the yellow-fronted canary ( crithagra mozambica ) , also called yellow-eyed canary , is a small passerine bird in the finch family .

it is known elsewhere and in aviculture as the green singing finch .

the yellow-fronted canary was formerly placed in the genus serinus but phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial and nuclear dna sequences found that the genus was polyphyletic .

the genus was therefore split and a number of species including the yellow-fronted canary were moved to the resurrected genus crithagra swainson 1827 .

this bird is a resident breeder in africa south of the sahara desert .

its habitat is open woodland and cultivation .

it nests in trees , laying 3 – 4 eggs in a compact cup nest .

the yellow-fronted canary is 11 – 13 cm in length .

the adult male has a green back and brown wings and tail .

the underparts and rump are yellow , and the head is yellow with a grey crown and nape , and black malar stripe .

the female is similar , but with a weaker head pattern and duller underparts .

juveniles are greyer than the female , especially on the head .

the yellow-fronted canary is a common , gregarious seedeater .

its song is a warbled zee-zeree-chereeo .

yellow - fronted canary

the yellow - fronted canary was first described in 1776 by german zoologist phillip muller .
could it be a yellow - fronted canary ( crithagra mozambica ) ? the only bird that was visually identified in the vicinity was amakihi ( chlorodrepanis virens ) , but i don ' t think it ' s that .
yellow - fronted canaries are important as seed predators and may act as prey for small raptors , snakes , and small , carnivorous mammals .
yellow - fronted canaries forage alone or in small groups . however , flocks of up to 100 individuals have been reported and they may join other
yellow - fronted canaries are a popular cagebird throughout the world . mozambique exports 10 , 000 birds annually . the population within this country has been estimated at over 2 million birds ( parker 1999 in fry and keith 2004 ) . yellow - fronted canaries may assist in controlling insect numbers around cultivated fields .
nesting pairs of yellow - fronted canaries are moderately territorial , but two or even three nests have been sited in the same tree on several occasions . home range size varies .
the yellow - fronted canary has a large range , estimated globally at 9 , 500 , 000 square kilometers . it is primarily found in africa , though it has been introduced to the united states and puerto rico . this bird prefers savanna , shrubland , and grassland ecological systems , though it can reside in rural gardens or on pasture or arable land . the population of the bird has not been determined but the species is described as common in many areas despite being heavily traded . the yellow - fronted canary does not currently meet the criteria for the iucn red list and has an evaluation level of least concern .
adult yellow - fronted canaries are agile and can outmaneuver most predators . nestlings and recently fledged birds sustain the highest rates of mortality . likely predators of adults are agile raptors , such as
grey head with two bright yellow streaks : one above the eyes (
eyebrow streak
) and one below the eyes . bright yellow plumage covers the entire underside of the bird , extending from the chin down to the undertail . the rump is also yellow . the top of the neck , back , and wings are a greenish grey with yellow margins to the otherwise blackish wing and tail feathers . juveniles have a pale yellow face and breast with dull greenish - yellow rump and spots / streaks on the sides of the breast .
yellow - fronted canary : towards the end of the 1960s , this species was introduced to the hawaiian islands of oahu , molokai , and hawaii , where they maintain resident colonies . they can be found in dry , open woodlands and also in cultivated areas . this species is native to africa in areas south of the sahara desert .
frequently feeds on cultivated grains . although abundant and widespread , yellow - fronted canaries generally forage in small groups and thus never threaten to wipe out a crop , but consistent feeding in farmlands may contribute to lower crop harvests .
clement , p . ( 2018 ) . yellow - fronted canary ( crithagra mozambica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
popular cagebirds , yellow - fronted canaries have been released near human settlements around the globe , establishing populations where conditions permit . introduced birds have colonized parts of hawaii , puerto rico , sao tomé , mafia island , mauritius , and réunion among other countries .
adult yellow - fronted canaries ( older than 6 months ) experience annual mortality rates of about 65 % . many birds live 2 to 3 years , although one wild individual lived at least 8 . 5 years . captive birds frequently live beyond 10 years .
) , and have been hybridized with canaries ( green singing cock × border or roller canary hen ) to produce fertile offspring . green singing finches have reportedly also hybridized with : goldbreasted waxbill (
north american fringillidae are generally plumaged in shades of red , yellow , brown and dull green - these colors being more vivid in the case of the hawaiian honeycreepers . male finches are more brightly colored than females , the yellow and black plumage of male goldfinches being especially striking .
yellow - fronted canaries are common through much of sub - saharan africa , they are categorized as a species of least concern on the iucn red list and a cites appendix iii species . this classification is designed to
prevent or restrict exploitation
which , in this case , may result from excessive capture for the pet trade .
yellow - fronted canaries are brightly colored and average 12 cm ( 4 . 75 inches ) in length . adult males have a golden - yellow face , belly , flank , rump , and tail coverts . they have brown to black malar stripes and eyestripes continuing through to the beak , both surrounded by the characteristic golden - yellow . their back , neck , and crown are brown to yellowish olive - green ( fry and keith , 2004 ) . they have sparse dark streaking on their backs , darker brown primaries and secondaries , dark to light brown tail feathers with lighter yellowish or greenish edges , and pale pinkish - brown bills . adult females are similar in plumage to males . they are distinguished by a ring of brown feathers crossing the bottom of the throat , resembling a pearl necklace . they are generally slightly more dull brown and paler yellow , with lighter eye and malar stripes . juveniles are similar to females , with heavy streaking . juvenile males molt out of their necklace markings at around 6 months of age .
fringillidae are known for their seed - eating behavior and cheery songs ; characteristics that facilitated and popularized the domestication of the island canary . finches such as white - winged crossbills are also known for their
irruptive
migrations in search of food sources that can make them locally common one winter and absent the next .
yellow - fronted canaries are socially monogamous . a pair typically defends its territory from other members of the species , although on occasion several pairs may nest in the same tree . at the onset of the breeding season , members of mated pairs frequently chase one another in a slow , stilted , level flight from branch to branch . males feed their mates throughout the breeding season , and also sing loud , trilling songs while perched upright and swaying very slightly .
have been identified , each with subtle variations in plumage , size , wing length , and other body measurements . south african birds exhibit regional color variation , with a gradient from duller individuals in the west to the brightest yellow birds in the east .
yellow - fronted canaries feed primarily on seeds and insects . sorghum and millet seeds are husked and eaten readily , often taken from cultivated fields . to reach seeds still attached to tip of plants , birds may land mid - stalk , pin the plant to the ground , and inch their way up until they reach the seeds . termites , aphids , grasshoppers , and other insects are especially important during the breeding season when chicks demand a relatively high - protein diet . other food items include leaves , fruit , petals , and nectar .
this species builds a cup - shaped nest and should be provided canary nest baskets / pans ( at least 2 at varying heights in the enclosure ) . some pairs will construct the nest within clumps of dried brush affixed to the aviary wall or suspended from the ceiling . ensure that any nest site provided is sheltered from rain and storms . provide coconut fiber , dry / soft grasses , rootlets , kapok , and soft feathers for nesting material .
yellow - fronted canaries are native to much of sub - saharan africa . they are found in most countries below their northern limit of 17˚ north latitude , including mauritania , guinea , liberia , mali , ivory coast , burkina faso , ghana , togo , benin , nigeria , cameroon , chad , central african republic , sudan , eritrea , ethiopia , congo , zaire , uganda , kenya , rwanda , burundi , tanzania , angola , zambia , malawi , mozambique , zimbabwe , and botswana ( fry and keith , 2004 ) . they are notably absent from the arid regions of south africa and the tropical rainforests of the congo basin .
the aptly named crossbills have curious curved bills with crossed tips . although it looks more like a bill deformity than a useful tool , this specialized bill shape is perfect for extracting seeds from pine cones . males of the house , cassin ' s , and purple finch species can sometimes develop yellow or orange rather than red plumage depending upon the amount of carotenoids present in their food sources .
this species has the potential to be housed in a communal aviary , however , green singing finches may show aggression toward other species with similar plumage to their own ( i . e . yellow coloration ) such as saffron finches and cuban melodious finches , and thus should not be housed with these species . additionally , because males can be aggressive toward one another , only one pair of green singers should be housed per enclosure . green singers can be housed in cages , flights , or aviaries ; if housing outdoors in temperate climates , be sure to provide adequate shelter from storms , winds , and cold weather ( below 50°f ) .
green singing finches can become obese if fed too rich a diet year - round and / or not provided with adequate exercise . feeding an austerity diet when not breeding and offering a larger enclosure with perches spaced far apart will help reduce this risk . green singing finches can suffer from intestinal parasites ( including coccidia ) , overgrown nails , egg - binding ( if not fed an adequate diet or provided with natural sunlight ; more commonly seen in first - year and old hens ) , infected bug bites ( typically on nonfeathered skin ) , and a propensity to contort and injure their wings during handling ( so be especially cautious to secure the birds ' wings to the sides of the body during handling as this will prevent the birds from twisting their wings ) . this species may be infrequently affected by scaly leg mite and air sac mites . note that older birds and those with damaged feathers may develop atypical white or yellow markings which are not due to being pied nor having a genetic mutation .
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ioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2
przevalski ' s finch , previously called pink - tailed rosefinch , is a relict member of an ancient separate lineage that is as old as , or older than other families of finches ; it belongs in its own monotypic family urocynchramidae , with a name change ( groth 2000 , päckert et al . 2016 )
classification of fringillidae revised for v3 . 3 ; see especially zuccon et al . 2012
europe ( except british isles , sardinia ) to c asia , w , n turkey , c and e caucasus and nw iran .
split gran canaria blue finch from [ tenerife ] blue chaffinch ( sangster et al . 2015 )
( zuccon et al . 2012 , cf kirwan & gregory 2005 , bli , hbw )
( tietze et al . 2013 , cf rasmussen & anderton 2005 , ioc 3 . 5 ) . restore english name to great rosefinch
has priority for species name . change english name to pink - rumped rosefinch ( hbw , clements , h & m 3 )
( wu et al . 2011 , tietze et al . 2013 ; cf collar 2004 )
hawaiian honeycreepers resequenced following pratt 2005 , lerner et al . 2011 ; see also nacc 2015 . needs review of oversplit genera .
island populations of the akepa are recognized as separate species ( nacc 2015 - b - 4c ) ; add island name ( hawaii ) to akepa .
based on lerner et al . ( 2011 ) phylogeny ; see also pratt 2005 .
, is preoccupied by a subspecies of greater akialoa . that conflict no longer exists with placement of kauai amakihi in
( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 )
( tschusi , 1901 ) as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .
( arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , zuccon et al . 2012 , nacc )
recognized by bou ( ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 )
pending future analyses ( knox 2001 , ottvall et al . 2002 , marthinsen et al . 2008 , mason & taylor 2015 , bou , h & m4 , nacc 2017 - b - 7 )
se siberia , ne china , korea , sakhalin and kuril is . and japan
( weir and schluter 2004 , smith et al . 2005 ; nacc 2017 - c - 5 )
preliminary genetics suggest that megaplaga and leucoptera are sisters and that bifasciata should be split to avoid paraphyly ( parchman et al . 2007 ) . see also elmberg 1993 re song differences
taczanowski , 1879 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .
( zuccon et al . 2012 , also arnaiz - villena et al . 1999 , nguembock et al . 2009 , ryan et al . 2004 )
sa : n colombia to trinidad and the guianas , south to n argentina , se brazil , e paraguay .
from thraupidae to a new monotypic family rhodinocichlidae , which follows calcariidae ( barker et al . 2013 , 2015 ; nacc 2017 - b - 6 ) . eng [ 8 . 1 ] = lower case ' tanager '
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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josep del hoyo , juan sanabria , greg baker , pascal vagner , doug and denise norris , joe angseesing , pieter de groot boersma , daniêl jimenez , peter van dam , bill wayman , yoël jimenez , bob humphries and sally robinson .
lars petersson , paul van giersbergen , éric roualet , juan josé bazán hiraldo , holger teichmann , marvinhyett , mattias hofstede , morten venas , robert erasmus , stan culley , buchert , manakincarmelo , david beadle , frédéric pelsy , billonneau jean claude , laurent demongin , tim cockcroft birding , tomas grim , paul cools , ken simonite , georges olioso , ken havard .
birds on são tomé , previously separated as race santhome , were introduced on that island in late 19th century and exhibit features within range of variation of mainland tando . ten subspecies recognized .
( d’orbigny , 1839 ) – extreme s mauritania , senegal and gambia s to n sierra leone and e to nigeria and n cameroon .
heuglin , 1864 – s chad , central african republic , sw & s sudan and w & s south sudan s to e drcongo , uganda , sw kenya and nw & c tanzania .
( w . l . sclater & mackworth - praed , 1931 ) – se sudan , e south sudan and w & sw ethiopia .
( c . h . b . grant & mackworth - praed , 1945 ) – w eritrea and nw & c ethiopia .
( w . l . sclater & mackworth - praed , 1918 ) – gabon , s congo , w & s drcongo and n & w angola ; also são tomé , where probably introduced .
( c . m . n . white , 1947 ) – se drcongo , ce angola , sw tanzania and ne zambia .
( roberts , 1932 ) – se angola and ne namibia e to sw zambia .
( statius müller , 1776 ) – e kenya s to c & s mozambique , zimbabwe , e & se botswana and ne south africa ( limpopo and north west province s to free state ) .
( clancey , 1957 ) – extreme s mozambique , e swaziland and e south africa ( mpumalanga and kwazulu - natal s to s eastern cape ) .
introduced ( nominate race ) to mafia i , mauritius , reunion , rodrigues , assumption i , hawaiian is ( oahu ) and puerto rico .
11–13 cm ; 8·5–16·2 g . small , short - tailed finch with broad supercilium and prominent face pattern . male nominate race has lower forehead and supercilium bright . . .
song , often given in short bursts , a lively series of sweet , musical phrases e . g .
tseeu - tseeu . . .
mostly seeds , buds , flowers , leaves and some insects . seeds principally of grasses and weed species , including those of
season may–nov in w africa , throughout year in e africa , nov–apr ( mostly dec–mar ) in zimbabwe , sept–mar in . . .
resident and partially nomadic . in non - breeding season large flocks wander in search of feeding . . .
not globally threatened . common , locally abundant and widespread ; absent from some areas of apparently suitable habitat . estimated population in s mozambique in excess of 2 , . . .
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forms three well - defined subfamilies # r , including euphoniinae , previously placed in thraupidae . also includes drepanidini , sometimes treated as a separate family ( as in hbw ) , but here considered merely a tribe of carduelinae . extensive phylogenetic data available , and comparatively few species remain wholly unscreened ; nonetheless , study of internal relationships has been confounded by recurring plumage patterns and use of similar feeding niches by taxa that prove to be far from closely related .
apparently monophyletic clade comprising mostly afrotropical and arabian species traditionally placed in serinus , together with a few that were sometimes included in carduelis # r # r ; two species of s africa , previously placed in pseudochloroptila , also imported herein , as is c . concolor , transferred from monospecific neospiza , based on molecular evidence # r # r . one analysis using mtdna indicates that further subdivision might be warranted , by recognizing dendrospiza ( for , e . g . , c . capistrata , c . hyposticta and c . citrinelloides ) , ochrospiza ( c . citrinipectus , c . mozambica and c . dorsostriata ) and poliospiza ( c . striatipectus , c . reichardi and c . mennelli ) # r , but more complete taxon sampling does not support this at present .
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and gray legs and feet . it feeds on seeds and insects . bounding flight , alternates flapping with gliding . sexes are similar , female is duller .
a group of canaries are collectively known as an
aria
and an
opera
of canaries .
also known as perching birds , the order passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) is composed of one hundred and eighteen families of birds , among which are included the insectivorous warblers and the seed - eating finches .
the fringillidae ( pronounced frin - jihl - lih - dee ) is a widespread bird family found on most continents and includes two hundred and seven species of finches in thirty - nine genera .
eighty - nine species of fringillidae in twenty - nine genera have occurred in north america and hawaii . these include familiar feeder visitors such as goldfinches and siskins , the nomadic rosy - finches of the high mountains , and a group with several extinct species ; the hawaiian honeycreepers .
fringillidae are primarily small birds with stout , short bills adapted to cracking open seeds and have short legs for a mostly arboreal lifestyle . most species also have slightly forked tails and long wings , both useful for the large amount of flying needed to find seeding plants . although some hawaiian honeycreepers share this general structure , others evolved a variety of bill shapes related to the habitat niches they occupy .
fringillidae in north america occupy forest and non - forest habitats , coniferous forests being favored by most species while native hawaiian forests are necessary for the survival of the hawaiian honeycreepers . the non - forest niche is filled by goldfinches ( birds of weedy fields and desert ) , the house finch ( a desert species that has become adapted to urban environments ) and the rosy - finches of alpine snow fields and tundra .
most fringillidae are adapted to cold weather and only migrate when seed crops on their breeding grounds become scarce . rosy - finches practice
vertical migration ,
moving to nearby lower elevations with better supplies of food during the winter .
members of the fringillidae family are very social birds typically found in flocks outside of the breeding season . although the rosy - finches take much insect prey on the ground and some hawaiian honeycreepers eat nectar , most finches forage for seeds in trees and bushes .
while fringillidae in the united states and canada are doing quite well , most hawaiian honeycreeper species are highly endangered with many having already gone extinct and others in decline because of their high susceptibility to introduced diseases such as avian malaria and changes to the native forests they inhabit .
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also called the supercilicum or superciliary it is the arch of feathers over each eye .
also called whisker , mustache or malar streak , it is the area below the eye and bill on the sides of the chin that stretches downwards .
also called the hindneck or collar , it is the back of the neck where the head joins the body .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as common to locally abundant ( clement 1999 , fry and keith 2004 ) , while the population in taiwan has been estimated at < c . 100 introduced breeding pairs ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline as a result of the bird trade ( unep - wcmc cites trade database , january 2005 ) .
since 1985 , over 2 , 600 , 000 wild birds have been recorded in international trade ( unep - wcmc cites trade database , january 2005 ) .
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calls from a bird sitting up in a weedy field adjacent to dry forest .
song ? and calls from a bird perched up in weedy growth at the edge of secondary forest .
a male seen displaying for a female on a wire fence in some long grass on the roadside near the end of summer .
a small flock seen singing from a dead tree near long grass where they were eating grass seeds .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : crithagra mozambica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
hens are duller overall and some races have a line of grey feathers extending across the lower throat , resembling a grey necklace . only the ( adult ) cock sings , though hey may not sing year - round .
juveniles are difficult to sex until they obtain adult plumage at about 9 months of age . both juvenile cocks and hens may practice singing until they reach full maturity , at which point only the cock sings .
green singing finch hen - notice the grey spots across the lower throat forming a
necklace .
open woodland savanna and plains with occasional trees . sometimes feeds on edges of farmland , reedbeds , and gardens .
toward the breeding season , groups of males may alight in tree tops and sing in concert . they usually build nests in small shrubs , thickets , and trees , choosing a site near the end of a branch where it forks at heights varying from 3 - 20 feet ( most commonly 7 - 10 ft ) above ground . green singing finches only pair up for the breeding season , after which time they separate . during the non - breeding season , green singing finches gather in large flocks and roam together in search of food . they feed primarily on grass seeds , but may also eat weeds , tree flowers , and buds . they become insectivorous when breeding . green singing finches love to bathe , and should be provided with a shallow bird bath regularly . because they have a propensity to shred , ingest , and thus decimate plants , any plantings within their reach should be nontoxic and ideally hardy .
they tend to be long - lived ( a captive life span of 8 - 10 + years is not uncommon ) .
is a species listed in the cites appendices , meaning that international trade of the green singing finch ( export , import ) is restricted . therefore if you obtain a pair , you should strongly consider breeding them to continue their availability in captivity .
autumn / winter in southern hemisphere ; nesting tends to occur from august / september through january ; breeding season can be artificially induced by manipulating temperature , diet , etc .
these birds are best bred between 2 and 4 years of age . breeding can be accomplished in cages , flights , or aviaries . perches within the enclosure should be secured firmly to permit successful copulation . the breeding diet should be introduced about 1 month prior to anticipated breeding . green singing finches are monogamous with a strong pair bond , though some breeders have had success breeding the birds as trios ( 2 hens with 1 cock ) . only house one pair ( or trio ) per enclosure ; colony breeding multiple pairs does not tend to be successful , and housing more than 1 pair together requires a very spacious and well - planted enclosure . ideally pairs should not be kept within ear shot of each other to maximize productivity .
the courtship can be rough ; it often involves a chase prior to copulation , and occasionally the male may pluck some of the female ' s feathers . to limit aggression , before placing the pair in the breeding enclosure , the cock and hen can be introduced via a smaller cage with a central wire divider separating the cock from hen . this allows the birds to become accustomed to each other while limiting physical contact . after about a week , the pair can then be introduced into the breeding enclosure together . the cock feeding the hen is a sign of breeding readiness , and may take place up to a few weeks before nest building starts .
eggs are pale blue in color ( sometimes spotted ) and are incubated by the hen . the cock does not tend to incubate , but does feed the hen while she is sitting on the eggs . some breeders opt to remove each egg as it is laid , replacing it with a plastic dummy egg . then , once the clutch is complete , the breeder returns all of the eggs to the hen at the same time . this ensures that the eggs all hatch on the same day , giving each chick an equal chance at survival . once the chicks hatch , both parents feed them . after the young fledge , the cock continues to wean the babies as the hen starts her next brood . be sure to provide plenty of
for the pair to feed their young . if space restraints require , juveniles can be removed from the breeding enclosure once they are fully weaned - - about 4 weeks after they fledge the nest . breeding pairs typically raise 3 - 4 clutches per season , and may reuse the same nest after re - lining it .
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crithagra mozambica mozambica : coastal kenya and mafia i . ( tanzania ) south to zimbabwe , mozambique , eastern and southeastern botswana , and northeastern south africa ( north west and limpopo to free state )
crithagra mozambica vansoni : extreme se angola and adj . namibia to n botswana , sw zambia
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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prefers open woodlands and grasslands below 2300 m , but may also be found in a variety of other habitats including coastal scrub , mangroves , and sand dunes . they are rarely found in tropical rainforests or arid regions . they frequent cultivated lands where they take advantage of abundant sorghum , millet , and other grains .
both birds collect plant fibers ( mostly fine grasses ) and other suitable material with which the female constructs a small cup - shaped nest . nests are built 1 to 6 meters above ground in forked branches , twigs , or other supportive structures , usually shielded from view by dense foliage .
breeds through the rainy season when there are sufficient food supplies to rear young . because of the tremendous range of the species , the timing of this period varies widely depending on weather patterns . between two and five ( usually 3 ) eggs are laid , one per day until the clutch is complete . incubation by the female alone lasts 13 days and ( at least for captive birds ) typically commences after the last or second - to - last egg is laid . during this period the male feeds his mate regularly and sings from a nearby perch .
breeding interval related birds often raise one to three broods each year , depending on food availability and weather .
breeding season the breeding season varies throughout range but generally coincides with the wet season .
initially after hatching the young require nearly constant brooding by the mother . as the female is able to leave the nest for longer periods , the male joins in feeding the young . the young fledge at around 18 days . the family travels and feeds as a unit until or beyond the time when the young are functionally independent , usually at the age of 6 weeks .
to form mixed - species flocks . small groups roost together in trees and bushes . posturing and vocal communication is common within the group . though generally considered a resident species ,
may migrate short distances to stay close to the best food sources and to avoid bad weather conditions . these seasonal wanderings are particularly pronounced in the northern limits of their range .
posturing between individuals in a group is common . singing competitions are frequent , and males respond strongly to potential competitors with a loud , trilling song that is repeated throughout the day .
. nestlings and hatchlings may be taken by nest predators such as snakes and other arboreal carnivores .
timothy lambert ( author ) , stanford university , terry root ( editor , instructor ) , stanford university .
living in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
body of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
islands that are not part of continental shelf areas , they are not , and have never been , connected to a continental land mass , most typically these are volcanic islands .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
finchinfo . com . 2007 .
the green singing finch
( on - line ) . finch info . accessed may 10 , 2007 at urltoken .
arnaiz - villena , a . , m . álvarez - tejado , v . ruíz - del - valle , c . garcía - de - la - torre , p . varela , m . recio , s . ferre , j . martinez - laso . 1999 . rapid radiation of canaries ( genus serinus ) .
moulton , m . 1993 . the all - or - none pattern in introduced hawaiian passeriforms : the role of competition sustained .
to cite this page : lambert , t . 2007 .
serinus mozambicus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .


the dusky antbird or tyrannine antbird ( cercomacroides tyrannina ) is a passerine bird in the antbird family .

it is a resident breeder in tropical central and south america from southeastern mexico southwards to western ecuador , and amazonian brazil .

this is a common bird in the understory thickets of wet forest , especially at edges and clearings , and in adjacent tall second growth .

the female lays two reddish-brown-spotted white eggs , which are incubated by both sexes , in a small , deep , plant fibre and dead leaf cup nest , which is suspended from the fork of a thin branch or vine low in a tree .

the male and female parents both feed the chicks .

the dusky antbird is typically 14.5 cm long , and weighs 18 g .

the adult male is mainly blackish-grey above and paler grey below , with two white wing bars .

the female has brown upperparts and rufous-cinnamon underparts .

young birds , especially males , are darker than the adults .

exact plumage shades vary geographically , since there are a number of subspecies of this antbird .

this species has a whistled kick call , and the song is a duet , the male ’s ascending whistle pu pu pe pi pi answered by the female ’s softer , jerky juu-ut juu-ut juu-ut juu-ut juu-ut .

the dusky antbird is normally found as pairs throughout the year and does not join mixed-species feeding flocks .

it feeds on insects and other arthropods taken from twigs and foliage in thickets or vine tangles .

it is easier to hear than see in its dense habitat .

dusky antbird

. mating system of the dusky antbird , a tropical passerine , as assessed by dna fingerprinting .
morton es , stutchbury bjm , in press . demography and reproductive success in the dusky antbird , a sedentary tropical passerine .
the relationship between years a dusky antbird territory was monitored and natural replacement rate of male and female occupants . bubble size indicates number of observations , ranging from 1 - 6 .
eugene s . morton , kim c . derrickson , bridget j . m . stutchbury ; territory switching behavior in a sedentary tropical passerine , the dusky antbird ( cercomacra tyrannina ) , behavioral ecology , volume 11 , issue 6 , 1 november 2000 , pages 648–653 , urltoken
in common with other cercomacra antbirds , the dusky antbird is predominantly gray in males with white wing markings and a white interscapular patch , whilst females are largely warm cinnamon below , with darker brown upperparts and pale rufous wing spotting . it is one of the most geographically widespread of the genus , being found across much of middle america , from southeast mexico southwards , thence across much of northern south america south as far as northern brazil . populations in northeast brazil and in central and eastern amazonia that were previously included within this species are now ascribed to the willis’s antbird ( cercomacra laeta ) . throughout its range , the dusky antbird inhabits the understory of lowland and foothill forests below 1900 m , but rarely ventures far from edges .
new territories are established rarely , even in good dusky antbird habitat . the reason may be that territory establishment is constrained by predation ( lima , 1998 ) . dusky antbirds forage in dense habitat and do not have the predator - detection advantage gained by membership in interspecific flocks ( morse , 1977 ; munn and terborgh , 1979 ; powell , 1985 ; terborgh , 1990 ) . accordingly , birds switched territories only when a mate with experience on that territory was there , as evidenced by its special courtship songs .
zimmer , k . , isler , m . l . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . dusky antbird ( cercomacroides tyrannina ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
we compared the territories birds abandoned and those moved to in several ways . because song output may be directly related to territory quality in many species ( e . g . , morton , 1986 ) , we counted the number of songs by males and females and the number of duet songs delivered during the dawn chorus on these territories during 10 mornings in february and march 1994 . dusky antbird dawnsinging lasted about 1 h , beginning about 0615 h and ending by 0730h .
we suspect that intensive study of banded populations will find that territory switching is common and that stable pairbonding in tropical species with year - round territoriality is more apparent than real . willis ( 1974 ) describes switching territories in the spotted antbird ( hylophylax naevioides ) , with females twice as likely to move as males . as with dusky antbirds , spotted antbirds moved to vacancies ; they did not defeat owners . checker - throated antwrens ( myrmotherula fulviventris ) also switch territories , with 37 % of adults , regardless of age and sex , moving to neighboring territories at least once in their lives ( greenberg and gradwohl , 1997 ) . more studies using removals are needed to document territory switching and mate replacement tactics in tropical birds .
this tropical mating system , termed “permanent monogamy” by freed ( 1987 ) , is the most prevalent but least studied mating system among birds ( mock , 1985 ) . here we report an 8 - year study of this system in a tropical passerine bird , the dusky antbird ( cercomacra tyrannina ) . pairs appear to remain together and jointly defend territories year - round ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . with an annual survivorship of 0 . 82 , which does not differ between genders ( morton and stutchbury , in press ) , few vacancies due to deaths would be expected ( ashmole , 1963 ; ricklefs , 1980 ) . under these conditions , floaters are expected ( smith , 1978 ) and male and female vacancies should be filled equally rapidly .
we infer that floaters are uncommon in antbirds . forty - three percent of territories ( 12 out of 28 ) remained unoccupied when their occupants disappeared naturally or due to our removal experiments ( 43 % of vacancies ) . most replacements were birds that switched territories rather than previously non - territorial birds . furthermore , during the entire 8 year study , antbird pairs disappeared from 10 territories and were not replaced . the only new territories ( n = 4 ) were established by juveniles , in pairs .
territories were not enlarged nor did their occupants change their boundaries over our 8 year study . territorial boundaries remained the same on 36 territories that were occupied continuously during the study , even with turnover of individuals occupying them . the few territories that lost both occupants ( n = 4 ) were not annexed by pairs of antbirds in adjacent territories . thus , dusky antbirds apparently do not expand territories when the opportunity to do so exists .
longevity would be enhanced if birds switched to territories better for surviving periods of low food availability . our study took place during the dry season , when insect abundance is lowest ( janzen , 1973 ; janzen and schoener , 1968 ; wolda , 1978 ) . dusky antbirds may experience food stress during the dry season months and , as evidence of this , are missing from what appears to be excellent habitat on the drier parts of the pacific coast of panama only 15 km from our study site . territory switches clearly were related to food resources in lesser sheathbills ( chionis minor ) ( bried and jouventin , 1998 ) . the reasons for such switches are less obvious in dusky antbirds . perhaps birds are able to judge , through their own foraging success on their current territories , how much of a gamble it would be to switch to another territory when a vacancy arises ?
we captured , measured , and colorbanded dusky antbirds occupying from 14 , at the start of the project in 1991 , to 50 territories in 1996 . we captured pairs in a single mist net set up over a speaker playing back pair duets ( see morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . once one or both adults on a territory were banded , that territory was visited each year 10 - 30 times and replacement individuals captured and colorbanded . demographic data are presented elsewhere ( morton and stutchbury , 2000 ) .
males and females differ in plumage and song , produced in duets or separately ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . males weigh 16 . 0 g ( n = 18 ) and females 15 . 2 g ( n = 11 ) . males retain a female - like plumage ( brownish rusty - orange below , olive - brown above ) until one year of age , when they attain the dark grayish adult male coloration . during this juvenal plumage , males can be identified in the field by their use of the male song . eye color allows aging of both genders up to 3 years of age ( morton and stutchbury , 2000 ) . dusky antbirds neither join in mixed species flocks nor regularly pursue prey displaced by army ants ( willis , 1985 ) . they defend territories vigorously at all times of year ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . special gender - specific courtship songs function to attract a new mate ( morton , 1996 ) . dusky antbirds are socially and genetically monogamous ( fleischer et al . , 1997 ) .
in a population of dusky antbirds ( cercomacra tyrannina ) , less aggressive responses to distance - degraded playbacks than to undegraded playbacks of pair duets show that this tropical suboscine passerine uses sound degradation to range distance from singing conspecifics . this is the first example of song - ranging in a species that does not learn songs , supporting the hypothesis that ranging preceded the song learning that occurs in more recently evolved passerine birds ( oscines ) . both sexes sing and are able to use song degradation to range distance from singers when their sex - specific song is played back .
dusky antbirds are members of the suboscine passerine family thamnophilidae , a species - rich neotropical group ( sibley and monroe , 1990 ) . pairs defend territories year - round in brushy forest edge habitat where they forage 0 . 5 - 10 m up in vines , and vine - covered tree branches , shrubs , and grass . nests are small ( ca 23 cm long ) bags made of black rhizomorphs ( fungal “horsehair” ) , suspended 1 - 4 m above the ground from the end of vertical vines or bamboo shoots ( chusquea spp . ) , always well - shaded and isolated from surrounding vegetation ( and climbing predators ) by 1 - 2 m . these nest site requirements are not uncommon but are fulfilled only by shade produced by forest trees , and not the shrubs and grass used for foraging . dusky antbirds , therefore , are restricted to forest edge and gap habitat ( williams - linera , 1990 ) . birds glean invertebrates from bark and leaf surfaces , hopping along branches and making quick dashes or brief hovers , and also poke into , and tap with their beaks , curled leaves or dead leaves caught in vines .
our study took place during 1991 - 1998 in central panama in the parque nacional soberania near gamboa along the pipeline road and in gamboa . the region is covered with mesic tropical forest and has abundant forest edge habitat used by dusky antbirds . there are distinct wet ( may—december ) and dry ( january—april ) seasons . we logged 16 . 7 dry season months and 4 . 8 wet season months in the field during these years . we studied breeding season behavior in the early rainy season , may—july in 1994 and 1995 ( see fleischer et al . , 1997 ) . data presented here were obtained mostly in the dry season , when the birds do not breed .
these data suggest that dusky antbirds are not limited by availability of territories . the data do not support the ashmole / ricklefs hypothesis that low adult mortality could influence reproductive rate through a density - dependent effect on food supply ( ricklefs , 2000 ) . while population size may be stable ( greenberg and gradwohl , 1986 ) this does not necessarily mean recruitment opportunities are low because carrying capacity has been reached ( ashmole , 1963 ; cody , 1971 ; ricklefs , 1980 ; slagsvold , 1980 ) . adult survivorship was high ( 82 % ) but the likelihood that a pair raised young to independence averaged only 8 % per year in our population ( morton and stutchbury , in press ) . high quality territories , however , may be limited and most birds switch to get higher quality territories that enhance longevity .
we studied territory acquisition and the stability of pair bonds by conducting removal experiments and tracking a colorbanded population of dusky antbirds . we determined that territory and mate switching is common and examined a series of questions concerning the evolution of territory switching . do replacement mates come from a non - territorial floater population or do territory owners abandon current territories and mates to become replacement mates ? does one gender leave territories more than the other does ? what qualities of territories make them attractive or unattractive to potential replacement birds ? are territories limited ? do territory boundaries change when replacement or removal occurs , how long does it take for a removed bird to be replaced and are there gender difference in the likelihood of being replaced ? we discuss these questions in relation to the evolution of territory switching as a potentially widespread life history trait in tropical birds .
a tropical / temperate difference concerned the frequency of removed owners regaining their territories from replacements . temperate zone removals show that the probability that replacements will defeat the former resident increases with replacement time ( beletsky , 1996 ; krebs , 1982 ) . this is often a matter of only a day or two . these territories are used only for breeding . in contrast , dusky antbirds regained their yearlong territories regardless of replacement time up to 10 days , even though replacements fought longer after they occupied a territory more than 48 h ( figure 2 ) . perhaps released owners won because replacements could , and did , return to the territory they emigrated from and oust their replacements , if any . removed residents , in contrast , did not have such an alternative to move to . the released owners ' motivation to fight may have been higher than their replacements ' motivation due to this asymmetry .
demographic data from an 8 - year study of a marked population showed that switching territories and mates is common in both genders of dusky antbirds ( cercomacra tyrannina ) , a sedentary neotropical passerine with year - round territories and pairbonds . we conducted 22 experimental removals and followed six natural disappearances to examine territory switching . antbirds quickly abandoned territories and mates to move to openings created by experimental removals . pairing with the resident on a new territory was rapid . unmated birds attracted new mates by singing a gender - specific song that differed from songs given by mated birds . there were no gender differences in replacement time or rate . some vacancies , experimental and natural , were not filled , suggesting that floaters were rare . territory and mate switching were not related to immediate enhancement of reproductive success because the probability of reproducing successfully was equally poor on all territories . territory switching may be an overlooked but common tropical form of territoriality that increases individual survivorship during periods of low food abundance ( dry season ) . we suggest that switching is favored when low annual reproductive success enhances selection for a long lifespan as the primary means to increase reproductive success .
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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
partners in flight ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) trend justification : this species has the ability to persist in secondary habitats ( del hoyo et al . 2003 ) and its population is suspected to be stable .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
two individuals heard at dawn chorus on forest edge of premontane forest . many backgorund species , the vocalization of this species is the frecuent
ju - ut jut - ut jut - ut jut - ut
. cut was extracted of a longer cut of a dawn chorus on forest edge . recording distance was probably 10 meters .
female singing and foraging about 3 m from me . recording was normalized to - 3 db .
a male and a female calling back and forth with another male . i was about 3 m from the pair and about 6 m from the individual male . these are the same males as in xc372769 . recording starts with churring from the pair , then the male singing his clicky , 2 - element song ( e . g . , 0 : 22 ) , joined by the female with her clear , 1 - element song ( e . g . , 0 : 24 ) .
two males calling back and forth . i was about 3 m from one and about 6 m from the other .
hormiguero no observado entre arbustos , borde de bosque tropical húmedo en piedemonte amazónico de cordillera andina oriental colombiana . inicialmente una grabación misteriosa identificada por diego calderón .
on riverside trail . seen , but not especially well . flew out and calling in response to playback .
humid lowland rainforest . reference : jn4 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .
humid lowland rainforest . reference : jn2 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .
humid secondary forest . reference : jn1 . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
until recently treated as conspecific with c . laeta , and also included c . parkeri as a highland population . recent comprehensive molecular study # r indicates it is closest to c . serva . at least some of plumage differences on which races were based appear due to clinal variation ; analysis of other parameters required in order to define geographical populations more accurately , so ranges listed are provisional . vocal differences between populations of middle america plus magdalena valley ( colombia ) and other taxa / populations in south america merit investigation # r . proposed race rufiventris ( e panama ) included in nominate , based on study of plumage variation . four subspecies recognized .
( bangs , 1901 ) – se mexico ( se veracruz , ne oaxaca and n chiapas e to s quintana roo ) , belize , guatemala and honduras ( caribbean slope ) s to w panama ( w & c chiriquí , bocas del toro , nw veraguas ) .
( p . l . sclater , 1855 ) – c & e panama ( e from e chiriquí , w colón and ne coclé ) , colombia ( pacific slope , lower cauca and magdalena valleys , and e of andes s to r caquetá ) , w ecuador ( s to s guayas , one record in el oro ) , s venezuela ( nw bolívar , amazonas ) and extreme nw brazil ( n amazonas w of lower r negro , s to r japurá ) .
( todd , 1927 ) – nw venezuela ( s zulia s to táchira , w andes n to mérida and e andes n to r guanaré , portuguesa ) and e slope of andes in n colombia ( casanare ) .
( c . chubb , 1918 ) – venezuela ( s & e bolívar ) , the guianas and ne amazonian brazil ( roraima and from e of lower r negro e to amapá ) .
13·5–14·5 cm ; 15–19 g . male nominate race is slate - coloured above , wings and tail somewhat darker , interscapular patch white , wing - coverts and outer rectrices . . .
male loudsong typically a series of relatively short notes at even pitch and pace except for lower - . . .
thick understorey of lowland and foothill evergreen forest at edges of clearings , stream edges , . . .
feeds on variety of insects , including beetles ( coleoptera ) , lepidopteran larvae , wasps ( hymenoptera ) , hemipterans , homopterans , . . .
feb–oct in costa rica and panama and aug–nov in amazonian brazil ; additional nest and egg descriptions from nicaragua and . . .
not globally threatened . fairly common to common throughout its extensive range . regions inhabited by this species encompass numerous protected parks and reserves . its . . .
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recent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r have led to internal clarification of family and its division into two subfamilies , thamnophilinae and myrmornithinae ; subsequent work has erected a third , euchrepomidinae ( see below , euchrepomis ) .
recent phylogenetic studies # r # r # r have led to distribution of taxa included herein into five tribes , microrhopiini , formicivorini , thamnophilini , pithyini and pyriglenini .
recently split from cercomacra # r on basis of comprehensive molecular study # r . genus is feminine due to original usage by describers # r .
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combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is very large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cercomacroides tyrannina . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
morton , e . & derrickson , k . behav ecol sociobiol ( 1996 ) 39 : 195 . urltoken
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cercomacra tyrannina [ tyrannina or rufiventris ] : cent . panama to e colombia , s venezuela and nw brazil
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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address correspondence to e . s . morton . e - mail : emorton @ urltoken .
year - round territoriality with permanent pairbonds is a common breeding system of tropical passerines but is nearly absent in temperate passerines . many insectivorous tropical birds , 65 % of passerine species in panama ( morton , 1980 ) , for example , have longstanding , nearly unchanging , territory boundaries and low turnover in adults . the stability ( greenberg and gradwohl , 1986 , 1997 ) that these characteristics provide to neighborhoods of conspecifics is unknown in temperate birds .
few studies have examined pair stability in tropical birds , where the constraints on mate choice and territory switching are vastly different than for long - distance migrants that breed in the temperate zone . freed ( 1987 ) documented long - term pairbonds , generally for life , in tropical house wrens ( troglodytes aedon ) . he showed that these long - term pairbonds result from constraints rather than any direct reproductive advantages . furthermore , removal experiments have rarely been done in tropical birds ( e . g . , levin , 1996 ; morton , 1977 ) . removals in temperate zone studies generally show that floaters ( previously non - territorial ) replace removed individuals ( e . g . , smith , 1987 ; zack and stutchbury , 1992 ) . often replacement birds are of younger age or lower quality ( hogstad , 1989 ; mönkkönen , 1990 ; sherry and holmes , 1989 ) . beletsky ( 1996 ) summarizes extensive removal experiments in redwinged blackbirds ( agelaius phoeniceus ) designed to study territorial acquisition and retention .
from 1991 to 1995 we removed 12 male and 10 female antbirds from their territories . we always left one member of the pair on the territory from which a removal was made . also , we observed natural disappearances of two females and four males from their territories . birds were captured in mist nets and transported in paper bags to holding cages . they were provided with mealworms and water ad libitum and kept individually in small ( 46 × 46 × 46 cm ) hardware cloth cages covered with plastic camouflage mesh , to mimic a dense vine habitat , and kept in a room with ambient light and temperature for from 12 to 216 h . birds were weighed when captured and when released back on their territories . this procedure worked well for this species , which has never before been kept in captivity , and we lost no individuals .
the removal experiments provided us the opportunity to monitor replacement behavior . we monitored the territory for replacement birds for the first 2 h after a removal and thereafter every 2 to 4 h . the bird still on the territory began singing a distinctive “courtship” song within 5 min of the removal ( morton , 1996 ) . we used the presence of this courtship song to determine whether a replacement mate had arrived . the occurrence of duets indicated a replacement was consorting with the bird remaining on the territory . we played back duet songs to draw birds within view to either confirm the absence of replacements or to check for colorbands on replacements ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . we called new birds on the territory “replacements” when they were the same gender as the removed bird and when they sang duets with , and remained close to , the mates of the removed birds .
the original territory owner was released on the territory after a replacement had settled . replacement time refers to the number of h between a replacement ' s arrival and the owner ' s release whereas “time to be replaced” is the number of h between the owner ' s removal and the arrival of a replacement . after one observer had the replacement in view , birds held in captivity were released back on their territories at the point of capture . a second observer monitored the released bird and recorded observations on the movements and behavior of the birds until one bird left the territory .
natural disappearances were ascertained by the appearance of the courtship song and confirmed when only single , formerly paired birds , responded to duet playbacks . these territories were monitored 3 - 4 times per week for replacements .
we also measured territory area and estimated the amount of foraging substrate it contained . to measure territorial boundaries , we mapped the singing and foraging locations of pairs . we also used playbacks to elicit territorial defense movements , noting where pairs stopped advancing towards the playback speaker . foraging substrate volume for each territory was estimated as the number of m 3 of vines , shrubs , grass , and vine - covered tree branches from 0 . 5 to 10 m above the ground at the edge of the forest ( williams - linera , 1990 ) .
males and females were replaced with equal frequency and as rapidly . of 16 males ( 12 removed and four natural disappearances ) , nine were replaced and seven were never replaced . of 12 females ( 10 removed and two natural disappearances ) , five were replaced and seven were never replaced . this difference was not significant ( fisher ' s exact test , χ 2 = 1 . 266 , p < . 44 ) . neither was there a gender difference in the time between removal of owners and arrival of replacements , comparing only owners that were replaced ( mann - whitney u test , u = 17 . 5 , p = . 71 ) . for nine males replacement took 9 . 6 ± 2 . 90 ( se ) h and for five females replacement took 12 . 6 ± 3 . 03 h ( figure 1 ) .
cumulative frequency plot of time to be replaced for males ( n = 9 , circles ) and females ( n = 5 , squares ) experimentally removed from territories .
most replacements were colorbanded birds ( six of nine males and three of five female replacements ) that left territories and mates to replace removed birds . the unbanded replacement birds also may have been territory - holders , rather than floaters , because all were in adult plumage . furthermore , 43 % ( 12 of 28 ) of the vacancies created by this territory switching remained unfilled , suggesting that floaters were rare .
owners won back their territories regardless of when we removed them or the tenure of their replacements , with one exception . one male , after 48 h off territory , was unable to regain his territory from a replacement , which had been on the territory for 47 h . instead , he moved to his replacement ' s former territory , which was adjacent to his original territory . he had lost 2 . 9 g in captivity , 18 % of his weight at capture . this weight loss , the greatest experienced by any removed bird , was caused by unusually stressful housing ( due to circumstances beyond our control ) .
when birds were removed for 48 h or less , little fighting occurred between the released owner and the replacement . the released owner threatened the replacement by exposing a white backspot ( see morton and derrickson , 1996 ) , and replacements fled . some chases occurred , but no fights . after longer periods of residency , replacements confronted released owners and fought . birds grappled and fell , fighting , to the ground , where we could see and hear them flapping and pecking one another in the leaf litter . we never observed such fights to occur naturally . the duration of chasing and fighting between the released owner and the replacement depended on the tenure of the replacement birds on the territory ( figure 2 ; anova , f 1 , 11 = 4 . 315 , p = . 06 ) . one female / female confrontation lasted for 120 min despite a relatively short tenure by the replacement ( figure 2 ) . if this outlier is removed , the relationship between fight duration and tenure becomes highly significant ( f 1 , 10 = 30 . 253 , p = . 0003 ) .
duration of fights between replacement and released owner in relation to time replacement was on territory during owner ' s absence . one male was omitted because he did not regain his territory from the replacement . males , circles ; females , squares .
how common is mate and territory switching under natural conditions on unmanipulated territories ? as our data are based on annual surveys and not continuous monitoring , they are minimum estimates of turnover rates . also , we can not differentiate between death and emigration of occupants in many cases . overall , we monitored 35 male changes on 32 territories for 143 territory - years ( 0 . 25 terr yr - 1 ) and 21 female changes on 24 territories for 93 territory - years ( 0 . 23 terr yr - 1 ) . the difference in sample sizes is due to the fact that we were unable to capture females on some territories , despite repeated attempts , because males respond to song playbacks more quickly than females , often hitting the mist net first ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) .
a bird may disappear from a territory because it died or because it emigrated . we estimated the rate of disappearance due to emigration alone by comparing the number of occupant disappearances with number of birds that were known to have emigrated because they were found living on another territory . in 16 adjacent territories , where nearly all birds were banded , 34 birds disappeared during 8 years . sixteen of these birds ( 47 % ) were later found to be living on another territory . this ( 0 . 27 terr - 1 yr - 1 ) is a minimal estimate of disappearance due to emigration because birds that moved out of the study area would be missed . we conclude that territory switches , or emigration , occurs commonly under natural conditions .
the replacement rate varied greatly among territories ( figure 3 ) . some territories had no changes for many years whereas others approached one change in occupant per year . there was a significant correlation between male and female replacement rates on territories ( r s = 0 . 47 , p = . 04 , n = 13 ) monitored from 3 - 6 years . this suggests that males and females valued territories in the same way , and left or remained with equal likelihood when an opening occurred . pair - members moved independently of one another . on only one occasion did we document a pair of birds moving together to a new territory . this move was to an adjacent territory where both male and female owners had disappeared . when their replacements on their former territory were removed they remained on their new territory , suggesting that their move was voluntary .
some individuals lived on the same territory for many years , suggesting they valued these territories highly . did these territories increase longevity ? to examine this question , we looked at the age of the mates of birds that did not emigrate . our expectation was that , if the territory was of high quality ( in terms of survival ) , their mates should also remain on the territory and live longer than average . there is no gender difference in survival so we compared longevity in these mates with longevity in the general population . the mean lifespan of these mates was 5 . 9 years ± 0 . 404 ( se ) ( n = 7 ) whereas the mean lifespan of the general population was 4 . 9 years± 0 . 259 ( n = 49 ) . although in the direction predicted , this difference was not significant ( mann - whitney u test , u = 111 . 5 , p = . 14 ) .
territories that were immigrated to tended to have more foraging substrate volume , but not necessarily more total area , than the territories from which the same birds emigrated ( table 1 ) . no birds voluntarily moved to territories with less area or foraging substrate than their prior territory .
we focused attention on song output at three sites containing favored ( removed birds replaced ) and not favored ( removed birds not replaced ) adjacent territories ( table 2 ) . there was no clear difference in song output on favored and unfavored territories ( wilcoxon , n = 6 , z = 0 . 52 , p = . 60 for males ; n = 6 , z = 0 . 11 , p = . 91 for females ) .
two territories were abandoned by antbirds when they were reduced . on one , ≈ 30 % of the habitat was bulldozed , and on the other after underbrush was cleared . a pair of antbirds resettled in the first territory , which was vacant from january , 1992 , until march , 1993 , after the vegetation recovered ; the second was not reoccupied .
our results describe a mating system in which the individuals are always paired but readily abandon a territory to move to a better one . on some territories , birds left at the rate of one per two years ( figure 3 ) . the territory switching system is characterized by gender equality , with both males and females capable of defending territories alone after mate desertion and attracting mates . males and females were equally likely to leave territories and mates and did so independently , not as pairs . thus mate abandonment is an important aspect of territory switching and , as a consequence , the evolution of cooperation between pair members is unlikely because the benefits of switching must be greater than those attained by maintaining long - term pairbonds . indeed , we found no evidence of pair cooperation in territorial defense ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ; see also freed , 1987 ) .
birds cannot leave their current territories to assess other territories by exploring them ( morton and derrickson , 1996 ) . nonetheless , birds appeared to switch to territories that had more foraging substrate though not always to larger ones ( table 1 ) . we found no support for the idea that song output during the dawn chorus might affect decisions to switch ( table 2 ) .
further work on territory switching should focus on other factors . we do not know if the quality of a mate affects territory switching . some pairs remained together on the same territory for long periods of time , even when experimental removals provided opportunities to switch , whereas other pairs broke up often . reproductive success , however , was so low ( 8 % per year ) that no territory had more than one successful nest and many had no reproductive success during the 8 years of the study ( morton and stutchbury , in press ) . switching territories did not enhance annual reproductive success . territory switching may evolve when successful reproduction occurs rarely in an individual ' s lifetime . under this condition , selection favors a long reproductive lifespan as the primary means to achieve any reproductive success .
we thank ron ydenberg and two anonymous referees for helpful comments on the manuscript and the smithsonian tropical research institute for logistical support in panama . students from the ontario field course program helped gather song data . stan and pat rand graciously made us feel at home and provided transporation over the years in panama . research was conducted under permits issued by the instituto nacional recursos naturales renovables ( now unam ) . research was supported by grants from the smithsonian institution scholarly studies program , friends of the national zoo , and the natural sciences and engineering research council of canada .
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