stigmella prunetorum is a moth of the nepticulidae family .

it is found in all of europe ( except the ireland , the iberian peninsula and the mediterranean islands ) .

the wingspan is 4.3-4.7 mm .

adults are on wing in may .

the larvae feed on prunus armeniaca , prunus avium , prunus brigantina , prunus cerasifera , prunus cerasus , prunus cocomilia , prunus domestica , prunus insititia , prunus spinosa and prunus triloba .

they mine the leaves of their host plant .

the mine consists of a corridor , running in several half or whole circles around the oviposition ( egg laying ) site .

the last segment breaks loose , and mostly runs along the leaf margin .

stigmella prunetorum

nepticula prunetorum stainton , 1855 . entomol . ann . : 50 . stigmella prunetorum ( stainton , 1855 ) .
- ectoedemia cerris - ectoedemia contorta - ectoedemia gilvipennella - ectoedemia hexapetalae - ectoedemia klimeschi - ectoedemia leucothorax - ectoedemia liechtensteini - ectoedemia phyllotomella - ectoedemia preisseckeri - etainia albibimaculella - fomoria groschkei - fomoria viridissimella - stigmella buhri - trifurcula austriaca - trifurcula beirnei - trifurcula chamaecytisi - trifurcula iberica - trifurcula pallidella - trifurcula serotinella - trifurcula victoris - simplimorpha promissa - enteucha acetosae - stigmella lapponica - stigmella confusella - stigmella freyella - stigmella diniensis - stigmella tiliae - stigmella betulicola - stigmella sakhalinella - stigmella luteella - stigmella glutinosae - stigmella alnetella - stigmella microtheriella - stigmella prunetorum - stigmella aceris - stigmella malella - stigmella rhamnella - stigmella alaternella - stigmella catharticella - stigmella anomalella - stigmella centifoliella - stigmella ulmivora - stigmella viscerella - stigmella thuringiaca - stigmella rolandi - stigmella paradoxa - stigmella regiella - stigmella crataegella - stigmella magdalenae - stigmella nylandriella - stigmella oxyacanthella - stigmella pyri - stigmella minusculella - stigmella desperatella - stigmella hybnerella - stigmella mespilicola - stigmella floslactella - stigmella tityrella - stigmella salicis - stigmella myrtillella - stigmella obliquella - stigmella trimaculella - stigmella assimilella - stigmella sorbi - stigmella plagicolella - stigmella lemniscella - stigmella continuella - stigmella aurella - stigmella auromarginella - stigmella splendidissimella - stigmella aeneofasciella - stigmella tormentillella - stigmella dryadella - stigmella poterii - stigmella incognitella - stigmella perpygmaeella - stigmella hemargyrella - stigmella speciosa - stigmella suberivora - stigmella lonicerarum - stigmella basiguttella - stigmella svenssoni - stigmella zangherii - stigmella dorsiguttella - stigmella ruficapitella - stigmella atricapitella - stigmella samiatella - stigmella roborella - stigmella eberhardi - acalyptris platani - acalyptris minimella - glaucolepis alypella - glaucolepis melanoptera - glaucolepis headleyella - glaucolepis saturejae - glaucolepis thymi - glaucolepis teucriella - glaucolepis stoechadella - glaucolepis rosmarinella - glaucolepis bupleurella - glaucolepis bleonella - glaucolepis sp . - glaucolepis sp . - glaucolepis cryptella - glaucolepis eurema - glaucolepis ortneri - trifurcula luteola - trifurcula coronillae - trifurcula subnitidella - trifurcula josefklimeschi - trifurcula silviae - trifurcula immundella - trifurcula orientella - trifurcula aurella - trifurcula squamatella - parafomoria cistivora - parafomoria pseudocistivora - parafomoria helianthemella - parafomoria liguricella - bohemannia pulverosella - bohemannia quadrimaculella - bohemannia auriciliella - etainia obtusa - etainia sericopeza - etainia decentella - etainia louisella - laqueus euphorbiella - fomoria weaveri - fomoria septembrella - zimmermannia atrifrontella - zimmermannia liebwerdella - zimmermannia longicaudella - zimmermannia hispanica - zimmermannia amani - zimmermannia liguricella - ectoedemia intimella - ectoedemia hannoverella - ectoedemia turbidella - ectoedemia argyropeza - ectoedemia caradjai - ectoedemia suberis - ectoedemia andalusiae - ectoedemia quinquella - ectoedemia algeriensis - ectoedemia haraldi - ectoedemia ilicis - ectoedemia heringella - ectoedemia rufifrontella - ectoedemia albifasciella - ectoedemia pubescivora - ectoedemia subbimaculella - ectoedemia heringi - ectoedemia erythrogenella - ectoedemia agrimoniae - ectoedemia angulifasciella - ectoedemia atricollis - ectoedemia arcuatella - ectoedemia rubivora - ectoedemia spinosella - ectoedemia mahalebella - ectoedemia occultella - ectoedemia minimella
stigmella prunetorum ( scarce sloe pigmy ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .
the adult is similar to many other stigmella species . stigmella prunatorum has a black head , white eye - caps and collar . the base of the wing is purplish with a golden area beyond . there is a silvery - white fascia beyond the middle bordered either side by a purplish band .
notes : nationally scarce ( nb ) in woodland , downland and clifftops along the south coast and in the west . on the isle of wight , a few recent records from the north of the island . in hampshire there have been no acceptable records since 1900 . wingspan 4 . 3 - 4 . 7 mm . adults difficult to distinguish from other stigmella species , and more frequently recorded in the larval stage , when mines are relatively easy to find where they are present . larva mines leaves of blackthorn , wild cherry and dwarf cherry , over - wintering as a pupa . the mines are described in the following link : urltoken .
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insect systematics & evolution . ( ejournal / emagazine , 2000 ) [ worldcat . org ]
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : insect systematics & evolution . publisher : stenstrup , denmark : apollo books , 2000 - isbn / issn : 1399 - 560x oclc : 526026810
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insect systematics & evolution ( online ) insect systematics & evolution . insect systematics and evolution
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insect systematics & evolution . / societas entomologica scandinavica . ; ; stenstrup , denmark : apollo books , 2000 -
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a checklist , containing all discribed nepticulidae from the western palaearctic region , is provided . all species - group names given to western palaeartic species are listed , including those in synonymy , whether available or not . eleven new synonymies are established at generic level , and 18 at species level ; 48 new combinations are made and two lectotypes are designated . the arrangement of species reflects present phylogenetic opinion . hostplant data are provided for each species , and a systematic catalogue concludes this paper .
r . de jong ; r . i . vane - wright and p . r . ackery
a nationally scarce species with a rather scattered distribution across the south and west of the uk .
the larvae mine the leaves of prunus spinosa ( blackthorn ) , and occasionally other prunus species , in two generations during july and then september / october . the mine is a contorted gallery . larvae are green .
ukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .
the ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .
looking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .
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leaf - miner : a contorted gallery filled with green frass ( british leafminers ) .
egg at the underside of the leaf , often close to a vein . the mine is a corridor , running in several half or whole circles around the oviposition site . only the last segment breaks loose , and often runs along the leaf margin . the frass is greenish , lying in coils that are so wide as to almost completely fill the corridor ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
larva : the larvae of moths have a head capsule and chewing mouthparts with opposable mandibles ( see video of a gracillarid larva feeding ) , six thoracic legs and abdominal legs ( see examples ) .
the larva is green ( british leafminers ) . bottle green . the larva is described by gustafsson and van nieukerken ( 1990a ) ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
pupa : the pupae of moths have visible head appendages , wings and legs which lie in sheaths ( see examples ) .
adult : the adult is not illustrated in ukmoths ( check for update ) . the species is included in urltoken .
comments : in the older literature also crataegus and even mespilus are mentioned [ as hosts ] . this is surprising , because the mines are so unmistakable ( bladmineerders van europa ) .
time of year - larvae : july , september - early october ( british leafminers ) .
distribution in great britain and ireland : britain including carmarthenshire , dorset , east cornwall , herefordshire and west kent ( nbn atlas ) .
distribution elsewhere : widespread in continental europe including austria , belgium , bulgaria , croatia , czech republic , danish mainland , french mainland , germany , greek mainland , hungary , italian mainland , lithuania , luxembourg , macedonia , republic of moldova , poland , romania , russia - central , slovakia , slovenia , sweden , switzerland , the netherlands , ukraine and yugoslavia ( karsholt and van nieukerken in fauna europaea ) .
prunus armeniaca , prunus avium , prunus cerasifera , prunus cerasus , prunus domestica , prunus domestiva subsp . insititia , prunus spinosa
taxa with small populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable , but are at risk . ( in gb , this was interpreted as species which exist in fifteen or fewer 10km squares ) . superseded by new iucn categories in 1994 , but still applicable to lists that have not been reviewed since 1994 .
taxa with small populations that are not at present endangered or vulnerable , but are at risk . ( in gb , this was interpreted as species which exist in fifteen or fewer 10km squares ) . superseded by new iucn categories in 1994 , so no longer in use .
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the adults fly in two generations a year : may - june , and july - august .
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recorded in 1 ( 1 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1874 . last recorded in 1874 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .


the jamaican ibis , jamaican flightless ibis or clubbed-wing ibis ( xenicibis xympithecus ) is an extinct bird species of the ibis subfamily uniquely characterized by its club-like wings .

it is the only species in the genus xenicibis , and one of only two flightless ibis genera , the other being the genus apteribis endemic to hawaii .

jamaican ibis

the jamaican flightless ibis ( xenicibis xympithecus ) , a bird that became extinct approximately 10 , 000 years ago , possessed clublike wings .
description : this is a 5 star jamaican restaurant recently opened in leicester . we serve freshly prepared , exceptional quality jamaican dishes that are second to none .
drawing of the wing bones of an american white ibis ( left ) and jamaican ibis ( right ) . bones are scaled such that the humeri are the same size to enable easier comparison of morphological changes .
nicholas r . longrich , and storrs l . olson ( 2010 ) . the bizarre wing of the jamaican flightless ibis xenicibis xympithecus : a unique vertebrate adaptation
description : the ultimate jamaican experience in lagos ! we specialize in a variety of jamaican foods including the very popular patties , jerk chicken , oxtail and curry goat , to name a few . jamski serves 100 % authentic jamaican food , 100 % of the time .
ibis young stay in the nest for a relatively long time ,
he said .
the wing of xenicibis ( top ) compared with that of a typical ibis eudocimus ( middle ) and the extinct , flightless ibis apteribis ( bottom ) . from longrich and olson , 2010 .
xenicibis xympithecus is an extinct flightless ibis from jamaica that had an incredibly rare adaptation — it used its wings as clubs .
a member of the ibis family , it was probably about the size of a chicken , but with an infinitely more robust armoury .
xenicibis is a large , extinct , flightless ibis . it was discovered by storrs olson storrs olson storrs olson from the smithsonian institution , who found some partial remains in a jamaican cave in 1977 . when olson eventually saw the bird’s wing bones , he was baffled . they were so “utterly strange” that he thought the animal must have been suffering from some inexplicable disease .
unlike most flightless birds whose wings turned to vestigial and useless stumps , the jamaican flightless ibis retained extremely long wing bones , but they adapted into use for attack . the wing had a long , curved , banana like structure , with a narrow base and heavy tip . it also had a special joint , which allowed it to be smashed downwards at high speed like a club .
i was at jamski for their grand opening last week and i must say its not your typical jamaican restaurant , the variety will keep me coming back to sample the plethora of accessible and affordable caribbean dishes—from the oxtail to the curry goat , to the lustrous yet subtle side dishes i could literally taste their homegrown spices . i wasn ' t surprised to realize all the cooks were jamaican . i definitely got more than my money ' s worth
the jamaican ibis was endemic to jamaica . bones have been excavated from several caves , including the long mile cave , the swansea cave , the jackson ' s bay cave and the red hills fissure . bones from cuba claimed to be of this genus were later identified as those of a limpkin . jamaica and cuba have always been separated by the sea , so it is improbable that a flightless species could reach the other islands .
. . . a roughened area on the carpometacarpal extensor process of phorusrhacos led andrews ( 1901 ) to suggest the presence of a spur or knob used in intraspecific combat . the club - like , thick - walled carpometacarpi of the jamaican ibis xenicibis were interpreted by longrich & olson ( 2011 ) as weapons used in combat . such a role is supported by the presence of healed carpometacarpal and humeral injuries in two specimens . . . .
the initial description of xenicibis was followed two years later by the discovery of a humerus ( upper arm bone ) found in jamacia’s swansea cave . the unusual , robust nature of this bone led olson and steadman to believe that xenicibis was flightless that had evolved on jamacia . along with another fossil flightless ibis – apteribis glenos – described by olson and colleague a . wetmore in 1976 , xenicibis was one of the first flightless ibis to be recognized by science .
while doubtless used for defense , as the ibis evolved its flightlessness on an island filled with predators , it ' s thought the club wing was used against other members of the same species , as evidenced by the high number of fractured bones found in the skeletal remains .
chichester art i did not do any wildlife today , but jean and i had an interesting day of art in chichester . first , we went to see the john minton centenary exhibition at the pallant gallery . minton was a rather sad and tortured artist who committed suicide aged 39 . his art was not great , but he was a fine illustrator and did a large number of books and other things . his paintings included a huge mural called ' jamaican village ' .
. . . birds , however , have been largely ignored until now . hitherto , only about ten fossil bird species were known from the pleistocene of jamaica ( morgan , 1993 ; mcfarlane et al . , 2002 ) , one of which is xenicibis xympithecus , a now - extinct , flightless ibis ( olson and steadman , 1977 ; longrich and olson , 2011 ) . . . .
a very well written and presented article , tying in aspects of larmarckism whilst relating the importance of this new work on the genus xenicibis . the lack of native predators , ( excepting the presence of one or two birds of prey ) , leads me to suspect that the wings evolved for intraspecific combats , perhaps over nesting sites . after all , a number of extant ibis are extremely territorial .
the skeleton of the sacred ibis of the ancient egyptians , as found in mummified form in egyptian tombs , from a paper cuvier had published in 1804 . cuvier identified this bird to be comparable to modern species . however since it was distinctly different from the living bird commonly identified as the same species , it had been used ( by other naturalists ) as evidence for the gradual
transformation or evolution of animals over long periods of time ( from rudwick 1997 ) .
xenicibis might have used its wings to clobber enemies in defence . unlike its living cousins , this ibis couldn’t fly . many island birds lose the ability to fly because they aren’t threatened by any land predators . as a result , their wings become small and stunted , as in the kiwi or the flightless cormorant of the galapagos . but prehistoric jamaica had no shortage of predators , including a boa , an extinct monkey , and several birds of prey . defence would have been important .
the bedrooms are medium in size but are larger than the majority of the rooms in ibis properties in benelux . they are in very good condition and have recently benefitted from a make over where the colour scheme is a more attractive cream and beige , with wooden flooring and lcd televisions , along with a media hub in all rooms . the bathrooms are also in good condition and although with shower only , the showers are large with glass doors and are generally quite modern and attractive .
fortunately , there are a few indications that xenicibis truly was a fightin’ ibis . other than the fact that some modern birds fight with their wings , longrich and olson cite two broken arm bones which show signs of healing . one , a humerus , began to heal after being split in two , and the other , a carpometacarpus , has a large callus of bone which probably grew in response to a fracture . these findings are consistent with the idea that these birds were using their wings to strike each other .
what remains unknown is what individual xenicibis were fighting and why . the most plausible answer is “other xenicibis . ” since there is no indication that the anatomy of the weapon differed between males and females , longrich and olson propose that xenicibis fought each other over territory , particularly for good nesting spots . the wing clubs could have also been used to fight off predators , too , and this brings up an important point . we can generate ideas about the function of the bird’s wings by looking at their anatomy and come up with multiple possible uses , but identifying those uses does not tell us why those particular traits evolved in the first place . the clubs of xenicibis may have evolved as a result of ibis - on - ibis combat and could also be used to fight predators once they had already evolved , or perhaps the clubs are some sort of exaptation – a structure used for one function which became co - opted for something else . given the state of the evidence , it is likely that xenicibis used its clubs in combat with each other , but we should not be so careless as to say that the clubs evolved for that function .
while no living ibis shows adaptation of the wing for combat , ibises are highly territorial during nesting and feeding [ 6 , 18 ] , and disputes frequently escalate to fights . of particular note is the fact that plegadis has been seen to grasp its opponent with the bill and then strike with the wings [ 19 ] . in many species , intraspecific combat involves access to mates , but ibises are monogamous [ 5 ] , and there is no evidence that the club is dimorphic . it is therefore likely that intraspecific combat would have focused on securing territory , rather than mates .
it took nearly a century to recognize the strange character of this bird . sometime between 1910 and 1920 the zoologist harold elmer anthony collected a few bird bones from long mile cave in trelawny parish , jamaica . they sat , virtually unnoticed , in the american museum of natural history collections for decades , but in 1977 the ornithologists storrs olson and d . w . steadman used anthony’s fossils to describe the bird as a previously unknown fossil ibis . they named it xenicibis xympithecus . about the size of a chicken , this bird only recently became extinct ( around 2 , 200 years ago according to a table included in the new book holocene extinctions . )
dixon’s restorations are so delightful because they take creatures native to our own sliver of time and transform them into alien shapes . probable or not , they are wonderful because they are both recognizable and alien . the same can be said of actual creatures which existed just yesterday in geological terms . we live in the wake of the earth’s last great extinction . ( in fact , we are arguably still in the midst of it . ) the giant sloths , saber - toothed cats , glyptodonts , mammoths , giant hyenas , and other impressive pleistocene beasts only became extinct within the past 15 , 000 years or so . nor were all the strange creatures charismatic , mammalian megafauna . one odd ibis , first described over thirty years ago , was unlike any other bird to have ever evolved .
the main object of interest is the bird’s bizarre hand . the carpometacarpus – part of the bird’s “hand” you tear the meat off of while having chicken wings – is wider in diameter than the bird’s thigh bone ( femur ) and has extraordinarily - thickened walls . behind this bone , the radius – a lower arm bone in line with the carpometacarpus – was unusually thick compared to the relatively slender companion bone , the ulna . additionally , there was a modified groove – properly called the carpal trochlea – on the end of the carpometacarpus closest to the rest of the body which allowed the wrist to be quickly swung forward in a way different from other avians . this was not the arm of flying bird , but it also differed from the wings of many ground - dwelling birds . rather than becoming reduced or vestigial , the wings of xenicibis actually became heavier and more robust . ( see the comparison of ibis wing skeletons below . )
warblington shore birds peter milinets - raby was out this morning for a couple of hours visiting the shore at warblington ( 6am to 8 : 11am - tide coming in ) . main observations . warblington cemetery extension : 2 green woodpecker . ibis field : 2 chiffchaff , 1 jay , 1 swallow . hedgerow behind conigar point : 1 chiffchaff , 1 sedge warbler , 1 stock dove . conigar point : 1 grey plover , 2 common tern , 2 little egret , 1 whimbrel , 1 snipe flushed by kestrel , 9 dunlin , 7 ringed plover , 1 greenshank . off pook lane : 7 grey plover , 8 dunlin , 14 greenshank ( 5 with colour rings rg / / - + yy / / - & g / / r + yn / / - & g / / r + ll / / - & b / / r + lo / / - & gr / / - + yy / / - ) , 3 common tern . great spotted woodpecker flew over heading across the water to hayling , 7 swallow , 2 yellow wagtail - yellow adult over , then a dull , light brown juvenile landed on the shore for a couple of minutes before flying on - autumn has truly arrived now ! 1 sandwich tern , 9 black - tailed godwit .
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a few million years ago , jamaica was home to one of the strangest boxers in the animal kingdom – a flightless bird called xenicibis xympithecus that could batter its enemies with club - shaped wings .
since then , olson has found more remains including an almost complete skeleton . now , he and his partner nicholas longrich from yale university , have a very different view of the wing . they think it was a club . weapons like clubs and bats have large weighted ends to deliver heavy impacts , and long handles to increase the speed of the swing . that’s exactly what you see in xenicibis ’s wing .
its hand bone ( the metacarpal ) was massive , curved and inflated – perfect for inflicting strong blows . it sat at the end of a long ‘handle’ , made up of the wrist and the forearm – perfect for creating a fast swing . the metacarpal is also hollow , just like many baseball bats are , allowing it to produce a stronger blow without adding too much weight . and its joints allowed it to swing its wing out very quickly , and extend it as far as possible , giving it speed and reach .
the bones are telling , but did xenicibis really punch with its wing ? it’s hard to be sure , especially because there are few modern birds with similar bones to compare against . however , longrich and olson have found some compelling evidence that the bird struck heavy blows with its wings at least two specimens of xenicibis had arm bones that had broken and healed . the first had broken its upper arm ( humerus ) in two and the bones hadn’t knitted together properly . the second had fractured its hand , and a massive callus had grown over the front edge . these birds struck something with enough force to injure themselves .
alternatively , the bird could have boxed with its rivals . longrich and olson note that a couple of flightless birds have similar ( but far less extreme ) forearms , including the steamer duck and the extinct rodriguez island solitaire . and both of these species occasionally use ( or used ) their wings in to beat other individuals in fights .
in fact , many birds use their wings as weapons ( including some ibises ) . some even have special adaptations for combat . waterfowl in particular , such as geese , ducks and swans , have a wide variety of spurs , spikes and bony knobs on their wrists . they use these weapons in battle and conflicts can be very violent ( although there’s some debate about whether swans can actually break a person’s arm ) . xenicibis just expanded on a theme that’s common in the bird world and took it to an evolutionary extreme .
birds have repeatedly evolved flightlessness to exploit insular environments where mammalian predators and competitors are absent , and flightlessness is typically associated with reduction of the forelimbs and pectoral girdle [ 1 , 2 ] . flightlessness has evolved dozens of times in island habitats , and in many taxa , including waterfowl , megapodes , rails , pigeons , parrots [ 2 ] and ibises [ 3 , 4 ] .
later , a partial skeleton prepared from a block of cave breccia ( usnm 460349 ) included the radius , ulna and a carpometacarpus so utterly strange in morphology that it appeared to represent some inexplicable pathology . however , subsequent discoveries of additional material from numerous additional individuals , including almost all of the skeleton ( figure 1 ) , show that the bizarre morphology of the wing represents an adaptation unprecedented among the vertebrates , which we here describe and attempt to interpret .
skeletal reconstruction of xenicibis xympithecus based on usnm 460349 and fossils from the red hills fissure cave deposits , saint andrews parish , jamaica .
the highly modified manus is unlike that of any other bird , flightless or volant ( figure 2 a – d ) . the major metacarpal is massive , inflated , strongly bowed and expanded distally . its diameter is up to 12 . 8 mm dorsoventrally and 9 . 9 mm anteroposteriorly , exceeding the diameter of the femur . the bone is hollow , but the anterior wall is broad and thickened ( figure 2 e ) , being up to 3 mm thick in this area , whereas the cortex of the femur is under 2 mm thick .
wing skeleton of x . xympithecus compared with eudocimus albus and apteribis glenos . ( a ) left carpometacarpus ( usnm 543067 ) in cranial view , ( b ) dorsal view , ( c ) ventral view and ( d ) caudal view . ( e ) major metacarpal ( usnm 543074 ) sectioned at midlength ( note the greatly thickened anterior wall ) . ( f ) radiograph of carpometacarpus of eudocimus compared with ( g ) xenicibis ( usnm 543067 ) . ( h ) composite left wing of xenicibis ( usnm 543067 - 543073 ) compared with ( i ) eudocimus ( usnm 266467 ) and ( j ) apteribis .
the alular metacarpal has a reduced extensor process . the shaft of the minor metacarpal has a thick cortex and a subtriangular section , unlike the strap - like form seen in other birds , and is unusual in being shifted dorsally to lie directly behind the major metacarpal .
the carpal trochlea has a reduced ventral ridge and the articulation for the radiale is symmetrical , pulley - shaped and extended anteriorly . this joint allowed the wrist to swing forward in the plane of the antebrachium , without the complex pronation and supination that occurs in the wing of volant birds [ 10 ] , while the anterior extension of the carpal trochlea permitted hyperextension of the manus .
the proximal phalanx of the major digit is a stubby and block - like element ( figure 2 h ) . it has a subtriangular section and weakly developed articular surfaces .
the radius ( figure 2 h ) is expanded distally to give it a club shape , and it is unlike typical birds in that its diameter exceeds that of the ulna . unusually , the ulna is slender and nearly straight ( figure 2 h ) . its proximal articular surface is on the proximal end of the bone such that the elbow can be fully extended , placing the ulna ' s long axis in line with the humerus . distally , the shaft is dorsoventrally flattened and the articulation for the ulnare is reduced .
the humerus ( figure 2 h ) is typical of flightless birds [ 9 ] except that the shaft is elongate and bowed dorsally . the shaft is slender proximally but expanded distally . the distal end is twisted by approximately 30° such that the articular facets are directed ventrally .
unlike other flightless birds , particularly apteribis , the pectoral girdle is relatively well developed . the coracoids ( figure 3 e ) and furcula ( figure 3 f ) are large and robust . the sternal carina ( figure 3 g ) , while reduced compared with volant ibises , is large when compared with that of apteribis or other flightless birds .
selected skeletal elements of x . xympithecus from the red hills fissure cave deposits , representing multiple individuals . skull elements : ( a ) rostrum ( usnm 543075 ) and mandible ( usnm 543076 ) in lateral view and ( b ) dorsal view ; ( c ) cranial cap ( usnm 543077 ) in left lateral view and ( d ) dorsal view . pectoral girdle : ( e ) coracoid ( usnm 543078 ) , ( f ) clavicle ( usnm 543079 ) and ( g ) two fragments of sternal carina ( usnm 543081 and 54080 ) . hindlimb : ( h ) tibiotarsus ( usnm 543084 ) , ( i ) femur ( usnm 543083 ) and ( j ) tarsometatarsus ( usnm 543085 ) . pelvis ( usnm 543082 ) : ( k ) dorsal view and ( l ) lateral view .
other skeletal elements show modification , albeit less extreme . as in other ibises , the beak is long and decurved ( figure 3 a , b ) , but the tip is knob - like , as in apteribis , rather than spatulate . the parietals and frontals ( figure 3 d ) are thickened by a honeycomb of cancellous bone . the vertebrae and notarium are robust , but otherwise unremarkable . the hindlimb ( figure 3 h – j ) resembles that of apteribis in being massive , with a shortened tibia and tarsometatarsus . the anterior portion of the ilium is dorsally expanded to form a tall crest and the synsacrum is robust ( figure 3 k , l ) , again resembling apteribis .
adaptation for a terrestrial , flightless lifestyle is correlated with hypertrophy of the hindlimbs and pelvis , and reduction of the forelimbs and pectoral girdle [ 1 , 2 ] . in this context , the long forelimbs and well - developed pectoral girdle of xenicibis suggest that the wings were not functionless vestiges . the twisted humerus , short antebrachium and massive , bowed metacarpus make it extremely unlikely that its wing could have functioned in flight ; but the extreme modification of the forelimb argues that the wings had been adapted to function in some capacity .
attempts to identify avian analogues are complicated by the unique morphology of xenicibis . the distally expanded radius does find parallels among steamer ducks ( tachyeres spp . ; n . r . longrich 2010 , personal observation ) and the extinct rodriguez island solitaire ( pezophaps solitaria , columbidae [ 11 ] ) . in those species , the wings are ( or were ) used to deliver hammering blows to conspecifics [ 11 , 12 ] , suggesting that the wing of xenicibis may have functioned as a weapon . perhaps a better analogue is to be found among some of the mantis shrimps ( stomatopoda : gonodactyloidea ) ; these have a club - like , distally inflated dactyl that is used to strike prey and conspecifics [ 13 ] , again hinting that xenicibis may have used the club - shaped hands to deliver blows .
we therefore propose that the wing of xenicibis functioned as a club or flail . several features of the limb would have facilitated this function . kinetic energy is the product of mass and velocity squared ; accordingly , weapons such as clubs and flails have a long handle to increase the angular velocity of the club , and are heavily weighted to increase the mass accelerated by the swing , and the centre of mass is near the end of the club , where the angular velocity is highest . precisely this design is seen in the hand of xenicibis , where the end of the wing is massive , and the proximal metacarpus and long forelimb could act as a handle . the comparatively weak wrist joint does not preclude such a function , because during impact a club acts as a free body [ 14 ] ; the hollow metacarpal also allows the hand to achieve greater strength for a given amount of material , much like an aluminium baseball bat [ 14 ] .
several morphological adaptations would have further increased the wing ' s effectiveness as a weapon . reduction of the extensor process and elongation of the manus would decrease the mechanical advantage of the wing extensors , producing a more rapid wing extension . the retention of long wing bones allows the forelimb to be swung rapidly , while the ability to hyperextend at the elbow and wrist increase the wing ' s effective length , and therefore its angular velocity when swung .
this hypothesis can be tested by looking for direct evidence of agonistic behaviour in the form of traumatic injuries sustained from delivering or receiving blows . fractures are common in pugnacious birds such as the steamer ducks and solitaire [ 11 , 12 ] , and are therefore predicted to occur in xenicibis . two bones of xenicibis show evidence of healed fractures . the first is a humerus that was broken in two ( figure 4 a ) ; a fracture callus indicates healing although the bones failed to knit . the second specimen ( usnm 460349 ) is a carpometacarpus ( figure 4 b ) with a massive callus overgrowing the anterior surface of the major metacarpal and extending inside the bone as well ; the hand apparently suffered an impact that fractured the anterior wall of the metacarpal .
fossils of xenicibis showing evidence of trauma . ( a ) fractured left humerus ( usnm 543086 and 543087 ) showing fracture callus ( fc ) : ( i ) photograph ; ( ii ) radiograph . ( b ) carpometacarpus of xenicibis ( usnm 460349 ) with rugose fracture callus on anterior , dorsal and ventral surfaces of the major metacarpal : ( i ) photograph ; ( ii ) radiograph showing development of callus inside the medullary cavity .
we thank ross macphee for the opportunity to study the red hills fossils . discussions with helen f . james and richard l . zusi and guidance from b . rosemary grant were helpful in developing this project . n . r . l . received support from an nsf graduate research fellowship , an alberta ingenuity graduate studentship and the yale institute for biospheric studies . finally , we thank the reviewers for their helpful reviews of this paper . fossil specimens are deposited in the department of paleobiology , national museum of natural history ( usnm ) , smithsonian institution , washington , dc .
descriptions of thirty - two new species of birds from the hawaiian islands . part i . non - passeriformes
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this is the only known example of a vertebrate adapting a limb into club .
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ornithologists speculate that the wings were used as weapons , in the manner of a club or flail , similar to the adaptations found in some mantis shrimps ( stomatopoda : gonodactyloidea ) that possess a club - like distally inflated dactyl used to strike prey and other shrimps . however , among birds , this adaption appears to be unique . adaptations of the wing to fight in birds is an example of contingency in which various bird species find different solutions to the same problem based in chance .
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what comes next for evolution ? this seems like a simple question . every day we are learning more about the history of life on earth , and we would expect that , over 150 years since charles darwin published on the origin of species , the life of the past could be used to extrapolate the trajectory of evolution’s arrow . regarding our own species , especially , there is a pervasive desire to know what our distant descendants might be like .
but this question is flawed . even though there are evolutionary constraints – not everything we can imagine is possible – life is not following a tightly - restricted road of progress towards a pre - determined goal . natural selection , the primary engine of evolutionary change , generates both diversity and disparity – charles darwin’s “endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful” – as organisms are constantly subjected to changing conditions . there is no way to create an evolutionary law or take everything into account so that we can predict what will exist one thousand , one million , one billion years in the future . that is part of the wonder of evolutionary science . we can’t know how the vast array of lineages we see around us today are going to change in years to come , but we still feel compelled to ask what the future holds .
this isn’t to say that we can’t have a little fun with speculation . in 1981 the scottish geologist dougal dixon published one of the lasting cult favorites of paleontologists – after man : a zoology of the future . imagining the world 50 million years after our extinction – which , one takes it , is probably not all that far off in geological terms – dixon takes the reader on a tour of the world’s ecosystems . there is an odd familiarity to all of it , seeing the prospective descendants of modern creatures twisted into new and bizarre forms . in the seas , fully aquatic descendants of penguins ( the vortex and the porpin ) have replaced the long - extinct whales , the long - legged rabbucks stride across the grasslands , and my personal favorite , a terrestrial bat dixon calls the night stalker , “roams screeching and screaming” in search of prey under the cover of darkness .
( dixon also wrote two similar books : the new dinosaurs [ 1988 ] , chronicling the evolutionary history of still - living non - avian dinosaurs , and man after man [ 1991 ] , a grotesque gallery of future humans modified through bioengineering . after man was arguably his most successful outing , however ; it was turned into a documentary and cartoon in japan . )
the complete skeleton of xenicibis , based upon multiple individuals , as reconstructed by nicholas longrich . from longrich and olson , 2010 .
there must be a reason why xenicibis had such strange wings . the trouble is that no other bird had wings quite like it . spurs , spikes , and other wing weapons are seen among birds like steamer ducks – which use them in combat with members of their own species – but nothing as extreme as the banana wings of xenicibis . ( the closest thing , storrs and longrich suggest , might be the formidable claws of mantis shrimp , though this analogy breaks down in terms of anatomy and function – imagine xenicibis using its wings to trap and consume prey ! ) being that many birds do have a modified carpometacarpus used for combat , however , it is a reasonable hypothesis that the odd wings of xenicibis were used as some kind of club or flail . the bird could have swung its arms so that the wide , thick parts of the carpometacarpus near the tip of the wing struck its opponent .
the actual manner in which xenicibis fought is not discussed in the paper – i assume that will be the focus of further research – but longrich and olson propose that the unique weaponry of this bird underscores a grander theme of evolutionary change . of all the birds which have spurs , spikes , and clubs on their wings , none was quite like xenicibis . despite similar evolutionary pressures – fighting one another for territory , mates , or some other resource – multiple species of birds from various lineages have been adapted to have very different weaponry , with xenicibis having the oddest of all . even when selective pressures are the same , evolutionary quirks and contingencies can generate quite different outcomes .
as strange as it may sound , prehistoric creatures like xenicibis make dixon’s speculative beasts seem almost conservative in their anatomy . many of the creatures featured in after man are products of convergent evolution , testaments to the power of natural selection to funnel organisms down similar channels from disparate starting points . convergence is a real and significant part of life’s pattern , but chance and contingency can open up unique evolutionary possibilities that cannot be predicted or foreseen . the more we learn about the fossil record , the stranger life becomes , and though i am a little saddened by the fact that i will never know what life is going to be like 50 million years from now , i am left in awe by the fantastic creatures which inhabited this planet in ages past .
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an extinct flightless bird from jamaica fought rivals and predators using wings evolved into clubs , scientists suggest .
the boney bludgeons carried by xenicibis xympithecus are unlike anything else known in the bird world - or in mammals , reptiles or amphibians .
writing in the royal society journal proceedings b , the scientists report finding bones that had apparently been broken by another bird ' s club .
fossils show that the metacarpus - one of the
hand
bones - was elongated and much bigger than in related species , with very thick walls .
this allowed the wings to function
in combat as a jointed club or flail
, the researchers write .
we don ' t really know how they would have used these clubs , but we do know that modern ibises grab each other by the beak and pound away with their wings ,
said nicholas longrich , from yale university in the us .
and we analysed two bones that had been broken during fighting , including a humerus ( upper arm bone ) that had been snapped in half - it had started to re - heal , although the two ends hadn ' t knitted together ,
he told bbc news .
dr longrich ' s colleague in this research , storrs olson from the smithsonian institution , was one of the scientists who first identified xenicibis xympithecus back in the 1970s .
a number of other birds are known to fight by whacking each other with their wings - including swans , who will also protect their young this way .
some , including screamers , lapwings and and spur - winged goose , have evolved spurs to increase the damage they can wreak .
the extinct solitaire from the indian ocean island of rodrigues - a cousin of the dodo - had bony growths colloquially known as
musketballs
on their wings , which appear to have served the same purpose .
but among vertebrates - there ' s no animal of any sort that has anything like a limb modified as a club ,
noted dr longrich .
julian hume , an avian palaeontologist with london ' s natural history museum who was not involved in the research , noted that unlike most flightless birds , xenicibis retained long wings , possibly making its flailing more powerful .
so if they retained that feature , that suggests they needed it for defence against predators - and there were quite a few on jamaica .
however , ibises also tend to be intensely territorial , so the flailing clubs may also - or alternatively - have found employment in disputes between individuals , probably with both sexes involved .
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needless self - doubt
is leading to
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.
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. . . and todus todus . of these , x . xympithecus was previously known from the late pleistocene of jamaica and from the rhrc ' s sediment ( longrich and olson , 2011 ) , but t . todus , and corvus ? sp . . . .
. . . then , what function did dakotaraptor co - opt them for ? aside from brooding , examination of certain extant flightless birds suggests that they could have played a role in hunting strategy , mating display , aggressive territorial behavior , and / or shielding the young ( sensu cooper & harrison , 1994 ; hopp & orsen , 2004 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . implementing feathers in aggressive territorial behavior , as has been observed for extant avian taxa ( cooper & harrison , 1994 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) , is a behavior that could easily have augmented the pack - hunting strategies already proposed for deinonychus , utahraptor , and other dromaeosaurs ( kirkland , burge , & gaston , 1993 ; maxwell & ostrom , 1995 ) . . . .
. . . aside from brooding , examination of certain extant flightless birds suggests that they could have played a role in hunting strategy , mating display , aggressive territorial behavior , and / or shielding the young ( sensu cooper & harrison , 1994 ; hopp & orsen , 2004 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . implementing feathers in aggressive territorial behavior , as has been observed for extant avian taxa ( cooper & harrison , 1994 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) , is a behavior that could easily have augmented the pack - hunting strategies already proposed for deinonychus , utahraptor , and other dromaeosaurs ( kirkland , burge , & gaston , 1993 ; maxwell & ostrom , 1995 ) . dakotaraptor ' s remiges would have lengthened the outstretched arms , providing long and robust outstretched wings that would have been useful when implemented in such strategies . . . .
. . . scale bar = 10 mm . olson & steadman , 1977 ( threskiornithidae ) is unique in having a thick - walled elongate , inflated metacarpus ( longrich & olson , 2011 ) . within columbidae ( pigeons and doves ) , the extinct flightless natunaornis gigoura and the extant goura ground pigeons both have a small bony outgrowth on the processus extensorius of the carpometacarpus ( goodwin , 1983 ; worthy , 2001 ) ( fig . 8b ) , which closely resembles that of a female solitaire . . . .
. . . within columbidae ( pigeons and doves ) , the extinct flightless natunaornis gigoura and the extant goura ground pigeons both have a small bony outgrowth on the processus extensorius of the carpometacarpus ( goodwin , 1983 ; worthy , 2001 ) ( fig . 8b ) , which closely resembles that of a female solitaire . in our examination of carpal spurs and knobs , we note that the literature does not accurately reflect the number of taxa that exhibit some form of carpal growth , but without exception all of these structures are or were used as weapons ( jefferies , 1881 ; sclater , 1886 ; rand , 1954 ; goodwin , 1983 ; livezey & humphrey , 1985 ; worthy , 2001 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . our study confirms that the solitaire ' s carpal knob was also a weapon . . . .
fósiles del holoceno tardío provenientes de un depósito subterráneo en la península de portland ridge al sur de jamaica extienden el rango de buteogallus aequinoctialis hasta la cuenca del caribe , a más de 1700 km al oeste - noroeste de la distribución actual más occidental de esta especie . los fósiles se localizaron cerca de las áreas más extensas de manglares , el cual es el hábitat requerido . . . [ show full abstract ]
in the present paper we briefly reviewed and commented the terminology for bird topography , especially wing and tail . we named here newly required japanese terms , such as alula coverts and carpal covert , and also illustra - ted some of them . terms for bird topography are given , which including new japanese ones indicated by asterisk ( * ) in table 1 .
a new genus and species of unusual tern ( aves : laridae : anoinae ) from the middle miocene calvert for . . .
feducciavis loftini , new genus and species , is described from a single partial associated skeleton from the middle miocene calvert formation of virginia . this bird was evidently most closely related to the noddy terns ( anoinae , anous , procelsterna ) . compared with those genera , the tibiotarsus was much shorter and the ulna much longer in relation to the size of the humerus . the absolute size of . . . [ show full abstract ]
history , morphology , and fossil record of the extinct puerto rican parakeet psittacara maugei souanc . . .
the extinct puerto rican parakeet ( psittacara maugei ) has been known with certainty only from mona island and is usually regarded as a poorly defined subspecies of p . chloroptera of hispaniola . examination of skin specimens and comparison of skeletons with fossil and archeological material from puerto rico , show that psitticara maugei is a fully distinct species from p . chloroptera , differing . . . [ show full abstract ]
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this charming hotel enjoys a convenient location in a quiet part of amsterdam city centre , just a few steps from rembrandtplein , a major square in the centre of this city . amsterdam central station and the waterlooplein metro are just around the corner , providing easy access to amsterdam schiphol airport , the world trade centre amsterdam and rai . guests will find themselves near some of the most important tourist attractions in the area including anne frank house , madame tussaud & apos ; s , dam square , and the van gogh museum , all easily reach by metro . the rooms boast functional furniture and have been decorated in soothing tones to create a relaxing atmosphere in which to completely unwind . this pet - friendly establishment includes parking as well as wi - fi internet connection .
located in the centre of amsterdam , close to the waterlooplein and a short walk from central station .
20 kms to the nearest airport ( schiphol airport ) 2 minute walk to the nearest metro station ( waterloo plein ) 3 km to the nearest station ( amsterdam central railway stat ) 2 minute walk to the nearest bus stop 8 km to the nearest fair site ( rai exhibition and congress ce ) .
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make use of convenient amenities , which include complimentary wireless internet access and tour / ticket assistance .
our modern and cozy rooms are the perfect place to relax , with comfortable beds and well - appointed bathrooms - everything you need to enjoy a pleasant stay . there are 77 rooms .
public transport by taxi or train can take you from schiphol airport to your hotel in 30 minutes . the hotel is then a mere 3 minutes walk from amsterdam central station .
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excellent food , would definitely recommend ! ! ! visited restaurant on carnival . good hearty caribbean food available and for a good price .
rates of extinction vary widely . for example , during the last 100 , 000 years of the pleistocene epoch ( about 2 . 6 million to 11 , 700 years ago ) , some 40 percent of the existing genera of large mammals in africa and more than 70 percent in north america , south america , and australia went extinct . ecologists estimate that the present - day extinction rate is 1 , 000 to 10 , 000 times the background extinction rate ( between one and five species per year ) because of deforestation , habitat loss , overhunting , pollution , climate change , and other human activities—the sum total of which will likely result in the loss of between 30 and 50 percent of extant species by the middle of the 21st century .
according to the best estimates of the world’s environmental experts , human activities have driven species to extinction at rates perhaps 1 , 000 times the natural , or background , rate , and future rates of extinction will likely be higher . to…
although extinction is an ongoing feature of earth’s flora and fauna ( the vast majority of species ever to have lived are extinct ) , the fossil record reveals five unusually large extinctions , each involving the demise of vast numbers of species . these conspicuous declines in diversity are referred to as mass extinctions ; they are distinguished from the majority of extinctions , which occur continually and are referred to as background extinction . ranked in descending order of severity , they are :
the impact of a near - earth object 66 million years ago in what is today the caribbean region , as depicted in an artist ' s conception . many scientists believe that the collision of a large asteroid or comet nucleus with earth triggered the mass extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species near the end of the cretaceous period .
and many species of plants . although many scientists contend that this event was caused by one or more large
( 407 million to about 359 million years ago ) , which included 15–20 percent of marine families and 70–80 percent of all animal species . roughly 86 percent of marine brachiopod species perished , along with many corals , conodonts , and trilobites .
in essence , mass extinctions are unusual because of the large numbers of taxa that die out , the concentrated time frame , the widespread geographic area affected , and the many different kinds of animals and plants eliminated . in addition , the mechanisms of mass extinction are different from those of background extinctions .
the trilobite modocia typicalis lived during the middle cambrian period . as a group , trilobites were among the longest - lasting organisms , first evolving at the beginning of the cambrian period ( about 541 million years ago ) and dying out some 289 million years later during the permian extinction , which occurred near the end of the permian period ( roughly 252 million years ago ) .
many species have become extinct because of hunting and overharvesting , the conversion of wetlands and forests to croplands and urban areas , pollution , the introduction of invasive species , and other forms of human - caused destruction of their natural environments . indeed , current rates of human - induced extinctions are estimated to be about 1 , 000 times greater than past natural ( background ) rates of extinction , leading some scientists to call modern times the sixth mass extinction . this high extinction rate is largely due to the exponential growth in human numbers : from about 1 billion in 1850 , the world’s population reached 2 billion in 1930 and more than 6 billion in 2000 , and it is expected to reach about 10 billion by 2050 . as a result of increasing human populations , habitat loss is the greatest factor in current levels of extinction . for example , less than one - sixth of the land area of europe has remained unmodified by human activity , and more than half of all wildlife habitat has been eliminated in more than four - fifths of countries in the paleotropics ( the old world tropics that span africa , asia , and indonesia ) .


schaefferia profundissima is a species of springtail ( arthropods ) endemic to the krubera-voronja cave system in georgia .

it is one of the deepest terrestrial animal ever found on earth , living at > 1,800 metres ( 5,900 ft ) below the cave entrance .

it was discovered in the cavex team expedition of 2010 .

schaefferia profundissima

.
a new species of schaefferia absolon , 1900 ( collembola : hypogastruridae )
.
key ; deepest cave of the world ; deuteraphorura kruberaensis n . sp . ; biospeleology ; cavernicolous fauna ; anurida stereoodorata n . sp . ; plutomurus ortobalaganensis n . sp . ; schaefferia profundissima n . sp .
in the black sea , researchers have found springtails in a deep cave – plutomurus ortobalaganensis at 1980 metres and schaefferia profundissima at 1600 meters . springtails are hexapods ( have six legs ) and these both like cheese !
.
trois espèces nouvelles du genre schaefferia absolon , 1900 ( insecte , collembole )
.
.
une nouvelle espèce de schaefferia d’une grotte des etats - unis d’amérique ( collembola , hypogastruridae )
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amphipoda zenkevitchia sp . collembola schaefferia profundissima jordana & baquero , 2012 anurida stereoodorata jordana & baquero , 2012 deuteraphorura kruberaensis jordana & baquero , 2012 plutomurus ortobalaganensis jordana & baquero , 2012 coleoptera carabus sp . duvalius abyssimus reboleira & ortuño , 2014 catops cavicis giachino , 2011 diptera trichocera ( saltrichocera ) maculipennis ( meigen 1818 )
described by rafael jordana and enrique baquero from university of navarra ( spain ) , they are known for science as : anurida stereoodorata , deuteraphorura kruberaensis , schaefferia profundissima and plutomurus ortobalaganensis . the last one is the deepest arthropod ever found , at the remarkable depth of 1 . 980 meters ( 2 , 165 yards ) below ground surface .
the arthropod , known as plutomurus ortobalaganensis , was discovered 1980 metres below the surface , where it feeds off fungi and other decaying matter . three other new species were also found lurking in the cave : anurida stereoodorata , deuteraphorura kruberaensis and schaefferia profundissima . all four species have been classified as springtails , a type of small primitive wingless insect . living in total darkness , the species all lack eyes . however , a . stereoodorata compensates for this with a highly specialised form of chemoreceptor .
jordana , rafael , baquero , enrique , reboleira , ana sofia & sendra , alberto , 2012 , reviews of the genera schaefferia absolon , 1900 , deuteraphorura absolon , 1901 , plutomurus yosii , 1956 and the anurida laboulbène , 1865 species group without eyes , with the description of four , terrestrial arthropod reviews 5 , pp . 35 - 85 : 41
more information : reviews of the genera schaefferia absolon , 1900 , deuteraphorura absolon , 1901 , plutomurus yosii , 1956 and the anurida laboulbène , 1865 species group without eyes , with the description of four new species of cave springtails ( collembola ) from krubera - voronya cave , arabika massif , abkhazi , terrestrial arthropod reviews , volume 5 ( 2012 ) pp . 1 - 51
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1 : 1department of zoology and ecology , university of navarra , 31080 pamplona , spain e - mails : rjordana @ urltoken ; ebaquero @ urltoken ; 2 : 2department of biology , universidade de aveiro and cesam campus universitário de santiago , 3810 - 193 aveiro , portugal e - mail : sreboleira @ urltoken ; 3 : 3museu valencià d’història natural ( fundación entomológica torres sala ) paseo de la pechina 15 . 46008 valencia , spain e - mail : alberto . sendra @ urltoken
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the taxonomy and distribution of the genus anurida ( collembola : neanuridae ) in the northern palaearctic
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new palaearctic species of the genus anurida ( collembola , neanurida )
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nuevas especies cavernícolas del género onychiurus del grupo de o . boneti gisin , 1953 ( collembola : onychiuridae ) del karst de navarra y gipuzkoa ( españa )
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nuevos generos y especies de hipogastruridos de mexico ( collembola )
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über einige theilweise neue collembolen aus den höhlen der gegen von letmathe in westfalen
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sur un essai de classification des neanuridae holarctiques et sur quelques espèces de ce groupe ( collembola )
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faune française des collemboles ( x ) espèces nouvelles ou peu connues des pyrénées et du sud - ouest
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faune française des collemboles ix . les hypogastrura a . l . du massif du néouvielle ( hautes - pyrénées )
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the collembola of north america , north of the rio grande
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a new nearctic species of the genus tomocerus ( collembola : entomobryidae )
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sur quelques collemboles de la région de banyuls ( pyrénées - orientales ) avec la description d’une espèce troglobie
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a new species of the genus plutomurus yosii , 1956 ( collembola , tomoceridae ) from georgian caves
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anurida frigida . a new species of collembola ( hypogastruridae ) from swedish lappland
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arctic collembola . i – alaskan collembola of the families poduridae , hypogastruridae , odontellidae , brachystomellidae and neanuridae
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north american springtails of the subfamily tomocerinae . proceedings of the united states national museum
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notes sur les collemboles , avec description de cinq espèces nouvelles découvertes dans le canton de genève
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a new species of the genus anurida laboulbene , 1985 ( collembola , neanuridae ) from romania
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especies ibéricas de hypogastrura ( ceratophysella ) de seis ojos con descripción de tres nuevas especies ( collembola , hypogastruridae )
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le genre plutomurus en russie et en géorgie ( collembola , tomoceridae )
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etude de la faune coréenne des insectes collemboles vi . sur la famille des tomoceridae , édaphiques avec la description de quatre nouvelles espèces et d’une nouvelle sous - espèce
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new species of springtails of the genus hypogastrura s . l . in the north - eastern asia fauna
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onychiurus ( onychiurus ) diaelleni sp . n . , eine neue collembolenart aus der “raudner - höhle” ( steiermark )
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nuevos hypogastruridae anoftalmos ( collembola ) de cuevas y suelos de méxico
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plutomurus carpaticus sp . n . ( collembola : tomoceridae ) from the carpathian mountains
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a new humicolous species of plutomurus ( collembola , tomoceridae ) from hokkaido , north japan
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two new species of the family pseudachorutidae from mt . jizu , western yunnan , southwest china ( insecta : collembola )
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un nouveau genre d’insectes collemboles onychiuridae cavernicoles des picos de europa ( espagne )
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new species of the springtail genus anurida laboulb . ( collembola , neanuridae ) from the asiatic part of the ussr
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generic revision of onychiurinae ( collembola : onychiuridae ) with a cladistic analysis
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about the proserpinae group of hypogastrura ( collembola ) in the caves of pref
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studies on the collembolan family tomoceridae , with special reference to japanese forms
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two new species of collembola ( arthropleona : neanuridae , pseudachorutidae ) from shanghai , china
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josé h . schoereder ; tathiana g . sobrinho ; marcelo s . madureira ; carla r . ribas and paulo s . oliveira
subterranean community of krubera - voronya cave
by alberto sendra and ana sofia p . s . reboleira
scholar commons > usf libraries > environmental sustainability > ijs > vol . 41 ( 2012 ) > iss . 2
alberto sendra , museu valencià d ' història natural ( fundación entomológica torres sala ) paseo de la pechina 15 . 46008 valencia , spain follow ana sofia p . s . reboleira , universidade de aveiro , portugal follow
subsurface biota extends over a wide variety of habitats that can be spatially interconnected . the largest communities of this subsurface biota inhabit cavities and are well known mainly in caves where biologists are able to have access . data about deep subterranean communities and arthropods living under one thousand meters was unknown .
the biocoenosis and the vertical distribution of invertebrate fauna of krubera - voronja are provided , from its entrance to the remarkable depth of 2140 meters , including the discovery of world’s deepest dwelling arthropod .
sendra , alberto and ana sofia p . s . reboleira . 2012 . the world’s deepest subterranean community - krubera - voronja cave ( western caucasus ) . international journal of speleology , 41 : 221 - 230 . available at : urltoken
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the deepest - dwelling land animal in the world has been found almost 2 kilometres underground . fittingly , its home is krubera - voronja , the world ' s deepest cave , whose bottommost point is 2191 metres below its mouth . the cave is located near the black sea in abkhazia , a breakaway republic of georgia .
the animals were discovered by ana sofia reboleira from the university of aveiro , portugal , and alberto sendra of the valencian museum of natural history , spain . they were exploring the krubera - voronja cave as part of a 2010 expedition led by the ibero - russian cavex team .
before this discovery , springtails had been found just half a kilometre below ground . in 1986 , ongulonychiurus colpus was found living 550 metres down in spanish caves , and last year , tritomurus veles was found at 430 metres in caves in croatia . the discovery of species living deep underground in total darkness gives new insights into the extreme conditions in which animals can survive . [ new scientist ]
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sendra , a . & reboleira , a . s . p . s . ( 2012 ) . the world’s deepest subterranean community - krubera - voronja cave ( western caucasus ) .
an expedition to world’s deepest cave , krubera - voronja in western caucasus , revealed an interesting subterranean community , living below 2000 meters and represented by more than 12 species of arthropods , including several new species for science . this deep cave biota is composed of troglobionts and also epigean species , that can penetrate until - 2140 m .
invertebrate fauna found in krubera - voronja cave : pseudoescorpiones neobisium ( blothrus ) birsteini lapschoff , 1940 opiliones nemaspela sp . araneae troglohyphantes sp . araneae gnaphosidae sp . indet acari sp . indet diplopoda chordeumatida sp . indet leucogeorgia sp . decapoda troglocaris sp .
scientists have recently described the deepest terrestrial animal ever found , together with 4 new species for science . these animals are springtails ( arthropoda , insecta , collembola ) , a minute primitive wingless insect with six - legs and without eyes that live in total darkness .
these animals were collected during the biospeleological works of sofia reboleira , from the university of aveiro ( portugal ) and alberto sendra , from the valencian museum of natural history ( spain ) , both who were members of the ibero - russian cavex team expedition to the world ' s deepest cave , during the summer of 2010 .
the world ' s deepest cave , krubera - voronja , reaching nowadays the remarkable depth of - 2 . 191 meters below ground level , is located in abkhazia , a remote area near the black sea in the mountains of western caucasus , being the only cave in the world with more than 2 kilometres of depth .
. in total absence of light and extreme low food resources , cave - dwelling animals have unique adaptations to subterranean life . they lack body pigmentation , they have no eyes and have been developing morpho - physological strategies for survival at such depth , during millions of years . one of the species has , for example , a spectacular chemoreceptor , a highly specialised type of the habitual post - antennal organ of the springtails .
last week the international journal of myriapodology published the first population genetic study of cave millipedes . this research highlights an important challenge in the conservation of cave biodiversity  that for . . .
( physorg . com ) - - aberdeen scientists have photographed for the first time fish and shrimps at europes deepest point - - 5111 meters or 3 . 2 miles deep below the surface of the mediterranean sea .
( physorg . com ) - - it waits blindly in the darkness of granite caves in yosemite national park , moving little to conserve energy .
a northern arizona university doctoral candidate and a national park service researcher have discovered a new genus of cave cricket .
a research team led by professor michael chazan , director of the university of toronto ' s archaeology centre , has discovered the earliest evidence of our cave - dwelling human ancestors at the wonderwerk cave in south africa .
they are dark , sometimes forbidding landscapes molded by volcanic eruptions or subterranean streams , but caves are also home to a host of creatures strangely adapted to the underworld .
the co - evolution of plant—pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .
using genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .
fish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .
mucus is able to protect us from infection thanks to ancient genes that have been conserved throughout 350 million years of evolution—dating back to our days as a jellyfish .
by proving a theory that was first proposed almost 40 years ago , researchers have confirmed a new way that cells conserve energy .
our bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .
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