the herons are the long-legged freshwater and coastal birds in the family ardeidae , with 64 recognised species , some of which are referred to as " egrets " or " bitterns " rather than herons .

members of the genera botaurus and ixobrychus are referred to as " bitterns " , and , together with the zigzag heron or zigzag bittern in the monotypic genus zebrilus , form a monophyletic group within the ardeidae .

egrets are not a biologically distinct group from the herons , and tend to be named differently because they are mainly white or have decorative plumes .

although egrets have the same build as herons , they tend to be smaller .

herons , by evolutionary adaptation , have long beaks .

the classification of the individual heron/egret species is fraught with difficulty , and no clear consensus exists about the correct placement of many species into either of the two major genera , ardea and egretta .

similarly , the relationships of the genera in the family are not completely resolved .

however , one species formerly considered to constitute a separate monotypic family , the cochlearidaeor the boat-billed heron , is now regarded as a member of the ardeidae .

although herons resemble birds in some other families , such as the storks , ibises , spoonbills , and cranes , they differ from these in flying with their necks retracted , not outstretched .

they are also one of the bird groups that have powder down .

some members of this group nest colonially in trees , while others , notably the bitterns , use reed beds .

heron

yellow - crowned night - heron the yellow - crowned night - heron has a chunkier body and heavier bill .
in 1880 , the most common heron occupation in the usa was farmer . 34 % of heron ' s were farmers . farmer , laborer and keeping house were the top 3 reported jobs worked by heron . a less common occupation for the heron family was farm laborer .
in 1881 , the most common o ' heron occupation in canada was servant . 100 % of o ' heron ' s were servants .
you will receive an email ( no more than once per day ) summarizing any new mentions of heron on nameberry . would you like to follow heron ?
visit the bent life history for extensive additional information on the great blue heron .
the total of apparently occupied grey heron nests in cheshire and wirral , 1980–2007 .
i quite like heron , and i like that it has meaning for you .
a retrospective deep dive into one of heron ' s early fixed income impact investments .
adult great blue heron ( white - morph ) , captiva is . , fl .
figure 1 . range of the black - crowned night - heron in north america .
adult black - crowned night - heron foraging , lake martin , la , april .
the white - faced heron is one of new zealand ' s commonest large birds .
the heron is dead in an instant , and two other lions rush into the frame .
figure 1 . breeding , nonbreeding , and year - round ranges of the great blue heron .
the great blue heron is one of the most widespread and adaptable wading birds in north america .
to me , heron doesn ' t seem quite as namelike as wren , robin or lark .
between 1948 and 2004 , heron life expectancy was at its lowest point in 1957 , and highest in 1996 . the average life expectancy for heron in 1948 was 44 , and 77 in 2004 .
kc tsang did it again . on 30th december 2008 he sighted a malayan night heron . . .
the earliest occurrence of the heron surname in our family history documents is from 1454 , and we currently have 117 , 847 records where heron appears . here are a few more facts to get you started…
heron may feel like a very usable nature name - - the heron is a long - legged wading bird - - but it was also the name of a 1st century greek inventor and of an egyptian saint . highly unusual yet easy to understand and meaningful on several levels , heron is a fantastic choice .
to find your nearest heron foods store , simply enter a place name or postcode in the field below .
the tall , long - legged great blue heron is the most common and largest of north american herons .
last year a heron took nearly half our adult and young goldfish and golden orfe from our fish pond .
what about heather ? it ' s a nature name with some of the same soft sounds as heron .
the great blue heron is a tall , long - legged , long - necked heron with a bluish - gray body , a pale head with a black stripe above the eye , and black streaking on the foreneck .
the name heron is a boy ' s name meaning
hero
. heron and is often added to lists like unique middle names for boys and discussed in our forums with posts like
baby a day
.
similar species : the white - faced heron is paler and two - toned grey , with an obvious white face when adult . it has a more upright stance , and uses a much wider range of habitats than the reef heron , which is never seen away from the coast . in flight , the reef heron is uniformly dark , whereas the white - faced heron ' s dark flight feathers contrast with the paler grey wing coverts and body .
the grey heron is a tall bird with a long neck and legs , and a heavy dagger - like bill .
white - bellied heron – ardea insignis . avis . indianbiodiversity . org . retrieved on 2012 - 08 - 22 .
i’m a big heron fan - i always shop locally and i pop into heron at least 3 times a week . love the products and element of surprise offers ! the staff make it extra special . pride in their store is very evident !
copyright © 2018 heron foods . all rights reserved . all offers are subject to availability . prices include vat where applicable .
as heron continues to optimize our portfolio for mission , some types of impact look great in isolation—but less so in context .
reef heron . adult stalking . port charles , coromandel peninsula , may 2009 . image © neil fitzgerald by neil fitzgerald urltoken
a medium - sized dark grey heron with a long , greyish - yellow bill , and greenish - yellow legs , that is uniformly dark in flight . an all - white form of reef heron also exists but is rare in new zealand .
a grey heron has been seen flying overhead many times over the last few years and occasionally has visited our garden or those of our neighbours , especially in the early morning . several magpies and carrion crows usually
escort
and mob the heron .
an all - white subspecies , the great white heron , is found in coastal areas of southern florida , along with individuals that are intermediate in plumage ( showing a grayish body with a mostly white head and neck ) , known as “würdemann’s heron . ”
we had never seen a heron here before . we put a net over the pond but the heron still came and made holes in the net to get to what was left of our fish . don’t know how we can protect our fish this year .
we recently merged updates to run heron natively using mesos in aws , mesos / aurora in aws , and locally on a laptop .
in an effort to be as transparent as possible , heron has been posting the performance of its financial portfolio dating all the way back to 1992 . and lately , observant readers have been sending us questions about the way in which heron’s portfolio performed during the 2008 financial crisis .
the great blue heron is a large , slim wading bird with a long , curving neck and long legs . most often confused mistaken as a sandhill crane , in flight the great blue heron folds its neck back over its shoulders in an s - shape , while cranes hold their necks outstretched in flight . while hunting , the great blue heron stands nearly motionless , and despite its size can be easily overlooked .
adams , r . 2013 . reef heron . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken
one of the interesting and critical recent advances in understanding the systematics of herons is that three groups of herons are more primitive than the rest , the tiger herons , the agami heron , and the boat billed heron , the latter being a sister group of all the remaining herons . the tiger heron subfamily includes five species . members of the group have somewhat bittern - like plumage , but differ from bitterns in a number of skeletal characteristics and in behavior . the distributions of the species are scattered in the tropics of america ( tigrisoma ) , new guinea ( zonerodius ) and africa ( tigrionis ) . the old world forms are of conservation concern . the agami heron is a unique and little known heron from the american tropics . the boat billed heron is a polytypic species , also unique and requiring additional study to understand its population structure for conservation purposes .
what made you want to look up heron ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
white - faced heron . adult in breeding plumage . anderson park , taradale , napier , january 2012 . image © adam clarke by adam clarke
i had never thought of heron as a name before , but my initial reaction is that i quite like it . i think heron stands as a lovely full name without need of a nickname , but hera is a beautiful , all - girl nickname . i like herons - i think the great blue heron is a gorgeous , long and lean , elegant bird , and a decent namesake . heron seems a little gender - neutral , but leans feminine to me . and i love a good nature name , even if i can ' t talk my husband into them !
the nest will be twiggy , usually at the top of a tall tree , such as a mature oak tree . herons nest in colonies , known as heronries , and one tree may contain up to six heron nests . there have been rare observations of heron nests found on the ground .
the tricolored heron is protected by the u . s . migratory bird treaty act and as a state threatened by florida’s endangered and threatened species rule .
juvenile white - bellied heron released . royal society for protection of nature ( rspn ) , thimphu : bhutan ( 2011 - 09 - 17 ) .
on the plus side , i don ' t think heron needs a nickname . it ' s like simon or emma - simple enough to avoid shortening .
another dead juvenile heron stood 1 . 58 m ( 5 . 2 ft ) tall and weighed 8 . 51 kg ( 18 . 8 lb ) .
the ' great white heron ' is generally considered a color - morph of the great blue ( a . h . occidentalis ) , though some authorities suggest it is a distinct species . where the dark and white forms overlap in florida , intermediate birds known as ' wurdemann ' s herons ' can be found ; they have the grayish bodies of a great blue heron , but the white head and neck of the great white heron . ; photographer william l . newton
the black - crowned night - heron ( nycticorax nycticorax ) is the most widespread heron in the world , breeding on every continent except antarctica and australia , where the genus is represented by the nankeen ( or rufous ) night - heron ( nycticorax caledonicus ) . although widespread and common in north america , its coloration and behavior , as well as its nocturnal and crepuscular feeding habits - - especially outside the breeding season - - render it less noticeable than many diurnal herons . this heron is an opportunistic forager that feeds on a wide variety of terrestrial organisms , but its diet consists primarily of fish and other freshwater and marine organisms .
the all - white color morph found in the caribbean and southern florida is often called the great white heron , but it is in fact the same species .
crossland , a . c . 1992 . first record of white phase reef heron ( egretta sacra ) in new zealand . notornis 39 : 233 - 234 .
it ' s a completely androgynous name - i would have no idea whether heron was a boy or girl . that could be a plus or a minus .
heron ' s size depends on the species . they can reach between 34 and 55 inches in length and weigh between 3 . 3 and 6 . 6 pounds .
walters , michael .
the correct scientific name of the white - bellied heron
. bulletin of the british ornithologists ' club 121 ( 4 ) : 234–236 .
the tricolored heron is a midsized member of the genus egretta . this species can reach a length between 24 - 26 inches ( 61 - 66 centimeters ) with a wingspan of approximately 36 inches ( 91 centimeters ) . the tricolored heron is named for its distinct coloration . it has a dark slate - blue colored head and upper body , a purple chest , and white underparts . this species also has a long , slender neck and bill , and is the only dark heron with light underparts .
adams , r . 2013 [ updated 2017 ] . white - faced heron . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken
if you are near appropriate habitat , consider building a nest platform to attract herons . you can get plans for great blue heron nest platform on our all about birdhouses site .
we ' re excited that you have an opinion about the name heron . to rate names on nameberry , please register for an account or log in to an existing account .
at the species level , many herons are well characterized . but there remains much uncertainty as to the species limits of many forms . the green herons , the little egret group , intermediate egret , great egrets , pond herons , small bitterns , large bitterns , boat billed heron , great blue heron and grey heron are some of the forms for which species limits remain unsettled . as late as 2005 , a new heron species was recognized as being distinct from another . of course this uncertainty may reflect in part difficulty with applying the species concept to widespread forms with isolated populations . but it more fundamentally reflects a lack of behavioural and molecular information available on these birds . research is essential to properly design conservation actions .
census records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your heron ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .
the first of a series of retrospective deep dives into a broad selection of heron ' s early fixed income impact investments , featuring the financing of a wind turbine factory in jonesboro , arkansas .
census records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your o ' heron ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .
within the second heron subfamily , the bitterns , botaurus includes four superficially similar species in , north america , south america , australia and eurasia - africa . all species are of conservation concern . eight small bitterns are included in the genus ixobrychus . the most distinctive may be the little known zigzag heron , which is of conservation concern due to the lack of distribution and status information .
edgar , a . t . 1978 . the reef heron ( egretta sacra ) in new zealand . notornis , 25 : 25 - 58 . available from urltoken ( sighted 22 july 2012 ) .
the familiar great blue heron is the largest heron in north america . it is a large bird , with a slate - gray body , chestnut and black accents , and very long legs and neck . in flight , it looks enormous , with a six - foot wingspan . adults sport a shaggy ruff at the base of their necks . a black eyebrow extends back to black plumes emerging from the head . juveniles have a dark crown with no plumes or ruff , and a mottled neck . in flight , a great blue heron typically holds its head in toward its body with its neck bent .
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a recent announcement by blackrock ceo larry fink that corporations need to pay more attention to their effects on society echoes heron chair buzz schmidt’s call for accountability for enterprises’ positive or negative effect on society’s wherewithal .
for naturalists who enjoy the shore and marsh , this heron ' s distinctive call is a quintessential sound of dusk and night . in life histories of north american marsh birds , a . c . bent (
the white - faced heron is new zealand ' s most common heron , despite being a relatively new arrival to this country . it is a tall , elegant , blue - grey bird that can be seen stalking its prey in almost any aquatic habitat , including damp pasture and playing fields . because it occupies space also shared with people it is usually well habituated to their presence , and may allow close approach .
census records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your heron ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .
the tricolored heron faces many threats to its population , such as the continued development of wetlands . as with other birds that inhabit estuaries , the exposure to pollutants and pesticides are a threat to the tricolored heron population ( rodgers 1997 , spalding et al . 1997 ) . other threats include alterations to the hydrology of foraging areas , reduced prey abundance , and oil spill impacts to critical breeding , foraging and roosting sites .
the white - bellied heron is found in the wetlands of tropical and subtropical forests in the foothills of the eastern himalayas of india and myanmar . it is also spotted in bhutan ' s sub - tropical areas and was once found in nepal . the major threats the heron faces are poaching ( both the bird itself and its eggs ) and habitat destruction ( the cutting of nesting trees and the disappearance of wetlands ) .
common and widespread . see ‘habitat’ below for examples of the kind of place they can be found . one particularly good location for the grey heron is powderham , which has the biggest nesting colony in devon . *
this large heron is plain dark grey above with a long neck . the crown is dark and there are no black stripes on the neck as in the grey heron . in breeding plumage , it has a greyish - white nape plume and elongated grey breast feathers with white centers . the bill is black , greenish near the base and tip and the face is greenish grey . the bill is large and solid , with the
the reef heron is a dark grey wading bird most often seen in coastal areas in the north of the north island . one or two birds may be found patrolling a rocky shoreline or nearby estuary . although similar to the common white - faced heron it is not seen as frequently and has slightly different feeding habits . reef herons occur throughout polynesia , and their prevalence in northern new zealand may reflect their preference for warmer climates .
census records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your o ' heron ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .
the white - faced heron is a medium - sized heron with primarily blue - grey plumage . as the name suggests it has white on the face and the front of its neck . the back is medium blue - grey with the chest and underside more brown - toned . in breeding plumage , white - faced herons have strap - like grey plumes on the back , and shorter pinkish brown plumes on the breast . the dagger - like bill is dark grey , dull yellow at the base , and the legs are pale yellow . in flight the white - faced heron usually tucks its head back towards its shoulders in the characteristic heron posture , but it will also fly with the neck out - stretched . its open wings show contrast between the pale grey fore - wing and dark grey main flight feathers on both the upper and lower surfaces . immature birds lack the white face .
these example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' heron . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .
mostly fish , but will eat small mammals , amphibians and even smaller birds in the winter when the water the surface of ponds and lakes is frozen over . unfortunately , the heron has been spotted eating the very rare water vole .
. it is mostly dark grey with a white throat and underparts . this heron is mostly solitary and is found on undisturbed riverside or wetland habitats . the global population has declined and the species is threatened by disturbance and habitat degradation .
the shoreline habitat occupied by the reef heron has ongoing threats from encroachment by development , and the birds are vulnerable to disturbance by people and dogs . the conservation status of this species was changed from nationally vulnerable to nationally endangered in 2013 .
frederick , peter c . 1997 . tricolored heron ( egretta tricolor ) , the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca : cornell lab of ornithology ; retrieved from the birds of north america online .
young waterbirds are taken in hard weather by full - grown birds . a water - rail has been recovered in a heron ' s stomach . mice and rats are eaten and judging by the fur in pellets , many water - voles .
honestly my first thought when i sae the word
heron
was not the bird ( of which i am familiar ) but rather the words :
heroine
or the drug
heroin
( not sure of the spelling ) .
herons hunt by quickly straightening their s - shaped neck toward the victim . fish and other prey will be stabbed with sharp bill and swallowed in one piece . heron can die out of suffocation if it tries to swallow some really big prey .
the grey heron is the uk’s most widespread predatory bird . it is solitary , until the breeding season , when they come together in large colonies . some herons are resident , some leave for the winter and some overwinter here from northern europe .
. 2006 ) , and hpon razi wildlife sanctuary and hkakabo razi national park hold small populations . white - bellied heron has been recorded along rivers elsewhere in kachin state , such as the nam sam chaung , although little is known about its status in these areas
this heron is classified as critically endangered because it has an extremely small and rapidly declining population . this decline is projected to increase in the near future as a result of the loss and degradation of lowland forest and wetlands , and through direct exploitation and disturbance .
the dark grey colour provides the bird with excellent camouflage when it is patrolling the shoreline rocks that are its main habitat . the reef heron is wary , and flies away when approached too closely . it will , however , use man - made structures for nesting .
heron foods , the frozen , chilled and grocery business with hundreds of stores across the midlands , north of england and south wales has announced they will be opening a new store in netherfield , mk6 , which is scheduled to open on monday , june 25 , 2018 .
the white - faced heron feeds on a wide variety of prey , including fish , insects and amphibians . food is obtained in a variety of ways , such as walking and disturbing prey , searching among damp crevices or simply standing in the water and watching for movement .
watts , bryan d . 2011 . yellow - crowned night - heron ( nyctanassa violacea ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
kelly , j . p . , h . m . pratt , and p . l . greene . 1993 . the distribution , reproductive success , and habitat characteristics of heron and egret breeding colonies in the san francisco bay area . colonial waterbirds 16 : 18 - 27 .
the new zealand reef heron population is estimated at only 300 - 500 birds , but they are regularly seen at the sites where they occur , and those populations surveyed appear to have been stable over the past 40 years . they are widespread and abundant elsewhere in their range .
a medium - sized blue - grey heron with white face , long dark grey bill , and pale yellow legs . in flight the open wings show a marked contrast between the pale grey fore - wing and dark grey main flight feathers on both the upper and lower surfaces .
at heron foods we’ve made it our business to help our customers buy big name bargains for less , for nearly forty years . our customers constantly tell us how much they love our fantastic range of chilled foods , frozen foods and grocery products at prices none of our competitors can match .
vennesland , ross g . and robert w . butler . 2011 . great blue heron ( ardea herodias ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
2012 ) . two adult birds were recorded in phibsoo wildlife sanctuary , sarpang in february 2014 ( anon . 2014 ) . the annual survey of white - bellied heron in bhutan reported 22 birds in 2014 , an increase from 2013 when 20 birds were recorded ( anon . 2014 ) .
. 2006 ) , and hpon razi wildlife sanctuary . a project studying white - bellied heron began in bhutan in 2003 , and is run in conjunction with the royal society for the protection of nature , the world wildlife fund , the felburn foundation and the international crane foundation . recognising the importance of the riverbed in punakha - wangdue as a primary feeding ground for this species , the royal government of bhutan has declared the area as protected habitat for white - bellied herons . in may 2011 , a white - bellied heron was hatched in captivity for the first time ( tshewang norbu
bourne , w . r . p . , ashmole , n . p . and simmons , k . e . l . ( 2003 ) a new subfossil night heron and a new genus for the extinct rail for ascension island , central tropical ocean . ardea 91 : 45 - 51 .
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eventually a fish will pay the price of carelessness as the heron ' s kinked neck is straightened with startling speed and the sharp bill stabs its prey - sometimes several times . at breydon , herons also known in norfolk as the marshmen ' s harnser , will wade until the body is afloat .
an unusually short lifespan might indicate that your heron ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .
honestly , i don ' t love heron as a name . part of the reason is that i don ' t think herons are very attractive birds . larks and wrens are cuter , plus larks are know for their songs . but it ' s probably mostly because i ' m a traditionalist .
at the genus level , heron taxonomy is in a state of flux , and has been for decades . wca recognizes 17 genera . several species represent monotypic genera , and so are of conservation special interest , pilherodius , syrigma , agamia , zebrilus , zonerodius , tigriornis , nyctinassa , and cochlearius .
the reef heron is a medium - sized dark grey heron with a long , greyish - yellow , heavy bill and greenish - yellow legs . during the breeding season it develops long plumes , mainly on its back but with some also on its chest . it has no white face but a small streak of white may sometimes be seen on the throat . in flight it tucks its head back into its shoulders so that the length of its neck is hidden , giving it a hunched appearance . it stays fairly low unless travelling a significant distance when it may fly higher . immature birds are brownish .
closely related to ardea are the butorides and ardeola herons . as a whole the butorides herons demonstrate a degree of geographic and individual variation in aspects of plumage unparalleled in extant herons , with many subspecies being recognized . butorides is vagile , with a new population being established in bermuda within the last decade . the species limits within this genus have been a huge problem for decades , particularly as to whether the green heron and striated heron are or are not the same species . this is a genus for which conservation of geographic populations is especially important , irrespective of what the current taxonomic opinions might be .
most extant species are part of a single subfamily of “typical herons , ” the ardeinae . this subfamily includes the herons and egrets ( ardea , egretta ) , the green herons ( butorides ) , the pond herons ( ardeola ) , a few monotypic genera , but also the night herons ( nycticorax , gorsachius ) . within the typical heron subfamily , three groups are recognized as tribes , ardeini , egrettini , and nycticoraxini . the second subfamily , botaurinae , encompasses the bitterns ( ixobrychus , botaurus , zebrilus ) . these birds share a number of morphological and behavioural characteristics that differ from the typical herons . several species are quite distinctive from other herons , and from each other . these are the boat billed heron , the tiger herons , and the agami heron , all of which are allocated to separate subfamilies . it is thought they represent ancient lineages of herons , and so are of special conservation concern .
widespread and familiar ( though often called
crane
) , the largest heron in north america . often seen standing silently along inland rivers or lakeshores , or flying high overhead , with slow wingbeats , its head hunched back onto its shoulders . highly adaptable , it thrives around all kinds of waters from subtropical mangrove swamps to desert rivers to the coastline of southern alaska . with its variable diet it is able to spend the winter farther north than most herons , even in areas where most waters freeze . a form in southern florida ( called
great white heron
) is slightly larger and entirely white .
an unusually short lifespan might indicate that your o ' heron ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .
just like school used to make ! this retro classic is really simply to make with only five ingredients . makes a nice dessert that kids absolutely love . find all of what you need in your local heron foods store . now you just need to decide whether to have it with pink or mint custard ? !
the reef heron is a bird of the rocky shore , where it stalks around rock pools and small rivulets of water that may carry fish . it can also be seen on estuary mudflats feeding at low tide and may occasionally be seen wading in the shallow waves on sandy beaches . it is rarely seen inland .
occupied herons ' nests may be readily told by numerous droppings on the ground beneath them . the pellets are the indigestible portions of heron ' s food . unless blown down by storms the same nest is used each spring . old ones , massive platforms 3ft across , may also provide homes for nesting tree sparrows .
these extremely high weights require verification , since they indicate this species can exceed even the typically larger goliath heron in mass . on the ground it walks slowly , moving its neck slowly while looking from side to side . the goliath species , beyond the average size difference , is distinguished by its chestnut neck while the slightly smaller
largest of the north american herons with long legs , a sinuous neck , and thick , daggerlike bill . head , chest , and wing plumes give a shaggy appearance . in flight , the great blue heron curls its neck into a tight “s” shape ; its wings are broad and rounded and its legs trail well beyond the tail .
hothem , roger l . , brianne e . brussee and william e . davis jr . 2010 . black - crowned night - heron ( nycticorax nycticorax ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
the great blue heron weathered the impacts of 20th century north americans relatively successfully . although it was hunted heavily for its plumes and some of its wetland habitats were drained or otherwise degraded , many populations have recovered well . nevertheless , breeding colonies remain vulnerable to disturbance and habitat loss , and climate change and increasing predator populations may bring new challenges .
up to nine subspecies have been recognized by past researchers , based on differences in plumage color and morphology . researchers have agreed that florida ' s great white heron ( a . h . occidentalis ) , the subspecies most distinctive in color ( entirely white ) , and the pacific great blue heron ( a . h . fannini ) are distinct subspecies . recent reviews ( see systematics ) have suggested that the remaining great blue herons in north america are composed of either one ( a . h . herodias ) , or two ( a . h . herodias , a . h . wardi ) subspecies . owing to this controversy , this account primarily considers ' blue group ' great blue herons ( a . h . herodias , a . h . wardi , a . h . fannini ) , usually referred to as the herodias ( or blue ) group , and ' white group ' great blue herons - the great white heron ( a . h . occidentalis ) , referred to here as the occidentalis ( white ) group great blue herons .
great blue heron numbers are stable and increased in the u . s . between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . however , notable population declines have occurred in some areas , particularly in the “great white heron” group in southern florida , where elevated mercury levels in local waterways may be a factor . the north american waterbird conservation plan estimates a continental population of 83 , 000 breeding birds , and rates the species an 8 out of 20 on the continental concern score . the great white form of great blue heron is on the 2014 state of the birds watch list , which lists birds that are at risk of becoming threatened or endangered without conservation action . great blue herons can be found throughout the year all over north america , though most populations in canada are present only during the breeding season , and most populations in mexico are only present during the winter . because great blue herons depend on wetlands for feeding and on relatively undisturbed sites for breeding , they are vulnerable to habitat loss and to impacts such as traffic , logging , motorboats , and other human intrusions that can disrupt nesting colonies . other threats include chemical pollutants or other causes of reduced water quality . although contaminant levels have declined in many areas , pollutants such as pcbs and ddt and newer types of industrial chemicals continue to affect heron habitats and can contribute to factors such as reduced nest site attendance . back to top
english and french ( héron ) : nickname for a tall , thin person resembling a heron , middle english heiroun , heyron ( old french hairon , of germanic origin ) . english : habitational name from harome in north yorkshire , named with old english harum , dative plural of hær ‘rock’ , ‘stone’ . this surname has evidently become confused with 1 . irish : reduced form of o’heron , an anglicized form of gaelic ó huidhrín ‘descendant of uidhrín’ , a personal name from a diminutive of odhar ‘dun’ , ‘swarthy’ . irish : reduced anglicized form of gaelic ó hearáin ( see haren ) . irish : reduced anglicized form of gaelic mac giolla chiaráin ‘son of the servant of ( saint ) ciarán’ ( see kieran ) .
very pretty ! heron is distinguished yet sweet . i personally like helena , or hava for other h names . ( plus hava has a nice hebrew meaning , and could be used as a hebrew name if not given . ) hera for a nickname is cool in my mind - - a greek godess and androgynous bird name all in one ! fantastic !
the heron ' s breeding season is prolonged . in early february in a mild season , they may be seen soaring over the nesting wood and chasing one another , tilting from side to side and diving head - long . an exciting performance to watch for next to the mute swan the heron is our largest common bird . endless display takes place on old nest platforms and consists of elaborate neck movements with crest and neck plumes erect and accompanied by bill - snapping and a variety of blood - curdling calls . for short periods the normally yellow - coloured bill and legs change dramatically to deep orange , especially when a group assembles on the ' dancing grounds ' running and skipping first in one direction and then another with open wings .
two hesitations about heron : it ' s gender - ambiguous , but i ' d probably be more likely to guess boy than girl , if that matters to you . it could also be an awkward name to wear if your daughter is a leggy , lanky teenager . heron does feel a bit in - your - face in the sense that it ' s a commonly known bird ( linnet and avocet wouldn ' t ring a bell with most non - birders ) but not one that ' s been commonly used as a name ( people recognize wren and lark as bird names , but we ' re not too surprised to see these names on people ) . it does sound name - like at least : fits the ends - with - n trend , almost rhymes with aaron or erin . . . actually i wouldn ' t be surprised if people misheard it as one of these , if that matters to you . i ' m not sure i ' d do it myself ( maybe more likely as a middle name ) , but i love the story heron has for your family ! what a special , meaningful gift to your daughter .
this night - heron ' s diet has magnified its exposure to contaminants , especially ddt , a persistent organochlorine pesticide that appears to have caused reproductive failure in some populations and may have contributed to subsequent local population declines in the 1960s . since then , extensive sampling has shown that while some populations continue to accumulate contaminants , these appear to have had minimal effect on breeding success and population levels .
in parts of their range where food is not available in the winter , great blue herons are migratory , and some may migrate to washington from points farther north . most of washington ' s breeding population remains in the state year round . in parts of eastern washington where the water freezes , great blue heron populations concentrate along major rivers where food is available , or they hunt rodents on land .
the white - faced heron is mostly light blue - grey in colour , with a characteristic white face . in flight , the dark flight feathers of the wing contrast with the paler grey plumage , making this bird easily identifiable when viewed from below . it has a long , slim neck and a pointed grey - black bill . the legs are long and dull yellow in colour . sexes are similar . when breeding , the birds have long feathers ( nuptial plumes ) on the head , neck and back . the white - faced heron has a slow bouncing flight . young white - faced herons are similar in appearance to the non - breeding adults ( no nuptial plumes ) , but are duller , with little or no white on the face . they often have a reddish colour on the underparts .
henny , c . j . , e . f . hill , r . a . grove and j . l . kaiser . 2007 . mercury and drought along the lower carson river , nevada : i . snowy egret and black - crowned night - heron annual exposure to mercury , 1997 - 2006 . archives of environmental contamination and toxicology no . 53 ( 2 ) : 269 - 280 . close
the variable diet of great blue herons allows them to exploit a variety of habitats . this adaptability also enables them to winter farther north than most herons . fish , amphibians , reptiles , invertebrates , small mammals , and even other birds are all potential prey of the great blue heron . in washington , much of their winter hunting is on land , with voles making up a major portion of their winter diet .
c . nycticoracis : it was described as a new species based on the presence of a single male with broken spicule from a heron in new south wales ( johnston and mawson , 1941e ) . the description of this species is very brief and the figures provided in the article do not show sufficient detail of taxonomically important features to differentiate it from other contracaceum spp . therefore the validity of c . nycticoracis is questionable .
adaptable and widespread , the great blue heron is found in a wide variety of habitats . when feeding , it is usually seen in slow - moving or calm salt , fresh , or brackish water . great blue herons inhabit sheltered , shallow bays and inlets , sloughs , marshes , wet meadows , shores of lakes , and rivers . nesting colonies are typically found in mature forests , on islands , or near mudflats , and do best when they are free of human disturbance and have foraging areas close by .
so if you wish to adhere to tradition , you are not wedded to the letter h as the first initial , although you may choose it if you like . first , find out whether your relative had a hebrew or yiddish name , and if so , ascertain its meaning . then you can brainstorm names with similar sound , initial or otherwise , or meaning . you may , of course , still end up with an h - name and that name might still be heron , but you might also uncover other interesting possibilities .
yellow - crowned night - herons nest near or over water in trees such as pine and oak—as high as 60 feet or more off the ground—or on lower vegetation such as mulberry , myrtle , hackberry , and mangrove . on islands with limited vegetation , they may nest on rock ledges . the male chooses the location , and the pair may start several nests before completing one . they nest alone or in colonies of up to several hundred pairs , sometimes with other heron species . some colony sites remain in use for more than 20 years .
foraging great blue herons are not hard to find in appropriate habitat throughout the year . some prominent rookeries can be found on samish island between samish bay and padilla bay ( skagit county ) ; at the dumas bay sanctuary in tacoma ( pierce county ) ; by the ballard locks in seattle , at lake sammamish state park ( both in king county ) ; on vancouver lake ( clark county ) ; and at potholes wra ( grant county ) . when observing great blue heron rookeries , please keep in mind the 1000 - foot disturbance buffer zone .
ardea includes the largest modern heron , ardea goliath , and other ‘giant’ herons , all of which are of conservation concern . the white - bellied heron is among the world’s most rare and endangered . the three large ardea ( cinerea , herodias and cocoi ) appear closely related . the nearly cosmopolitan cattle egret ( previously placed in bubulcus , ardeola , or egretta ) , the great egret and the eastern great white egret ( previously referred to egretta and casmerodius as well as ardea ) , and the intermediate egret ( previously egretta ) , also are ardea . shifting names may cause some confusion among conservationists . there remain a number of interesting research questions and uncertainties within ardea . these include the possible specific distinctiveness of certain populations , including ardea cinerea monicae in mauritania and ardea herodias in southern florida and the caribbean and the north pacific coast of north america . it remains unclear how many species are in the great egret group . although the great egret and eastern great egret are currently recognized , it is unclear what is the correct delineation of species in this nearly cosmopolitan group . conservation action centering on these populations is critical .
heron is a bird that can be easily confused with a stork , due to similarities in appearance . there are 64 different species of herons that differ in size , color and type of habitat . herons can be found on each continent except on antarctica . these birds prefer wetlands , swamps , coastlines and areas near rivers , ponds and lakes . pollution of the water with heavy metals and chemicals and habitat destruction are the main factors that decrease number of herons in the wild . at the moment , world population of herons is stable and they are not on the list of endangered animals .
cheshire is the pond capital of britain , and it is not surprising that it is the heron capital as well . two of the five largest heronries in britain are in cheshire and wirral , and the county holds more than one - in - twenty of britain’s birds . the private wood on the north side of marbury ( budworth ) mere ( sj67n ) holds currently the largest colony of grey herons in britain , 180 apparently occupied nests ( aon ) in 2005 , and that at eaton hall ( sj45e ) – in existence since at least 1874 – is the third largest with 149 nests .
the herons are a fairly ancient group of birds . although bird fossils are rare , herons are exceptionally rare even by avian standards totaling fewer than 40 identified species . herons first emerge in the fossil record some 60 - 38 million years ago . birds attributable to contemporary genera first occur about 7 million years ago . these include nycticorax , ardea , egretta and ardeola . thus by the miocene , a period characterized by extensive aquatic habitats , herons rather closely resembling modern forms had evolved and had radiated into the kinds of herons known today , day and night herons , and large , medium and small herons . fossils are commoner in more recent times . those from the pleistocene are often assignable to extant species , so contemporary heron species have been around a long time . subfossils from islands often represent recently extinct forms , species or subspecies , particularly of nycticorax . most of these went extinct when humans colonized their islands . these fossils are illustrative of the ever - changing face of heron distribution in the world . herons can make significant changes in range within a matter of decades . as a result , conservation depends on an accurate monitoring of herons’ ranges and with special attention to isolated and outlying populations .
the grey heron population of cheshire and wirral , assessed from the bbs transects in 2004 - 05 , was 3 , 050 birds ( with wide confidence limits of zero to 7 , 940 ) . the number of breeding adults is about 1 , 300 so this figure implies more non - breeders than breeders : most grey herons do not nest until two or three years of age , so there are large numbers of immature birds present , and bbs fieldworkers might also have counted some early - fledged juvenile birds . the county figure is 4 . 2 % of the national total of 57 , 220 birds ( newson et al 2008 ) .
black - crowned night - herons are opportunists feeders that eat many kinds of terrestrial , freshwater , and marine animals . their diet includes leeches , earthworms , insects , crayfish , clams , mussels , fish , amphibians , lizards , snakes , turtles , rodents , birds , and eggs . they also eat carrion , plant materials , and garbage from landfills . rather than stabbing their prey , they grasp it in their bills . black - crowned night - herons normally feed between evening and early morning , avoiding competition with other heron species that use the same habitat during the day . they may feed during the day in the breeding season , when they need extra energy for nesting . back to top
equally at home in coastal ( marine ) environments and in fresh water habitats , the great blue heron nests mostly in colonies , commonly large ones of several hundred pairs . such colonies are often located on islands or in wooded swamps , isolated locations that discourage predation by snakes and mammals and disturbance from humans . although the species is primarily a fish eater , wading ( often belly deep ) along the shoreline of oceans , marshes , lakes , and rivers , it also stalks upland areas for rodents and other animals , especially in winter . it has been known to eat most animals that come within striking range . its well - studied , elaborate courtship displays have correlates on the foraging grounds , where this species can be strongly territorial .


it is the only genus in the order skaracarida , and contains three species : skara anulata müller , 1983 skara minuta müller & walossek , 1985 skara huanensis liu & dong , 2007 the feeding system of skara resembles those of copepods and derocheilocaris , and the three taxa are accordingly grouped together as the clade copepodoida .

skara is likely to have scraped or brushed the substrate to release food .

skaracarida

skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of vastergotland , sweden : klaus j . muller : 9788200074984
müller , klaus j . skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of västergötland , sweden . oslo : universitetsforlaget , 1985 .
müller , klaus j . skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of västergötland , sweden . oslo : universitetsforlaget , 1985 . print .
müller , klaus j . ( 1985 ) . skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of västergötland , sweden . oslo : universitetsforlaget ,
müller kj , walossek d ( 1985 ) skaracarida , a new order of crustacea from the upper cambrian of västergötland , sweden . fossils and strata 17 : 1–65 .
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citation : eriksson me , terfelt f , elofsson r , marone f ( 2012 ) internal soft - tissue anatomy of cambrian ‘orsten’ arthropods as revealed by synchrotron x - ray tomographic microscopy . plos one 7 ( 8 ) : e42582 . urltoken
editor : richard j . butler , ludwig - maximilians - universität münchen , germany
copyright : © eriksson et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this research was financed by grants to mee and ft from the swedish research council , the royal physiographic society , lund , and the faculty of science , lund university . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the ‘orsten’ lagerstätte from kinnekulle , on the southern border of lake vänern , sweden , contains remarkably well - preserved minute fossils from bituminous limestones ( ‘orsten’ ) of uppermost mid - cambrian through furongian ( upper cambrian ) age ( e . g . [ 1 ] – [ 6 ] ) . the discovery of these remarkable fossils in the mid - 1970s has been followed by a sequence of investigations revealing , among other things , morphological details of exceptional interest for understanding the evolution of , and relationships among , early arthropods . the famous ‘orsten’ taxa have provided significant insights into the cambrian biota and early phanerozoic metazoan evolution .
the ‘orsten’ metazoans are represented by ecdysozoans ( moulting animals ) , including the scalidophoran nemathelminths and arthropods , all in the size range of 2 mm or less ( e . g . [ 3 ] – [ 5 ] , [ 7 ] ) . most of the fossils are arthropods ; they include lobopodians , tardigrades , pentastomids , chelicerates , agnostoids , phosphatocopines and skaracarids [ 4 ] .
by contrast to the phosphatised ‘orsten’ taxa , the conventional record of shelly fossils in the uppermost mid - cambrian through furongian of sweden is dominated by agnostoids and polymerid ( in particular olenid ) trilobites ( e . g . [ 8 ] – [ 11 ] ) , commonly occurring in great abundance in shales and limestones . although approximately one hundred fairly well - preserved , juvenile specimens of the agnostoid agnostus pisiformis have been recovered in ‘orsten’ - type preservation [ 2 ] , only one specimen interpreted as a polymerid trilobite hypostome with associated soft tissues has hitherto been discovered [ 12 ] . this collectively suggests that the arthropod faunas of this age are taphonomically biased and that the dominance of polymerids and agnostoids in the conventional fossil record does not necessarily represent the true , original faunal composition of arthropods .
the external morphology of the ‘orsten’ species has been thoroughly described ( e . g . [ 1 ] – [ 7 ] and references therein ) . however , the internal organs and tissues ( such as intestines and muscles ) of these fossils have rarely been addressed [ 4 ] . müller and walossek ( [ 13 ] : pl . 1 , fig . 8 ) noted that a preserved ‘steinkern’ of skara might represent the gut , an assumption that is confirmed in the present investigation . moreover , maas et al . ( [ 4 ] : fig . 4e , f ) noted the preservation of guts , which they observed in skaracarids with a cracked - open cuticula . in the same paper , maas et al . documented a pentastomid arthropod with exposed muscle strands in the head region ( [ 4 ] : fig . 4g ) , which they referred to as the only known example of unequivocally internal matter in ‘orsten’ - type preservation .
the limited knowledge of internal anatomy is a tantalizing drawback of the ‘orsten’ fossils and limits the extent to which palaeobiological conclusions can be drawn . the present investigation provides , by using synchrotron radiation x - ray tomographic microscopy ( srxtm ) , a chance to at least partly overcome that problem . our use of srxtm and 3d - rendering techniques applied to specimens of well known ‘orsten’ taxa from the cambrian of sweden has enabled internal structures to be revealed , a task that would be difficult with conventional techniques such as scanning electron microscopy ( sem ) . moreover , being a non - invasive technique , srxtm allows for internal structures of unique fossils to be studied without destroying the specimens . our work therefore provides a promising approach to understand the internal anatomy and functional morphology of these exceptionally well - preserved microscopic animals .
mount kinnekulle is an erosional outlier in the province of västergötland , south - central sweden , comprising cambrian to silurian strata capped by dolerite intruded as sills during carboniferous through permian times [ 14 ] , [ 15 ] . the uppermost middle cambrian through furongian ( uppermost cambrian ) strata of mount kinnekulle crop out in a few natural exposures and a number of abandoned alum shale quarries ( e . g . [ 3 ] : fig . 2 ; [ 8 ] : fig . 18 ; [ 16 ] : fig . 2 ) . these strata consist of interfingering beds and layers of black alum shale and bituminous limestone ( colloquially referred to as ‘stinkstone’ or ‘orsten’ ) . agnostoids and polymerid trilobites , predominantly olenids , occur frequently in the succession . biostratigraphically , the exposed succession spans the lejopyge laevigata zone through the peltura lobata zone of the alum shale formation [ 17 ] ; however , several stratigraphic gaps occur within the succession [ 14 ] .
the material reported herein was collected from the ‘transformatorstationen’ locality at blomberg , on the southwestern part of mount kinnekulle ( n58°32 . 558′ ; e13°19 . 910′ ) . this locality exposes less than 2 m of bituminous limestones with a few , thin alum shale beds . all ‘orsten’ samples were collected from the lowermost part of the exposure and belong to the agnostus pisiformis zone ( guzhangian stage , or uppermost mid - cambrian ) . the required permits for the described field studies were obtained from the land owner .
in the search for phosphatised ‘orsten’ fossils we followed the results of maeda et al . [ 6 ] and targeted coprolite - rich beds . slabs of such lithology , weighing approximately 0 . 5–4 kg each , were digested in ph - monitored buffered acetic acid , following the techniques described by jeppsson et al . [ 18 ] . the ph was adjusted to > 3 . 6 in order to avoid corrosion of phosphatic fossils . after digestion the resulting residue was rinsed through a 63 µm sieve cloth . subsequently , the residue was gently washed into a glass vial with deionized water in order to prevent growth of mould and algae . the residue was carefully investigated for exceptionally preserved microfossils under a binocular light microscope . specimens of interest were handpicked using a fine brush and stored submerged in water , to avoid damage prior to analyses .
the ’orsten’ arthropods analysed and discussed herein include one specimen ( the only one recovered from our sample residues ) of skara minuta , two phosphatocopines assigned to hesslandona sp . , and one phosphatocopine assigned to hesslandona trituberculata ( see [ 3 ] ) . approximately 15 phosphatocopines with ventral body details were recovered from our residues . for this pilot study , the three most complete and well - preserved specimens were selected for analysis , in order to increase the chance of finding internal soft - tissue structures .
all figured ‘orsten’ specimens are stored at the department of geology , lund university , lund , sweden , with repository number lo ( for lund original ) .
the transmission electron microscope ( tem ) micrographs of the extant mystacocarid derocheilocaris typica were prepared at the department of biology , lund university , sweden , using the procedure described in detail by elofsson and hessler [ 19 ] . the scanning electron microscope ( sem ) methods , including fixation techniques , and set - up for the same extant crustaceans were described by elofsson and hessler [ 20 ] . complementary sem studies of fossil specimens were performed using a hitachi s - 3400n instrument at the department of geology , lund university , sweden .
diagenetic phosphatisation can produce a variety of shapes and textures that may be mistaken for fossilised soft tissues [ 24 ] – [ 26 ] . herein , criteria such as symmetry , position within the body cavity , continuity and , perhaps most importantly , comparisons with equivalent structures in extant crustaceans with a similar degree of development , have formed the basis for our assessments and allowed structures to be distinguished from taphonomic and / or diagenetic artefacts ( cf . [ 4 ] , [ 13 ] ) .
the skara minuta specimen ( lo 11408t ) measures 400 µm in length ( note , however , that the posterior portion is lacking ) and 130 µm in width and is preserved in minute detail ( fig . 1a–e ) . in addition to the cephalothorax and the first two thoracic segments , the specimen includes the proximal portions of the first and second antennae , mandibles , first and second maxillae , and maxillipeds ( fig . 1b , c , e ) . for a detailed description of s . minuta , as well as the other known skaracarid species from sweden , skara anulata , see müller and walossek [ 13 ] . herein , we focus on the preserved internal tissues .
( a ) dorsal , ( b ) lateral , ( c ) anterior , ( d ) posterior , and ( e ) ventral views . abbreviations : a1 , first antenna ; a2 , second antenna ; am , arthrodial membrane ; ct , cephalothorax ; la , labrum ; md , mandible ; mx1 , first maxilla ; mx2 , second maxilla ; mxp , maxilliped ; r , rostrum ; som , site of mouth ; ts1 , first thoracic segment ; ts2 , second thoracic segment .
the central space of the animal contains structures interpreted as the digestive system , which is composed of the oesophagus ( or foregut ) and the midgut ( figs . 1d , 2a–c ) . the oesophagus is a uniform structure approximately 100 µm long and 20 µm in diameter . it has a fairly straight course from the mouth to the midgut due to the forwardly positioned and ventrally directed mouth ( figs . 1e , 2a ) . the short transition zone from oesophagus to midgut is indistinct ( collapsed ) in our specimen and we cannot establish whether it is an oesophagus telescoping into the midgut ( see below ) or a widened portion of the posterior oesophagus . therefore , the simplified schematic drawing ( fig . 3 ) merely shows the transition zone as a simple tube . on the other hand , the midgut appears rather well preserved in the animal and distinct from the oesophagus , as judged also by the size and similarity to those structures in extant crustaceans . the midgut is approximately 40 µm in diameter and the irregular lumen is clearly visible in cross - section ( fig . 2b , c ) . midgut glands are not observed in our specimen .
( a ) ventral view ( cropped isosurface ) showing the oesophagus , parts of the midgut and a dorsal transverse tendon . ( b ) transverse cross - section ( cropped volrender ) showing the midgut and dorsal transverse tendon . ( c ) transverse cross - section ( cropped volrender ) showing the midgut and gut lumen . ( d ) ventral view ( volrender ) showing the internal plate and muscles extending into the appendages . ( e ) dorsal view ( volrender ) showing the prominent second antennal muscles . ( f ) anterior view ( cropped isosurface ) showing the second antennal muscle and its insertion on the inner wall of the antennal coxa . ( g ) isosurface in outer lateral view of the second antennal coxa showing the corresponding muscle scar . ( h ) isosurface of right mandible with its protruding muscle exposed . ( i ) cropped isosurface in ventral view of the labrum showing the prominent labral muscle and the approximate site of the mouth . abbreviations : a2 , second antenna ; ac , antennal coxa ; dtt , dorsal transverse tendons ; gl , gut lumen ; m , muscle ; md , mandible ; mg , midgut ; ms , muscle scar ; oe , oesophagus ; som , site of mouth .
interpretation of the general architecture of the digestive ( green ) and muscular systems ( red ) .
ventrally within the cephalothorax , below the digestive system , tissues from the antennae , mandibles and the two maxillae connect to form a plate , which follows the slanting contour of the ventral face of the animal ( fig . 2a , d , e ) . these tissues are here interpreted as phosphatised muscles and endoskeleton . the muscles of the thin first antenna leading to the plate are somewhat indistinct . by contrast , the muscles to each of the second antennae are prominent and fan out from the antero - lateral rim of the plate and enter the hollow entrance to the second antennae ( fig . 2a , e ) . one of the second antennal muscles can be followed to its insertion on the inner wall of the antennal coxa ( fig . 2f ) . the corresponding muscle scar on the outside is clearly visible ( fig . 2g ) . further posteriorly , muscles to the mandibles and maxillae project from the plate to these appendages ( fig . 2d , h ) . the endoskeleton , serving as the internal insertion of the muscle tissue , cannot be separated from the muscles in our specimen . they are , however , not formed as cuticular ingrowths .
there is no doubt that longitudinal muscles span the length of the thorax and abdomen both ventrally and dorsally in fossil crustaceans , as well as in living relatives [ 27 ] . these muscles insert on tendons on the segmental borders . in the analysed specimen of s . minuta , c . 15 µm thick rod - like structures occur in the dorsal part of the body cavity below the arthrodial membranes . they follow the outline of , and appear to be associated with , the segment borders ( fig . 2a , b ) .
within the labrum , along the inner walls , we observed c . 8 µm thick strings identified as prominent labral muscles ( fig . 2i ) . they attach at the base of the labrum and can be followed along its inner wall .
( a ) ventral view ( isosurface ) of hesslandona sp . ( lo 11409 t ) showing the internal anatomy . ( b–d ) close - up ( isosurface ) of labrum of the same specimen , showing external surface ( b ) and labral muscle bundles in different views ; c in same view as b , d with apex of labrum pointing upwards ( see also video s1 ) . ( e , f ) isosurface in antero - ventral ( f ) and ventral ( g ) views of hesslandona sp . ( lo 11410 t ) . ( g ) close - up and cross section of labrum of that same specimen , revealing the labral muscles . apex of labrum pointing downwards and muscles viewed from the posterior . ( h ) specimen lo 11410 t showing the plane of orientation ( y - plane ) . ( i ) sem - micrograph of hesslandona trituberculata ( lo 11411 t ) . ( j ) 3d - rendering of a tomographic dataset ( cropped isosurface ) showing the internal anatomy and labrum of the same specimen . ( k ) internal virtual cross - section ( cropped volrender ) of the same specimen , showing numerous structures . ( l ) close - up of the labrum of the same specimen , showing the labral muscles . abbreviations : a1 , first antenna ; a2 , second antenna ; la , labrum ; m , muscle ; me , median eye ; ps , paragnaths ; st , sternum .
the fossils of the ‘orsten’ konservat - lagerstätte are preserved by means of phosphate encrustation and impregnation of both external and , as shown in this study , internal organs of animals during early diagenesis , producing pristine three - dimensional preservation of fossils ( [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] and references therein ) . the ‘orsten’ type preservation can be expected to vary between different samples , but also between specimens and different structures within a single specimen . the fixation of histological preparations of extant arthropods provides an interesting analogue . the requirements for a good fixation of internal structures depend on a number of variables , a crucial one being rapid penetration of the tissues by suitable chemicals . an external cuticle delays the absorption of fixation liquids . in the case described here , the cuticle was probably partly ripped up and the animal was rapidly submerged in phosphate - rich fluids .
our results indicate that some internal structures preserve fairly well whereas others deteriorate fast . those which seem to withstand destruction best are the muscles and tendons . their cell content of a “skeleton” of myosin and actin fibres ( fig . 5 ) probably contributes to the resistance to decay . in the same way , tight units of microvilli and cells may resist deterioration better . the remaining tissue is probably attached to the more resistant organs as an amorphous substance , giving them a fuzzy appearance and also contributing to a slight increase in size . the sometimes coarse , ‘bubble - like’ appearance of the internal matter could also result from diagenetic overgrowth and / or bacterially - mediated remnants of soft tissue [ 4 ] .
( a ) sem micrograph showing the external morphology of d . typica in lateral view . ( b ) tem micrograph showing the ventral endoskeletal - muscle plate in the mandibular region in high magnification . the asterisk ( * ) labels the tendinous muscle attachment . muscle cells approach the tendon from different directions . muscle fibers are sectioned longitudinally ( l ) and transversely ( t ) . note that the muscle fibers fill most of the muscle cells . the ventral nerve chain is labelled ( n ) . anterior is to the left . ( c ) tem micrograph ; midsagittal section through the telescoping transition between oesophagus ( oe ) and the midgut ( m ) . the dashed blue line follows the contour of the midgut whereas the red dashed line follows that of the oesophagus . the oesophagus ends inside the midgut with a valve ( v ) .
considering that the few specimens analysed herein contain remains of internal tissues and organs , albeit in variable detail and state of preservation , our results suggest that internal soft - tissue preservation in ‘orsten’ fossils is more common than previously thought and demonstrate significant potential for future studies .
skaracarids are maxillopod crustaceans , closely related to the extant copepoda and mystacocarida ( figure 5 ) [ 28 ] , whereas phosphatocopines are regarded as the sister - group of the eucrustacea within the labrophora sensu siveter et al . [ 29 ] ( see also [ 3 ] , [ 30 ] ) . the internal structures in our specimens are compared to similar relevant structures in extant crustacean relatives .
dahl [ 31 ] investigated the topography of the crustacean head . in crustaceans filtering food particles from a current produced by the appendages , the mouth opening is ventral and directed backwards and the oesophagus makes a curve in the back of the head to meet the midgut . with other modes of feeding , exemplified as browsing and gnawing , the mouth is more anterior in position and the oesophagus is more or less straight . dahl [ 31 ] concluded that there is a correlation between the mode of feeding and the topography of the anterior head region . he also postulated that filter - feeding was the ancestral feeding mode of crustaceans .
the simplest form of intestine in crustaceans , such as cephalocarids and mystacocarids ( fig . 5 ) , consists of an oesophagus that joins the midgut without intervening structures [ 19 ] , [ 33 ] , a condition normally occurring in filter - feeding animals . skara minuta has a similarly simple structure although in this case with a presumed alternative mode of feeding .
müller and walossek ( [ 13 ] : 22 ) noted that numerous external muscle scars observed on various parts of the body of skara indicate a great number of muscles . however , because no internal structures were preserved , müller and walossek [ 13 ] found it speculative to reconstruct or interpret internal features based only on the muscle scars . in this study , we are able to address some of these issues .
arthropods develop specific internal attachments for muscles . in extant taxa they are connective , i . e . formed by muscle tendons ( figure 5 ) , or cuticular formed by invaginations from the cuticle ( apodemes ) , or a combination of both . the attachment sites can detach from the cuticle and epidermis and form an internal skeleton . the endoskeletal variation is considerable within arthropod taxa [ 34 ] . the attachment sites can be both intersegmental and intrasegmental . trunk segments are usually equipped with dorsal and ventral transverse structures for the insertion of dorsal and ventral longitudinal muscles as well as dorso - ventral and extrinsic limb muscles ( e . g . [ 27 ] ) . more complicated endoskeletal bars and plates are found in the head region where intersegmental and intrasegmental elements coalesce . the latter are situated above and close to the ventral nerve cord .
in the s . minuta specimen analysed , two structures are interpreted as endoskeletal remains . dorsally , in the trunk segments below the arthrodial membrane ( fig . 1d ) , transverse thickenings , or tendons ( fig . 2a , b ) , indicate longitudinal muscles of a size that would allow great flexibility , similar to those of the highly movable cephalocarids [ 27 ] .
the head plate consists of a combination of endoskeleton and muscles . the fossil material does not allow a separation between the two . since no apodemes were found in our specimen it is likely that the endoskeletal structures were tendon - like and thus not particularly elaborate . the muscles to the head appendages are large , especially those associated with the second antennae and mandibles . this indicates muscle strength and a good capacity to handle food in a mode described above .
the labral muscle equipment has been investigated in some extant crustaceans . a highly movable labrum was described for species belonging to the conchostracan phyllopod genus caenesteriella by larink [ 35 ] . six pairs of essentially dorso - ventral muscles line up along the long axis of the labrum . the distal swelling of the labrum contains a network of muscles . a pair of longitudinal muscles insert proximally in the ventral portion of the labrum and in the head behind the compound eyes . the dorso - ventral muscles flatten the labrum and the longitudinal muscles open the buccal cavity . together , these two functions aid in the collection of food .
similar functions are found in the cephalocarid crustacean hutchinsoniella macracantha [ 32 ] . two groups of dorso - ventral muscles widen the labrum and the buccal cavity . one longitudinal muscle pair spans the ventral length of the labrum and one other muscle pair , which is dorso - ventrally inserted into the ventral labral surface and into the dorsal head - shield , opens the buccal cavity . a transverse muscle pair counters the movement of the dorso - ventral muscles .
the functional pattern is repeated in the mystacocarid crustacean derocheilocaris remanei [ 33 ] which has three pairs of dorso - ventral muscles inside the labrum and two pairs for operating the labrum . one pair inserts longitudinally into the middle of the dorsal surface of the labrum and into the head , and the other pair extends from the labrum to the dorsal head capsule .
the musculature of the labrum of extant crustaceans can serve as a template only in a functional context . a strict morphological pattern serving all crustacean taxa is not present .
the longitudinal muscle pair found in the phosphatocopine specimens fulfils one of the above - discussed functions , namely moving the labrum up and down , thus opening the buccal cavity . a speculative explanation for the appearance of musculature in the labrum from an evolutionary point of view is that opening of the buccal cavity could take preference over a more sophisticated armament , allowing also a flattening of the labrum . the lack of dorso - ventral muscles in the investigated phosphatocopines may imply that these muscles appeared at a later stage in the evolution of crustaceans ; however , it could also simply be a preservational artefact .
video clip showing the labrum of hesslandona sp . ( lo 11409 t ) . rotation showing the internal labral muscles .
we would like to dedicate this work to dieter waloszek , who has worked intensively on the ‘orsten’ fossils of sweden . his achievement has opened a highway to the understanding of arthropod evolution . we owe robert r . hessler thanks for valuable discussions and loren e . babcock for critically reading a draft of the manuscript . andreas maas and one anonymous referee significantly improved the manuscript . carsten tell helped with picking the residues for ‘orsten’ fossils . we are grateful also to landowner arne jönsson for permitting the field work . srxtm analyses were performed on the tomcat beamline , the swiss light source , psi , switzerland , and we are particularly grateful to beamline manager marco stampanoni .
conceived and designed the experiments : mee ft . performed the experiments : mee ft fm . analyzed the data : mee ft re . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : mee ft fm . wrote the paper : mee ft re .
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skara is a genus of maxillopod crustacean known from the upper cambrian orsten deposit of sweden and similarly aged deposits in china .
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