a sea louse ( plural sea lice ) is a member of a family of small crustaceans within the order siphonostomatoida , the caligidae .

there are around 559 species in 37 genera , including approximately 162 lepeophtheirus and 268 caligus species .

sea lice are marine ectoparasites ( external parasites ) that feed on the mucus , epidermal tissue , and blood of host marine fish .

this article focuses on the genera lepeophtheirus and caligus which parasitize marine fish , in particular those species that have been recorded on farmed salmon .

lepeophtheirus salmonis and various caligus species are adapted to saltwater and are major ectoparasites of farmed and wild atlantic salmon .

several antiparasitic drugs have been developed for control purposes .

since l. salmonis is the major sea louse of concern and is the best understood in the areas of its biology and interactions with its salmon host , this review will focus on this species .

caligus rogercresseyi has become a major parasite of concern on salmon farms in chile , and studies are under way to gain a better understanding of the parasite and the host-parasite interactions .

recent evidence is also emerging that l. salmonis in the atlantic has sufficient genetic differences from l. salmonis from the pacific , suggesting that atlantic and pacific l. salmonis may have independently co-evolved with atlantic and pacific salmonids , respectively .

sea louse

sea trout are highly susceptible to sea louse infestations , with susceptibility decreasing with distance from marine salmon farms .
morton a . b , williams r . first report of a sea louse ,
this is a colour photograph of a sea louse ( ' natatolana woodjonesi ' ) .
mixture toxicity effects of sea louse control agents in daphnia magna . - pubmed - ncbi
a marine cousin of the wood - louse , the speckled sea louse is commonly found on sandy beaches along the coasts of western europe .
sea louse abundance over time on atlantic salmon on named salmon farms in the discovery islands .
towards selective breeding of atlantic salmon for sea louse resistance : approaches to identify trait markers .
wild salmon fishing interests indirectly by reducing overall sea louse numbers – a significant political issue .
sea - louse parasites on juvenile wild salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , canada .
mordue aj , birkett ma . a review of host finding behaviour in the parasitic sea louse ,
ireland - irish scientists have had promising results in the search for a vaccine against sea louse .
johnson sc , blaylock rb , elphick j , hyatt kd . disease induced by the sea louse (
, a southern hemisphere sea louse affecting farmed fish . plos pathogens 10 ( 10 ) : e1004494 .
beck engineering develops a ground breaking method for reducing the sea lice infestation in the salmon breeding industry . photo sequence of laser targeting a sea louse .
a review of host finding behaviour in the parasitic sea louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis ( caligidae : copepoda ) .
the tiny sea louse hit two of the world’s biggest producers as norway and scotland both reported severe problems .
aquaporin family genes exhibit developmentally - regulated and host - dependent transcription patterns in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi .
deltamethrin and cypermethrin are a pyrethroids used in sea louse control . deltamethrin is the active ingredient in alphamax® .
fraser nl . sea - cage aquaculture , sea lice , and declines of wild fish .
sea trout salmo trutta a sea going fish of which a freshwater form is brown trout .
towards selective breeding of atlantic salmon for sea louse resistance : approaches to identify trait markers . - pubmed - ncbi
helgesen ko , bravo s , sevatdal s , mendoza j , horsberg te . deltamethrin resistance in the sea louse
sea - louse parasites on juvenile wild salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , canada . - pubmed - ncbi
“the project will have important implications as to what the most efficient sea louse control strategies are for scotland and ireland . ”
a picture of the sea louse that plague salmon . photograph : getty images , eleanor cunningham , pablo rojas / ucd .
salmon are reared in cages in sea lochs . thousands of fish grow and fatten in these inshore waters . no surprise , perhaps that they can fall prey to parasites - among them , the sea louse , a marine cousin of the wood louse .
a review of host finding behaviour in the parasitic sea louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis ( caligidae : copepoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi
aquaporin family genes exhibit developmentally - regulated and host - dependent transcription patterns in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi . - pubmed - ncbi
evidence for the induction of key components of the notch signaling pathway via deltamethrin and azamethiphos treatment in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi .
marine harvest canada ( mhc ) is the only salmon farm company to report sea louse average abundance ; raw sea louse data were not reported publicly at the time of our study . we used average caligus clemensi abundance and l . salmonis motile abundance provided online to estimate sea louse trends on six mhc farms in the discovery islands during 2007–2008 ; sea louse data were not provided for the other 12 farms operating in the region . for periods without reported information , we calculated average abundance using the previous and subsequent values .
orr c . estimated sea louse egg production from marine harvest canada farmed atlantic salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , 2003–2004 .
wild salmonids and sea louse infestations on the west coast of scotland : sources of infection and implications for the management of marine salmon farms .
sea louse management has evolved considerably in recent years , but there are concerns about the reliance on a handful of key medicines . although there have been notable improvements in louse management strategies in recent years , challenges remain if wild salmon and sea trout stocks are to be effectively protected . the use of wrasse may be an important option in integrated louse management regimes .
sea lice on a juvenile salmon . the sea louse on the back of the salmon is a fully mature , motile , adult female , and thus the most lethal . photo courtesy of alexandra morton .
the researchers have been studying the behaviour of the speckled sea louse , examples of which were collected from a beach near bangor in north wales .
despite this , and being removed from its natural environment , the speckled sea louse continued to swim every 12 . 4 hours for many days .
orr c . estimated sea louse egg production from marine harvest canada farmed atlantic salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , 2003 - 2004 .
identification and functional expression of a glutamate - and avermectin - gated chloride channel from caligus rogercresseyi , a southern hemisphere sea louse affecting farmed fish .
life cycle of the salmon louse lepeophtheirus salmonis ( redrawn from johnson , 1998 ) .
attached louse is encapsulated by the coho ( milky white mass on the fin ) .
the parameter for sea louse - induced mortality of chum salmon , c , was not significantly different from zero for all forms of the sea louse covariate , l a , t + 1 ( equation ( 2 . 1 ) ) . ( likelihood ratio tests with the null model showed no improvement with the inclusions of the sea louse covariate . results for different age - at - return scenarios are provided in the electronic supplementary material , table s4 . )
in association with industry , an extensive database has been established on measurements of sea louse counts on farmed atlantic salmon for the years 1996 to 2000 from 33 scottish fish farms . these data include extensive counts on the sea louse species , lepeophtheirus salmonis , at various stages of the life cycle and in particular the chalimus and mobile stages . there has been considerable speculation as to what factors might affect the abundance of sea lice , much of which is based on limited evidence . our analyses show that there is tremendous variation in sea louse infestation patterns from year to year , whereas stock type , geographical region and coastal exposure do not appear to affect mean levels of abundance . in contrast , treatments lead to pronounced cycles of sea louse infestation with peaks and troughs at 3 - week intervals , and these interventions are important if the sea louse levels on fish are to be controlled . there was no evidence of water temperature affecting the mean annual abundance of sea louse infestation .
molecular characterization and knock - down of salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) prostaglandin e synthase .
jakob e , sweeten t , bennett w , jones srm . development of the salmon louse
and in whole - body louse homogenate . j parasitol . 2000 ; 86 : 1199–205 .
evidence for the induction of key components of the notch signaling pathway via deltamethrin and azamethiphos treatment in the sea louse caligus ro . . . - pubmed - ncbi
deltamethrin resistance in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi ( boxhall and bravo ) in chile : bioassay results and usage data for antiparasitic agents with references to norwegian conditions .
jones s , kim e , bennett w . early development of resistance to the salmon louse ,
surveillance of the sensitivity towards antiparasitic bath - treatments in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) .
winning norwegian - german anti - louse system cleans up farmed salmon ; unusual job for jenoptik .
fraser nl ( 2009 ) sea - cage aquaculture , sea lice , and declines of wild fish . cons biol 23 : 599–607 .
for salmon and sea trout , the burden of sea lice is now recognized as a strong predictor of mortality in areas with farms .
wild salmonids and sea louse infestations on the west coast of scotland : sources of infection and implications for the management of marine salmon . . . - pubmed - ncbi
deltamethrin resistance in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi ( boxhall and bravo ) in chile : bioassay results and usage data for antiparasitic agen . . . - pubmed - ncbi
the sea lice spread to migrating juvenile wild salmon , resulting in the highest numbers of sea lice observed on wild salmon in a decade .
the present invention relates to sea lice , more particularly to an apparatus and method for the localization and removal of sea lice from fish .
response of the sea louse lepeophtheirus salmonis infestation levels on juvenile wild pink , oncorhynchus gorbuscha , and chum , o . keta , salmon to arrival of parasitized wild adult pink salmon
the life stages of lepeophtheirus salmonis , the sea louse most commonly found on salmon . their life cycle is 7 - 8 weeks . image from university of prince edward island .
i think there is mounting evidence that this species of sea louse that everyone ' s ignoring . . . this species could have real impacts on our wild sockeye .
) . upon sampling , each louse was individually snap - frozen in liquid nitrogen for gene expression profiling .
increased understanding of all aspects of the biology of sea lice , which has led to better tools for identification of sea lice , is facilitating the development of increasingly effective integrated louse management strategies and may lead to the development of an effective vaccine in future .
) , which are sympatric with the juvenile salmon . juvenile salmon begin marine life without sea lice infections because sea lice rapidly die in fresh water (
firstly , the speckled sea - louse evolved many millions of years before mammals and represents a simplified model system that we can use to help understand the clocks of more complex animals .
the covariate l a , t + 1 is an estimate of parasite exposure for populations in area a and year t + 1 when juvenile chum salmon from brood year t enter the ocean and migrate past salmon farms . we investigated two different forms of this covariate ( see the electronic supplementary material , table s2 ) . first , we summed the number of adult female sea lice in april on all farmed salmon in the vicinity of the juvenile salmon migration route ( see the electronic supplementary material , figure s1 ) . for years 2000–2002 , some of these salmon farms did not report sea louse abundances , and so we estimated these abundances under four different scenarios ( f 1 –f 4 [ 18 ] ) . the second form of the covariate was the average number of attached sea lice ( copepodid , chalimus and motile stages ) per juvenile wild pink and chum salmon [ 31 ] . owing to the absence of data for sea louse abundances on farmed and wild salmon in the 1990s [ 24 , 31 ] , brood years 1990–1998 for the farm sea louse covariates and 1990–1999 for the wild sea louse covariate were excluded from the analysis . we tested the significance of the sea louse covariate using a likelihood ratio test with the null model c = 0 indicating no correlation between sea louse abundance and chum salmon productivity . we performed a retrospective power analysis to determine our power to detect an effect of sea lice if an effect indeed existed . details on how we calculated the sea louse covariates and the power analysis are provided in the electronic supplementary material .
this story was corrected on 31 march . it previously suggested that all norwegian fjords were on the north sea coast . many are on the norwegian sea .
molecular characterization and knock - down of salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) prostaglandin e synthase . - pubmed - ncbi
and their results suggest that the fish do not simply reject the louse , but actually might be killing them .
the diminutive speckled sea louse ( eurydice pulchra ) boasts two body clocks , one for night and day and another for the ebb and flow of the tide , according to research published today .
the scottish salmon industry has decided to commission new research after calling into question sepa’s decision to cut back on the use of the sea louse treatment emamectin benzoate ( slice ) by 60 percent .
morton a , routledge r , peet c , ladwig a . sea lice (
2011 study says wild salmon sea lice linked to b . c . fish farms
is the estimated mortality of chum salmon due to sea lice . residual variation ,
the team behind a project that aims to improve the health of farmed sea bass and sea bream in the mediterranean has launched an discussion forum on sparicotylosis today .
nmbu school of veterinary science , sea lice research centre , oslo , norway .
atlantic salmon salmo salar , the fish farmed in cages in scottish sea lochs .
emamectin benzoate an avermectin therapeutant sold as slice® for the control of sea lice .
south skye lochs sea lochs : loch scavaig , loch slapin and loch eishort .
morphology and pathology of the ectoparasitic copepod , nicothoë astaci ( ‘lobster louse’ ) in the european lobster , homarus gammarus .
] . furthermore , coevolution of the pacific louse subspecies with pacific salmon for between 4 . 6 and 11 ma [
a method for stable gene knock - down by rna interference in larvae of the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) .
surveillance of the sensitivity towards antiparasitic bath - treatments in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) . - pubmed - ncbi
characterization of a novel rxr receptor in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis , copepoda ) regulating growth and female reproduction .
lepeophtheirus salmonis , a type of sea louse specific to salmonids ( salmon , trout and char ) , is a natural parasite of saltwater salmon , and is present in all sea areas in the northern hemisphere . the salmon louse is the commonest parasite in farmed salmon , and is a persistent problem in the fish farming industry . the scale of the problem has increased substantially with the growing prevalence of fish farming . the more farmed fish there are in the sea , the more “hosts” there are for the lice to attach themselves to . and that means more louse eggs spreading in the water .
orr c ( 2007 ) estimated sea louse egg production from marine harvest canada farmed atlantic salmon in the broughton archipelago , british columbia , 2003 - 2004 . n am j fish manage 27 : 187–197 .
what i hope is that we could start considering this species of sea louse that actually infects our wild juvenile sockeye salmon when making parasite management decisions on salmon farms along the sockeye migration route .
otherwise known as lepeophtheirus salmonis , the distant cousin of the wood louse feed on the blood and tissue of the salmon .
include a th2 - type response at the louse - salmon interface . dev comp immunol . 2015 ; 48 : 178–91 .
bravo s , treasurer j , sepulveda m , lagos c . effectiveness of hydrogen peroxide in the control of caligus rogercresseyi in chile and implications for sea louse management . aquaculture . 2010 ; 303 : 22–7 .
costello m . j . ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish .
many factors including breed , location and immune status will affect susceptibility to sea lice .
to sea lice infection . this parameter distinguishes our model from the original model of revie
pike aw , wadsworth sl . sea lice on salmonids : their biology and control .
stingray optical delousing systems have to date been installed at 24 locations in three countries . overall results from all locations show lower louse abundance . by continuously reducing adult sea louse numbers , a preventative effect on louse build up is observed . to date over 30 000 tons of laser treated fish have been harvested with no signs of ill effects due to the treatment . generally , fish welfare is expected to be improved through less handling of the animals and reduced treatment interventions .
there were dozens of c . clemensi louse on each of those fish , but those figures wouldn ' t have triggered treatment .
since there are no vaccines available to protect against aquatic parasites , researchers are using successful terrestrial parasite vaccines as a model for sea louse vaccine development . one of the most successful anti - parasite vaccines to date is the tickgard™ vaccine , which utilises a gut - derived protein from ticks to protect cattle from infestation ( willadsen et al , 1995 ) . several vaccine trials using sea louse homologues of tick antigens have been performed with some success .
slcr - sea lice research centre , institute of marine research , 5817 bergen , norway .
legend : all morphometric and abiotic values represent the mean , except sea lice infection rates .
krkosek m . sea lice and salmon in pacific canada : ecology and policy . front .
gottesfeld as , proctor b , rolston ld , carr - harris c . sea lice ,
larval abundance in a sea loch on the west coast of scotland between 2002 and 2006 .
slcr - sea lice research center , institute of marine research , 5817 bergen , norway .
sea lice research centre , department of biology , university of bergen , bergen , norway .
sea lice belong to the copepod family , and are found naturally throughout the northern hemisphere .
dichlorvos® an organophosphate ( very nasty compounds ) previously used in the control of sea lice .
ingvarsdóttir a , birkett m , duce i , genna rl , mordue w , pickett j , et al . semiochemical strategies for sea louse control : host location cues . pest manag sci . 2002 ; 58 : 537–45 .
salmon farms do have measures to monitor and control one species of sea louse , but nearly all the lice found on this study ' s juvenile salmon were a different species — which isn ' t targeted in current measures .
the differing host responses to the salmon louse suggest that there are also host - specific parasite responses . behavioural studies indicate a preference of
the fall of 2014 did have a healthy return of adult pink salmon , bringing sea lice into near - shore waters where they could infect farmed salmon . high ocean temperatures during winter months then likely accelerated sea - louse development , enabling populations to grow quickly and reach higher numbers than they would under normal ocean temperatures .
laser delousing efficiency on a commercial scale has been tested in a long term trial in norway against delousing efficiency of cleanerfish . in 15 weeks of trial , one anti - louse treatment per pen could be avoided through the use of the stingray laser . overall sea louse abundance was lower in laser pens ( 21 % ) and adult female louse abundance was lowered by 8 % , on top of avoiding 50 % of anti - louse treatments in the trial period . the treatment intervention period , i . e . the time span between required treatments , has been increased from 6 . 5 weeks to 11 . 5 weeks ( figure 2 ) .
biological control has also been investigated , in a search for feeder species such as wrasse ( natural predator ) which may decrease louse numbers .
a method for stable gene knock - down by rna interference in larvae of the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) . - pubmed - ncbi
characterization of a novel rxr receptor in the salmon louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis , copepoda ) regulating growth and female reproduction . - pubmed - ncbi
include a th2 - type response at the louse - salmon interface . dev comp immunol . 2015 ; 48 ( 1 ) : 178–91 .
l . ) in the norwegian sea and adjacent areas . ices j mar sci 57 : 955–964
canada - sea lice found in the pacific ocean are very different genetically from sea lice in the atlantic ocean , a study team co - led by a university of victoria researcher has found .
bravo s . sea lice in chilean salmon farms . aquaculture . 2003 ; 23 : 197–200 .
regulators by offering a product to reduce the use of current costly and controversial sea lice controls .
helgesen ko , horsberg te . single - dose field bioassay for sensitivity testing in sea lice ,
stingray marine describes optical delousing thus : “optical sea lice treatment s a concept within the aquaculture ( fish - farming ) industry that has developed from an amazing idea into a concrete reality . by combining camera vision , advanced software and laser treatment , we can remove even an individual sea louse from the fish in a gentle and efficient way .
morphology and pathology of the ectoparasitic copepod , nicothoë astaci ( ‘lobster louse’ ) in the european lobster , homarus gammarus . | ed pope - urltoken
‘they are everywhere now , and just a few can kill a fish’ … the lepeophtheirus salmonis , or the common salmon louse . photograph : alamy
stingray marine solutions as ( sms ) has designed a novel delousing method using a platform called the
stingray
. the need for a continuous , non - invasive , technological solution has been recognized to control the sea louse situation on farmed atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) ( aaen , et al . , 2015 ) . in norway a sea louse control guidelines are based on the number of sea lice in the adult female stage which infect a fish . this
trigger level
is fixed at 0 . 5 adult female lice per fish . the stingray platform aims at keeping louse levels below this trigger level , which , when exceeding , will require an anti - louse treatment to be carried out . the platform is a vision based system which optically identifies sea lice , lepeophtheirus salmonis , on farmed salmon . lice are removed through a guided laser pulse ; a method referred to as optical delousing . the stingray system detects and targets all stages from pre - adult i ♀ and pre adult ii ♂ up to adult male and adult female , thus creating a top - down control of the louse life cycle .
this , the researchers argue , provides incontrovertible evidence that the speckled sea louse possesses two separate and independent body clocks , the circadian which follows the night and day cycle , and the tidal clock which runs on a 12 . 4 hour cycle .
a juvenline sockeye salmon with sea lice . a new study says treatment by the b . c . salmon farmers ' association doesn ' t target the c . clemensi species of louse , although the authors say it should . ( alexandra morton )
bjorn pa , finstad b . the physiological effects of salmon lice infection on sea trout post smolts .
beck engineering develops a ground breaking method for reducing the sea lice infestation in the salmon breeding industry .
the stingray laser platform has been proven effective at controlling and slowing sea louse recruitment on farmed atlantic salmon in commercial operations . the system is autonomous and automated , effectively reducing work required for fish farmers . a reduction of louse abundance as well as a reduction of treatment interventions was observed in the trial , leading to improved animal welfare , better louse control and lower costs . the system can be used alongside any other treatment types , but is currently consider one of the gentlest delousing methods available ( svåsand , et al . , 2016 ) .
the characteristics of the transcriptomic response to atlantic salmon suggest increased parasite fitness . host blood is a main dietary component of the adult female salmon louse [
mixed - effects modelling showed some variation in results depending on louse species . position relative to farms was consistently significant in all models for total abundance of
because farm - source sea lice accounted for 98 % of the variability in wild salmon sea lice prevalence from 2002 to 2009 and sea lice were sometimes common on farmed atlantic salmon during the 1990s , farm - source sea lice probably infested juvenile pink salmon many years before they were first examined for sea lice in 2001 ( 1 ) . as evidence , we show that sea lice were abundant on farm fish in 2000 ( fig . 1 ) . before 2000 , farm fish sea lice were usually not quantified , but infestations were common enough that sea lice treatment options were investigated in the early 1990s ( 28 ) , and publicly available records confirm that those treatments were used as early as 1996 ( figure 25 at urltoken ) . no evidence exists to indicate that sea lice are not moving through net cages in both directions between farm and wild fish ( 16 ) , and net cages have not changed over the past two decades .
a new species of chondracanthus ( cyclopoida : chondracanthidae ) parasitic on deep - sea dibranchus spon . . .
) salmon . pathog : wild farmed fish sea lice . ellis horwood ; 1993 . p . 68–82 .
sea lice attach themselves to salmon and feed on them , killing or rendering them unsuitable for dinner tables .
no reviews were found for optical delousing ( optical sea lice treatment ) . be the first to review !
heumann j , carmichael s , bron je , tildesley a , sturm a . molecular cloning and characterisation of a novel p - glycoprotein in the salmon louse
holm h , santi n , kjøglum s , perisic n , skugor s , evensen ø . difference in skin immune responses to infection with salmon louse (
the sea louse generation time is around 8 - 9 weeks at 6°c , 6 weeks at 9°c and 4 weeks at 18°c . the lifespan of the adult under natural conditions has not been determined but under laboratory conditions , females have lived for up to 210 days .
ingvarsdóttir a ; birkett ma ; duce i ; genna rl ; mordue w ; pickett ja ; wadhams lj ; mordue aj , 2002 . semiochemical strategies for sea louse control : host location cues . pest management science , 58 ( 6 ) : 537 - 545 .
sea lice ( family caligidae ) are among the most notorious pests affecting cultured marine fishes . the best - known representatives of this group are those infesting caged salmonids . sea lice infestations in salmon farms in . . .
the prediction of higher sea louse abundance on chum salmon ( figure 4 b ) was supported by data from a long - term monitoring programme of sea lice on juvenile salmon in the broughton archipelago . we found higher average numbers of copepodid and chalimus sea lice on juvenile chum salmon than on pink salmon caught in the same sample ( see the electronic supplementary material , table s5 ) . numbers of motile sea lice did not differ significantly between host species , but motiles are known to move among hosts in search of mates [ 49 ] or when their host is attacked by a predator [ 50 ] .
hwa tk , 1965 . studies on the life cycle of a fish louse ( caligus orientalis gussev ) . acta zoologica sinica , 17 : 48 - 63 .
the price of salmon is set to leap because of tiny sea lice that are decimating stocks around the world .
two species of sea lice off that live off the west coast are c . clemensi and l . salmonis .
krkosek m , lewis ma , volpe jp . transmission dynamics of parasitic sea lice from farm to wild salmon .
mackinnon bm ( 1998 ) host factors important in sea lice infections . ices j mar sci 55 : 188–192 .
l . , post - smolts on a west of ireland sea site . j fish dis 31 : 913–920 .
grant an . medicines for sea lice . pest manag sci . 2002 ; 58 ( 6 ) : 521–7 .
) . ectoparasites exist in all salinity levels from fresh water to sea water and affect many different fish species .
glover et al . ( 2004 ) found that the strain of atlantic salmon also influenced louse burdens : individuals of the wild dale strain , when kept in tanks with four other stocks and then challenged with l . salmonis , had significantly lower louse density than did two other stocks ( wild vosso and farm 2 strains ) .
grayson th ; john rj ; wadsworth s ; greaves k ; cox d ; roper j ; wrathmell ab ; gilpin ml ; harris je , 1995 . immunization of atlantic salmon against the salmon louse : identification of antigens and effects on louse fecundity . journal of fish biology , 47 ( suppa ) : 85 - 94 .
caligid sea lice are ectoparasites causing major disease problems in industrial salmon farming . sea louse control currently relies widely on parasiticides . among non - target species , crustaceans are particularly susceptible to salmon delousing agents . drug combinations have recently been suggested for sea louse control ; however , no information is available on the non - target effects of such mixtures . to obtain first insights into combination effects of salmon parasiticides , acute toxicity tests with the crustacean model species daphnia magna were conducted . four compounds , including two organophosphates and two pyrethroids , were tested individually and in all pair - wise combinations at one fixed concentration ratio . for most combinations , observed toxicities were close to predictions assuming concentration additivity . however , deltamethrin and cypermethrin showed greater than predicted combination effects , while the inverse was observed for deltamethrin and malathion . the results demonstrate combination effects of anti - sea louse agents and suggest that predictions based on concentration additivity are in most cases protective .
citation : price mhh , proboszcz sl , routledge rd , gottesfeld as , orr c , reynolds jd ( 2011 ) sea louse infection of juvenile sockeye salmon in relation to marine salmon farms on canada ' s west coast . plos one 6 ( 2 ) : e16851 . urltoken
glover ka ; hamre la ; skaala o ; nilsen f , 2004 . a comparison of sea louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) infection levels in farmed and wild atlantic salmon ( salmo salar l . ) stocks . aquaculture , 232 ( 1 / 4 ) : 41 - 52 .
there was no evidence of reduced productivity of chum salmon populations exposed to sea louse infestations on farmed salmon ( see the electronic supplementary material , figures s2 and s3 ) . the model fit was not improved by including a sea louse covariate ( table 1 ) . populations exposed to salmon farms showed no obvious declines in productivity associated with either the expansion of salmon farming ca 1990 or sea louse infestations ( 1999–2005 ; figure 1 ) . these results were consistent across all age - at - return scenarios that we considered ( see the electronic supplementary material , table s4 ) . we found significant covariation among populations within our study region in each year , within populations , conservation units and within management area each year , as indicated by an improvement of the model when all random effects were included ( see the electronic supplementary material , figure s4 ) .
sea lice are the most common parasite on farmed salmon , and the biggest health issue for the industry . for a number of years , oral and bath treatments have been used to combat sea lice . our monitoring of sea lice shows that their numbers are increasing noticeably , and that in some cases they are developing resistance to the favoured treatment .
johnson s . c , kent m . l . sea lice . in : kent m . l , editor .
variation of atlantic salmon families ( salmo salar l . ) in susceptibility to the sea lice lepeophtheirus salmonis and caligus elongatus
marty gd , saksida sm , quinn tj . relationship of farm salmon , sea lice , and wild salmon populations .
tully o , gargan p , poole wr , whelan kf . spatial and temporal variation in the infestation of sea trout
the scottish spca has elected ronnie soutar , head of veterinary services at scottish sea farms , as its new chairperson .
costello mj ( 2006 ) ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish . trends parasitol 22 : 475–483 .
this research has been funded by the research council norway , sfi - sea lice research centre , grant number 20351 .
citation : lhorente jp , gallardo ja , villanueva b , carabaño mj , neira r ( 2014 ) disease resistance in atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) : coinfection of the intracellular bacterial pathogen piscirickettsia salmonis and the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi . plos one 9 ( 4 ) : e95397 . urltoken
the ability of the sea louse to immunomodulate its host offers another source of potential vaccine candidates . it is believed that , like ticks , the lice secrete immunomodulatory proteins which adapt the salmon’s immune response for the parasite’s benefit . it is possible that these could be exploited for vaccine development .
protein was significantly overexpressed in the feeding salmon louse transcriptome , and most highly by parasites feeding on atlantic salmon . saposin - like proteins ( saplips ) have been described from
: characterization of prostaglandin e ( 2 ) in secretory products of the salmon louse by rp - hplc and mass spectrometry . exp parasitol . 2004 ; 107 : 5–13 .
sea lice are the most common parasite on farmed salmon , and the biggest health issue for the industry . for a number of years , oral and bath treatments have been used to combat sea lice . our monitoring of sea lice shows that their numbers are increasing noticeably , and that in some cases they are developing resistance to the favoured treatment .
sea lice can latch on to salmon , eat their skin and blood , and cause infections . anglers and conservation groups highlight the deadly menace these sea lice can pose to wild salmon stocks as they move to and from their spawning grounds .
the sea louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis ) is a globally acknowledged challenge for salmon farming operations and a considerable amount of resources are being expended to manage this pest . chemo - therapeutants and animal husbandry practices have been traditionally used to keep these parasites under control , but there are now signs that sea lice may be becoming resistant to many of the chemicals that are being used and recent studies have shown that some of these chemicals are lethal to non - target organisms . consequently , many non - chemical alternative treatments for sea lice controls are being tested such as predators ( cleanerfish ) , traps ( either physical or biological ) and physical exclusion devices ( nets , electrical fields ) . one of the more promising techniques being developed to remove sea lice from captive salmon is the use of warm water . recent canadian innovations have developed a warm water shower which appears to remove all attached stages of sea lice and also prevents the detached sea lice individuals from being returned to the ocean . this project aims to develop protocols for the best application of the warm water shower technique to safely and effectively remove sea lice from atlantic salmon , including an understanding of the mechanism involved in sea lice removal using warm water . results of the project are expected to provide the required information for ongoing modification of the commercial sea lice warm water shower device , as well as inform sea lice management strategies .
the sea louse ( lepeophtheirus salmonis and caligus elongatus ) is known to significantly impact farmed salmonids ( salmon ) worldwide . there is growing concern that sea lice populations may be further amplified and transmitted through the presence of intermediate hosts near salmon farms . it has been suggested that non - salmonid species could be acting as sea lice reservoirs for future infections and / or could act as predictors for infection rates in wild and farmed fish in subsequent years . atlantic salmon aquaculture in the coast of bays region of newfoundland and labrador has rapidly expanded , but very little is known on the basic ecology and seasonal cycles of sea lice within the bays . however , many species of marine fish are known to frequent the areas around cage sites , which could be contributing to sea lice infections .
we raise them on a special fish food . initially we were concerned that they might not adapt to a sea lice diet , but we found that when they have a choice , they prefer the sea lice every time . when wrasse are mixed with salmon , the stocking level is 2 % - so one wrasse can protect fifty salmon from sea lice .
maldonado - aguayo w , chávez - mardones j , gonçalves at , gallardo - escárate c . cathepsin gene family reveals transcriptome patterns related to the infective stages of the salmon louse
in spring of 2015 , a team of u of t ecologists led by postdoctoral researchers andrew bateman and stephanie peacock found that more than 70 per cent of fish the team sampled in the strait ' s broughton archipelago had at least one sea louse : the highest prevalence of such parasites since 2005 .
mortality rates for juvenile pink oncorhynchus gorbuscha and chum o . keta salmon infested with sea lice lepeophtheirus salmonis in the broughton archipelago
costello mj ( 2006 ) ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish . trends in para 22 : 475–483 .
costello mj . ecology of sea lice parasitic on farmed and wild fish . trends parasitol . 2006 ; 22 : 475–83 .
lepeophtheirus salmonis , commonly known as sea lice or salmon lice , are marine copepods that infest salmon and trout . sea lice feed on host epidermis , musculature and blood , causing damage to host surface tissues that can lead to osmoregulatory stress [ 8 ] , expose hosts to secondary infections [ 9 ] and cause host behavioural changes [ 6 ] or death [ 10 , 11 ] . sea louse infestations may also have ecological impacts on wild salmon , particularly juveniles , as infested individuals have compromised schooling [ 6 ] and swimming abilities [ 12 , 13 ] and may be unable to complete migrations or evade predators [ 6 ] . juvenile salmon experience very high predation rates during early marine life [ 14 , 15 ] , suggesting that the effects of parasitism on predator–prey interactions may be important for evaluating the consequences of sea louse infestations on salmon population dynamics .
however , what has emerged as a larger issue in this commingling of species is the increase in sea lice l . salmonis found on juvenile wild salmon migrating through areas near salmon farms , whose crowded conditions provide an ideal breeding ground for sea lice .
nagasawa k , 2004 . sea lice , lepeophtheirus salmonis and caligus orientalis ( copepoda : caligidae ) , of wild and farmed fish in sea and brackish waters of japan and adjacent regions : a review . zoological studies , 43 : 173 - 178 .
infection with the sea louse c . rogercresseyi , as a secondary pathogen , reduces the resistance of atlantic salmon to the pathogen p . salmonis . resistance to coinfection of piscirickettsia salmonis and caligus rogercresseyi in atlantic salmon is a heritable trait . the absence of a genetic correlation between the resistance to single infection and that to coinfection indicates that different genes control these processes . further studies are necessary to investigate the effects of coinfection when the sea louse is the primary pathogen . it is clear that coinfection of different pathogens and resistance to coinfection needs to be considered in future research on salmon farming , selective breeding and conservation .
annual changes in the population size of the salmon louse lepeophtheirus salmonis ( copepoda : caligidae ) on high - seas pacific salmon ( oncorhynchus spp . ) , and relationship to host abundance
we acknowledge constructive discussion with members of the salmon louse research centre ( slrc ) and institute of marine research , in particular the assistance on data analysis from mette skern - mauritzen .
also in 2015 , individual salmon farms did not coordinate anti - louse treatments , with some farms delaying treatment until just prior to the time when juvenile salmon migrate past farms . as a result , sea lice from those farms could have spread to adjacent farms , hampering area - wide control of the outbreak .
helgesen ko , bravo s , sevatdal s , mendoza j , horsberg te . deltamethrin resistance in the sea louse caligus rogercresseyi ( boxhall & bravo ) in chile : bioassay results and usage data for antiparasitic agents with references to norwegian conditions . j fish dis . 2014 ; 37 ( 10 ) : 877–90 .
pike aw , wadsworth sl ( 2000 ) sea lice on salmonids : their biology and control . adv para 44 : 234–337 .
larval abundance in a sea loch on the west coast of scotland between 2002 and 2006 . dis aquat org 81 : 109–117 .
slcr - sea lice research centre , department of biology , university of bergen , thormøhlensgt . 55 , 5008 bergen , norway .
pike aw , wadsworth sl ( 1999 ) sea lice on salmonids : their biology and control . adv parasitol 44 : 223–337 .
slcr - sea lice research center , department of biology , university of bergen , thormøhlensgt . 55 , 5008 bergen , norway .
sedimentation the cause of smothering ( on the sea bed ) by particulate matter e . g . fish farm fall - out .
parasites are generally considered a villainous guild , causing host morbidity and mortality . however , we hypothesized that in certain situations , the net effect of parasitism on hosts may be nullified or possibly positive when considering indirect effects of parasites on predator–prey interactions within a multi - host community . for communities of juvenile salmon , the physiological impact of sea louse parasitism has been well studied [ 8 ] , and both pink and chum salmon in captivity show decreased survival with as few as one attached sea louse [ 10 , 11 ] . multi - year studies of pink salmon population abundance data indicate that the net impact of sea louse infestations on pink salmon is probably negative [ 18 ] , suggesting that direct parasite - induced mortality translates to reduced productivity of affected populations for pink salmon . however , our analysis of chum salmon population abundance data suggests the existence of an ecological mechanism that confers resilience to chum salmon populations despite the direct effects of infestations on host individuals . indirect ecological effects of sea lice on salmon predator–prey interactions may be a key determinant of host survival . sea louse parasites are known to increase the susceptibility of juvenile pink and chum salmon to predation [ 6 ] and coho predators prefer to consume pink salmon over chum salmon [ 28 ] . if infestations intensify predation on pink salmon , this may partially release chum salmon from predation , offsetting direct mortality costs of parasites on chum salmon .
ljungfeldt ler , espedal pg , nilsen f , skern - mauritzen m , glover ka . a common - garden experiment to quantify evolutionary processes in copepods : the case of emamectin benzoate resistance in the parasitic sea louse lepeophtheirus salmonis . bmc evol biol . 2014 ; 14 . artn 108 pmid : wos : 000338310800001 .
. we recorded sea surface salinity and temperature during each sampling event in both regions using a ysi - 30 sct meter . fish were immediately frozen and labeled for subsequent laboratory analyses in which individual fish were thawed and assayed for sea lice using a dissecting microscope . species of motile ( i . e . , sub - adult and adult ) stages of sea lice were directly identified by morphology
nonlinear changes in host capture rates and survival with sea lice are also worth consideration . studies of the physiological impact of sea louse infestation on salmonid smolts indicate thresholds in louse abundance below which the impact is negligible [ 45 ] . however , for studies of juvenile pink and chum salmon , the presence of thresholds depends on the size of the host [ 8 ] . for salmon less than 0 . 5 g in weight , a single sea louse can reduce swimming performance [ 13 ] , trigger measurable physiological changes [ 26 ] and cause mortality [ 10 ] . however , as juvenile salmon grow and develop scales , they can survive low levels of infestation with little effect . our study focuses on juvenile salmon in the first two to three months of their migration when they are the primary prey for coho salmon predators . during this period , they are mostly below the 0 . 5 g threshold [ 8 ] . in the absence of more detailed studies of nonlinear effects of sea lice on such small hosts , we continued with the assumption of linear increases in host mortality and capture rates with the number of attached sea lice . we explored sigmoidal responses in the electronic supplementary material , but the main results were unchanged .
neemco has developed , in collaboration with a variety of institutions , a control of ectoparasites of farmed fish . the initial work has focused on the sea louse ( lepophtheirus salmonis ) which is the scourge of farmed salmon in scotland and other countries where the fish are farmed . riddance™ is administered by inclusion in the diet .
tadiso tm , krasnov a , skugor s , afanasyev s , hordvik i , nilsen f . gene expression analyses of immune responses in atlantic salmon during early stages of infection by salmon louse (
tadiso tm , krasnov a , skugor s , afanasyev s , hordvik i , nilsen f . gene expression analyses of immune responses in atlantic salmon during early stages of infection by salmon louse (
we have demonstrated a potential role of open net - pen salmon farms in transmission of sea lice to wild juvenile sockeye salmon . most juvenile sockeye assessed for sea lice originated either in the fraser or skeena watershed , thus providing a novel comparison of sea louse infection between canada ' s largest sockeye rivers . moreover , our genetics results demonstrate a major migration corridor past farms for fish that originated in the fraser river , a complex of populations that have been the subject of concern due to declining productivity since the early 1990s , and a collapse in 2009 followed by a substantial rebound in 2010 .
krkosek m ( 2010 ) sea lice and salmon in pacific canada : ecology and policy . front . ecol environ 8 : 201–209 .
first found in the uk five years ago , both are becoming more prevalent in uk fish farms with experts blaming rising sea temperatures .
krkošek m , lewis m . a , volpe j . p . transmission dynamics of parasitic sea lice from farm to wild salmon .
“getting sea lice at such an early age affects young salmons ' health and their ability to fend off predators , ” says peacock .
boxaspen k . a review of the biology and genetics of sea lice . ices j mar sci . 2006 ; 63 : 1304–16 .
costello mj ( 2009 ) the global economic cost of sea lice to the salmonid farming industry . j fish dis 32 : 115–118 .
department of biology , sea lice research centre , university of bergen , bergen , norway . sussie . dalvin @ imr . no .
strategic considerations of moving aquaculture production to open sea sites are associated with the horizon beyond 2020 though there are implications for 2020 targets .
mustafa a ; speare dj ; daley j ; conboy ga ; burka jf , 2000 . enhanced susceptibility of seawater cultured rainbow trout , oncorhynchus mykiss ( walbaum ) , to the microsporidian loma salmonae during a primary infection with the sea louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis . journal of fish diseases , 23 ( 5 ) : 337 - 341 .
by analogy with other species of nematodes and insects , it is thought that mls act on sea louse through irreversible binding to γ - aminobutyric acid and glucl channels , causing paralysis leading to death . ivermectin resistance has been associated with mutations in glucl leading reduced ml - sensitivity in c . elegans and d . melanogaster [ 37 ] – [ 39 ] . this mechanism has not been explored in sea lice as glucl channels have not been identified molecularly in these species .
bailey rje , birkett m , ingvarsdóttir a , luntz jm , mordue w , shea bo , et al . the role of semiochemicals in host location and non - host avoidance by salmon louse (
jones m , sommerville c , wootten r . reduced sensitivity of the salmon louse , lepeophtheirus salmonis , to the organophosphate dichlorvos . j fish dis . 1992 ; 15 ( 2 ) : 197–202 .


eudonia luminatrix is a moth in the crambidae family .

it was described by meyrick in 1909 .

it is found in new zealand .

the wingspan is 19 – 22 mm .

the forewings are deep ochreous-brown , streaked with blackish on the veins .

the first and second lines are white , edged posteriorly with black suffusion .

the hindwings are whitish-fuscous tinged with brassy-yellowish .

the discal spot , postmedian line and terminal fascia are fuscous .

adults have been recorded on wing in october and november .

eudonia luminatrix

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eudonia är ett släkte av fjärilar som beskrevs av gustaf johan billberg 1820 . enligt catalogue of life ingår eudonia i familjen crambidae , men enligt dyntaxa är tillhörigheten istället fami [ . . ]
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again indebted for the material of these notes to the energetic assistance of my valued correspondents , mr . g . v . hudson , of wellington , and mr . a . philpott , of invercargill .
l . neuræ , philp . ( trans . n . z . inst . , 1904 , 330 ) , is a synonym of this species . mr . philpott kindly sent me two examples of his species , himself suggesting that it might be identical with my phaula , and this is undoubtedly the case .
mr . hudson sent me several examples of this species from the thames district . it is common and widely distributed in eastern australia , where it is undoubtedly native ; it has not been hitherto recorded from new zealand , and may perhaps have only recently succeeded in introducing itself . the species of this genus are strong and bold fliers , and can cross wide seas .
♂ ♀ . 32–37 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , partially sprinkled with brown - reddish ; thorax with an irregular transverse anterior reddish - fuscous or dark - fuscous line . abdomen whitish - ochreous sprinkled with brown - reddish , with a bar of blackish suffusion on apex of second segment , and sometimes a double dorsal series of blackish dots . forewings triangular , costa posteriorly moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen bowed , oblique , strongly waved ; pale brownish - ochreous , with numerous waved ferruginous - brown striæ , tending to be somewhat marked with black on veins and costa ; median band somewhat paler through obsolescence of striæ , limited by groups of striæ more distinctly marked with black , anterior curved , posterior rounded - prominent beneath costa and in middle , latter prominence suffused with blackish ; an oblique subapical patch of darker brown suffusion , its upper edge defined and running from above median prominence to apex : cilia pale ochreous mixed with brown - reddish , basal half sprinkled with dark fuscous . hindwings with termen rounded , irregularly waved - dentate ; colour and striæ as in forewings , but prominences of median band nearly obsolete ; a blackish discal dot ; cilia as in forewings .
invercargill , common on flowers of senecio in march ( philpott ) ; two specimens . much like gobiata , from which it may be certainly distinguished by the much more strongly waved termen of both wings ; gobiata is also rather smaller , whiter - irrorated , with straighter striæ , lower half of anterior margin of median band and oblique streak from apex forming distinct black lines . i formerly quoted butler ' s name erroneously as a synonym of gobiata .
having received two fine specimens from mr . philpott , i am satisfied it is a good species , and readily distinguished from beata by the colour of the hindwings .
notoreas fulva , huds . ( lythria fulva , huds . , trans . n . z . inst . , 1904 , 357 . )
according to two ♀ specimens communicated by mr . hudson , this species is a true notoreas .
christchurch , otira gorge , dunedin , invercargill ; from january to march , and in july ; seven specimens . i have possessed examples of this species for a long time , but did not feel sure of their status , the species being a very variable one , and allied to other variable species ; having now , however , received four very fine specimens from mr . philpott , i am satisfied that it is a good species . mr . philpott writes that it is usually confused in collections with productata ; it is , however , nearer melinata , from which it differs by the much longer antennal pectinations , less rounded termen of forewings , distinct and unusually straight white posterior fascia ,
hindwings of ♂ not tinged with fuscous towards base , and other details . s . productata is also very variable , but easily distinguished by different from of median band , of which the posterior margin is obtusely angulated rather above middle ; in fact , all the allied species could be distinguished by the form of the posterior margin of median band , which is different in each .
s . humillima , huds . , is a synonym of this species , according to specimens sent me by mr . philpott , by request of mr . hudson .
lake tekapo ; one specimen ( hudson ) . allied to s . asaleuta , but very distinct .
invercargill , common in november ( philpott ) ; three specimens . belongs to the cleodoralis group ; not very like any new zealand species , but probably related to the tasmanian plagiotis and its allies .
invercargill , in october and november ; five specimens ( philpott ) . rather variable in the development of the black and white scales . a distinct species , somewhat intermediate between legnota and epicremna .
♂ . 17–18 mm . head and thorax ferruginous - brown , face prominent , flattened - conical ; edge of collar and a spot on shoulders whitish . palpi 3 ½ , brown mixed with dark fuscous , whitish towards base beneath . antennæ dark fuscous , pubescent - ciliated ( ½ ) . abdomen dark grey . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , termen little rounded , rather oblique ; bright ferruginous - brown ; a slender median longitudinal rather irregular ochreous - whitish streak from base to termen , terminal fifth attenuated and tending to be obsolescent : cilia slaty - grey . hindwings dark - grey ; cilia pale - grey , basal third slaty - grey . under - surface dark - grey , hindwings sometimes with very slender indistinct median streak of whitish suffusion ; costal edge of hindwings whitish - yellowish ; all cilia whitish - grey .
invercargill , in january ( philpott ) ; two specimens . very close to heteranthes from mount cook , but that species is darker , median streak of forewings whiter , broader , more regular , forewings on under - surface with dorsum suffused with white , hindwings on under - surface with costa suffused with white towards base , and well - marked white median streak , cilia white towards base . possibly more extensive material may show this to be a local form of heteranthes , but at present it seems better to treat them as distinct .
♂ . 16 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ferruginous - brown , face - rounded - prominent ; palpi 4 , whitish towards base beneath . antennæ dark fuscous , pubescent - ciliated ( ¾ ) . abdomen rather dark fuscous . forewings elongate , broader than in saristes , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen straight , rather oblique , rounded beneath ; ferruginous - brown ; a moderate regular white median longitudinal streak from base to termen , somewhat edged with fuscous suffusion towards middle : cilia pale grey , with darker basal shade , on costa whitish except near apex , with a white bar on terminal extremity of median streak . hindwings dark fuscous ; cilia whitish , basal third fuscous . under - surface dark grey , forewings much suffused with yellowish towards costa and termen , on dorsum broadly whitish - yellowish , hindwings with costa rather broadly pale ochreous - yellowish , with veins suffusedly streaked with pale yellowish , especially on a median streak , all cilia whitish .
invercargill ( hudson ) ; one specimen . distinguished from the preceding by the broader forewings ; rather longer palpi and antennal ciliations , white costal cilia , extensive yellowish suffusion of under - surface , and other details .
♂ ♀ . 17–20 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous - brown , in ♀ with a broad dorsal white stripe extending through crown and thorax , face somewhat rounded - prominent ; palpi 4 , whitish beneath and more or less above , especially in ♀ . antennæ dark fuscous , in ♂ simply ciliated ( ⅓ ) . abdomen rather dark fuscous , more or less whitish on segmental margins posteriorly . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa hardly arched , apex obtuse , termen straight , rather oblique , rounded beneath ; ochreous - brown ; a moderate white median longitudinal streak from base to termen , slightly broadest in middle , in ♂ more or less edged beneath with dark - fuscous suffusion , in ♂ broadly edged with dark - fuscous suffusion on both margins except towards base above ; in ♀ a narrow irregular white suffused subcostal streak , and broad dorsal or subdorsal white streak narrowed towards base ; in ♂ a slender white streak along upper part of termen above median streak , in ♀ a broader undefined patch of white suffusion : cilia in ♂ pale grey , with a white basal streak on upper half of termen , in ♀ almost wholly white . hindwings rather dark fuscous , with a broad costal streak of whitish - ochreous suffusion from base to ⅓ ; cilia whitish - ochreous , in ♂ more or less greyishtinged , and with a grey basal line . under - surface wholly light ochreous - yellowish , forewings somewhat infuscated ; cilia ochreous - whitish .
invercargill , in december ; three specimens taken by myself , and three others received from mr . philpott . i have hitherto confused this species with æthonellus , and recorded it under that name , but now see it to be distinct . æthonellus , which is known from mount hutt only , has the costal edge of forewings ochreous - whitish , no white streak on upper part of termen or in cilia , hindwings without the pale - yellowish costal patch , but with cilia clear pale - yellowish except basal line , under - surface of forewings suffused with grey except towards costa and on a median streak , of hindwings partly greyish between veins . in five of the seven species of this group—viz . , æthonellus , aulisteś , saristes , heteranthes , and antimorus —the antennæ of ♂ are pubescent - ciliated—that is , clothed with short pubescence over their whole surface , but with a row of somewhat longer cilia on one side ; in the other two— melitastes and heliotes —they are glabrous ( devoid of pubescence ) , but simply ciliated on one side .
described ( trans . ent . soc . lond . , 1902 , 278 ) from the chatham islands ; but mr . philpott has now sent me two specimens from invercargill—a very interesting record . it is allied to falcatalis , but smaller and darker , and distinguished by the prominent angulation of termen of second segment of forewings ( in falcatalis the margin is somewhat bent but not angulated ) , and the principal dorsal scale - tuft of hindwings being hardly beyond the middle , whereas in falcatalis it is much broader and is considerably beyond the middle .
♂ . 18 mm . head white mixed with dark reddish - fuscous , frontal tuft moderately long . palpi brownish irrorated with dark fuscous . antennæ grey , above with a blackish line . thorax whitish irrorated with dark reddish - fuscous , metathorax suffused with black and edged with white . abdomen dark reddish - fuscous sprinkled with whitish , and mixed with blackish on sides towards middle . legs reddish - fuscous sprinkled with white , tibiæ and tarsi banded with white and dark fuscous . forewings cleft from beyond ¾ , segments broad , termen of first sinuate , of second bowed in middle ; reddish - fuscous closely irrorated with whitish and sprinkled with dark fuscous , anterior ¾ transversely strigulated with white , especially towards dorsum ; costal edge suffused with dark fuscous and strigulated with white ; a triangular black blotch on costa at ⅔ , its apex produced and extending to before lower angle of cleft , edged posteriorly by a fascia of brownish - ochreous suffusion crossing base of both segments , followed by a broader fascia of dark - fuscous suffusion , edged posteriorly by an even whitish line parallel to termen : cilia grey , on costa dark fuscous with a white spot before apex , on termen whitish towards base with a sharply marked even black basal line throughout , on dorsum mixed with black scales , forming a tolerably even line posteriorly , at ⅔ with a flat black scale - tooth preceded and followed by whitish patches . hindwings cleft firstly from middle , secondly from ¼ , segments moderately broad , termen of second subsinuate ; grey ; cilia light grey , on dorsum mixed with black scales throughout , with a moderate elongate - triangular black scale - projection beginning at ⅗ .
wellington ; one specimen ( hudson ) . allied to falcatalis and æolodes , but differs from both in the strong black entire line at base of terminal cilia of forewings . the species of this genus require careful discrimination , and probably more remain to be found in the mountains ; their larvæ are usually attached to compositæ ( feeding variously on the flowers or leaves , or in the stems ) , and should be looked for .
♀ . 14 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous . abdomen grey . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen somewhat sinuate , rather oblique ; ferruginous - ochreous , irregularly mixed with white ; costa and dorsum shortly strigulated with blackish ; a large trapezoidal blotch of partial blackish suffusion extending over costal half of wing from base to near middle , posteriorly formed by upper part of central fascia ; a rounded - triangular blackish spot on dorsum before tornus ; a curved leaden - metallic stria from ⅘ of costa to tornus , forming posterior
margin of ocellus , anterior margin silvery - whitish , ocellus limited above by a triangular blackish spot , and containing two or three undefined black dashes : cilia ferruginous - ochreous , with a blackish basal line ( imperfect ) . hindwings with vein 4 absent ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey , with darker basal shade .
♂ . 15 mm . head and palpi grey ; palpi moderate , terminal joint very short . antennal ciliations 1 . thorax reddish - ochreous , somewhat mixed with grey . abdomen rather dark grey . forewings elongate - triangular , costa gently arched , fold occupying basal ⅖ , apex obtuse , termen slightly rounded , rather oblique ; reddish - fuscous , suffusedly strigulated with light yellow - ochreous ; costal fold strigulated with blackish ; several dark ferruginous - brown dots on dorsum ; a wedge - shaped ochreous patch mixed with dark reddish - fuscous and towards costa with orange , resting on costa from ⅗ to ⅘ , its apex touching termen above tornus , preceded and followed by undefined bands of grey - whitish suffusion : cilia reddish - fuscous , tips whitish - yellowish . hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey - whitish , with grey basal line .
♂ . 12 mm . head , palpi , and thorax brown mixed with dark fuscous ; palpi under 2 , whitish - ochreous towards base ; antennal ciliations 2 . abdomen dark fuscous . forewings elongate - oblong , costa anteriorly moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen slightly rounded , somewhat oblique ; dark purplish - fuscous , irregularly strigulated with blackish - fuscous ; a narrow blackish - fuscous fascia from middle of costa to ¾ of dorsum , slightly curved , somewhat expanded towards costa ; the dark strigulation tends to form two or three spots towards apex : cilia dark fuscous , towards tips paler and somewhat mixed with orange - ochreous . hindwings dark fuscous , more blackish posteriorly ; cilia grey mixed with bronzy , with blackish - grey basal shade , tips more whitish . forewings beneath with a short longitudinal coppery - orange streak beneath upper margin of cell before middle of wing .
♂ ♀ . 8–9 mm . head and thorax brown , sometimes suffused with ferruginous - reddish . palpi brownish , paler towards base . abdomen dark grey . forewings elongate , narrow , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; 3 absent , 7 present ; in ♂ with narrow costal fold towards base ; varying from ochreous - brown or dark brown tinged with ochreous to bright ferruginous , sometimes sprinkled with - black , termen always suffused with ferruginous ; in ♂ a more or less indicated streak of ochreous or pale - ochreous suffusion running from base through disc to below middle and thence curved upwards to costa before apex , sometimes distinct and marked at ⅔ with a whitish spot , sometimes almost obsolete : cilia brown . hindwings dark grey ; cilia grey .
invercargill , abundant on short vegetation on sandhills in march ( philpott ) ; four specimens . this species differs from all the others of the genus
in the possession of a costal fold in ♂ , but is otherwise so nearly allied that it is clearly unnecessary to separate it generically . the genus is separated from all others by the neuration .
this species , previously included by me in proselena , is properly referable to eurythecta , having the same neuration as the preceding . i am much indebted to mr . philpott for calling my attention to the actual structure , and thus enabling me to correct my original error of observation . it may , however , be regarded as the most primitive of the five known species of the genus , and the affinity with proselena is real .
♂ ♀ . 17–18 mm . head , palpi , and thorax fuscous irrorated with whitish , head paler and more ochreous - tinged ; palpi irrorated with blackish on inferior half . abdomen ochreous - grey - whitish . forewings elongate , narrow , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen nearly straight , rather strongly oblique ; fuscous irrorated with ochreous - whitish ; a small pale brownish - ochreous basal patch , suffused with fuscous on costa , limited by an inwardly oblique black line resting externally on a ridge of raised scales ; beyond this a dark fuscous blotch from costa reaching half across wing , its posterior angle touching a large tuft of blackish scales below fold surrounded with pale brownish - ochreous suffusion ; immediately beyond this a small round ochreous spot strongly edged with blackish in disc at ⅓ , a blackish dot above this , and another at ⅖ above middle of disc ; an irregular light ochreous spot in disc at ⅔ , followed by some blackish scales ; an angulated series of blackish dots running from a dark spot on costa beyond ⅔ to dorsum before tornus : cilia grey irrorated with whitish . hindwings grey - whitish , slightly ochreous - tinged posteriorly ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .
invercargill , in january ; two specimens ( philpott ) . allied to iophæa , but readily distinguished by the black line limiting the pale basal patch , the whitish hindwings , and other differences .
♂ ♀ . 12–13 mm . head and thorax ochreous - grey - whitish . palpi whitish , second joint tinged with greyish - ochreous beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , with blackish anterior line . antennæ whitish , sprinkled with dark grey . abdomen grey mixed with ochreous - whitish , in ♂ suffused with pale ochreous towards base . forewings lanceolate , acute ; light ochreous - brown , suffusedly irrorated with whitish , tending to leave a more or less clear median longitudinal streak of ground - colour ; a blackish mark on fold towards base ; discal stigmata rather large , black , approximated , plical represented by a dark fuscous or brown cloud , very obliquely before first discal , sometimes extending upwards towards costa ; several cloudy blackish or dark fuscous dots on posterior part of costa and termen : cilia whitish , partially tinged with ochreous or fuscous , with an indistinct blackish median line . hindwings 1 , light grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .
invercargill , common in december at new river ( philpott ) ; three specimens . quite distinct from any other .
♂ . 18 mm . head whitish - ochreous sprinkled with fuscous . palpi whitish - ochreous , second joint and a median band of terminal joint irrorated with dark fuscous , terminal joint unusually short , about half second . antennæ pale ochreous suffusedly ringed with dark fuscous , uniformly pubescent - ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous suffused with brownish and irrorated with dark fuscous . abdomen grey , segments dorsally banded with golden - ferruginous . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , termen very obliquely rounded ; ochreous - whitish , closely irrorated with brown ; a triangular brownish patch above dorsum towards base , limited posteriorly by a fine inwardly oblique blackish line terminating beneath in a conspicuous raised black dot above ⅖ of dorsum , preceded by some whitish suffusion ; discal stigmata large , round , brown , edged with a few black scales ; a small blackish spot on dorsum at ⅘ , whence proceeds a sinuate line of scattered blackish scales near termen , angulated in middle and continued to costa at ⅘ , where it is somewhat dilated and preceded by a spot of whitish suffusion ; a bar of brown suffusion from second discal stigma to tornus : cilia ochreous - whitish tinged with brown and irrorated with fuscous , at tornus with a grey bar preceded by whitish suffusion . hindwings light grey ; cilia ochreous - whitish suffused with pale greyish .
invercargill , in october ; one specimen ( philpott ) . superficially much like b . griseata , but really abundantly distinct when examined in detail ; the unusually short terminal joint of palpi and pubescent - ciliated antennæ are notable structural characteristics ; the large brown discal stigmata are also a salient point .
♂ . 17 mm . head whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous , second joint suffusedly irrorated with dark fuscous , terminal joint nearly as long as second , with dark fuscous subapical ring . antennæ whitish - ochreous spotted with dark fuscous , simply ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous mixed with light brownish . abdomen grey , dorsally banded with ferruginous . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen rounded , rather strongly oblique ; whitish - ochreous suffusedly mixed with ochreous - brown ; base of costa suffused with dark fuscous ; first discal stigma represented by a short oblique linear black mark , followed by whitish suffusion , second round , whitish , partially edged with black , plical black , rather obliquely beyond first discal ; a suffused blackish dot on dorsum towards tornus ; some fuscous suffusion towards costa at ⅔ , and towards apex and termen ; between these are indications of an angulated suffused whitish - ochreous subterminal line , most distinct towards costa : cilia whitish - ochreous , with a light fuscous sub - basal shade . hindwings light grey ; cilia whitish - grey .
invercargill , in december ; one specimen ( philpott ) . also belongs to the griseata group , but quite distinct by the character of the stigmata and subterminal line .
♂ ♀ . 23 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , in ♂ more brownishtinged . palpi whitish - ochreous , externally with a few scattered dark - fuscous scales . antennæ whitish - ochreous , obscurely ringed with dark fuscous .
abdomen whitish - ochreous , in ♂ more brownish , dorsally suffused with brassy - golden except on margins of segments . forewings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous , with a few scattered dark - fuscous scales , in ♂ mostly suffused with brownish except on dorsal streak ; a broad pale dorsal streak from base to tornus , upper edge prominent near base , where there is a tuft of scales , and about middle of dorsum ; some dark - fuscous suffusion extending above this streak from base to ⅗ of disc , and thence upwards to costa ; stigmata round , whitish - ochreous , edged with dark fuscous , plical obliquely beyond first discal ; an angulated dark - fuscous line or series of dots from ⅘ of costa to tornus : cilia ochreous - whitish , in ♂ irrorated with grey , basal third barred with fuscous . hindwings very pale whitish - ochreous ; a cloudy round fuscous discal spot ; apex and lower half of termen suffused with fuscous irroration ; cilia ochreous - whitish , round apex and on lower half of termen with a suffused fuscous shade .
wellington ; two specimens ( hudson ) . differs from both the other described species in having the wings of ♀ fully developed , and formed quite as in ♂ ; the pale dark - edged stigmata are also characteristic .
♂ ♀ . 16–17 mm . head and thorax rather dark fuscous , somewhat sprinkled with whitish , forehead with conical horny projection . palpi dark fuscous , somewhat whitish - sprinkled , terminal joint with two whitish bands . antenæ grey - whitish spotted with dark fuscous . abdomen dark fuscous , two basal segments dorsally amber - coloured . forewings rather narrowly elongate - oblong , costa rather arched towards base and apex , apex obtuse , termen almost straight , oblique ; dark fuscous , partially tinged with ochreous - brown , slightly whitish - sprinkled ; some variable irregularly scattered black dashes and dots in disc , plical stigma represented by a blackish tuft of scales , second discal by a transverse black mark ; three very ill - defined transverse fasciæ or lines of whitish suffusion , first at ¼ , straight , moderately broad , second median , straight , very indistinct , third at ¾ , narrow , curved , representing subterminal line : cilia fuscous mixed with dark fuscous . hindwings dark fuscous , somewhat lighter anteriorly ; cilia grey , with dark fuscous basal shade .
wellington ; two specimens ( hudson ) . distinct by its relatively small size and dark colouring .
i have recently ( proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . , 1907 , 54–68 ) recast the limits of this genus and its near allies , from extended material . the new zealand species are now classified as follows : —
conopomorpha , meyr . middle tibiæ not thickened , posterior tibiæ with bristly hairs .
macarostola , meyr . middle tibiæ not thickened , scales sometimes expanded at apex only , posterior tibiæ smooth - scaled .
gracilaria , hw . middle tibiæ thickened with dense scales , more or less rough beneath , posterior tibiæ smooth - scaled .
♀ . 12 mm . head yellow - whitish , sides of crown reddish - ochreous . palpi yellow - whitish , terminal joint ferruginous - tinged near base . antennæ white ringed with blackish , basal joint whitish - ferruginous . thorax ferruginous - ochreous , with a yellow - whitish dorsal stripe . abdomen rather dark grey , beneath yellow - whitish . legs whitish , anterior and middle femora and tibiæ mixed with ferruginous - ochreous and sprinkled with black , tips of tarsal joints blackish . forewings elongate - lanceolate , costa moderately arched posteriorly , apex acute ; deep ochreous - yellow , more orange towards dorsum , with a strong purple gloss , strewn throughout except beneath fold with very numerous suffused yellow - whitish dots separated by small dots and strigulæ of dark fuscous scales ; three moderate brassy - yellow - whitish spots on dorsum : cilia ochreous - whitish . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia grey .
mount holdsworth , 3 , 000 ft . ; one specimen ( hudson ) . very distinct .
finding that phryganostola , which only differed from glyphipteryx by the rough projecting scales or tuft of second joint of palpi , appeared to be an artificial division , which separated nearly allied species , i have suppressed it , including all the species in glyphipteryx .
♀ . 14 mm . head , antennæ , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous , patagia shining bronze . palpi black , second joint without tuft , with three white rings , terminal joint with two white stripes . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , termen hardly sinuate , rather strongly oblique ; bright golden - bronze ; five variably oblique narrow violet - silvery - metallic partly black - edged streaks from costa , first short , slightly before middle , second angulated , reaching half across wing , third short , fourth longer , rather dilated apically , fifth running to termen beneath apex ; an erect similar streak from tornus , terminating in a black mark just beyond apex of second costal streak , and a short streak from termen below middle ; a small blackish apical spot : cilia grey , basal half bronzy , with a silvery dot on subapical streak , on costa with white bars on streaks . hindwings blackish - grey ; cilia dark grey .
invercargill , in january ; one specimen ( philpott ) . resembles transversella , but without the pale longitudinal streak , the silvery streaks differently formed , the second angulated , third shorter than fourth ( in transversella longer than fourth ) , and otherwise distinct .
under the names of derogatella , walk . , and melichrysa , meyr . , treated as synonymous , i have hitherto confused two distinct species , which can now be distinguished under these two names ; both are common .
characterized by its dull brownish - ochreous ground - colour , tendency to confusion of the white markings , so that anterior half of wing is sometimes wholly suffused with white , plentiful black strigulation , the ante - median white fascia broadly dilated towards costa , shortly angulated above middle , posterior part of disc confusedly mixed with white and black scales , and presence of distinct black sub - basal line in terminal cilia .
masterton , wellington , christchurch , invercargill ( and , according to walker , auckland ) , from december to march .
characterized by clear yellow - ochreous ground - colour , well - defined and separate white black - edged markings , ante - median white fascia very acutely angulated in middle , and absence of black line in terminal cilia .
whangarei , auckland , nelson , dunedin , invercargill , in december and january . my original description clearly included both species , but the name ( meaning “honey - golden” ) is a relative definition of this one , and i now limit it in that sense .
♂ . 13–14 mm . head , palpi , thorax , and abdomen rather dark fuscous . antennæ dark fuscous , ciliations 4 . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; 6 present ; whitish - fuscous , strewn with cloudy dark - fuscous strigulæ ; a moderately broad slightly oblique dark - fuscous median fascia ; a cloudy dark - fuscous spot on costa at ¾ ; the confluence of the strigulæ tends to form suffused spots in disc towards apex , and along termen : cilia whitish - fuscous , with dark - fuscous ante - median shade and indistinct bars on basal third . hindwings with 6 present ; grey ; cilia grey .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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