the common skink , oligosoma polychroma , is a species of skink native to new zealand .

although historically classified as a subspecies of oligosoma nigriplantare , it is likely to be given separate species status as data suggests it is a distinct species .

oligosoma polychroma

leiolopisma nigriplanatre polychroma patterson & daugherty 1990 oligosoma nigriplantare polychroma — patterson & daugherty 1995 oligosoma nigriplantare polychroma — hickson et al . 2000 oligosoma polychroma — jewell 2008 oligosoma polychroma — hitchmough et al . 2016 oligosoma aff . polychroma — frank 2017 oligosoma aff . polychroma clade 1a — barrett 2017
the effect of two glyphosate formulations on a small , diurnal lizard ( oligosoma polychroma ) .
the effect of two glyphosate formulations on a small , diurnal lizard ( oligosoma polychroma ) . - pubmed - ncbi
barrett , paul 2017 . observations of insect egg predation by the northern grass skink oligosoma aff . polychroma clade 1a . biogecko ( 4 ) : 70 - 72
variation : three colour morphs of the southern grass skink ( o . aff . polychroma clade 5 )
frank , hermann 2017 . salvage of southern grass skinks ( oligosoma aff . polychroma clade 5 ) in an old riverbed of the rangitata south branch , canterbury , new zealand biogecko ( 4 ) : 35 - 48
patterson , g . b . ; daugherty , c . h . 1995 . reinstatement of the genus oligosoma ( reptilia : lacertilia : scincidae ) . j . royal soc . new zealand 25 ( 3 ) : 327 - 331
oligosoma skinks are both diurnal and nocturnal and and occur in diverse habitats from rocky and sandy shorelines , to forests , to subalpine habitats . nocturnal species tend to live in damp , thickly vegetated , lowland areas in northern new zealand .
sand dunes , grasslands , herbfields , wetlands , rocky areas including rock piles and scree , and scrub .
may live on ground , among rocks or among low dense vegetation ; ' striped ' form favours grass habitats .
' striped ' form : back light to dark straw - brown ( rarely dark grey ) with numerous smooth stripes , including dark brown mid - dorsal stripe continuous virtually to tip of intact tail ; sides with broad dark brown stripe above ( bordered by thin pale stripes ) and below this grey - brown .
' speckled ' form : back mid - to dark brown , with or without various stripes and with or without lighter and darker flecking or grey blotches , sides as for ' striped ' form but often more flecked .
' striped ' and ' speckled ' forms have throat grey - brown , and belly grey - brown to bright yellow , usually unmarked .
' seaward moss ' form reddish - to very dark brown or dark olive - green all over , sides marginally darker than back , undersurface marginally paler , the only markings a dark mid - dorsal stripe and often a blackish snout .
size up to 72 ( occasionally to 79 ) mm from snout tip to vent .
from central north island southwards to stewart island ; on south island mostly found east of main divide , western occurrence restricted to nelson and northern westland ; on stewart island possibly restricted to lowland areas .
' seaward moss ' form confined to the seaward moss conservation area near invercargill .
' striped ' form ranges from stewart island to north otago , on stephens island , and occurs sporadically in marlborough and the north island .
notes about nz threat classification ( hitchmough , et al 2007 ) : unstriped colour morph from seaward moss wetland in southland has declined markedly , possibly to extinction - cause unknown but possibly vegetation succession , normal striped morph remains common .
notes about 2012 - 14 cycle of nz threat classification for reptiles : ( hitchmough , et al .
2012 ) : declining trend documented at rotoiti , stable population trend documented at pukerua bay ; likely to be in decline , but possibly not at 10 % over 3 generations , elsewhere on the mainland .
declining trends on mainland likely offset by increases on islands eradicated of mammals ( and mainland sanctuaries ) .
chapple , d . g . ; hitchmough , r . a . ; jewell , 2009 . taxonomic instability of reptiles and frogs in new zealand : information to aid the use of jewell ( 2008 ) for species identification [ a comment on king 2009 and further commented by jewell ] . new zealand journal of zoology 36 : 59–71
chapple , david g . ; peter a . ritchie , charles h . daugherty 2009 . origin , diversification , and systematics of the new zealand skink fauna ( reptilia : scincidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 52 ( 2 ) : 470 - 487 - get paper here
hickson , robert e . ; kerryn e . slack and peter lockhart 2000 . phylogeny recapitulates geography , or why new zealand has so many species of skinks . biological journal of the linnean society 70 : 415–433 - get paper here
hitchmough , rodney a . ; geoffrey b . patterson , and david g . chapple 2016 . putting a name to diversity : taxonomy of the new zealand lizard fauna in : chapple , d . g . ( ed ) . new zealand lizards . springer , pp . 87 - 108 - get paper here
jewell , tony 2008 . a photographic guide to reptiles and amphibians of new zealand [ with corrections and comments in chapple & hitchmough 2009 ] . new holland publishers ( nz ) ltd , auckland , 143 pp .
patterson , g . b . and daugherty , c . h . 1990 . four new species and one new subspecies of skinks , genus leiolopisma ( reptilia : lacertilia : scincidae ) from new zealand . journal of the royal society of new zealand 20 ( 1 ) : 65 - 84 [ erratum p . 252 ]
verhaegh , sjuul 2015 . photo gallery : white - faced herons predating on southern grass skinks . biogecko ( 3 ) : 74
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
monitoring is important in conservation management , essential for assessing population trends , making decisions and allocating resources . artificial retreats can offer a reliable , low impact and efficient method for monitoring cryptic herpetofauna . methods for monitoring artificial retreats vary between different conservation management programmes in new zealand , however , and a deeper understanding of the causes of these variations would encourage greater standardisation and enable more reliable comparisons to be made across temporal and spatial scales .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
explore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .
find out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .
did you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .
the atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .
< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
help pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .
you are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .
< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the ‘basket’ to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =
/ help / sequence - searches
> more . . < / a > < / p >
we ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe’s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
allan wilson centre for molecular ecology and evolution , school of biological sciences , victoria university of wellington , wellington , 6140 , new zealand . carpenter . jk @ gmail . com .
school of biological sciences , university of canterbury , christchurch , 8140 , new zealand . carpenter . jk @ gmail . com .
allan wilson centre for molecular ecology and evolution , school of biological sciences , victoria university of wellington , wellington , 6140 , new zealand .
new zealand has a very diverse group of geckos and skinks . the distribution and habits of many are poorly known , and additional species are still being discovered , and others are being established through genetic studies . geckos are distinguished from skinks by having either velvet - like or bumpy skin and a fixed gaze ( they cannot blink ) . skinks are sleek and shiny with scales that shed one at a time and that shine in the sun .
( green ) geckos are diurnal and tend to be tree - dwelling , and favour shrubland and forest habitats but have been found in tussock grasslands of otago and are known to occur in plantation forests .
geckos ( usually darker colours such as brown ) are nocturnal , and favour rocky outcrops , gullies with rock or log cover and sometimes forest .
geckos to the untrained eye . some individuals have a bight mustard - yellow crescent on the nape of the neck , and often also with blotches of the same colour along body and tail .
geckos can be brightly coloured and have a distinctive orange / yellow mouth lining . they have slender toes and tend to be arboreal and primarily nocturnal .
geckos are slender and elegant animals with distinctive stripes . they are strictly arboreal in habit and nocturnal .
is the single species in the tukutuku genus and this species is only found on stewart island where it is most commonly located in sub alpine scrub .
lizards are critical for ecosystem processes ; they pollinate native plants and disperse native plant seeds through eating fruit .
predation by introduced mammals ( e . g . cats , rats , mustelids ) is the biggest threat posed to new zealand lizards , and lizards can become exceptionally abundant in the absence of mammalian predation . loss and / or fragmentation of habitat through development , habitat degradation by introduced browsing mammals ( e . g . pigs , livestock , deer , goats , possums ) , removal of logs and rocks , and excessive collecting also contribute to on - going declines of lizards over all parts of new zealand .
a small - bodied brown striped diurnal skink that can occupy a range of open habitats .
until very recently ( 2008 ) the canterbury grass skink was considered part of a widespread species called the “common skink” .
maintain wide and interconnected zones of potential lizard habitat , e . g . indigenous forest and shrubland , rocky gullies , cliffs and other distinctive habitat types .
raise awareness of staff and contractors of the presence of lizards and the need to protect them .
take photographs or write a detailed description when lizards are found . this can be used for later identification .
survey for lizards , particularly if first time planting is being considered for the area . note that planned surveys require a permit under the wildlife act ( contact doc for survey methods and permits ) .
whitaker and lyall 2004 . conservation of lizards of the west coast / tai poutini conservancy . 99p .
electronic atlas of the amphibians & reptiles of new zealand ( doc website ) .
department of conservation . 2002 . the penguin guide to new zealand wildlife : native and introduced birds , mammals , reptiles and amphibians . auckland , penguin .
gill b . , whitaker a . 1996 . new zealand frogs and reptiles . auckland , bateman .
department of conservation , te ara , landcare research and the new zealand herpetological society websites .
this translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .
angilletta mj jr , niewiarowski p , navas c ( 2002 ) the evolution of thermal physiology in ectotherms . j therm biol 27 : 249–268
antón fa , laborda e , de ariz m ( 1994 ) acute toxicity of the herbicide glyphosate to fish . chemosphere 28 : 745–753
baylis ad ( 2000 ) why glyphosate is a global herbicide : strengths , weaknesses and prospects . pest manage sci 56 : 299–308
besson aa , cree a ( 2011 ) integrating physiology into conservation : an approach to help guide translocations of a rare reptile in a warming environment . anim conserv 14 ( 1 ) : 28–37
böhm m , collen b , baillie je , bowles p , chanson j , cox n , cheylan m ( 2013 ) the conservation status of the world’s reptiles . biol conserv 157 : 372–385
: some consequences of high body temperature . in : wright jw , vitt lj ( eds ) biology of whiptail lizards . oklahoma museum of natural history , norman , pp 117–132
burger j ( 2006 ) neurotoxicology and behavioural effects in reptiles . in : gardner c , oberdörster e ( eds ) toxicology of reptiles . taylor and francis , new york , pp 173–198
cabanac aj , cabanac m ( 2004 ) no emotional fever in toads . j therm biol 29 : 669–673
campbell kr , campbell t ( 2002 ) a logical starting point for developing priorities for lizard and snake ecotoxicology : a review of available data . environ toxicol chem 21 : 894–898
) exposed to a glyphosate formulation using the micronucleus test and the comet assay . mutagen 22 : 263–268
chiari y , glaberman s , serén n , carretero ma , capellini i ( 2015 ) phylogenetic signal in amphibian sensitivity to copper sulfate relative to experimental temperature . ecol appl 25 : 596–602
davis m , meurk c ( 2001 ) protecting and restoring our natural heritage : a practical guide . technical report . new zealand department of conservation , new zealand
dmi’el ra ( 1972 ) effect of activity and temperature on metabolism and water loss in snakes . am j physiol—legacy content 23 : 510–516
duke so , powles s ( 2008 ) glyphosate : a once - in - a - century herbicide . pest manage sci 64 : 319–325
gibbon jw , scott d , ryan t , buhlmann k , tuberville t , metts b , greene j , mills t , leiden y , poppy s , winne c ( 2000 ) the global decline of reptiles , déjà vu amphibians . biosci 50 : 653–666
dill gm , sammons rd , feng pc , kohn f , kretzmer k , mehrsheikh a , haupfear ea ( 2010 ) glyphosate : discovery , development , applications , and properties . glyphosate resistance in crops and weeds : history , development , and management . wiley , hoboken , pp 1–33
hitchmough r , anderson p , barr b , monks j , lettink m , reardon j , tocher m , whitaker t ( 2013 ) conservation status of new zealand reptiles , 2012 . new zealand threat classification series 2 . department of conservation , wellington , new zealand
hopkins wa ( 2000 ) reptile toxicology : challenges and opportunities on the last frontier in vertebrate ecotoxicology . environ toxicol chem 19 : 2391–2393
hopkins wa ( 2006 ) use of tissue residues in reptile ecotoxicology : a call for integration and experimentalism . in : gardner c , oberdörster e ( eds ) toxicology of reptiles . taylor and francis , new york , pp 35–62
howe cm , berrill m , pauli b , helbing c , werry k , veldhoen n ( 2004 ) toxicity of glyphosate - based pesticides to four north american frog species . environ toxicol chem 23 : 1928–1938
mann rm , bidwell j ( 1999 ) the toxicity of glyphosate and several glyphosate formulations to four species of southwestern australian frogs . arch environ contam toxicol 36 ( 2 ) : 193–199
martin lj , murray b ( 2013 ) a preliminary assessment of the response of a native reptile assemblage to spot - spraying invasive bitou bush with glyphosate herbicide . ecol manag restor 14 : 59–62
merton d ( 1987 ) eradication of rabbits from round island , mauritius : a conservation success story . dodo j jersey wildl preserv trust 24 : 19–43
mineau p ( 2011 ) barking up the wrong perch : why we should stop ignoring non - dietary routes of pesticide exposure in birds . integr environ assess manage 7 : 297–299
neilson ka ( 2002 ) evaporative water loss as a restriction on habitat use in endangered new zealand endemic skinks . j herpetol 36 : 342–348
peixoto f ( 2005 ) comparative effects of the roundup and glyphosate on mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation . chemosphere 61 : 1115–1122
relyea ra ( 2012 ) new effects of roundup on amphibians : predators reduce herbicide mortality ; herbicides induce antipredator morphology . ecol appl 22 ( 2 ) : 634–647
( kunth ) lh bailey ) in hawaii volcanoes national park . pcsu technical report . cooperative national park resources studies unit , university of hawaii at manoa
) embryos and early hatchlings . environ toxicol chem 25 ( 10 ) : 2768–2774
r development core team ( 2013 ) r : a language and environment for statistical computing . r foundation for statistical computing , vienna , austria . isbn 3 - 900051 - 07 - 0 .
tsui mt , chu l ( 2003 ) aquatic toxicity of glyphosate - based formulations : comparison between different organisms and the effects of environmental factors . chemosphere 52 ( 7 ) : 1189–1197
wagner n , reichenbecher w , teichmann h , tappeser b , lötters s ( 2013 ) questions concerning the potential impact of glyphosate - based herbicides on amphibians . environ toxicol chem 32 ( 8 ) : 1688–1700
webb jk , whiting m ( 2005 ) why don’t small snakes bask ? juvenile broad - headed snakes trade thermal benefits for safety . oikos 110 : 515–522
weir sm , suski j , salice c ( 2010 ) ecological risk of anthropogenic pollutants to reptiles : evaluating assumptions of sensitivity and exposure . environ pollut 158 : 3596–3606
williams gm , kroes r , munro i ( 2000 ) safety evaluation and risk assessment of the herbicide roundup and its active ingredient , glyphosate , for humans . regul toxicol pharmacol 31 : 117–165


agkistrodon bilineatus is a venomous pitviper species found in mexico and central america as far south as costa rica .

four subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .

agkistrodon bilineatus

ancistrodon bilineatus günther 1863 agkistrodon bilineatus — stejneger 1899 : 71 agkistrodon bilineatus — gloyd & conant 1943 : 163 agkistrodon bilineatus — liner 1994 agkistrodon bilineatus — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 235 agkistrodon bilineatus lemosespinali smith & chiszar 2001 agkistrodon bilineatus — savage 2002 agkistrodon bilineatus — gower et al . 2012 : 78 agkistrodon bilineatus — wallach et al . 2014 : 18
agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) subsp . bilineatus [ original photo copyright © dr julian white ]
agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) subsp . bilineatus [ original photo copyright © dr jurg meier ]
drent , jan 1991 . breeding results : agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus . litteratura serpentium 11 ( 6 ) : 145 - get paper here
agkistrodon bilineatus taylori h . m . smith & taylor , 1950 ( nomen nudum )
hemorrhagic toxin from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) . - pubmed - ncbi
macchiavelli , g . 1990 . reproduction of agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus . litteratura serpentium 10 ( 5 ) : 221 - 224 - get paper here
agkistrodon bilineatus russeolus by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow
boerema , h . 1989 . the keeping and breeding of agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus . litteratura serpentium 9 ( 6 ) : 267 - 268 - get paper here
bilinexin , a snake c - type lectin from agkistrodon bilineatus venom agglutinates platelets via gpib and alpha2beta1 .
glycoprotein proteinase in agkistrodon bilineatus venom
by john d . ruff , bob d . johnson et al .
citation : - agkistrodon bilineatus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .
bilinexin , a snake c - type lectin from agkistrodon bilineatus venom agglutinates platelets via gpib and alpha2beta1 . - pubmed - ncbi
burger wl , robertson wb ( 1951 ) .
a new subspecies of the mexican moccasin , agkistrodon bilineatus
. univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 1 ) : 213 - 218 . ( agkistrodon bilineatus taylori , new subspecies ) .
babb , r . d . and e . dugan . 2008 . geographic distribution : agkistrodon bilineatus . herpetological review 39 : 110 .
smetsers , peet 1993 . agkistrodon bilineatus - günther , the tropical mocassin . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 2 ) : 38 - 40 - get paper here
calmonte , t . ( 1982 ) agkistrodon bilineatus taylori - ein selten imprtierter dreieckskopf aus mexiko . : herpetofauna 4 ( 20 ) : 26 - 27
calmonte , t . 1982 . agkistrodon bilineatus taylori - ein selten imprtierter dreieckskopf aus mexiko . herpetofauna 4 ( 20 ) : 26 - 27 - get paper here
calmonte , toni 1984 . literature : agkistrodon bilineatus taylori - ein selter importierter dreieckskopf aus mexiko . litteratura serpentium 4 ( 2 ) : 82 - get paper here
furiani , m . 1989 . the reproduction of agkistrodon bilineatus ( günther , 1888 ) in captivity . litteratura serpentium 9 ( 4 ) : 142 - 144 - get paper here
peters , uwe w . 1980 . literature : second generation breeding of the cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) at taronga zoo . litteratura serpentium 1 ( 1 ) : 32 - get paper here
trutnau , l . 2001 . einige bemerkungen zur biologie , pflege und nachzucht der mexikanischen giftschlangenart agkistrodon bilineatus günther 1863 . herpetofauna 23 ( 131 ) : 5 - 14 - get paper here
bolanos , r . , & montero , j . r . ( 1971 ) agkistrodon bilineatus günther from costa rica . : revista de biologia tropical 16 [ 1970 ] : 277 - 279 .
agkistrodon taylori
. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .
henderson , r . w . 1977 . notes on agkistrodon bilineatus ( reptilia , serpentes , viperidae ) in belize . journal of herpetology 12 ( 3 ) : 412 - 413 - get paper here
bolanos , r . , & montero , j . r . 1971 . agkistrodon bilineatus günther from costa rica . revista de biologia tropical 16 [ 1970 ] : 277 - 279 . - get paper here
conant , r . ( 1984 ) a new subspecies of the pit viper agkistrodon bilineatus ( reptilia : viperidae ) from central america . : proc . biol . soc . washington 97 : 135 - 141
common names ( subsp . bilineatus ) common cantil , mocasina , castellana , gamarilla , mexican moccasin , mexican cantil
conant , r . 1984 . a new subspecies of the pit viper agkistrodon bilineatus ( reptilia : viperidae ) from central america . proc . biol . soc . washington 97 : 135 - 141 - get paper here
strimple , pete 1995 . comments on caudal luring in snakes with observations on this behaviour in two subspecies of cantils , agkistrodon bilineatus ssp . litteratura serpentium 15 ( 3 ) : 74 - 77 - get paper here
gloyd , h . k . ( 1972 ) a subspecies of agkistrodon bilineatus ( serpentes : crotalidae ) on the yucatán peninsula , méxico . : proc . biol . soc . washington 84 : 327 - 334 .
a . biliniatus is very hot ( maybe 2x ) compared to any of our domestic agkistrodon . al
pathogenesis of hemorrhage induced by bilitoxin , a hemorrhagic toxin isolated from the venom of the common cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus bilineatus ) .
ownby c . l . , nika t . , imai k . , sugihara h . toxicon 28 : 837 - 846 ( 1990 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
gloyd , h . k . 1972 . a subspecies of agkistrodon bilineatus ( serpentes : crotalidae ) on the yucatán peninsula , méxico . proc . biol . soc . washington 84 : 327 - 334 . - get paper here
agkistrodon bilineatus is a venomous pitviper species . these are heavy - bodied snakes , and share the same general body structure with cottonmouths . they have a broad , triangular - shaped head with small eyes that have vertical pupils .
burger , w . l . & robertson , w . b . ( 1951 ) a new subspecies of the mexican moccasin , agkistrodon bilineatus . : univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 5 ) : 213 - 218
fractionation of crude agkistrodon bilineatus venom applying a size exclusion column , superdex - 75 , 16x60 mm , at ph 5 . inset of the figure shows a sds - page ( 15 % glycine , non reducing gel ) of the fractions
burger , w . l . & robertson , w . b . 1951 . a new subspecies of the mexican moccasin , agkistrodon bilineatus . univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 5 ) : 213 - 218 - get paper here
arenas - monroy , josé carlos , and iván trinidad ahumada - carrillo . ( 2015 ) agkistrodon bilineatus günther , 1863 ( squamata : viperidae ) : confirmation of an inland locality for central jalisco , mexico . : mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 3 ) : 371–374
smith , hobart m . and david chiszar 2001 . a new subspecies of cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) from central veracruz , mexico ( reptilia : serpentes ) . bull . maryland herp . soc . 37 ( 4 ) : 130 - 136 - get paper here
ruff , john d . ; johnson , bob d . ; and sifford , dewey h . ( 1980 )
glycoprotein proteinase in agkistrodon bilineatus venom ,
journal of the arkansas academy of science : vol . 34 , article 48 . available at : urltoken
arenas - monroy , josé carlos , and iván trinidad ahumada - carrillo . 2015 . agkistrodon bilineatus günther , 1863 ( squamata : viperidae ) : confirmation of an inland locality for central jalisco , mexico . mesoamerican herpetology 2 ( 3 ) : 371–374 - get paper here
porras lw , wilson ld , schuett gw , reiserer r . s . 2013 . a taxonomic reevaluation and conservation assessment of the common cantil , agkistrodon bilineatus ( squamata : viperidae ) : a race against time . amphibian & reptile conservation 7 ( 1 ) : 48–73 - get paper here
beolens , bo ; watkins , michael ; grayson , michael ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( agkistrodon bilineatus taylori , p . 261 ) .
beolens , bo ; watkins , michael ; grayson , michael ( 2011 ) . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . xiii + 296 pp . isbn 978 - 1 - 4214 - 0135 - 5 . ( agkistrodon bilineatus taylori , p . 261 ) .
i would like to know a good cage size , good temps and humidity , and how often you should feed agkistrodon species . jon short
hemorrhagic toxin from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) .
imai k . , nikai t . , sugihara h . , ownby c . l . int . j . biochem . 21 : 667 - 673 ( 1989 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
usa , mexico and central america . see link
distribution
at the top of the page for detailed information . map 52 agkistrodon spp .
cruz , g . ; wilson , l . d . ; espinosa , j . ( 1979 ) two additions to the reptile fauna of honduras ) eumeces managuae dunn and agkistrodon bilineatus ( gunther ) ) with comments on pelamis platurus ( linnaeus ) . : herpetological review 10 ( 1 ) : 26 - 27
always keep agkistrodon bilineatus clean , do not allow fecal material to sit in a cage where the snake can crawl through it . this can cause skin infections and lead to other health issues . also being a venomous snake , always remove the snake before servicing ! cleaning products such as clorhexadine solution are recommended .
cruz , g . ; wilson , l . d . ; espinosa , j . 1979 . two additions to the reptile fauna of honduras ) eumeces managuae dunn and agkistrodon bilineatus ( gunther ) ) with comments on pelamis platurus ( linnaeus ) . herpetological review 10 ( 1 ) : 26 - 27 - get paper here
effect of bilineobin , a thrombin - like proteinase from the venom of common cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) .
komori y . , nikai t . , ohara a . , yagihashi s . , sugihara h . toxicon 31 : 257 - 270 ( 1993 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
primary structure of a coagulant enzyme , bilineobin , from agkistrodon bilineatus venom .
nikai t . , ohara a . , komori y . , fox j . w . , sugihara h . arch . biochem . biophys . 318 : 89 - 96 ( 1995 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
here we summarize the isolation and characterisation of five bradykinin potentiating peptides , one vasodilator peptide and three bradykinin inhibiting peptides from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus , generally known as cantil . in order to determine their ic 50 values , the inhibitory activities of the synthetic analogues of four natural bpps peptides towards angiotensin converting enzymes were also studied .
the subspecies ( a . bilineatus taylori ) was elevated to species status ( a . taylori ) by parkinson , zamudio and greene ( 2000 ) based on mitochondrial dna sequences .
agkistrodon taylori is a venomous pitviper species [ 4 ] found only in northeastern mexico . it is named in honor of american herpetologist edward harrison taylor . [ 5 ]
habitats : a . bilineatus in dry forests and savannas , a . contortrix primarily in deciduous forests . a . piscivorus is a semi - aquatic species found in bodies of water or swamps .
the cantil ( agkistrodon bilineatus ) , or mexican moccasin , is a pit viper closely related to the water moccasin and copperhead of the united states . like a number of other snakes , it moves its tail in a manner thought to attract the attention of prey , enticing them to come closer or look away from the snake’s business end , a behavior called caudal luring .
trutnau , l . 1984 . ein beitrag zur kenntnis des kupferkopfs - agkistrodon contortrix ( linnaeus 1766 ) . herpetofauna 7 ( 35 ) : 14 - 26 - get paper here
gloyd and conant ( 1943 ) a synopsis of the american forms of agkistrodon ( copperheads and moccasins ) . : bull . chicago acad . sci . 7 : 147 - 170
characterization and amino - terminal sequence of phospholipase a2 - ii from the venom of agkistrodon bilineatus ( common cantil ) .
nikai t . , komori y . , ohara a . , yagihashi s . , ohizumi y . , sugihara h . int . j . biochem . 26 : 43 - 48 ( 1994 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
primary structure and functional characterization of bilitoxin - 1 , a novel dimeric p - ii snake venom metalloproteinase from agkistrodon bilineatus venom .
nikai t . , taniguchi k . , komori y . , masuda k . , fox j . w . , sugihara h . arch . biochem . biophys . 378 : 6 - 15 ( 2000 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
lavin p , mendoza - quijano f , hammerson ga ( 2007 ) . agkistrodon taylori . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2014 . 3 . downloaded on 13 april 2015 .
gloyd , h . and conant , r . 1943 . a synopsis of the american forms of agkistrodon ( copperheads and moccasins ) . bull . chicago acad . sci . 7 : 147 - 170
i am just interested in the care of them . are the reqirements the same as other agkistrodon , even though they are smaller ? and does anyone know if they are more or less venomous then an agkistrodon piscivorus ? ( i know that you should always treat a gun like it is loaded , whether it is a pellet gun or a . 50 cal . ) i ' m just wondering . thanks , jon short
parkinson cl , zamudio kr , greene hw . 2000 . phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status , and conservation of the cantils . mol . ecol . 9 : 411 - 420 .
nad nucleosidase ( nad glycohydrolase , ec 3 . 2 . 2 . 5 ) activity in agkistrodon bilineatus venom was observed . using the cyanide assay method at ph 7 . 9 , lyophilized crude venom had an activity of 0 . 19 units / mg . chromatography of the crude venom on deae sephadex a - 50 with ammonium acetate buffer by two stage elution yielded 13 fractions . peak nad nucleosidase activity occurred at fraction x . crude venom and fraction x nad nucleosidase activities were thermolabile .
parkinson cl , zamudio kr , greene hw ( 2000 ) .
phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status , and conservation of the cantils
. mol . ecol . 9 : 411 - 420 .
parkinson , c . l . , zamudio , k . r . & greene , h . w . 2000 . phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status and conservation of cantils . molecular ecology 9 : 411 - 420
snake venom from agkistrodon contortrix mokason ( northern copperhead ) may be used as a source of disintegrins , fibrin ( ogen ) olytic activities , phospholipase a2 as well as other toxins . it may also be used as an immunogen or for proteome research .
gloyd hk , conant r . 1990 . snakes of the agkistrodon complex : a monographic review . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 614 pp . 52 plates . lccn 89 - 50342 . isbn 0 - 916984 - 20 - 6 .
parkinson , c . l . , k . r . zamudio and h . w . greene . 2000 . phylogeography of the pitviper clade agkistrodon : historical ecology , species status , and conservation of cantils molecular ecology 9 : 411 - 420 . pdf
gloyd hk , conant r ( 1990 ) . snakes of the agkistrodon complex : a monographic review . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 614 pp . 52 plates . lccn 89 - 50342 . isbn 0 - 916984 - 20 - 6 .
gloyd hk , conant r ( 1990 ) . snakes of the agkistrodon complex : a monographic review . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles . 614 pp . 52 plates . lccn 89 - 50342 . isbn 0 - 916984 - 20 - 6 .
otoh , i tend not to think that caudal luring in agkistrodon or various superficially similar behaviors in lizards have any particular relation to tail rattling . they both involve tail movement , but that’s about the only similarity . different kinds of movement , different contexts , etc .
lomonte b , tsai wc , ureña - diaz jm , sanz lm - od , sánchez ee , fry bggj , et al . venomics of new world pit vipers : genus - wide comparisons of venom proteomes across agkistrodon . j proteome . 2014 ; 16 ( 96 ) : 103–16 .
this entry was written by whyevolutionistrue and posted on january 14 , 2012 at 4 : 32 pm and filed under adaptation , animals with tags agkistrodon , cantil , snakes . bookmark the permalink . follow any comments here with the rss feed for this post . both comments and trackbacks are currently closed .
i keep agkistrodon bilineatus with longer days in the summer and let natural lighting do the work . so timers come on at 8 : 00am and turn off at 6 : 00pm and natural light does the rest . during winter the lights turn on at 9 : 00am and off at 5 : 00pm and then the same , natural lighting does the rest . they prefer a well lit habitat , with a basking spot of about 29 °c ( 85 °f ) , with a cool side of 24 - 27 °c ( 75 - 80 °f ) with a nighttime drop as low as 21 °c ( 70 °f ) , works just fine .
the enzyme activities and their ph optima for crude lyophilized agkistrodon bilineatus venom were as follows : phosphomonoesterase ( ph 9 . 5 ) , phosphodiesterase ( ph 9 . 0 ) , 5 ' - nucleotidase ( ph 10 . 0 to 10 . 2 ) , phospholipase a , thrombin - like , n - benzoyl - l - arginine ethyl esterase ( ph 8 . 0 ) , p - toluene - sulphonyl - l - arginine methyl esterase ( ph 8 . 0 ) , protease ( ph 8 . 9 to 9 . 1 ) , and l - amino acid oxidase ( ph 7 . 5 . . . [ show full abstract ]
treatment summary bites by agkistrodon species vary from only minor local effects to moderate , rarely severe local effects , the latter potentially including hypovolaemic shock . major systemic effects are likely to be confined to coagulopathy , though systemic myolysis is a theoretical risk , but not paralysis . cases with major local or systemic envenoming should receive antivenom iv .
our local missouri black rat snakes , elaphe obsoleta obsoleta , also shake their tails against dry leaves and underbrush when disturbed , making a somewhat convincing rattlesnake mimic , convincing enough to cause a momentary pause and give that lovely heart pounding rush , but i don’t think they’re known to use it for predation ( young eat small lizards frogs and insects but the tails are not differently colored like agkistrodon ) , just protection .
enzymatic and toxic activities of venoms of agkistrodon species and subspecies . venoms were compared for proteinase activity on azocasein ( panel a ) , pla 2 activity ( panel b ) , hemorrhagic activity in mice ( panel c ) , and myotoxicity in mice ( panel d ) . details of experimental protocols are included in the materials and methods section . results are presented as mean ± s . d . ( n = 3 for proteinase and pla 2 activities and n = 4 for hemorrhagic and myotoxic activities ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
home » resources » categories and criteria » 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1
see below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .
the iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .
extensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .
before 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .
to give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .
since their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .
the proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :
version 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .
version 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .
version 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .
version 2 . 2 : mace and stuart ( 1994 ) following further comments received and additional validation exercises , some minor changes to the criteria were made . in addition , the susceptible category present in versions 2 . 0 and 2 . 1 was subsumed into the vulnerable category . a precautionary application of the system was emphasised .
version 2 . 3 : iucn ( 1994 ) iucn council adopted this version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from iucn members , in december 1994 . the initial version of this document was published without the necessary bibliographic details , such as date of publication and isbn number , but these were included in the subsequent reprints in 1998 and 1999 . this version was used for the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals ( baillie and groombridge 1996 ) , the world list of threatened trees ( oldfield et al 1998 ) and the 2000 iucn red list of threatened species ( hilton - taylor 2000 ) .
version 3 . 0 : iucn / ssc criteria review working group ( 1999 ) following comments received , a series of workshops were convened to look at the iucn red list criteria following which , changes were proposed affecting the criteria , the definitions of some key terms and the handling of uncertainty .
version 3 . 1 : iucn ( 2001 ) the iucn council adopted this latest version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from the iucn and ssc memberships and from a final meeting of the criteria review working group , in february 2000 .
all new assessments from january 2001 should use the latest adopted version and cite the year of publication and version number .
in the rest of this document , the proposed system is outlined in several sections . section ii , the preamble , presents basic information about the context and structure of the system , and the procedures that are to be followed in applying the criteria to species . section iii provides definitions of key terms used . section iv presents the categories , while section v details the quantitative criteria used for classification within the threatened categories . annex i provides guidance on how to deal with uncertainty when applying the criteria ; annex ii suggests a standard format for citing the red list categories and criteria ; and annex iii outlines the documentation requirements for taxa to be included on iucn ' s global red lists . it is important for the effective functioning of the system that all sections are read and understood to ensure that the definitions and rules are followed .
the information in this section is intended to direct and facilitate the use and interpretation of the categories ( critically endangered , endangered , etc . ) , criteria ( a to e ) , and subcriteria ( 1 , 2 , etc . ; a , b , etc . ; i , ii , etc . ) .
extinction is a chance process . thus , a listing in a higher extinction risk category implies a higher expectation of extinction , and over the time - frames specified more taxa listed in a higher category are expected to go extinct than those in a lower one ( without effective conservation action ) . however , the persistence of some taxa in high - risk categories does not necessarily mean their initial assessment was inaccurate .
all taxa listed as critically endangered qualify for vulnerable and endangered , and all listed as endangered qualify for vulnerable . together these categories are described as ' threatened ' . the threatened categories form a part of the overall scheme . it will be possible to place all taxa into one of the categories ( see figure 1 ) .
for listing as critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable there is a range of quantitative criteria ; meeting any one of these criteria qualifies a taxon for listing at that level of threat . each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria . even though some criteria will be inappropriate for certain taxa ( some taxa will never qualify under these however close to extinction they come ) , there should be criteria appropriate for assessing threat levels for any taxon . the relevant factor is whether any one criterion is met , not whether all are appropriate or all are met . because it will never be clear in advance which criteria are appropriate for a particular taxon , each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria , and all criteria met at the highest threat category must be listed .
the different criteria ( a - e ) are derived from a wide review aimed at detecting risk factors across the broad range of organisms and the diverse life histories they exhibit . the quantitative values presented in the various criteria associated with threatened categories were developed through wide consultation , and they are set at what are generally judged to be appropriate levels , even if no formal justification for these values exists . the levels for different criteria within categories were set independently but against a common standard . broad consistency between them was sought .
the criteria for the threatened categories are to be applied to a taxon whatever the level of conservation action affecting it . it is important to emphasise here that a taxon may require conservation action even if it is not listed as threatened . conservation actions which may benefit the taxon are included as part of the documentation requirements ( see annex 3 ) .
the criteria are clearly quantitative in nature . however , the absence of high - quality data should not deter attempts at applying the criteria , as methods involving estimation , inference and projection are emphasised as being acceptable throughout . inference and projection may be based on extrapolation of current or potential threats into the future ( including their rate of change ) , or of factors related to population abundance or distribution ( including dependence on other taxa ) , so long as these can reasonably be supported . suspected or inferred patterns in the recent past , present or near future can be based on any of a series of related factors , and these factors should be specified as part of the documentation .
taxa at risk from threats posed by future events of low probability but with severe consequences ( catastrophes ) should be identified by the criteria ( e . g . small distributions , few locations ) . some threats need to be identified particularly early , and appropriate actions taken , because their effects are irreversible or nearly so ( e . g . , pathogens , invasive organisms , hybridization ) .
the data used to evaluate taxa against the criteria are often estimated with considerable uncertainty . such uncertainty can arise from any one or all of the following three factors : natural variation , vagueness in the terms and definitions used , and measurement error . the way in which this uncertainty is handled can have a strong influence on the results of an evaluation . details of methods recommended for handling uncertainty are included in annex 1 , and assessors are encouraged to read and follow these principles .
in general , when uncertainty leads to wide variation in the results of assessments , the range of possible outcomes should be specified . a single category must be chosen and the basis for the decision should be documented ; it should be both precautionary and credible .
when data are very uncertain , the category of ' data deficient ' may be assigned . however , in this case the assessor must provide documentation showing that this category has been assigned because data are inadequate to determine a threat category . it is important to recognize that taxa that are poorly known can often be assigned a threat category on the basis of background information concerning the deterioration of their habitat and / or other causal factors ; therefore the liberal use of ' data deficient ' is discouraged .
listing in the categories of not evaluated and data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made , though for different reasons . until such time as an assessment is made , taxa listed in these categories should not be treated as if they were non - threatened . it may be appropriate ( especially for data deficient forms ) to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa , at least until their status can be assessed .
all assessments should be documented . threatened classifications should state the criteria and subcriteria that were met . no assessment can be accepted for the iucn red list as valid unless at least one criterion is given . if more than one criterion or subcriterion is met , then each should be listed . if a re - evaluation indicates that the documented criterion is no longer met , this should not result in automatic reassignment to a lower category of threat ( downlisting ) . instead , the taxon should be re - evaluated against all the criteria to clarify its status . the factors responsible for qualifying the taxon against the criteria , especially where inference and projection are used , should be documented ( see annexes 2 and 3 ) . the documentation requirements for other categories are also specified in annex 3 .
the category of threat is not necessarily sufficient to determine priorities for conservation action . the category of threat simply provides an assessment of the extinction risk under current circumstances , whereas a system for assessing priorities for action will include numerous other factors concerning conservation action such as costs , logistics , chances of success , and other biological characteristics of the subject .
re - evaluation of taxa against the criteria should be carried out at appropriate intervals . this is especially important for taxa listed under near threatened , data deficient and for threatened taxa whose status is known or suspected to be deteriorating .
a taxon may be moved from a category of higher threat to a category of lower threat if none of the criteria of the higher category has been met for five years or more .
if the original classification is found to have been erroneous , the taxon may be transferred to the appropriate category or removed from the threatened categories altogether , without delay ( but see point 10 above ) .
the term ' population ' is used in a specific sense in the red list criteria that is different to its common biological usage . population is here defined as the total number of individuals of the taxon . for functional reasons , primarily owing to differences between life forms , population size is measured as numbers of mature individuals only . in the case of taxa obligately dependent on other taxa for all or part of their life cycles , biologically appropriate values for the host taxon should be used .
subpopulations are defined as geographically or otherwise distinct groups in the population between which there is little demographic or genetic exchange ( typically one successful migrant individual or gamete per year or less ) .
the number of mature individuals is the number of individuals known , estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction . when estimating this quantity , the following points should be borne in mind :
mature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted ( e . g . densities are too low for fertilization ) .
in the case of populations with biased adult or breeding sex ratios , it is appropriate to use lower estimates for the number of mature individuals , which take this into account .
where the population size fluctuates , use a lower estimate . in most cases this will be much less than the mean .
reproducing units within a clone should be counted as individuals , except where such units are unable to survive alone ( e . g . corals ) .
in the case of taxa that naturally lose all or a subset of mature individuals at some point in their life cycle , the estimate should be made at the appropriate time , when mature individuals are available for breeding .
re - introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals .
generation length is the average age of parents of the current cohort ( i . e . newborn individuals in the population ) . generation length therefore reflects the turnover rate of breeding individuals in a population . generation length is greater than the age at first breeding and less than the age of the oldest breeding individual , except in taxa that breed only once . where generation length varies under threat , the more natural , i . e . pre - disturbance , generation length should be used .
a reduction is a decline in the number of mature individuals of at least the amount ( % ) stated under the criterion over the time period ( years ) specified , although the decline need not be continuing . a reduction should not be interpreted as part of a fluctuation unless there is good evidence for this . the downward phase of a fluctuation will not normally count as a reduction .
a continuing decline is a recent , current or projected future decline ( which may be smooth , irregular or sporadic ) which is liable to continue unless remedial measures are taken . fluctuations will not normally count as continuing declines , but an observed decline should not be considered as a fluctuation unless there is evidence for this .
extreme fluctuations can be said to occur in a number of taxa when population size or distribution area varies widely , rapidly and frequently , typically with a variation greater than one order of magnitude ( i . e . a tenfold increase or decrease ) .
the phrase ' severely fragmented ' refers to the situation in which increased extinction risk to the taxon results from the fact that most of its individuals are found in small and relatively isolated subpopulations ( in certain circumstances this may be inferred from habitat information ) . these small subpopulations may go extinct , with a reduced probability of recolonization .
extent of occurrence is defined as the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary which can be drawn to encompass all the known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon , excluding cases of vagrancy ( see figure 2 ) . this measure may exclude discontinuities or disjunctions within the overall distributions of taxa ( e . g . large areas of obviously unsuitable habitat ) ( but see ' area of occupancy ' , point 10 below ) . extent of occurrence can often be measured by a minimum convex polygon ( the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180 degrees and which contains all the sites of occurrence ) .
figure 2 . two examples of the distinction between extent of occurrence and area of occupancy . ( a ) is the spatial distribution of known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence . ( b ) shows one possible boundary to the extent of occurrence , which is the measured area within this boundary . ( c ) shows one measure of area of occupancy which can be achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares .
the term ' location ' defines a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present . the size of the location depends on the area covered by the threatening event and may include part of one or many subpopulations . where a taxon is affected by more than one threatening event , location should be defined by considering the most serious plausible threat .
a quantitative analysis is defined here as any form of analysis which estimates the extinction probability of a taxon based on known life history , habitat requirements , threats and any specified management options . population viability analysis ( pva ) is one such technique . quantitative analyses should make full use of all relevant available data . in a situation in which there is limited information , such data as are available can be used to provide an estimate of extinction risk ( for instance , estimating the impact of stochastic events on habitat ) . in presenting the results of quantitative analyses , the assumptions ( which must be appropriate and defensible ) , the data used and the uncertainty in the data or quantitative model must be documented .
extinct ( ex ) a taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died . a taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .
extinct in the wild ( ew ) a taxon is extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation , in captivity or as a naturalized population ( or populations ) well outside the past range . a taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .
critically endangered ( cr ) a taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for critically endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .
endangered ( en ) a taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .
vulnerable ( vu ) a taxon is vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for vulnerable ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .
near threatened ( nt ) a taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable now , but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .
least concern ( lc ) a taxon is least concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered , vulnerable or near threatened . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .
not evaluated ( ne ) a taxon is not evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria .
note : as in previous iucn categories , the abbreviation of each category ( in parenthesis ) follows the english denominations when translated into other languages ( see annex 2 ) .
( e ) the effects of introduced taxa , hybridization , pathogens , pollutants , competitors or parasites .
e . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 % within 10 years or three generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .
a . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than five locations .
e . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20 % within 20 years or five generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .
a . severely fragmented or known to exist at no more than 10 locations .
1 . population size estimated to number fewer than 1 , 000 mature individuals .
2 . population with a very restricted area of occupancy ( typically less than 20 km 2 ) or number of locations ( typically five or fewer ) such that it is prone to the effects of human activities or stochastic events within a very short time period in an uncertain future , and is thus capable of becoming critically endangered or even extinct in a very short time period .
e . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10 % within 100 years .
one of the simplest ways to represent uncertainty is to specify a best estimate and a range of plausible values . the best estimate itself might be a range , but in any case the best estimate should always be included in the range of plausible values . when data are very uncertain , the range for the best estimate might be the range of plausible values . there are various methods that can be used to establish the plausible range . it may be based on confidence intervals , the opinion of a single expert , or the consensus opinion of a group of experts . whichever method is used should be stated and justified in the documentation .
an assessment using a point estimate ( i . e . single numerical value ) will lead to a single red list category . however , when a plausible range for each parameter is used to evaluate the criteria , a range of categories may be obtained , reflecting the uncertainties in the data . a single category , based on a specific attitude to uncertainty , should always be listed along with the criteria met , while the range of plausible categories should be indicated in the documentation ( see annex 3 ) .
where data are so uncertain that any category is plausible , the category of ' data deficient ' should be assigned . however , it is important to recognize that this category indicates that the data are inadequate to determine the degree of threat faced by a taxon , not necessarily that the taxon is poorly known or indeed not threatened . although data deficient is not a threatened category , it indicates a need to obtain more information on a taxon to determine the appropriate listing ; moreover , it requires documentation with whatever available information there is .
under section v ( the criteria for critically endangered , endangered and vulnerable ) there is a hierarchical alphanumeric numbering system of criteria and subcriteria . these criteria and subcriteria ( all three levels ) form an integral part of the red list assessment and all those that result in the assignment of a threatened category must be specified after the category . under the criteria a to c and d under vulnerable , the first level of the hierarchy is indicated by the use of numbers ( 1 - 4 ) and if more than one is met , they are separated by means of the ' + ' symbol . the second level is indicated by the use of the lower - case alphabet characters ( a - e ) . these are listed without any punctuation . a third level of the hierarchy under criteria b and c involves the use of lower case roman numerals ( i - v ) . these are placed in parentheses ( with no space between the preceding alphabet character and start of the parenthesis ) and separated by the use of commas if more than one is listed . where more than one criterion is met , they should be separated by semicolons . the following are examples of such usage :
all assessments published on the iucn red list are freely available for public use . to ensure assessments are fully justified and to allow red list assessment data to be analysed , thus making the iucn red list a powerful tool for conservation and policy decisions , a set of supporting information is required to accompany every assessment submitted for publication on the iucn red list of threatened species ™ :
required supporting information under specific conditions ( e . g . taxa assessed under specific red list categories or criteria , plant assessments , reassessed taxa , etc . ) .
tools available for preparing and submitting assessments for the iucn red list , including the iucn species information service ( sis ) and ramas® red list ( akçakaya and ferson 2001 ) .
note that the documentation standards and consistency checks for iucn red list assessments and species accounts will be updated on a regular basis .
click here for a summary of the five criteria ( a - e ) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in an iucn red list threatened category ( critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable ) .
akçakaya , h . r . and ferson , s . 2001 . ramas ® red list : threatened species classifications under uncertainty . version 2 . 0 . applied biomathematics , new york .
akçakaya , h . r . , ferson , s . , burgman , m . a . , keith , d . a . , mace , g . m . and todd , c . a . 2000 . making consistent iucn classifications under uncertainty . conservation biology 14 : 1001 - 1013 .
baillie , j . and groombridge , b . ( eds ) . 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . iucn , gland , switzerland .
burgman , m . a . , keith , d . a . and walshe , t . v . 1999 . uncertainty in comparative risk analysis of threatened australian plant species . risk analysis 19 : 585 - 598 .
fitter , r . and fitter , m . ( eds ) . 1987 . the road to extinction . iucn , gland , switzerland .
gärdenfors , u . , hilton - taylor , c . , mace , g . , and rodríguez , j . p . , 2001 . the application of iucn red list criteria at regional levels . conservation biology 15 : 1206 - 1212 .
hilton - taylor , c . ( compiler ) . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .
iucn . 1993 . draft iucn red list categories . iucn , gland , switzerland .
iucn . 1994 . iucn red list categories . prepared by the iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland .
iucn . 1996 . resolution 1 . 4 . species survival commission . resolutions and recommendations , pp . 7 - 8 . world conservation congress , 13 - 23 october 1996 , montreal , canada . iucn , gland , switzerland .
iucn . 1998 . guidelines for re - introductions . prepared by the iucn / ssc re - introduction specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .
iucn . 2001 . iucn red list categories and criteria : version 3 . 1 . iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .
iucn . 2003 . guidelines for application of iucn red list criteria at regional levels : version 3 . 0 . iucn species survival commission . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .
iucn . 2012 . guidelines for application of iucn red list criteria at regional and national levels : version 4 . 0 . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk : iucn .
iucn / ssc criteria review working group . 1999 . iucn red list criteria review provisional report : draft of the proposed changes and recommendations . species 31 - 32 : 43 - 57 .
mace , g . m . , collar , n . , cooke , j . , gaston , k . j . , ginsberg , j . r . , leader - williams , n . , maunder , m . and milner - gulland , e . j . 1992 . the development of new criteria for listing species on the iucn red list . species 19 : 16 ? 22 .
mace , g . m . and lande , r . 1991 . assessing extinction threats : toward a re - evaluation of iucn threatened species categories . conservation biology 5 : 148 ? 157 .
mace , g . m . and stuart , s . n . 1994 . draft iucn red list categories , version 2 . 2 . species 21 - 22 : 13 - 24 .
oldfield , s . , lusty , c . and mackinven , a . 1998 . the world list of threatened trees . world conservation press , cambridge .
no . of vials : 10 . expiration date : ordered . last update : 2013 - 03 - 06 .
giftnotruf muenchen , klinikum rechts der isar tel : + 49 - 89 - 19240 ; fax : + 49 - 89 - 41402467 ; email : tox @ lrz . tum . de .
pharmacie des hôpitaux , universitaires de genève tel : + 41 - 22 - 3723960 ( during business hours ) , - 3723311 ( reception ) ; fax : + 41 - 22 - 2723990 .
kantonsapotheke zürich tel : + 41 - 44 - 2553202 / 14 ( during business hours ) , - 2552111 ( emergency ) ; fax : + 41 - 44 - 2554546 .
kantonsspital münsterlingen , institut für spitalpharmazie tel : + 41 - 71 - 6862244 ( during business hours ) , - 6861111 ( emergency ) ; fax : + 41 - 71 - 6862239 .
medical toxicology information services , guy ' s hospital tel : + 44 - 20 - 71880500 ( 24 hour antivenom line ) , + 44 - 20 - 71880600 ( administration ) ; fax : + 44 - 20 - 71880700 .


acraga infusa , the yellow furry-legs , is a moth of the dalceridae family .

it is found in guatemala , belize , costa rica , panama , colombia , venezuela , trinidad , guyana , surinam , french guiana , ecuador , brazil , peru , bolivia and paraguay .

acraga infusa may represent one variable species , but could also represent a species complex of closely related species .

all specimens are entirely orange , but varying considerably in size and somewhat in apparent wing shape and colour tone .

acraga infusa

acraga infusa is found in venezuela , guyana , brazil , ecuador and peru .
jennifer hammock split the classifications by nmnh entomology resource from acraga infusa schaus , 1905 to their own page .
like other members of the dalceridae , acraga infusa adopts a characteristic and almost comical resting posture , with the wings arched almost vertically , and the long and very hairy forelegs projecting forward .
the genus acraga contains 40 species found variously from mexico to bolivia . most are unmarked , although a few such as leberna and angulifera are whitish with suffused darker markings . there are several yellow species including coa , infusa , sulphurea and
biostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .
he family dalceridae comprises 84 known species , most of which are confined to south america , with a few representatives reaching the united states .
the moths average about 3cms in wingspan . they are easily recognised as a family from the very distinctive venation , short pectinate antennae , tiny dark eyes , and their characteristic resting posture with the wings steeply arched and the long hairy forelegs projecting forward .
the caterpillars of all dalceridae are slug - like and covered in gelatinous tubercles .
all photographs , artwork , text & website design are the property of adrian hoskins ( unless otherwise stated ) and are protected by copyright . photographs or text on this website must not be reproduced in part or in whole or published elsewhere without prior written consent of adrian hoskins / urltoken
the family dalceridae comprises 84 known species , most of which are confined to south america , with a few representatives reaching the united states . the moths average about 3cms in wingspan . they are easily recognised as a family from the very distinctive venation , short pectinate antennae , tiny dark eyes , and their characteristic resting posture with the wings steeply arched and the long hairy forelegs projecting forward .
the larvae of all dalceridae are slug - like and covered in gelatinous tubercles . the larval foodplants include coffea , eremanthus , erythroxylum , metrodorea , ouratea , pouteria and qualea .
scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
80x5 - 240x3 - 240x4 - 320x1 - 320x2 - 320x3 - 640x1 - 640x2 set display option above . click on image to enlarge .
. each record tells when . see dataset links for citations & terms of use .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / cтарая версия insecta . pro )
note : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments
* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .
curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
our website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .