malo kingi or the common kingslayer is an irukandji jellyfish named after victim robert king , a tourist from the united states swimming off port douglas , queensland , who died from its sting .

it was first described to science in 2007 , and is one of four species in genus malo .

it has some of the world 's most potent venom , even though it is no bigger than a human thumbnail .

as an irukandji , it can cause irukandji syndrome , characterized by severe pain , vomiting , and rapid rise in blood pressure .

malo kingi

two malo kingi specimens , opaque due to preservation . credit : lisa - anne gershwin
no one has contributed data records for malo kingi yet . learn how to contribute .
synonymy straehler - pohl 2014 suggests that malo kingi is a junior synonym of malo maxima . no genetic data included . [ details ]
malo kingi , the common kingslayer . credit : gondwanagirl ; distributed under a cc - by 2 . 0 license
malo kingi : a new species of irukandji jellyfish ( cnidaria : cubozoa : carybdeida ) , possibly lethal to humans , from queensland , australia .
( l ) the halo - form tentacle of an adult malo kingi . ( r ) . tentacle of a young pseudo - irukandji form lacking the species ' characteristic halos . credit : lisa - anne gershwin .
gershwin , l . 2007 . malo kingi : a new species of irukandji jellyfish ( cnidaria : cubozoa : carybdeida ) , possibly lethal to humans . zootaxa 1659 : 55–68 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
aww look at this tiny jelly ! the common kingslayer ( malo kingi ) is only about 5 millimetres ( 0 . 20 in ) to 25 millimetres ( 0 . 98 in ) wide ( or wider ) and has four long tentacles , which can range in length from just a few centimeters up to 1 metre ( 3 . 3 ft ) in length . wait . wait a sec . why is it called the common kingslayer ? that sounds just a taaaad bit ominous , no ?
a number of nematocysts were recovered from king ' s body and clothing , and were examined by australian jellyfish expert and csiro researcher , lisa - anne gershwin . in her 2007 zootaxa paper she concluded that these nematocysts were like none she ' d ever seen before . she compared cells from these nematocysts with those from several specimens of a new species she had found in 1999 , and it was a perfect match . in 2007 , gershwin named this new species malo kingi , after the scientist it felled .
some species of box jellyfish ( cubozoans ) can weigh up to 2 kg , but many are absolutely tiny . like the bell - shaped body of c . barnesi , m . kingi ' s bell grows to no more than 3 cm high . and not only is m . kingi tiny , it ' s also transparent , making it extremely difficult to spot in the water . the species is distinguished from all others by having strange halo - like rings of tissue encircling its four tentacles .
straehler - pohl , i . ( 2014 ) . critical evaluation of characters for species identification in the cubomedusa genus malo ( cnidaria , cubozoa , carybdeida , carukiidae ) . plankton and benthos researchm . 9 ( 2 ) : 83–98 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gershwin reported that m . kingi ' s danger to humans has been ambiguous , citing several attacks that have resulted in only minor symptoms . in the 1960s , australian medical toxicologist , jack h . barnes , tested the venom of a m . kingi specimen in his collection , and got off lightly . in his report , barnes even named his attacker ' pseudo - irukandji ' , because of its inability to inflict the full force of irukandji syndrome . gershwin noted that barnes happened to choose the smallest , and likely youngest , specimen in his collection , and argued that a life in captivity could have messed with the jellyfish ' s toxicity levels :
gershwin looked into a number of other non - fatal m . kingi attacks , and found that none of them could be attributed to an adult specimen .
it is possible that as pseudo - irukandji matures , it concurrently changes its physical and chemical properties , becoming lethal with halo - form tentacle bands ,
she concluded . so if you ' re going to have an encounter with the kingslayer , make sure it ' s a baby one .
in 2003 , while investigating king ' s death , gershwin suffered a m . kingi sting herself , and just like barnes , her symptoms were mild . her attacker was also small , and gershwin noted that it was missing the distinctive halo - form tentacles , plus gonads , suggesting to her that it was a juvenile .
i was personally stung quite extensively across the palms of both hands by this species in june 2003 at port douglas , without systemic effects ,
she wrote .
however , both hands blistered badly and several layers of skin completely peeled about one week after the sting event . the specimen proved to be immature when examined , and was subsequently used for dna analysis .
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“how’s it feel , kingslayer , to have all the gold in the world but it won’t buy your sword hand back ? “ “a minor setback , if truth be told .
a minor setback , if truth be told . but look - i have spares !
this tiny species of jellyfish is one of the most venomous creatures in the world . thanks to its role in the death of robert king , a nestlé research scientist from ohio , it has been nicknamed the common kingslayer .
in 2002 king had travelled to australia with his partner to spend some time snorkelling in opal reef , which is just off port douglas in queensland . earlier that year , british tourist richard jordan had been stung by a jellyfish 700 km away on hamilton island . the venom from the sting brought on irukandji syndrome , and jordon was its first documented fatality . named after a local indigenous australian tribe near cairns in queensland , irukandji syndrome is brought on by a sting from one of 10 species of venomous jellyfish found in tropical and temperate oceans around the world . many of them are found in australian waters .
( and now would be a good time to mention that there ' s a book by sydney - based author , wendy lewis , that recounts king and jordon ' s tragic encounters with these jellyfish called see australia and die . see australia and die . help i live here and my cat brings spiders into my house through the window . )
while rarely fatal , irukandji syndrome sends most of its victims to hospital . it takes 5 - 10 minutes after the sting for symptoms to set in , but when they do , they ' re excruciating . a typical set of symptoms includes severe lower back pain , vomiting and muscle cramps , and if particularly serious , could result in toxic heart failure , fluid on the lungs or a brain haemorrhage . around 30 % of cases result in some form of heart failure , and one in five victims suffer life - threatening complications and end up on life support .
scale illustration of the irukandji jellyfish , carukia barnesi . credit : anynobody ; distributed under a cc - by 2 . 0 license
jellyfish deliver venom via nematocysts . when a jellyfish ' s tentacle touches its victim , these little harpoon - shaped darts fire into the victim ' s skin to deliver venom into the bloodstream . no nematocysts were recovered from jordan ' s body , which made it difficult to nail down a culprit , but it ' s widely assumed that he was stung by carukia barnesi , a box jellyfish species from the whitsundays area commonly known as the irukandji jellyfish .
his specimens had been in captivity for hours prior to the stinging experiment ; the degree to which the condition of the animal affects its sting ability is undocumented , but i have often observed cubozoans stinging each other and the sides of the collecting container . it is not difficult to imagine that they could have expended much of their stinging ability without sufficient time to regenerate it .
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collins , a . g . ; jarms , g . ( 2018 ) . world list of cubozoa .
habitat : mostly australia but has been found of the coast of japan and florida . status : not evaluted
well… upon further research , this itty - bitty jelly is so cute it might kill you . no , really . and not from like the sheer adorableness of it… but from its insanely poisonous sting . this species of box jellyfish was described as recently as 2007 after an 44 year - old american tourist by the name of robert king was swimming in australian waters and encountered this minute box jellyfish . he was stung and died soon after . that’s where i’s morbid name of ‘common kingslayer’ comes from ( after robert king ) .
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0b1ea70c - fe09 - 4e24 - 99c4 - 7453e3779c30
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elachista telcharella is a moth of the elachistidae family .

it is found in the united states , where it has been recorded from california .

elachista telcharella

home » guide » arthropods ( arthropoda ) » hexapods ( hexapoda ) » insects ( insecta ) » butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) » twirler moths and kin ( gelechioidea ) » grass miner moths ( elachistidae ) » elachistinae » elachista » bifasciella species group ( elachista bifasciella species group ) » elachista telcharella - hodges # 1107 . 3 ( elachista telcharella )
elachista telcharella kaila , 1999 , n . sp . , acta zool . fennica , v . 211 , p . 1 - 235 .
lauri kaila 1999 : a revision of the nearctic species of the genus elachista s . l . iii . the bifasciella , praelineata , saccharella and freyerella groups ( lepidoptera , elachistidae ) .  acta zool . fennica 211 .
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guyanemorpha is a genus of beetles , the guyane false-form beetles , in the family carabidae .

it contains one known species , the spectacular guyane false-form beetle , ( guyanemorpha spectabilis ) , which was found in french guiana and first described in 2013 by terry l. erwin in the open access journal zookeys .

it was discovered during a survey of the country 's insects by the entomological society antilles-guyane ( seag ) .

related species cohabit with ants , and it is thought likely that g. spectabilis will do so also .

guyanemorpha

the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , guyanemorpha spectabilis . image credit : karolyn darrow , smithsonian institution .
this myrmecophilous genus of carabidae has a single species , guyanemorpha spectabilis . it is an inquiline in the nests of arboreal ants .
guyanemorpha is a genus of beetle , the guyane false - form beetles , in the family carabidae . it contains one known species , the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , ( guyanemorpha spectabilis ) , which was found in french guiana and first described in 2013 by terry l .
the beetle , scientifically named guyanemorpha spectabilis , belongs to the pseudomorphini tribe , famous for the co - existence of its representatives with various ant species .
guyanemorpha spectabilis , commonly named the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , stands out among its dull relatives in the western hemisphere , with its great size and beautiful coloration .
beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n .
ebscohost | 93527059 | beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n .
guyanemorpha is a genus of beetle , the guyane false - form beetles , in the family carabidae . it contains one known species , the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , ( guyanemorpha spectabilis ) , which was found in french guiana and first described in 2013 by terry l . erwin in the open access journal zookeys . it was discovered during a survey of the country ' s insects by the entomological society antilles - guyane ( seag ) .
erwin tl . 2013 . beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n . zookeys 358 : 11–23 ; doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 358 . 6298
erwin tl ( 2013 ) beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n . zookeys 358 : 11–23 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 358 . 6298 pdf
more information : erwin tl ( 2013 ) beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n , sp . n . . zookeys 358 : 11 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 358 . 6298
scientists from the smithsonian institution describe the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , or guyanemorpha spectabilis , from guyane ( french guiana ) . as its name suggests , the newly discovered species stands out among its dull relatives in the western hemisphere , with its great size and beautiful coloration . the study was published in the open access journal zookeys .
abstract : among the extensive collections currently being made in guyane ( french guiana ) , adults of a large and colorful species of pseudomorphine were encountered . the adults present , for the first time in the western hemisphere , elytra with a marked color pattern , and in addition a size considerably beyond that of the rest of the members of all other known genera in the western hemisphere . both of these attributes , however , are well known in the australian pseudomorphine fauna . this new species is described and illustrated and a revised key to the western hemisphere genera is included . the type locality of guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n . is guyane , risquetout , pk20 , 4 . 916°n , 52 . 516°w , 12m altitude .
this surprising large and colorful pseudomorphine came as a shock to me , as all other species of the tribe in the western hemisphere are quite dull brown , dark reddish , or blackish with no , or little , color contrast on the upper surface ,
explains the author dr . terry l . erwin .
in the world of entomology this new species can be only compared in its rare characteristics to the olinguito , a new carnivore species which charmed the world and just recently described by kris helgen in zookeys ,
he added .
the new species belongs to the pseudomorphini tribe , famous for the co - existence of its representatives with various ant species . members of g . spectabilis occur at lowland rainforest sites in french guiana and are accordingly most likely to live with ants , although at present nothing is known about their way of life .
the pseudomorphines are a very interesting evolutionary off - shoot of the normal carabid morphotype in both form and function and are only just now beginning to be understood in north america . the fact that species of related genera in south america are living with arboreal ants will make learning about them far more difficult . insecticidal fogging gets adults of these species , but only tearing apart arboreal azteca ant nests while suspended in a tree will produce their larvae , and that is not for carabidologists faint of heart ,
explains the author dr . erwin , and his intern , lauren amundson .
famous as the sacred beetles of ancient egypt the scarab beetle group in fact represents much greater diversity around the globe . some of the most vulnerable representatives are contained in the flightless genus gyronotus , . . .
costa rica reveals astonishing biodiversity of braconid wasps , with 277 new species of the tribe heterospilini described in the latest special issue of the open access journal zookeys .
two new beautiful wasp species are added to the rare pompilid genus abernessia , which now contains a total of only four known species . the two new species a . prima and a . capixaba are believed to be endemic for brazil alongside . . .
in guiana , symbiosis between azteca ants and the cecropia tree ( or trumpet tree ) is frequent . however , a surprising discovery has been made : one species of ant ( azteca andreae ) uses the
velcro
principle to cling on firmly . . .
arboreal tarantulas are known from a few tropical places in asia , africa , south and central america and the caribbean . these tarantulas generally have a lighter build , thinner bodies and longer legs , better suited for their . . .
scientists discovered a new enigmatic species of ant coming from the philippines . cardiocondyla pirata or the pirate ant engages the imagination with a bizarre pigmentation pattern that has no equivalent worldwide . the female . . .
the co - evolution of plant—pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .
using genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .
fish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .
mucus is able to protect us from infection thanks to ancient genes that have been conserved throughout 350 million years of evolution—dating back to our days as a jellyfish .
by proving a theory that was first proposed almost 40 years ago , researchers have confirmed a new way that cells conserve energy .
our bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .
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little is known about the species ' behaviour , other than that it lives in lowland rainforest . related species cohabit with ants , and it is thought likely that g . spectabilis will do so also .
the holotype is currently held in trust at the national museum of natural history , part of the smithsonian institution , washington , dc , until the planned natural history museum of guyane is established , and at that time , the specimen will be transferred there .
well as 2015 becomes an ever distant memory and we scuttle , creep , scurry , amble and roll ( for this is how beetles move right ? ) into 2016 , let us look back on a very successful year of collection enhancement .
the collection here is a big one , and serves to represent the world’s known coleoptera biodiversity as comprehensively as possible but it is an uphill task to curate , much in the same way as a dung beetle may struggle against the desert sands with its dung ball prize .
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dr terry erwin of the smithsonian institution has described a new genus and species of beetle from french guiana .
the beetle lives in lowland rainforests of french guiana and is most likely to live with ants , although at present nothing is known about their way of life .
“this surprising large and colorful pseudomorphine came as a shock to me , as all other species of the tribe in the western hemisphere are quite dull brown , dark reddish , or blackish with no , or little , color contrast on the upper surface , ” said dr erwin , who is the author of the paper published in the open - access journal zookeys .
“in the world of entomology this new species can be only compared in its rare characteristics to the olinguito , a new carnivore species which charmed the world and just recently described by dr kris helgen in zookeys . ”
“the pseudomorphines are a very interesting evolutionary off - shoot of the normal carabid morphotype in both form and function and are only just now beginning to be understood in north america . ”
“the fact that species of related genera in south america are living with arboreal ants will make learning about them far more difficult . insecticidal fogging gets adults of these species , but only tearing apart arboreal azteca ant nests while suspended in a tree will produce their larvae , and that is not for carabidologists faint of heart , ” dr erwin said .
juvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows
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in october , the world wildlife fund ( wwf ) published a list of 441 new species that have been discovered in the amazon in the last four years : 258 plants , 84 fish , 58 amphibians , 22 reptiles , 18 birds , and one mammal . that’s “an average of two new species identified every week for the past four years , ” read a wwf press release , and “ [ t ] his doesn’t even include the countless discoveries of insects and other invertebrates . ”
the findings are a welcome break from news of impending extinctions , and the new species are a reminder of the importance of continued vigilance and conservation . of course , the amazon is not the only place where new life is popping up . thousands of new species are described each year , hailing from nearly every continent and diverse branches of life . in may , the scientist covered the international institute for species exploration at arizona state university’s annual top 10 , with favorites chosen for their unexpected features or their unique habitats . here are a few of candidates for the 2013 lineup :
) , which roams the open grasslands and forests of brazil and colombia . though it’s the smallest of the tapirs , it’s one of the largest animals in south america . published in the
the new tapir species isn’t so new to local tribes , however , who regularly hunt the “little black tapir , ” as they call it . “ [ indigenous people ] traditionally reported seeing what they called ‘a different kind of anta [ tapir in portuguese ] . ’ however , the scientific community has never paid much attention to the fact , stating that it was always the same tapirus terrestris , ” lead author and paleontologist mario cozzuol of brazil’s universidade federal de minas gerais belo horizonte told mongabay . com . “they did not give value to local knowledge and thought the locals were wrong . knowledge of the local community needs to be taken into account and that ' s what we did in our study , which culminated in the discovery of a new species to science . ”
was this year declared to be a distinct species from its close relative , the onlingo , a member of the raccoon family . the new species was first discovered in a drawer , at chicago’s field museum . kristofer helgen , curator of mammals at the smithsonian institution national museum of natural history , found a collection of skin , skulls , and bones that “stopped me in my tracks , ” he told
. “the skins were a rich red color and when i looked at the skulls i didn’t recognize the anatomy . . . right away i thought it could be a species new to science . ”
on the basis of a grainy video of an olinguito - like animal in the andes , helgen and his colleagues headed to colombia and ecuador to find the mammal in the trees of cloud forests . furry , orange , and weighing less than a kilogram , the olinguito is solitary and nocturnal . it is smaller than the olingo , and the two species have differences in their teeth and tails . helgen’s team published its findings august 15 in zookeys , noting that the olinguito is threatened ; construction and farming and destroyed nearly half of its forest habitat . “this reminds us that the world is not yet explored and the age of discovery is far from over , ” helgen told bbc news .
journal . belonging to the warbler family , the cambodian tailorbird can be found living in and around the country’s capital city of phnom penh . it resembles other tailorbirds , the researchers report , but its plumage , song , and genes support its reclassification as its own species—something that is rare in urban ecosystems .
“the modern discovery of an undescribed bird species within the limits of a large populous city—not to mention 30 minutes from my home—is extraordinary , ” study coauthor simon mahood of the wildlife conservation society told bbc news . “the discovery indicates that new species of birds may still be found in familiar and unexpected locations . ”
once again , however , as the bird’s small habitat continues to shrink , prompting the researchers to recommend that it be listed as “near threatened” on the international union for conservation of nature’s red list .
sleek , eel - like fish known as arapaima have , for some time , been considered to comprise a single species , but new evidence suggests that a classic division of the group into four species is actually more accurate . moreover , researchers claim to have found a distinct fifth species of arapaima , according to a study published by suny college of environmental science and forestry’s donald stewart in the march issue of
“everybody for 160 years had been saying there’s only one kind of arapaima , ” stewart said in a press release . “but we know now there are various species , including some not previously recognized . ”
a common target of amazonian fisherman , arapaima are commercially important fish . curious about the recognition of four species of arapaima in the mid - 1800s , stewart closely examined original specimens and found that they were indeed four species after all . one specimen , held at the instituto nacional de pesquisas da amazônia in manaus , brazil , even represents a fifth species ( a . leptosoma ) , stewart concluded . the sensory cavities on its head have a unique shape , and the fish has a sheath over part of its dorsal fin that other arapaima don’t have . it also has a distinctive color pattern .
unfortunately , arapaima have been overfished in the amazon basin for more than a century , bringing their current populations to near zero .
) , close cousin of the scalloped hammerhead . according to study published in august in the journal
, the new shark species is genetically distinct , and has about 10 fewer vertebrae that the scalloped hammerhead .
the carolina variety was discovered by university of south carolina fish expert joe quattro , who gathered what appeared to be 80 young scalloped hammerheads . genetic and anatomical analyses proved otherwise , however . in the end , 54 of the 80 sharks belonged to the new species .
quattro expects that , like the dwindling populations of the scalloped shark , the carolina shark is rare . “outside of south carolina , we’ve only seen five tissue samples of the cryptic species , ” quattro said in a release . “and that’s out of three or four hundred specimens . ”
you might think that finding a new species of the largest fish in the ocean is uncommon , and it is , but this year boasts another new shark species : hemiscyllium halmahera , a shark that “walks” along the sandy bottoms surrounding a remote indonesian island ( see video ) . publishing in july in the journal of ichthyology , marine biologist mark erdmann of conservation international and his colleagues describe the species . the animals can grow up to 70 centimeters ( 27 inches ) in length , and as with other walking—or epaulette—sharks , females lay their eggs under reef ledges .
with so many new species populating this year’s scientific literature , there simply isn’t room to cover them all . but suffice it to say that diversity is not what this list is lacking : a new orchid from volcanic islands west of spain , a tiny crustacean found in an offshore reef cave near california’s catalina island , the spectacular guyane false - form beetle of the french guiana rainforests , five species of “slavemaker” ants that steal the young of other ants , a humpback dolphin , two gecko species , and a turkish scorpion . plus many more just waiting to be found .


flabellina verrucosa , is a species of sea slug , an aeolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family flabellinidae .

it is found on either side of the northern part of the atlantic ocean .

flabellina verrucosa

worms - world register of marine species - flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 )
dear bill here are some photos of flabellina verrucosa from our recent trip to british columbia .
status in world register of marine species synonym of flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 )
also one should be aware of bernard picton ' s flabellina browni , which really is similar to flabellina verrucosa with long and slender cerata , but which is differentiated on the coloration .
the relatively short spindle - shaped cerata , and their arrangement into ' clumps ' seems to be characteristic of flabellina verrucosa .
you will see that kåre ' s photos very much match the original descriptions of flabellina verrucosa ; except the arrangement of the cerata which more resembles odhner ' s flabellina borealis . but kåre ' s photos are flabellina verrucosa with short cerata . the problem is that flabellina verrucosa has a long list of synonyms , which include individuals with long and slender cerata , and in most cases it is the animals with long cerata that are illustrated on the net ( as in coryphella rufibranchialis ) .
hans - martin braun added the german common name
rotrückige fadenschnecke
to
flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 )
.
scientific synonyms and common names eolidia verrucosa m . sars , 1829 eolis rufibranchialis johnston , 1832 eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 eolis mananensis stimpson , 1854 aeolis bostoniensis approximans mörch , 1857 coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 eolis landsburgi sensu auct . non alder & hancock , 1846 coryphella gracilis bostoniensis ; lemche , 1936 coryphella verrucosa rufibranchialis ; odhner , 1939 coryphella verrucosa verrucosa ; odhner , 1939 coryphella verrucosa ( sars m . , 1829 ) : picton , 1995 flabellina verrucosa
of this one we can be fairly certain - flabellina verrucosa and its eggs on the well grazed bushy pink - mouthed hydroids ( ectopleura crocea ) .
the flabellina verrucosa were very abundant and were found feeding on tubularia up in the shallower water less than 40 feet deep . take care , bruce wight
concerning the correspondence about flabellina verrucosa with short cerata . these photos show the short cerata , with clear gaps in between . i am puzzled by this appearence - is it really a flabellina verrucosa ? i am bound to think otherwise . in particular look at the white lines on the rhinopores , and the length of them .
dear paul , terry gosliner has identified these as flabellina verrucosa . in the bottom right photo i have included an inset of the hydroid i presume they are looking for .
dear alan , as you can see in the messages from terry gosliner and chad sisson , your animals are flabellina verrucosa with a very interesting diet . best wishes , bill rudman
hi bill , i ' ve attached a picture of flabellina verrucosa showing the tail , which i find very distinctive , but isn ' t shown clearly in the pictures already on the forum .
i am pretty certain that the specimens that betsey photographed and that you tentatively identified as flabellina verrucosa is without a doubt correctly identified as f . verrucosa . the main external characteristics for differentiating f . verrucosa from flabellina gracilis is that the cerata are more distinctly arranged in rows in f . gracilis and there is a more prominent vestige of a notal brim in f . gracilis . also f . gracilis has a sort of notched head between the junction of the oral tentacles and more elongate anterior margins of the foot ' .
more feeding flabellina verrucosa . this time chomping down on the giant pink - mouth hydroid , tubularia indivisa . one specimen about to feed . the other image shows a specimen having completed its grazing on this hydroid .
so , what have we learned from these studies ? what features of a nematocyst are important in its selection by a nudibranch , specifically , by flabellina verrucosa ? consider these answers , then click here for explanations .
hi bill , here ' s a flabellina verrucosa balancing on a pink - mouth hydroid stalk . i ' ve assumed they ate the orange ones in my earlier photos , but this may show they like both varieties !
hi bill , here is another common british columbia aeolid , flabellina verrucosa . the dive site is dodd narrows , near nanaimo , on vancouver island . they are often found on this electric orange hydroid , garveia annulata .
thanks terry , it would be great to get some more photos showing the variation in f . verrucosa . bill rudman .
thanks bernard , very soon i won ' t have any excuse to misidentify any north atlantic flabellina . best wishes , bill rudman
greenwood & mariscal 1984 mar biol 80 : 35 ; drawing from kälker & schmekel 1976 zoomorph 86 : 41 for flabellina trilineata .
when i initially saw it i thought it was just a variation of f . verrucosa but wasn ' t sure . dr . larry harris , university of new hampshire has identified it as flabellina verrucosa , although a bit emaciated . he notes that the gonads are not fully developed . andy martinez , author of marinlife of the north atlantic concurs with dr . harris ' id .
more recent studies on nematocyst complement in flabellina verrucosa in the gulf of maine show that while it is a generalist predator of hydroids , it also eats jellyfish scyphistomae . about 70 % of flabellina ’s nematocysts come from the hydroids tubularia crocea and eudendrium spp . most of these are of a type known as heterotrichous microbasic euryteles , which are predominant in these species ( see drawing on left ) .
dear bill , alan shepard ' s photos look to me like pale specimens of flabellina verrucosa . this species is highly variable , especially in the color of the digestive gland that is visible through the cerata . it can range from pale pink to red to chocolate brown . the opaque white markings on the oral tentacles and the arrangement of the cerata appear to be characteristic of f . verrucosa .
hi bill , here is flabellina verrucosa from british columbia , canada . it is also present in north atlantic waters , i ' ve been told . it is very common on vancouver island . this is a fairly small animal , 1 to 3 cm . usually . marli .
dear bill , i checked with my advisor , larry harris , and he agreed that alan shepard ' s aeolids are flabellina verrucosa feeding on scyphistomae . note the white color variation and bright - white cnidosacs . also , they have unusually swollen anterior foot tentacles , probably from being stung by some potent nematocysts . we have documented f . verrucosa with a similar morphology and diet on floating docks in beverly , ma .
on this same dive i found placida dendritica ( first time in the cove ) , flabellina verrucosa , aeolidia papillosa , polycera dubia , acanthodoris pilosa and onchidoris muricata . not bad on a short 40 minute dive in 40f water . best wishes , alan shepard tolland , ct , usa
dear marli , animals such as flabellina verrucosa , which are found in the northern waters of both the pacific and atlantic oceans are called circum - boreal . you ' ll see photos on the forum of this species from the atlantic coast of usa . best wishes , bill rudman .
hi bill , further to your discussion on long and short cerata on flabellina verrucosa : i had never seen the short variety , when shortly thereafter found a small one whilst diving in howe sound near vancouver , british columbia . i have also never seen one in such an intense shade of crimson .
( of eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
hi bill , here are some flabellina verrucosa from the broughton archipelago . they are eating tubularia crocea . these are the ' long cerata ' type . location : broughton archipelago , british columbia , canada . depth : 45 feet . , length : 10 - 12mm . , may 2003 . photos : marli wakeling
dear paul , this is flabellina verrucosa , about which we ' ve already said most things . this individual shows two of the features which i think are diagnostic for this species : the white line along the tail extending amongst the last few cerata and the narrow white line on the dorsal side of the oral tentacles .
if this is coryphella rufibranchialis then it is more correctly called flabellina verrucosa . there is a history of confusion in the names of this genus on both sides of the atlantic . i ' ll put up some comments when we get them definitively identified . i don ' t want to perpetuate the confusion by further misidentifications .
i may be wrong , but it doesn ' t look like f . verrucosa to me . hopefully some of our northern european colleagues will have some suggestions .
to accompany my message about salmon - gill flabellina from new england here are photos of the ones which are red or chocolate brown and are locally called red - gills .
dear betsey , thanks for the photos from maine . can you give me a little more detail on the locality please ? the brown colour form is a colour form of flabellina verrucosa . the colour in aeolids is often a result of the colour of their food which accumulates in the ducts of the digestive gland , which are in the cerata .
alan , thank you for the excellent photos , this is a relatively rare feeding type of f . verrucosa . all the best , chad sisson university of new hampshire zoology dept .
c . verrucosa has been reported on all depths down to 300 meters . sand or rocky substrate on current exposed locations seems to be preferred . if is usually encountered grazing on hydroids .
i ' m reasonably sure these are flabellina verrucosa , but would appreciate confirmation . they are fairly profuse at harper ' s ferry , a popular dive site on the west side of puget sound near port orchard . most are an inch long at most , so getting a good macro photo is a good challenge . the photos are of two different ones that we found on successive dives at this site .
hi , can anyone help id which flabellina these may be ? found at 40 - 45 feet in hakai pass - port hardy area , bc , canada . are they just variations on the same theme ?
flabellina iodinea showing brightly coloured ( to our eyes ) cerata with tips containing nematocyst - filled sacs . next to nothing is known about the how the sacs function in defense in these or other aeolid nudibranchs 3x
comparison from terry gosliner message below : ' the main external characteristics for differentiating f . verrucosa from flabellina gracilis is that the cerata are more distinctly arranged in rows in f . gracilis and there is a more prominent vestige of a notal brim in f . gracilis . also f . gracilis has a sort of notched head between the junction of the oral tentacles and more elongate anterior margins of the foot ' .
hi ! i found several individuals of this aeolid , looking a little like flabellina verrucosa , which is quite common along the norwegian coast . however , some details seem to differ : • shorter cerata , not organized in the traditional two rows . • a naked patch on the back . • some eggs found on the location , laid in circles . ( i am assuming they were laid by these individuals ) .
dear wendy , i am pretty sure that the upper right and lower left photos are of flabellina verrucosa , the white - tipped cerata , the white line on the oral tentacles and the white line down the ' tail ' all suggest that species . i am not so sure of the third photo [ lower right ] however and so if someone with local knowledge can comment i would be grateful . best wishes , bill rudman
dear bill , in response to kåre ' s recent message , here is a scan of the original illustrations by m . sars ( 1829 ) of eolidia verrucosa [ plate 2 , figs 1 - 4 ] .
although only about 0 . 5 % of flabellina ’s nematocysts come from scyphistomae ( see green dots in table ) , these polyps are selected over any others in choice tests , perhaps because of the toxicity of their nematocysts .
many species of aeolid nudibranchs , including flabellina trilineata shown in the photograph , sequester undischarged nematocysts , apparently for use in their own defense . the nematocysts are housed in special sacs or cnidosacs located in the tips of the cerata .
( of eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) sars , m . ( 1829 ) . bidrag til söedyrenes naturhistorie . chr . dahl , bergen . 1 : 1 - 60 , plates 1 - 6 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ]
of the red - gills there are elongated ones with a few growths on their backs [ lower left photo ] as well as the more common ones with completely covered backs [ other photos ] . we think these are f . verrucosa , f . pellucida , or f . gracilis .
references flabellina verrucosa ( m . sars , 1829 ) . in sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney . accessed 26 / 01 / 2016 . lamb , a . , and hanby , b . ( 2005 ) . marine life of the pacific northwest [ electronic version ] . madeira park , bc : harbour publishing . picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2015 ) . coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) . encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . accessed 26 / 01 / 2016 . authors and editors of page kelly fretwell ( 2016 ) .
these individuals were all photographed as a part in my project to elucidate the two forms ( long ceratal and short ceratal form ) relationship . the animals with long cerata were photographed at three meters depth at jordfall . the short ceratal form ( verrucosa form ) was photographed at yttre vattenholmen outside strömstad .
( of aeolidia verrucosa m . sars , 1829 ) backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgië [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
dear alan , it certainly looks like a crustacean of some sort . certainly some glaucids , such as a austraeolis ornata and hermissenda crassicornis are known to eat the odd bit of carrion , but i haven ' t heard of species of flabellina doing this . it certainly seems an interesting observations for someone to follow up . best wishes , bill rudman
i just got a message from bernard picton who suggested the scyphistoma in chad ' s photo is probably aurelia aurita so i had another search of mcdonald & nybakken ' s list and found the following references to feeding on aurelia aurita ' polyps ' . clearly predation by f . verrucosa on the scyphistomae stage of aurelai can be an important factor in aurelia populations , at least in sweden .
note the conspicuous size difference between predator and prey . the left photo - pair shows aversive behaviour to f . iodinea . the right photo - pair shows the same predator 20min later attacking and eating another nematocyst - defended aeolid , hermissenda crassicornis . not all naive predators show the same aversive responses to flabellina ; about half of the 40 - or so pleurobranchaea tested in the study simply attack and eat up the prey
on the lower left photo the inset is showing the white sreak on the rhinophore which is one of the external identification points of this species . the colour and shape of the head and head tentacles are important in identifying species of flabellina but as your photos show , when these animals are busy looking for food they don ' t make it easy for you to photograph their important features . best wishes , bill rudman .
to barcode of life ( 36 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 13 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 14 publications ) ( from synonym eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 44 publications ) ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) to clemam ( from synonym eolis mananensis stimpson , 1853 ) to clemam ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 ) to clemam ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) to clemam ( from synonym eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 ) to clemam ( from synonym eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) to clemam ( from synonym eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 ) to clemam ( from synonym coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 ) to clemam to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 29 nucleotides ; 20 proteins ) to pesi ( from synonym coryphella robusta trinchese , 1874 ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym eolidia embletoni johnston , 1835 ) to pesi ( from synonym eolis diversa couthouy , 1839 ) to pesi ( from synonym eolidia verrucosa sars m . , 1829 ) to pesi ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis cocholata balch , 1908 ) to pesi ( from synonym eolis mananensis stimpson , 1853 ) to pesi ( from synonym coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) to itis
in response to your question : i do not know of any research done involving this specific diet for f . verrucosa . i simply meant that these nudibranchs are rarely found associated with this food , but when they are , they have a very distinct color and morphology . i do not know if they switch to another diet once the scyphistomae have run out , but it wouldn ' t surprise me if they did take advantage of whatever is around .
your photos are useful reminder to me of how difficult it is for non - professionals to identify species they find or photograph . my first act when i find something i don ' t recognise is to dissect it and look at the radula to confirm what family or genus is belongs to , because the outside can sometimes be very misleading . i have just posted a page of photos of the radula of flabellina poenicia which illustrates a tooth shape which is very characteristic of the genus . looking at your three species i am not even sure they are all flabellinids . best wishes , bill rudman .
• hernroth , lars , & fredrik gröndahl . 1985 . the biology of aurelia aurita ( l . ) 3 . predation by coryphella verrucosa ( gastropoda , opisthobranchia ) , a major factor regulating the development of aurelia populations in the gullmar fjord , western sweden . ophelia , 24 ( 1 ) : 37 - 45 . • hernroth , l . , & f . gröndahl . 1985a . on the biology of aurelia aurita ( l . ) : 2 . major factors regulating the occurrence of ephyrae and young medusae in the gullmar fjord , western sweden . bulletin of marine science , 37 ( 2 ) : 567 - 576 .
description : currently considered to be a form of coryphella verrucosa . the body is translucent white in colour with opaque white pigment on the tips of the oral tentacles and in a broken line along the centre of the back which becomes continuous on the long tail . the cerata are numerous and arranged in clusters along the sides and back of the body , almost hiding the white centreline . they are filled with red or orange - red granular digestive gland . the cerata have a thin , sometimes incomplete , ring of white pigment below the tip . typically about 15mm - 25mm in length , but well - fed individuals may be larger .
dear kåre , this is an interesting find . you wouldn ' t by chance have have a photo showing the front of the foot more clearly ? in the smaller animal in the upper photo it looks like the front edge of the foot could have the front corners extended into pointed ' angles ' , but i am not sure . i first thought this might be a species of cuthona , but in that genus the anterior foot corners are rounded . the egg ribbon , if it does belong to these animals , could certainly be that of a flabellina . in your lower right photo the animal is eating what seems to be a large solitary hydroid - perhaps a tubularia .
the closest i can come to an identification is a painting of henning lemche ' s of an animal from jutland , denmark ( just & edmunds , 1985 ) , which the authors , suggest is an aberrant form of f . verrucosa . like your animals , the cerata are short and inflated , and are arranged in a pattern of triangles down the body with bare patches down the dorsal midline . even the colour is almost identical . unfortunately , just & edmunds only had lemche ' s painting , no accompanying notes could be found , and no anatomical information . they suggested it was probably ' unhealthy when painted ' which certainly doesn ' t seem to apply to your animals .
what would be interesting would be to see if they have any natural history differences . some species of flabellina change from feeding on one group of hydroids to another during the year so food differences may not be a simple thing to look at . another observation that might be useful would be to look at their egg masses . it is quite possible that their egg spirals might be of a different shape or even their eggs could be markedly different in size . if you would like a little project it would certainly be worth trying to photograph the egg ribbons of the two ' forms ' ideally as they are laying them . there may be no marked difference , but it would be exciting if there were , best wishes , bill rudman
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confusing ? it really is , and i think this group is in need of a careful revision .
• sars , michael . 1829 . bidrag til soedyrene naturhistorie , pt . 1 , : pp . 1 - 59 , pls . 1 - 6 . bergen .
one anatomical point which seems worth following up is the shape of the anterior foot corners . in both sars ' painting and kåre ' s photo the anterior corners of the foot are rounded . although none of the photos in the forum of the long cerata form show the anterior foot clearly , there are plenty of illustrations in the literature showing that it has distinctly angular or even tentacular foot corners [ thompson & brown , 1984 ] . to me the ceratal shape and arrangement and the anterior foot corners are pretty good arguments for some separating them .
• kuzirian , a . m . ( 1979 ) taxonomy and biology of four new england coryphellid nudibranchs . journal of molluscan studies , 45 : 239 - 261 .
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mate selection & copulation are dealt with in this section , while topics of egg - laying , embryonic development , hatching & larval life , settlement & metamorphosis , and ontogenetic development of behaviour are considered elsewhere .
this section on mate - selection & copulation is arranged alphabetically by genus . the genus hermissenda is considered here , while aeolidia , alderia , navanax & other cephalaspids , and aplysia & other anaspids are considered in their own sections .
done in oregon and california later are thought to be most likely accounts of mating . the reason for the misunderstanding owes in part to the extraordinary quickness of the actual copulatory act , which requires only 1 - 2sec . the author never observes copulation in
, in part because of a possible expectation of an activity that would last several minutes or even hours as is customary in other opisthobranchs . the complexity of interactions involved in one of the studies is shown in this computer - simulated flow
. be mindful as you go through it that the researcher is describing general behaviour in laboratory specimens with the understanding that it relates to agonism . with a bit of patience , and assuming that what is really being described is not agonism , but copulatory behaviour , the behavioural repertoire during mating can be noodled out to a few basic components . the line thicknesses in the diagram correspond with frequency of occurrence of any successive pair of behaviours .
begins with a touch of one individual by another , most commonly with tentacles or cerata . since
- ing , which is right - side to right - side orientation that places the gonopore openings of the 2 individuals opposite one another .
, which we know is preparatory to copulation . however , because copulation is not in the author ' s mind , we have to choose a spot for it to happen . a possible spot for this is marked with a bright yellow blob on the flow diagram , its
- all familiar from research study 1 above . the author observes damage done by biting ( the jaws have serrated edges ) , describes “winners” and “losers” in the encounters , and notes that 26 % of the “winners” , presumably the ones that break away first , are the larger individuals of the pairs ( thus , 74 % of
winners
are smaller individuals ) . there are other behaviours shown in the diagram that may or may not play a role in copulation .
recall that the author believes the behaviour to be agonistic ; hence , the
physical
nature of this term . tentacle - touching is described by other authors as more of a
caressing
this is only one possible route from
sidling
that could lead to insemination . another shorter one would be
occurs with low frequency . another , more round - about route on the chart following from an hypothetical copulation after
, and this route also has the merit of large - dimension arrows . the reason for speculating on possible post -
) , and more withdrawals . this goes on for some time and the video switches to show full right side - to - right side touching (
sidling
) and perhaps even copulation . it is
how the author of research study 1 above could initially interpret these behaviours as agonism .
however , anthropomorphism is all too common in interpretation of animal behaviour . in this case , the terms
flagellate
,
sidle
,
winners
, and
losers
, are highly suggestive . is it possible that their initial selection may have prevented the author from standing back and viewing the behaviours more objectively ?
no other nudibranch species appears to exhibit it , nor is it a feature known to be particularly common in gastropods . the author remarks on never having seen agonistic behaviour in
in the field . as to the function of the putative agonistic behaviour , the author speculates that it may aid in food - getting and be a means of warding off predators . in another publication on the same subject the author tests what effect food deprivation has on the “agonistic” behaviour ? in these latter experiments , after 1 - 3d without food there is an increase in locomotory activity and an increase in
agonistic
interactions . also , with each progressive day the frequency of encounters involving biting goes up , suggesting to the author that hunger may be the cause of the “fighting”
a common behaviour in nudibranchs when food is scarce or lacking , however , is to copulate . this makes sense because most species of nudibranchs live seasonally and , when their prey items are in short supply , they spend more time copulating . . . not fighting
although the study may not be as relevant to “agonistic” behaviour as the author intended , the technique used may be useful for other types of experiments . in the present experiments , the author pinches off all cerata from several
with forceps , provides clam tissues as food , and waits until the cerata are regenerated . at this time the cnidosacs
of nematocysts . the author then compares the behaviour of these “nematocyst - free” animals with that of normal control animals and finds no difference in level of “agonistic” behaviour . the technique , although not working out in the way that the author intended could , nevertheless , be a useful way to produce nematocyst - free aeolids for other types of experiments , for example ,
to assess the defensive efficacy of the secondarily acquired nematocysts against fishes and other biting predators .
this is not a new idea , but appears not to have been done with west - coast nudibranchs .
the author is not able to check whether the cnidosacs were actually nematocyst - free , as all the animals die before this could be done . healthy
, a second author agrees with the first that the species does engage in aggressive interactions with conspecifics . however , what is missing in the first descriptions , acording to the second author , is information on the temporal aspects of the interaction , specifically the timing of events from first contact to onset of sidling , and then to cerata movement , lunging and biting , withdrawing , and ending . these events are observed in specimens of
from elkhorn slough , california and recorded on videotape for time - motion analysis . note in the data
that the mean duration of these activities is only about 80 seconds . the author comments that “although the animals are poised in copulation - like posture during sidling , it seems clear , as zack suggested , that these interactions are not copulatory since the time between initiation of sidling and cerata movement is on the average less than 10 seconds” . in discussing the results , the author provides 2 possible explanations for flagellation and sidling : 1 ) to assess the aggressive motivation and size of the other individual , or 2 ) to assess the willingness of the other individual to mate . the author concludes by suggesting that more observations are needed to clarify the matter .
the diagram shows the durations of 4 sets of activities from first contact : begin sidling , move cerata , withdraw , and end . each horizontal set includes overall range , standard deviation , and mean for each set of activities . the vertical blue dotted line shows the mean end time in seconds for 19 individual nudibranchs
, and that zack ' s original paper ( research studies 1 & 3 ) makes it clear that there may be other possible outcomes , including aggression .
because the 2 papers ( research studies 4 & 6 ) were submitted for review at the same time for publication in the same volume of veliger , out of courtesy and interest the editor allowed each set of authors to read the other’s submission and to make comments . the set of 4 articles in veliger is unique and makes for interesting reading
in the same journal as the foregoing publications ( research studies 4 & 5 ) is a paper entitled , “ hermissenda : agonistic behavior or mating behavior ? ” in this paper researchers at friday harbor laboratories , washington note that agonism is not seen in the field in h . crassicornis , and describe the following pre - copulatory behaviours in laboratory specimens : 1 ) one animal follows another , 2 ) front individual turns , 3 ) they meet head - to - head , 4 ) make tentacle / tentacle contact , 5 ) withdraw , 5 ) make tentacle / cerata contact , 6 ) withdraw , 7 ) make tentacle / foot contact , 8 ) advance , and 9 ) jockey back - and - forth . time required : 10 - 30min .
the individuals then align their bodies on the right sides ( 1 - 3min ) , evert penises , expand penis ends into bulbs , and simultaneously ejaculate sperm in muscular contractions . the sperm is emitted in mucus . time for copulatory ejaculation : 1 - 2sec . the authors observe no biting damage , but suggest that the function of pre - copulatory contact may be to reduce the probablility of being eaten . this seems to confirm that aggression occurs , sometimes leading to “cannibalism” , but the authors reiterate their belief that agonistic behaviour does not normally ocur in the field in
the authors conclude that zack’s observations are just of mating behaviour , and not anything else .
longley & longley 1981 veliger 24 : 230 ; longley & longley 1981 veliger 24 : 232 .
copulating . video and descrptive headings courtesy roger & alison longley , friday harbor laboratories .
in santa cruz , california provides further detail on copulation and efficacy of sperm transfer . first , the rapidity of the copulatory event ( about 4sec on average ) markedly decreases the chance of complete transfer of sperm . in
37 videotaped sequences of attempted copulation ( defined as 2 individuals with penises everted ) , almost half lead to failed sperm transfer in one or both individuals . interestingly , a frequent behaviour following sloppy sperm transfer is for an individual to twist its head backwards and consume all or part of the semen in the vicinity of the gonopore . if an individual is allowed to become
habitat : a common species in early spring at shallow exposed sites and deeper water which is exposed to tidal streams . the normal food is the hydroid tubularia indivisa but other smaller hydroids are eaten by juvenile specimens . the spawn consists of a thread which is laid in a smooth spiral like a clock spring .
distribution : a northern species in the british isles , occurring round scotland and in the irish sea south to the isle of man , but apparently absent from the western coasts of ireland and england . further distribution includes norway to the atlantic coast of america .
distribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . coryphella rufibranchialis ( johnston , 1832 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
the evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .
the replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed—which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .
citation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the “island rule” and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken
copyright : © 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
here , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .
part a shows how different tests of the ‘island rule’ can give qualitatively different results . “deep - sea” species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as “shallow - water” . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1∶1 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : “deep - sea” species are those never observed above 400m , and “shallow - water” species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .
the body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . “shallow - water” species were never observed below 200m , and “deep - sea” species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1∶1 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .
we are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed – and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .
many thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .
conceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .
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the translucent white body may reach 6 cm in extreme cases , but 2 - 3 cm is common . often , there is a white line running along the back , but it tends to be covered by the cerata . the cerata are arranged in rows and come in a wide range of colors , but orange , red and brown are perhaps most frequent . there may be a pink tint on the tentacles . the rhinophores ( head tentacles ) are wrinkled and usually have a white pigmented line .
the original identification of the species was done by sars in 1829 . he drew a specimen with short , ice - cone - shaped , white - tipped cerata . studies have later proven that