the pyralidae , commonly called pyralid moths , snout moths or grass moths , are a family of lepidoptera in the ditrysian superfamily pyraloidea .

in many ( particularly older ) classifications , the grass moths ( crambidae ) are included in the pyralidae as a subfamily , making the combined group one of the largest families in the lepidoptera .

the latest review by eugene g. munroe & solis , in kristensen ( 1999 ) retains the crambidae as a full family of pyraloidea .

the wingspans for small and medium-sized species usually between 9 and 37 mm with variable morphological features .

it is a diverse group , with more than 6,000 species described worldwide , and more than 600 species in america north of mexico , comprising the third largest moth family in north america .

at least 42 species have been recorded from north dakota in the subfamilies of pyralidae .

pyralidae

a new genus and three new species of chrysauginae ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) .
( f . ) ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) in brasil . colloques i’inra 43 : 133–140
biocontrol of duponcheria fovealis ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) with soil - dwelling predators in potted plants .
systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae )
article : systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae )
biocontrol of duponcheria fovealis ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) with soil - dwelling predators in potted plants . - pubmed - ncbi
details - systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) - biodiversity heritage library
hulst , g . d . , 1886 . descriptions of new pyralidae . transactions of the american entomological society 13 : 145 - 168 .
mutuura , akira . 1959 . canadian species of dioryctria zeller ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . can . entomol . 91 : 65 - 72 .
there are currently 5 described subfamilies of pyralidae : chrysauginae lederer ( 1863 ) , epipaschiinae meyrick ( 1884 ) , galleriinae zeller ( 1848 ) , phycitinae zeller ( 1839 ) , and pyralinae latreille ( 1809 ) . currently there are around 4400 named species of pyralidae , although much of the diversity is undescribed .
five subfamilies are generally recognized in the pyralidae today . the acentropinae ( = nymphulinae ) , occasionally still placed here , do indeed seem to belong in the crambidae .
pyralidae ( pyralid lepidopterans ) preys on : mammalia based on studies in : costa rica ( carrion substrate ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .
heppner j . b . ( 2008 ) snout moths ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . in : capinera j . l . ( eds ) encyclopedia of entomology . springer , dordrecht
the effect of neem ( azadirachta indica a . juss ) oil on oviposition , development and reproductive potentials of sesamia calamistis hampson ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) and eldana saccharina walker ( lepidoptera : pyralidae )
pyralidae ( pyraloidea ) ; [ mna13 . 1 ] ( a ) , 8 ; [ nacl ] , 67 ; [ aucl ] ; [ globiz ] ; van nieukerken et al . , 2011 , zootaxa 3148 : 216
neunzig , herbert h . 1986 . fascicle 15 . 2 pyralioidea , pyralidae ( part ) in dominick et al . the moths of america north of mexico . e . w . classey ltd . london . 88 pp .
if you know the species , please , click on the picture and write the species name in comments section . also , you can go to the gallery page with all photos of pyralidae sp . ( large size ) .
horak marianne ( 1997 ) the phycitine genera faveria walker , morosaphycita , gen . nov . , epicrocis zeller , ptyobathra turner and vinicia ragonot in australia ( pyralidae : phycitinae ) . invertebrate systematics 11 , 333 - 421 .
schaffer , jay c . 1968 . a revision of the peoriinae and anerastiinae ( auctorum ) of america north of mexico ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) . bull . u . s . natl . mus . 280 . 124 pp .
solis , m . alma . and c . mitter . 1992 . review and preliminary phylogenetic analysis of the subfamilies of the pyralidae ( sensu stricto ) ( lepidoptera : pyraloidea ) . syst . entomol . 17 : 79 - 99 .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1979 . american species of dioryctria ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) v . three new cone feeding species from the southeastern united states . georgia entomol . soc . 14 : 290 - 304 .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1982 . american species of dioryctria ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) vi . a new species of dioryctria from eastern canada and northeastern united states . can . entomol . 114 : 1069 - 1076 .
solis , m . alma . 1993 . a phylogenetic analysis and reclassification of the genera of the pococera complex ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : epipaschiinae ) . j . n . y . entomol . soc . 10 ( 1 ) : 1 - 83 .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1990 . fascicle 15 . 3 pyralioidea , pyralidae ( part ) in dominick et al . the moths of america north of mexico . e . w . classey ltd . london . 164 pp .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 1988 . a taxonomic study of the genus salebriaria ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : phycitinae ) in america north of mexico . north carolina state univ . res . serv . tech . bull . 287 : 95 pp .
below is a guide to the local subfamilies of pyralidae . the images included are meant to be illustrative of the general appearance of each subfamily as an aid for narrowing down possibilities for identification . while the commonest elements of forewing maculation in each subfamily are represented , many patterns are not .
goodson , r . l . and h . h . neunzig . 1993 . taxonomic revision of the genera homoeosoma curtis and patogonia ragonot ( lepidoptera : pyralidae : phycitinae ) in america north of mexico . north carolina agric . res . service . tech . bull . 303 : 105 pp .
forbes , william t . m . family 33 . pyralidae , pp . 523 - 639 in , ibid . 1923 . lepidoptera of new york and neighboring states . part i . primitive forms , microlepidoptera , pyraloids , bombyces . cornell agric . exp . sta . mem . 68 : 729 pp .
in addition to those assigned to the tribes above , there are several genera of ( presumed ) pyralidae which are not firmly placed in this arrangement . some may be very basal lineages which stand outside the main snout moth radiations . but given the changing circumscription of the pyralidae , some are likely to be placed outside this group in its modern meaning , either in the crambidae or in other lineages of basal obtectomera . some may even belong to more ancient moth lineages , such as the alucitoidea or pterophoroidea . finally , it is possible that some of these ( usually little - studied ) genera are junior synonyms of genera described earlier . the genera in question are :
home » guide » arthropods ( arthropoda ) » hexapods ( hexapoda ) » insects ( insecta ) » butterflies and moths ( lepidoptera ) » pyralid and crambid snout moths ( pyraloidea ) » pyralid moths ( pyralidae ) » epipaschiinae » incertae - sedis » incertae - sedis glastianalis - hodges # 5576 . 1 ( incertae - sedis glastianalis )
roux - morabito , g . ; gillette , n . e . ; roques , a . ; dormont , l . ; stein , j . ; sperling , f . a . h . 2008 . systematics of the dioryctria abietella species group ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) based on mitochondrial dna ann . entomol . soc . am . 101 ( 5 ) : 845 - 859 .
neunzig hh ( 1986–1997 ) pyraloidea , pyralidae ( part ) . phycitinae ( part ) . in : dominick rb et al . ( eds ) the moths of america north of mexico , 15 . 2 : 1–113 , 6 pl . ( 1986 ) ; 15 . 3 : 1–165 , 5 pl . ( 1990 ) ; 15 . 4 : 1–157 , 4 pl . ( 1997 ) . wedge entomological research foundation , washington
waxworms are the caterpillar larvae of wax moths , which belong to the snout moth family ( pyralidae ) . two closely related species are commercially bred – the lesser wax moth ( achroia grisella ) and the greater wax moth ( galleria mellonella ) . they belong to the tribe galleriini in the snout moth subfamily galleriinae . another species whose larvae share that name is the indian meal moth ( plodia interpunctella ) , though this species is not available commercially .
there are two main types of tympanal organs within pyraloidea , indicating two distinct evolutionary lineages : the pyralidae latreille , 1809 ( or pyraliformes ) and crambidae latreille , 1810 ( or crambiformes ) ( munroe 1972 , minet 1982 , maes 1985 , munroe & solis 1999 ) . this basal dichotomy in pyraloid phylogeny is supported by molecular data ( regier et al . 2012 ) . the following table shows the main diagnostic characters to identify these two groups .
phycitinae ( including anerastiinae , peoriinae ) – probably the most difficult group of pyraloidea in terms of identification and classification . they comprise more than 600 genera and about 4000 species found all over the world . the characteristic trait of the caterpillars is a sclerotised area encircling the base of seta sd1 on the mesothorax , while the adult females have – like the males of pyralidae in general do – a frenulum consisting of a single bristle which in turn is composed of multiple acanthae .
snout moths , family pyralidae , comprise the third largest family of lepidoptera , with about 16 , 500 described species , but a probable fauna of at least 25 , 000 species worldwide . there are 19 subfamilies in the classification , divided into two groups : group crambinina , with 14 subfamilies ( crambinae , schoenobiinae , cybalomiinae , linostinae , scopariinae , musotiminae , midilinae , nymphulinae , odontiinae , noordinae , wurthiinae , evergestinae , glaphyriinae , and pyraustinae ) , and group pyralinina , with five subfamilies ( pyralinae , chrysauginae , galleriinae , epipaschiinae , and phycitinae ) . the group names are sometimes elevated to separate families , as was already done over 100 years ago , but they can equally be maintained within the single family pyralidae as has long been the practice . by far the largest subfamily is the pyraustinae , with about 7 , 500 species worldwide . the family is in the superfamily pyraloidea in the section tineina , subsection tineina , of the division ditrysia . adults . . .
ty - jour ti - systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) t2 - zookeys vl - 375 ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2014 sp - 15 ep - 73 do - 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 375 . 6222 au - leger , theo au - landry , bernard au - nuss , matthias au - mally , richard kw - argyria kw - argyriini kw - atlantic forest kw - biogeography kw - crambini kw - micrelephas kw - morphology kw - new species kw - phylogeny kw - pyraloidea kw - taxonomy er -
@ article { bhlpart101138 , title = { systematics of the neotropical genus catharylla zeller ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . , crambinae ) } , journal = { zookeys } , volume = { 375 } , url = urltoken publisher = { pensoft publishers 2014 } , author = { leger , theo and landry , bernard and nuss , matthias and mally , richard } , year = { 2014 } , pages = { 15 - 73 } , keywords = { argyria | argyriini | atlantic forest | biogeography | crambini | micrelephas | morphology | new species | phylogeny | pyraloidea | taxonomy | } , }
pyraloidea , the third largest superfamily of the lepidoptera , is comprised of two families - pyralidae and crambidae . the history of families previously placed in the pyraloidea is discussed . the group now includes about 16 , 000 species worldwide . morphologically , the superfamily is defined by a basally scaled proboscis and the presence of abdominal tympanal organs . the larvae of many species are economically important pests of crops ( e . g . : sugarcane , corn , rice ) , and stored products such as seeds and grains . currently 22 subfamilies comprise the pyraloidea ; only the 19 subfamilies that occur in the western hemisphere are discussed . there is a paucity of recent research using cladistic methods and phylogenetic analyses across all taxa .
the wing span of pyraloid moths varies from less than 10 mm to more than 80 mm . the head bears long and porrect or upturned labial palpi . the maxillary palpi are generally present . the main external characters supporting the monophyly of the group are the basally scaled proboscis and the paired tympanal organs situated ventrally on the 2nd abdominal segment . tympanal organs enable moths to detect the ultrasounds of insectivorous bats . many superfamilies within the obtectomeran lepidoptera ( the groups with obtect pupae ) have tympanal organs , but they are not homologous . only geometroidea have tympanal organs which are also situated on the 2 nd abdominal segment , but they are distinct in structure and evolved independently . it is generally accepted that lepidopteran tympanal organs co - evolved with the sonar system of bats . in achroia grisella and galleria mellonella ( pyralidae , galleriinae ) , the moths also possess tymbal organs on the tegulae to produce ultrasound for intraspecific , accoustic communication .
carbohydrase is responsible for catalyzes the breakdown of carbohydrates into simple sugars . it includes α - amylase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 ) , β - amylase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 2 ) , glucoamylase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 3 ) , exo - β - l , 4 - glucanases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 91 ) , endo - β - l , 4 - glucanases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 4 ) , β - l , 4 - glucosidases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 21 ) , chitinase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 14 ) , β - nacetyl - d - glucosaminidase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 52 ) , lysozyme ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 17 ) , lysozyme ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 17 ) , α - glucosidases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 20 ) , and trehalase ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 28 ) ( wyatt , 1967 ; huber and mathison , 1976 ; applebaum , 1985 ; dunn , 1986 ; kramer and koga , 1986 ; martin et al . , 1991 ) . further christeller et al . ( 1992 ) identified midgut protease activities in midgut was higher in lepidopteran insects from the families , tortricidae , noctuidae , gelechiidae , hepialidae and pyralidae . further treatment with chemical insecticides has directly affected the digestive enzyme including amylase , invertase , lipase , and protease ( deshmukh et al . , 2009 ) .
duponchelia fovealis zeller ( lepidoptera : pyralidae ) is a widespread pest in dutch greenhouses . most damage is recorded from potted plants as kalanchoe , cyclamen and begonia . caterpillars of this pyralid prefer to live in a moist soil layer were they feed on either plant parts or organic matter . larvae typically seek shelter within plant parts or in soil . this behaviour hampers contact between pesticides and caterpillars . growers , therefore would welcome an effective method to prevent damage by d . fovealis . this paper describes the effects of the soil - dwelling mites hypoaspis miles ( berlese ) and hypoaspis aculeifer ( canestrini ) ( acari : laelapidae ) and the beetle atheta coriaria kraatz ( coleoptera : staphilinidae ) on eggs and larvae of d . fovealis . both predatory mites and adults of the staphilinid beetle gave excellent control of eggs of d . fovealis in potting soil with kalanchoe . h . miles was slightly ( 99 percent control ) , but significantly , better than h . aculeifer ( 92 percent control ) . 50 to 87 percent of the eggs were predated by adult beetles of a . coriaria . these beetles also prey on first larval stages of d . fovealis . 87 percent of the h . miles population was present in the upper soil layer , whereas about half of the population of h . aculeifer preferred to stay deeper than 5 cm in soil . this behaviour might explain the slightly better control of d . fovealis by h . miles , since eggs and first larval stages of d . fovealis are mostly present in the upper soil layer . all predators tested may contribute to an integrated or biological system for controlling d . fovealis in potted plants .
this review described the physiological and biochemical effects of various secondary metabolites from meliaceae against major lepidopteran insect pest including , noctuidae and pyralidae . the biochemical effect of major meliaceae secondary metabolites were discussed more in this review . several enzymes based on food materials have critical roles in nutritional indices ( food utilization ) of the insect pest population . several research work has been referred and the effect of meliaceae secondary metabolites on feeding parameters of insects by demonstrating food consumption , approximate digestibility of consumed food , efficiency of converting the ingested food to body substance , efficiency of converting digested food to body substance and consumption index was reviewed in detail . further how the digestive enzymes including a - amylases , α and β - glucosidases ( ec 3 . 2 . 1 . 1 ) , lipases ( ec 3 . 1 . 1 ) proteases , serine , cysteine , and aspartic proteinases affected by the meliaceae secondary metabolites was reviewed . further effect of meliaceae secondary metabolites on detoxifying enzymes have been found to react against botanical insecticides including general esterases ( est ) , glutathione s - transferase ( gst ) and phosphatases was reviewed . alkaline phosphatase ( alp , e . c . 3 . 1 . 3 . 1 ) and acid phosphatase ( acp , e . c . 3 . 1 . 3 . 2 ) are hydrolytic enzymes , which hydrolyze phosphomonoesters under alkaline or acid conditions , respectively . these enzymes were affected by the secondary metabolites treatment . the detailed mechanism of action was further explained in this review . acethylcholine esterase ( ache ) is a key enzyme that terminates nerve impulses by catalyzing the hydrolysis of neurotransmitter , acetylcholine , in the nervous system of various organisms . how the ache activity was altered by the meliaceae secondary metabolites reviewed in detail .
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700x776 ( ~ 84kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo © valentina anderson
700x924 ( ~ 121kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo © valentina anderson
800x859 ( ~ 172kb ) usa : lepsoc mothing trip to copper canyon , cochise co . , arizona , 4 . 8 . 2005 , photo © valentina anderson
the exact identification of these species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .
[ globiz ] global information system on pyraloidea globiz ; globales informtationssystem zünslerfalter ; note this information is not automatically synchronized with globiz and can sometimes be lagging behind .
( a ) : 1 - 134 , ( b ) : 135 - 250 , ( c ) : 251 - 304 , pl . 1 - 13 , a - k ( 1973 )
van nieukerken et al . , 2011 in zhang ( ed . ) , animal biodiversity : an outline of higher - level classification and survey of taxonomic richness . order lepidoptera linnaeus , 1758 zootaxa 3148 : 212 - 221
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
; hw with sc + r and rs closely approximate or united beyond discal cell and sharply divergent before outer margin ; tympana ( ears ) at base of abdomen ventrally , not easily visible in anterio - lateral view , praecinctorium absent .
worldwide five subfamilies and at least 6 , 150 species ; north america with at least 565 species in five subfamilies ; 42 species have been recorded from north dakota .
some leaf tiers and rollers , majority are borers in stems , seeds , buds , or flowers , some are wood borers in the cambium layer , others feed on combs in bee hives or on dried plant materials . many economically important species : indian meal moth , clover hay - worm , zimmerman pine moth , sunflower head moth , etc .
heinrich , carl . 1956 . american moths of the subfamily phycitinae . bull . u . s . natl . mus . 207 : 1 - 581 .
munroe , eugene and m . alma solis . the pyraloidea , pp . 233 - 256 in kristensen , neils p . ed . 1999 . lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . part 35 , vol . 1 in handbook of zoology . maximilian fischer ed . walter de gryter , new york . 491 pp .
mutuura , akira and eugene munroe . 1969 . american species of the zimmermani group . can . entomol . 101 : 1009 - 1023 .
rennels , r . g . 1960 . the zimmerman pine moth . an 8 - year study of its natural history in illinois coniferous plantations . univer . ill . agric . exp . sta . bull . 660 : 39 pp .
scoble , malcom j . 1992 . the lower ditrysia , chapter 11 , pp . 225 - 289 in the lepidoptera : form , function , and diversity . oxford univ . press . 1982 . 404 pp .
last updated : 03 / 27 / 02 gerald m . fauske research specialist ndsu 202 hultz hall fargo , nd 58105 e - mail : gerald . fauske @ urltoken
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enter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .
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species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
this list contains all moth species illustrated on the ukmoths website . the numbers before each entry are checklist numbers . in the main list , there are two numbers beside each species . the first number is the
new
decimal - style checklist number , corresponding to
a checklist of the lepidoptera of the british isles
by agassiz , d . j . l . , beavan , s . d . & heckford r . j . 2013 , hitherto referred to as the
2013 checklist
. the second number , prefixed with
bf
is the previous
bradley and fletcher number
, derived from
a recorder ' s log book or label list of british butterflies and moths
by j . d . bradley and d . s . fletcher . some species will have
appendix a
to the right of their listing . this relates to appendix a of the 2013 checklist , which lists adventive species . at the end of the main list are questionable or doubtful records which is an approximation of appendix b ( questionable records ) of the new checklist , but also contains other records that do not for various reasons have new decimal - style checklist numbers . many thanks to stella beavan and bob heckford for their help in interpreting the new checklist .
the numbers before each entry are checklist numbers . in the main list , there are two numbers beside each species .
the first number is the
new
decimal - style checklist number , corresponding to
a checklist of the lepidoptera of the british isles
by agassiz , d . j . l . , beavan , s . d . & heckford r . j . 2013 , hitherto referred to as the
2013 checklist
.
the second number , prefixed with
bf
is the previous
bradley and fletcher number
, derived from
a recorder ' s log book or label list of british butterflies and moths
by j . d . bradley and d . s . fletcher .
some species will have
appendix a
to the right of their listing . this relates to appendix a of the 2013 checklist , which lists adventive species .
ukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .
the ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .
looking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .
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adult moth of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . ©csiro entomology , all rights reserved
larva of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . ©csiro entomology , all rights reserved
larva of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . photo : usda , ars ( public domain )
adult of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella . photo : usda , ars ( public domain )
the tropical warehouse moth is found throughout the tropics and subtropics where it is more common in non - arid areas . the tropical warehouse moth feeds on a range of stored foods , notably cereals and cereal products .
( caterpillars ) feed externally on maize grains but also cause damage to stored products through contamination with the silk webbing it produces and faecal pellets , cast skins and egg shells .
the tropical warehouse moth is found throughout the tropics and subtropics where it is more common in non - arid areas . it can be found in temperate countries but can only survive the winter in heated areas .
larvae the larvae range from 1 . 5 - 15 mm in length and are light brown with dark brown spots with a sparse covering of hair .
pupae pupae are dark - brown and found within a relatively light pupal case .
adults the adult forewings are greyish - brown with scattered darker patches . the wing span is 11 - 20 mm and both fore - and hind - wings have broadly rounded tips and short fringes of hairs .
the adult tropical warehouse moth is commonly confused with the indian meal moth , plodia interpunctella but can be differentiated from it by the distinct colouring of the forewings of indian meal moth ( a dark band separating the two differently coloured halves of the forewing ) . the larva resembles that of the indian meal moth .
the females lay their slightly sticky eggs on the stored food . up to 300 eggs are laid in the first 3 - 4 days of their short ( 8 - 9 day ) lives . at 30°c the eggs hatch in approximately 3 days . there are normally five larval instars and larval development , under optimum conditions ( 32 . 5°c and 70 % relative humidity ) is completed in about 22 days . in heavy infestations the mature larvae leave the produce to pupate on surfaces such as walls of the store or in spaces between bags . before pupation , the last instar larva builds a cocoon . the pupal stage is completed in about 7 days . adult emergence from the cocoon usually occurs during the late afternoon . under optimum conditions , development from egg to adult takes 29 - 31 days .
is a major pest of a range of stored foods , especially cereals ( maize , rice , wheat , sorghum , millet , oats ) flours and other cereal products , dried cassava , groundnuts , cocoa beans , dried mango , dates , nutmeg , mace , cowpeas and other dried stored products .
detection methods the tropical warehouse moth can be detected by visual inspection . sticky traps baited with a sex pheromone can be used to monitor adults .
the severity of a tropical warehouse moth infestation can be reduced by good store hygiene which includes cleaning the store between harvests , immersing grain sacks in boiling water and fumigating the store to eliminate residual infestations , ensuring that all spillages are removed , all cracks and crevices in the store are filled and the selection of only uninfested material for storage . infestations of this species may also be limited by the storage of good quality grains such as whole cereals with fewer broken grains .
the mass release of the parasite habrobracon hebetor has been used in south africa to control the tropical warehouse moth in a sultana store as part of an integrated pest management programme .
controlled atmosphere where suitable infrastructure exists , low oxygen and carbon dioxide - enriched atmospheres can be used to control stored product pests .
freezing and heating where the infrastructure exists , freezing for several days and heating for 24 hours have proved to be effective control methods for stored product pests .
fumigation of grain stocks with phosphine will control existing infestations but will not protect against re - infestation . an admixture of approved grain insecticides , especially organophosphorus compounds , will protect against this pest . store misting or fogging at times of peak flight activity may be used to control the adult population . pesticides are poisons so it is essential to follow all safety precautions on labels .
burges hd , haskins kpf , 1965 . life - cycle of the tropical warehouse moth , cadra cautella ( wlk . ) at controlled temperatures and humidities . bulletin of entomological research , 55 ( 4 ) : 775 - 789 .
cabi . ( 2007 ) ephestia cautella ( walker ) tropical warehouse moth datasheet . crop protection compendium , 2007 edition . cab international publishing . wallingford , uk .
dent d . ( 2000 ) . insect pest management . cab international wallingford , uk
gaby , s . ( 1988 ) natural crop protection in the tropics . margraf publishers scientific books , german
krischik , v . a . , cuperus g . and galliart d . ( eds . ) . ( 1995 ) . stored products management , 2nd ed . oklahoma state univ . 204 pp . urltoken accessed on 15 / 5 / 2010 .
ridgway , r . l . silverstein r . m and inscoe , m . n . ( 1990 ) behaviour - modifying chemicals for insect management , marcel dekker inc . , new york .
youdeowei a . ( 1993 ) pest and vector management in the tropics , longman group ltd england .
anne m . akol , makerere university ; maneno y . chidege , tropical pesticides research institute ; herbert a . l . talwana , makerere university ; john r . mauremootoo , bionet - international secretariat .
we recognise the support from the national museums of kenya , tropical pesticides research institute ( tpri ) - tanzania and makerere university , uganda . this activity was undertaken as part of the bionet - eafrinet uvima project ( taxonomy for development in east africa ) .
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by m . alma solis , everett d . cashatt , brian g . scholtens
contributed by maury j . heiman on 22 october , 2013 - 10 : 34pm
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ragonot , e . l . , 1887 . diagnoses of north american phycitiae and galleriiae : 1 - 20 .
4th ann . rep . noxious , beneficial and other insects of state of missouri . st . louis , mo . , 1872
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a8 sd1 surrounded by chitinous ring ( occasionally reduced ) . a1 - a7 : l2 anterodorsal or sometimes dorsal of l1 . a8 sv - group usually bisetose . a9 l group usually trisetose ( l3 rarely lost ) . anal shield : distance d1 - d1 usually greater than sd1 - sd1 ( exceptions in galleriinae , pyralinae ,
variable . from long and slender to short and stout . may be smoothly scaled or with modified scales . some males with prominent androconia .
forewing of variable shape . forewing veins with r2 closely apposed to r3 and r4 , and not usually stalked ; r3 , r4 and r5 may be reduced to one or two veins ; m1 originates near anterior angle of discal cell ; m2 , m3 and cua1 originate from posterior angle of cell ; m2 and m3 may be stalked ; cup well developed , incomplete , or absent and reduced to a fold ; 1a strongly developed ; 2a distally free or connected to 1a by a crossvein to form a closed cell , sometimes with a free portion extending beyond this cell . hindwing wide , with narrow fringe . hindwing veins sc + r1 and rs may be anastomosed or separate ; m2 and m3 usually separate , but may be fused ; cua1 and cua2 usually arising separately from discal cell ; cua1 free , rarely fused with m3 ; cup and 1a + 2a present .
in phycitinae , radial sector free or partially fused with sc + rs . m2 + 3 fused ( partially or fully ) , or separate . cell often open . cup absent . all three anal veins generally present .
both sexes with a retinaculum of stiff scales on underside of cubital area . males may have sclerotized frenulum hook , but is lost in some groups .
in phycitinae the scape may posses various modification , such as having a long spine or being deeply notched .
in phycitinae the basal flagellomere may posses various modifications , mainly in the form of a high concentration of scale - like sensilla .
forewing vein r5 stalked or fused with r3 + r4 . tympanal case closed , or nearly closed . praecinctorium absent . tympanum and conjunctiva lie in the same plane . male genitalia with uncus arms , a pair of processes arising laterally from the base of the uncus . larvae almost always with sclerotized ring around base of seta sd1
l . f . jiron and v . m . cartin , 1981 . insect succession in the decomposition of a mammal in costa rica . j . new york entomol . soc . 89 : 158 - 165 , from p . 163 .
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the adult moths are sometimes called
bee moths
, but , particularly in apiculture , this can also refer to aphomia sociella , another galleriinae moth which also produces waxworms , but is not commercially bred .
waxworms are medium - white caterpillars with black - tipped feet and small , black or brown heads .
in the wild , they live as nest parasites in bee colonies and eat cocoons , pollen , and shed skins of bees , and chew through beeswax , thus the name . beekeepers consider waxworms to be pests . galleria mellonella ( the greater wax moths ) will not attack the bees directly , but feed on the wax used by the bees to build their honeycomb . their full development to adults requires access to used brood comb or brood cell cleanings—these contain protein essential for the larvae ' s development , in the form of brood cocoons . the destruction of the comb will spill or contaminate stored honey and may kill bee larvae or be the cause of the spreading of honey bee diseases .
when kept in captivity , they can go a long time without eating , particularly if kept at a cool temperature . captive wax worms are generally raised on a mixture of cereal grain , bran and honey .
microbes found in the guts of waxworms like to feast on polyethylene , and could help dispose of plastic .
these larvae are used extensively as live food for terrarium pets and some pet birds , mostly due to their high fat content , their ease of breeding , and their ability to survive for weeks at low temperatures .
most commonly , they are used to feed reptiles such as bearded dragons ( species in the genus pogona ) , the neon tree dragon ( japalura splendida ) , geckos , brown anole ( anolis sagrei ) , turtles such as the three - toed box turtle ( terrapene carolina triunguis ) or chameleons .
small mammals such as the domesticated hedgehog can also be fed with wax worms .
they can also be used as food for captive predatory insects reared in terrarium , such as assassin bugs in the genus platymeris .
waxworms are also occasionally used to feed certain kinds of fish in the wild , such as bluegills ( lepomis macrochirus ) .
shops often refer to the larvae as
waxies
. they are used for catching some varieties of
with the use of a lighter weight . they are also used for fishing some members of the
waxworms prove valuable in such studies because the innate immune system of insects is strikingly similar to that of mammals .
waxworms survive well at human body temperature and are large enough in size to allow straightforward handling and accurate dosing . additionally , the considerable cost savings when using waxworms instead of small mammals ( usually mice , hamsters , or guinea pigs ) allows testing throughput that is otherwise impossible . using waxworms , it is now possible to screen large numbers of bacterial and fungal strains to identify genes involved in pathogenesis or large chemical libraries with the hope of identifying promising therapeutic compounds . the later studies have proved especially useful in identifying chemical compounds with favorable bioavailability .
antunes , luísa c . s . ; imperi , francesco ; carattoli , alessandra ; visca , paolo ( 2011 ) . adler , ben , ed .
deciphering the multifactorial nature of acinetobacter baumannii pathogenicity
. plos one 6 ( 8 ) : e22674 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0022674 . pmc 3148234 . pmid 21829642 .
kavanagh , kevin ; reeves , emer p . ( 2004 ) .
exploiting the potential of insects for in vivo pathogenicity testing of microbial pathogens
. fems microbiology reviews 28 ( 1 ) : 101–12 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . femsre . 2003 . 09 . 002 . pmid 14975532 .
aperis , g ; burgwynfuchs , b ; anderson , c ; warner , j ; calderwood , s ; mylonakis , e ( 2007 ) .
galleria mellonella as a model host to study infection by the francisella tularensis live vaccine strain
. microbes and infection 9 ( 6 ) : 729–34 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . micinf . 2007 . 02 . 016 . pmc 1974785 . pmid 17400503 .
, making the combined group one of the largest families in the lepidoptera . the latest review by munroe & solis , in kristensen ( 1999 )
most of these small moths are inconspicuous and of no particular significance to humans . some are more notable , however . perhaps the most familiar are waxworms , which are the caterpillar larvae of the greater ( galleria mellonella ) and lesser ( achroia grisella ) wax moths ( subfamily galleriinae ) . they are natively pests of beehives , but are bred indoors in enormous numbers as live food for small reptile and bird pets and similar animals . they are also used as fishing bait for trout fishing .
other notable snout moths are primarily relevant due to their larval food choices . examples include :
cacao moth , tobacco moth , warehouse moth ( ephestia elutella : phycitinae ) – pest of stored dry vegetable products ; europe , introduced to some other regions ( e . g . australia )
the european corn borer ( ostrinia nubilalis ) and southern cornstalk borer ( diatraea crambidoides ) , formerly considered snout moths , are placed in the crambidae which , as noted above , are usually regarded as a separate family today .
chrysauginae ( including bradypodicolinae , semniidae ) – about 400 species occurring predominantly in the neotropical region . larvae typically feed on plants , but some have more unusual feeding habits . the latter include for example some myrmecophilous species , as well as a number of sloth moths which are dependent on sloths for their entire life cycle . most chrysauginae larvae have a sclerotised ring around seta sd1 of the metathorax .
galleriinae ( including macrothecinae ) – about 300 species worldwide . the males of galleriine moths have a gnathos almost or completely reduced , the pupae have a prominent dorsal median ridge on the thorax and abdomen , and most larvae have a sclerotised ring around seta sd1 of the first abdominal segment .
pyralinae ( including endotrichinae , hypotiinae ) – rather diverse in the old world ; a lesser amount of the c . 900 species occurs elsewhere . the females of almost all pyralinae except cardamyla and embryoglossa are recognizable by the very short ductus bursae of their genitals .
epipaschiinae ( including pococerinae ) – over 550 described species in the tropical and temperate regions ( except europe ) . larvae are leaf rollers , leaf tiers or leaf miners . some species are minor pests of a few commercial crops . epipaschiinae are generally hard to recognize , except in the case of adult males which have a few characteristic traits , such as the upturned and pointed third segment of the labial palps and usually a scaly projection from the antenna base . the larvae lack any stereotyped seta sclerotisations .
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scholtens , b . g . , solis , a . m . , 2015 . annotated check list of the pyraloidea ( lepidoptera ) of america north of mexico .
annotated check list of the pyraloidea ( lepidoptera ) of america north of mexico scholtens , b . g . , solis , a . m . 2015 . zookeys 535 : 1–136 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 535 . 6086 .
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commun agric appl biol sci . 2003 ; 68 ( 4 pt a ) : 159 - 65 .
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balinsky bi ( 1994 ) a study of african phycitinae in the transvaal museum . johannesburg , 208 pp
bleszynski s ( 1965 ) crambinae . in : amsel hg , reisser h , gregor f ( eds ) microlepidoptera palaearctica , vol 1 . g . fromme , vienna , 533 pp , 133 pl . [ in german ]
goater b ( 1986 ) british pyralid moths : a guide to their identification . harley books , colchester , 175 pp , 8 pl
heinrich c ( 1956 ) american moths of the subfamily phycitinae . bull u s natl mus 207 : 1–581
munroe eg ( 1972–1976 ) fasc . 13 . 1 , pyraloidea ( in part ) . in : dominick rb et al . ( eds ) the moths of america north of mexico , 13 . 1 : 1–304 , 9 pl . ( 1972–1973 ) ; 13 . 2 : 1–150 , 8 pl . ( 1976 ) . e . w . classey and r . b . d . publishing , london
roesler ru ( 1973–1993 ) phycitinae [ part ] . in microlepidoptera palaearctica , 4 ( 1 ) : 1–752 , 4 ( 2 ) : 1–137 , 170 pl . ( 1973 ) ; 8 : 305 , 82 pl . ( 1993 )
slamka f ( 1997 ) die zünslerartigen ( pyraloidea ) mitteleuropas : bestimmen & verbreitung & flugstandort & lebensweise der raupen , 2nd edn . bratislava , 112 pp , 13 pl
zimmerman ec ( 1958 ) lepidoptera , pyraloidea : insects of hawaii , vol 8 . university of hawaii press , honolulu , pp 1–456
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reviewed by : arash zibaee , university of guilan , iran ; maria l . macedo , universidade federal de mato grosso do sul , brazil
* correspondence : sengottayan senthil - nathan , division of biopesticides and environmental toxicology , sri paramakalyani centre for excellence in environmental sciences , manonmaniam sundaranar university , alwarkurichi – 627 412 , tirunelveli , india e - mail : ni . ca . vinusm @ lihtnes ; moc . liamtoh @ rdialaklihtnes
this article was submitted to invertebrate physiology , a section of the journal frontiers in physiology .
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crop protection all over the world relies heavily on the use of synthetic pesticides . in the past , synthetic pesticides have played a major role in crop protection programes and have immensely benefited mankind . the discovery and use of ddt in 1940 and then bhc and subsequent development of the chlorinated cyclodienes marked a major advance in the field of crop protection . these chemicals have made great contributions to plant protection but have also raised a number of ecological and medical problems ( varma and dubey , 1999 ) . nevertheless , their indiscriminate use has resulted in the development of resistance by pests ( insects , weeds , etc ) , resurgence and outbreak of new pests , toxicity to non - target organisms and hazardous effects on the environment endangering the sustainability of ecosystems ( jeyasankar and jesudasan , 2005 ) . it has been estimated that hardly 0 . 1 % of the agrochemicals used in crop protection reach the target pest leaving the remaining 99 . 9 % to enter the environment to cause hazards to non - target organisms including humans ( pimentel and levitan , 1986 ) .
it has been described that more than 2 . 5 million tons of pesticides are used in agricultural crops protection for every year and the global damage caused by synthetic insecticides reaches more than $ 100 billion annually ( usepa , 2011 ) . the reason behind this amount of cost is the high toxicity and residual properties of pesticides in soil , water , air and crops that affect human and domestic animal health ( carson , 1951 ) . hence search for the eco - friendly , biodegradable pesticides for management of pest insects have been encouraged to be essential for last five decades .
the ideal insecticide should control target pests adequately and should be target - specific ( able to kill the pest insect but not other insects or animals ) , rapidly degradable , and low in toxicity to humans and other mammals . two classes of insecticides that exhibit some of these characteristics are the botanical insecticides and the insecticidal soaps . botanical insecticides , sometimes referred to as “botanicals , ” are naturally occurring insecticides have been derived from plants . insecticidal soaps are soaps that have been selected and formulated for their insecticidal action ( weinzierl and henn , 1991 ) .
botanical insecticides have more advantages than synthetic one . the advantages of botanical pesticides mainly depending upon their quick degradation and lack of persistence and bioaccumulation in the eco system , which have been key problems in chemical pesticide use .
several experiment with botanical pesticides , shows they are degraded in the environment in hours or days . further literature has clearly shown that use of plant natural products provides low risk when compare with chemical insecticides . the availability and diversity of the secondary metabolites in botanical extracts is renewable source . also multiple analogs of one compound , is known to increase the efficiency of phytochemcial through synergism , reduce the rate of metabolism of the compounds and prevent the pest resurgence / pesticide resistance ( ascher , 1993 ; senthil - nathan and kalaivani , 2005 , 2006 ; ntalli and menkissoglu - spiroudi , 2011 ) . plant community is the most efficient source for natural pesticide . it synthesizes numerous products , many of which have been shown to effect on insect and other harmful organism . some are highly toxic to a wide range of organisms , including both vertebrates and invertebrates . but majority of plant derived compounds are affecting insects and are comparatively harmless to vertebrates . such compounds are toxic causing mortality or reduced growth of pest insects . phytochemcial modes - of - action are more complicated . most of them are affecting insect performance by repelling an insect and feeding deterrence or oviposition deterrence .


chalcosiinae is a subfamily of the zygaenidae , containing many species , mostly little known .

prominent sexual dimorphism , bright aposematic coloration and mimicry complexes are widespread .

chalcosiinae

no one has contributed data records for chalcosiinae yet . learn how to contribute .
chalcosiine day - flying moth caterpillar ( cyclosia midama , chalcosiinae , zygaenidae ) by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu’er , yunnan , china see more chinese caterpillars on my flickr site here … . .
chalcosiine day - flying moth ( pidorus albifascia , chalcosiinae , zygaenidae ) by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu ' er , yunnan , china see more chinese moths on my flickr site here … . .
chalcosiine day - flying moth ( retina sp . , chalcosiinae , zygaenidae ) by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu ' er , yunnan , china see more chinese moths on my flickr site here … . .
chalcosiine day - flying moth , female ( soritia sp . , chalcosiinae , zygaenidae ) by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu ' er , yunnan , china see more chinese moths on my flickr site here … . .
yen , s . - h . , g . s . robinson and d . l . j . quicke . 2005 . the phylogenetic relationships of chalcosiinae ( lepidoptera , zygaenoidea , zygaenidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 143 : 161341 .
yen , s . - h . , g . s . robinson and d . l . j . quicke . 2005 . phylogeny , systematics and evolution of mimetic wing patterns of eterusia moths ( lepidoptera : zygaenidae : chalcosiinae ) . systematic entomology 30 : 358397 .
lower ditrysian family groups : zygaenoidea s . l . ( especially chalcosiinae , procridinae and phaudidae of oriental / indo - australian regions ) , crambidae ( especially acentropinae ( = nymphulinae ) of asia and indo - pacifics ) , hyblaeidae , thyrididae ( strigulininae ) higher ditrysian family groups : uraniidae ( epipleminae ) , epicopeiidae , callidulidae , erebiidae ( syntomini ) . rhopalocera ( especially those are mimetic such as elymnias , penthema and dananinae )
now as ph . d . student of department of biology , imperial college of science , technology and medicine , university of london . ( supervisors : dr . donald quicke , imperial college and dr . gaden robinson , british museum ( natural history ) . thesis : phylogenetic reconstruction of chalcosiinae ( zygaenidae ) of the world , with systematic revision on tribal and generic levels . major interests in lepidoptera : phylogeny / evolution / biology / systematics of : primitive families : micropterigidae , paleosetidae , neopseustidaemonotrysian families : adelidae
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maggie whitson selected
eterusia
to show in overview on
eterusia
.
maggie whitson marked the classification from
species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013
as preferred for
eterusia
.
maggie whitson selected
eterusia aedea
to show in overview on
eterusia aedea clerck 1759
.
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museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken
dried specimens and a small reverberation chamber ( fig . 1 ) were used to measure the random incidence absorption factors of the wings of each study species ( separately for male and female saturniids ) over the frequency range 20–100 khz ( fig . 2 ) . for each treatment n = 6 sets were used , with each set comprising the maximum number of non - overlapping moth wings of same - sex specimens of a species that could fit on the reverberation chamber floor . the number of wings of each set depended on species size and availability of dried specimens .
small reverberation chamber for the measurement of absorption factors in the ultrasonic spectrum . ( a ) experimental set - up . funnels direct the ultrasound emitted by the transducers into the chamber through a 7 mm opening . the microphone can move freely up and down inside the chamber , allowing for spatial averaging of the reverberation times . ( b ) overview of reverberation chamber showing the engraved diffusers . ( c ) absorption factor of empty reverberation chamber ( eqn 1 ) ; the error bars indicate 95 % confidence intervals ( cis ) ( n = 27 microphone positions ) .
absorption factors of moth wings measured with small reverberation chamber ( eqn 3 ) . ( a ) chalcosiines . ( b - d ) female and male saturniids . the absorption factors of a . mittrei and s . c . ricini differ significantly according to sex for the frequencies indicated by circles . ( e ) absorption factors grouped by preparation group . the absorption factors differ significantly from each other for frequencies within the range 20–40 khz . circles indicate significant difference between male and female saturniids , triangles between female saturniids and chalcosiines , and squares between male saturniids and chalcosiines . all pairwise comparisons were conducted with tukey - kramer test for each frequency separately . one , two , or three symbols correspond to 0 . 01 < p < 0 . 05 , 0 . 001 < p < 0 . 01 , and p < 0 . 001 , respectively . the error bars indicate the 95 % cis and n = 6 sets for each sample .
estimated marginal means of absorption factors of moth wings across the frequency range 20–100 khz . ( a ) estimated marginal mean of each preparation . there is a significant effect of preparation on estimated marginal mean ( anova , f 8 , 45 = 23 . 78 , p < 0 . 001 ) . ( b ) estimated marginal means grouped by preparation group . the estimated marginal means differ significantly according to preparation group ( anova , f 2 , 51 = 19 . 08 , p < 0 . 001 ) and also differ significantly from each other ( tukey - kramer test ) . the error bars show the 95 % cis [ n = 48 in a ( 6 sets×8 frequencies ) and n = 144 in b ( 3 preparations×6 sets×8 frequencies ) ] .
survival advantage of female s . c . ricini over males in terms of smaller detection distance by bats
the detection distance of a target by a bat depends on the transmission loss due to spherical spreading and atmospheric attenuation , and on the target strength ( møhl , 1988 ) . the detection distances of male and female s . c . ricini were compared because they have wings of similar size and shape ; consequently the comparison is feasible because their target strengths , and hence their detection distances , differ due to the different absorption factors of their wings alone . detection distances of moths typically range between 1–10 m ( surlykke et al . , 1999 ) . eqn 13 was used with three hypothetical detection distances within this range for male s . c . ricini in order to derive the respective detection distances of female s . c . ricini ( fig . 4 ) . at 25 khz , where the difference between the absorption factors of male and female s . c . ricini is maximized ( fig . 2 d ) , the detection distance of female s . c . ricini is 20–30 % smaller .
percentage difference in the detection distance of female s . c . ricini compared to three hypothetical detection distances of male s . c . ricini [ r ( 2 ) ] . the difference between the detection distances of male and female s . c . ricini is maximized at 25 khz , where the difference between the absorption factors of their wings is also maximized ( fig . 2 d ) . the detection distances of female s . c . ricini were calculated with eqn 13 for atmospheric attenuation at temperature 20°c and 70 % relative humidity ( surlykke , 1988 ) .
studies have reported bat echolocation calls with dominant frequencies ranging from 11 khz ( euderma maculatum ; fullard and dawson , 1997 ) to 212 khz ( cloeotis percivali ; fenton and bell , 1981 ) , though most insectivorous bats echolocate with dominant frequency 20–60 khz ( fenton et al . , 1998 ) . the ultrasound absorbance of the wings of this study ' s moth species peaks at the lower end of this range ( 20–25 khz ; fig . 2 ) . despite the similar patterns , there are significant differences not only between the nocturnal saturniids and the diurnal chalcosiines ( fig . 2 e ) , but also between male and female a . mittrei ( fig . 2 b ) and s . c . ricini ( fig . 2 d ) .
zeng et al . ( 2011 ) proposed that the scales on the wings are responsible for the ultrasound absorption . the scales have interstitial spaces between them that create a network of interconnected pores similar to that found in porous sound absorbers ( zeng et al . , 2011 ) ; when a sound wave propagates through this network , thermal and viscous effects cause the dissipation of its acoustic energy ( cox and d ' antonio , 2009a ) . in addition , the ultrastructure of the scales resembles a perforated panel backed by air ( zeng et al . , 2011 ) , which could act as a microperforated panel absorber ( cox and d ' antonio , 2009b ) .
male and female saturniid specimens ( a . io from usa , a . mittrei from madagascar , and s . c . ricini from china ) and male chalcosiine specimens ( a . a . analis and c . burmanus from thailand , and e . pulchera from burma ) were obtained from the lepidoptera breeders association ( bourne , uk ) .
the time period for which it takes the sound pressure level to drop 60 db after a sound stops is termed reverberation time and depends on the total absorption inside a reverberation chamber . consequently , by comparing the reverberation time before and after the introduction of an absorbent material ( e . g . moth wings ) inside the chamber , the random incidence absorption coefficient of the introduced material can be derived . the standard for the measurement of the random incidence absorption coefficient in a reverberation chamber essentially concerns frequencies below 20 khz ( iso , 2003 ) . for this frequency spectrum , the measurement procedure requires large chambers and 10 - 12 m 2 of absorbent material ( cox and d ' antonio , 2009c ) ; however , such a quantity of moth wings is practically infeasible . besides , the shorter wavelengths of the ultrasonic spectrum render feasible the measurement of the absorption coefficient with a smaller chamber and smaller quantities of absorbent material . still , since this study did not follow the standard faithfully , the measured absorption quantity has been called absorption factor . the same term was employed by the only other documented study of sound absorption in the ultrasonic spectrum ( zeng et al . , 2011 ) .
even with these measures , the reverberation time is spatially dependent within the reverberation chamber . to reduce the effect of non - diffuseness , two ultrasonic transducers equipped with funnels were utilised to direct the ultrasound into the chamber through 7 mm openings , scattering multi - directionally the acoustic wave that entered the chamber . in addition , the recording device , an ultrasonic microphone , could move freely up and down inside the chamber , allowing for spatial averaging of the measured reverberation times ( fig . 1 a ) .
the absorption factors of the empty chamber and of the moth wings were measured over nine 1 / 3 octave bands that have centre frequencies from 20 to 100 khz . the parameter
( s ) is the reverberation time after the introduction of the moth wings .
) . the wings of each set were placed on a white background of known surface area and an image was obtained . the image was smoothened with edge - preserving bilateral filter (
) . in the binary image , one class of pixels represents the wings and the other represents the background .
first , the recorded signal of main frequency f was filtered with a bandpass digital filter designed with a kaiser window . the filter passed frequencies between f l and f h in order to retain only frequencies within the 1 / 3 octave band , frequencies outside this range were attenuated 80 db ( fig . s2a ) .
the decay curve of the filtered signal has many fluctuations that render difficult the identification of the point where the response drops 60 db after the offset of sound ; therefore , the curve has to be smoothed . the first step of the smoothing process is to obtain the filtered signal ' s envelope by using the hilbert transform :
( s ) is the time point where the signal merges with the noise level . the parameter
is a maximally flat curve , meaning that its gradient is constantly negative . as a result , the curve crosses the −60 db point once . this property makes schroeder ' s integration method useful for the estimation of the reverberation time . however , in most cases l (
) > –60 [ db ] . this means that the signal merges with the noise level before reaching the −60 db point . therefore , the reverberation time has to be estimated using linear regression .
to compare the absorption factors among the nine preparations ( 3 chalcosiines and 3×2 male and female saturniids ; fig . 2 a - d and fig . 3 a ) , a repeated measures model , specifically a subject - by - treatment model ( doncaster and davey , 2007 ) , was fitted . in the model , the absorption factors are the responses , preparation is the between - subjects factor , which is used as the predictor variable , and frequency is the within - subject factor . anova was used to test if the absorption factors differ significantly according to preparation ( fig . 3 a ) , and repeated measures anova to test if there is a significant effect of frequency on absorption factor as well as significant preparation - frequency interaction . the p - values of the repeated measures anova were computed using a greenhouse - geisser correction ( ε = 0 . 79 ) because mauchly ' s test for sphericity indicated that that the sphericity , hence the compound symmetry assumption , does not hold ( χ 2 = 144 . 80 , p < 0 . 001 ) . to do pairwise comparisons between preparations , post hoc tukey - kramer tests were used ( fig . 2 a - d and fig . 3 a ) .
accordingly , a repeated measures model was used for the comparisons among the three preparation groups ( chalcosiines , male and female saturniids ; fig . 2 e and fig . 3 b ) , albeit with the preparation group as the between - subjects factor . the same tests were carried out as with the above model . again , the sphericity did not hold ( χ 2 = 142 . 61 , p < 0 . 001 ) , and a greenhouse - geisser correction ( ε = 0 . 81 ) was used for the calculation of the repeated measures anova p - values . all statistical analysis was conducted in matlab ( mathworks , uk ) , and a p - value of < 0 . 05 was considered statistically significant .
is the noise . the equation is in db form and all quantities are measured in db .
( m ) is the detection distance of the target ( e . g . moth ) , and
) is the atmospheric attenuation factor . the first term of the equation accounts for loss due to spherical spreading and the second one for loss due to atmospheric attenuation .
have wings of similar size and shape , their ratios of incident to returned sound intensity depend on the absorption factors of their wings alone . specifically , they are related as follows :
) , which in this study returns exactly one real solution . eqn 13 was used to compare the detection distances of female and male
we thank colleagues in the laboratories of the centre of ultrasonic engineering at the university of strathclyde for their advice and assistance during this work .
a . n . conceived the study , which was designed by a . n . , f . g . and j . f . c . w . experiments were carried out by a . n . and f . g . ; data analysis was performed by a . n . a . n . , f . g . and j . f . c . w . interpreted the findings . a . n . drafted the article . all authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript .
the research leading to these results has received funding from the european research council under the european union ' s seventh framework programme ( fp / 2007 - 2013 ) / erc grant agreement no . 615030 ; and was also supported by the engineering and physical sciences research council ( epsrc ) grant ep / l026511 / 1 .
all data created during this research are openly available from the university of strathclyde pure / knowledgebase at urltoken .
this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license ( urltoken ) , which permits unrestricted use , distribution and reproduction in any medium provided that the original work is properly attributed .
auditory influences on the flight behaviour of moths in a nearctic site . ii . flight times , heights , and erraticism
handbook of zoology / handbuch der zoologie . lepidoptera , moths and butterflies , morphology and physiology
auditory influences on the flight behaviour of moths in a nearctic site . i . flight tendency
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moths from yunnan , china click on and scroll through images for individual ids… . . by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu ' er , yunnan , china see more chinese moths on my flickr site here …
the view from above - chinese caterpillars seen from the dorsal aspect click individual images for ids… . view all images in the the view from above series on my flickr here . by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu’er , yunnan , china see more chinese caterpillars on my flickr site here … . .
this is a moth species that is quite common in hk . the species is distributed across se asia from thailand to china , but the hk population seems to be especially prominent .
safety in numbers - caterpillars ( click individual images for ids in captions ( where known ) ) by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu’er , yunnan , china see more chinese caterpillars on my flickr site here … . .
red click on and scroll through individual images for ids in captions . by sinobug ( itchydogimages ) on flickr . pu ' er , yunnan , china see more chinese insects and spiders on my flickr site here ……
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the root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .
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bode , w . and c . m . naumann . 1988 . little - known accessory glands in female zygaena moths ( lepidoptera , zygaenidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 92 : 2742 .
naumann , c . m . 1988 . the internal female genitalia of some zygaenidae ( insecta : lepidoptera ) : their morphology and remarks on their phylogenetic significance . systematic entomology 13 : 8599 .
naumann , c . m . , g . m . tarmann and w . g . tremewan . 1999 . the western palaearctic zygaenidae . apollo books , stenstrup .
niehuis , o . , c . m . naumann , and b . misof . 2006 . phylogenetic analysis of zygaenoidea small - subunit rrna structural variation implies initial oligophagy on cyanogenic host plants in larvae of the moth genus zygaena ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 147 : 367 - 381 .
niehuis , o . , s . - h . yen , c . m . naumann and b . misof . 2006 . higher phylogeny of zygaenid moths ( insecta : lepidoptera ) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial sequence data and the evolution of larval cuticular cavities for chemical defence . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 39 ( 3 ) : 812 - 829 .
tarmann , g . 1994 . a preliminary review of the classification of the zygaenid subfamily procridinae ( lepidoptera ) . nota lepid . suppl . 5 : 115 - 123 .
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no . 11 , alley 10 , lane 93 , shin - nan rd . , sect . 1 , chung - ho city , taipei hsien 235 , taiwan
born in november of 1971 in tainan city of taiwan . b . sc . of department of entomology , national chung - hsing university ( taichung , taiwan ) . m . sc . of institute of biological science , national sun yat - sen university ( kaohsiung , taiwan ) . thesis : phylogenetic analyses of the major lineages of nymphulinae and musotiminae , with taxonomic revision on taiwanese fauna ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . )
awards : on 9th january 2004 dr . shen - horn yen received the 5th r . j . h . hintelmann wissenschaftspreis für zoologische systematik for his thesis
phylogenetic analyses of the major lineages of nymphulinae and musotiminae , with taxonomic revision on taiwanese fauna ( lepidoptera , pyralidae s . l . )
. the award was presented in a ceremonial act in zoologische staatssammlung münchen organized by the museum ' s management and the
freunde der zoologischen staatssammlung münchen e . v society
.
systematics , phylogenetics and biogeography of elymnias ( with mr . chia - hsuan wei and dr . david lohman )
evolution of mimetic wing patterns of the papilio memnon complex ( with dr . mathieu joron )
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marocaster is an extinct genus of sea stars in the family goniasteridae .

it existed in what is now morocco during the early cretaceous period .

it was described by daniel b. blake and roland reboul in 2011 , and the type species is m. coronatus .

marocaster

belongs to marocaster according to d . b . blake and r . reboul 2011
no one has contributed data records for marocaster coronatus yet . learn how to contribute .
sinopse : marocaster coronatus é um gênero de estrela - do - mar extinto . fonte : wikimedia commons - didier descouens . url : urltoken
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full reference : d . b . blake and r . reboul . 2011 . a new asteroid ( echinodermata ) faunule from the early cretaceous ( barremian ) of morocco . journal of paleontology 85 ( 6 ) : 1021 - 1034
type specimen : holotype mhnt . pal . 2010 . 2 . 2 , paratypes 2010 . 2 . 4a , 2010 . 2 . 5 , 2010 . 2 . 1h
parent taxon : goniasteridae according to d . b . blake and r . reboul 2011
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daniel b . blake & roland reboul ( 2011 ) .
a new asteroid ( echinodermata ) faunule from the early cretaceous ( barremian ) of morocco
.
this page was last modified on 20 april 2015 , at 22 : 23 .
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metasia hemicirca is a moth in the crambidae family .

it was described by meyrick in 1887 .

it is found in australia , where it has been recorded from tasmania .

the wingspan is about 19 mm .

the forewings are pale whitish-fuscous , irregularly suffused with pale fuscous and irrorated with dark fuscous .

the lines are rather irregular , strong and dark fuscous .

the hindwings are similar to the forewings in colour and markings , but there is a dark fuscous oblique transverse-linear discal spot before the middle .

metasia hemicirca

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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spain , italy , corsica , malta , sardinia , sicily , france , yugoslavia .
balearic islands , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , corsica , malta , sardinia , sicily , france ( mainland ) , croatia .
[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2ae973d1 - bd63 - 46bb - ab75 - 5c72c99d9640
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 42bd0e76 - 850d - 4e36 - a0a4 - 4945744a7583
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : be913826 - ee30 - 4a1e - 82f7 - 57e7e62c93db
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f52af03e - 0345 - 4a29 - bf19 - dc621fa11cbc
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 246584
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