the scarlet-banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) is a species of bird in the capitonidae family .

discovered in 1996 and formally described in 2000 , the scarlet-banded barbet is endemic to humid highland forest growing on a ridgetop known as peak 1538 in the remote cordillera azul national park in south-western loreto , peru ( mistakenly listed as being in ucayali , peru , in its formal description ) .

while it remains fairly common , its range is tiny and the total population has been estimated at less than 1000 individuals .

consequently , it is rated as vulnerable by birdlife international and iucn .

a strikingly coloured species , it measures 19 cm ( 7.5 in ) long .

most of the upperparts are black , except for the yellow back and large white rump patch .

below , the throat and upper breast are white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band , while the rest of the underparts are yellow .

scarlet - banded barbet

nobody uploaded sound recordings for scarlet - banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) yet .
so what ' s so special about this bird then ? the scarlet - banded barbet was only discovered in 1996 ( and described in 2000 ) by dan lane and dr . john o ' neill on a
while scarlet - banded barbet and cordillera azul antbird are our main target many other birds which have been recorded will also be searched for as well . these include chestnut - tipped toucanet , scaled , fiery - throated and scarlet - breasted fruiteaters , the foothill form of long - tailed woodcreeper which is soon to be described as a new species .
scarlet - banded barbet was discovered in 1995 on an isolated peak in the cordillera azul , the head waters of rio cushabatay and was formally described to science in 2000 . for many years the only way to see it was doing a 10 day expedition with a 2 - 3 grueling hike to reach the peak .
also known as the scarlet - belted barbet , this stunningly beautiful bird constitutes one of the most dramatic ornithological discoveries of recent years . to date it is known solely from an isolated plateau covered in cloud forest between the rivers huallaga and ucayali , in north - central peru , where the population is estimated to number fewer than 1000 individuals . in consequence , birdlife international treats the scarlet - banded barbet as vulnerable to extinction . fortunately , the barbet’s montane home is remote , which should help serve to protect it . the cap and nape are scarlet , while a broad white supercilium separates the crown from the black ear coverts . most of the upperparts are black , relieved by the yellow back and large white rump patch . below , the throat and upper breast are white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band , while the rest of the underparts are yellow , becoming paler distally .
19 cm . very striking , recently discovered barbet . cap and nape scarlet . broad white supercilium starting from just in front of eye . black lores , area below eye and ear - coverts . scapulars mostly black ( yellow
v
in female ) . back yellow , large white rump and black tail . throat and upper breast white , bordered below by a broad scarlet band . lower breast and belly bright yellow , fading to yellowish - white in undertail coverts .
short , l . l . , horne , j . f . m . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . scarlet - banded barbet ( capito wallacei ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
c . 19·5 cm ; 65–78 g . distinctive black , white , yellow and red barbet . male has red cap , with red extending to middle of back , white and yellow mid - back to . . .
the morning of the 15th dawned and my luck did not appear to be in as i missed a green jay near the tents . after an early breakfast it was back on the trail , stopping only to fill all the water bottles from the stream , located in a steep gully about 30 minutes from camp . with the park guards re - cutting the trail through the steep and dense rainforest it appeared that it had been a long time since anyone had walked this way . when it became apparent that we were ascending a ridge to the peak , the habitat dramatically changed to epiphyte - laden cloud forest with trees of reduced stature . trailing behind the main group , i realised that if any barbets were flushed by them , then my chances of connecting with the barbet were reduced . i was the only birder in the group although most of the others were keen to see what all the fuss was about . with a one - track mind i struggled on to get to the front , stopping only to note some blue - winged mountain - tanagers and slate - throated redstarts . it was here that i heard soft
brrrr
calls from two birds i was unable to locate . catching up with my colleagues i found them talking excitedly - two of them had observed a scarlet - banded barbet . taking the lead from this point and with my senses in a heightened state of alert , i searched along the trail for my very own barbet . suddenly i was surprised to find the habitat opening out , scrub taking over from tree cover , and the open sky . we had reached the top !
expedition to a remote corner of rainforest in peru in a range of hills known as the cerro cinco puntas . this finding was remarkable in many respects . while it resembles other barbets , its plumage is unique - boldly patterned with conspicuous red , yellow , black and white . the bird was found on an unnamed peak in an area which had never been surveyed or explored before due its remoteness . the cloud forest habitat favoured by the barbet is fairly small and restricted to a small altitudinal zone near the top of a mountain which has come to be known as barbet peak or peak 1538 .
1 . o ' neill , john p . daniel f . lane , andrew w . kratter , angelo p . capparella & cecilia fox . 2000 . a striking new species of barbet ( capitonidae : capito ) from the eastern andes of peru . the auk 117 ( 3 ) : 569 - 577 .
it was remarkable how small the cloud forest habitat was - probably only a couple of hundred metres in elevation around the peak looked suitable , and we had passed up through it so quickly . taking a few photographs and then ignoring a canopy flock coming through , i headed back down to where today ' s barbet had been sighted . after an hour i was beginning to panic and some of the party were beginning to head back down . i tried to locate more of the soft
brrr
calls which i had heard earlier . they appeared to be uttered by some hidden birds which were also making tapping sounds on the branches . suddenly agustine came racing up the trail to tell me had seen five barbets ! i was down at the spot in no time and very soon . . . there they were . a splendid pair of scarlet - banded barbets . observing them call i realised i had been hearing them all along . then , another pair . yes , they are striking birds but so are many of the common birds in south america . what made these moments particularly special was the knowledge that very few people had shared the same experience of the species . and then a slightly uncomforting thought . the habitat here seems so small , perhaps even fragile , on the ridge of this peak - what is its future in the face of climate change ? this year was one of the driest periods in recent times in the amazon and we have all seen the reports in the news . i feel extremely fortunate to have seen the barbet and its magical habitat and thank everyone involved in this expedition .
inlcudes hotel ( but not dinner ) in tarapoto on the night prior to day 1 , guiding , camping equipment including sheets , blankets and pillows , tranport and all the food until lunch on day 4 . note that there will be a $ 500 per group for hiring the 4 wd needed to get to the barbet site . this means one person pays the full $ 500 , and a group of two pays $ 250 per person etc .
i was lucky enough to be working for several weeks in the parque nacional cordillera azul - peru ' s newest national park - and even luckier to be on barbet peak after many days travel and field work from contamana on the rio ucayali and rio cushabatay . so , i ' ll pick up the story on 13 august 2005 when , after several days in a peque - peque , my colleagues ( prof . james mallet , dr . kanchon dasmahapatra & laura roberts ) and i finally left the boat behind to begin our trek to towards the peak . we camped that night on the bank of the rio cushabatay at boca de chambira and set off early next morning with two inrena guardaparques ( agustine and raul from puesto de control 106 and 16 respectively ) and three bearers ( milton and his two brothers ) to help us re - cut the trail and carry food and equipment . by lunchtime we reached quebrada paco after several hours of continuous walking . although this stretch of the trek is fairly flat , the combined heat , humidity and a large rucksack made for less than a pleasant experience . however , this was nothing compared with next two days of continuous uphill struggling .
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
neotropical birds is an authoritative , online resource for life histories of neotropical birds . these accounts are intended primarily for ornithologists , especially those based in the neotropics , but will also prove useful to wildlife biologists , conservationists , amateur ornithologists with strong interests in avian natural history , and biology teachers and students .
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a brief review of some of the important species - level changes that are incorporated in the 2014 revisions to the ebird / clements checklist .
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authority : o ' neill , lane , kratter , capparella et al . , 2000
this recently described species is only known from one small mountain top where its population must be very small , and it is therefore listed as vulnerable . however , further investigation through the 50 - km long mountain ridge may reveal the species to be less at risk .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : capito wallacei . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
sister - species of c . fitzpatricki ( which see ) ; perhaps also close to c . hypoleucus , c . quinticolor or c . niger . monotypic .
nc peru e of andes : known only from isolated low plateau nw of contamana , between r huallaga and r ucayali .
song a fast , low - pitched trill of c . 2 seconds , “tdddddd - ” , resembles distant . . .
montane and submontane forest , wet and moss - festooned , some of it stunted , at 1350–1500 m . . . .
fruits and their seeds ; most likely insects , as well . occurs in mixed - species foraging flocks , at up to 10 m in trees .
moult and gonadal condition of jul specimens indicate season probably mar–may . nest and eggs undescribed , and no other information .
vulnerable . discovered only in jul 1996 , and currently known only from two very small and isolated areas in nc peru ; has not been located in other areas of peru , and is . . .
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traditionally , all barbets were lumped into a single family under this name . in recent decades , increasing weight of evidence # r # r # r # r indicates : separate families should be recognized for species from america ( capitonidae ) , asia ( megalaimidae ) and africa ( lybiidae ) ; american barbets further divisible by recognition of aberrant family semnornithidae ; and american barbets are closer to toucans than to old world barbets .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
. 2000 ) . the ridge is on the east bank of the upper río cushabatay , 77 km west - north - west of contamana in loreto . the ridge is long ( > 50 km ) and narrow ( o ' neill
. 2000 ) and , in spite of searches at suitable elevations in the adjacent cordillera azul , this species remains known only from peak 1538 ( d . lane and t . s . schulenberg
the population is estimated to number 250 - 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 375 - 1 , 499 individuals in total , rounded here to 350 - 1 , 500 individuals . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 12 . 8 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 26 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is therefore suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations .
. 2007 ) . epiphytes , especially bryopytes , bromeliads and orchids , cover most of the trunks and large branches of the short trees ( 10 - 20 m ) . the predominant trees near the summit are melastomes and clusias . the forest floor has a deep ( up to 1 m ) spongy cover of mosses intermixed with leaf litter and soil . the wet , epiphyte - covered montane forest changes abruptly to taller and drier subtropical forest below 1 , 250 m .
there is little human habitation in the watershed , and none above 300 m . only a small amount of hunting is conducted by infrequent visitors . however , deforestation is extensive on the west slope of the adjacent cordillera azul , especially in the drainage of the río biabo .
search for the species on the western slope and in the northern cerros del sira . assess the size of its population . gather more information on its ecology and life history . seek protected status for the isolated ridge .
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barbets ( capitonidae ) are small , brightly coloured birds with proportionally large heads , prominent bills and characteristic bristles around the beak area . closely related to toucans , there are 83 known species distributed across the tropics of africa , asia and central & south america . the neotropics host 15 species , seven which occur in peru in two genera
on the 14th we began the climb to the 1086 metre camp . after five hours of determined trekking , the occasional impressive vista and stop to gulp down some water , we reached pucacurillo . the camp here showed signs from the few previous expeditions here . feeling the effects of dehydration and the disheartening news that the nearest water was another 30 minutes walk away we resorted to acquiring some liquid from a nearby trickle / stagnant - looking pool . in what may have been a bit of overkill , the resulting water was filtered , boiled and treated with iodine . that night i slept like a log , troubled only by that feeling that any twitcher ( not that i belong to that tribe of birders ) knows - how bad would i feel , after having the extreme fortune to be here , to leave without laying eyes on the capito ? tomorrow was the final ascent to the peak where this very special bird had hidden from the ornithological world for so long .
2 . clements , james f & noam shany . 2001 . a field guide to the birds of peru . ca : ibis publishing company . lynx edicions .
south america | north america | asia | c . america & caribbean | europa | africa | australia and oceania
recently a new site has been discovered very near an extremely rough but nonetheless a road allowing much easier access . this is still a rough trip with camping and extremely bumpy 4wd ride to get to the base , but the rewards are high with a number of other seldom seen birds in the same area . in 2017 , a new species of antbird was described from this same area - cordillera azul antbird . read more about it on urltoken .
if the departure dates don ' t fit you , please suggest another date .
we shall travel to bellavista after with stop at the dry scrub of quebrada upaquihua to check for birds as huallaga slaty antshrike , ashy - headed greenlet , planalto hermit , rufous casiornis , mishana tyrannulet , comb duck , stripe - chested antwren and others . night in bellavista hotel monteverde .
it takes about four hours by 4wd to get to the village which will serve as our base camp . on the way we shall look for napo sabrewing which has been seen along the road .
grey - tailed piha , rose - fronted parakeet , foothill and slaty antwren , rufous - breasted antthrush . scaled antpitta , foothill schiffornis , short - tailed antthrush , ash - browed and chestnut - throated spinetails , yellow - throated spadebill , yellow - cheeked becard , andean lanisoma , roraiman flycatcher and jet , yungas and blue - rumped manakin .
grey - mantled wren , and many tanagers such as blue - browed , golden - eared and straw - backed tanagers . the local form of white - crowned tapaculo also needs some attention as this complex surely includes more than one species based on the difference in the songs . at night we can search for vermiculated screech - owl and band - bellied owl .
additional birding in the morning , until early afternoon if necessary . on the way down we’ll make stops to look for birds we may have missed . we drive to tarapoto , where we may take a late evening flight back to lima or stay overnight to continue to explore more of northern peru .
telephone : + 51 - 1 - 652 76 89 . from the us : 011 - 51 - 1 - 652 76 89 . cell : 988 555 938 ( gunnar ) or 999 007 886 ( elia gallo ) - email : kolibriexp @ urltoken


oneida lunulalis , the oak gall snout moth , is a species of snout moth in the genus oneida .

it is found in most of eastern north america , from quebec and ontario to illinois and florida .

the wingspan is about 24 mm .

the forewings are silvery grey or light brown .

the hindwings are grey with a white fringe .

adults are on wing from june to august .

the larvae feed on the leaves and galls on oak .

oneida lunulalis

species oneida lunulalis - orange - tufted oneida - hodges # 5588 - bugguide . net
an orange - tufted oneida moth in prince george ' s co . , maryland . photo by bob patterson . ( mbp list )
similar to oneida grisiella and o . luniferella which occur in the west ( compare images of all 3 species by jim vargo at mpg )
orange - tufted oneida moth in howard co . , maryland ( 8 / 8 / 2005 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )
farther review of the camp wood hills specimen and the three species of oneida , i now think it is o . grisella . what do you think ?
an orange - tufted oneida moth in frederick co . , maryland ( 6 / 8 / 2018 ) . photo by mark etheridge . ( mbp list )
an orange - tufted oneida moth in baltimore co . , maryland ( 7 / 26 / 2014 ) . photo by emily stanley . ( mbp list )
an orange - tufted oneida moth in worcester co . , maryland ( 5 / 28 / 2014 ) . photo by scott housten . ( mbp list )
an orange - tufted oneida moth in calvert co . , maryland ( 6 / 16 / 2006 ) . photo by arlene ripley . ( mbp list )
an orange - tufted oneida moth in howard co . , maryland ( 7 / 14 / 2004 ) . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )
an orange - tufted oneida moth in st . mary ' s co . , maryland ( 7 / 25 / 2017 ) . photo by tyler bell . ( mbp list )
an orange - tufted oneida moth in howard co . , maryland ( 6 / 30 / 2002 ) . determined by john glaser . photo by larry line . ( mbp list )
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terry , it could be but as i read the photos the
tuft
is more orange and the coloration below the tuft rather green and does not have a distinct line below . i tend to favor but i realize it is even further out of range or o . grisella which has been see in the big bend area . not much information on this genus but i think we see more
out of range
moths here from az and nm .
after looking at the three species more carefully , i think it is most likely o . grisella . makes the most since .
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in maryland a moderately common species of oak forests ( glaser , micromoths ) .
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hodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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incisitermes minor is a species of termite in the family kalotermitidae known commonly as the western drywood termite .

it is native to western north america , including the western united states and northern mexico .

it has been found in many other parts of the united states , all the way to the east coast .

it has been reported from toronto .

it has been introduced to hawaii .

it has been noted in china and it is not uncommon in japan .

this is an economically important pest of wooden structures , including houses .

in california and arizona alone its economic impact is estimated to be about $ 250 million per year .

within a single colony there are three types of termites , the alates , soldier , and worker .

this eusocial species is a dark brown color and has an orange head .

the colonies are most active during the spring and summer , preferring to be active in higher temperatures .

incisitermes minor

compound eye formation in the termite incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
physiological and behavioral adaptations of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( . . .
species status of incisitermes spp . ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in japan : status of incisitermes spp . in japan
influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs .
influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs . - pubmed - ncbi
nesting ecology and cuticular microbial loads in dampwoof ( zootermopsis angusticollis ) and drywood termites ( incisitermes minor , i . schwarzi , crytotermes cavifrons ) .
figure 1 . alate of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
figure 2 . locations of confirmed records of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . map by john warner , university of florida .
indrayani y . , yoshimura t . , imamura y . a novel control strategy for dry - wood termite incisitermes minor infestation using a bait system .
species incisitermes minor - western drywood termite . ( bugguide . net / node / view / 469117 ) . accessed august 16 , 2016 . [ images ]
figure 3 . head capsule of a western drywood termite soldier , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .
figure 5 . king and queen of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .
harvey ( 1934 ) provides a highly detailed description of the biology and life history of incisitermes minor . the life cycle is typical for that of other drywood termites .
2013 - 0504 - eb060704 - iso00099 - incisitermes _ minor [ 1057h39s , e , i , tree - oak - bark ] { exd } - g . jpg
the most destructive drywood termites in the u . s . include the western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) and the tropical rough - headed drywood termite ( cryptotermes brevis ) .
messenger mt , scheffrahn rh , su n - y . 2000 . first report of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in louisiana . florida entomologist 83 : 92 - 93 .
figure 7 . fecal pellets collecting under a door that is infested by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
grace jk , cutten gm , scheffrahn rh , mcekevan dk . 1991 . first infestation by incisitermes minor of a canadian building ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology 18 : 299 - 304 .
the western drywood termite is not a
typical
incisitermes in that several characteristics ( color , wings , ocellus , arolium , soldier eye , etc . ) are distinct from most other species of incisitermes .
figure 9 . soldiers , alates and
workers
( pseudergates ) of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . photograph by r . h . scheffrahn , university of florida .
the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , is the most common structure - infesting drywood termite in the southwestern united states . originally described as kalotermes minor by hagen ( 1858 ) , incisitermes minor was reclassified into the genus incisitermes by krishna ( 1961 ) . in california , incisitermes minor infestations are still sometimes referred to by some pest control operators as
kalos
and designated with a
k
on termite inspection reports . currently , there is only one kalotermes species in the united states ( kalotermes approximatus ( snyder ) , found in florida and the southeastern u . s . north to virginia ) . some members of the kalotermitidae are called drywood termites because colonies live entirely within sound , dead , dry wood . drywood termites do not require any contact with the ground .
the distribution and biology of the common dry - wood termite , kalotermes minor , pp . 201–207
incisitermes minor is found in the coastal and lower montane regions of southern california . its range extends up the coast to northern california and onward in a discontinuous distribution along the coasts of oregon and washington . it is also found extensively in the central valley of california up to sacramento and in isolated pockets in the high desert where trees are present . towards the east , incisitermes minor ' s range extends to central arizona and southward it extends into baja california and sonora , mexico . the relative ease of intracontinental travel and commerce coupled with the fact that infested wood can be easily transported has resulted in isolated occurrences of incisitermes minor infestations throughout the united states , including florida .
figure 6 . characteristic damage and galleries in wood made by the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . ( wood in galvanized metal funnel ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
lewis v , leighton s , tabuchi r , haverty m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects . 2011 ; 2 ( 4 ) : 555 - 563 .
lewis , v . ; leighton , s . ; tabuchi , r . ; haverty , m . seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . insects 2011 , 2 , 555 - 563 .
however , lenz questioned whether reproductive decision - making in i . minor had a similar response as that of in c . secundus ( lenz and yoshimura , personal communication ) . an experiment set up in orphaned i . minor colonies using the same ratio model of nest value and colony size , as in c . secundus , drove a much slower response in the neotenic production rate . incisitermes minor did not produce the same response as c . secundus , suggesting that the model might not fit [ 36 ] . this inference contradicts harvey’s description [ 10 ] about the emergence of replacement reproductives in i . minor colonies . further work is necessary to unravel the factors that trigger and regulate neotenic numbers in orphaned i . minor groups .
lewis , vernard ; leighton , shawn ; tabuchi , robin ; haverty , michael . 2011 .
seasonal and daily patterns in activity of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) .
insects 2 , no . 4 : 555 - 563 .
then the major question arises : to what extent does “the suitable environmental condition” facilitate the emergence of reproductives in i . minor ?
figure 4 . comparison of the fecal pellets of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) ( right ) , and smaller west indian powderpost drywood termite , cryptotermes brevis ( walker ) ( left ) . photograph by b . j . cabrera , university of florida .
infestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .
infestation of the invasive dry - wood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) was first reported in japan in 1976 at a residential house in tokyo . since then , records of i . minor have steadily increased , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas at present . the integrated management of i . minor consists of two phases : the individual technological phase and the regional phase . recent research efforts have been overcoming the technological issues , and the regional systematization of management system will be the next target . the development of novel preventive / remedial strategies against i . minor may have a positive effect on the wood preservation industry in japan .
although harvey ( 1934 ) acknowledged secondary reproductives may appear in the colony to supplement egg production , the existence of more than one pair of functional reproductives in an incisitermes minor colony - - even in older , larger ones - - remains unlikely . luykx ( 1986 ) believed that what appeared to be extra reproductives in colonies of incisitermes schwarzi were probably the result of a mixture of two different colonies . atkinson ( unpublished ) examined the caste composition of 38 incisitermes minor colonies and never found more than one pair of reproductives in a colony . however , he noted that some replacement reproductives may not have been fully melanized ( darkened ) and could have been overlooked in colonies in which no reproductives at all were found .
cabrera , b . j . and m . k . rust . 1994 . the effect of temperature and relative humidity on the survival and wood consumption of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . sociobiology . 24 ( 2 ) : 95 - 113 .
himmi sk , yoshimura t , yanase y , oya m , torigoe t , akada m , imadzu s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects . 2016 ; 7 ( 3 ) : 38 .
nest - gallery extension from natal colony to adjacent timber activity by an i . minor colony . ( a ) entrance hole in spruce a timber ; and ( b ) i . minor colony emerged from the attic floor to attack the adjacent bottom surface of spruce b and sugi timbers .
infestations have also been found in arkansas , iowa , maryland , new jersey , new york , oklahoma , ohio , and texas . a heavily infested structure was reported in toronto , canada ( grace et al . 1991 ) . recently , incisitermes minor has been found in georgia ( scheffrahn et al . 2001 ) , south carolina ( hathorne et al . 2000 ) and louisiana ( messenger et al . 2000 ) . the latter is significant to florida because incisitermes minor was taken from a park tree in new orleans indicating that it can survive outdoors in a non - mediterranean , subtropical climate . this apparently was the case with three boat infestations in florida where termites and damage were found in wood located outside the cabins . in southern california and florida , yachts , sailboats , and small pleasure craft harboring mature colonies may serve as floating sources of introduction outside incisitermes minor ' s native range as they set sail for ports of call around the world .
vernard r . lewis , shawn leighton , robin tabuchi , james a . baldwin , michael i . haverty ; influence of environmental factors on activity patterns of incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) in naturally infested logs , journal of economic entomology , volume 106 , issue 1 , 1 february 2013 , pages 338–346 , urltoken
in california , incisitermes minor occurs naturally in oak and riparian woodlands , river washes and canyons with trees . colonies are often found in the dead portions of california laurel , willow , cottonwood , oak , and sycamore trees and in stumps , downed logs , and large , dead branches on the ground . in urban and suburban areas , incisitermes minor is often found in rose , pyracantha , and oleander bushes , and alder , almond , apricot , ash , avocado , carob , cherry , citrus , elderberry , mulberry , ornamental pear , peach , plum and walnut trees . the western drywood termite infests sound , dry wood in human - made structures , as well as furniture and other wooden items .
in one case study , conducted in the laboratory at the university of florida , fort lauderdale research and education center , incisitermes minor workers in structural lumber initiated a large infestation . in april 1990 , western drywood termite - infested wood was cut into sections and placed on a laminate - covered plywood bench top not previously exposed to incisitermes minor . a few days later , workers were observed trailing from the exposed wood galleries to the juncture between the bench top and wall . over the years , fecal pellets were observed falling from the bench top . in 2000 , the entire 24 foot length of the bench top had pellets falling from it . known flights from the bench top occurred in september 1999 and july 2001 .
incisitermes minor is the most common species of drywood termite infesting structures in the southwestern portion of the united states . these termite swarmers ( alates ) are dark brown with smoky - black wings and a ½ - inch long body . soldier termites have a large , brown - colored head and two large mouthparts that look like teeth extending well beyond the head .
himmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , t . ; yanase , y . ; oya , m . ; torigoe , t . ; akada , m . ; imadzu , s . nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insects 2016 , 7 , 38 .
himmi , s . k . ; yoshimura , tsuyoshi ; yanase , yoshiyuki ; oya , masao ; torigoe , toshiyuki ; akada , masanori ; imadzu , setsuo . 2016 .
nest - gallery development and caste composition of isolated foraging groups of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) .
insects 7 , no . 3 : 38 .
the galleries of incisitermes minor are typical of other drywood termite species , albeit a bit larger and more cavernous . they consist of irregular excavations that extend throughout the sapwood , across both spring and summerwood , and sometimes into the heartwood . some galleries are spacious enough to accommodate large aggregations of termites while others are so narrow that termites can only pass through in single file . another characteristic feeding behavior is that incisitermes minor will excavate towards the outer surface of the wood without actually breaking through it , thus leaving a paper thin , outer protective layer . infested wood sometimes appears sound , but upon close inspection and mechanical probing this outer shell can be easily broken , revealing the underlying galleries and large amounts of frass ( fecal pellets ) .
there are three common species of drywood termites found in the south . you can identify the species by looking at certain features of either the swarming termites or solider termites . incisitermes snyderi are the most common species found . the reproductive termites are light yellow in color and are 7 / 16 inch long . the wings are uniformly transparent . their swarming tends to occur at night , and tend to swarm towards lights . cryptotermes brevis are similar in appearance to incisitermes snyderi . the body of the swarmers for incisitermes minor are dark and measure approximately 9 / 16 inch long . their wings are yellow , brown or colorless and will swarm during the day - time . for both species of incisitermes , the soldiers are about 5 / 16 inches long with dark yellow - brown heads with strong mandibles . the head of the soldier for cryptotermes brevis is square shaped , black in color with very short mandibles . the worker termites are smaller than the soldiers with soft , white bodies .
termite nest architecture has important biological attributes , as the whole structure represents a morphological expression of the sum of behavioral patterns which relate to a better understanding of their feeding ecology . the nest - gallery system of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , inside naturally infested wood was visualized by x - ray computed tomography . drywood termites are . . . [ show full abstract ]
the hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . the hypothesis that western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , nymphs are negatively phototactic was tested . significantly more nymphs were found under the covered half of a petri dish than under the uncovered half exposed to either incandescent or fluorescent light , whereas there was no significant preference for either the covered or uncovered side when exposed to red darkroom light . t . . .
luykx p . 1986 . termite colony dynamics as revealed by the sex - and caste - ratios of whole colonies of incisitermes schwarzi banks ( isoptera : kalotermitidae ) . insectes soc . 33 : 221 - 248 .
three of the more common home - invading termite species are eastern subterranean termites , pacific dampwood termites , and southeastern drywood termites . their scientific names are reticulitermes flavipes , zootermopsis angusticollis , and incisitermes snyderi , respectively .
the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is california’s second most important termite pest after the subterranean termite and is the most common species of drywood termite . it is a native insect that has been here millions of years , mostly infesting dead wood in trees along rivers , washes , and arroyos . drywood termites are commonly found along the pacific coastal region extending into the central valley and deserts of southern california .
number of i . minor ( hagen ) individuals of various castes dissected from five infested and two uninfested loquat [ eriobotrya japonica ( thunb . ) lindl . ] logs after completion of all experiments
mean ae ring down counts resulting from the constant temperature experiment correlated with the total number of i . minor dissected from each of the five infested logs . data were transformed to the natural log .
the documentation of colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timbers using x - ray ct has provided better understanding on how isolated groups of i . minor develop and maintain the nest - gallery system ; as well as to sustain the colony . in establishing nest - gallery , i . minor showed selective foraging activities and adaptability to different timber enviroments . stigmergic behaviors were observed in the way of isolated groups of i . minor maintain the nest - gallery system , which was expressed in sealing a tunnel gallery that ends at the outer edge of the timber ; and transporting fecal pellets to particular chambers located beneath timber surface . the isolated groups of i . minor showed dynamic change in caste composition to sustain the colony . in both groups in which the primary reproductive are absent , a replacement reproductive has emerged from pseudergate stage . however , the sexes of replacement reproductive , time interval and the suitable conditions to facilitate the emergence of replacement reproductive are not been fully understood yet .
an x - ray computed - tomographic examination of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by foraging groups of incisitermes minor colonies was conducted . this study documents the colonization process of i . minor to new timbers and how the isolated groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the results suggested that development of a nest - gallery within a suitable wood item is not random , but shows selection for softer substrate and other adaptations to the different timber environments . stigmergic coordinations were expressed in dynamic changes of the nest - gallery system ; indicated by fortification behavior in sealing and re - opening a tunnel approaching the outer edge of the timber , and accumulating fecal pellets in particular chambers located beneath the timber surface . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups to discover how i . minor sustains colonies with and without primary reproductives .
we quantified the response of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , to heat within two galleries routed into a wood cross . nymphs were placed in the gallery of the right arm and after 2 h , the gallery temperature was raised > 40°c . trials also were conducted with the addition of alates or soldiers to groups of nymphs . termites moved only as far as necessary to avoid . . . [ show full abstract ]
the nesting biology of the drywood termite , incisitermes minor , is poorly understood . to date , no published data are available regarding the in situ nest - gallery development of i . minor . three naturally infested sitka spruce ( picea sitchensis bong . carriere ) timbers were analyzed by x - ray computer tomography to observe the structure of the first royal chamber and the termite’s nest - founding behavior . one timber was infested by a group of termites which emerged from their natal nest . the other two timbers were infested by dealate reproductives from the nuptial flight . the study revealed that the drywood termite engages in outside foraging activity and has great foraging flexibility . computer tomographic images also revealed that i . minor reproductives showed anatomical selectivity in their nest - founding activity . the structure of the initial royal chambers varied to follow the anatomical texture of the timbers , which resembled either a european pear shape or a cashew nut shape .
three - min ae ring down counts from 24 november 2009 until 26 january 2010 , for five sensors ( 1–5 ) in i . minor - infested logs and two sensors ( 6–7 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions .
. . . those larvae that did not meet either early larvae ( lem ) or late larvae body size criteria were considered mid larva ( lm ) . observations from this study failed to produce characteristics separating late i . minor larvae in to either a worker or nymphal caste , consistent with the notion that i . minor follows a basically linear pathway ( cabrera and rust 1999 ) . thus , late larvae would act as workers ( reviewed in watanabe et al . 2014 ) . . . .
after a drywood termite colony has matured ( several years ) , winged alates ( swarmers ) are produced that leave the colony to establish new colonies . swarming activity ( nuptial flights ) generally occurs at dusk or during the night and they tend to fly towards areas of greatest light intensity , gathering around lights or illuminated windows . however , the dark western drywood termite ( incisitermes minor ) is a daytime swarmer . swarming of arizona species occurs in early to late summer with certain species swarming during the winter months of january and february also .
lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) found no periodicity in feeding of i . minor in a 24 - h day . however , the investigation only ran for 1 wk and was conducted under constant temperature conditions . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) also used ae technology to monitor i . minor feeding when affected by different laboratory temperatures and relative humidity ; however , they did not report diurnal or seasonal ae activity . using ae monitoring during an investigation of local chemical treatments in a field study in southern california , activity of i . minor infestations in untreated locations of structures declined during winter months ( v . lewis , unpublished data ) . because this field study involved only four posttreatment inspection dates , it was not possible to make definitive statements on seasonal foraging of drywood termites .
twenty - four different combinations of six temperatures ( 15° , 20° , 25° , 30° , 35° , and 40°c ) and four relative humidity ( rh ) ( 60 % , 70 % , 80 % , and 90 % ) conditions were used for pseudergates of the western dry - wood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . the feeding activities of the termites were monitored by the detection of generated acoustic emission ( ae ) events from feeder wood blocks in a test chamber . temperature and rh showed independent and interactive significant effects on the feeding activity of i . minor . the optimal temperature and rh conditions for the feeding activities were 35°c and 70 % , respectively , and the optimal combinations were 35°c - 70 % and 35°c - 80 % with an exceptionally higher feeding activity at the combination condition of 30°c - 70 % .
little research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known ( cabrera and rust 1994 , 1996 , 2000 ) . rust et al . ( 1979 ) inferred movement of the drywood termite incisitermes fruticavus rust from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) ; however , the daily or seasonality of movement of drywood termites within structures in california remains poorly understood .
by examing the color of neotenic bodies in the isolated groups from both spruce timbers and comparing it with harvey’s description , it seems that the neotenics in those groups had just emerged . the fact that we didn’t find any eggs indicated that the secondary reproductives had not yet reached complete development . harvey described that secondary reproductives emerged in perfect molt just one month after isolation ; however , our case in both spruce timbers indicates a much longer time for the colony to adjust its caste composition . atkinson [ 33 ] reported that seasonal trends in colony composition were relatively weak in i . minor . he observed that all or most of the alates in i . minor colonies appeared to emerge whenever suitable environmental conditions were present . this might mean that the emergence of replacement reproductives in the isolated groups of i . minor in spruce timbers occurred when the groups met “suitable environmental conditions” [ 33 ] .
plots of ae ring down counts over time under constant darkness from 19 august 2009 to 25 august 2009 for five sensors that contain live colonies of i . minor . the smooth line is a running average of the ae ring down counts for 30 min before until 30 min after the data points .
. . . in addition , individual late - larval workers ( pseudergates ) may deviate from this straight developmental pathway through regressive or stationary molts ( miller 1969 ; noirot and pasteels 1987 ) . cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) observed caste differentiation in i . minor and reported four larval instars and two nymphal instars aside from alates and soldiers . luykx ( 1986 ) and luykx et al . ( 1986 ) described three larval stages and four immature worker stages along with pseudergates , nymphs , soldiers , reproductives , and alates for i . schwarzi , a close relative of i . minor . . . .
incisitermes minor has at least seven instars and it probably takes more than a year for a nymph to develop from the egg to an alate or soldier ( harvey 1934 ) . the duration of each instar is variable depending on prevailing environmental conditions and available resources . the average size of the fifth to seventh instar ranges from approximately 6 . 5 to 9 . 5 mm long and they weigh from 10 to 15 mg . western drywood termite nymphs have relatively large amounts of fat body and the larger nymphs are very robust . the percent fat content of dry weight of late instar nymphs is approximately 18 percent ( k . haagsma , unpublished data ) .
nymphs of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were tested for their feeding preferences on wood and extracts of 11 tree species . the amount of wood consumed was inversely proportional to its specific gravity , but methanol extracts of least preferred woods were also least preferred when termites were confined to paper treated with extracts . in choice tests , only paper treated with extract of wood from which the colony developed and untreated and methanol - treated controls were significantly fed upon . ponderosa pine extract applied to douglas fir and sugar pine significantly decreased the amount of wood consumed . resistance to termite feeding appeared to depend on the presence of repellent chemicals in the wood .
in florida , incisitermes minor has a spotty distribution from the panhandle down to miami ( where it was probably first introduced into florida [ hickin 1971 ] ) and has been found on both coasts of the peninsula . scheffrahn et al . ( 1988 ) reported two incidences of infestation and since then there have been 22 more confirmed records ( scheffrahn , unpublished data ) . of all records , three occurred on boats - - two of these from southern california - - that were subsequently fumigated . three other infestations were associated with furniture that was traced to the pacific coast . so far , all the florida infestations have only been found in structural lumber , not in natural wood .
because drywood termites ( family kalotermitidae ) are single piece nesters and can live deep in wood , there are few reports of seasonal or daily cycles of feeding or foraging behavior . seasonal activity patterns of drywood termites are very important for their detection and treatment . a common seasonal activity for drywood termites is swarming . in california , the western drywood termite incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , swarms during the day , starting in summer and continuing into fall ( ebeling 1978 ) . feeding and foraging are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known about when they occur or what drives them . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites inside wood hinders studies that explore their normal feeding and foraging behavior . acoustic emission ( ae ) technology has been used to detect the presence of drywood and dampwood termites in wood ( lewis and lemaster 1991 , lemaster et al . 1997 ) and recently has been used to explore seasonal and daily patterns foraging and feeding activity of i . minor ( lewis et al . 2011 ) .
. . . however , it might well be that hodotermes mossambicus exhibit aggressive behaviour at the nest entrance under more natural conditions in the field . the fact that nestmate discrimination in the trophallaxis bioassay was primarily found when larvae were used as donors might just reflect that this group is under natural conditions much more involved in the behaviour of feeding nestmates than any other caste , as has been demonstrated in incisitermes minor by cabrera and rust ( 1999 ) . in addition , non - nestmates recognized by larvae are almost certainly intruders which should be discriminated in the context of nestmate feeding behaviour , whereas foragers might meet non - nestmates frequently outside the nests in behavioural contexts where nestmate discrimination does not pay . . . .
the purpose of our study was to explore for patterns of seasonal or daily feeding and movement of i . minor in naturally infested logs as measured by ae technology . such knowledge would greatlyimprove inspection success , pre - and post - treatment evaluations of remedial measures againstinfestations and enable more detailed investigations into the natural history of drywood termites .
three types of experiments were designed to evaluate the performance of a bait system intended to control incisitermes minor ( hagen ) . in the first type of experiment , type i , the effectiveness of the bait in a small wood specimen was evaluated . in the second type , type ii , the bait effectiveness was evaluated in a larger wood specimen . feeding arena lumber with artificial galleries was prepared for the type iii experiment so that the response of the insects to the gel could be observed . in general , the average percentage of termites that died after being exposed to the gel formulation in all three types of experiment was more than 60 % , and in the gel control the average percentage of live termites was more than 95 % in types i and iii , and more than 75 % in type ii . these results suggest that the gel bait system used in this study has the potential to eliminate i . minor colonies . further investigation will be necessary to increase the reliability of the bait system as a control measure against dry - wood termites .
mean daily activity patterns for i . minor in each of five logs ( sensors 1–5 ) . the heavy , dark line is the mean ae ring down count . the gray line is the temperature trace ( °c ) collected simultaneously for each ae data point . ae data for all logs were collected from 15 june 2008 to 15 may 2009 .
incisitermes minor is a tremendous pest in california and arizona with an estimated annual economic impact of $ 250 million ( m . rust , unpublished ) , mainly in damage and treatment costs . a survey of structural inspection reports conducted in san bernardino , riverside , and orange counties in southern california between september 1992 and april 1993 revealed that the western drywood termite accounted for approximately 55 percent of the total inspections for wood - destroying organisms . near the coast , they accounted for > 75 percent of the inspections ( t . atkinson , unpublished data ) . the western drywood termite will continue to torment homeowners and keep termite control companies busy , especially in newly developed areas in california where urban sprawl is running rampant . further infestations are likely to be discovered in florida .
there are few reports of diurnal or seasonal ae activity data for i . minor . using 100 i . minor workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) reported ae events results from a single sensor during a 7 - d test . there was no statistically significant cycling or periodicity found in ae activity . the plot of ae activity appeared flat and hovered between the values of 100 and 200 events per hour . no ring down count data were reported . the maximum ae event results reported by lemaster et al . ( 1997 ) compared favorably with the maximum events reported for the current study , although we report here only ae ring down count data . indrayani et al . ( 2006 ) conducted a second ae activity study . for this laboratory study i . minor workers ( 10 ) also were used in small wooden blocks to test the affects of varying temperature and humidity . the tests were of short duration , only 12 h . this study reported that the optimum temperature for peak ae activity was 30°c .
two kinds of nest - founding activities have been identified in drywood termites [ 5 ] : ( 1 ) from nuptial flight by pairing dealate reproductives ; or ( 2 ) from nest - gallery extension through colony foraging to a new piece of adjacent timber [ 8 ] . in this paper , we present a case study of nest - gallery development from timbers naturally infested by an i . minor colony through foraging activity . the study was intended to capture the colonization process of foraging groups of i . minor in previously unoccupied timber and how the groups maintain their nest - gallery system . the study also examines the caste composition of isolated groups in search of a better understanding of how one - piece nester types sustain their colonies .
the introduction of x - ray computed tomography ( ct ) as a non - destructive approach to analyzing termite nests has brought us a better understanding of the nesting biology of this cryptic insect . fuchs et al . [ 1 ] were the first to introduce ct as a useful tool for providing a three - dimensional ( 3d ) view of the hidden gallery system of drywood termite cryptotermes secundus , though at a low - resolution display . perna et al . presented detailed images of gallery networks [ 2 ] of cubitermes sp . and used them to analyze their topological defense strategy [ 3 ] and efficiency [ 4 ] , while himmi et al . [ 5 ] used x - ray ct to analyze the initial structure of the royal chamber of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor .
when we were certain that we had completed all experimentation by using the five i . minor - infested logs , we dissected these five logs , as well as the uninfested logs , and counted all live individuals by caste ( table 1 ) . the single alate found in each of the untreated logs was because of natural swarming activity from some of the logs in the test building . we regressed the line ( ln ) of the mean ae ring down counts from the constant temperature experiment ( the most recent experiment before log dissection ) for all seven logs against the ln of the total number of individuals remaining . a highly significant relationship was found ( r 2 = 0 . 92 ) between the i . minor population and ae activity ( fig . 7 ) .
. . . the timbers were laid in random positions , without considering whether tangential sections , radial sections , sapwood parts , and heartwood parts were oriented in any particular direction . the experimental set - up was conducted on august 3 , 2012 , 1 month before i . minor swarming season in the wakayama area , which was reported to be in september [ 10 ] . . . .
the mean daily ae ring down count ( black line ) from five sensors ( 1–5 ) in i . minor - infested logs ( 1–5 ) and two sensors ( 6–7 ) in uninfested logs under constant temperature conditions . the mean has been smoothed with a loess ( nonparametric regression ) smoother . the gray line is the smoothed mean temperature profile across all observations . ( online figure in color . )
seasonal activity patterns of drywood termites have an important impact on our ability to detect these structural pests and treat infestations . for example , the presence of alates and shed wings within infested structures are often the first signs of the presence of drywood termites . in california , the annual dispersal flights of incisitermes minor ( hagen ) occur during the day in the fall [ 1 ] . feeding and foraging , including excavation of wood , are important drywood termite activities ; however , little is known whether they occur randomly or follow an underlying pattern . the cryptic behavior of drywood termites hinders studies on their feeding and foraging biology . because direct observation is impossible in wood naturally infested by drywood termites , we must rely on indirect methods of observation . a method that has proven extremely useful is the quantification of vibrations within termite - infested wood using acoustic emission ( ae ) technology .
the purpose of this study was to investigate the nature of the circadian cycle of activity in i . minor : the role or influence of temperature and light on patterns of feeding and foraging as measured by vibrational activity in naturally infested wood . by knowing when drywood termites are most active and whether physical features of their environment affect their activity , inspections and posttreatment evaluations of remedial treatments could be greatly improved .
the hourly averages for ae ring down counts for each active and inactive log , as well as temperature and relative humidity , were plotted for the 11 - month period . the mean daily activity pattern for i . minor in each of the five logs ( sensors 1–5 ) , represented by ae ring down counts , was graphed in relation to the mean temperature ( °c ) over a 24 - hour period .
plots of ae ring down counts under constant darkness as a function of temperature in five i . minor - infested logs and two uninfested logs . the temperature values are “jittered” so that they do not land exactly on top of each other . all sensors associated with infested logs show a positive relationship with temperature . each data point represents 3 - min recordings taken at least two times / h / d / sensor over 7 d .
activity of colonies of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor , was measured with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in five loquat ( eriobotrya japonica ) logs . termite activity , whether it was feeding , excavation or movement , was monitored for 11 months under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure maintained at the university of california richmond field station . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - minute increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared to the cooler winter months . termites in all five logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity did not appear to have a noticeable effect on termite activity . possible mechanisms that drive the seasonal and daily cycles in termite activity , as measured by ae technology , and the possible implications for inspections and post - treatment analysis are discussed .
summary : differences in feeding and trophallaxis among castes of the western drywood termite , incisitermes minor ( hagen ) , were determined using rubidium ( rb ) as a tracer . both 5th - and 6th - instar nymphs and 3rd - and 4th - instar larvae fed directly on rb - treated paper and acted as both donors and recipients in trophallactic exchanges with other larvae and nymphs , and as donors for soldiers and alates . soldiers and alates did not feed on rb - treated paper suggesting that they do not feed directly on wood and are completely dependent on nymphs for their nutritional needs . larvae paired with rb - fed nymphs received the greatest amount of rb suggesting that there may be a hierarchy of trophallaxis in drywood termites . transfer efficiency , the percentage of the total rb intake of donors that is passed to the recipients , ranged from 1 . 1 % ( nymphal donors to alate recipients ) to 16 . 6 % ( larval donors to nymphal recipients ) .
there is considerable variance in the number of i . minor extracted from naturally infested logs and structural wood , and ranges from 7 to 2 , 943 [ 19 , 21 , 30 - 32 ] . also clearly evident , larger colonies and infestations produce greater ae activity . and also clearly evident is that when drywood termites are allowed to search and forage for wood naturally under ambient conditions , their activity follows a cyclic pattern common to many terrestrial animals .
. . . naturally , new colony dissemination is facilitated by swarming activities in the dispersal flight season . swarming occurs during the summer to the fall on bright , sunny days which attract alates to emerge from the colonies ( positive phototaxis ) 10 111213 . in addition to information on swarming activities , information on the nutritional ecology of i . minor and its feeding preferences for various timbers are also very important for investigating initial nest - gallery establishment . . . .
there are only a few reports available on seasonal or daily activity for i . minor as measured by ae technology . using 100 workers contained in an artificially infested wooden block held at constant temperature and humidity , lemaster et al . [ 22 ] presented ae event results over seven days from a single sensor . no statistically significant cycling or periodicity in ae measurements could be detected . the plot of termite activity appeared flat and ranged from just 100 to 200 ae events per hour .
little research has been conducted on the movement patterns of drywood termites . currently , only the speed of locomotion of i . minor ( 1 . 4 cm / s ) in response to temperature and light is known [ 26 , 27 ] . movement of the drywood termite i . fruticavus rust was inferred from studies that measured daily changes in temperature inside galleries for the jojoba shrub , simmondsia chinensis ( link ) [ 28 ] ; however , the seasonal movement of drywood termites within structures remains poorly understood .
staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
n2 - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
ab - staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
abstract =
staurojoenina is a large and structurally complex genus of hypermastigont parabasalians found in the hindgut of lower termites . although several species of staurojoenina have been described worldwide , all staurojoenina observed to date in different species of north american termites have been treated as the same species , s . assimilis . here , we characterize staurojoenina from the north american termite neotermes jouteli using light microscopy , scanning electron microscopy , and phylogenetic analysis of small subunit ribosomal rna , and compare it with s . assimilis from its type host , incisitermes minor . the basic morphological characteristics of the n . jouteli symbiont , including its abundant bacterial epibionts , are similar as far as they may be compared with existing data from s . assimilis , although not consistently identical . in contrast , we find that they are extremely distantly related at the molecular level , sharing a pairwise similarity of ssu rrna genes comparable to that seen between different genera or even families of other parabasalians . based on their evolutionary distance and habitat in different termite genera , we consider the n . jouteli staurojoenina to be distinct from s . assimilis , and describe a new species , staurojoenina mulleri , in honor of the pioneering parabasalian researcher , miklos muller .
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. . . because of this hidden ecology , i . minor can be easily transported around the world within an infested piece of wood as a result of human activities . originally from the southwestern usa and northern mexico [ 2 ] , infestations of this invasive species have been reported in canada [ 4 ] , china [ 5 ] , and hawaii [ 6 ] , and more than half of the prefectures in japan are listed as infested areas789 10 . in our modern and mobile society , the introduction of such wood - inhabiting termites to new areas is very hard to prevent . . . .
lewis et al . ( 2011 ) investigated activity of colonies of i . minor with acoustic emission ( ae ) technology in naturally infested logs . activity , whether it was feeding , excavation , or movement , was monitored for 11 mo under ambient conditions in a small wooden structure . ae , temperature , and humidity data were measured in 3 - min increments . termite activity was greater during the warmer summer months compared with the cooler winter months . termites in all logs displayed a similar daily cycle of activity , peaking in the late afternoon . seasonal and daily fluctuations in termite activity were significantly associated with temperature , whereas humidity had a less noticeable effect on termite activity .