 , n . bobwardi borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 , n . caeruleopunctata last , white and séret 2016 , n . malaccensis borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 , n . moluccensis borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 , n . orientale last , white and séret 2016 , n . vali borsa 2017 , n . varidens ( garman 1885 , and n . westpapuensis borsa , arlyza , hoareau and shen 2017 . two other species in the genus , the nominal n . kuhlii from vanikoro and n . trigonoides possess distinctive spot patterns [ 3 , 15 , 16 ] that tell them apart from the blue - spotted maskray as it was originally described by j . müller and f . g . j . henle [ 4 ] . . . .
body not wing - like ; disc length slightly shorter than width 90 . 4 % ( 82 . 6–97 . 6 % ) dw , snout to cloaca length 74 . 6 % ( 68 . 9–78 . 7 % ) dw , wide margin of granular or flat denticles , pearl thorns on mid disc ; tail whip - like , total length 338 . 5 % ( 297 . 4–402 . 9 % ) dw , with long and large ventral skin fold , ventral skin fold length 102 . 7 % ( 74 . 0–123 . 4 % ) dw , tail slightly depressed at base , tail width 10 . 9 % ( 9 . 1–11 . 9 % ) dw , tail height 6 . 5 % ( 5 . 7–7 . 2 % ) dw , plain in colour ; subtriangular pelvic fin length 23 . 2 % ( 20 . 5–26 . 9 % ) dw ; eye diameter 2 . 6 % ( 1 . 8–3 . 1 % ) dw ; spiracle length 6 . 9 % ( 5 . 9–7 . 7 % ) dw , interspiracular length 16 . 8 % ( 14 . 3–18 . 7 % ) dw ; distance between first pair of gill slits 19 . 8 % ( 17 . 8–21 . 9 % ) dw , distance between fifth pair of gill slits 13 . 1 % ( 12 . 2–13 . 8 % ) dw . genus : pastinachus .
body not wing - like ; disc length slightly longer than width 104 . 1 % ( 82 . 3–120 . 0 % ) dw , snout to cloaca length 88 . 5 % ( 67 . 7–107 . 0 % ) dw , wide margin of granular or flat denticles , with or without thorns on midline , thorns granular ( like pearl ) or sharp if present ; tail usually whip - like , total length 270 . 2 % ( 154 . 7–468 . 0 % ) dw , without ventral skin fold , tail slightly depressed at base , tail width 9 . 2 % ( 4 . 1–12 . 3 % ) dw , tail height 5 . 9 % ( 3 . 4–9 . 0 % ) dw , plain in colour or with patterns ; subtriangular pelvic fin length 16 . 1 % ( 11 . 9–26 . 0 % ) dw ; eye diameter 4 . 3 % ( 1 . 0–6 . 7 % ) dw ; spiracle length 6 . 9 % ( 4 . 7–12 . 1 % ) dw , interspiracular length 18 . 5 % ( 12 . 9–25 . 8 % ) dw ; distance between first pair of gill slits 23 . 8 % ( 14 . 6–30 . 8 % ) dw , distance between fifth pair of gill slits 15 . 8 % ( 9 . 0–19 . 2 % ) dw . genus : himantura . adult female himantura walga however has short and bulbous tail .
body not wing - like , disc length slightly longer than width 101 . 0 % ( 79 . 9–112 . 9 % ) dw , snout to cloaca length 87 . 9 % ( 66 . 4–103 . 3 % ) dw , no denticles , thorns confined to midline of disc ; tail whip - like , total length 277 . 2 % ( 75 . 2–346 . 1 % ) dw , long but low ventral skin fold , ventral skin fold length 56 . 1 % ( 31 . 7–99 . 3 % ) dw , tail slightly depressed at base , tail width 8 . 5 % ( 3 . 7–12 . 3 % ) dw , tail height 5 . 0 % ( 2 . 8–6 . 8 % ) dw , plain colour of either dark brown or black ; subtriangular pelvic fin length 17 . 8 % ( 11 . 1–23 . 1 % ) dw ; eye diameter 3 . 8 % ( 1 . 8–6 . 6 % ) dw ; spiracle length 7 . 5 % ( 5 . 1–10 . 4 % ) dw , interspiracular length 18 . 1 % ( 12 . 5–22 . 1 % ) dw ; distance between first pair of gill slits 21 . 4 % ( 11 . 7–25 . 0 % ) dw , distance between fifth pair of gill slits 13 . 7 % ( 8 . 3–16 . 0 % ) dw . genera : dasyatis and taeniurops . taeniurops meyeni has short tail , without body thorns .
character 1 : body disc shape : 0 = wing like ; pectoral fin greatly expanded , 1 = rhombus , quadrangular or oval ; pectoral fin not greatly expanded . character 2 : body denticles and thorns : 0 = no distinct denticles and thorns , 1 = no distinct denticles ; thorn confined to midline of disc , 2 = granular or flat denticles band very broad ; some may have thorns that either confine to center of body or midline , thorns can be blunt or sharp , 3 = with small spiny or star like denticles ; no thorns along central disc or tail . character 3 : head position and elevation : 0 = head extended anterior to pectoral fin ; head elevated , 1 = head not extended anterior to pectoral fin ; head not elevated . character 4 : rostrum or cephalic fin : 0 = rostral fin single and convex , 1 = rostral fin bilobate and broadly notched medially 2 = snout forming bilobate cephalic fin , laterally based on head , 3 = not as stated . character 5 : gill opening : 0 = six gill opening , 1 = 5 gill opening . character 6 : tail types : 0 = tail short and stout , not whip like , 1 = tail long , whip like . character 7 : tail pattern : 0 = plain , 1 = banded or striped . character 8 : ventral skin fold : 0 = no ventral skin fold , 1 = low ventral skin fold , with or without indistinct dorsal skin fold , 2 = large ventral skin fold , 3 = distinct dorsal and ventral skin fold . character 9 : caudal fin : 0 = no caudal fin , 1 = with well developed caudal fin .
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eschmeyer , w . n . and fricke , r . ( eds ) . 2015 . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . updated 1 october 2015 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 1 october 2015 ) .
sister species to the more wide - ranging dasyatis kuhlii group members ( d . kuhlii and d . leylandi ) .
currently there is no information available on population size or trend . however population reduction is suspected to have occurred over the last three generations ( see the rationale section for more details ) .
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age and growth of neotrygon picta , neotrygon annotata and neotrygon kuhlii from north - east australia , with notes on their reproductive biology . - pubmed - ncbi
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age and growth of neotrygon picta , neotrygon annotata and neotrygon kuhlii from north - east australia , with notes on their reproductive biology .
school of biomedical sciences , university of queensland , brisbane , 4072 queensland , australia . i . jacobsen @ urltoken
vertebral band formations were used to define age and growth in three neotrygon species caught regularly as by - catch in prawn trawl fisheries in north - east australia . centrum edge and marginal increment ratio analyses were used to validate annual band formations . age estimates ranged from 1 to 18 years , with the von bertalanffy growth function considered to have the best fit to neotrygon picta ( males , w ( d∞ ) = 271 mm , k = 0·12 ; females , w ( d∞ ) = 360·5 mm , k = 0·08 ) and neotrygon kuhlii ( males , w ( d∞ ) = 438·6 mm , k = 0·08 ; females , w ( d∞ ) = 440·6 mm , k = 0·08 ) disc width ( w ( d ) ) - at - age data . the gompertz growth function had the best fit to neotrygon annotata w ( d ) - at - age data ( males , w ( d∞ ) = 230·4 mm , k = 0·20 ; females , w ( d∞ ) = 265·5 mm , k = 0·31 ) . age at sexual maturity ranged from 3 to 6 years , with n . picta having the smallest size at birth ( 100 mm w ( d ) ) , smallest w ( d ) at 50 % maturity ( w ( d50 ) : male , 172 mm , female , 180·7 mm ) and lowest age at sexual maturity ( 3 - 4 years ) . this study helps redefine and improve the accuracy of fisheries - based risk assessments for these small species with relatively conservative life - history variables .
marine ; demersal ; depth range 10 - 62 m ( ref . 6871 ) . deep - water ; 8°s - 16°s
eastern indian ocean and southwest pacific : northern australia , southern new guinea and eastern indonesia .
maturity : l m ? , range 18 - 22 cm max length : 45 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9840 )
found offshore on continental shelf and feeds on bony fishes and crustaceans . litters of 1 - 3 pups , born at 12 - 14 cm wd ( ref . 114953 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 )
ovoviviparous ( ref . 205 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .
last , p . r . and j . d . stevens , 1994 . sharks and rays of australia . csiro , australia . 513 p . ( ref . 6871 )
) : 27 . 1 - 28 . 7 , mean 28 ( based on 140 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01096 ( 0 . 00347 - 0 . 03466 ) , b = 3 . 11 ( 2 . 85 - 3 . 37 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 3 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( assuming fecundity < 100 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 38 of 100 ) .
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yearsley , g . k . , last , p . r . & morris , g . b . 1997 ,
codes for australian aquatic biota ( caab ) : an upgraded and expanded species coding system for australian fisheries databases
, pp . 15 pp . + appendices
last , p . r . 1987 ,
new australian fishes . part 14 . two new species of dasyatis ( dasyatididae )
, memoirs of museum victoria , vol . 48 , no . 1 , pp . 57 - 61
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3fba2fb1 - caa5 - 40ca - 80d4 - 431d067a9cc7
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 46aa84cc - 730f - 40bd - b686 - 3f2d7437f74a
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 52cfdad0 - 347e - 41a9 - adcd - 19528ddc7e61
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 46fb0c2b - 3ac6 - 4e9d - b777 - 301ea837ed25
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 347356
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endemic to northern australia from the bonaparte archipelago , wa to wellesley islands qld . inhabits soft bottom substrates in depths of 12 - 62 m .
dasyatis annotatus last , 1987 , mem . mus . vict . 48 ( 1 ) : 57 , fig . 1 . type locality : northwest shelf , wa .
marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers
. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .
gloerfelt - tarp , t . & kailola , p . j . 1984 .
. jakarta : dir . gen . fish . ( indonesia ) , german tech . coop . , aust . dev . ass . bur . 406 pp . ( as
last , p . r . & compagno , l . j . v . 1999 . family dasyatidae . pp . 1479 - 1505 in carpenter , k . e . & niem , v . h . ( eds ) .
the living marine resources of the western central pacific . fao species identification guide for fisheries purposes
. rome : fao vol . 3 pp . 1397 - 2068 . ( as
in : iucn 2013 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2013 . 2 .
sp . nov . , a new species from northern australia . 315 - 326 in last , p . r . , white , w . t . & pogonoski , j . j . ( eds ) . descriptions of new australian chondrichthyans .
stobutzki , i . c . , miller , m . j . , heales , d . s . & brewer , d . t . 2002 . sustainability of elasmobranches caught as bycatch in a tropical prawn ( shrimp ) trawl fishery .
marine ; demersal ; depth range 10 - 62 m ( ref . 6871 ) . deep - water , preferred ? ; 8°s - 16°s
eastern indian ocean : timor sea . western pacific : arafura sea and off northern australia .
maturity : l m ? , range 20 - 22 cm max length : 45 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9840 )
found on the continental shelf . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . little is known of its biology .
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picture of neotrygon annotata has been licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial . original source : fishbase permission : some rights reserved
size : disc width : at least 24 cm . total length : at least 45 cm .
habitat often found in along shallow coastal tropical waters . found on continental shelf at depths of 12 m - 62 m .
habits observed lying on the bottom of the flats and bays , shoal lagoons , river mouths and patches of sand between coral area . they could swim rapidly by undulating their pectoral fins . sometimes they are found swimming near the surface . most often they are completely or partially buried in the sand or mud with only tail , eyes and spiracles exposed . pectoral fins are used to dig in to the floor to excavate prey .
general : general systemic effects systemic symptoms are uncommon , but nausea , vomiting , hypotension and collapse can occur .
general : other in cases of major mechanical trauma , significant tissue damage can occur and if major vessels are severed , exsanguination can occur . similarly , if the chest or abdomen are punctured , severe , even lethal internal injury can occur . this injury may not be immediately apparent , delayed death being possible .
treatment summary stings by marine stingrays are generally associated with significant local pain and physical trauma . treatment is directed at dealing with these problems , as envenoming is not a major issue ( other than any pain - producing effects of the venom ) . initial pain is often responsive to immersion of the stung area in hot ( 45c , not scalding ) water for an hour ( ensure no thermal injury occurs ) . beyond this , analgesia can be provided by an escalating scale , from oral , through parenteral analgesics , to regional anaesthetic nerve block . the wound should be inspected for retained sting fragments and these removed . major bleeding following transection of vessels should be staunched . beware wounds where the sting has penetrated a body cavity , either the abdomen , or the chest . penetrating injuries over the heart can prove lethal . beware early or late haemopericardium . stingray wounds can develop late necrosis and secondary infection . beware tetanus .
key diagnostic features immediate severe local pain , lacerated wound after walking in shallow ( usually sandy ) water , rapid local swelling , development of local necrosis / chronic ulceration uncommon , but possible .
general approach to management first priority is relief of pain and staunching bleeding if major vessel transected . thereafter symptomatic care , good wound care .
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correction : molecular and morphological analyses reveal phylogenetic relationships of stingrays focusing on the family dasyatidae ( myliobatiformes ) . plos one 10 ( 5 ) : e0129411 .
elucidating the phylogenetic relationships of the current but problematic dasyatidae ( order myliobatiformes ) was the first priority of the current study . here , we studied three molecular gene markers of 43 species ( coi gene ) , 33 species ( nd2 gene ) and 34 species ( rag1 gene ) of stingrays to draft out the phylogenetic tree of the order . nine character states were identified and used to confirm the molecularly constructed phylogenetic trees . eight or more clades ( at different hierarchical level ) were identified for coi , nd2 and rag1 genes in the myliobatiformes including four clades containing members of the present dasyatidae , thus rendering the latter non - monophyletic . the uncorrected p - distance between these four ‘dasytidae’ clades when compared to the distance between formally known families confirmed that these four clades should be elevated to four separate families . we suggest a revision of the present classification , retaining the dasyatidae ( dasyatis and taeniurops species ) but adding three new families namely , neotrygonidae ( neotrygon and taeniura species ) , himanturidae ( himantura species ) and pastinachidae ( pastinachus species ) . our result indicated the need to further review the classification of dasyatis microps . by resolving the non - monophyletic problem , the suite of nine character states enables the natural classification of the myliobatiformes into at least thirteen families based on morphology .
citation : lim kc , lim p - e , chong vc , loh k - h ( 2015 ) molecular and morphological analyses reveal phylogenetic relationships of stingrays focusing on the family dasyatidae ( myliobatiformes ) . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0120518 . urltoken
copyright : © 2015 lim et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited
data availability : all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .
funding : we thank japan international centre for agricultural sciences ( jircas ) 57 - 02 - 03 - 1005 , um research grant ( umrg ) rg191 - 121sus and um ippp grant - pg103 - 2012b for the financial support of the study . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the family dasyatidae in the order myliobatiformes is one of the biggest families of batoid fishes . according to carpenter & niem [ 1 ] , the body of members of the dasyatids is characterized by a large , oval , circular or rhomboidal disc usually covered with denticles , thorns and tubercles on the dorsal surface and sometimes on the tail . given the large number of species described in the dasyatidae , the classification and status of the described species are still in flux owing to taxonomic uncertainties especially at the family level . the few comprehensive studies on the classification within the dasyatidae are based either on morphology , including their external morphological structures , squamation , tooth root vascularization and structure , lateral line canal , skeletal structure and cephalic and branchial musculature [ 2 ] , or molecular markers including mtgenome , rag1 and scfd2 [ 3 , 4 ] . nevertheless , these approaches fail to classify the dasyatidae such as the species of himantura and pastinachus into defined clusters since some still remain as incertae sedis or uncertain placements . the binary differentiation based on the absence and presence of placoid scales ( or more often terms such as thorns and denticles ) as adopted by mceachran & aschliman [ 2 ] is thought to be too general because there are instances of variable patterns of thorns and denticles among the dasyatids . on the other hand , some distinct characters such as the ventral tail fold and body and tail pigmentations , not included in mceachran & aschliman [ 2 ] , may be used to resolve the taxonomic uncertainties between himantura and pastinachus [ 5 ] .