antheraea pernyi , the chinese ( oak ) tussar moth ( or " chinese tasar moth " ) , also known as temperate tussar moth , is a large moth in the family saturniidae .

antheraea roylei is an extremely close relative , and the present species might actually have evolved from ancestral a. roylei by chromosome rearrangement .

they are originally from southern china .

used for tussar silk production , they have been distributed more widely across subtropical and tropical asia .

unlike the domestic silkmoth which is entirely dependent on human care , tussah silkmoths can survive in the wild if they escape from captivity ; small local populations of such feral stock may thus occasionally occur .

the colour and quality of the silk depends on the climate and soil .

this is one of the major producers of tussar silk .

it was of commercial importance during the han dynasty and early three kingdoms era , about 200 bc to 250 ad .

more recently , the hybridogenic species antheraea × proylei is being bred for tussah silk production .

it originated from a natural hybrid between male a. pernyi and a. roylei females , f1 females of which were backcrossed to a. pernyi males .

for reasons unknown , it is a case of paternal mtdna transmission : the mitochondrial genome , normally inherited from the mother only in sexually reproducing organisms , is almost identical to that of the present species .

antheraea pernyi

cathepsin o is involved in the innate immune response and metamorphosis of antheraea pernyi .
cathepsin o is involved in the innate immune response and metamorphosis of antheraea pernyi . - pubmed - ncbi
insect immunity : isolation and structure of cecropins b and d from pupae of the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi .
insect immunity : isolation and structure of cecropins b and d from pupae of the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi . - pubmed - ncbi
the functions of serpin - 3 , a negative - regulator involved in prophenoloxidase activation and antimicrobial peptides expression of chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi .
qin l , wang h , jiang y . advance in antheraea pernyi genetics and breeding in china . journal of shenyang agricultural university . 2006 ; 37 ( 5 ) : 677–682 .
li wl , liu y , li fj , li yj . cloning , identification and expressional analysis of immunity related genes apdorasal from antheraea pernyi . science of sericulture . 2014 ; 40 : 32–37 .
in conclusion , a novel spatzle belonging to the spatzle type 1 family from a . pernyi has been identified . apspz was expressed during all developmental stages of a . pernyi . other genes associated with the toll pathway were mainly expressed in the fat body , suggesting that the toll pathway is important in the a . pernyi innate immune system for defending against pathogenic microorganisms . moreover , infection of a . pernyi with the fungus n . pernyi and the gram - positive bacterium e . pernyi but not by the gram - negative bacterium e . coli activates the toll signaling pathway .
qu xm , zhang cf , komano h , natori s . purification of a lectin from the hemolymph of chinese oak silk moth ( antheraea pernyi ) pupae . j biochem . 1987 ; 101 : 545–551 pmid : 3298221
hirai m , terenius o , li w , faye i . 2004 . baculovirus and dsrna induce hemolin , but no antibacterial activity , in antheraea pernyi . insect mol biol . 2004 ; 13 : 399–405 pmid : 15271212
li f , terenius o , li y , fang s , li w . cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . insects . 2012 ; 3 : 1093–1104 . pmid : 26466728
li w , terenius o , hirai m , nilsson as , faye i . cloning , expression and phylogenetic analysis of hemolin , from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . dev comp immunol . 2005 ; 29 : 853–864 pmid : 15978282
li f , terenius o , li y , fang s , li w . cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . insects . 2012 ; 3 ( 4 ) : 1093 - 1104 .
semi - quantitative rt - pcr was performed to examine the expression of genes involved in the toll pathway in different developmental stages and various tissues of the a . pernyi 5th instar larvae ( fig 4 ) . in addition to a . pernyi spatzle , the genes selected were a . pernyi gnbp ( genbank accession no . kf725771 ) , a . pernyi myd88 ( genbank accession no . kf670143 ) , a . pernyi tolloid ( genbank accession no . kf670144 ) , a . pernyi cactus ( genbank accession no . kf670142 ) and a . pernyi dorsala ( genbank accession no . jf488068 ) . to standardize the templates , apactin was used as an internal control [ 25 ] . rt - pcr was performed with the specific primer pairs ( shown in s1 table ) for the each gene .
lu wx , yue d , hai zj , daihua w , yi zm , fu wc , et al . cloning , expression , and characterization of prophenoloxidase from antheraea pernyi . arch insect biochem physiol . 2015 ; 88 : 45–63 . pmid : 25521627
liu y , chen m , su j , ma h , zheng x , li q , et al . identification and characterization of a novel microvitellogenin from the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi . plos one . 2015 ; 10 : e0131751 . pmid : 26126120
wu s , xuan zx , li yp , li q , xia rx , shi sl , et al . cloning and characterization of the first actin gene in chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi . afr j agric res . 2010 ; 10 : 1095–1100 .
liu qn , zhu bj , dai ls , fu ww , lin kz , liu cl . overexpression of small heat shock protein 21 protects the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi against thermal stress . j insect physiol . 2013 ; 59 : 848–854 . pmid : 23763950
liu y , li y , li x , qin l . the origin and dispersal of the domesticated chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi , in china : a reconstruction based on ancient texts . j insect sci . 2010 ; 10 : 180 . pmid : 21062145 .
wang j , zhang s , xing t , kundu b , li m , kundu sc , et al . ion - induced fabrication of silk fibroin nanoparticles from chinese oak tasar antheraea pernyi . int j biol macromol . 2015 ; 79 : 316–325 . pmid : 25936281
the pernyi caterpillars are a little hairier than the polyphemus . this one is wandering over my hand , searching for food .
to investigate the role of the a . pernyi toll signaling pathway in the response to different pathogens , the relative mrna levels of genes in the toll pathway were assessed by qrt - pcr after a . pernyi was challenged by different pathogenic microorganisms .
li , f . ; terenius , o . ; li , y . ; fang , s . ; li , w . cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi . insects 2012 , 3 , 1093 - 1104 .
there are significant differences between the domestic silkworm ( bombyx mori ) and the chinese oak silkworm ( a . pernyi ) . unlike the domestic silkworm , a . pernyi larvae are fed on the leaves of oak trees in tussah - feeding oak forests until cocooning during the larval stage . therefore , there is a high risk of a . pernyi larvae infection by different microorganisms in the wild . moreover , substantial economic losses in tussah production are associated with different diseases every year . however , it is evident that a . pernyi must have immune responses to defend against different microorganisms , as tussah production has lasted for hundreds of years . different developmental stages of a . pernyi and survival conditions of a . pernyi larvae are shown in s1 and s2 figs .
zhang cf , dai ls , wang l , qian c , wei gq , li j , et al . eicosanoids mediate shsp 20 . 8 gene response to biotic stress in larvae of the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi . gene . 2015 ; 562 : 32–39 . pmid : 25527122
li , fengjuan ; terenius , olle ; li , yuan ; fang , suyun ; li , wenli . 2012 .
cdna cloning and expression analysis of pattern recognition proteins from the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi .
insects 3 , no . 4 : 1093 - 1104 .
liu qn , zhu bj , wang l , wei gq , dai ls , lin kz , et al . identification of immune response - related genes in the chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi by suppression subtractive hybridization . j invertebr pathol . 2013 ; 114 : 313–323 . pmid : 24076149
sericulture was developed in china in ancient times . antheraea pernyi guérin - méneville was domesticated at least 2 , 000 yr ago , and chinese farmers developed artificial rearing of a . pernyi before the 17th century . today , > 60 , 000 tons of cocoons are produced in china each year , which accounts for 90 % of the world production . despite the widespread utilization of a . pernyi in china and a long history of domestic research , the knowledge of a . pernyi outside china is limited . therefore , we have in this paper summarized the production , usage , and breeding of a . pernyi . the foremost usage of a . pernyi is as silk producers ; however , about 55–70 % is used for other purposes . in this paper , we give examples of how the different developmental stages are used as a food source for human consumption and in traditional chinese medicine , both directly in different preparations and also as a nutrient source for rearing medicinal fungi .
previous studies of a . pernyi innate immunity have mainly focused on the prophenoloxidase ( pro - po ) system . it has been reported that lectin increases in response to the intrusion of foreign substances in a . pernyi [ 17 ] . in a . pernyi , the β - 1 , 3 - glucan recognition protein ( ap - βgrp ) and lectin - 5 ( aplectin - 5 ) were induced by all microorganisms , including bacillus subtilis , e . coli , antheraea pernyi nuclear polyhedrosis virus ( apnpv ) and saccharomyces cerevisiae , whereas a . pernyi c - type lectin 1 was not induced by gram - positive bacteria , and the genes exhibited significantly different expression levels in different tissues . the results suggest that lectins might have various functions in different a . pernyi tissues [ 18 ] . a 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan recognition protein from a . pernyi ( ap - βgrp ) that specifically binds 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan from yeast but not e . coli or micrococcus luteus has been identified , and the presence of both 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan and ap - βgrp triggered the pro - po system together but not separately [ 19 ] . an a . pernyi c - type lectin ( ap - rctl ) involved in the pro - po activating system plays an important role in a . pernyi innate immunity as a pattern recognition protein that can recognize and trigger the agglutination of bacteria and fungi [ 20 ] . a . pernyi prophenoloxidase ( apppo ) was also cloned , and apppo expression was significantly up - regulated in a . pernyi tissues following microbial infection . recombinant apppo is able to kill bacteria and induce the cecropin transcription in larvae [ 21 ] . additionally , many genes coding for immune proteins from a . pernyi have been cloned , such as hemolin [ 22 ] , which might affect the progress of viral infection in a . pernyi [ 23 ] .
citation : sun y , jiang y , wang y , li x , yang r , yu z , et al . ( 2016 ) the toll signaling pathway in the chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi : innate immune responses to different microorganisms . plos one 11 ( 8 ) : e0160200 . urltoken
zhang c , dai l , wang l , qian c , wei g , li j , et al . 2015 inhibitors of eicosanoid biosynthesis influencing the transcripts level of shsp21 . 4 gene induced by pathogen infections , in antheraea pernyi . plos one . 2015 ; 10 : e0121296 . pmid : 25844646
liu qn , lin kz , yang ln , dai ls , wang l , sun y , et al . molecular characterization of an apolipophorin - iii gene from the chinese oak silkworm , antheraea pernyi ( lepidoptera : saturniidae ) . arch insect biochem physiol . 2015 ; 88 : 155–167 . pmid : 25348706
xialu w , jinghai z , ying c , youlei m , wenjun z , guoyuan d , et al . a novel pattern recognition protein of the chinese oak silkmoth , antheraea pernyi , is involved in the pro - po activating system . bmb rep . 2013 ; 46 : 358–363 . pmid : 23884102
in this study , a novel spatzle gene ( apspz ) from the chinese oak silkworm , a . pernyi , was identified while investigating the toll signaling pathway in response to different microorganisms . furthermore , the expression patterns of genes involved in the toll pathway were examined in a . pernyi infected with different microorganisms . the results of this analysis provide a foundation for further investigation of the toll signaling pathway in a . pernyi .
the genes involved in the toll pathway were predominantly expressed in immune - responsive fat body tissue , indicating that these genes play a crucial role in a . pernyi innate immunity . further studies of these genes are underway to clarify the immune response of a . pernyi against infection by microorganisms .
zhu j , fan d , zhao j , zhang h , huang j , zhou w , et al . enhancement of the gelation properties of surimi from yellowtail seabream ( parargyrops edita , sparidae ) with chinese oak silkworm pupa , antheraea pernyi . j food sci . 2016 ; 81 : e396–e403 . pmid : 26709730
in summary , the toll signaling pathway in a . pernyi was activated by fungi and gram - positive bacteria but not by gram - negative bacteria .
youlei m , jinghai z , yuntao z , jiaoshu l , tianyi w , chunfu w , et al . purification and characterization of a 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan recognition protein from antheraea pernyi larve that is regulated after a specific immune challenge . bmb rep . 2013 ; 46 : 264–269 . pmid : 23710637
as shown in fig 5 , after infection with different pathogenic microorganisms , significant changes were observed in the transcriptional levels of toll pathway genes in a . pernyi .
antheraea pernyi variety shenhuang no . 2 was used in this study . the eggs ( on the fifth day ) , fifth instar larvae ( on the third day ) , pupae and moths were frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at –80°c until use . the epidermis , silk glands , blood , gonads , malpighian tubules , fat body , midgut , and muscle were dissected from fifth instar a . pernyi larvae , immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at –80°c until use . all of the samples were used for rt - pcr .
the toll pathway is one of the most important signaling pathways regulating insect innate immunity . spatzle is a key protein that functions as a toll receptor ligand to trigger toll - dependent expression of immunity - related genes . in this study , a novel spatzle gene ( apspz ) from the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi was identified . the apspz cdna is 1065 nucleotides with an open reading frame ( orf ) of 777 bp encoding a protein of 258 amino acids . the protein has an estimated molecular weight of 29 . 71 kda and an isoelectric point ( pi ) of 8 . 53 . apspz is a nuclear and secretory protein with no conserved domains or membrane helices and shares 40 % amino acid identity with spz from manduca sexta . phylogenetic analysis indicated that apspz might be a new member of the spatzle type 1 family , which belongs to the spatzle superfamily . the expression patterns of several genes involved in the toll pathway were examined at different developmental stages and various tissues in 5th instar larvae . the examined targets included a . pernyi spatzle , gnbp , myd88 , tolloid , cactus and dorsala . the rt - pcr results showed that these genes were predominantly expressed in immune - responsive fat body tissue , indicating that the genes play a crucial role in a . pernyi innate immunity . moreover , a . pernyi infection with the fungus nosema pernyi and the gram - positive bacterium enterococcus pernyi , but not the gram - negative bacterium escherichia coli , activated the toll signaling pathway . these results represent the first study of the toll pathway in a . pernyi , which provides insight into the a . pernyi innate immune system .
insects possess an innate immune system that responds to invading microorganisms . in recent years , immune response - related genes have become an important focus of a . pernyi research . fifty immune response - related genes and ten stress response genes were identified from a subtractive cdna library in a . pernyi challenged with escherichia coli [ 12 ] . three small heat shock proteins ( shsps ) encoding hsp21 , hsp21 . 4 and hsp20 . 8 ( named as ap - shsp 21 , ap - shsp 21 . 4 and ap - shsp 20 . 8 , respectively ) were isolated from a . pernyi . further studies have shown that these shsps might play important roles in a . pernyi upon challenge with different microorganisms or under stress conditions [ 13 – 15 ] . expression of an apolipophorin - iii ( apolp - iii ) gene from a . pernyi pupae ( ap - apolp - iii ) was significantly up - regulated in response to different microorganisms , and rna interference showed that ap - apolp - iii might function in the a . pernyi innate immune system [ 16 ] .
the fifth instar larvae were inoculated by oral feeding with escherichia coli ( ec ) , enterococcus pernyi ( ep ) , or nosema pernyi ( np ) on the first day , and larvae fed sterile water were used as control samples ( ck ) . fat bodies dissected from each group for rna extraction 24 h and 48 h after inoculation were used for qrt - pcr testing .
however , there is limited information on the toll signaling pathway in antheraea pernyi . the chinese oak silkworm ( antheraea pernyi guérin - méneville , 1855 ; lepidoptera : saturniidae ) is a well - known wild silkworm used for insect food and silk production . chinese farmers developed rearing methods for the chinese oak silkworm approximately 400 years ago [ 6 ] . currently , the chinese annual output of tussah cocoons is approximately 8×10 4 t , which is nearly 90 % of the total output of wild silk worldwide , and the income from tussah rearing has become the main economic source in many sericultural areas . there are approximately one hundred twenty tussah varieties in china , and they can be divided into four races based on larval skin color : yellow , yellow - cyan , white , and blue [ 7 ] . currently , the products from a . pernyi , such as silk , pupae and moths , are used in many fields . for example , tussah silk fibroin nanoparticles have been used as a sustained drug delivery vehicle [ 8 ] , and tussah pupae homogenates were used to enhance the gelation properties of surimi from yellowtail seabream [ 9 ] . therefore , the use of tussah products is common and wide - ranging . with new developments in biotechnology , more attention has been paid to the functional genes of a . pernyi , and several genes from a . pernyi have been isolated and characterized [ 10 , 11 ] .
this species is not very variable in colour , unlike antheraea yamamai , with individuals differing little from the typical fawn colour of the male illustrated below ; however , a chocolate - brown melanic form is known - - f . hartii moore .
in a . pernyi , many immune genes involved in the toll signaling pathway have been isolated , although there is limited information about toll signaling in this organism . two rel / nf - kb - related genes , apdorasl a and apdorsal b , were cloned from a . pernyi . the cloned genes were differentially expressed in response to different microorganisms , indicating that apdorsal might be involved in the immune response to viruses , fungi and gram - positive bacteria in a . pernyi [ 24 ] . although the sequences of many genes involved in the a . pernyi toll pathway have been submitted to genbank , including gnbp ( accession number : kf725771 ) , myd88 ( accession number : kf670143 ) , tolloid ( accession number : kf670144 ) , and cactus ( accession number : kf670142 ) , there has been no report or record of the spatzle gene in a . pernyi to our knowledge . it is well known that spatzle is a key signal transducer for immune responses , a ligand for toll receptors and a very important functional protein for activating the toll pathway in response to different microorganisms .
this silkworm is raised in china for its silk . it is referred to as tussah , chinese tussah , oak tussah , or temperate tussah . it is the source of tussah spinning fiber that we use in the west . it is a relative of the tropical tussah silkmoth , antheraea mylitta of india , and also related to antheraea polyphemus , the american polyphemus silkmoth . in china , they are fed on plantations of specially trimmed oak trees on the hillsides . they began to hatch on may 18 , 2004 .
on the first day , fifth instar larvae were orally administered 20 μl of different microorganisms separately suspended in sterile water , including e . coli ( ec , 1 . 2×10 7 bacterial cells / ml ) , enterococcus pernyi ( ep , 2 . 0×10 7 cells / ml ) , and nosema pernyi ( np , 5 . 0×10 7 spores / ml ) , and larvae fed sterile water were used as controls ( ck ) . fat bodies dissected from different groups were used for rna extraction 24 h and 48 h after inoculation and were stored at - 80°c for qrt - pcr testing . a . pernyi larvae were kept in a rearing chamber at 23±2°c with 70±5 % relative humidity and were fed fresh quercus mongolica leaves .
the expression analysis of toll pathway genes associated with a . pernyi orally infected with fungi ( np ) , gram - positive bacteria ( ep ) and gram - negative ( ec ) bacteria revealed specific interactions between host immunity and pathogens , indicating that the toll pathway could be activated by challenge with np and ep . however , no significant differences in toll pathway genes were observed in a . pernyi after infection with ec , indicating that the toll pathway does respond to gram - negative bacteria .
cathepsins are key members of mammalian papain - like cysteine proteases that play an important role in the immune response . in this study , a fragment of cdna encoding cathepsin o proteinase ( apcathepsin o ) was cloned from antheraea pernyi . it contains an open reading frame of 1170bp and encodes a protein with 390 amino acid residues , including a conserved i29 inhibitor domain and a peptidase c1a ( clan ca of cysteine proteases , papain family c1 subfamily ) domain . comparison with other previously reported cathepsin o proteins showed identity ranging from 45 % to 79 % . quantitative real - time pcr ( qrt - pcr ) and western blot analysis revealed that apcathepsin o was highly expressed in the fat body ; furthermore , the high expression during the pupal stage indicated that it might be involved during metamorphosis . after exposure to four different heat - killed pathogens ( escherichia coli , beauveria bassiana , micrococcus luteus , and a . pernyi nucleopolyhedrovirus ) , the expression levels of apcathepsin o mrna significantly increased and showed variable expression patterns . this indicates that apcathepsin o is potentially involved in the innate immune system of a . pernyi . interestingly , apcathepsin o expression was upregulated after 20 - hydroxyecdysone ( 20e ) injection , which suggested that it might be regulated by 20e . in conclusion , apcathepsin o is a protease that may play an important role in the innate immune response and metamorphosis of a . pernyi .
the immune system in the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi , has been compared with that of the cecropia moth which has been characterized earlier . antibacterial activity against escherichia coli was induced in diapausing pupae by injection of viable e . coli or enterobacter cloacae . the activity reached a maximum on day 7 - 8 after which the response gradually declined . the pupae produced a set of immune proteins with p4 and p5 as major labelled components similar to that earlier found in cecropia . the major antibacterial factor in a . pernyi was cecropin d . a procedure is described for the isolation of cecropin b and d , which is in principle similar to the one used for the isolation of the corresponding cecropins from cecropia pupae . amino acid sequence analyses of the a . pernyi cecropins show the d form to contain 36 amino acid residues and that both cecropins have blocked c - termini . the general structure of cecropins having a charged n - terminal region ( residues 1 - 21 ) followed by a long hydrophobic stretch ( residues 22 - 32 ) is well conserved . cecropin b and d from a . pernyi differ from the corresponding proteins in cecropia by four and three conservative amino acid replacements , respectively . the homology between the cecropins from the two insects suggests that they orginate from a single ancestral gene . the antibacterial activity was tested against nine different bacterial species . evolutionary aspects of the cecropins are discussed .
wingspan 110 - - 152mm . the similarly marked and coloured sexes are unlike any other european saturniid except the introduced antheraea yamamai , but it can easily be distinguished from that species in having the solid elongated black spot on the outer margin of the hindwing eyespot invaded by yellow . in males , the forewings are distinctly falcate .
serpins are a superfamily of proteins engaged in various physiological processes in all kingdoms of life . to date , many striking results have demonstrated serpins are involved in the invertebrate immune system by regulating the proteolytic cascades . however , in most insect species , the immune functions of serpins in response against pathogen invasion remain obscure . in this study , we identified a full - length cdna sequence of serpin , named serpin - 3 , from the chinese oak silkworm antheraea pernyi . sequence alignments have indicated that apserpin - 3 might regulate the melanization reaction via inhibiting prophenoloxidases - activating protease ( s ) in plasma . furthermore , it was detected to be primarily transcribed within the fat body , epidermis and hemocytes with significant induction following immune - challenge . further studies have shown that the knockdown of serpin - 3 up - regulated the prophenoloxidases cascade stimulated by pathogen in hemolymph , while the addition of recombinant serpin - 3 along with the same elicitor led to the suppressed activation of prophenoloxidase . besides , the injection of dsrna of serpin - 3 caused the elevated expression of antimicrobial peptides . altogether , we arrived at a conclusion that serpin - 3 might act as a negative - regulator in prophenoloxidases activation and inhibit the production of antimicrobial peptides in antheraea pernyi larvae .
a lectin with affinity to galactose was purified to homogeneity from the hemolymph of diapausing pupae of the chinese oak silk moth , antheraea pernyi . the molecular mass of this lectin was 380 , 000 and it formed an oligomeric structure of a subunit with a molecular mass of 38 , 000 . the hemagglutinating activity in the hemolymph was found to increase with time after immunization with e . coli . studies with antibody against the purified lectin showed that increase in the hemagglutinating activity was due to the same lectin , suggesting that the amount of the lectin increased in response to intrusion of foreign substances . the function of this lectin in the defence mechanism is discussed .
the newly - hatched , 5mm long larvae are basically dull black with a glossy , dull orange head . the tubercles are also black , with several white setae . from the second instar the larvae are very similar to those of antheraea yamamai , except for a raw sienna to fawn coloured head , which bears five dark spots on each lobe of the face .
as shown in fig 4a , the a . pernyi gnbp gene was expressed in larvae and pupae during four developmental stages . apgnbp was expressed in all of the tissues examined except for the midgut , and the highest mrna levels were found in the epidermis and fat body . gnbp is a pattern recognition protein that enables the host to detect invading bacteria [ 37 ] . gnbp and the peptidoglycan recognition protein sa ( pgrp - sa ) jointly activate the toll pathway against gram - positive bacterial infections in drosophila [ 1 , 38 ] . a . pernyi spatzle ( apspz ) was expressed during four developmental stages , including eggs , larvae , pupae and moths , indicating that apspz has an important role throughout the entire life cycle of a . pernyi . the highest mrna levels were observed in the larval stage . apspz was expressed in all of the tissues examined except the midgut , and the highest mrna levels were found in the fat body and muscle ( fig 4b ) . a . pernyi tolloid ( aptoll ) mrna was only expressed in the pupae stage and not in the larvae , which might be due to whole larva sampling . aptoll was expressed in malpighian tubules and the fat body , and the highest mrna levels were observed in the fat body ( fig 4c ) . a . pernyi tolloid is a toll family member and could be assigned to the toll - 1 group with d . melanogaster tolloid ( genbank accession no . aaf56329 ) . d . melanogaster tolloid was detected in blood cells and the fat body , but no transcripts were found in the lymph gland [ 39 ] . a . pernyi myd88 ( apmyd88 ) was expressed in the eggs , larvae and pupae . apmyd88 was expressed in all of the tissues examined except for the epidermis and blood , and the highest mrna levels were found in the fat body ( fig 4d ) . a . pernyi cactus ( apcact ) was expressed in the larvae , pupae and moths , and apcact was expressed in all of the tissues examined except for the midgut . transcript levels were most abundant in the fat body ( fig 4e ) . the a . pernyi dorsala ( apdora ) gene was expressed in the larvae , pupae and moths . apdora was expressed in the silk gland , blood , spermary / ovary , malpighian tubules and fat body and was not detected in the epidermis , midgut and muscle . moreover , the highest mrna levels were found in the malpighian tubules and the fat body ( fig 4f ) , which was consistent with a previous study [ 24 ] .
this caterpillar has already dumped out the excess food in his gut , and is about to start spinning . the pernyi caterpillars seem to be particularly shy - they stop whatever they ' re doing when i approach , and put their little feet into this
prayer
pose and sit quietly . most of the other species just keep on eating or spinning or whatever . july 7 , 2004 .
pattern recognition receptors are known to participate in the activation of prophenoloxidase system . in this study , a 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan recognition protein was detected for the first time in antheraea pernyi larvae ( ap - βgrp ) . ap - βgrp was purified to 99 . 9 % homogeneity from the hemolymph using traditional chromatographic methods . ap - βgrp specifically bind 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan and yeast , but not e . coli or m . luteus . the 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan dependent phenoloxidase ( po ) activity of the hemolymph inhibited by anti - ap - βgrp antibody could be recovered by addition of purified ap - βgrp . these results demonstrate that ap - βgrp acts as a biosensor of 1 , 3 - β - dglucan to trigger the prophenoloxidase system . a trace mount of 1 , 3 - β - d - glucan or ap - βgrp alone was unable to trigger the propo system , but they both did . ap - βgrp was specifically degraded following the activation of propo with 1 , 3 - β - dglucan . these results indicate the variation in the amount of ap - βgrp after specific immune challenge in a . pernyi hemolymph is an important regulation mechanism to immune response .
in china , tussah silk produced by the chinese tussah or tussur moth ( antheraea pernyi ) is semi - cultivated . this silk is also called tassar . the larvae feed on various species of oaks ( quercus spp . ) . the oaks on which the caterpillars feed are pruned into shrubs 1 . 5 - 2 m high on which the larvae are raised . two annual crops are obtained . the small spring crop is used exclusively as breeding stock for the large autumn crop . the silk of the autumn crop is mostly reeled . yields average approximately 45 kg / ha of reeled fibre and about 68 kg / ha of spinning fibre [ kolander , 1985 ] . the city of dandong , in liaoning province has been a center for tussah silk production for two centuries and in 1980 provided about 70 percent of chinas output . tussah silk production fluctuates ; in 1980 , 75 000 tons were produced and about 50 000 tons were produced each year between 1987 - 1989 ( peigler 1999 ) .
we performed transcriptome sequencing on the chinese oak silkworm a . pernyi , and high - quality reads were deposited in the ncbi sra database ( accession numbers : srr2919240 , srr2919241 , srr2919242 and srr2919243 ) . assembly of the high quality reads was performed using the trinity de novo assembly program . a unigene ( comp748335 _ c0 ) annotated manduca sexta spz1a ( genbank accession no . gq249944 . 1 ) encoding 256 nucleotides was selected . based the unigene sequence , a novel spatzle gene ( apspz ) from a . pernyi was first identified using rt - pcr , 5 ' race and 3 ' race . the isolated apspz cdna was 1065 nucleotides with an open reading frame ( orf ) of 777 bp that encodes a 258 amino acids protein . the cdna sequence contains a 212 bp 5 ' - untranslated region ( utr ) and a 76 bp 3 ' - utr with a polyadenylation signal sequence ( aataaa ) at position 1027 and a poly ( a ) tail . the initiation codon atg and the termination codon taa are at positions 213 and 987 , respectively ( fig 1 ) . the predicted molecular weight and isoelectric point ( pi ) of ap spz were 29 . 71 kda and 8 . 53 , respectively . apspz was assigned its name because of its similarity to known spatzle proteins . this cdna sequence has been deposited in genbank under accession no . ku323402 .
total rna was extracted using trizol ® reagent ( invitrogen ) according to the manufacturer’s protocol . rna degradation and contamination were monitored on 1 % agarose gels . the extracted total rna was quantified using a nanodrop 2000 uv - vis spectrophotometer ( thermo scientific , usa ) . first - strand cdna synthesis was performed using an m - mulv first strand cdna synthesis kit ( sangon biotech , china ) . the full - length a . pernyi spatzle cdna was cloned using reverse transcription pcr , 5 ' race and 3 ' race . race was performed using a 5 ' race system ( version 2 . 0 , invitrogen ) and a smarter ™ race cdna amplification kit ( clontech ) according to the user manual . the cdnas derived from all of the samples were used for gene expression analysis .
homologous alignment of spatzle from a . pernyi ( apspz , ku323402 ) , manduca sexta ( msspz , acu68553 ) , drosophila melanogaster ( dmspz , np _ 524526 ) , and bombyx mori ( bmspz , np _ 001108066 ) was performed using the clustal x program ( fig 2 ) . sequence alignment showed that the amino acid sequence of apspz is most similar to msspz , with 40 % identity , and the gene exhibited 33 . 15 % identity with bmspz and 13 . 58 % identity with dmspz . the putative activation cleavage site of apspz , located after iaqr 163 , is conserved in msspz and bmspz . an activating protease could cleave after the conserved residue arg 163 in apspz , similar to the confirmed cleavages in dmspz and msspz [ 3 , 35 ] . the protein structure prediction showed that apspz matched the template structure for 4bv4 . 1 . a ( protein spaetzle c - 106 ) . although three cys residues in the putative carboxyl - terminal active cystine knot domain in apspz are conserved in m . sexta , d . melanogaster and b . mori , four other cys residues were not found . the results were consistent with d . melanogaster spz8 . 24 , indicating that they are not involved in disulfide formation , and apspz might be similar to dmspz8 . 24 , which is natively unfolded [ 3 , 36 ] .
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a wide range of beneficial non - wood products are derived from organisms that are closely associated with broad - leaved temperate trees , either as parasites , symbionts or saprophytes . these include edible mushrooms , products from insects that feed on this group of trees and parasitic plants . it should be noted that this chapter contains some overlaps with , as well as updates to , a previous publication in the fao non - wood forest products series no . 12 [ fao , 1995 ] since several mushrooms grow both with broad - leaved trees and conifers .
mushrooms are the reproductive structures of fungi and are also known as sporocarps or fruiting bodies . while some mushrooms are highly toxic and can be fatal if eaten , many species are edible . some are so flavourful that they are major food items in many human cultures throughout the world . many species of edible mushrooms occur in forests and are harvested either commercially or as an outdoor recreation activity .
fungi are lower plants that lack chlorophyll . they are , therefore , unable to manufacture nutrients from sunlight through photosynthesis as do green plants . in order to survive , fungi must function either as parasites , often causing disease in higher plants or animals ; saprophytes , causing the breakdown of dead organic matter ; or as mutualists or symbionts with green plants . in the case of mutualism or symbiosis , both the fungus and the green plant derive benefits from the association .
the predominant form of symbiosis between fungi and trees occurs with tree roots producing structures called mycorrhizae . mycorrhiza means fungus - root and describes the association of specialized soil fungi with the tiny feeder roots of forest trees and shrubs . mycorrhyzal fungi function as an extension of the plants root system and are the means by which almost all higher plants take up water and minerals from the soil . only a few higher plants are known to lack mycorrhizal associations [ manion , 1991 ] . the uptake of phosphorus and nitrogen are particularly important functions of these fungi . mycorrhizal fungi directly enhance tree survival and growth [ molina et al . , 1993 ] .
many species of forest fungi produce delicately flavoured edible mushrooms that are harvested in large quantities , and some are cultivated under semi - artificial conditions . primarily mycorrhyzal fungi produce them , but several saprophytic and parasitic fungi also produce highly flavourful mushrooms .
boletus edulis is a mycorrhyzal fungus that grows in association with a wide variety of trees , including both conifers and broad - leaved species . the mushrooms produced by this fungus are widely used in a number of cuisines , especially in europe where it is one of the most sought - after edible mushrooms . it goes by many common names including cep or cepe de bordeaux ( france ) , king bolete or penny bun mushroom ( english ) , porcino ( italy ) , s teinpilz ( germany ) , zhutui mo ( north china ) and dajiao gu ( south china ) .
the mushroom produced by this fungus is highly variable , and some mycologists have split the fungus into a number of distinct species . a common characteristic of the mushroom is a wide , barrel - shaped stem that has a fine reticulate pattern on its surface . [ 50 ]
boletus edulis occurs in temperate zone forests throughout the northern hemisphere and produces fruiting bodies from the soil as scattered individuals or in small groups [ molina et al . , 1993 ] . it is found throughout north america as far south as mexico , in europe from the northern part of the nordic countries south to southern greece ; italy ; and , in the near east , as far east as afghanistan . it is also found throughout china . in the united kingdom , b . edulis is found associated with birch ( betula palustris ) , oaks ( quercus robur and q . petraea ) and beech ( fagus sylvatica ) . in china it grows under mixed forests of pine and oak [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .
the strong , distinctive flavour of this mushroom has been appreciated since roman times . dishes containing boletes were often used by the romans to conceal poisons used to assassinate politicians and other public figures . they were also believed to have a number of medicinal properties , including the removal of freckles and blemishes , and a salve was prepared from boletes to treat dog bites [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .
boletus edulis is harvested in the wild . in poland , it is the principal wild mushroom harvested [ grochowski , 1966 ] . in the casentino , a mountainous area in the region of tuscany , italy , income and benefits derived from harvesting b . edulis are considered to be significant . about 20 percent of the total harvest is for personal use , and the remainder is sold to restaurants , local stores and wholesalers . mushroom collectors are mostly from the lower to middle income classes ; women are the most numerous group of collectors and nearly half of the collectors are between 50 and 60 years old [ farolfi , 1990 ] . chestnut ( castania sativa ) orchards are a favourable habitat for growth of b . edulis in italy , and in some cases the yield of edible king boletes harvested from these orchards is worth more than the chestnut crop . [ 51 ]
figure 9 . 1 dried boletus edulis mushrooms . their firm , meaty texture makes them popular ingredients for stews , casseroles and sauces , and they can be stored in dried form for several years .
boletes are harvested in british columbia , mainly from haida gwaii ( queen charlotte islands ) and the prince george area . in a good fruiting year , approximately 100 000 kg of fresh boletes are harvested . while in a bad year there may be no harvest at all . [ 52 ] on average , pickers are paid $ can 2 . 50 / lb of boletes and exporters receive around us $ 8 / lb of boletes landed and fresh , around us $ 75 . 00 / kg of dried and landed , and around us $ 5 . 00 - 6 . 00 / kg of frozen .
approximately 90 percent of all harvested boletes are exported dried or frozen and only around 10 percent of the harvest is exported fresh . boletes are one of the first wild food mushrooms to be attacked by pests , and there is currently a world shortage of king boletes [ russel and lipsey , 1999 ] . [ 53 ]
this mushroom has a firm , meaty texture that stands up well to prolonged cooking . consequently it is a popular ingredient in a variety of stews , casseroles and sauces . b . edulis can also be easily dried , a form that permits storage for extended periods ( figure 9 . 1 ) . in some parts of europe they are dried on strings and stored for winter use . it is also a common ingredient in dried soup mixes [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .
the fungus that produces the northwest matsutake mushroom ( tricholoma magnivelare ) , forms ectomycorrhizal associations with many tree species throughout its natural range in western north america , especially various species of pinus [ molina et al . , 1993 ; ciesla , 1998 ] . in the pacific northwest region of the united states , it is the most valuable of the commercially harvested edible mushrooms [ schlosser and blatner , 1995 ] . this mushroom is sold in large quantities to japan where it is an acceptable substitute for the japanese matsutake ( tricholoma matsutake ) , a species that grows in pinus densiflora forests and commands exorbitant prices .
the matsutake mushroom is robust and white in colour when first formed . later it develops pale brown to yellow stains . the stout stem is solid , tough and fibrous . it is smooth above and scaly below the thick , sheathing ring that flares out in young specimens . the mushrooms have a distinct spicy - aromatic odour , reminiscent of sweet cinnamon [ mollina et al . , 1993 ] .
t . magnivelare is also associated with forests of tanoak ( lithocarpus densiflorus ) in northern california and western oregon . among the karuk , yurok and hupa people , three indigenous tribes which occupy portions of northern california , t . magnivalare is known as the tanoak mushroom and is considered to be an important traditional food . in the karuk language , t . magnivelare is known as haiwish . the earliest documentation of the karuk use of tanoak mushrooms dates from ethnobotanical field studies conducted in 1939 , which reported : a certain mushroom , found in november , is cooked on coals and eaten .  [ richards , 1997 ; schenck and gifford , 1952 ] .
the high demand for t . magnivelare mushrooms in japan led to a massive increase in commercial harvesting of this species on public lands in the western united states beginning in the late 1980s . until about 1991 , there was little commercial mushroom harvesting on karuk ancestral lands . as commercial pickers arrived in greater numbers , local tribal members complained that their traditional gathering sites , many of which were on lands administered by usda forest service , were being overharvested . in early 1993 , the karuk tribe appealed a decision made by the klamath national forest in northern california to allow a commercial mushroom harvest season . as a result , no commercial permits were issued , and studies on resource values assigned to this mushroom and the basis for the resource conflict were established . resultant work , some of which is still in progress , indicate that the karuk had developed mushroom hunting techniques based on knowledge of favourable sites , weather and phenology of associated plants . they also engaged in harvesting practices that they believed would sustain the population of the fungus . these practices included twisting off the mushrooms so as not to disturb the fungus mycellium , leaving small mushrooms to grow and fruit and replacing leaf litter in sites where mushrooms have been harvested in order to maintain soil moisture and a more favourable habitat for production of fruiting bodies . the effect of these traditional harvesting practices on sustainability of mushroom harvests requires testing in replicated field trials [ richards , 1997 ] .
truffles ( tuber spp . ) are rounded , potato - shaped mushrooms with a subterranean habit . they are the fruiting bodies of mychorrhizal fungi associated with the roots of various species of beech , oak and other broad - leaved trees [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] . one species , t . gibossum , is associated exclusively with douglas fir ( pseudotsuga menziesii ) in the pacific coast of north america [ molina et al . , 1993 ] .
several european species are considered to be prized delicacies . the black périgord truffle ( tuber melanosporum ) is widely used in italian and french cuisines . this truffle is found in oak forests throughout much of europe but the centre of production of the mushrooms is southwestern france where they occur in light , porous , clay marl . in italy it is known as tartufo nero , and in the region of umbria it is an ingredient in pasta dishes and in an amaro , an after - dinner liqueur [ authors observation ] . the white piedmont truffle ( t . magnatum ) is the most sought - after species in italy , where it is added in thin slices to a variety of pasta dishes to which they impart a distinctive , musky flavour . this truffle is produced in the region from the astigiano to the canallese rivers in alba ( piedmont region ) , where most collection occurs from october through december [ moora , 1955 ] . the summer truffle ( t . aestivum ) occurs in the beech forests in the chalk downs of the united kingdom , where a cottage industry based on truffle hunting existed during the eighteenth century . truffles were collected and marketed until the 1930s but are now considered to be too small to merit collection [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .
the unusual habitat and appearance of truffles caused considerable debate as to their origin . the roman naturalist and writer pliny described truffles as calluses of the soil . the greek biographer plutarch explained that their existence was the combined action of thunder , rain and the warmth of the soil . during the sixteenth century , it was widely believed that truffles were the result of the semen of rutting deer . during the nineteenth century , they were believed to be a gall produced by oak roots . later in that century a theory was postulated that the truffle fly , an insect commonly associated with the fruiting bodies , stung the roots of oak trees causing the gall - like truffles to grow [ dickinson and lucas , 1979 ] .
while much truffle gathering occurs in natural forests , the black périgord truffle has been grown in a more or less organized fashion since about 1810 , using an indirect cultivation procedure . a french farmer by the name of joseph talon established an oak plantation by planting acorns . after a few years , truffles began to appear in the plantation . when he repeated the exercise several years later with the specific intent to produce truffles and succeeded , he had begun an indirect method of truffle cultivation . today a sizeable portion of truffles harvested from france and exported are obtained through establishment of new oak plantings [ dickinson and lyons , 1979 ] . at present truffles are the only ectomycorrhizal food fungus which is in widespread cultivation in the pacific northwest ( only in washington and oregon states ) [ russel and lipsey , 1999 ] .


the wingspan is 15 – 22 mm .

syndemis musculana

kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
harmorullakääriäinen
to
syndemis musculana hübner 1800
.
syndemis musculana ( dark - barred tortrix ) - norfolk micro moths - the micro moths of norfolk .
hans - martin braun added the english common name
dark - barred twist
to
syndemis musculana hübner 1800
.
kari pihlaviita set
adult - lateral view - close - up - enlarged
as an exemplar on
syndemis musculana hübner 1800
.
. . . archips podana • archips xylosteana • agapeta hamana • celypha lacunana • choristoneura fumiferana • syndemis musculana • aethes shakibai • . . .
syndemis musculana is a moth of the family tortricidae . it is found in europe , china ( heilongjiang , jilin , inner mongolia ) , the korean peninsula , japan , russia ( amur ) and north america .
genus : syndemis herrich - schäffer , 1851 . syst . bearb . schmett . europ . 4 : 275 . [ bhl ]
type - species : tortrix musculana hübner , 1799 . samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 16 fig . 98 . [ bhl ]
type - species : tortrix musculana hübner , [ 1796 - 1799 ] . samml . eur . schmett . 7 : pl . 16 , fig . 98 . . [ bhl ]
although cited by neave , 1940 , nomencl . zool . 4 : 368 , as a nomenclaturally available name herrich - schäffer attributed the name to hübner and was using syndemis hübner , [ 1825 ] .
this study was carried out to clarify the fauna of the tribe archipini , which belongs to the family tortricidae in northeast china . in the present study , fifty - four species of the tribe were recognized and enumerated . based on the present study , two species , archips viola falkovitsh and choristoneura evanidana ( kennel ) , are reported for the first time from china . also five species , archips dichotomus falkovitsh , archips similis ( butler ) , argyrotaenia angustilineata ( walsingham ) , choristoneura longicellana ( walsingham ) , and gnorismoneura orientis ( filipjev ) , are newly recorded from northeast china . all available information , including host plant , distributional range , and biological information , are listed .
foundation item : this study was support by kosef ( korea science & engineering foundation ) with the program of “korea and china young scientist exchange program” ( 2002–2003 ) .
biography : * byun bong - kyu ( 1963 - ) , male , ph . d . , researcher in korea national rrboretum , korea
( clerk ) in korea [ j ] . korean j . appl . entomol . ,
byun , b . k . , bae , y . s . , park , k . t . 1998 . illustrated catalogue of tortricidae in korea ( lepidoptera ) [ r ] . insects of korea , vol . 2 , pp 317 .
byun , b . k . , k . t . park and b . y . lee . 1996 . five species of tortricinae new to korea [ j ] . korean j . entomol . ,
falkovitsh , m . i . 1965 . new eastern - asiatic species of leaf rollers ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) [ j ] . ent . obozr . ,
jaros j . , spitzer , k . , havelka , j . and park k . t . 1992 . synecological and biogeographical outlines of lepidoptera communities in north korea [ j ] . insects of koreana ,
kawabe , a . 1982 . tortricidae and cochylidae [ c ] . in : h . inoue , s . sugi , h . kuroko , s . moriuti , a . kawabe ( eds ) moths of japan , vol . 1 : 62–258 , vol . 2 : 158–183 , pls . 14–31 , 227 , 279–295 .
kuznetsov , v . i . 1973 . leaf - rollers ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) of the southern part of the soviet far east and their seasonal cycles [ j ] . ent . obozr . ,
liu youqiao . 1983a . cochylidae and tortricidae [ c ] . in : animal research institute of chinese academy sciences ( ed ) iconographia heterocerorum sinicorum ( 1 ) beijing : science press , p 28–56 , pls . : 6–8 . ( in chinese )
hübner ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) [ j ] . zool . res . ,
liu youqiao , bai jiuwei . 1977 . lepidoptera , tortricidae , part 1 [ c ] . in : economic insect fauna of china ( vol . 11 ) . beijing : science press : p 1–93 , 24 pls .
hübner ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) with description of two new species [ j ] . acta zool . sinica ,
liu youqiao , li guangwu . 2002 . insecta , lepidoptera , tortricidae . [ c ] in : editorial committee of fauna sinica , chinese academy sciences ( ed ) fauna sinica ( vol . 27 ) . beijing : science press , pp . 463 , plates . 1–136 , colour plates 1–2 .
hübner ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) [ j ] . acta zool . cracov . ,
yasuda , t . 1972 . the tortricinae and sparganothinae of japan ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) . part i [ j ] . bull . univ . osaka prefect . series b ,
yasuda , t . 1975 . the tortricinae and sparganothinae of japan ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . part ii [ j ] . bull . univ . osaka prefect . series b ,
bong - kyu , b . , shan - chun , y . & cheng - de , l . journal of forestry research ( 2003 ) 14 : 93 . urltoken
on this moth , both forewings and hindwings are primarily grey . the forewing ranges from whitish grey to brownish grey , with darker markings , which vary in intensity . some , especially worn specimens , lack discernable markings .
it is common throughout britain and ireland in a variety of habitats , including mountains , moorlands and woodlands . it flies in the late afternoon and evening in may and june , coming to light after dusk .
) , and many other trees , shrubs , herbs and grasses . it is active from july to october , overwintering as a full - grown larva to pupate in spring .
several other polyphagous species have similar brown larvae ; see detailed description below for help in distinguishing them .
. feeds from a leaf spinning or folded leaf , from july to september , overwintering as a full - grown larva to pupate in april - may .
: light burnt ochre mottled with darker burnt ochre . clypeus and base of antenna translucent white . pitchy black posterolateral mark . stemmatal area pitchy black .
: translucent yellowish brown . divided by thin inconspicuous whitish medial line . very large pitchy black lateral mark .
: often , but not always , noticeably paler dorsally than abdomen ; brownish yellow , contrasting with dark brown dorsal line .
: dorsally and laterally down to spiracles greyish brown ( or olive , or yellowish green ; bts ) . broad subspiracular band of brownish cream . ventrally greyish cream .
. the head colour , and patterns on the thoracic shield and anal plate should be compared carefully .
( dark venter . pinacula as body . plates black . lobe on posterior of anal plate ) ,
( pinacula whitish . dark venter . compare thoracic shield and anal plate . frequent on
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caracteristic greyish white ground colour and contrasting median fascia . forewing ranges from whitish grey to brownish grey .
recorded in 55 ( 80 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 05 . last recorded in 2018 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
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wingspan 15 - 22 mm . on this moth , both forewings and hindwings are primarily grey . the forewing ranges from whitish grey to brownish grey , with darker markings which vary in intensity . some , especially worn specimens , lack discernable markings .
it flies in the late afternoon and evening in may and june , coming to light after dusk .
the larva feeds from a leaf spinning or folded leaf on bramble birch and oak and many other trees , shrubs , herbs and grasses . it is active from july to october , overwintering as a full - grown larva to pupate in the spring .
it is common throughout britain and ireland . in the butterfly conservation’s microlepidoptera report 2011 this species was classified as common .
quite common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = a ( common and resident )
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notes : common in open woodland , mature hedgerows and high moorland throughout the british isles . widespread and common in hampshire and on the isle of wight . wingspan 15 - 22 mm . the greyish white or white ground colour and the contrasting median fascia are characteristic [ bradley ] . larva feeds on bramble , oak and birch , living within a spun or rolled leaf , and over - wintering in a cocoon .
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ans less often on grasses or herbaceous plants . it hibernates in that tube and pupates in the larval habitation or amongst ground litter .
the adults have been observed from late april till the end of july . most specimens have been seen in may . they fly in late afternoon till dark and later occasionally come to light and sugar .
belgium , limburg , kinrooi , 21 may 2005 . ( photo © maarten jacobs )
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blå punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och övriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan innehålla observationer som inte är validerade . kartan uppdateras var fjärde vecka .
i det avancerade verktyget kan man söka ut och få fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst län , i en viss biotop , substrat , som påverkas av en hotfaktor , eller som är knutna till en sk värdart , t ex trädet alm . dessa kan även kombineras .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , knutna till alm , är beroende av död ved och som finns i kronobergs län .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , lever i småvatten och som påverkas negativt av igenväxning .
defaultläget i verktyget är arter som är rödlistade 2015 och dessa är klassade på samtliga sökfaktorer . under fliken rödlistekategori kan man dock välja att även inkludera arter som inte är rödlistade . om man väljer att inkludera icke rödlistade arter behöver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte är klassade på samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanställning av vad som är komplett .
denna funktion används när du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka på deras namn . du kan också välja att använda knappen ”jämför arter” för att se bilder , kartor och kännetecken i en jämförelsevy .
du kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via släktträdet och där välja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat sätt att göra ditt urval är att använda fliken ”filtrera” , där du kan söka på olika egenskaper . ovanför listan med sökresultatet finns en knapp ”lägg i mitt urval” .
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type specimens : syntype ( s ) europe : ? locality , ( ? depository ) . .
t @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 2 . 0 )
by gilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2012 .
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type - species designation : by subsequent designation by fernald , 1908 . genera tortricidae types : 11 , 54 .
the wingspan is 15–22 mm . the adults fly from april to july in the temperate parts of their range , such as belgium and the netherlands .
the caterpillars feed on oaks ( quercus ) , birches ( betula ) , spruces ( picea ) , ragworts ( senecio ) and rubus ( brambles and allies ) . less usually , they have been recorded to eat plant refuse and dry leaves .
. . . wikipedia , l ' encyclopédie libre . • olethreutini • • celypha lacunana • classification • règne • animalia • embranchement • arthropoda . . .
. . . celypha lacunana ) • taxonomische indeling • • rijk : • animalia ( dieren ) • . . .
. . . ( bladrollers ) • geslacht : • celypha • • soort • celypha lacunana denis & schiffermüller , 1775 • • portaal • biologie . . .
. . . portaal • biologie insecten de brandnetelbladroller ( celypha lacunana ) , is een nachtvlinder uit de familie tortricidae , de . . .
. . . onderwerp horen , zijn te vinden op de pagina celypha lacunana op wikimedia commons . overgenomen van
http : / / nl . . .
. . . - schäffer • 1851 • • • • • s • tortricidae • celypha lacunana • xxxx xxxx ! xxxx xxxx • denis & schiffermüller . . .
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ws : 14 - 18mm ; bivoltine jul , oct and overwinters ; silver / downy birch ( betula pendula / pubsecens ) ; common in woodland throughout gb . synonym : peronea ferrugana ( pierce & metcalfe ) , acleris tripunctana ( btm )
ground colour pale to reddish ochreous , sometimes with darker strigulation and a few scattered black scales .
assuming that the illustrations in mbgbi 5 . 1 are incorrectly labelled * : in
the aedeagus has a simple apex and 3 short spiniform cornuti . there are also differences in the shape of the sacculus , that of
the anterior border of the sterigma has a notch on each side with short lateral projections and shorter medial projections . in
the introitus is strongly sclerotised , broader posteriorly and broader than the ductus bursae .
in razowski ( 1984 , 2001 , 2002 ) are reversed
- in both sexes . i have not seen these references , but either [ mbgbi5 . 1 has repeated this error ] or [ all other references are incorrect and the synonyms given in mbgbi5 . 1 are reversed ] . images and illustrations showing the preapical aedeagal spine in the male and a notched anterior border to the sterigma with a broad introitus in the female are labelled as
§1 strumpshaw fen , norfolk ; 01 / 11 / 204 ; fw 7 . 9mm ; female §2 winterton , norfolk ; 09 / 07 / 2015 ; fw 7 . 0mm ; male ; to light §3 strumpshaw fen , norfolk ; 07 / 08 / 2015 ; male ; fw 7 . 7mm ; to light all images © chris lewis


asaphida is a large , morphologically diverse order of trilobites found in marine strata dated from the middle cambrian until their extinction during the silurian .

asaphida contains six superfamilies ( anomocaroidea , asaphoidea , cyclopygoidea , dikelocephaloidea , remopleuridoidea and trinucleioidea ) , but no suborders .

asaphids comprise some 20 % of described fossil trilobites .

the asaphids generally have cephalon ( head ) and pygidium ( tail ) parts similar in size , and most species have a prominent median ventral suture .

heads are often flat , and carapace furrows in the head area are often faint or not visible .

thoracic segments typically number 5 - 12 , though some species have as few as two and some as many as 30 .

they also generally have a wide doublure , or rim , that surrounds the cephalon .

this causes some specimens to be described as having a characteristic " snowplow " shaped cephalon .

when present , eyes are typically large .

one asaphida line , the superfamily asaphoidea , shows a continuous evolution of eyestalks , from individuals with stubby eyes to asaphus kowalewskii , a trilobite popular with collectors that sported long eyestalks .

this line is found in the middle ordovician asery level deposits of the volkhov river region near saint petersburg , russia .

during the ordovician , the region that is now eastern europe was a shallow inland sea .

this eyestalk development is believed to be an adaptation to changes in turbidity during this time , with eye-stalked trilobites like a. kowalewski presumably arising in a time of increased turbidity .

one thought is that this trilobite may have lain in wait for prey buried in the bottom sediment with only its periscope eyestalks protruding .

the major extinction event marking the end of the ordovician period reduced the diversity of all trilobite orders with most asaphid families disappearing .

the only surviving asaphids were members of superfamily trinucleioidea , and they too disappeared before the end of the silurian period .

the following families are included : anomocaroidea andrarinidae anomocarellidae anomocaridae aphelaspididae parabolinoididae pterocephalidae asaphoidea asaphidae ceratopygidae trinucleioidea alsataspididae dionididae liostracinidae raphiophoridae trinucleidae dikelocephaloidea dikelocephalidae eurekiidae loganellidae ptychaspididae saukiidae cyclopygoidea cyclopygidae nileidae taishunghaniidae remopleuridoidea auritamiidae bohemillidae hungaiidae idahoiidae remopleurididae

asaphida

zhang & jell 1987 ( trilobita ) , the family tsinaniidae and the order asaphida .
asaphida .
a dictionary of earth sciences . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
were also badly affected by this extinction . there are various features that characterise the asaphida , such as the
asaphida .
a dictionary of earth sciences . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
the ontogeny of the advanced members of the asaphida ( e . g . , asaphoidea , trinucleioidea , cyclopygoidea ) are consistent , with an effaced , globular protaspis .
the order asaphida is a large and diverse group of trilobites , including approximately a fifth of the entire class . they probably originated in the middle cambrian from the anomocaracea and , except for one genus ,
) . if so , then the argument of the ventral median suture as a central synapomorphy for the asaphida might require reconsideration . expanded and complete genera listings for the families above are from jell & adrain ( 2003 ) .
. the asaphids appeared in the middle cambrian and persisted to the lower silurian . order asaphida comprises six superfamilies : anomocaroidea ; asaphoidea ; cyclopygoidea ; trinucleioidea ; dikelokephaloidea ; and remopleuridoidea listed at the bottom of this page . the order contains a very large morphological diversity and number of species ; in fact , some 20 % of known species .
the trilobites of order asaphida are notably diverse in number of species and morphology , and interestingly contains about 20 % of known species . the most differentating morphological feature of the asaphid trilobites is the smooth and isopygous similar in size ) cephalon and pygidium , an evolutionary adaptation called effacement believed to have helped trilobites more easily burrow into and hide in sediment . another theory is that the smoothing of the exoskeleton streamlined the trilobite for locamotion . effacement is also evident among the agnostids , and suborder illaenina of order corynexochida . the asaphids appeared in the middle cambrian and persisted to the lower silurian . order asaphida comprises six superfamilies : anomocaroidea ; asaphoidea ; cyclopygoidea ; trinucleioidea ; dikelokephaloidea ; and remopleuridoidea listed at the bottom of this page . .
fortey & chatterton ( 1988 ) provided an extensive summary of evidence uniting the clades within the suborder asaphina , and later , arguments were presented by fortey ( 1990 ) for the recognition of an emmended order asaphida , as described here . the assumption is that the ventral median suture evolved only one time , thereby uniting all members bearing that feature as a monophyletic group . as a stem group composed of primitive asaphid families ( such as anomocaridae ) , the anomocarioidea is paraphyletic , giving rise to the derived superfamilies , and presumably including the most primitive transitional taxa for each ( such as some auritamiidae ) .
introduction : primitive asaphida ( possibly ancestral to some other asaphine groups ) , including families retaining the natant hypostomal condition , as well as other ptychoparioid features ; protaspides resembling those of ptychopariida ( not
asaphoid
) ; not all families included may be monophyletic ( i . e . , anomocaroidea as described here is likely a paraphyletic group ) . cephalon : preglabellar field wide ; glabella typically parallel or gently tapering , with 3 or 4 pairs of furrows more or less of ptychoparioid type , palpebral lobes long , sickle - shaped ; natant hypostome , median ventral suture ; natant hypostome , some approaching conterminant . thorax : 10 - 13 + segments . pygidium : typically large , with broad , usually concave border , 2 - 10 axial rings . families : andrarinidae , anomocarellidae , anomocarida e , aphelaspididae , parabolinoididae , pter ocephalidae ( including housiidae ) . genera : andrarinidae : andrarina ( / liostracus ) , groenwallia , groenwallina .
cephalon : opisthoparian or marginal facial sutures , generally eyeless ; glabella typically convex and pyriform , with 3 or fewer pairs of furrows , preoccipital glabellar tubercle sometimes present ; usually long genal spines . thorax : usually 5 – 8 segments , but only 2 - 3 segments in progenetic raphiophoridae , and up to 30 in seleneceme ( alsataspididae ) , with long , narrow adaxial pleurae . pygidium : wide , typically triangular , narrow axis extending to posterior margin , border strongly declined , doublure very narrow . other : asaphoid protaspis shows common ancestry ; raphiophorus is the only trinucleioid ( indeed the only representative of the order asaphida ) that continues beyond the ordovician - silurian boundary . families : alsataspididae ( including orometopidae ) , dionididae , liostracinidae , raphiophoridae , trinucleidae , genera : alsataspididae : ajrikina , alataupleura , araiopleura , calycinoidia , caputrotundum , clavatellus , falanaspis , hapalopleura , huamiaocephalus , jegorovaia ( = hermosella ) , jiangxiaspis , orometopus , pagometopus , palquiella , paracalymenemene ( / paracalymene liu ) , plesioparabolina , pyrimetopus , rhadinopleura , seleneceme ( = alsataspis ) , sibiriopleura , skljarella ( = proaraiopleura ) , spirantyx , trigocephalus , yumenaspis , zacompsus .
doctype public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en
form with enrolled doublure ) ; most members also have a median ventral suture ( only secondarily lost via fusion in two advanced families ) .
: typically 5 – 12 segments , but 2 - 3 in a few trinucleioidea , 13 + in some anomocaroidea , up to 30 in an alsataspidid ( trinucleioidea ) .
anomocarella ( = psilaspis ; = entorachis ) , eoanomocarella , fissanomocarella , glyphaspis ( = americare ) , hanshania , huayuania , liocare , liopeishania , liopelta , luia , lydiaspis , megalopsis , neoanomocarella , orthodorsum , paranomocarella , peishania , ( = parapeishania ) , peishanoides , plebiellus .
abharella , afghanocare , amginia , anomocare , anomocarina , anomocarioides , anomocariopsis , callaspis , chondranomocare , dilatalimbus , elandaspis , eocatuniella , forchammeria , formosocephalus , fuquania , glyphanellus , glyphaspellus , guizhouanomocare , hanivella , harataspis , hunanaspis , igarkiella , lohomia , irinia , jimanomocare , juraspis , kokuria , kolbinella , kotuia , leichneyella , lomsucaspis , longxumenia , macrotoxus , metanomocare , nadiyella , palella , paracoosia ( = manchurocephalus ) , parakotuia , paranomocare , pjatkovaspellus , qinlingia , rectifrontinella , sachaspis , schoriecare , schoriella , scintilla , sivovella , usovinurus , wutingshania , yongwolia .
amorphella , aphelaspidella , aphelaspis ( = proaulacopleura ; = clevelandella ; = labiostria ) , apheloides , dicanthopyge , elegantaspis , erixanium , eugonocare , kobayashella , listroa , litocephalus , maduiya , nganasanella ( = tamaranella ) , notoaphelaspis , olenaspella , olentella , paraphelaspis , pseudaphelaspis , pseudeugonocare , taenicephalites , taenora .
abdulinaspis , apornodocia , boestrupia , croixana , jasmundia , kendallina ( / kendallia ) , minkella , orygmaspis , parabolinoides ( = bernia ) , pedinocephalus , pesaiella , roksaspis , stigmacephaloides , taenicephalops , taemcephalus ( = bemaspis ; = maustonia ) , weishania .
pulchricapitus ( = reaganaspis ) , qilianaspis , sigmocheilus , stenambon , strigambitus , tiantouzhania , tumicephalus , uxunella , xiaoshiella , yingziaspis , yokusenia , yushugouia , zhenania , zhuangliella .
? ajacicrepida , asiocephalus , boschchekulia , cataplotaspis , ceratopyge , cermatops , charchaqia ( = aplotaspis ) , diceratopyge ( = paraceratopyge ) , dichelepyge ( = bicornipyge ) , dipleuropyge , guozia , haniwoides ( = yuepingia ) , hedinaspis , hunanopyge , hysterolenus ( = ruapyge / hectoria ) , kaltykelina , kaufmannella ( / kaufmannia ) , kogenium , lopnorites , macropyge ( = haniwapyge , = lichapyge ; = macropygella ) , mansuyella , nannopeltis , neohedinaspis , onychopyge ( = prionopyge ) , proceratopyge , promacropyge ( = aksapyge ) , pseudohysterolenus , pseudoyuepingia ( = iwayaspis ; = sayramaspis ) , sinoproceratopyge , tamdaspis ( = psiloyuepingia ) , tropidopyge , wannania , xiaodaositunia .
blandiaspis , dictyella , esseigania , guluheia , jiwangshania , leiaspis , lonchopygella , paradictyites , shergoldia , taipaikia , tsinania ( = dictyites , dictya ) , zhujia .
aethedionide , digrypos , dionide ( / dione ; / polytomurus ; = dionidepyga ; = trigrypos ) , dionideina , dionidella , huangnigangia , paradionide , tongxinaspis , trinucleoides .
ampyx ( / brachyampyx ) , ampyxella , ampyxina , ampyxinella , ampyxoides , anisonotella , bulbaspis , caganaspis , carinocranium , cerampyx , cnemidopyge , collis , edmundsonia , ellsaspis , endymionia ( / endymion ) , globampyx , jiuxiella ( = miboshania ) , kanlingia , lonchodomas , malinaspis , malongullia ( = ampyxinops ) , mendolaspis , metalonchodomas , miaopopsis , nambeetella , nanshanaspis , parabulbaspis , parampyx , pseudampyxina , pytine , raphioampyx , raphiophorus , raymondella ( / reedaspis ) , rhombampyx , salteria , sinampyxina , sinoluia , taklamakania ( = xinjiangia ) .
anebolithus , australomyttonia , bancroftolithus , bergamia ( = bohemaspis ; = brandysops ; = cochliorrhoe ) , bettonolithus , botrioides , broeggerolithus ( = ulricholithus ) , costonia , cryptolithoides , cryptolithus , deanaspis , declivolithus , decordinaspis , eirelithus , famatinolithus , furcalithus , guandacolithus , gymnostomix , hanchungolithus ( = ichangolithus ; = yinjiangolithus ) , huenickenolithus , incaia , jianxilithus , lloydolithus , lordshillia , marekolithus , marrolithoides , marrolithus , ? microdiscus , myinda , myindella , myttonia , nankinolithus , ningkianolithus ( = cerato1ithus ; = hexianolithus ) , novaspis , onnia , paratretaspis , paratrinucleus , parkesolithus , pragolithus , protoincaia , protolloydolithus , reedolithus , reuscholithus , salterolithus ( = smeathenia ) , stapeleyelta , telaeomarrolithus , tetrapsetlium , tretaspis , trinucleus ( / edgellia ) , whittardolithus , xiushuilithus , yinpanolithus .
cephalon : with opisthoparian sutures , glabella typically truncate anteriorly and squat , 1 - 4 pairs of lateral furrows , 1p may be transglabellar ; preglabellar field variable , sometimes absent , palpebral ridge typically well - defined , but separate from axial furrow ( compare to sister group remopleuroidea ) ; genal spines typically present , of various length ; median ventral suture rarely lost to secondary fusion ; hypostome conterminant thorax : 8 - 12 segments , axis convex , pleurae typically wider than length of axis , typically with short , pointed ends ( longer in loganellidae ) . pygidium : micropygous to isopygous , variable shape , axis often extends majority of length , sometimes with post - axial ridge , posterior margin smooth or spined ( 1 - 5 pairs of marginal spines ) families : dikelocephalidae , eurekiidae , ptychaspididae , saukiidae , loganellidae . genera : dikelocephalidae : berkeia , blandicephalus , briscoia , camaraspoides , dikelocephalus , elkia , goumenzia , hoytaspis , iranella , kasachstanaspis , monocheilus , olimus , osceolia , parabriscoia , patalolaspis , princetonella ( / calyptomma ) , pterocephalops rasetti , randicephalus , stigmacephalus , walcottaspis .
bandalaspis , bayfieldia , corbinia , eurekia , leocephalus , lochmanaspis , magnacephalus , maladia , tostonia .
alborsella , changia ( = coreanocephalus ; = quadraticephalus ; = fengshania ) , eoptychaspis , eowuhuia , euptychaspis , idiomesus , kathleenella , keithia , keithiella , macronoda ( = promesus ) , plectrella , proricephalus , ptychaspis ( = asioptychaspis ) , saukioides ( / pseudosaukia ; / jeholaspis ) , sunwaptia , wilcoxaspis .
cephalon : with glabella expanding forward to anterior margin , effaced in later cyclopygids , may be fused with occipital ring ; fixigenae reduced ( except in primitive taihungshaniidae ) , palpebral lobes lack distinct rims , and contact axial furrows at anterior ends , librigenae fused or separated by anterior median suture ; hypostome relatively transverse , impendent , often with tripartite posterior margin ; eye various sized ( may be hypertrophied and convex ( cyclopyge ) , typically closely adjoined to glabella . thorax : 5 - 8 ( 9 ? ) segments . pygidium : medium to large ( subisopygous in nileidae ) , axis usually with 2 - 5 rings ( but up to 20 + in advanced taihungshaniidae ) , may be smooth , or with indistinct furrows . families : cyclopygidae , nileidae , taishunghaniidae genera : cyclopygidae : amicus , aspidaeglina , circulocrania , cyclopyge ( / egle / aeglina ) , degamella , ellipsotaphrus , emmrichops , gastropolus ( = lisogoraspis ) , girvanopyge ( = cremastoglottos ; = gamops ; = nanlingia ) , heterocyclopyge ( = selenoptychus ) , microparia ( = gallagnostoides ) , novakella ( = incisopyge ) , paramicroparia , phylacops , pricyclopyge ( = bicyclopyge ) , prospectatrix , psilacella , quadratapyge , sagavia , symphysops , waldminia , xenocyclopyge .
aocaspis , barrandia , berkutaspis , borthaspidella , bumastides , elongatanileus , homalopteon , illaenopsis ( = eurymetopus ; = procephalops ; = rokycania / pseudobarrandia ) , kodymaspis , ? lakaspis , neopsilocephalina , nileus ( = remopleuridioides ) , parabarrandia , parabumastides , paranileus , ? peraspis , petrbokia , platypeltoides ( / platypeltis ) , poronileus , psilocephalinella ( / psilocephalus / psilocephalina / borthaspis ) , shenjiawania , symphyroxochus , ? symphysurina ( = symphysurinella ; = symphysuroides ) , symphysurus , troedssonia , varvia .
asaphellina , asaphopsis , omeipsis , pacootella , renhuaia , taihungshania ( = miquelina ) , tungtzuella .
cephalon : with opisthoparian sutures , glabella bulges tranversely anterior of occipital ring , with up to 3 pairs lateral furrows , eyes medium to very large , with narrow , wire - like socle , palpebral rims inflated , deep rim furrows , extending into axial furrows anteriorly ; genal spines present . thorax : 9 - 12 segments , axis convex , pleural furrows diagonal , pleural tips typically point backward . pygidium : with spinose margin , spines flattened , united at bases , extending to axis ; convex axis not extending to posterior margin , pleural field flat , typically furrowed and backward curving . surface variously sculptured or granulose . families : auritamiidae , bohemillidae , hungaiidae ( including dikelokephalinidae ) , idahoiidae ( including loganellidae ) , remopleurididae ( including kainellidae ) . genera : auritamidae : auritama , metopotropis .
asaphopsoides ( = dainellicauda ; = xiangxiia ) , ciliocephalus , dactylocephalus , dikella , dikelocephalopsis , dikelokephalina , dikelus , hungaia ( = acrohybus ) , hungioides ( = argentinops ) , leimitzia , meitanopsis , songtaoia , warendia , xiushanopsis .
aguilarella , arrhenaspis , brabbia , comanchia , duibianaspis , elviraspis , langyashania , lauzonella , leviscila , loganellus ( = highgatea ) , maladioidella ( = kuruktagella ; = cedarellus ) , noelaspis , patronaspis , psalaspis , pyttstrigis , saratogia ( = idahoia , = meeria ) , shitaia , valtoressia , wafangia , wilbernia , zhuitunia .
aktugaiella , amphitryon ( / caphyra ; = brachypleura ) , aotiaspis , apatokephalina , apatokephaloides , apatokephalops ( = aristokainella ; = wanliangtingia ) , apatokephalus , apiflabellum , arator , artokephalus , atratebia , auricula , binervus , blosyropsis , cavia , deanokephalus , diplapatokephalus , dislobosaspis , eoapatokephalus , eorobergia , haniwa , hastiremopleurides , hexacopyge , hualongella , hukasawaia , hypodicranotus , ivshinaspis , jiia , jingheella , jinshaella , kainella , kainellina , kainelloides , lacorsalina , lingukainella , lohanpopsis , loshanella , lulongia , makbelaspis , mendosina , menoparia , naustia , oculeus , poletaevia , portentosus , praepatokephalus , proapatokephalops , pseudokainella ( = elkanaspis ; = parakainella ; = fatocephalus ) , pugilator , remopleurella , remopleurides , remopleuridiella , richardsonaspis , richardsonella ( = lakella ; = protapatokephalus ) , robergia , robergiella , scinocephalus , sculptaspis , sculptella , sigmakainella , spinacephalus , taishania , teratorhynchus , tibikephalus , tramoria , yosimuraspis ( = eoyosimuraspis ; = metayosimuraspis ) .
whittington ( 2003 ) argues that at least some of the nileidae ( e . g . ,
fortey , r . a . 1990 . ontogeny , hypostome attachment , and trilobite classification .
fortey , r . a . 2001 . trilobite systematics : the last 75 years .
fortey , r . a . and b . d . e . chatterton . 1988 . classification of the trilobite suborder asaphina .
jell , p . a . & j . m . adrain . 2003 . available generic names for trilobites .
whittington , h . b . 2003 . the trilobite family nileidae : morphology and classification . palaeontology 46 ( 4 ) : 635 - 46 .
* different taxonomies are found , most recently with trilobites contained in superclass arachnomorpha in subphylum schizoramia .
. another theory is that the smoothing of the exoskeleton streamlined the trilobite for locamotion . effacement is also evident among the
the major extinction event concluding the ordovician period markedly reduced trilobite diversity across all the orders . among the asaphids , only some members of superfamily trinucleioidea survived , and they too met extinction near the end of the silurian .
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a taxonomic order within the class trilobita – trilobites that lived from the middle cambrian to the silurian periods .
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a taxonomic order within the class trilobita — trilobites that lived from the middle cambrian to the silurian periods .
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all died out in the mass extinction event at the end of the ordovician ( see below ) . why this may be was discussed by
this website offers a brief introduction to the group , some of its major sub - groups , morphological features and life habits . a glossary is also provided for reference .
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