it is found widely along coastlines in the indo-pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) .

with a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and east pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed-tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle-shaped pectoral fins .

the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3.2 m ( 10 ft ) .

nocturnal in habits , the tawny nurse shark tends to spend the day resting in piles of two dozen or more individuals inside caves or under ledges .

at night , it is an active-swimming predator that uses a powerful suction force to extract prey from inside holes and crevices .

the diet of this species consists mainly of octopus , though they also take other invertebrates , small bony fishes , and rarely sea snakes .

it is aplacental viviparous , meaning the embryos hatch from egg capsules inside the mother .

it is the only carpet shark in which the embryos are oophagous , feeding on eggs produced by the mother while inside the uterus .

the litter size may be as small as one or two , based on the large size of near-term embryos .

compared to the nurse shark , the tawny nurse shark has a more placid disposition and will often allow divers to touch and play with it .

however , it should be accorded respect due to its powerful jaws and sharp teeth .

this species is caught by commercial fisheries across most of its range for meat , fins , liver oil , leather , and fishmeal .

it is also esteemed as a game fish off queensland , australia , and is known for its habit of spitting water in the faces of its captors .

the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as vulnerable , with subpopulations in several areas already diminished or extirpated .

tawny nurse shark

australia : tawny shark , spitting shark , rusty shark , rusty catshark , sleepy shark , madame x .
en - tawny nurse shark , fr - requin nourrice fauve , sp - gata nodriza atezada .
small fish and invertebrates are among the prey items of the tawny nurse shark . photo © klaus jost
fao names : en – tawny nurse shark ; fr – requin nourrice fauve ; sp – gata nodriza atezada .
' other’ species are tawny nurse , blacktip reef , tiger , scalloped hammerhead and great hammerhead .
overview of various pacific coral reef sharks , notably the blacktip reef shark , gray reef shark , and nurse shark .
five new species of pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus , in the pacific ocean .
tawny nurse sharks are gray - brown to brown in color along the dorsal surface . photo © doug perrine
there are 5 species of tapeworms documented in the spiral intestines of the tawny nurse shark taken from the waters off australia and french polynesia .
the tawny nurse shark is ovoviviparous , with females giving birth to up to eight live young that have hatched within the uterus ( 4 ) .
five new species of pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus , in the pacific ocean . - pubmed - ncbi
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the tawny nurse shark has a more calm disposition compared to other nurse sharks and adventurous scuba divers have been known to touch them . a few non - fatal attacks have been recorded . these occurred when they were being ‘handled’ by divers . due to their large size and strength , the tawny nurse shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect .
this nurse shark found in the indo - pacific region should not be confused with the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and eastern pacific oceans . although at first glance these two species closely resemble each other , on closer inspection the tawny nurse shark can be easy distinguished by the pointed apices of its pectoral , dorsal , and anal fins as well as its narrowly falcate pectoral fins . the tawny nurse shark is also a more active swimming species than g . cirratum .
with their cylindrical body and broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) but can be distinguished by its pointed - tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle - shaped pectoral fins .
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arkive video - tawny nurse shark feeding on and investigating dead turtle
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the movie opens with footage of zebra sharks , but moves on to show tawny shark behaviour and feeding .
teshima , k . , m . toda , y . kamei , s . uchida and m . tamaki . 1999 . reproductive mode of the tawny nurse shark .
parasites there are five species of tapeworms ( pedibothrium sp . ) documented from the spiral intestines of the tawny nurse shark taken from the waters off australia and french polynesia .
given that tawny nurse shark pups are born at an average length of between 40 to 60cm , it was clear that these large females were pregnant by their distinctively bulging stomach . the tawny nurse shark is the only member of the carpet shark family which exhibits intrauterine cannibalism ; once the pups have used up their yolk supply , they will feed on other eggs within the uterus .
the biology of the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , off the florida east coast and the bahama islands .
predators there are no species that regularly prey on nurse sharks . however some larger sharks are known to feed occasionally on nurse sharks found in the atlantic ocean . remains of nurse sharks have been found in lemon shark and tiger shark stomachs , and attacks on nurse sharks by bull sharks and great hammerhead sharks have been observed on this closely related species .
…the wobbegongs ; and ginglymostomatidae , the nurse sharks . one species of nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , reaches a length of more than 4 metres ( 13 feet ) . …
often used as an attractive display animal in aquaria , the tawny nurse shark is a tough , hardy shark that easily adapts to captivity . it is kept at public aquaria facilities throughout europe , japan , singapore , and the united states .
responding to a related posting , [
i believe that the name nurse shark comes from some place in the south pacific where they called it a plurse shark . the name was then slurred into nurse shark .
] , i had the following thoughts .
verification of multiple species of pedibothrium in the atlantic nurse shark with comments on the australasian members of the genus .
the tawny has a cylindrical body with a broad , flattened head , with a squarish snout and tiny eyes . they are quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark that is found in the atlantic and east pacific . the tawny nurse shark has a couple of features that distinguish them from other nurse sharks . the most obvious is their sickle shaped pectoral fins . the less apparent anatomical difference , unless a diver touches the shark , is their soft skin . their greek name ‘nebrius’ can be translated to ‘skin of a fawn . ’
within the first few days of surveying in chagos , our fish and benthic surveyors have had multiple encounters with large and often pregnant tawny nurse sharks ( nebrius ferrugineus ) .
a tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) lies in a small cave on a reef in raja ampat , indonesia . this beautiful region is known for its prolific marine life and world class scuba diving and snorkeling .
inhabiting the waters above the continental shelves in most warm and temperate regions—which is sometimes referred to as the gray nurse shark .
tawny nurse sharks can reach a maximum length of 10 . 4 feet ( 320 cm ) . born at 15 . 7 up to 23 inches ( 40 - 60 cm ) .
tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) scientific name : nebrius ferrugineus , higher classification : nebrius , rank : species , kingdom : animalia , phylum : chordata , class : chondrichthyes , subclass : elasmobranchii , order : orectolobiformes , family : ginglymostomatidae , genus : nebrius , type : fish , * * the tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus nebrius . it is found widely along coastlines in the indo - pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) . with a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the atlantic and east pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed - tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle - shaped pectoral fins . the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 . 2 m ( 10 ft ) . more info : urltoken
a tawny nurse shark ( nebrius ferrugineus ) attracted to a dive light during a feeding session for tourism in the northern ari atoll of the republic of maldives . currently the republic of maldives has completely banned shark fishing in the country to conserve their population and maintain shark tourism which attracts a large number of tourists each year . it has been studied in several locations that a living shark could yield much larger revenue throughout their lifetime than a dead one at fish markets . currently tawny nurse shark is listed as vulnerable in the iucn red list of endangered species . photo : © sirachai arunrugstichai
tawny nurse sharks have few natural predators if humans are not included . if they are unfortunate , they may fall prey to other sharks such as bull sharks , great hammerheads and tiger sharks .
they have short small mouths with fan - shaped serrated teeth . the tawny nurse shark ' s name was presumably derived from its ability to suck up prey using a powerful sucking motion with its throat , just like a baby being nursed .
the mating season runs from late june to the end of july . nurse sharks are
during day lies motionless unless closely harassed . will bite if provoked . nurse sharks are opportunistic and become regular visitors to shark feeds .
tawny nurse sharks are ovoviviparous ( aplacental viviparous ) . young feed inside the uterus on large infertile yolky eggs . litter size is uncertain , one to four , depending upon competition in the uterus .
this shark ' s narrow range and limited dispersion as well as low reproductive rates make it especially susceptible to the effects of overfishing . reef habitats and local food webs have been damaged from dynamiting and poisoning in portions of its range , further increasing the tawny nurse shark ' s vulnerability . there have been reports of local extinctions in waters around india and the gulf of thailand due to increased fisheries catch along with destruction of habitat . at this time , the tawny nurse shark is still abundant off of australia where fishing impact is much less .
this nurse shark is quite docile , allowing itself to be touched by divers , however there are a few non - fatal attacks on humans attributed to this species . due to its strong jaws and sharp cutting teeth , the tawny nurse shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect . it is a favorite species for observation by ecotourists in waters off thailand and the solomon islands .
the tawny nurse shark is widely distributed across the indian and west and central pacific oceans , ranging from the red sea , east africa and the arabian gulf to southern japan , south through indonesia to australia ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
it is worth noting in passing that the nurse shark of the central and western south pacific and indian oceans is not the familiar ginglymostoma cirratum of the atlantic and eastern pacific , but the tawny nurse shark , nebrius ferrugineus ( = n . concolor ) . although the nurse and tawny sharks superficially resemble one another , the latter is readily distinguished from the former by the pointed apices of its pectoral , dorsal , and anal fins , narrowly falcate pectoral fins , and laterally compressed teeth in the sides of the jaw . these differences have long been regarded as evidence that these orectoloboid sharks warrant different genera .
some aquariums have tried to exhibit much larger sharks , such as the white shark and whale shark .
a sickle - fin lemon shark takes a tuna head from a shark handler . photograph : tom vierus
age of association between the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , and tapeworms of the genus pedibothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onehobothriidae ) : implications from geography .
a comparison of mode of attachment and histopathogenicity of four tapeworm species representing two orders infecting the spiral intestine of the nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum .
the common atlantic nurse shark is generally a light tan to dark brown colour . juveniles may be a dark gray with small black spots that are lost as the animal grows . nurse sharks possess two dorsal fins and an anal fin . in
nurse sharks are able to respire while stationary by pumping water through their mouths and out gills .
possibly , some bygone observer watched a shark giving birth to live young and thought the shark was giving nurse . possibly the use of the word sprang from the old notion that a shark would protect its young by taking them into its mouth .
need a unique gift idea ? consider an annual whale shark adoption to help fund our whale shark study .
the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) is a global union of states , governmental agencies and non - governmental organisations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species . the tawny nurse shark is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list .
the tawny nurse shark is heavily fished commercially . the meat is used as fishmeal , its liver is rendered for oil and vitamins , and fins are sought for the oriental sharkfin trade . their skin is thick and ‘hide - like’ , and is used for the manufacture of purses .
a new species of pedibothrium ( cestoidea : tetraphyllidea ) from the short - tail nurse shark , pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum ( elasmobranchii : orectilobiformes ) from southwest madagascar .
fishes ( including surgeonfishes and siganids ) . while foraging the tawny shark moves along the bottom and explores depressions , holes and crevices in reefs . when it detects prey it places its small
records of these sharks biting their tormentors , and clamping tightly onto them . because of its size and strength , the tawny shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect .
a blacktip reef shark cruises over the reef at the shark reef marine reserve , fiji . photograph : tom vierus
lockenloia sanguinis n . gen . , n . sp . ( nematoda : dracunculoidea ) from the heart of a nurse shark , ginglymostoma cirratum , in florida .
nurse sharks are sometimes preyed upon by other sharks , such as tiger ( galeocerdo cuvier ) and lemon sharks ( negaprion ) . most nurse shark species are not well studied , but ecologists suspect that human activity has caused the populations of some nurse sharks to shrink . for example , populations of tawny nurse sharks ( n . ferrugineus , which often rest in caves and under reef escarpments ) near thailand are thought to have decreased as a direct result of blast fishing and through pestering by divers , whereas shorttail nurse sharks ( p . brevicaudatum , which inhabit the western indian ocean ) are declining because of a combination of habitat destruction , fishing , and capture as bycatch ( being accidentally caught by anglers ) .
the tawny nurse shark is a large shark with a broad flattened head , snout rounded or truncated . mouth in front of eyes with long nasoral grooves . nostrils with barbels . small spiracles behind eyes . small gill slits , two spinless dorsal fins . precaudal tail much shorter than head and body . unpatterned , juveniles will have a few dark spots .
this is a continental and insular shelf species restricted to a narrow band of shallow water from intertidal waters to depths of up to 70 m ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the tawny nurse shark lives on or near the bottom in lagoons , or close to coral and rocky reefs ( 2 ) . like other nurse sharks , this species uses crevices and caves for shelter ( 5 ) .
adults and juveniles feed on a wide diversity of benthic marine invertebrates including cephalopods , crustaceans , and sea urchins . the tawny nurse shark also feeds on small fishes including surgeonfish , queenfish and rabbitfish , as well as occasionally sea snakes . during its search for prey , this nurse shark swims along the bottom and explores holes and crevices along reefs . upon detection of prey , it uses suction to draw out - of - reach prey items into its mouth with great force .
the nurse shark has two rounded dorsal fins , rounded pectoral fins , an elongated caudal fin , and a broad head . nurse sharks are brownish . adults can grow up to 4 . 3 m ( 14 ft ) and weigh up to 330 kg ( 730 lb ) .
nurse sharks range in length from about 75 centimeters for the short tail nurse shark to 4 meters in length for the other types of nurse sharks . the average weight of a 240 centimeter long nurse shark is 330 pounds . they are generally dark in color or have dark scattered spots along their bodies . they have broad heads , no grooves around the outer edge of their nostrils , and relatively fat or stout bodies and tails . their anal fins are slightly behind their second dorsal fins and just in front of their caudal fins . anal fins are absent in some families of sharks .
teshima , k . , y . kamei , m . toda and s . uchida . 1995 . reproductive mode of the tawny nurse shark taken from the yaeyama islands . okinawa . japan with comments on individuals lacking the second dorsal fin . bull . seikai nat . fish . res . inst . , ( 73 ) : 1–12 .
the most remarkable feature of the tawny nurse shark is probably its curious ability to change colour between grey and sandy brown depending on the colour of its surroundings ( 3 ) . the tawny nurse shark is uniformly grey to tan - brown on its upper surfaces , paling slightly on the belly ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . juveniles can be distinguished from adults by the presence of small dark spots on the skin ( 4 ) . this large shark has a broad , flattened head with a squarish snout and tiny eyes ( 3 ) . there are two angular dorsal fins close to the tail , the pectoral fins curve backwards , and the long , narrow tail has a large upper lobe and almost no distinct lower lobe ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .
grillotia similis ( linton , 1908 ) comb . n . ( cestoda : trypanorhyncha ) from nurse sharks in the florida keys .
nurse sharks prefer to dwell near the sea floor in the warm , shallow waters of the western atlantic and eastern pacific oceans .
however , since nurse sharks attain lengths in excess of ten feet they are far too large to be kept in home aquaria .
the tawny nurse shark was first described as scyllium ferrugineum by lesson ( 1831 ) . however this name was later changed to the currently valid scientific name of nebrius ferrugineus ( lesson 1831 ) . synonyms include ginglymostoma concolor rüppell 1837 , ginglymostoma ferruginea lesson 1831 , ginglymostoma ferrugineum lesson 1831 , ginglymostoma muelleri günther 1870 , ginglymostoma rueppellii bleeker 1852 , nebrius concolor rüppell 1837 , nebrius doldi smith 1953 , nebrius macrurus garman 1913 ) , nebrodes concolor ogilbyi whitley 1934 , nebrodes macrurus garman 1913 , and scymnus porosu s ehrenberg 1871 . the genus name nebrius originates from the greek
nebris , - idos
, meaning skin of a fawn . the species name , ferrugineus , is derived from latin , referring to the brown coloration of this shark . the tawny nurse shark is a member of the family ginglymostomtidae .
he fijian shark culture and mythology is one which deeply appeals to me . the shark is revered by many fijians , and legend has it that
tawny nurse sharks are quite commonly encountered by divers . you may see them lying on a sandy floor or huddled together in their favourite cave or crevice during the day , or witness them hunting on a night dive . nurse sharks are easily recognised by their elongated caudal fin ( tail ) and barbels ( thin , fleshy , whisker - like organs on the lower jaw in front of the nostrils that sense taste and touch ) .
our improved understanding of shark behavior has led to scientists abandoning the term “shark attack” altogether , replacing it with “human - shark interactions , ” or “shark bites . ” it is important to realize that shark bites are extremely rare . you are 75 times more likely to be struck by lightning and 33 times more likely to be bitten by a dog than you are to be killed by a shark . but before you go swimming , you still need to know how to behave if you see a shark .
english language common names are tawny nurse shark , giant sleepy shark , madame x , nurse shark , rusty catshark , rusty shark , sleepy shark , spitting shark , and tawny shark . other common names include aarau ( kumak ) , bagea ( ro ) rodo ( gela ) , bákoa ( kirabati ) , brun nursehaj ( danish ) , chlarm ( khmer ) , cucut buta ( malay ) , endormi ( french ) , gata nodriza atezada ( spanish ) , geelbruine verpleegsterhaai ( dutch ) , hiu bisu ( jawa ) , hiu gedebong ( bali ) , hiu gedok ( bali ) , ma ' o rohoi ( tahitian ) , moemoeao ( samoan ) , moron ( malayam ) , nadammiyaru ( malayam ) , nek aarau ( kumak ) , nidammiyaru ( mahl ) , paab ( carolinian ) , pating ( tagalong ) , requin dormeur ( french ) , requin nourrice ( french ) , requin nourrice fauve ( french ) , requin - dormeur fauve ( french ) , reuse - vaakhaai ( afrikaans ) , rohoi ( tahitian ) , sunera ( marathi ) , and tubarão - de - leite tostado ( portuguese ) .
nurse sharks live in warm waters . they range from the eastern pacific ocean , eastern and western atlantic ocean to the indian ocean .
the teeth of nurse sharks are always sharp and effective because new rows of teeth develop constantly to replace older , worn down teeth .
the scientific name for the nurse shark sounds like something bilbo baggins might have said to summon elves to his rescue : ginglymostoma cirratum . actually the name is a mix of greek and latin and means
curled , hinged mouth
to describe this shark ' s somewhat puckered appearance .
size , age , and growth the maximum reported size of the tawny nurse shark is 10 . 5 feet ( 320 cm ) total length ( tl ) . the sex of this specimen caught in indonesian waters is unspecified . maturity is reached by males at lengths of approximately 7 . 4 feet ( 225 cm ) tl and by females around 7 . 6 feet ( 230 cm ) tl .
nurse sharks are commonly caught in small - scale local fisheries in some parts of its range , and are incidentally captured in many coastal fisheries ( 1 ) ( 2 ) . its tough , thick hide makes good leather , the flesh is consumed by humans and used for fishmeal , and oil is extracted from the liver ( 2 ) . the nurse shark is also captured for the aquarium trade , and is occasionally the target of spear fishermen ( 1 ) . as the nurse shark grows slowly and matures late , this exploitation can cause populations to decline rapidly and recover slowly ( 6 ) . the threat of overexploitation is compounded by the impact of humans on the coastal and reef habitats of the nurse shark ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . coral reefs are a particularly vulnerable habitat , being impacted by pollution , sedimentation , global climate change and disturbance from tourism ( 1 ) . extreme population reductions have already been recorded in the southern western atlantic , and it is possible that the nurse shark is declining , unnoticed , in other areas where there is a lack of data ( 1 ) . for this reason , the world conservation union ( iucn ) has classified the nurse shark as data deficient ( 1 ) .
there are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :
on one occasion , a large individual swam directly over our fish transect line , giving us a good estimate of the length which was close to 3m ( the maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 . 2 m ) . several of these large females have been observed swimming with the company of a single juvenile ( ~ 1 m ) which may be a year old pup of hers .
. nurse sharks can reach a length of 4 . 3 m ( 14 ft ) and a weight of 330 kg ( 730 lb ) .
tawny nurse sharks are found on sandy flats , rocky and coral reefs , seagrass beds , bottom substrate in lagoons and in the surf zone . they have been known to be in depths that range from intertidal water that barely covers their body , up to 70m . however , they are most frequently found between 5 - 30m .
another tactic used by this species is brute force . a 3m tawny nurse shark was filmed extracting a speared fish from under a coral head by wedging its body under the bommie and lifting its head and body to raise the entire coral structure ! the shark continued this behaviour until it was able to get close enough to suck the fish from the coral head . the bommie was estimated to weigh in excess of 450 kilogrammes ! dive the world obviously does not condone the tactics used by the film maker , however it does illustrate the strength and tenacity of this shark .
partial response plot for generalised linear models of log - transformed total shark abundance ( a - c ) and grey reef shark abundance ( d - f ) .
, the ancient shark god , provides protection for the people when at sea .
whysharksmatter talks about sharks and shark week on dr . kiki ' s science hour
on the shark dive you will be able to experience the breathtaking sight of up to eight species of sharks : blacktip reef sharks , whitetip reef sharks , grey reef sharks , silvertip sharks , tawny nurse sharks , sicklefin lemon sharks , bull sharks and the occasional tiger shark . in addition , you can also encounter giant groupers , maori wrasse , rainbow runners , giant trevally , java morays , eagle rays and more than 400 species of tropical reef fish , as documented by our 2010 census .
the origin of the name
nurse shark
is unclear . it may come from the sucking sound they make when hunting for prey in the sand , which vaguely resembles that of a nursing baby . or it may derive from an archaic word , nusse , meaning cat shark . the most likely theory though is that the name comes from the old english word for sea - floor shark : hurse .
nurse sharks are frequently encountered by divers , and most encounters are without incident . since nurse sharks are slower - moving fishes and are relatively tolerant of human beings , recreational divers seeking the thrill of a ride may grab them by the tail or by the dorsal fin . such encounters often end with a shark bite . once the bite is established , nurse sharks are reluctant to let go , and many small sharks either have been killed to remove them from the human victim or have been “worn” to a hospital for removal and treatment . bites can be severe because of the crushing power of their strong jaws . most attacks attributed to nurse sharks are provoked by humans , according to the international shark attack file maintained by the florida museum of natural history at the university of florida .
diving with sharks , often in combination with food baiting / provisioning , has become an important product of today’s recreational dive industry . whereas the effects baiting / provisioning has on the behaviour and abundance of individual shark species are starting to become known , there is an almost complete lack of equivalent data from multi - species shark diving sites . in this study , changes in species composition and relative abundances were determined at the shark reef marine reserve , a multi - species shark feeding site in fiji . using direct observation sampling methods , eight species of sharks ( bull shark carcharhinus leucas , grey reef shark carcharhinus amblyrhynchos , whitetip reef shark triaenodon obesus , blacktip reef shark carcharhinus melanopterus , tawny nurse shark nebrius ferrugineus , silvertip shark carcharhinus albimarginatus , sicklefin lemon shark negaprion acutidens , and tiger shark galeocerdo cuvier ) displayed inter - annual site fidelity between 2003 and 2012 . encounter rates and / or relative abundances of some species changed over time , overall resulting in more individuals ( mostly c . leucas ) of fewer species being encountered on average on shark feeding dives at the end of the study period . differences in shark community composition between the years 2004–2006 and 2007–2012 were evident , mostly because n . ferrugineus , c . albimarginatus and n . acutidens were much more abundant in 2004–2006 and very rare in the period of 2007–2012 . two explanations are offered for the observed changes in relative abundances over time , namely inter - specific interactions and operator - specific feeding protocols . both , possibly in combination , are suggested to be important determinants of species composition and encounter rates , and relative abundances at this shark provisioning site in fiji . this study , which includes the most species from a spatially confined shark provisioning site to date , suggests that long - term provisioning may result in competitive exclusion among shark species .
nurse sharks live off of sandy beaches , mud and sand flats , and from the intertidal zone on coral and rocky reefs to depths of 70 meters .
further information on gymnorhynchus isuri ( trypanorhyncha : gymnorhynchidae ) from the shortfin mako shark .
reefquest centre for shark research text and illustrations © r . aidan martin copyright | privacy
) . the term ' nusse ' or ' nurse ' was later extended to describe any large fish , especially a shark . although the spanish and dutch had been poking about the south pacific since about 1520 and 1642 , respectively , the english didn ' t begin exploring this region in earnest until 1768 , with the first voyage of captain james cook . therefore , english use of the term ' nurse ' to refer to a shark predates earliest british contact with south pacific islanders .
i would suggest that the etymology of the term ' nurse shark ' is pretty much as traced by lineaweaver and backus ( 1970 ) — see my post of 1 / 24 / 98 for a discussion . use in english of the name ' nuse ' or ' nurse - fish ' dates back to the 1550 ' s , when it was apparently used for what we now know as the spiny dogfish (
they are hardy and thrive in captivity which unfortunately sees them kept in aquariums across the globe , where they are often handfed . they can be feisty when on the end of a fishing line and have been known to ‘spit’ water in the faces of their hunters . tawny nurse sharks are one of the few species of shark to produce sound . when threatened , and out of their natural aquatic environment , they make grunting sounds between ‘spitting’ streams of water .
reproduction the tawny nurse shark has an aplacental viviparous ( ovoviviparous ) mode of reproduction . there is no embryonic nourishment from the placental structure within the mother ' s uterus ; the embryos feed off yolk contained within the egg case in which it grows . it appears that the tawny nurse shark practices oophagy on relatively large , cased nutritive eggs and is the first orectoloboid known to have uterine cannibalism . however , it is unknown if the fetuses of this species eat on other fetuses ( adelphophagy ) . in captivity , females lay cased eggs on the bottom substrate but these do not develop and may be nutritive and unfertilized . due to the confusion caused by the appearance of free eggs , this species was at one time considered to be oviparous . this species gives birth to litters of up to 8 pups , each measuring approximately 15 . 8 - 23 . 6 inches ( 40 - 60 cm ) in length at birth .
reproductive modes of elsmobranchs . shark news 9 : 1 - 3 ( june 1997 ) .
orders out of chaos - molecular phylogenetics reveals the complexity of shark and stingray tapeworm relationships .
whale shark ( rhincodon typus ) biology and ecology : a review of the primary literature .
nurse sharks have been observed resting on the bottom with their bodies supported on their fins , possibly providing a false shelter for crustaceans which they then ambush and eat .
whale sharks are not the only sharks you can expect to see around exmouth . reef sharks , mainly white tip reef sharks , are regular sightings at many dive sites , particularly on the navy pier . last summer there were over 20 whitetip sharks at the site , with up to 10 all reposing on the sand in one small area . quiet approach and observation allows divers to get within metres of these sharks ; often the first and closest underwater encounter with sharks for many of our divers . other sharks we have recorded seeing include grey nurse , tawny nurse , grey shark , oceanic white tip , bronze whaler and cat sharks .
for any shark diver , the species which are regular visitors to the reef come close to nirvana . to get an idea of how diverse the area is , of shark and man , a recent film by david diley , not only tells the story of the srmr but is a stunning showcase of the reef’s most regular visitors , including white - tip reefs , black - tip reefs , grey reefs , tawny nurse , sickle - fin lemons , silver - tip reefs , tigers , and – the species most consider to be the main attraction – bull sharks .
little has been documented about the life of young tawny nurse sharks . large females have been observed in the chagos archipelago ( about 500 km south of the maldives ) in the company of a single juvenile ( less than 1m long ) which may be a year old pup of hers . juveniles are known to rest on their pectoral fins , which are rolled under their bodies . it is thought that the space under the bodies of these predators may be mistaken for a home by a shelter - seeking fish or shrimp , unfortunately for the poor unsuspecting individual they become the tawny ' s next meal .
tawny nurse sharks have barbels , powerful jaws and sharp comb - like teeth that overlap . they have approximately 30 rows of teeth in their upper jaw and 27 rows in their lower jaw . they range in colour from yellowish , reddish , to greyish brown on top , and off - white on their belly . there are no ridges present on the body . their caudal fin ( tail like ) is moderately long , measuring over a ¼ of the total length of the shark .
a common description of the origin of the name nurse shark suggests that the sound they make when feeding at the surface resembles a nursing animal . however , the name is likely derived from the word nusse , a middle english form of the word nurse . nusse may have originated from the slurring of the middle english word huss , which was itself used in the 1500s to describe cat sharks or other large fish that were probably sharks .
for these reasons , responding to shark bites ( fatal or non - fatal ) by wishing all sharks dead , spreading panic or actually hunting down and killing sharks is irresponsible and unwise . instead , we should think like achmat hassiem , a south african shark attack survivor and adorned paralympian . he became a shark conservationist after his right leg was bitten off by a great white shark .
nurse sharks eat a variety of foods . their diet includes small fishes , shrimps , octopus , sea snails , crabs , lobsters , squid , sea urchin , and corals .
occurring along continental and insular shelves , the tawny nurse shark resides at depths ranging from the intertidal to depths of at least 230 feet ( 70 m ) but more commonly from 16 - 98 feet ( 5 - 30 m ) . it is observed on or near the bottom substrate in lagoons , sandy areas in close proximity to reefs , off sandy beaches , and along the outer edges of coral and rocky reefs . although this species is primarily nocturnal , it is sometimes active during daylight hours . it often hides in caves and crevices as well as in more exposed areas , this nurse shark has even been observed piled across or on top of each other in aggregations . it has a limited home range , returning to the same area every day after foraging for prey items .
the nurse shark inhabits inshore tropical and subtropical waters , where it is found at depths of less than one meter down to 130 metres ( 2 ) . it is frequently found on rocky and coral reefs , and in channels between mangroves keys and sand flats ( 2 ) .
mean depth of observation differed between species , with five species ( tawny nurse , tiger , white tip reef , black tip reef and grey reef ) observed predominantly on shallow sites ( < 40 m ) and three species ( silvertip , scalloped and great hammerheads ) observed mainly on deeper sites . 95 % confidence intervals for the mean depths indicate that the two groups occupied significantly different depth ranges ( fig 4 ) .
in the present study , we evaluate data from the shark reef marine reserve , a multi - species shark feeding site in fiji [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] . up to eight different species of sharks can be encountered at shark reef , namely bull sharks carcharhinus leucas , whitetip reef sharks triaenodon obesus , blacktip reef sharks carcharhinus melanopterus , tawny nurse sharks nebrius ferrugineus , silvertip sharks carcharhinus albimarginatus , sicklefin lemon sharks negaprion acutidens , c . amblyrhynchos and g . cuvier . since 2003 , parts of shark reef have been declared as a no - take zone that is visited 3 to 4 times per week by a single dive operator [ 17 ] . previous research from this site has shown that the number of c . leucas , the numerically dominant species at the shark reef marine reserve , increased over the years , but decreased over the course of a calendar year [ 9 ] , [ 16 ] . in 2006 , a competitor dive operator started to conduct shark feeding dives on the neighbouring lake reef ( fig . 1a ) , mostly on the same days and times when dives on shark reef take place .
the whale shark , rhincodon typus , is a livebearer : 300 embryos found in one ‘megamamma’ supreme .
it wouldn’t have occurred to me that the lack of females featured in shark week was an issue until i started a non - profit to fund shark research . at events , i met young girls that were being told by other kids that , “only boys like sharks” and being discouraged from following their passion . i realized that if your only experience with shark research / conservation is shark week – like it is for most kids – you may believe that shark science is a career only for men . the reality is , shark science is comprised of many women who live every week like it’s shark week . i wanted to find a way to connect the two groups , and so the gills club was born !
the nurse shark is included as a vulnerable species in the official list of endangered animals in brazil , fisheries are managed within united states ' waters , and the colombian government is considering a ban on the nurse shark fishery along with an extensive habitat protection campaign ( 1 ) . however , in regions outside of the western atlantic , the lack of data makes it difficult to assess the status of populations , and subsequently to implement appropriate conservation measures . measures recommended include the regulation of spear - fishing and the marine ornamental fish trade , compulsory release of incidentally caught sharks , and the establishment of no - fishing areas encompassing mating and breeding grounds ( 1 ) . countries should be motivated to take action to prevent over - fishing of the nurse shark as it is likely to be far more valuable alive for dive - tourism than as fisheries products ( 6 ) .
nocturnal by nature , the tawny nurse shark is most commonly seen during the day resting in caves or under ledges . by night , these predators use their large pharynx as a powerful suction pump to rapidly suck in reef organisms from inside holes and crevices . food of this shark includes corals , crabs , lobsters and other crustaceans , sea urchins , and reef fish including surgeonfish ( acanthuridae ) , queenfish ( carangidae ) and rabbitfish ( siganidas ) . these sharks may be one of the few animals that specializes in preying upon octopus , which may explain the timid nature of the abundant octopus we have observed hiding in reef crevices .
since the 1950s lemon sharks and the common atlantic nurse shark have been used in experiments to test the ability of sharks to learn . experiments performed in the 1960s showed that nurse sharks could be trained to respond to a sound signal from a bell and could remember the training after a several - month break between training sessions . other experiments conducted by the u . s . navy showed that they could be trained to retrieve a ring thrown into a pool by a trainer .
' plurse ' sounds rather like an example of the pidgin english widely spoken throughout much of melanesia , suggesting the possibility that it was the south pacific islanders who slurred the english word ' nurse ' and that ipso facto the english term for the shark in question predates the south pacific one .
the geographical range of the tawny nurse shark ranges includes waters off of south africa , mozambique , mauritius , seychelles , chagos archipelago and madagascar to red sea , maldives , persian gulf , india , malaysia , indonesia , singapore , thailand , viet nam , china , taiwan ( province of china ) , japan ( ryukyu islands , southern honshu ) , philippines ( luzon ) , papua new guinea , australia ( western australia , northern territory , and queensland ) , new caledonia , new ireland , samoa , palau , marshall islands , and tahiti .
a new genus and species of tetraphyllidean cestode from the spadenose shark , scoliodon laticaudus , in malaysian borneo .
attachment site specificity and the tapeworm assemblage in the spiral intestine of the blue shark ( prionace glauca ) .
your last resort if you actually get bitten would be to defend yourself by punching or kicking at the shark’s nose or clawing at its eyes and gills , then exiting the water as soon as the shark retreats .
with all of the improvements promised for 2015’s shark week , i do hope that rich ross plays close attention to this blog and that 2016 will feature the much more diverse and exciting reality of modern shark science .
the tawny nurse shark resides in inshore waters that are heavily fished and is often captured in demersal trawls , gill nets , and baited hook and line throughout much of its range outside of australia . in australian waters , this species is taken in small numbers as bycatch in gillnets and meshing . off queensland , australia it is fished recreationally as a big game fish and are prized as powerful fighters . the flesh is marketed as fresh or dried salted for human consumption while the fins are shipped to the asian shark fin market . its liver may also be utilized for vitamins and oil , the offal processed into fishmeal , and the thick hide used for leather .
this has been described as a much more docile species than its close relative , ginglymostoma cirratum , and apparently usually allows humans to touch and play with it without biting . however , there are a few non - fatal attack records of these sharks biting their tormentors , and clamping tightly onto them . because of its size and strength , the tawny shark should be regarded as potentially dangerous and treated with respect . this is a tough , hardy shark that readily survives in captivity .
they are thought to take advantage of dormant fish which would otherwise be too fast for the sharks to catch ; although their small mouths limit the size of prey items , the sharks have large throat cavities which are used as a sort of bellows valve . in this way nurse sharks are able to suck in their prey with a short , violent influx of water . nurse sharks are also known to consume
maximization of evolutionary trends for placental viviparity in the spadenose shark , scoliodon laticaudus . env . biol . fish .
a new species of calliobothrium ( tetraphyllidea : onchobothriidae ) from the whiskery shark , furgaleus macki , in australia .
effects of large - scale anthropogenic development on juvenile lemon shark ( negaprion brevirostris ) populations of bimini , bahamas .
named the best shark dive in the world by diving legends ron and valerie taylor , the fiji shark dive has been experienced by countless diving icons , professional photographers and cameramen , industry professionals and clients alike . this is the original and unmatched product featuring fiji’s unique and highly experienced crew of shark divers – much copied but never equalled !
in order to determine changes in species composition and relative abundances at the shark reef marine reserve , we asked the following questions : 1 ) did species composition and / or encounter rates change over time at the shark reef marine reserve ? 2 ) are there seasonal and / or long - term changes in relative abundance of the different shark species at the feeding site ? 3 ) does the presence of a competitor operator conducting shark feeds at a nearby reef have an effect on shark abundance at the shark reef feeding site ? in answering these questions , our results provide baseline data on the long - term trends in relative abundance and seasonal cycles , and help elucidate whether the numbers of the eight species of sharks visiting the shark reef marine reserve changed over the years . additionally , our data provide important fisheries - independent information on shark populations that can supplement long - term monitoring and serve for conservation purposes .
very little is known about most shark mating rituals , and the same holds true for the nurse shark . the atlantic nurse shark has been observed mating on the ocean floor . in general , the male inseminates the female with his claspers ( these are located between the male ' s pelvic fins ) . during mating he turns his claspers foward and inserts one into the female and transfers his sperm . nurse sharks can be either oviparous or ovoviparous . in oviparous organisms the eggs develop and hatch on the outside of the body . the pups , as baby sharks are called , hatch out of a leathery protective covering with the yolk attached and stay on the ocean floor until they fully mature . in ovoviparous creatures the eggs develop on the inside of the body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion by the parent . the yolk of these pups are hatched inside the uterus before the pups are developed , and they too have leathery eggs . these sharks have from 20 - 30 pups at a time . nurse sharks grow about 13 centimeters in length and 2 - 3 kilograms a year . they do not reach sexually maturity until they are from 15 to 20 years old .
to help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .
the tawny shark embryos are oophagous , unique among carpet sharks , meaning that while they are still inside the mother’s uterus they feed on eggs produced by the ovary . generally 1 to 4 pups are born ( however up to 8 live young have been recorded ) and each measures about 40 cm . juveniles can be distinguished from adults by the presence of small dark spots on their skin .


rana is a genus of frogs commonly known as the holarctic true frogs , pond frogs or brown frogs .

members of this genus are found through much of eurasia , north america , central america , and the northern half of south america .

many other genera were formerly included here .

these true frogs are usually largish species characterized by their slim waists and wrinkled skin ; many have thin ridges running along their backs , but they generally lack " warts " as in typical toads .

they are excellent jumpers due to their long , slender legs .

the typical webbing found on their hind feet allows for easy movement through water .

coloration is mostly greens and browns above , with darker and yellowish spots .

rana ( genus )

( rana toro ) , en ambientes precordilleranos de la provincia de san juan , argentina . ' '
this species is very adaptable with minimal threats except for pollution and invasive species such as rana catesbeiana ( iucn 2006 ) .
rana clamitans bronze frog , green frog ( r . c . melanotus ) , bronze frog ( r . c . clamitans ) subgenus : aquarana
matsui , t . , and matsui , m . ( 1990 ) . ' ' a new brown frog ( genus
rana areolata crawfish frog , southern crawfish frog ( r . a . areolatus ) , northern crawfish frog ( r . a . circulosus ) subgenus : pantherana
taxonomic notes : this species was placed in the genus lithobates by frost et al . ( 2006 ) . however , yuan et al . ( 2016 , systematic biology , doi : 10 . 1093 / sysbio / syw055 ) showed that this action created problems of paraphyly in other genera . yuan et al . ( 2016 ) recognized subgenera within rana for the major traditional species groups , with lithobates used as the subgenus for the rana palmipes group . amphibiaweb recommends the optional use of these subgenera to refer to these major species groups , with names written as rana ( aquarana ) catesbeiana , for example .
che j . , pang j . f . , zhao e . m . , matsui m . , zhang y . p . ( 2007 ) . ' ' phylogenetic relationships of the chinese brown frogs ( genus rana ) inferred from partial mitochondrial 12s and 16s rrna gene sequences . ' '
case , s . m . ( museum of vertebrate zoology and departments of zoology and biochemistry , university of california , berkeley , california 94720 ) 1978 . biochemical systematics of members of the genus rana native to western north america . syst . zool . 27 : 299–311 . —few supraspecific groups have been defined in north american ranids and the informal groupings which are recognized are often poorly characterized . two biochemical methods , starch gel electrophoresis and microcomplement fixation , have been used in an examination of the evolutionary relationships among western north american frogs of the genus rana . both the electrophoretic and albumin comparisons indicate that the rana boylii species group presently includes two very different evolutionary lineages . rana aurora , r . boylii , r . cascadae , r . muscosa , and r . pretiosa are all members of one lineage allied to r . temporaria of europe . a mexican species traditionally included in this group , r . tarahumarae , is most closely related to other members of the genus that occur in mexico and is part of a larger lineage that also includes r . pipiens . frogs found in eastern north america diverged from western european frogs in mid - eocene ; estimates of divergence time are consistent with the hypothesis that separation of these lineages coincided with the end of a land connection between europe and north america . the catesbeiana , pipiens , and tarahumarae groups diverged from each other in the oligocene . western north american rana diverged from a eurasian ancestor in the oligocene and radiated in this area to form the five members of the boylii group .
a116 . van der meijden , a . , r . boistel , j . gerlach , a . ohler , m . vences & a . meyer ( 2007 ) : molecular phylogenetic evidence for paraphyly of the genus sooglossus , with the description of a new genus of seychellean frogs . – biological journal of the linnean society 91 : 347 - 359 .
mueses - cisneros , j . j . and ballén , g . ( 2007 ) . ' ' un nuevo caso de alerta sobre posible amenaza a una fauna nativa de anfibios en colombia : primer reporte de la rana toro (
pereyra , m . o . , baldo , d . , and krauczuc , e . r . ( 2006 ) . ' ' la ‘‘rana toro’’ en la selva atlántica interior argentina : un nuevo problema de conservación . ' '
a99 . glaw , f . & m . vences ( 2006 ) . phylogeny and genus - level classification of mantellid frogs . – organisms diversity and evolution 6 : 236 - 253 . ( pdf )
matsui , m . , bassarukin , a . m . , kasugai , k . , tanabe , s . and takenaka , s . ( 1994 ) . ' ' morphological comparisons of brown frogs ( genus
previous species lists may refer to this frog as rana palmipes ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . savage ( 2002 ) and guyer and donnelly ( 2005 ) follow the systematic treatment of hillis and de sã¡ ( 1988 ) , in separating the two species based on morphology .
a67 . lötters , s . , e . la marca & m . vences ( 2004 ) : redescriptions of two toad species of the genus atelopus from coastal venezuela . – copeia 2004 : 222 - 234 . ( pdf )
a192 . jovanovic , o . & m . vences ( 2010 ) : skeletochronological analysis of age structure in populations of four species of malagasy poisonous frogs , genus mantella . – amphibia - reptilia 31 : 553 - 557 . ( pdf )
a101 . vejarano , s . , m . thomas & m . vences ( 2006 ) : comparative larval morphology in madagascan frogs of the genus guibemantis ( anura : mantellidae ) . – zootaxa 1329 : 39 - 57 . ( pdf )
> green frogs ( rana clamitans ) defend calling territories against intrusion by other males by kicking , bumping , and biting . the south american nest - building hylid , hyla faber , has a long , sharp spine on the thumb with which males wound each other when wrestling . the small central american dendrobates… …
a349 . vences , m . , v . sarasola - puente , e . sanchez , f . amat & j . s . hauswaldt ( 2017 ) : diversity and distribution of deep mitochondrial lineages of the common frog , rana temporaria , in northern spain .  salamandra 53 : 2533 . ( pdf )
a34 . vences , m . , m . puente , s . nieto & d . r . vieites ( 2002 ) : phenotypic plasticity of anuran larvae : environmental variables influence body shape and oral morphology in rana temporaria tadpoles . – journal of zoology , london 257 : 155 - 162 . ( pdf )
a83 . vences , m . , f . andreone & f . glaw ( 2005 ) : a new microhylid frog of the genus cophyla from a transitional forest in northwestern madagascar . – african zoology 40 : 143 - 149 . ( pdf )
a312 . segev , o . , a . rodriguez , s . hauswaldt , k . hugemann & m . vences ( 2015 ) : flatworms ( schmidtea nova ) prey upon embryos of the common frog ( rana temporaria ) and induce minor developmental acceleration .  amphibia - reptilia 36 : 155163 . ( pdf )
matsui , m . , shimada , t . , liu , m . z . , manyati , m . , khomsue , w . , and orlov , n . ( 2006 ) . ' ' phylogenetic relationships of oriental torrent frogs in the genus
a94 . vences , m . , f . andreone & d . r . vieites ( 2005 ) : new treefrog of the genus boophis tschudi 1838 from the northwestern rainforests of madagascar . – tropical zoology 18 : 237 - 249 . ( pdf )
a20 . vences , m . , p . galán , a . palanca , d . r . vieites , s . nieto & j . rey ( 2000 ) : summer microhabitat use and diel activity cycles in a high altitude pyrenean population of rana temporaria . – herpetological journal 10 : 49 - 56 . ( pdf )
a318 . köhler , j . , f . glaw , m . pabijan & m . vences ( 2015 ) : integrative taxonomic revision of mantellid frogs of the genus aglyptodactylus ( anura : mantellidae ) .  zootaxa 4006 : 401 - 438 . ( pdf )
a104 . vejarano , s . , m . thomas & m . vences ( 2006 ) : comparative tadpole morphology in three species of frogs of the genus spinomantis ( amphibia : mantellidae ) . – contributions to zoology 75 : 99 - 108 . ( pdf )
a384 . dittrich , c . , a . rodríguez , o . segev , s . drakulic , h . feldhaar , m . vences & m . - o . rödel ( 2018 ) : temporal migration patterns and mating tactics influence size - assortative mating in rana temporaria . behavioral ecology 29 : 418 - 428 . ( pdf )
a16 . vences , m . , n . piqué , a . lopez , m . puente , c . miramontes , d . rodriguez ( 1999 ) : summer habitat population density and size classes of rana temporaria in a high altitude pyrenean population . – amphibia - reptilia 20 ( 4 ) : 440 - 443 . ( pdf )
a308 . miralles , a . , f . glaw , f . m . ratsoavina & m . vences ( 2015 ) : a likely microendemic new species of terrestrial iguana , genus chalarodon , from madagascar .  zootaxa 3946 : 201 - 220 . ( pdf )
a137 . wollenberg , k . c . , f . andreone , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2008 ) : pretty in pink : a new treefrog species of the genus boophis from north - eastern madagascar . – zootaxa 1684 : 58 - 68 .
a23 . mausfeld , p . , m . vences , a . schmitz & m . veith ( 2000 ) : first data on the molecular phylogeography of scincid lizards of the genus mabuya . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 17 : 11 - 14 . ( pdf )
a11 . vences , m . , a . hille & f . glaw ( 1998 ) : allozyme differentiation in the genus mantella ( amphibia : anura : mantellinae ) . – folia zoologica 47 ( 4 ) : 261 - 274 . ( pdf , low resolution )
a48 . vences , m . , k . grossenbacher , m . puente , a . palanca & d . r . vieites ( 2003 ) : the cambalès fairy tale : elevational limits of rana temporaria ( amphibia : ranidae ) and other european amphibians revisited . – folia zoologica 52 ( 2 ) : 189 - 202 . ( pdf )
a45 . veith m . , m . vences , d . r . vieites , s . nieto - roman & a . palanca ( 2002 ) : genetic differentiation and population structure within the spanish common frogs ( rana temporaria complex ; ranidae , amphibia ) . – folia zoologica 51 ( 2 ) : 307 - 318 . ( pdf )
a174 . vallan , d . , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2010 ) : forceps delivery of a new treefrog species of the genus boophis from eastern madagascar ( amphibia : mantellidae ) . – amphibia - reptilia 31 : 1 - 8 . ( pdf )
a133 . köhler , j . f . glaw & m . vences ( 2007 ) : a new green treefrog , genus boophis tschudi 1838 ( anura mantellidae ) , from arid western madagascar : phylogenetic relationships and biogeogeographic implications . – tropical zoology 20 : 215 - 227 .
a175 . galán , p . , a . - k . ludewig , j . kmiec , s . hauswaldt , m . cabana , r . ferreiro , m . vences ( 2010 ) : low mitochondrial divergence of rediscovered southern relict populations of rana temporaria parvipalmata in spain . – amphibia - reptilia 31 : 144 - 148 . ( pdf )
a283 . orozco - terwengel , p . , f . andreone , e . louis jr . & m . vences ( 2013 ) mitochondrial introgressive hybridization following a demographic expansion in the tomato frogs of madagascar , genus dyscophus . – molecular ecology 22 : 6074–6090 . ( pdf )
a193 . rasolonjatovo hiobiarilanto , t . , r . - d . randrianiaina , j . glos , a . strauß & m . vences ( 2010 ) : description of ten tadpoles in the genus boophis from madagascar . – zootaxa 2694 : 1 - 25 . ( pdf )
a161 . rocha , s . , m . vences , f . glaw , d . posada & d . j . harris ( 2009 ) : multigene phylogeny of malagasy day geckos of the genus phelsuma . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 52 : 530 - 537 . ( pdf )
a110 . aliabadian , m . , m . kaboli , r . prodon , v . nijman & m . vences ( 2007 ) : phylogeny of palearctic wheatears ( genus oenanthe ) - congruence between morphometric and molecular data . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 42 : 665 - 675 .
a64 . grosjean , s . , m . vences & a . dubois ( 2004 ) : evolutionary significance of oral morphology in the carnivorous tadpoles of tiger frogs , genus hoplobatrachus ( ranidae ) . – biological journal of the linnean society 81 : 171 - 181 . ( pdf )
a253 . lehtinen , r . m . , f . glaw , f . andreone , m . pabijan & m . vences ( 2012 ) : a new species of putatively pond breeding frog of the genus guibemantis from madagascar . – copeia 2012 : 648 - 662 . ( pdf )
a383 . vences . m . , j . r . rasoloariniaina & j . c . riemann ( 2018 ) : a preliminary assessment of genetic divergence and distribution of malagasy cave fish in the genus typhleotris ( teleostei : milyeringidae ) .  zootaxa 4378 : 367 - 376 . ( pdf )
a375 . rakotoarison , a . , m . d . scherz , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2017 ) : rediscovery of frogs belonging to the enigmatic microhylid genus madecassophryne in the anosy massif , south - eastern madagascar .  salamandra 53 : 507 - 518 . ( pdf )
a167 . glaw , f . , j . köhler & m . vences ( 2009 ) : a distinctive new species of chameleon of the genus furcifer ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) from the montagne d ' ambre rainforest of northern madagascar . – zootaxa 2269 : 32 - 42 . ( pdf )
a126 . grosjean , s . , j . glos , m . teschke , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2007 ) : comparative larval morphology of madagascan toadlets of the genus scaphiophryne : phylogenetic and taxonomic inferences . – zoological journal of the linnean society 151 : 555 - 576 .
a325 . vences . m . , o . jovanovic , g . safarek , f . glaw & j . köhler ( 2015 ) : a new arboreal frog of the genus guibemantis from the southeast of madagascar ( anura : mantellidae ) .  zootaxa 4059 : 569 - 580 . ( pdf )
a162 . jovanovic , o . , j . glos , f . glaw , r . - d . randrianiaina & m . vences ( 2009 ) : comparative larval morphology in madagascan frogs of the genus mantella ( amphibia : mantellidae ) . – zootaxa 2124 : 21 - 37 . ( pdf )
a55 . andreone , f . , g . aprea , m . vences & g . odierna ( 2003 ) : a new frog of the genus mantidactylus from the rainforests of north - eastern madagascar , and its karyological affinities . – amphibia - reptilia 24 : 285 - 303 . ( pdf )
a225 . raharivololoniaina , l . , o . verneau , p . berthier , m . vences & l . du preez ( 2011 ) : first monogenean flatworm from a microhylid frog host : kankana , a new polystome genus from madagascar . – parasitology international 60 : 465 - 473 . ( pdf )
a176 . vences , m . , f . glaw , j . köhler & k . c . wollenberg ( 2010 ) : molecular phylogeny , morphology and bioacoustics reveal five additional species of arboreal microhylids of the genus anodonthyla from madagascar . – contributions to zoology 79 : 1 - 32 . ( pdf )
a113 . greenbaum , e . , a . m . bauer , t . r . jackman , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2007 ) : a phylogeny of the enigmatic madagascan geckos of the genus uroplatus ( squamata : gekkonidae ) . – zootaxa 1493 : 41 - 51 . ( pdf )
a100 . raharivololoniaina , l . , s . grosjean , n . rasoamampionona raminosoa , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2006 ) : molecular identification , description and phylogenetic implications of the tadpoles of 11 species of malagasy treefrogs , genus boophis . – journal of natural history 40 : 1449 - 1480 .
a28 . kosuch , j . , m . vences , a . dubois , a . ohler & w . böhme ( 2001 ) : out of asia : mitochondrial dna evidence for an oriental origin of tiger frogs , genus hoplobatrachus . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 21 : 398 - 407 . ( pdf )
a229 . veith , m . , a . baumgart , a . dubois , a . ohler , p . galán , d . r . vieites , s . nieto - román & m . vences ( 2012 ) . discordant patterns of nuclear and mitochondrial introgression in iberian populations of the european common frog ( rana temporaria ) . – journal of heredity 103 : 240 - 249 . ( pdf )
a194 . du preez , l . h . , l . raharivololoniaina , o . verneau & m . vences ( 2010 ) : a new genus of polystomatid flatworm ( monogenea : polystomatidae ) without free - swimming life stage from the malagasy poison frogs . – zootaxa 2722 : 54 - 68 . ( pdf )
a35 . schaefer , h . - c . , m . vences & m . veith ( 2002 ) : molecular phylogeny of malagasy poison frogs , genus mantella ( anura : mantellidae ) : homoplastic evolution of colour pattern in aposematic amphibians . – organisms diversity and evolution 2 : 97 - 105 . ( pdf )
a324 . scherz , m . d . , b . ruthensteiner , d . r . vieites , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2015 ) : two new microhylid frogs of the genus rhombophryne with superciliary spines from the tsaratanana massif in northern madagascar .  herpetologica 71 : 310 - 321 . ( pdf )
a256 . lemme , i . , m . erbacher , n . kaffenberger , m . vences & j . köhler ( 2013 ) : molecules and morphology suggest cryptic species diversity and an overall complex taxonomy of fish scale geckos , genus geckolepis . – organisms diversity and evolution 13 : 87 - 95 . ( pdf )
a21 . glaw , f . , m . vences & v . gossmann ( 2000 ) : a new species of mantidactylus from madagascar , with a comparative survey of internal femoral gland structure in the genus ( amphibia : ranidae : mantellinae ) . – journal of natural history 34 : 1135 - 1154 . ( pdf )
a227 . kaffenberger , n . , k . c . wollenberg , j . köhler , f . glaw , d . r . vieites , & m . vences ( 2012 ) : molecular phylogeny and biogeography of malagasy frogs of the genus gephyromantis . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 62 : 555 - 560 . ( pdf )
a216 . pabijan , m . , p . - s . gehring , j . köhler , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2011 ) : a new microendemic frog species of the genus blommersia ( anura : mantellidae ) from the east coast of madagascar . – zootaxa 2978 : 34 - 50 . ( pdf )
a210 . miralles , a . , a . p . raselimanana , d . rakotomalala , m . vences & d . r . vieites ( 2011 ) : a new large and colorful skink of the genus amphiglossus from madagascar revealed by morphology and multilocus molecular study . – zootaxa 2918 : 47 - 67 . ( pdf )
a296 . scherz , m . d . , b . ruthensteiner , m . vences & f . glaw ( 2014 ) : a new microhylid frog , genus rhombophryne , from northeastern madagascar , and a re - description of r . serratopalpebrosa using micro - computed tomography . – zootaxa 3860 : 547 - 560 . ( pdf )
a221 . randrianiaina , r . d . , k . c . wollenberg , t . rasolonjatovo hiobiarilanto , a . strauß , j . glos & m . vences ( 2011 ) nidicolous tadpoles rather than direct development in malagasy frogs of the genus gephyromantis . – journal of natural history 45 : 2871 - 2900 . ( pdf )
a222 . köhler , j . , f . glaw , g . m . rosa , p . - s . gehring , m . pabijan , f . andreone & m . vences ( 2011 ) : two new bright - eyed treefrogs of the genus boophis from madagascar . – salamandra 47 : 207 - 221 . ( pdf )
a135 . jackman , t . r . , a . m . bauer , e . greenbaum , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2008 ) : molecular phylogenetic relationships among species of the malagasy - comoran gecko genus paroedura ( squamata : gekkonidae ) . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 : 74 - 81 . ( pdf )
a274 . klages , j . , f . glaw , j . köhler , j . müller , c . a . hipsley & m . vences ( 2013 ) : molecular , morphological and osteological differentiation of a new species of microhylid frog of the genus stumpffia from northwestern madagascar . – zootaxa 3717 : 280 - 300 . ( pdf )
a115 . glaw , f . , z . t . nagy , m . franzen & m . vences ( 2007 ) : molecular phylogeny and systematics of the pseudoxyrhophiine snake genus liopholidophis ( reptilia , colubridae ) : evolution of its exceptional sexual dimorphism and descriptions of new taxa . – zoologica scripta 36 : 291 - 300 . ( pdf )
a128 . nagy , z . t . , f . glaw , f . andreone , m . wink & m . vences ( 2007 ) : species boundaries in malagasy snakes of the genus madagascarophis ( serpentes : colubridae sensu lato ) assessed by nuclear and mitochondrial markers . – organisms diversity & evolution 7 : 241 - 251 . ( pdf )
a235 . randrianiaina , r . d . , a . strauß , j . glos & m . vences ( 2012 ) : diversity of strongly rheophilous tadpoles of malagasy tree frogs , genus boophis ( anura , mantellidae ) , and identification of new candidate species via larval dna sequence and morphology . – zookeys 178 : 59 - 124 . ( pdf )
a121 . glaw , f . , j . köhler , p . bora , n . h . c . rabibisoa , o . ramilijaona & m . vences ( 2007 ) : discovery of the genus plethodontohyla ( anura : microhylidae ) in dry western madagascar : description of a new species and biogeographic implications . – zootaxa 1577 : 61 - 68 .
a5 . ziegler , t . , m . vences , f . glaw & w . böhme ( 1997 ) : genital morphology and systematics of geodipsas boulenger , 1896 ( reptilia : serpentes : colubridae ) , with description of a new genus . – revue suisse de zoologie 104 ( 1 ) : 95 - 114 . ( pdf , low resolution )
two subspecies are recognized , based on morphological differences among larvae and adults ( goin and netting , 1940 ; bragg , 1953 ) . southern crawfish frogs ( rana a . areolata ) occur from east - central texas east through central and northern louisiana and southern arkansas , and north into southeastern oklahoma . northern crawfish frogs ( rana a . circulosa ) occur in the northern and eastern portions of the species distribution . sympatry between the subspecies occurs in the tallgrass prairie region between the canadian and arkansas rivers in oklahoma , and in southern arkansas ( bragg , 1953 ; conant and collins , 1998 ) . the similarity of r . areolata to the related florida gopher frog–dusky gopher frog ( r . capito – r . sevosa ) complex may contribute to inaccurate distribution records ( mount , 1975 ; martof et al . , 1980 ; altig and lohoefener , 1983 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ; young and crother , 2001 ) . rana areolata , r . capito , and r . sevosa are distinct species ( goin and netting , 1940 ; hillis et al . , 1983 ; hillis , 1988 ; young and crother , 2001 ) and allopatrically distributed , although they are only separated by a narrow region in south - central mississippi and central louisiana ( dundee and rossman , 1989 ; conant and collins , 1998 ) , where morphologically intermediate animals were noted by neill ( 1957d ) .
a98 . chiari , y . , p . orozco - terwengel , m . vences , d . r : vieites , a . sarovy , j . e : randrianirina , a . meyer & e . louis jr . ( 2006 ) : genetic identification of units for conservation in tomato frogs , genus dyscophus . – conservation genetics 7 : 473 - 482 .
a153 . randrianiaina , r . - d . , l . raharivololoniaina , c . preuss , a . strauß . f . glaw , m . teschke , j . glos , n . raminosoa & m . vences ( 2009 ) : descriptions of the tadpoles of seven species of malagasy treefrogs , genus boophis . – zootaxa 2021 : 23 - 41 . ( pdf )
a288 . glaw , f . , c . kucharzewski , z . t . nagy , o . hawlitschek & m . vences ( 2013 ) : new insights into the systematics and molecular phylogeny of the malagasy snake genus liopholidophis suggest at least one rapid reversal of extreme sexual dimorphism in tail length . – organisms , diversity and evolution 14 : 121 - 132 . ( pdf )
a197 . randrianiaina , r . d . , a . strauß , j . glos , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2011 ) : diversity , external morphology and ‘reverse taxonomy’ in the specialized tadpoles of malagasy river bank frogs of the subgenus ochthomantis ( genus mantidactylus ) . – contributions to zoology 80 : 17 - 65 . ( pdf ) ( pdf high resolution )
a178 . rocha , s . , h . rösler , p . - s . gehring , f . glaw , d . posada , d . j . harris & m . vences ( 2010 ) : phylogenetic systematics of day geckos , genus phelsuma , based on molecular and morphological data ( squamata : gekkonidae ) . – zootaxa 2429 : 1 - 28 . ( pdf )
a37 . vences , m . , f . andreone , f . glaw , j . kosuch , a . meyer , h . - c . schaefer & m . veith ( 2002 ) : exploring the potential of life - history key innovation : brook breeding in the radiation of the malagasy treefrog genus boophis . – molecular ecology 11 : 1453 - 1463 . ( pdf )
males call from floating vegetation , or the shore , both day and night but more frequently at night during the breeding season ( savage 2002 ) . the advertisement and territorial call consists of a complex series of squalls and chortles , with the variability of noises giving the impression that several species are present at the same time ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . the call may even be reminiscent of sounds produced by rubbing a hand across an inflated balloon ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . this frog also gives a high - pitched , single - note alarm call sounding like a ' yip ' while leaping toward safety , and a captured individual may give prolonged , high - pitched calls while being handled by its captors ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) . the call given by this frog at la selva , costa rica is similar to that of taylor ' s leopard frog ( rana taylori , formerly rana pipiens ) and its relatives ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) .
a122 . wohltmann , a . , l . du preez , m . - o . rödel , j . köhler & m . vences ( 2007 ) : endoparasitic mites of the genus endotrombicula ewing , 1931 ( acari : prostigmata : parasitengona : trombiculidae ) from african and madagascan anurans , with description of a new species . – folia parasitologica 54 : 225 - 235 . ( pdf )
a226 . ohler , a . , k . c . wollenberg , s . grosjean , r . hendrix , m . vences , t . ziegler & a . dubois ( 2011 ) : sorting out lalos : description of new species and additional taxonomic data on megophryid frogs from northern indochina ( genus leptolalax , megophryidae , anura ) . – zootaxa 3147 : 1 - 83 . ( pdf )
a158 . franzen , m . , j . jones , a . p . raselimanana , z . t . nagy , n . d ' cruze , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2009 ) : a new black - bellied snake ( pseudoxrhophiinae : liophidium ) from western madagascar , with notes on the genus pararhadinaea . – amphibia - reptilia 30 : 173 - 183 . ( pdf )
a7 . glaw , f . , m . vences & w . böhme ( 1998 ) : systematic revision of the genus aglyptodactylus boulenger , 1919 ( amphibia : ranidae ) , and analysis of its phylogenetic relationships to other madagascan ranid genera ( tomopterna , boophis , mantidactylus , and mantella ) . – journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 36 ( 1 ) : 17 - 37 . ( pdf )
in contrast , parasites are not a major cause of mortality . this frog has relatively few parasites in comparison to other species of frogs , despite its aquatic lifestyle which favors the life cycle of gorgoderina and many other digeneans . studies have reported only 25 helminth species parasitizing rana vaillanti including several species of gorgoderina : g . attenuata , g . diaster , g . parvicava , and g . megacetabularis . the site of infection is the urinary bladder ( ramirez et al . 1998 ; mata - lã³pez et al . 2005 ) .
a376 . miralles , a . , a . macleod , a . rodríguez , a . ibañez , g . jiménez - uzcategui , g . quezada , m . vences & s . steinfartz ( 2017 ) : shedding light on the imps of darkness : an integrative taxonomic revision of the galápagos marine iguanas ( genus amblyrhynchus ) .  zoological journal of the linnean society 181 : 678 - 710 . ( pdf )
a278 . ratsoavina , f . m . , n . r . raminosoa , e . e . louis jr . , a . p . raselimanana , f . glaw & m . vences ( 2013 ) : an overview of madagascar’s leaf tailed geckos ( genus uroplatus ) : species boundaries , candidate species and review of geographical distribution based on molecular data . – salamandra 49 : 115 - 148 . ( pdf )
a270 . vences , m . , j . s . hauswaldt , s . steinfartz , o . rupp , a . goesmann , s . künzel , p . orozco - terwengel , d . r . vieites , s . nieto - roman , s . haas , c . laugsch , m . gehara , s . bruchmann , m . pabijan , a . - k . ludewig , d . rudert , c . angelini , l . j . borkin , p . - a . crochet , a . crottini , a . dubois , g . f . ficetola , p . galán , p . geniez , m . hachtel , o . jovanovic , s . n . litvinchuk , p . lymberakis , a . ohler , n . a . smirnov ( 2013 ) : radically different phylogeographies and patterns of genetic variation in two european brown frogs , genus rana . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 68 : 657 - 670 . ( pdf )
a recent genetic study of gopher frog ( rana capito ) populations across the current geographic distribution ( mississippi–north carolina ) by young and crother ( 2001 ) indicated that the mississippi population was genetically distinct . young and crother ( 2001 ) therefore elevated the mississippi population to specific status by resurrecting rana sevosa goin and netting ( 1940 ; dusky gopher frog ) , because this population is the only one remaining in the historical geographic range of rana sevosa ( louisiana to mobile county , alabama ) as described by goin and netting ( 1940 ) . assigning the population discovered in baldwin county , alabama , after the publication of goin and netting ( 1940 ) to r . sevosa or r . capito is difficult because this population was not included in their study and has since become extinct . netting and goin ( 1942a ) assigned this population to r . sevosa based on the then known distribution of r . sevosa ( louisiana to mobile county , alabama ) and r . capito ( florida to north carolina ) . however , populations later discovered in counties proximate to baldwin county were included in the genetic study of young and crother ( 2001 ) and were not genetically distinct from all other populations sampled east of the mobile bay ( thus remaining r . capito ) . based on this evidence , we assign the baldwin county population to r . capito ( as indicated by the geographic range maps ) and note the inherent uncertainty . it currently is not possible to determine the location of the contact zone between r . sevosa and r . capito , but the extensive mobile basin creates a logical barrier to dispersal and thus probably separates the two species .
c . larvae / metamorphosis . larvae hatch within 7–15 d after oviposition and metamorphose in 63–75 d in the field ( bragg , 1953 ; johnson , 1987 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . hatching occurs in 7–10 d and metamorphosis in 80–95 d in the laboratory ( m . redmer , personal observations ) . parris and semlitsch ( 1998 ) demonstrated that crawfish frogs have an average larval period of 65 d when reared in artificial ponds , and that this increases to an upper limit of 90 d when reared with larvae of other rana species . larvae feed primarily on phytoplankton and algae ( bragg , 1953 ; parris and semlitsch , 1998 ) . larvae reach up to 63 mm in length before metamorphosing and are distinguishable from other rana larvae by having a relatively narrow interruption between the two halves of the inner row of upper labial teeth ( smith et al . , 1948 ; bragg , 1953 ) and by a series of dermal pits along the lateral line ( bragg , 1953 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ) . newly metamorphosed individuals are 30 mm in svl and weigh 2–3 g ( wright and myers , 1927 ; smith , 1961 ; parris and semlitsch , 1998 ) .
a287 . vences , m . , e . sanchez , j . s . hauswaldt , d . eikelmann , a . rodríguez , s . carranza , d . donaire , m . gehara , v . helfer , s . lötters , p . werner , s . schulz & s . steinfartz ( 2014 ) : nuclear and mitochondrial multilocus phylogeny and survey of alkaloid content in true salamanders of the genus salamandra ( salamandridae ) . – molecular phylogenetics and evolution 73 : 208 - 216 . ( pdf )
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . crawfish frogs may be excluded from larval communities containing plains leopard frogs ( rana blairi ) or southern leopard frogs ( r . sphenocephala ) because of weak interspecific competitive ability ( parris and semlitsch , 1998 ) . they may breed syntopically with northern cricket frogs ( acris crepitans ) , american toads ( bufo americanus ) , cope’s gray treefrogs ( hyla chrysoscelis ) , eastern gray treefrogs ( h . versicolor ) , spring peepers ( pseudacris crucifer ) , western chorus frogs ( p . triseriata ) , plains leopard frogs , green frogs ( r . clamitans ) , and southern leopard frogs ( wright and myers , 1927 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ; m . j . p . , personal observation ) .
1 . historical versus current distribution . dusky gopher frogs ( rana sevosa ) are endemic to the coastal plain of louisiana ( saint tammany , tangipahoa , and washington parishes ) , mississippi ( hancock , harrison , jackson , and pearl river counties ) , and southwestern alabama ( mobile county ; goin and netting , 1940 ; netting and goin , 1942a ; altig and lohoefener , 1983 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ) . they were last documented in louisiana in 1967 , although they are now thought to be extirpated ( r . thomas , personal communication ) . populations from historical localities in mobile county , alabama , are also thought to be extinct ( mount , 1990 ; m . bailey , personal communication ) . one population was found in mississippi ( harrison county ) following extensive surveys of historical localities and suitable habitat in the late 1980s , but none has been found since ( g . johnson , personal communication ) .
rana vaillanti is semiaquatic , found either at the water ' s edge on land , resting in shallows , or floating among vegetation with only its green head emerging ( savage 2002 ) . it is active throughout the year both during day and night ( ramirez et al . 1998 ) . when startled , if it is on land , it will escape into the water to swim a short distance to a hiding spot on the bottom of the lake ( leenders 2001 ) or under floating vegetation ( savage 2002 ) . this frog is a sit - and - wait predator with a diverse diet of mainly sedentary prey , including a high proportion of invertebrates such as insects ( coleopterans , odontates and areneids ) and spiders , but also including birds , fish , and conspecifics ( ramirez et al . 1998 ) . it forages on the shoreline of the lake , leaping with hind legs completely extended ( guyer and donnelly 2005 ) .
a377 . rakotoarison , a . , m . d . scherz , f . glaw , j . köhler , f . andreone , m . franzen , j . glos , o . hawlitschek , t . jono , a . mori , s . h . ndriantsoa , n . rasoamampionona raminosoa , j . c . riemann , m . o . rödel , g . m . rosa , d . r . vieites , a . crottini & m . vences ( 2017 ) : describing the smaller majority : integrative taxonomy reveals twenty - six new species of tiny microhylid frogs ( genus stumpffia ) from madagascar .  vertebrate zoology 67 : 271 - 398 . ( high - resolution pdf - 75 mb ) ( low - resolution pdf - 15 mb )
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . dusky gopher frogs inhabit the burrows of gopher tortoises , gopherus polyphemus ( allen , 1932 ; wright and wright , 1949 ) and small mammals ( richter et al . , 2001 ) . amphibian species currently known to breed in the same pond as dusky gopher frogs , although not necessarily during the same season , include mole salamanders ( ambystoma talpoideum ) , southern cricket frogs ( acris gryllus ) , southern toads ( bufo terrestris ) , eastern narrow - mouthed toads ( gastrophryne carolinensis ) , green treefrogs ( hyla cinerea ) , pine woods treefrogs ( h . femoralis ) , barking treefrogs ( h . gratiosa ) , squirrel treefrogs ( h . squirella ) , spring peepers ( pseudacris crucifer ) , southern chorus frogs ( p . nigrita ) , ornate chorus frogs ( p . ornata ) , green frogs ( rana clamitans ) , southern leopard frogs ( r . sphenocephala ) , and eastern spadefoot toads ( scaphiopus holbrookii ; allen , 1932 ; g . johnson and s . c . r . , personal observations ) .
k . interspecific associations / exclusions . in new jersey , green frogs and carpenter frogs ( r . virgatipes ) breed in the same lakes and have overlapping breeding seasons , calling site preferences , and vocal repertoires ; they also exhibit generally similar territorial behaviors ( wells , 1977 , 1978 ; given , 1987 , 1990 ) . nevertheless , given ( 1990 ) shows that carpenter frogs are less territorial but more aggressive than are green frogs in these breeding aggregations . working in west virginia , pauley and barron ( 1995 ) observed that green frogs breed in the same ponds as leopard frogs , pickerel frogs , and bullfrogs , but only american bullfrogs have an overlapping breeding season with green frogs . in northern minnesota , green frogs commonly occur with mink frogs ( rana septentrionalis ; oldfield and moriarty , 1994 ) . however , mink frogs usually inhabit floating vegetation in deeper water while green frogs are found along the edges of the water . this habitat partitioning reduces interspecific competition for food ( fleming , 1976 ) . minton ( 1972 ) reports two cases of male green frogs in amplexus with leopard frogs , once with a male and once with a female .
1 . historical versus current distribution . crawfish frogs ( rana areolata ) have a disjunct distribution , with populations localized in areas of suitable habitat . the distribution forms an arc that encircles the eastern , northern , and western boundaries of the ozark plateau , from western indiana and southern illinois , west through south - central iowa , central and southwestern missouri , southeastern kansas , eastern oklahoma , and eastern texas , and from extreme western kentucky south along the mississippi drainage to central mississippi , and across southern arkansas and northwestern louisiana ( wright and myers , 1927 ; goin and netting , 1940 ; bailey , 1943 ; bragg , 1953 ; smith , 1961 ; altig and lohoefener , 1983 ; garrett and barker , 1987 ; johnson , 1987 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ; conant and collins , 1998 ; young and crother , 2001 ) . they are also present in a narrow band along the arkansas river valley in central arkansas ( s . trauth , arkansas state university , personal communication ) . crawfish frogs are absent from the ozark plateau in missouri and arkansas and the mississippi river delta in arkansas and mississippi ( r . altig , mississippi state university , personal communication ) .
rana vaillanti is a large frog with males reaching 67 - 94 mm and females 76 - 125 mm in snout - vent length ( savage 2002 ) . the head is longer than wide , with a pointed snout . the tympanum is large , and exceeds or is equal to the eye diameter . fingers are unwebbed but have a lateral ridge , and also have slightly swollen tips . finger i is longer than finger ii . subarticular tubercles are present under fingers but no supernumerary , plantar , or accessory palmar tubercles are present . the thenar tubercle is elongated and the palmar tubercle is cordate to bifid . on the hindlimb , a weak tarsal ridge is present . toes have expanded tips and are fully webbed , with oblong subarticular tubercles . the inner metatarsal tubercle is present and elongate , but the outer metatarsal tubercle is lacking . dorsal surfaces on this frog are covered with white - tipped denticles , particularly between the two prominent dorsolateral folds . the shank bears longitudinal rows of white - tipped denticles on the dorsal surface . ventrally most surfaces are smooth , but the underside of the tarsus is denticulate . males have paired rounded vocal slits and paired internal subgular vocal sacs , as well as yellowish nuptial excrescences on the dorsolateral surface of the thumb and forearm ( savage 2002 ) .
1 . historical versus current distribution . the range of green frogs ( rana clamitans ) encompasses most of the eastern united states , from the canadian border south to the gulf of mexico . green frogs occur almost everywhere east of a line drawn from central minnesota south through central iowa , southeast through missouri ( excluding the northwestern corner ) , and south through central oklahoma and eastern texas ( conant and collins , 1998 ) . green frogs are absent from the southern half of florida , from much of central illinois ( a distribution smith [ 1961 ] termed puzzling ) , and from half a dozen scattered counties in north - central arkansas . geographic isolates occur in western iowa , northern utah , and in several locations in the state of washington ( stebbins , 1985 ; leonard et al . , 1993 ) . two subspecies are recognized , northern green frogs ( r . c . melanota ) and bronze frogs ( r . c . clamitans ) . they have distributions that are roughly separated along a line from southeastern oklahoma arcing northeast through missouri to southern illinois , then arcing south through western tennessee , and east through northeastern mississippi , northern alabama , and central georgia , and northeast through central south carolina and extreme southeastern north carolina ( conant and collins , 1998 ) . mecham ( 1954 ) discusses the geographic variations of the morphologic features throughout the range , and arndt ( 1977 ) reports a blue variant from delaware . green frogs have been introduced in the states of washington and utah , and in western iowa .
i . breeding migrations . breeding occurs in late winter to early spring : late february to early may in northern regions , january to early april in southern regions ( bragg , 1953 ; smith , 1961 ; garrett and barker , 1987 ; johnson , 1987 ; dundee and rossman , 1989 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . immigration begins after rainfall has filled temporary ponds and a saturation has occurred ( smith et al . , 1947 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . ambient air temperatures of 10–12 ˚c ( minimum 8 ˚c ) are critical to initiate and maintain breeding activity ( smith et al . , 1948 ; bragg , 1953 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ; m . r . , unpublished data ) . some claim that for breeding , crawfish frogs require the most restrictive moisture and temperature conditions of any north american rana ( smith et al . , 1947 ) , but others cite flexibility in reproductive behavior ( bragg , 1953 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ; m . r . , unpublished data ) . males migrate to temporary ponds 5–6 d prior to the arrival of females ( smith et al . , 1948 ) . breeding occurs explosively , with most reproduction occurring in a short period of intense chorusing at the beginning of the breeding season , although calling and periodic reproductive activity may persist for 22–55 d ( smith et al . , 1948 ; busby and brecheisen , 1997 ) . in marginal habitats or in smaller populations , reproduction may not occur every year ( thompson , 1915 ; m . j . p . , personal observations ) .
o . predators . no records of predation on adults or juveniles exist , but predators would be similar to those of other gopher frogs , and other ranid frogs ( e . g . , snakes , birds , and mammals ; jensen and richter , this volume ) . caddisfly ( trichoptera ) larvae are known to prey on eggs and larvae ( richter , 2000 ) . no other documentation of larval predation exists , but potential predators include those of other gopher frogs , and those observed in glen’s pond feeding on southern leopard frog eggs and larvae—dragonfly naiads ( odonata ) , backswimmers ( hemiptera ) , giant water bugs ( hemiptera ) , predaceous diving beetles ( coleoptera ) , fish , salamanders , snakes , turtles , and birds ( jensen and richter , this volume ; s . c . r . , personal observations ) . p . anti - predator mechanisms . dusky gopher frogs inflate their bodies and cover their eyes when harassed or grasped by potential predators ( s . c . r . , personal observations ) , as is known for crawfish frogs ( rana areolata ; altig , 1972a ) , a sister species . this behavior in dusky gopher frogs is coupled with a milky secretion having a distinct musky odor and bitter taste , which exudes from the dorsal warts ( dickerson , 1906 ; goin and netting , 1940 ; s . c . r . , personal observations ) . the secretion is composed of a variety of peptides that have a wide range of bioactive properties , some of which are thought to be associated with predator deterrence ( c . graham , s . c . r . , p . flatt , and c . shaw , unpublished data ) .
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confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
( family ranidae ) found in ponds , streams , and other bodies of fresh water in the northeastern united states . the green frog is 5 to 10 cm ( 2 to 4 inches ) long and green to brownish in colour . the back and legs are characteristically spotted or blotched .
) , is found in such places as swamps and streamsides of the southeastern united states . it is brown above and grows to about 8 . 5 cm ( 3 . 3 inches ) . its call , like that of the green frog , is a sharp , twanging note . the european marsh , pool , and edible frogs are also known as green frogs .
ranidae , , family of wide - ranging frogs of the order anura , containing several genera and more than 600 species . representatives occur on every continent except antarctica . members of this group are referred to as the true frogs . although most are aquatic or semiaquatic , a few ranids are ground…
frog , any of various tailless amphibians belonging to the order anura . used strictly , the term may be limited to any member of the family ranidae ( true frogs ) , but more broadly the name frog is often used to distinguish the smooth - skinned , leaping anurans from squat , warty , hopping ones , which are…
anura , one of the major extant orders of the class amphibia . it includes the frogs and toads , which , because of their wide distribution , are known by most people around the world . the name frog is commonly applied to those forms with long legs and smooth , mucus - covered skins , toad being used for a…
amphibian , ( class amphibia ) , any member of the group of vertebrate animals characterized by their ability to exploit both aquatic and terrestrial habitats . the name amphibian , derived from the greek amphibios meaning “living a double life , ” reflects this dual life strategy—though some species are…
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horse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , …
dog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies…