aequidens is a genus of fish in the family cichlidae found in south america .

formerly a wastebasket genus , as presently defined aequidens is largely restricted to the amazon basin , orinoco basin and river basins in the guianas .

the only exceptions are a. plagiozonatus which also occurs in the paraná basin , and a. tetramerus which also occurs in the parnaíba river .

aequidens

aequidens plagiozonatus , live specimen collected near cuiabá , brazil . photo : a . kullander
matt clarke on aequidens patricki , a beautifully marked and rarely seen south american cichlid .
morphological aspects of henneguya aequidens n . sp . ( myxozoa : myxobolidae ) in aequidens plagiozonatus kullander , 1984 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) in the amazon region , brazil .
aequidens is a genus of the subfamily cichlasomatinae , tribe cichlasomatini , most similar to cichlasoma .
morphological aspects of henneguya aequidens n . sp . ( myxozoa : myxobolidae ) in aequidens plagiozonatus kullander , 1984 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) in the . . . - pubmed - ncbi
a new species of tripartiella ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from aequidens tetramerus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) in north brazil .
a new species of tripartiella ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from aequidens tetramerus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) in north brazil . - pubmed - ncbi
aequidens was long a catch - all group for south american cichlids with three anal fin spines and lacking conspicuous characters . the genus was reviewed by kullander ( 1983 ) , who distinguished a number of species groups . most of these species groups have since been recognized as genera : bujurquina , tahuantinsuyoa and laetacara in kullander ( 1986 ) , and krobia and cleithracara in kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) . also guianacara species have traditionally been included in aequidens . nonetheless , aequidens ' sensu stricto ' , remains vaguely diagnosed .
despite this considerable splitting aequidens as currently recognised continues to present taxonomical problems , with recent phylogenetic analyses failing to agree on how best to resolve them . musilová et al . ( 2009 ) recovered the a . tetramerus group as sister to cichlasoma with the a . didema group sister to that clade and recommended synonymising aequidens with cichlasoma while moving two species , a . potaroensis and a . paloemeuensis , into krobia .
availability : this aequidens is very rarely seen in the aquarium trade . these ones were imported by maidenhead aquatics @ iver . captive bred fish are sometimes available from europe , but they are normally wild caught .
( of otolithus aequidens cuvier , 1830 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
i hadn ' t heard of ' ae . ' sapayensis before , so my first step was to pull out my copy of die buntbarsche der neuen welt : südamerika . sure enough , there they were , in the chapter entitled
der buntbarsche der . . aequidens
- pulcher - gruppe .
there was a page of text , and pair of pictures , no less . all this told me three things : ( 1 ) sapayensis is valid species , ( 2 ) they are ' aequidens ' sapayensis until they are assigned to some genus ( as aequidens has been restricted to exclude this group of species ) , and ( 3 ) my fish resembling blue acaras as they did , stood a chance of being ' ae . ' sapayensis .
aquarium : i \ ' ve never kept patricki , but if it \ ' s anything like its close relatives in the aequidens genus , it could get a little feisty as it matures . most are pretty simple to keep , but should only be mixed with fish of equal size or larger who are capable of sticking up for themselves . many of the similar - looking aequidens can also be wife - beaters , so make sure you provide plenty of hiding places , or consider bringing the female into condition and then reintroducing the male to her tank using a divider .
eigenmann , c . h . & w . l . bray . 1894 . a revision of the american cichlidae . ann . n . y . acad . sci . 7 : 607 - 624 . kullander , s . o . 1986 . cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru . swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , 431 pp . kullander , s . o . 1995 . three new cichlid species from southern amazonia : aequidens gerciliae , a . epae and a . michaeli . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 6 : 149 - 170 . kullander , s . o . & e . j . g . ferreira . 1991 . a new aequidens species from the rio trombetas , brasil , and redescription of aequidens pallidus . zool . scr . 19 : 425 - 433 . kullander , s . o . & h . nijssen . 1989 . the cichlids of surinam . e . j . brill , leiden and other cities , xxxiii + 256 pp .
the genus aequidens itself also has a complex history , having previously comprised a much larger grouping which contained members of the currently valid genera andinoacara , bujurquina , krobia , cleithracara and laetacara . all of these are usually placed within the subfamily cichlasomatinae alongside members of cichlasoma , ivanacara , nannacara , tahuantinsuyoa and acaronia following kullander ( 1998 ) and subsequent works .
further , the published meristics for the various species are quite similar ; the dorsal and anal fm spine / ray counts of ' ae . ' ; coeruleopunctatus and ' ae . ' sapayensis overlap entirely . ( see table . ) the case is probably even worse than suggested by the numbers in the original descriptions . now that many more specimens are generally examined when describing a species , it is recognized that spine and ray counts can vary widely within a species . in the recently described ' ae . ' patricki , to chose an example from the true aequidens , specimens are recorded with dorsal counts of 14 - 18 hard spines and 10 - 12 soft rays . 2 if these sorts of variances are found in species of ' aequidens ' as well , it might well be impossible to assign an individual fish to any of these species on the basis of spine and ray counts alone .
this is the type species of the genus aequidens and has the widest distribution of any member species . it exists in various colour forms depending on locality with variants from ecuador and peru being particularly sought after since they develop striking red ( ecuador ) or orange ( peru ) colouration on the lower part of the jaw , head and anterior portion of the belly whereas those from brazil tend to have an overall grey / blue / green colouration , for example .
nonetheless , i examined photos of two specimens of gold acaras ( a female from the original purchase and a male from two generations later ) to obtain dorsal and anal counts . the counts of these two fish agreed with each other ( not surprisingly ) but do not match those from the descriptions of any similar ' aequidens ' species . ( see table . ) they are closest to those of ' ae . ' latifrons but ( as per the discussion above ) this may well be insignificant .
a new species of tripartiella is described from the gills of the wild saddle cichlid aequidens tetramerus in north brazil . wet smears of skin and gills of examined fish were air - dried at room temperature and impregnated with klein ' s dry silver method for examination of the adhesive disc ' s structures and denticles . total prevalence of parasitism was 65 % . this ciliate is characterized as a small - sized trichodinid , body diameter 37 . 03 ± 4 . 9 μm , adhesive disc 30 . 50 ± 2 . 71 μm , denticulate ring 13 . 28 ± 0 . 8 μm and 24 ± 2 . 0 denticles . taxonomic and morphometric data for the new species are discussed .
the auctioneer took my bid , looked for another , and sold me the fish . i don ' t remember exactly how much i paid , but i thought they were quite the bargain . they could have been $ 200 . 00 , for all i knew when i bid on them , but fortunately they weren ' t . they were more along the lines of what you might pay for blue acaras in a store . interestingly enough , that ' s just what they looked like : three young blue acaras . ( blue acaras are supposedly ' aequidens ' pulcher , but they have been bred commercially for so long that it is difficult to ascertain what wild stock they might have originated from . ) hmmn .
aequidens sapayensis . probable trio ,
the bag read . well , one was larger than the other two , but it seemed a bit premature to be sexing them at 1
long . still , if these really were what they were said to be , i hoped that the size difference really did reflect a sex difference as well . the auction was in chicago , so it was late the next evening before they were placed in a tank at my home in minneapolis . i had changed some of their water at the hotel the evening of the auction and again the next morning , but the water looked rather foul in their bag when i got them home . the seemed to adjust well to their new tank , however .
no change in behavior was noted when the divider was removed , but a couple of weeks later the male was found dead . i imagine that he was killed by the female , but this is only speculation . in any case , this ended my attempts at spawning ' aequidens ' sapayensis , for the time being . i still have the female and the one of her offspring that grew up beside her . the remaining fry were all sold or given away to friends , local aquarists , or those attending the 1994 aca convention . i know that at least one aquarist has bred the gold acaras he got from me ( vinny kutty , pers . comm . ) and now has fry from them . also , considering the information provided by dr . wayne leibel ( above ) , it might be worthwhile to look for
green terrors
that really aren ' t .
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, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .
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cfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013
latin , aequus , equal , equally + latin , dens , dentis = teeth ( ref . 45335 )
freshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 4 . 9 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : 1 - 13 . 5 . tropical ; 24°c - 26°c ( ref . 1672 )
south america : widely distributed in the amazon river basin in peru , colombia , ecuador , brazil and bolivia . also in the tocantins and parnaíba rivers , french guiana , suriname , guyana , and in the orinoco river basin of venezuela and colombia .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 2 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 )
one of the most colorful species of the genus , especially during its reproductive period . frequently occurs in zones with little current and over a substrate covered with vegetal debris ( ref . 27188 ) . caught frequently but not abundantly in most varied biotopes - in small creeks and flooded zones with clear , shallow and slow flowing water . feeds primarily on insects , secondarily on fishes and plants . very territorial . during reproduction , males attain a deeper coloration . about 1 , 000 eggs are released during spawning . spawning takes place on stone or wood . parents take care of juveniles ( ref . 35237 ) . maximum length 25 cm tl ( ref . 1672 ) .
kullander , s . o . and h . nijssen , 1989 . the cichlids of surinam : teleostei , labroidei . e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands . 256 p . ( ref . 26372 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 00890 - 0 . 02956 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 50 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( fec = 1 , 000 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .
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in naked dorsal and anal fins and long caudal peduncle including 2 - 3 vertebrae instead of none .
the type species , a . tetramerus , which attains 160 mm sl , is one of the most widespread south american cichlids , and is recorded from most of the amazon , tocantins , and orinoco basins , and guianan rivers . it was recently redescribed by kullander ( 1986 ) on the basis of western amazonian material , by kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) on surinamese material , and by kullander ( 1995 ) on specimens from the aripuanã drainage . the other species reach 100 - 120 mm sl and are much more limited in distribution .
there is no published key available . please refer to kullander ( 1986 ) , kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) , kullander & ferreira ( 1991 ) , and kullander ( 1995 ) for identification guides . more than half a dozen undescribed species are known from museum material .
tropical cis - andean south america , including the guianas , the orinoco drainage , the tocantins drainage , the parnaíba drainage , the amazon drainage and the uppermost paraguay drainage .
described from the rio branco in northern brazil but as currently recognised is widely - distributed throughout much of northern south america including the amazon system in peru , colombia , ecuador , brazil ( where it’s also been recorded from the rio tocantins and rio parnaiba ) and bolivia , plus various drainages in french guiana , suriname and guyana , and the rio orinoco basin in venezuela and colombia .
this species is essentially a habitat generalist exhibiting a preference for biotopes containing slow - moving or still water with well - structured substrates including submerged tree roots , branches , leaf litter , etc . like many species it often moves into flooded zones during periods of high water and can also be found in flood plain lakes and oxbows . it’s more frequently recorded in quieter tributary drainages than major river channels and at some localities aquatic plants grow thickly . the water itself may be black , clear or white though the former pair are apparently favoured .
in the belmont stream , a tributary of the lower rio madeira in rondônia state , western brazil a . tetramerus has been recorded to occur sympatrically alongside numerous other fish species including laemolyta taeniata , leporinus fasciatus , triportheus angulatus , tetragonopterus argenteus , mylossoma aureum , semaprochilodus taeniurus , biotodoma cupido , cichla monoculus , crenicichla johanna , centromochlus heckelii , hypoptopoma gulare , peckoltia bachi , squaliforma emarginata , sorubim lima and leiarius pictus .
a tank with base dimensions of 120 cm x 45 cm should be the smallest considered and something significantly larger is likely to be required should you wish to maintain more than a single pair .
ideally a soft , sandy substrate should be employed though it is not essential . additional furnishings are as much a case of personal taste as anything else but the most favoured set - ups tend to feature relatively dim lighting plus some chunks of driftwood and scattered roots / branches . one or two flattish , water - worn rocks can also be included to provide potential spawning sites if you wish .
water quality is of the utmost importance since these cichlids are susceptible to deteriorating water quality and should never be introduced to a biologically immature aquarium . the best way to achieve the desired stability is to over - filter the tank using a combination of external canister filters and / or a sump system and perform minimum weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % . if the maintenance regime and / or diet is insufficient individuals may develop health problems such as head and lateral line erosion or exhibit stunted growth . mechanical filtration should be tailored to trap small particles stirred up by the fish as sand can cause blockages / wearing issues with filter mechanisms if allowed to continually run through the system . high flow rates should be avoided so position filter returns accordingly .
ph : 4 . 5 – 7 . 5 depending on collection locality . wild specimens collected from black water regions may require acidic water on a mandatory basis .
omnivorous but the diet of wild specimens is apparently dominated by invertebrates . in the aquarium offer good quality , sinking dry foods as staple alongside regular meals of live or frozen bloodworm , artemia , etc .
males are territorial , particularly when spawning , while very small tankmates may be predated upon . can be maintained alongside other cichlids provided there is sufficient space available .
males grow larger than females and usually develop extensions to the unpaired fins as they mature . when in spawning condition they are also much the more colourful gender .
biparental substrate spawner and relatively simple to breed . the most proven method is to buy a group of 6 or more young specimens to be grown on together , removing the excess once pairs begin to form .
despite its type status it’s long been hypothesised that a . tetramerus as currently recognised is likely to represent a group of related fishes rather than a single taxon , meaning if a detailed analysis were to be conducted some of the populations may be described as distinct species .
these conclusions have not achieved general acceptance to date with the results of subsequent molecular research by h . lópez - fernández et al . suggesting that the a . diadema and a . tetramerus groups in fact form a putatively monophyletic groupings . both sets of authors agree that additional research is required in order to diagnose which species belong where .
kullander , s . o . 1986 - department of vertebrate zoology , research division , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden , 394 p . cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru .
kullander , s . o . and h . nijssen . 1989 - e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands . 256 p . the cichlids of surinam : teleostei , labroidei .
lópez - fernández , h . , k . o . winemiller and r . l . honeycutt . 2010 - molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 1070–1086 multilocus phylogeny and rapid radiations in neotropical cichlid fishes ( perciformes : cichlidae : cichlinae ) .
musilová , z . , o . říčan and j . novák . 2009 - journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 47 ( 3 ) : 234 - 247 phylogeny of the neotropical cichlid fish tribe cichlasomatini ( teleostei : cichlidae ) based on morphological and molecular data , with the description of a new genus .
origin : this species is only known from a couple of river systems in peru - the rio aguaytia and rio pachitea .
size : males can reach around 12cm / 5 \
, but females are a little smaller .
water : i \ ' ve heard of these being kept in hard water without problems , but if you want to get them looking at their best , soft and slightly acidic water is best . i \ ' d keep them warm at about 27 - 29c .
identification : according to sven kullander , who described it , a . patricki is a member of the \
true acaras \
group . a few other representatives such as diadema , tetramerus , metae and pallidus also enter the trade , but there are about another seven or eight rarer species , and several that haven \ ' t been described yet .
notes : this species is named after patrick de rham , a swiss fishkeeper who is perhaps best known for his work on malagasy cichlids .
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special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
eschmeyer , w . n . 2013 . catalog of fishes . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 9 sep 2013 ) .
this species is recorded from arguin bank ( mauritania ) and from the gulf of guinea southwards to cape agulhas ( south africa ) , and eastward to southern mozambique and the gulf of aden . in the western pacific ocean , it occurs off the coasts of new south wales and southern queensland , australia ( griffiths and hecht 1995 ) . the distribution of this species is very disjunct occurring in three oceans and two continents ( sasaki 2001 , hoese et al . 2006 , scandol et al . 2008 ) .
both south african and australian stocks are significantly depleted ( hutton et al . 2001 , scandol et al . 2008 ) . in south africa the spawning component of the stock has been reduced by approximately 95 % from pristine levels . catch per boat / year in the 1980s had declined to approximately 3 % of the catches ( of equivalent unit ) in the 1900s ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . total catch along the south african coastline for the period 1985 - 1997 reported total catch landings of 500 t . however , it does not indicate the current status of the stock ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . in australia , annual commercial catches have been moderate and sporadic , but have declined ( e . g . from over 200 t in the 1950s to 35 t in 1989 - 90 ) and the recreational catch is significant ( annual harvest in nsw alone is of 70 - 110 tonnes ) ( kailola et al . 1993 , scandol et al . 2008 ) . historical data are lacking . this species status of exploitation is considered ' depleted ' by the fao review of the state of world marine fishery resources .
this species is an important food fish throughout most of its distributional range . in south africa , it is considered a premier commercial and recreational linefish species along the entire east coast ( cape point to natal ; grififths and hecht 1995 ) . it is ranked as the sixth most important in the linefishery of south africa since it was started in the 1800s ( hutton et al . 2001 ) .
in south africa , current catch restrictions include bag limits of 10 fish day for recreational anglers ( introduced in 1984 ) and a minimum size limit ( 60cm tl ) for both recreational and commercial fishers ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . a recent analysis of trends in cpue of linefish species in south africa indicated that many were severely overexploited during the 20th century . in order to address this and to allow the depleted stocks to recover , south africa is aiming to achieve a 70 % reduction in commercial effort in the linefishery , accompanied by stringent regulations to recreational fishing ( fao 2005 ) . in australia , with the purchase of a license , there is a minimum bag limit of five fish and a minimum legal length of 38 cm tl ( nsw dpi 2006 / 2007 ) . also this species distribution overlaps several marine reserves within its australian range ( wood 2007 ) .
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i wasn ' t paying much attention to the auction , like most cichlid auctions , this one was dominated by overpriced african , rift - lake cichlids . the few
south american
cichlids being sold were mostly discus and angels , which had been selectively bred for many generations so that they would not resemble their beautiful ancestors . so , i was talking quietly with a friend sitting beside me while the auctioneer ran through the fish .
two days later i found one of the smaller fish dead . i couldn ' t tell if the stress of the trip or one of its siblings killed it , but my probable trio was now a probable pair . i kept the label from the bag , which listed the seller ' s name and phone number , in case my probable pair turned into a definite loner .
that was pretty much where i let matters sit until i decided to write this article . two years had past , the fish had bred successfully ( see keeping and breeding , below ) , and i had accepted that my fish were , indeed . ' ae . ' sapayensis . as adults they still resembled blue acaras quite strongly , although they had horizontal rows of golden dots instead of the bluish dots of blue acaras . i had taken to referring to them as my
gold acaras ,
as i prepared to write this article , however , i became curious as to how the seller in chicago had identified his fish . while there are a few small differences between these gold acaras and the blue acaras of the aquarium hobby , these differences are assuredly not striking . i doubt that i would notice anything unusual if i came across these fish while perusing sellers ' tanks for rare fish . i doubted even more that most importers , wholesalers , or retailers would have noticed anything either .
fortunately . i had kept the seller ' s tag from the auction , although i hadn ' t had to call him for more fish . mike brousil , the seller , told me that he got his fish from steve covolo . he also told me that steve had either received his fish from , or at least had them identified by dr . wayne leibel .
wayne was unsure of the details ( it had been four or five years now since his role in this saga ) , but was able to confirm that he had probably identified the ancestors of my fish somewhere along the route . he told me that ' ae . ' sapayensis were sometimes found in pet shops at small sizes being sold as green terrors , having been brought in from the wild misidentified . he said that based on the fact that they were found in green terror territory and that they matched closely with good color photos published in the german aquarium literature , he was convinced they were ' ae . ' sapayensis .
good photos and collecting data probably provide as accurate an identification as can be reasonably had with these fish . the description of ' ae . ' sapayensis was done ninety years ago and the descriptions of the species most likely to be confused with ' ae . ' sapayensis ( which are ' ae . ' pulcher . ' ae . ' coeruleopunctatas , and ' ae . ' latifrons ) were made twenty - five to fifty years before that . as was the general case for descriptions of the time , these descriptions are brief and are made from a small number of specimens ( one in the case of ' ae . ' sapayensis ) . all but one of them lacks drawings and , of course , all of them lack photographs .
table . spine and ray counts from the original descriptions of ' ae . ' pulcher , ' ae . ' coeruleopunctatus . ' ae . ' latifrons , and ' ae . ' sapayensis and from two
gold acaras .
one might tend to wonder given the similarity of meristics and general overall appearance , whether or not the species mentioned above are all valid species . this is a question that i am not qualified to answer and will not attempt to . perhaps the best that we aquarists can do is wait for a modern review of these species by an ichthyologist .
gold acaras resemble blue acaras not only in appearance , but also in behavior and in their requirements for successful keeping and breeding . like most acaras ( but notably unlike the sympatric green terrors ) , gold acaras have a moderate temperament for a cichlid .
mike brousil reports ( pers comm . ) that his pair were quite timid and would not spawn if there were other fish in the tank . if isolated , however , they would spawn , at which point they would become very aggressive towards ( ie : kill ) any new fish introduced into their aquarium .
my own pair held their own in a tank with south american cichlids such as acarichthys heckelii and cichlasoma taenia which were at the time of similar size . when they matured they were placed alone in a thirty gallon aquarium with an undergravel filter which had been cichlid proofed
by placing a piece of plastic window screen on top of the bottom two inches of gravel . several rocks , pieces of driftwood and bark , and some homemade , plastic plants were present in the tank for hiding places and / or spawning sites . the tank was lit only by the ambient room light . a rather defective heater varied the water temperature between 70° and 85° f . the water was very soft ( approx . 3 dh ) , and the ph ranged from about 7 down to nearly 4 . no attempt was made to record the temperature and ph fluctuations and correlate them with behavior .
the larger of the fish staked out a territory at one end of the tank and the smaller fish spent most of its time hiding near the other end . the fish were fed primarily doro - min with a supplement of frozen blood worms . the larger fish ate greedily , but the smaller only caught an occasional food stick that floated near its hiding place or ventured cautiously forth after blood worms . both fish grew at about the same pace , but the larger fish grew much more robust , even fat . then one day the larger fish showed a female breeding tube .
i was a bit surprised to see that the probable male of my probable pair was actually a female . i began to worry that i either did not have a pair ( as i thought that the smaller fish was unlikely to be a male ) or if idid have a pair , that they wouldn ' t successfully spawn ( as i doubted that such a timid male would leave hiding long enough to fertilize the eggs ) . so , i wasn ' t all that excited when i finally saw eggs . many captive female cichlids will lay eggs by themselves if a suitable mate is not available .
the eggs were laid on a nearly vertical piece of rock at the female ' s end of the tank . the spawning was not observed , but the behavior of the other fish on the day the eggs were found did not differ from its previous behavior . it continued to hide on the far end of the tank from the larger fish ; this helped to convince me that i did not have a breeding pair of fish .
i was surprised then when the eggs , roughly 100 in number , did not fungus on the following days . after 3 days they hatched , but the fry soon disappeared , never to be seen again . still , i now knew i had a pair and i began to condition them with more feedings of blood worms in hopes of another spawn .
on the next spawning , there were approximately 300 eggs laid in the same location as before . this time , after the eggs hatched , the number of fry began to dwindle and the male became increasingly beaten - up . i suspected that the male was eating the fry and being attacked by the female as she attempted to defend them . i siphoned a couple of dozen fry out of the tank and set them up in a ten gallon aquarium with a sponge filter in order to raise them away from the parents . i also separated the male from the female using a piece of
eggcrate
light grating placed in the middle of the tank .
the fry in the thirty gallon with the parents grew much more quickly than those in the ten gallon tank , but their numbers continued to dwindle , although at a much slower rate than before . my guess is that now and then one of the fry in the parents ' tank would find its way to the male ' s side of the tank and be eaten by him , but i never actually witnessed this . the presence of the divider did not significantly change the general behavior of either adult fish ; the male continued to spend most of his time in hiding even though he was separated from the more outgoing female .
i decided to remove the remaining fry ( now down to about a dozen ) from the parents ' tank . they were too big to place in with the fry previously removed from the thirty gallon , so i put them in a ten gallon tank of their own . a couple of days later i observed that there was still one young fish in the parents ' tank , but i decided to leave it there .
in the next couple of weeks the growth of the single juvenile remaining in the parents ' tank greatly outpaced those of its siblings in the fry tanks . i decided that it could probably fend for itself with the barrier removed and i was anxious to have the adults spawn again , so i took out the egg - crate divider .
conkel , d . 1990 .
fishes of the balboan jungle .
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gill , t . 1858 .
synopsis of the fresh water fishes of the western portion of the island of trinidad . w . r .
annals of the lycewnofnaturalhistory of new york . 6 : 363 - 430 .
kner . r . and f . steindachner . 1866 .
neue gattungen und arten von fischen aus centralamertka .
abhandlungen der mathematisch - phy sikalischen classe der koniglichbayerischen akademie der wissenschaften . 10 : 1 - 61 .
regan . c . 1903 .
descrtptions of new south amertcan fishes in the collection of the british museum .
annals and magazine of natural history . ser . 7 . vol . 12 : 621 - 630 .
stawikowski . r . and u . werner , 1988 . die buntbarsche der neuen welt : siidamertka . essen , west germany .
steindachner . f . 1878 .
zur fisch - fauna des magdalenenstromes . . . denkschriften der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften . mathematischnaturwissenschajtliche classe . wien . 39 : 19 - 78
u . s . office of geography , department of interior . 1957 gazetteer no . 36 : ecuador . washington , d . c .
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
videira m 1 , velasco m , azevedo r , silva r , gonçalves e , matos p , matos e .
laboratório de morfofisiologia e sanidade animal , universidade do estado do amapá ( ueap ) , macapá , ap , brazil .
description found in coastal waters , over sandy and sandy mud bottom . juveniles enter estuaries . adults feed on pelagic fishes at . . .
description found in coastal waters , over sandy and sandy mud bottom . juveniles enter estuaries . adults feed on pelagic fishes at night . often caught with @ umbrina canariensis @ . marketed fresh and is considered an important foodfish ( ref . 9772 ) . [ details ]
the webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of otolithus atelodus günther , 1867 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of otolithus teraglin macleay , 1880 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of atractoscion stelodus ( günther , 1867 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .
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inhabit streams . is rare in the aquarium trade but has been imported on occasion ( ref . 12251 ) .
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the largest specimen collected was less than 15 cm long ( ref . 12251 ) .
smith - vaniz , b , robertson , r . , dominici - arosemena , a . , molina , h . , salas , e . & guzman - mora , a . g .
justification : this deep - water species is widespread in the eastern pacific . it is not targeted by fisheries due to its small size . there are no major threats known to this species , and no indication of widespread population decline . it is listed as least concern .
this species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from southern california and the western gulf of california to western panama , including the galapagos and cocos island .
this demersal species lives on soft substrata at depths of 75 to 265m . it feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans , octupus , squid , cuttlefishes , and bony fishes .
there are no known species specific conservation measures . however , this species ' distribution includes a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region .
smith - vaniz , b , robertson , r . , dominici - arosemena , a . , molina , h . , salas , e . & guzman - mora , a . g . 2010 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
martins ml 1 , marchiori n 2 , bittencourt ls 3 , tavares - dias m 3 .
departamento de aquicultura , universidade federal de santa catarina , florianópolis , sc , brazil .
empresa de pesquisa agropecuária e extensão rural de santa catarina , campo experimental de piscicultura de camboriú , camboriú , sc , brazil .
laboratório de aquicultura e pesca , embrapa amapá , macapá , ap , brazil .
ortega torres , h . , correa , e . & chuctaya , j .
justification : this species is listed as least concern because its population is presumed to be stable and there are no known major threats affecting it .
this species is known from the peruvian amazon ( ortega et al . 2012 ) , and its type locality is a small brook from a drying pool , tributary of the aguaytia river ( 9°02 ' s , 75°31 ' w ) , in the coronel portillo province , peru ( kullander 1984 ) . the elevation range is between 190 and 600 m ( quezada - garcia 2009 ) .
this species inhabits slow to moderate streams of clear and white waters with sand , gravel or rocky bottoms ( quezada - garcia 2009 ) .
there are no conservation measures in place for this species . it is not present in protected areas .
ortega torres , h . , correa , e . & chuctaya , j . 2016 .


the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) , also known as the puerto rican parrot or iguaca , is the only extant bird endemic to the archipelago of puerto rico belonging to the neotropical genus amazona .

measuring 28 – 30 cm ( 11.0 – 11.8 in ) , the bird is a predominantly green parrot with a red forehead and white rings around the eyes .

two subspecies have been described , although there are doubts regarding the distinctiveness of the form gracilipes from culebra island , extinct since 1912 .

its closest relatives are believed to be the cuban amazon ( amazona leucocephala ) and the hispaniolan amazon ( amazona ventralis ) .

the puerto rican amazon reaches sexual maturity at between three and four years of age .

this parrot 's diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .

the species is the only remaining native parrot in puerto rico and has been listed as critically endangered by the world conservation union since 1994 .

once widespread and abundant , the population declined drastically in the 19th and early 20th centuries with the removal of most of its native habitat ; the species completely vanished from vieques and mona island , nearby to the main island of puerto rico .

conservation efforts commenced in 1968 to save the bird from extinction .

in 2012 , the total estimated population was 58 – 80 individuals in the wild and over 300 individuals in captivity .

puerto rican amazon

puerto rican amazon social behavior also known as puerto rican parrot , red - fronted amazon . synonymspsittacus vittatus . spanishamazona de puerto ri… | pinteres…
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the puerto rican parrot’s common names are either the puerto rican parrot or the puerto rican amazon . both names are very commonly used . the genus and species is amazona vittata .
hurricanes are a major threat to the puerto rican amazon and many other central american parrot species .
saving the critically endangered puerto rican amazon ( a . vittata ) through successful integration of . . .
puerto rican parrot at the new puerto rican zoo juan a rivero exhibit in mayaguez . photograph by jose almodovar .
del hoyo , j . , a . elloit , j . sangatal . 1997 . puerto rican amazon . pp . 468 in
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arkive species - puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata )
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brian published an article in wpt’s psittascene describing his work on the puerto rican parrot .
. the extant botanical collections and nomenclatural types of agustin stahl , puerto rican botanist .
health and reproductive assessment of selected puerto rican parrots ( amazona vittata ) in captivity .
brian returns to puerto rico for a year of intensive data collection on pair behavior and nesting success in the puerto rican parrot .
brian ramos’s grant to study the puerto rican parrot is renewed by the world parrot trust .
brian hosts a successful visit by tim and his co - advisor scott carleton to the puerto rican parrot conservation project in puerto rico .
this book provides a comprehensive analysis of the competing discourses on puerto rican identity on the island and within the us diaspora that have characterized puerto rico’s historical and cultural discourses . it also underscores the transnational nature of puerto rican migration .
allele frequencies ( f ) have been determined in the puerto rican population for all 332 loci .
this is my fact board about the puerto rican parrot for a 5th grade endangered species project .
the large home range and high mobility of puerto rican amazons likely make them an important seed disperser .
the puerto rican parrot , also known as the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) , is one of the rarest birds on earth . it is the only native parrot in puerto rico ( the only place where they live in the wild ) . according to the u . s . fish & wildlife service , only 34 - 40 remain in the wild and 143 are in captivity . below are interesting facts about the endangered puerto rican parrot .
. wild relatives of guaraná ( paullinia cupana ; sapindaceae ) show high diversity in western brazilian amazon .
the puerto rican parrot is a vertebrate . it lives in the southeast region , in puerto rico only . it is in the birds group . the scientific name for the puerto rican parrot is the amazona vittata . it is an endangered species and there are only about 24 - 26 free puerto rican parrots left in the wild . the description of the puerto rican parrot is its tail is short and squared - off . the color of the parrot is mostly green . more
health and reproductive assessment of selected puerto rican parrots ( amazona vittata ) in captivity . - pubmed - ncbi
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range : puerto rican parrot is endemic to puerto rico . this critically endangered species survives at mid - level in the wet forest of luquillo national forest reserve .
the puerto rican amazon is the only parrot native to a us territory ; it is also distinguished by quite possibly being the bird that helped lead columbus to land on his first voyage ( please see article below ) .
ecological services in the caribbean , starts evaluation and selection process for a third site to release puerto rican parrots .
if you visit the caribbean national forest while you are in puerto rico , you may be fortunate enough to see a puerto rican amazon parrot . this attractive bird is endemic to puerto rico , but it is also critically endangered . in 2006 the remaining wild population was estimated to have dropped to as few as forty - four birds .
] . following this example , we will direct future work on the puerto rican population structure towards total genome arrays .
•conservation trust of puerto rico relationship to other classification schemes puerto rican dry forest boundaries were derived from the subtropical dry forest life zone of ewell and whitmore ( 1973 ) .
los bejucos de puerto rico , vol . 1 ( the vines of puerto rico , a field guide )
the puerto rican parrot is the only endemic or native parrot in puerto rico . one of the rarest birds in the world , this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by federal and puerto rican laws as an endangered species . it is illegal to possess , buy or sell the parrot or any part of it ( including feathers , eggs and nests ) . the puerto rican parrot is a small amazon parrot , about 11 inches ( 29 cm ) in length and weighing about 10 ounces ( 270 g ) . more
people unaware of this species plight are sometimes confused by all the concern…after all , parrots abound throughout puerto rico . however , these pet trade escapees are introduced species , which actually worsen the puerto rican amazon’s plight by competing for food and nest sites , and , possibly , through hybridization .
amazona vittata the true puerto rican parrot is severely endangered and rarely , if ever seen . hispaniolan parrot is common in some areas of puerto rico . orange crowned parrot is also a somewhat common bird in puerto rico now . more
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wilson , k . , r . field , m . wilson . 1995 . successful nesting behavior of puerto rican parrots .
this interdisciplinary portrait of the development of the us puerto rican community illustrates how the historical and socioeconomic development of island puerto ricans intertwines with migration and the formation of a stateside diaspora . the book provides valuable statistical data on puerto ricans .
authenticated ( 21 / 06 / 2006 ) by dr . thomas white , wildlife biologist with the u . s . fish and wildlife service , and coordinator for the releases of captive - reared puerto rican parrots , puerto rican parrot recovery program . urltoken
admixture is of great relevance to apply pharmacogenetics and personalized medicine in the puerto rican population . as multigene models are developed to predict drug response , the range of possible allelic combinations in the puerto rican populations is certain to exceed that in populations without admixture .
the diet of the puerto rican parrot is sierra palm fruits , tabonoco fruit , other wild fruits , flowers and tender shoots .
the puerto rican parrot is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) , facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .
puerto rican parrot population used to be 1 , 000 , 000 and now there’s only 47 remaining ! the puerto rican parrot is the only native parrot in puerto rico . it is one of the rarest birds in the world . this parrot and its habitat are strictly protected by federal and puerto rican laws because it is an endangered species . it is against the law to own , buy or sell the parrot or any part of it . more
puerto rican amazons are very vocal and produce a wide variety of squawks . in flight they make a distinct bugling call . like many
the purpose of this study was to determine distribution frequencies of 332 snps from 196 cardiometabolic and neuroendocrine genes in the puerto rican population . another goal of this work was to apply these physiogenomic markers for inferring the puerto rican population structure , following a bayesian clustering algorithm .
diet : puerto rican parrot feeds mainly on seeds , leaves , flowers , fruits , bark and nectar found in the forest canopy .
the puerto rican parrot , began in the second half of the 20th century . according to iucn , as of 2002 , there were 21 threatened species in puerto rico : two mammals , eight breeding birds , eight reptiles , and three amphibians . contents - * 1 origin of puerto rican fauna * 2 mammals * 2 . more
fernandez - mendez e ( 1970 ) historia cultural de puerto rico . san juan , puerto rico : ediciones el cemí .
the puerto rican amazon’s decline is largely due to deforestation . it nests only in pre - existing holes in tall , mature trees . when these trees are cut , the parrots cannot nest , or they use sites that are vulnerable to predators , competitors and hurricanes .
using allelic dissimilarity and bayesian clustering analysis , the population structure of the puerto rican island - wide sample was found to be highly heterogeneous .
if the recovery objective is met , puerto rican parrots will be down listed to threatened ( instead of endangered ) by the year 2020 .
puerto rican parrots at breeding facility puerto rican parrots at el yunque breeding facility – photo : william humphrey black whiskered vireo black whiskered vireo ( makes a pretty bird call here at the raniforest inn ) the information and photographs on this web site come from puerto rico ' s birds in photographs ( paperback ) by mark w . oberle . more
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, as would be expected . it will be necessary to obtain a larger sample to encompass the amerindian component in the puerto rican population more distinctively . the sample size of 100 individuals falls within the same order of magnitude as multiple previously published admixture studies of the puerto rican population [
puerto rico was formerly entirely forested and , historically , the puerto rican amazon was abundant in all forest types ( 2 ) , including scrub , moist montane and lowland forests , and mangroves ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the species is now restricted to montane rainforest at elevations of 200 to 600 metres above sea level ( 7 ) .
protection / threats / status : puerto rican parrot is critically endangered , living in restricted range in puerto rico . this species suffered habitat loss with deforestation , human developments and trapping for illegal pet - trade .
salari k , choudhry s , tang h , et al . genetic admixture and asthma - related phenotypes in mexican american and puerto rican asthmatics .
the world’s population of about 600 puerto rican amazons ( amazona vittata ) resides in the rio abajo state forest and the el yunque national forest .
another huge danger for the puerto rican parrot are hurricanes because they don’t only wipe out the population but a strong hurricane can destroy their habitat .
puerto rican parrots are one of about 34 species of amazon parrots found in the americas . amazona vittata are known for the bright red shock of feathers at their forehead , white rings around their eyes and the shimmering blue feathers under their wings , usually visible when they dart overhead .
the puerto rican amazon is covered with green feathers which have blue edges . the plumage on their foreheads is shaded bright red while their eyes look incredibly large due to distinctive white ovals which surround the actual eye . from the underside a bird watcher might note that the wings are bright blue and the tail is yellow - green . there is no difference in color between the sexes and the bird measures between 28 and 30 cm in length . thus the puerto rican amazon is smaller many other members of the amazona parrot species but this size is not at all uncommon .
a critique of the deficiencies of puerto rican migration studies published between the 1940s and 1960s by north american and other foreign scholars , and a class analysis of colonialism , the development of capitalism on the island , and the combination of factors that propelled puerto rican labor migration at different historical periods .
description : puerto rican parrot is endemic to puerto rico . this species belongs to the genus “amazona” which gathers small to medium - sized parrots coming from the new world , particularly south america , mexico and caribbean .
the puerto rican parrot is native to puerto rico and lives in the east and north - east of the island . the two forests that it is found mainly in are el yunque and rio abajo national forests .
in addition to the introduced parrots mentioned earlier , the island’s 3 large hawks pose a threat to the already depleted puerto rican amazon population . added to this is the species’ need for an intact habitat that supports varied food sources…it has been documented as feeding upon over 50 types of plants .
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parrots , they can even learn to speak human words . puerto rican amazons perceive their environment through visual , tactile , auditory , and chemical stimuli .
please see my articles did parrots help columbus find america ? and the thick billed parrot for further information on puerto rican amazons and us native parrots .
conservation efforts to help puerto rican amazons recover has helped researchers learn more about how ecosystem and animal behaviors work . resource managers in the lesser antilles have used successful techniques developed on the puerto rican amazons to help improve other local endangered parrot populations . these endangered parrots also attract avid birders to the area .
march 16 marks a historic two - fer for the wright lab ! chris ' s paper on playbacks of duets and solos the yellow - naped amazon is accepted by animal cognition , and ted ' s paper on cryptic speciation in the mealy amazon is accepted pending minor revisions by conservation genetics .
this groundbreaking study remains the only comprehensive history of us puerto ricans that examines the factors that contributed to their migration and documents the neglected experiences of the pre–world war ii puerto rican community in new york . special attention is given to numerous community organizations created by puerto ricans . first edition 1983 .
great cookbook ! i ' m tired of eating the same puerto rican food over & over . there ' s plenty of new recipes in this book .
lindsay , g . , w . arendt , j . kalina , g . pendleton . 1991 . home range and movement of juvenile puerto rican parrot .
the puerto rican parrot had to adapt when the humans started expanding into their habitat and started cutting down trees to build houses , boats , and developments .
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mainland puerto ricans currently represent 1 . 2 % of the us population and 9 . 6 % of the hispanic population in the usa [ 101 ] . similar to others in latin america , the puerto rican population originated as a result of admixture between amerindians , whose ancestors had migrated from the amazon basin and arrived in puerto rico 2200 years before present , and spaniard and west - african individuals . the island of puerto rico thus is endowed with a distinctive population in terms of its gene flow . there are growing numbers of puerto ricans in the usa , as puerto rico has been a us territory or commonwealth since 1898 . admixture studies in puerto ricans , either in the island or the continental usa , have been scarce .
in 1954 jose rodriguez vidal counted only 13 parrots in el yunque national park . that is when the scientists stepped in and started recovery programs to help save the puerto rican parrot . there are many challenges like hurricanes , predators and the monogamous behavior makes recovery difficult . the scientists are still working to learn about the puerto rican parrot to prevent their extinction and the last few years have been quite successful . looks like the puerto rican parrot might make it after all !
it was thought that puerto rican amazons would destroy the corn industry in puerto rico . as a result of this fear , farmers killed hundred of birds . population numbers were later assessed to be too small to impact the industry .
in 1492 in puerto rico , the puerto rican parrot’s population thrived with approximately one million parrots . but after christopher columbus came to puerto rico in 1506 and the spaniards began to settle the island the parrot’s habitat became destroyed . the spaniards started cutting down the palo colorado tree which was the nesting tree of the puerto rican parrot . this tree was a great material for building ships . as a result the population of the parrot was affected and started to drop .
puerto rican parrot is a gregarious species , but during the breeding season , the nest - site id defended , mainly by loud calls , against invading pairs .
use of the puerto rican parrot captive recovery program and husbandry techniques as a model for management of birds in captivity based in the particular needs of this species .
francez pac , ramos lpv , palha tjrf , santos seb . haplotype diversity of 17 y - str loci in an admixed population from the brazilian amazon .
instantly receive a £10 urltoken gift card if you’re approved for the amazon platinum mastercard with instant spend . representative 21 . 9 % apr ( variable ) .
juvenile puerto rican amazons have an average home range of 22 + / - 12 ha . this increases to an average of 1243 ha after joining an adult flock .
puerto rican parrots live in the forest and can mostly be found in the tree canopy . loss of habitat by deforestation is the main reason for them becoming endangered .
ribeiro - rodrigues em , palha tjbf , santos seb . allele frequencies data and statistic parameters for 13 str loci in a population of the brazilian amazon region .
in this photo taken thursday june 23 , 2011 , a puerto rican parrot is pictured inside a fly cage at el yunque national forest protected habitat in luquillo , puerto rico . the parrots are one of about 34 amazon parrots ' species found in the americas . they are known for the bright red shock of feathers at their forehead , white rings around their eyes and the shimmering blue feathers under their wings . the puerto rican parrot has hovered at the edge of extinction for decades but is now making a bit of a comeback . ( ap photo / ricardo arduengo )
the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) had shared its habitat with the peaceful taino indians for centuries before the arrival of european settlers in the caribbean . status and trends upon arrival of the spanish in 1493 , the puerto rican parrot lived in all major habitats of puerto rico and the adjacent smaller islands of culebra , mona , vieques , and possibly the virgin islands ( snyder et al . 1987 ) . more
the puerto rican parrot is the only endemic parrot found within the united states and its territories and is one of the ten most endangered birds in the world . upon the arrival of columbus to puerto rico in 1493 , the puerto rican parrot numbered approximately a million birds . by the 1930’s that number had reduced to approximately 2000 birds . by 1954 to an estimated 200 birds . by 1964 to 70 birds . more
the puerto rican parrot mostly flies but sometimes it walks . it is a fast moving animal and that is important for its survival because its predators are also fast moving .
with a total population numbering 295 birds , only 60 of which live in the wild , the puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) holds the unenviable title of one of the world’s 10 most endangered birds . a subspecies , a . v . gracilipes , once found on neighboring culebra , mona and vieques islands , is now extinct .
the first comprehensive collection of essays and interviews aimed at documenting the political and social activism of diverse puerto rican organizations since the 1960s , and their collective struggles for civil rights , community empowerment , and the liberation of puerto rico from us colonial rule .
two wild populations have been established . that at rio abajo is comprised entirely of captive - bred birds , while the loquillo national forest ( el yunque ) in eastern puerto rico is home to both wild and released individuals . before releases were initiated , detailed studies of the hispaniolan parrot ( amazona ventralis ) were conducted in the dominican republic and used as a template for the puerto rican amazon’s return to the wild .
francez pac , ribeiro - rodrigues em , santos seb . allele frequencies and statistical data obtained from 48 aim indel loci in an admixed population from the brazilian amazon .
great cookbook ! i ' m tired of eating the same puerto . . .
. naturalization and invasion of alien plants in puerto rico and the virgin islands .
. lista de especies de traqueofitos de punta guayanés , yabucoa , puerto rico .
i have used this book for almost 40 years and was so excited to be able to give one of the same to a friend who is eager to learn puerto rican cooking .
flight : puerto rican parrot performs fast flight with rapid wing beats . it prefers to fly along valleys and ridges rather than over peaks . this species is usually noisy in flight .
major studies on puerto rican migration , especially those written by north american scholars in the 1950s and 1960s , were focused on problem - oriented or blaming - the - victim cultural - deficit models commonly found in studies of poverty among us minorities . these studies tended to recycle some common stereotypes and misconceptions about the disadvantaged conditions of puerto rican migrants . the emergence of puerto rican studies as a field of academic inquiry in the late 1960s and 1970s fostered new historical and socioeconomic analyses of puerto rican migration and the formation of a us diaspora . it also generated a sustained critique of the shortcomings of previous scholarship and addressed the connections between us colonial domination in puerto rico and the structural and political factors that propelled island puerto ricans to migrate to the united states . new migration studies also began to document the history of puerto rican settlement and formation of stateside communities , and to draw attention to migrants’ productive lives and contributions to us society . this new historiography about the diaspora includes several notable works . centro history task force 1979 and centro oral history task force 1998 introduce groundbreaking historical and socioeconomic frameworks for analyzing puerto rican labor migration . sánchez korrol 1994 is the first study to offer a detailed account of the historical development of new york city’s puerto rican community during the early decades of the 20th century . this particular book emphasizes the collective activism of pioneer migrants to create numerous cultural , social , and political community organizations that facilitated the process of adaptation and survival in us society . torres and velázquez 1998 , an edited volume on the puerto rican movement , includes a substantive number of examples that illustrate different forms of social and political engagement during the years of the civil rights movement . duany 2002 analyzes the contemporary transnational dynamics of a puerto rican nation moving between the island and the many us communities of settlement . the increasing demographic dispersion of puerto ricans to other geographic destinations besides new york city has compelled researchers to focus on the establishment and evolution of other communities . whalen and vázquez - hernández 2005 is an edited volume that emphasizes old and new patterns of puerto rican settlement at various geographic locations . lastly , few puerto rican migration studies provide a historical narrative that interweaves the history of puerto rico with the formation of its diaspora . duany 2002 , acosta - belén and santiago 2006 , and ayala and bernabe 2009 stand out in this regard .
morera b , barrantes r , marin - rojas r . gene admixture in the costa rican population .
population of puerto rican parrot was once estimated at around a million individuals . as of 2008 there are around fifty left in the wild , and around 220 in breeding programmes run by the multi - agency puerto rican parrot recovery program ( which originally involved scientists and managers from the us fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) , the us forest service and the puerto rico department of natural and environmental resources , with added support provided by the world wildlife fund ) . more
bonilla c , shriver md , parra ej , jones a , fernandez jr . ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in puerto rican women from new york city .
behaviour : puerto rican parrot feeds mainly on seeds , fruits , leaves , flowers and bark of numerous plants’ species such as trees , shrubs and vines . it usually avoids the small fruits .
oleksyk tk , guiblet w , pombert jf , valentin r , martinez - cruzado jc : genomic data of the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) from a locally funded project . gigascience .
francez pac , rodrigues emr , frazão gf , borges ndr , santos seb . allelic frequencies and statistical data obtained from 12 codis str loci in an admixed population of the brazilian amazon .
while the puerto rican parrot’s life expectancy is from 20 to 25 years , the first parrot to be born in captivity in 1979 , pepo , is still alive and he is 33 years old .
originally throughout forests on puerto rico ranging from moist montane forest down to littoral . . .
very interesting use of a puerto rico asthma population for admixture mapping of potential disease loci .
. the effects of hurricane hugo and posterior recuperation in toro negro forest , puerto rico .
this purchase was replacing my old one lost in relocating from nj to fl . i ' ve had a copy of puerto rican for over 30 years and love it to death . it ' s a great book for cooking puerto rican food . the recipes are easy to understand and follow , and the food always turns out great . i ' m so glad i was able to replace it !
the puerto rican sample was found to be broadly heterogeneous . we observed three main clusters in the population , which we hypothesize to reflect the historical admixture in the puerto rican population from amerindian , african and european ancestors . we present evidence for this interpretation by comparing allele frequencies for the three clusters with those for the same snps available from the international hapmap project for asian , african and european populations .
city council speaker melissa mark - viverito says the popular outrage that has sent longtime parade sponsors scurrying in horror is being “orchestrated” by “an ultra right - wing” element that favors puerto rican statehood over independence .
the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) has become an iconic and high - profile conservation species . the cornerstone of the recovery plan for this critically endangered species is an active captive breeding program , management of the wild population , and a long - term reintroduction program . in 2002 , 40 adult puerto rican parrots that had not produced viable offspring were selected for . . . [ show full abstract ]
christian , c . , t . lacher jr , m . zamore , t . potts , g . burnett . 1996 . parrot conservation in the lesser antilles with some comparison to the puerto rican efforts .
lacy rc , flesness nr , seal us , ballou jd , foose tj , bruning d , dierenfeld e , kollias gv , snyder nfr , wildt d : puerto rican parrotamazona vittatapopulation viability analysis and recommendations .
the puerto rican parrot’s behavior is mostly calm . they are always in groups because if there is any danger , they can protect and help each other . the puerto rican parrot is a monogamous species , which means that they chose their mate and stay with them for life . this makes it hard to recover the species from being endangered because it takes more time to reproduce . the connection between the two parrots is so strong that if the mate dies it can take up to ten years for the parrot to look for another mate . the puerto rican parrot lives in families of at least ten parrots but is also very territorial .
puerto rico and formerly neighbouring islands of mona and culebra ; possibly vieques and st . thomas .
population stratification of the puerto rico sample as represented by the structure version 2 . 2 triangle plot
the population of wild puerto rican parrots , among the most endangered birds in the world , has languished for decades , with several dozen remaining birds unable to break through the bottleneck that prevents their numbers . . .
the puerto rican parrot is herbivorous and it feeds on flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar . they nest in vacant tree trunk cavities and show a preference for certain types of trees . they usually nest between seven and fifteen meters above the ground and the male will usually find the nesting site , though both the male and female will inspect it , clean it and settle in it . the puerto rican amazon mates for life and reproduces only once a year . the female lays only two to four eggs , which she incubates herself . the chicks are very dependent and remain with the parents for a year after hatching .
admixture in the population of the island of puerto rico is of general interest with regards to pharmacogenetics to develop comprehensive strategies for personalized healthcare in latin americans . this research was aimed at determining the frequencies of snps in key physiological , pharmacological and biochemical genes to infer population structure and ancestry in the puerto rican population .
the number one predator of the puerto rican parrot is the puerto rican red tail hawk . other enemies are the puerto rican boa constrictor , bats , snakes , honey bees , black rats , indian mongoose , the mosquito parasite and the pearly - eyed thrasher . the mosquito parasite eats them alive by releasing a substance almost like morphine and they will be feeding themselves from the flesh of the parrot without the parrot feeling it . the pearly - eyed thrasher is the most damaging because it goes down into the parrots nest and instead of eating one egg or one parrot like the others predators , it will eat all the eggs or all the chicks .
) . puerto rican amazons usually search for food in pairs . they have also been known to feed on corn crops , a food source that only recently became available to them through agricultural changes in the past century .
the puerto rican parrot has gone through hard times and good times but the recovery programs have helped a lot with the population . there are many challenges to still come for the puerto rican parrot because their favorite nesting tree , the palo colorado is endangered itself . in addition hurricanes will continue to be a threat for the population . as scientists are learning more about the parrots’ behavior and habitat they will be able to help them better in the future .
genome variation and ancestry in the puerto rican population were analyzed using 332 snps from 196 cardiometabolic and neuroendocrine genes . according to the results , a trichotomous structure with european , amerindian and west - african contributions can be ascertained ( see
the puerto rican parrot , amazona vittata , is the only native parrot species in puerto rico and , unfortunately , it is an endangered species . therefore , it is very important for the department of natural and environmental resources ( dner ) to preserve existing individuals and their habitat , as well as supervising recovery programs for the species . more
ribeiro dos santos akc , pereira jm , lobato mrf , carvalho bm , guerreiro jf , santos seb . dissimilarities in the process of formation of curiaú , a semi - isolated afro - brazilian population of the amazon region .
the puerto rican amazon reaches sexual maturity between three and four years of age . it reproduces once a year and is a cavity nester . once the female lays eggs she will remain in the nest and continuously incubate them until hatching . the chicks are fed by both parents and will fledge 60 to 65 days after hatching . this parrot ' s diet is varied and consists of flowers , fruits , leaves , bark and nectar obtained from the forest canopy .
the numbers of this endangered parrot dropped to 13 ( in the wild ) a few years ago . find puerto rican parrot facts in this article , inclduing its life and what measures are being taken to prevent them from becoming extinct .
the puerto rican parrot is a one - foot long bird . it has an emerald green body , a red forehead , wide white eye rings , blue primary wing feathers , flesh colored bill and feet , and a pale beak .
in my opinion it’s the best puerto ricsn cook book . i mean , my mother had this book .
( asclepiadaceae ) from puerto rico and a new name for a jamaican species of calyptranthes ( myrtaceae ) .
collar , n . , boesman , p . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . puerto rican amazon ( amazona vittata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
vallinoto imvc , vallinoto acr , valente cmd , guerreiro jf . allele frequency distributions of six hypervariable loci ( d1s80 , apob , d4s43 , vw1 , f13a and dys19 ) in two african - brazilian communities from the amazon region .
habitat : puerto rican parrot frequents wet forests from moist mountainous forests down to coastal scrub forests and mangroves . this species was formerly in most forested areas in mountains and lowlands . it is now confined between 200 and 600 metres of elevation .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto puerto rican parrot utters distinctive “kar…kar” while flying . each note is given on descending scale . it also gives loud squawks when taking off , and some chuckling notes . when perched , both mates perform duets .
. stahl y la botanica en puerto rico . in : acevedo - rodriguez , pedro ( ed . ) ,
. stahl and the botany of puerto rico . in : acevedo - rodriguez , pedro ( ed . ) ,
agustin stahl ' s estudios para la flora de puerto rico , illustrated facsimile of the first edition . 3 volums
where found : puerto rico and formerly neighbouring islands of mona and culebra ; possibly vieques and st . thomas .
the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vitatta ) is losing habitat to severe weather conditions . whether it is a matter of climate change is being debated . ecologists and activists are trying to determine the effect of climate change on bird species . in its report “state of the bird 2010 , ” the u . s . fish and wildlife service reported that climate change is adversely affecting the habitat of the only parrot species native to the united states , the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vitatta ) . more
the puerto rican amazon parrot ( amazona vittata ) is also sometimes called the iguaca – a name given to the bird by the taïno indians based on the sound that the parrots make . the puerto rican parrot is so critically endangered that it is listed as one of the ten most endangered bird species on the planet . despite the fact that efforts to save this species from extinction started in 1968 , it currently seems as though conservationists may be facing a loosing battle . therefore , if you are fortunate enough to see one during your travels , you can count yourself among the privileged few . while these birds were once abundant on both the mainland and the surrounding islands , they are now restricted mainly to the protected forests of the caribbean national forest .
palha tjbf , ribeiro - rodrigues em , ribeiro - dos - santos a , guerreiro jf , moura lss , santos s . male ancestry structure and interethnic admixture in african - descent communities from the amazon as revealed by y - chromosome strs .
the puerto rican parrot is unique in that , since 2001 , all known nesting in the wild has occurred in standardized artificial cavities , which also provided us a unique opportunity to evaluate nest site selection without confounding effects of the actual nest cavity characteristics . more
the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) has become an iconic and high - profile conservation species . the cornerstone of the recovery plan for this critically endangered species is an active captive breeding program , management of the wild population , and a long - term reintroduction program . in 2002 , 40 adult puerto rican parrots that had not produced viable offspring were selected for reproductive assessment at 2 aviary populations in puerto rico ( iguaca and río abajo ) , which are the only sources of parrots for release . the goal was to enhance reproductive potential and produce productive pairings in an attempt to augment the population growth and provide ample individuals for reintroduction . seven hispanolian amazon parrots ( amazona ventralis ) that were used as surrogate parents for the puerto rican parrots were also included in the study . this assessment included physical examination , endoscopic evaluation , hematologic and plasma biochemical profiles , viral screening , and hormonal assays . results of general physical examination and hematologic and plasma biochemical testing revealed overall good health and condition of this subset of the population of puerto rican parrots ; no major infectious diseases were found . endoscopic examination also revealed overall good health and condition , especially of females . the apparent low fertility of male birds warrants further investigation . the findings helped to define causes of reproductive failure in the selected pairs and individual birds . new pairings resulting from the assessment helped to augment reproduction of this critically endangered species .
agustin stahl ' s estudios para la flora de puerto rico , illustrated facsimile of the first edition . 3 volums .
núñez - garcía , f . and torres - báez , p . ( 2008 ) technical / agency draft recovery plan for the puerto rican parrot ( amazona vittata ) . u . s . fish and wildlife service , georgia , usa . available at : urltoken
reproduction is difficult because the puerto rican parrot is monogamous , so when a male finds a female and she accept him ( or vice versa ) those first weeks are the most crucial for their reproduction . that’s why it is so important not to bother them .
in 1989 hurricane hugo struck destroying about 60 % of el yunque national forest . this devastated the puerto rican parrot population and only 24 birds survived . that’s when the program got more aggressive by building aviaries , monitoring areas , and studying the parrots more closely .
a pair of puerto rican parrots at their nest on the island ' s luquillo national forest . fewer than 45 birds remain in the wild , making this one of the world ' s most endangered species . ( courtesy u . s . fish and wildlife service ) may 6 , 2008 - berkeley - the population of wild puerto rican parrots , among the most endangered birds in the world , has languished for decades , with several dozen remaining birds unable to break through the bottleneck that prevents their numbers from growing . more
for inference of the major ancestry contributions within the puerto rican population , a bayesian clustering algorithm was used . the analysis of the pg - array derived informative markers data with the structure version 2 . 2 software shows that the samples readily separate into three clusters . in
though the puerto rican amazon has several natural predators – none of these have been more detrimental to the longevity of the bird than man . loss of habitat and capture of live birds for pets have been among the leading causes for this bird’s near extinction . while captive breeding efforts are paying off , the wild bird population is still perilously close to extinction . so the next time you see one of these inquisitive looking birds , spare a thought for all the hard work that is going into preserving them for future generations .
formerly known as amazona vittata , the puerto rican parrot is sadly close to extinction . considered as a magnificent parrot that was once abundant throughout the south american country of puerto rico , this bird is now just a small , wild population that lives in the caribbean national forest rainforest . to ensure this parrot exists , a number of programs have been created providing needed research and intervention . more
maricao is puerto rico ' s top coffee growing region , with lush vegetation , spectacular birdlife . . . . read more
tang h , choudhry s , mei r , et al . recent genetic selection in the ancestral admixture of puerto ricans .
choudhry s , burchard eg , borrell ln , et al . ancestry - environment interactions and asthma risk among puerto ricans .
a moderate correlation between skin color ( melanin index ) and ancestry has been reported using 36 aims in a puerto rican sample settled in new york city [ 46 ] . this relationship was explained as a result of population structure due to admixture stratification in the puerto rican sample . the individuals were of primarily european ancestry ( 53 . 3 ± 2 . 8 % ) but also had relatively large proportions of west african ( 29 . 1 ± 2 . 3 % ) and amerindian ( 17 . 6 ± 2 . 4 % ) ancestry .
they thought the species is going to be extinct , so we need to keep in captivity a representation of what was a puerto rican parrot ,
said velez , who has worked for the program for 21 years .
but the species really showed resilience .
ancestral contributions to the puerto rican population have been estimated by using polymorphic blood group and protein marker data , as 45 % european , 37 % west african , and 18 % amerindian [ 39 ] . notably , analysis of mitochondrial dna in puerto ricans living in the island revealed a higher amerindian contribution of nearly 53 % [ 38 ] . by contrast , both a set of 61 y chromosome snps ( y - snps ) and 11 core y - short tandem repeats ( strs ) pointed to a much larger european paternal contribution in puerto ricans [ 40 ] . despite regional variation , there have been reported low levels of hispanic y - str haplotype heterogeneity in previous surveys , although the higher frequency of african - derived y chromosomes in the east is consistent with a greater contribution of puerto rican and cuban hispanics to east coast us populations [ 41 – 43 ] . the contributions of the three parental populations to contemporary puerto ricans have been ascertained using a set of 35 autosomal ancestry informative markers ( aims ) [ 44 ] . the analysis provided evidence of a puerto rican gene - pool having european , west african and amerindian origins , with larger european and west african components but an unquestionable amerindian contribution .
like most parrots , puerto rican amazons are diurnal . they are usually found foraging in the trees for most of the day . these birds fly in flocks , but are usually sedentary in their nest during the breeding season , using their green plumage to hide and be secretive .
the results from this study provide further evidence of the unique trihybrid model of genetic admixture in the puerto rican population . evidence for the trihybrid model was also obtained by comparing allele frequencies for the three clusters with those for the same snps in reference populations from the hapmap project .
in the past , the prognosis would have been grim .
that probably would have been a dead bird ,
said jafet velez , a biologist who manages the puerto rican parrot breeding center in the el yunque national forest , one of two such facilities on the island .
establishing additional populations in the wild is a pivotal recovery action outlined in the recovery plan for the puerto rican parrot . with a third wild population in puerto rico we will minimize the species’ risk of extinction and foster its recovery because it is unlikely that catastrophic events ( e . g . , hurricanes ) , and other threats ( e . g . , predation ) , will affect equally all three locations .
with only 40 puerto rican parrots left in the wild , the species is pretty close to extinction . however , dr . jaime collazo , an associate professor of zoology at north carolina state university , refuses to let that happen . and , in a move aimed at improving the species more
the puerto rican amazon typically occurs in pairs , with nests made in natural tree cavities and used year after year ( 2 ) . the breeding season is from late february to july ( 7 ) and the clutch size ranges from two to four eggs , although many pairs fail to lay eggs in a season ( 2 ) . incubation is performed by the female only , and lasts for around 26 days ( 6 ) . young fledge at approximately nine weeks of age ( 6 ) ( 8 ) and reach sexual maturity after three to five years ( 8 ) .
the achievement of the assembled puerto rican parrot genome is an important milestone for unusual reasons . first , the genome project was funded by student organized art and fashion shows dedicated to the effort plus scores of small personal donations by puerto rican people who wanted to be part of it . that could only happen when the cost of reagents had dropped so precipitously that it can be afforded within a $ 10 , 000 usd budget . second , the analysis and annotation took place in a modest university setting where students of genome bioinformatics were trained to drive assemblers , to stitch together contigs and scaffolds , and to begin the genome annotation process . third , the puerto rican parrot is a harbinger for the many parrot genomes we shall be seeing in the near future : the opportunity to explore speciation and adaptive radiation among island species of these parrots is too tempting to pass up ( figure


cerithiopsis pulvis is a species of sea snail , a gastropod in the family cerithiopsidae , which is known from european waters , including the mediterranean sea .

it was described by issel , in 1869 .

cerithiopsis pulvis

( of cerithium pulvis issel , 1869 ) issel , a . ( 1869 ) . malacologia del mar rosso . ricerche zoologiche e paleontologiche . biblioteca malacologica , pisa . xi + 387 pp . , pls 1 - 5 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 150 [ details ]
nomenclature the generic name nanopsis cecalupo & robba , 2010 is invalid because preoccupied by nanopsis freytag , 1974 [ an insect of order homoptera ] . anyway the taxonomic validity of the genus has been questioned ( oliver et al . , 2012 : 66 ) so that this and other species of cerithiopsidae which have been assigned to nanopsis are here accepted under cerithiopsis . [ details ]
( of nanopsis pulvis ( issel , 1869 ) ) cecalupo a . & robba e . ( 2010 ) the identity of murex tubercularis montagu , 1803 and description of one new genus and two new species of the cerithiopsidae ( gastropoda : triphoroidea ) . bollettino malacologico 46 : 45 - 64 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
galil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
nomenclature the generic name nanopsis cecalupo & robba , 2010 is invalid because preoccupied by nanopsis freytag , 1974 [ an insect of . . .
cecalupo a . & robba e . ( 2010 ) the identity of murex tubercularis montagu , 1803 and description of one new genus and two new species of the cerithiopsidae ( gastropoda : triphoroidea ) . bollettino malacologico 46 : 45 - 64 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453
( issel , 1869 ) . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at
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