the chinese flying frog or chinese gliding frog ( rhacophorus dennysi ) is a species of tree frog in the rhacophoridae family found in china , laos , burma , and vietnam .

also known as the blanford 's whipping frog , large treefrog , and denny 's whipping frog .

this frog is up to 10 cm ( 3.9 in ) long .

it is considered least concern by the iucn .

chinese flying frog

the chinese flying frog or chinese gliding frog ( rhacophorus dennysi ) is a species of tree frog in the rhacophoridaefamily found in china , laos , burma , and vietnam . also known as the blanford ' s whipping frog , large treefrog , and denny ' s whipping frog . [ 2 ]
the chinese flying frog is a large species reaching a size of 10cm . they inhabit tropical lowland forests of china , laos , burma and vietnam .
beautiful painting of wallace ' s flying frog ( rhacophorus nigropalmatus ) by the unique carel brest van kampen .
1854 illustration of reinwardt ' s flying frog rhacophorus reinwardtii by jean gabriel prêtre . image in public domain .
mating in the bushes - false malabar gliding frog ( rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus ) : building nest .
a moss - textured rhacophorid frog . specimens of vietnamese mossy frog or tonkin bug - eyed frog ( theloderma corticale ) . top photo by steven g . johnson , cc by - sa 3 . 0 . lower image by václav gvoždík , cc by - sa 2 . 5 .
episode 2 of david attenborough’s conquest of the skies was on tv the other day , and i watched it ( i livetweeted throughout , mostly because i wanted to talk about their portrayal of pterosaurs and mesozoic theropods ) . and hence i have rhacophorid frogs on my mind – the mostly tropical afro - asian group that includes the famous rhacophorus flying frogs , the best known member of which is wallace’s flying frog r . nigropalmatus from indonesia , thailand and adjacent countries . as usual , flying frog were used by sir david to help illustrate the diversity of animals that have evolved a gliding ability .
the overachieving wallace ' s flying frog wasn ' t content to just hop and swim . thousands of years of watching birds navigate the rain forest and avoid predators by taking to the sky appears to have convinced this unique amphibian that air travel is the way to go .
the wallace ' s flying frog population is considered stable , and they have special status only in certain localities . however , they are partial to breeding and laying eggs in the fetid wallowing holes of the nearly extinct asian rhinoceros , and further decreases in rhino populations may negatively affect the species .
also known as parachute frogs , wallace ' s flying frogs inhabit the dense tropical jungles of malaysia and borneo . they live almost exclusively in the trees , descending only to mate and lay eggs .
wallace ' s flying frogs are not the only frogs who have developed this ability , but they are among the largest . the black color of their foot webbing helps distinguish them from their similarly aerial cousins .
holotype specimen of philautus maia , showing eggs preserved in contact with ventral surface . did this frog really carry its eggs around like this ? illustration from günther ( 1876 ) .
tapley , b . 2009 . aspects of captive husbandry of taylor’s bug - eyed frog , theloderma stellatum ( taylor , 1962 ) . herpetological bulletin 108 , 31 - 33 .
byrne , p . g . & whiting , m . j . 2011 . effects of simultaneous polyandry on offspring fitness in an african tree frog . behavioral ecology 22 , 385 - 391 .
this frog is up to 10 cm ( 3 . 9 in ) long . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , swamps , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , ponds , irrigated land , and canals , and ditches .
hertwig , s . t . , lilje , k . e . , min , p . y . , haas , a . & das , i . 2012 . molecular evidence for direct development in the rhacophorid frog , philautus acutus ( rhacophoridae , anura ) from borneo . the raffles bulletin of zoology 60 , 559 - 567 .
wallace’s flying frog and the other gliding rhacophorus species are pretty remarkable . they’re very big compared to most other members of the group , svls being 90 - 100 mm in females and 80 - 90 mm in males . their fully webbed hands and feet are enormous , but they also have flaps of skin – winglets , if you like – on the arms and legs , and sometimes on the body . glides of more than 15 m have been recorded . exactly how many rhacophorus species are true gliders is uncertain : the ability is confirmed for just a handful of species but more may have it ( inger & stuebing 2005 ) . several smaller ones ( including r . angulirostris , r . cyanopunctatus and r . gauni ) have only partial digital webbing and either lack those skin flaps or only have small versions .
rhacophorids are sometimes called flying frogs , shrub frogs , bush frogs , moss frogs , old world treefrogs , or afro - asian treefrogs , and occur across sub - saharan africa , china , much of tropical asia , japan , the philippines and sulawesi . about 380 species are recognised as of early 2015 . the last time i wrote about this group – december 2008 – this number was more like 290 , so the rate at which new species are discovered and named is pretty impressive .
the outsides of these foam nests dry to form a hard crust , thereby protecting the eggs within . however , monkeys , snakes and other predators will break into the nests and eat the eggs if they can . most surprisingly , fornasini’s spiny reed frog afrixalus fornasini ( a member of hyperoliidae ) is a documented foam nest predator , though it can only eat from the nest before the foam has dried ( channing 2001 ) .
external appearance is variable in rhacophorids . for all their fame as ‘flying frogs’ , it has to be said that the vast majority look – to those unenlightened in anuran diversity – like standard ‘treefrogs’ . they’re generally small ( svls of 40 mm or less ) , wide - headed , big - eyed frogs with expanded digit - tips and a ( normally ) prominent tympanum . many are smooth - skinned but spiny tubercles cover the skin in some taxa , and others are notably warty , with a rough , bumpy skin that aids camouflage .
the latter is most developed in the grotesque rough treefrog theloderma horridum of thailand , peninsula malaysia and borneo . indeed , this is one of several species ( most of which belong to theloderma ) that resemble moss or bark in external texture and colour [ adjacent photos of t . corticale by steven g . johnson and václav gvoždík ] . t . asperum – patterned in brownish and pale blotches – superficially resembles a bird dropping and is sometimes called the bird poop frog . vocal sacs are absent in some taxa ( like nyctixalus ) but big and obvious in others .
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frost , d . r . 2014 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 7 july 2014 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
this species was included in rhacophorus by inger ( 1966 ) , then placed in polypedates by liem ( 1970 ) , and then returned to rhacophorus by dubois ( 1987 ) .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is known historically from northern myanmar and china ( zhao and adler , 1993 ) . it is also known from northern viet nam and central lao people ' s democratic republic . the type locality ' singapore ' is clearly based on a traded specimen ( bourret , 1941 ) . it is known from altitudes up to 900m asl .
it inhabits forests and riparian forests in hilly areas . it breeds in still waters such as paddy fields , pools , ditches , marshes and ponds . it is mostly restricted to primary forest . the call of this species is exceptionally loud .
its known areas of occurrence in viet nam continue to suffer from persistent processes degrading the forest , such as non - timber forest products collection , plantations , wildfires and changes to hydrology ( birdlife international 2001 ) . small numbers are also exported for the international pet trade .
its range includes many protected areas . the rating of ‘threatened’ for r . nigropalmatus in the 1992 viet nam red data book ( tran et al . , 1992 ) might refer in part to r . dennysii .
peter paul van dijk , nguyen quang truong , bryan stuart , michael wai neng lau , geng baorong , gu huiqing , yang datong . 2004 .
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listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
its range includes many protected areas . the rating of threatened for r . nigropalmatus in the 1992 viet nam red data book ( tran et al . , 1992 ) might refer in part to r . dennysii .
females lay eggs in foam nests attached to branches and grasses hanging over water . they create nests by beating a frothy secretion into foam with their hind legs .
van dijk , p . p . , truong , n . q . , stuart , b . , lau , m . w . n . , baorong , g . , huiqing , g . & datong , y . ( 2004 ) . rhacophorus dennysi . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 23 july 2007 .
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due to full webbing between fingers and toes , these tree - dwelling frogs are able to achieve gliding flight for short distances between trees . they are one of the largest species of tree frogs . the females grow to twelve centimetres , while the males remain somewhat smaller . their diet comprises mainly of insects and worms .
when threatened or in search of prey , they will leap from a branch and splay their four webbed feet . the membranes between their toes and loose skin flaps on their sides catch the air as they fall , helping them to glide , sometimes 50 feet or more , to a neighboring tree branch or even all the way to the ground . they also have oversized toe pads to help them land softly and stick to tree trunks .
they are generally bright green with yellow sides and grow to about 4 inches . they survive mainly on insects .
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episode 2 of david attenborough ' s conquest of the skies appeared on tv the other day , and i watched it ( in fact , i livetweeted throughout , mostly because i wanted to talk about their portrayal of pterosaurs and mesozoic theropods ) .
cladogram from meegaskumbura et al . ( 2002 ) , the sri lankan taxa being shown in blue . note the huge number of species that had not been named when this study was published .
a nice illustration of this is provided by meegaskumbura et al . ’s ( 2002 ) documentation of more than 100 new rhacophorid species on sri lanka alone ( just 18 sri lankan rhacophorid species were known prior to their work ) , a discovery that makes sri lanka on par with madagascar , new guinea and borneo in terms of anuran diversity .
and , yes , more than 100 new species announced in a single paper . if we look at the discovery record of various of the rhacophorid lineages , we see that – for example – 43 new species of raorchestes , 30 new species of rhacophorus , and 51 new species of pseudophilautus have been named since 2000 . . . 9 new raorchestes species were named in 2014 alone ( frost 2014 ) . as should be well known , the number of recognised amphibian species has sky - rocketed in recent years , and this really is because of newly discovered species , not just the result of splitting , taxonomic elevation of subspecies , or the recognition of cryptic species that can only be distinguished genetically .
the most famous illustration of a rhacophorid ever published : a gliding rhacophorus nigropalmatus from alfred russell wallace ' s 1869 the malay archipelago . wallace wrote about this species and illustrated it in his notes ( he didn ' t discover it though - that honour goes to charles hose ) .
the great paradox is that amphibians are in chronic global decline at the same time , and many species can no longer be located at all . despite meegaskumbura et al . ’s ( 2002 ) 100 + new rhacophorid species , they were unable to find many that had been described in the 19th century , a discovery which implies that the species concerned have gone extinct . as you should also know , amphibian species are currently being ‘lost’ on a regular and worrying basis – we don’t talk of a ‘global amphibian crisis’ for nothing .
most rhacophorids are arboreal or semi - arboreal , living in shrubs , trees and bushes from close to ground level to way up in the forest canopy . there’s some uncertainty over how high up in the canopy these frogs actually occur . nature documentaries ( like the aforementioned attenbourough - led projects ) create the impression that they really live tens of metres up in the high canopy but this is hard to confirm and has been doubted on occasion . recently , however , individuals of some species ( like rhacophorus belalongensis on borneo , named in 2008 ) have been recorded from tree - tops 10 m high . members of some groups are associated with primary forests , but others inhabit agricultural fields , roadsides , cleared forest and villages . [ images below by σ64 and alpsdake . ]
it has to be said that some rhacophorids are not really all that remarkable when compared to , say , familiar ranid frogs . this montage shows tadpoles and an adult of rhacophorus arboreus . however , this species is a foam nester , on which see below . tadpole photo at lower left by σ64 , other photos by alpsdake . all cc by - sa 3 . 0 .
specialised reproductive strategies are widespread across these frogs , and some of the techniques they use mean that they don’t have to come down to the ground to breed . some ( like some philautus species ) stick their eggs to the undersides of leaves above the ground and some philautus species ( like p . mjobergi ) have been reported to be nepenthiphilous – that is , to lay their eggs inside pitcher plants . while some frogs definitely are nepenthiphilous , the only alleged rhacophorid eggs discovered inside a pitcher plant and subjected to molecular testing turned out to be from the microhylid species microhyla borneensis ( hertwig et al . 2012 ) . [ photo below by katja rembold . ]
frogs belonging to several lineages are documented as users of pitcher plants ( this photo shows a heterixalus inside a dead nepenthes madagascariensis . heterixalus is a hyperoliid , not a rhacophorid ) . it has been claimed that rhacophorids of several species use pitchers in this way , but the cases are either controversial or turned out to be erroneous . photo by katja rembold , cc by - sa 3 . 0 .
those philautus eggs , by the way , don’t produce free - swimming tadpoles : philautus species are direct developers , which means that the embryos change to froglets within the eggs , a free - living tadpole phase being absent ( the developing embryos are lecithotrophic or endotrophic , meaning that they depend on a yolk store ) . direct development is also the case in pseudophilautus and raorchestes .
while ( as just mentioned ) some of these direct developers stick their eggs to leaves that are alive and well above ground - level , others come down to the ground and lay their eggs beneath dead leaves . meegaskumbara et al . ( 2007 ) said that these ground - breeding species “deposit their eggs in nests excavated on the forest floor” ( p . 9 ) . waitaminute – frogs excavating nests ? really ? i have to look into this . . .
rhacophorid foam nests in asia and africa . at left : nests of rhacophorus arboreus in japan , photo by alpsdake , cc by 3 . 0 . at right : chiromantis rufescens foam nest in gabon , photo by brian gratwicke , cc by 2 . 0
then there are those rhacophorids that manufacture arboreal foam nests [ adjacent nest photos by alpsdake and brian gratwicke ] . the females exude a secretion that they ( and their male partners ) whip up with their legs to form a foam clump that’s attached to leaves , branches or aerial roots . it seems that the production of this secretion is quite costly and that a female needs to take a break and re - hydrate herself by soaking up standing water before she can complete a single nest .
this strategy is present in the afro - asian foam - nest frogs chiromantis , most rhacophorus species , and members of polypedates . in some species – most famously the grey foam nest treefrog c . xerampelina of south - eastern africa – large numbers of these frogs sometimes choose to nest in the same place , meaning that branches or aerial roots can be festooned with whole lines of dripping foam nests . actually , it isn’t just that the frogs ‘choose’ to nest in the same place – males will deliberately get in on the action if they see a pair working to make a nest , and the result is that single egg clutches are invariably fertilised by more than one male . byrne & whiting ( 2011 ) showed that this multiple paternity – technically , it’s simultaneous polyandry – assists in the survival of the resulting offspring , so it’s certainly in the interests of females to solicit as much male attention as possible during these breeding events . [ photos below by brian gratwicke , kapenta and chintan sheth . ]
montage of chiromantis and kin . at left : c rufescens ( photo by brian gratwicke , cc by 2 . 0 ) . top right : c . xerampelina ( image by kapenta , cc by - sa 4 . 0 ) . lower right : feihyla vittata ( photo by chintan sheth , in public domain ) . the feihyla species were once included within chiromantis but have since been recovered in several alternative placements in molecular phylogenies .
polypedates leucomystax pair in amplexus . i think i spot some subtle sexual dimorphism . image taken in java , indonesia , by w . a . djatmiko , cc by - sa 3 . 0
the eggs hatch inside the clump , the tadpoles dropping into the stream or pool ( sometimes originally formed by rhinos or pigs ) below after several days . polypedates leucomystax bucks the trend by sometimes making foam nests on the ground ( inger & stuebing 2005 ) . [ adjacent photo by w . a . djatmiko ] . it seems that foam - nesting evolved just once within rhacophorids , since all foam - nesters belong to a single clade ( frost et al . 2006 , grosjean et al . 2008 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) .
foam - nester tadpoles are ectotrophic : free - swimming and completing development outside the egg , and often with a schooling habit . some live in muddy pools and are of typical , non - specialised morphology . others ( like those of rhacophorus penanorum ) are specialised stream - dwellers with streamlined bodies , sucker - like mouths and elongate , muscular tails . these tadpoles are rheophilous ( associated with fast - flowing streams ) and inhabit rocky pools that are sometimes also home to megophrys / xenophrys spadefoot tadpoles and ansonia toad tadpoles ( haas et al . 2012 ) .
a really interesting thing that’s been noted for rheophilous tadpoles is that their limb development seems to be offset , time - wise , relative to the condition in related , non - rheophilous species . this is presumably an evolutionary response to the fact that developing hindlimbs might affect their streamlining and ability to cling to rocks in fast - flowing water . they also keep sucker - like mouths and other features for longer than do other tadpoles ( nodzenski & inger 1990 ) . accordingly , it can be difficult to say reliable things about their age and estimated metamorphic stage .
amazing ' vampire tadpoles ' of rhacophorus vampyrus . ( a ) schematic view of tadpole as seen from the front , ( b ) photo of the real thing . image from vassilieva et al . ( 2013 ) .
finally , there are yet other rhacophorids where egg clumps are laid in arboreal settings , but not in foam nests . in some theloderma species , egg clumps are laid in water - filled tree hollows , and the tadpoles complete their development here . in captivity , these frogs will lay their egg clumps attached to the bark , just above the hollow , the hatching tadpoles then dropping into the water ( tapley 2009 ) . oh , there are also a few foam - nesting rhacophorus species that lay their eggs in tree hollows , the most famous of which is r . vampyrus from vietnam ( after hatching inside a foam nest , the tadpoles drop into a water - filled tree hollow ) . this species saw international stardom a couple of years ago when it was revealed that the tadpoles have black , hooked fangs on the lower jaw that –it ' s presumed – are used when feeding on unfertilised eggs provided by their mother : these tadpoles , it seems , practise obligate oophagy , eating r . vampyrus eggs and nothing else ( vassilieva et al . 2013 ) .
finally finally , the possibility exists that a completely unique reproductive strategy was present in a species that now seems to be extinct . the holotype female specimen of
, collected on sri lanka prior to 1876 , had a disc - shaped mass of eggs attached to its belly , raising the possibility that members of this species carried their eggs around with them ( günther 1876 ) . alas , meegaskumbura
. ( 2007 ) discussed how unlikely this proposal was , concluding that a more plausible possibility is that the individual concerned was collected while in the process of laying and positioning her egg clutch on a leaf . alas , only further observations can establish the ‘truth’ and . . . sadly ,
century discovery and the present . don’t forget : global . amphibian . crisis .
finally , where do rhacophorids fit within the anuran radiation ? molecular studies find them to be close to ranidae , the familiar neobatrachian clade that includes european water frogs , brown frogs , the american bullfrog , leopard frogs and so many others ( frost et al . 2006 , pyron & wiens 2011 ) . they’re clearly not at all close to hylid treefrogs ( hylids are part of the same clade as glassfrogs , toads and kin ) . i also need to say that a huge amount of work – scarcely any of which is cited in the article you’re reading now – has recently been devoted to the in - group relationships of rhacophoridae , several conventional ‘genera’ being the subject of substantial disagreement due to proposals that they might be paraphyletic or polyphyletic . at the risk of elaborating further , i must stop here . oh , i seem to have blogged about anurans again .
channing , a . 2001 . amphibians of central and southern africa . cornell university press , ithaca and london .
- . , grant , t . , faivovich , j . , bain , r . h . , haas , a . , haddad , c . f . b . , de sá , r . o . , channing , a . , wilkinson , m . , donnellan , s . c . , raxworthy , c . j . , campbell , j . a . , blotto , b . l . , moler , p . , drewes , r . c . , nussbaum , r . a . , lynch , j . d . , green , d . m . & wheeler , w . c . 2006 . the amphibian tree of life . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 297 , 1 - 370 .
grosjean , s . , delorme , m . , dubois , a . & ohler , a . 2008 . evolution of reproduction in the rhacophoridae ( amphibia , anura ) . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 462 , 169 - 176 .
günther , a . 1876 . note on the mode of propagation of some ceylonese tree - frogs , with description of two new species . annals and magazine of natural history ( 4 ) 17 , 377 - 380 .
haas , a . , hertwig , s . t . , krings , w . , braskamp , e . , dehling , j . m . , min , p . y . , jankowski , a . , schweizer , m . & das , i . 2012 . description of three rhacophorus tadpoles ( lissamphibia : anura : rhacophoridae ) from sarawak , malaysia ( borneo ) . zootaxa 3328 , 1 - 19 .
inger , r . f . & stuebing , r . b . 2005 . a field guide of the frogs of borneo . natural history publications ( borneo ) , kota kinabalu .
meegaskumbura , m . , bossuyt , f . , pethiyagoda , r . , manamendra - arachchi , k . , bahir , m . , milinkovitch , m . c . & schneider , c . j . 2002 . sri lanka : an amphibian hotspot . science 298 , 379 .
- . , manamendra - arachchi , k . , schneider , c . j . & pethiyagoda , r . 2007 . new species amongst sri lanka’s extinct shrub frogs ( amphibia : rhacophoridae : philautus ) . zootaxa 1397 , 1 - 15 .
nodzenski , e . & inger , r . f . 1990 . uncoupling of related structural changes in metamorphosing torrent - dwelling tadpoles . copeia 1990 , 1047 - 1054 .
pyron , a . r . & wiens , j . j . 2011 . a large - scale phylogeny of amphibia including over 2800 species , and a revised classification of extant frogs , salamanders , and caecilians . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 61 , 543 - 583 .
vassilieva , a . , galoyan , e . & poyarkov , n . 2013 . rhacophorus vampyrus ( anura : rhacophoridae ) reproductive biology : a new type of oophagous tadpole in asian treefrogs . journal of herpetology 47 , 607 - 614 .
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the lycid-mimicking moth ( snellenia lineata ) is a species of moth of the oecophoridae family .

it is found australia in the australian capital territory , new south wales , queensland and victoria .

the wingspan is about 15 mm .

the wings are brown , the hindwings shading to black at the margins .

the antennae have filamentous tips .

adults feed at flowers and are often found near poisonous lycidae beetles of the metriorrhynchus genus , which they mimic .

snellenia lineata

taxon concept snellenia _ lineata last modified 2017 - 02 - 03 15 : 09 : 01 . 109
snellenia walsingham , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 13 ; ts : snellenia coccinea walsingham
snellenia miltocrossa turner , 1923 ; proc . r . soc . victoria ( n . s . ) 36 : 81
snellenia hylaea turner , 1913 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 38 ( 1 ) : 221 ; tl : queensland , mt tambourine
snellenia capnora turner , 1913 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 38 ( 1 ) : 221 ; tl : n . queensland , herberton
snellenia tarsella walsingham , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 15 , pl . 6 , f . 3 ; tl : darjeeling
snellenia coccinea walsingham , 1889 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 15 , pl . 2 , f . 1 - 7 ; tl : sikkim
these adult moths have brown forewings with black veins . the hindwings are black with brown bases . the thorax is brown , and the abdomen is black . the antennae have filamentous tips . the wingspan is about 1 . 5 cms .
melbourne university press , 1990 , pl . 5 . 1 , p . 226 .
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felder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . 1875 ,
reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859
, pp . plates 121 - 140
walker , f . 1856 ,
sphingidae
, list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum , vol . 8 , pp . 1 - 271
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5cd5b0a0 - ebeb - 4235 - 9e64 - 5ab95e1d8428
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 334103
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this page contains information and pictures about lycid - mimicking moths that we found in the brisbane area , queensland , australia .
. it has the lycid brick - red colours . its antenna , head and thorax all look similar to lycid . this moth active during the day .
photos taken in ford road conservation area on mar 2011 . the moth was resting on moss on a fallen rotten tree trunk .
csiro , division of entomology , melbourne university press , 2nd edition 1991 , plate6f .
i . f . b . common , melbourne university press , 1990 , p 223 , plate5 . 1 .
eretmocera ? flavipennis felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 5 ) : pl . 138 , f . 59 ; tl :
amer . ?
ignispergens diakonoff , 1948 ; bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . paris ( 2 ) 20 ( 3 ) : 271
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
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reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera
- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .
walsingham , 1889 monograph of the genera connecting tinaegeria , wlk . , with eretmocera , z . trans . ent . soc . lond . 1889 ( 1 ) : 1 - 40 , pl . 1 - 6
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
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, sydney , nsw ( walker in the original description gave the type locality as para , south america but the specimen labelled as type in the bmnh has a sydney label on it ) .
. ( zoologischer theil , band 2 , abteilung 2 ) heft 4 . wien . plates 121 - 140 pp .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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the scrawled butterflyfish ( chaetodon meyeri ) is a species of butterflyfish ( family chaetodontidae ) .

it is found in the indian ocean and pacific ocean from east africa to the line islands ; north to the ryukyu islands ; south to the great barrier reef ; including micronesia and the galapagos islands .

growing to a maximum length of 20 cm ( nearly 8 in ) , its body is whitish or blue-white with curved to oblique black bands on the sides .

a yellow-edged black bar runs through the eye , another is on the snout .

it is a close relative of the mailed butterflyfish ( c. reticulatus ) and the ornate butterflyfish ( c. ornatissimus ) .

together they make up the subgenus called " citharoedus " , but as this name had already been used for a mollusc genus when it was given to the fish , it is not valid .

they are probably quite close to the subgenus corallochaetodon which contains for example the melon butterflyfish ( c. trifasciatus ) .

like these , they might be separated in megaprotodon if the genus chaetodon is split up .

the scrawled butterflyfish is found at depths between 2 and 25 m in coral-rich areas of clear seaward and lagoon reefs .

they feed exclusively on coral polyps .

scrawled butterflyfish

meyer ' s butterflyfish , small : over 1 - 1 . 5
, indian ocean
meyer ' s butterflyfish , medium : over 1 . 5 - 3 . 5
, indian ocean
meyer ' s butterflyfish , large : over 3 . 5 - 5 . 5
, indian ocean
therefore it is important to choose the correct species in relation to the corals wanted , if one desires to keep butterflyfish in a coral - aquarium . bristleworms , tubeworms and other small invertebrates are also a part of the diet for many butterflyfish .
also known as coralfishes , maypole butterflyfish , meyeri butterflyfish , meyer ' s butterfly , meyer ' s coralfish , scrawl butterflyfish , scrawled butterflyfish . found singly or in pairs in clear water lagoons and seaward reefs rich in coral growth . they feed exclusively on coral polyps . length - 18cm depth - 2 - 25m widespread indo - pacific butterflyfishes have very fine hair like teeth that enable them to pick out small organisms inaccessible to most other fish for eating . they thrive mainly on a diet of coral polyps , tentacles of featherdusters and christmas - tree worms . as these food sources all zap back into their shells , butterflyfishes need to be able to hover motionless while picking at the coral and to dart swiftly over short distances to get the worm before it retracts . they do this by using their pectoral fins as oars to brake , sprint , turn and even reverse .
they ignore most other fish and are generally peaceful , therefore multiple butterflyfish will have no problem living together . one should however be cautious about keeping similar species together unless they are a couple .
the butterflyfish are known for their attractive patterns and colours . they are closely related to angelfishs , but can always be distinguished , as they lack the spines on each side of the head of the angelfish .
a smaller group of these fish will seek out primairily soft corals , like zoanthus . a larger part of the species will target different types of lps corals . butterflyfish are also known to seek out anemones , tubeworms and bristleworms .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
while there have been no declines documented , this species is dependent on live coral cover , which may therefore make it susceptible to habitat loss . however , it has a relatively wide distribution , apparently large population and no obvious major threats other than coral loss . it is therefore listed as least concern .
this species occurs throughout the indo - pacific ( pyle 2001 ) , from the east african coast from as far south as durban , south africa ( burgess 1978 ) , east to the line islands ( kiribati and usa ) and hawaii ( steene 1978 ) , north to the ryukyu islands ( southern japan ) and south to the great barrier reef ( australia ) , new caledonia and tonga ( g . r . allen pers . comm . 2006 ) . vagrants have been recorded as far east as the galapagos islands ( chile ) and the revillagigedo islands ( mexico ) . it has been recorded from depths of 2 - 30 m .
australia ; british indian ocean territory ; christmas island ; cocos ( keeling ) islands ; comoros ; ecuador ( galápagos ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; french southern territories ( mozambique channel is . ) ; india ( andaman is . , nicobar is . ) ; indonesia ; japan ; kenya ; kiribati ( phoenix is . ) ; madagascar ; malaysia ; maldives ; marshall islands ; mauritius ; mayotte ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; myanmar ; nauru ; new caledonia ; palau ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; réunion ; seychelles ; solomon islands ; somalia ; south africa ; sri lanka ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; tonga ; tuvalu ; united states minor outlying islands ( us line is . ) ; vanuatu
this species is widespread , but generally uncommon . this species is reliant on live coral for food , but population trends in relation to coral loss have not been studied .
populations of this species are associated with areas of rich coral in clear water lagoons and on seaward reefs . adults occur as individuals or in pairs , and exhibit home - ranging behaviour . juveniles are usually observed among branching corals . it is an obligate corallivore , but probably feeds on coral mucus , rather than coral tissue .
this species is rarely exported through the aquarium trade ( pyle 2001 ) . this species is caught in artisanal fisheries .
2008 ) . currently there has been no documented declines associated with coral loss , and there appear to be no other major threats to this species .
there appear to be no species - specific conservation measures in place . this species is present within marine protected areas . monitoring of this species is needed in conjunction with coral monitoring , as well as determination of the degree of co - dependence between this species and corals .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
this species eats mainly coral polyps and will not survive on a replacement food . therefore , unless one is willing to provide it with living corals , it will not survive in an aquarium !
some species of the chaetodon genus are grouped together in what is known as a
complex
, since they are so very similar .
regardless of resemblance , it is important to be able to distinguish them , as in some cases they vary greatly in their needs . sometimes there are just small differences in colour or pattern , but in other instances it is vital to know where the fish originally come from .
it can be problematic , with many of these species , to get them eating in the beginning , but many of the species cannot resist live zooplankton or live mussels with crushed shells . another option is to mimic their natural behaviour by stuffing their food into coral skeletons or stones .
as these fish can be difficult to acclimatize and get feeding , it is important to buy healthy fish , to avoid having to deal with more problems . make sure to check that they do not have parasites or any visible infections .
there are some species that should not be kept in an a aquarium , as they are food specialists and will almost always refuse to eat replacement foods . it can be possible to breed some species , which will eat frozen foods . otherwise the only way to keep food specialists is by feeding them their natural diet , which consists of live sps or lps corals for example .
indo - pacific : east africa to the line islands ; north to the ryukyu islands ; south to the great barrier reef ; including micronesia and the galapagos islands ( ref . 5227 ) .
scott w . michael . 2004 . angelfishes and butterflyfishes ( reef fishes series book 3 ) tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) bob fenner . butterflyfishes ; separating the good ones and those you don ' t want - wet web media - ( english ) collection of links to additional information - wet web media - ( english ) tea yi kai . 2014 . reef nuggets 2 : aquatic lepidopterans for your reef ( revised edition ) - reef builders - ( english )
froese , r . and d . pauly . editors . 2014 . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . urltoken , version ( 08 / 2014 ) .
minimum volume
indicates the size of the tank needed to house this species under optimal conditions .
this is based on a medium size animal , which you want to keep for several years . it might be possible to keep smaller specimens for a limited period in a smaller tank . a larger tank might be needed for fully - grown specimens .
hardiness
indicates how resistant this species is to disease and how well i tolerates bad conditions in general . some species doesn ' t handle transportation very well , but that doesn ' t mean that the species isn ' t hardy under the right conditions .
in this case , a
normal
aquarium is a reef aquarium with mixed corals or a fish only aquarium with an approximately salinity of 1 . 026 ( sg ) and a temperature close to 26°c . species requiring more than a 4000 - liter tank are considered not suitable for home aquarium .
special aquariums may cover tanks with low salinity , sub - tropical temperature , deep sand bed , sea grass etc .
always reef safe : no sources indicate that this species will harm corals or other invertebrates .
often reef safe : only a few aquarists has reported problems keeping this species with corals and other invertebrates .
reef safe with caution : this species may be a threat to some types of invertebrates .
reef safe with luck : most specimens will harm corals and / or other invertebrates , but you might be lucky .
not reef safe : this species is a threat to most corals and / or other invertebrates .
due to availability and individuality of each species , colors and sizes may vary .
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a heartbreak species for aquarists , needing live coral polyps in its diet to survive .
a heartbreaker , this glorious fish needs a daily diet of live coral polyps to survive and is virtually destined to perish in captivity . as with all of the obligate corallivore butterflyfishes , it should be left on the reef unless an expert aquarist can somehow meet its dietary needs .
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mites are small crawling animals related to ticks and spiders .

most mites are free-living and harmless .

other mites are parasitic , and those that infest livestock animals cause many diseases that are widespread , reduce production and profit for farmers , and are expensive to control .

the invertebrate mites are arthropods with a chitinous exoskeleton and jointed limbs .

within the arthropoda , they belong in the subclass acari ( or acarina ) and species belonging to the acari are informally known as acarines .

although both acarines and insects ( class insecta ) are studied in the fields of veterinary and medical parasitology , acarines are separated from insects by structure , feeding , lifecycles , and disease relations .

both livestock and companion animals are susceptible to mite infestation .

humans also may become infested by contagion from these domestic animals ( a zoonosis ) .

the term livestock is used in this article for all those domesticated mammals and birds that people rear for production of food , hides , wool , and draught power .

infestation by mites usually causes skin diseases known as mange , scabies , scab , demodecosis , or in general as acariasis .

the causation , economic impact , and control of these diseases in livestock are described in this article .

mites that cause disease in honey bees are described in varroa destructor .

mites of livestock

for controlling sheep mites ( or any other mites of livestock and pets ) . learn more about
for controlling horse mites ( or any other mites of livestock and pets ) . learn more about
for controlling cattle mange mites ( or any other mites of livestock and pets ) . learn more about
in your previous studies it was clear to you that livestock diseases and parasites have high economic effects in livestock production . parasites vectors to various livestock , damage organs of animals and predisposes them to secondary infections . parasites have the following effects on livestock :
dog mites and cat mites : biology , prevention and control . ear mites , sarcoptic mange , scabies , demodectic mange , itch mites , nasal mites , notoedric mange , walking dandruff .
click here if you are interested in medicinal plants for controlling mites and other external parasites of livestock and pets .
most scab and mange mites do not play a significant role in the transmission of microbial diseases to livestock or pets .
click here to learn more about general aspects of biological control of parasites of livestock and pets .
graham oh , hourrigan jl . eradication programs for the arthropod parasites of livestock .
is therefore based on prophylaxis of the infection in man , livestock and dogs .
mites in the family trombiculidae are commonly referred to as red bugs or chigger mites .
spp . parasitize other species of mites . these mite –inhabiting mites can attack man . the genus
herbal medicines for dogs , cats & livestock against fleas , ticks , mites , lice , worms & other parasites .
lice , fleas , keds and mites cause considerable loses in livestock . animal houses should be cleaned and dusted regularly .
dog mites and cat mites : biology , prevention and control . ear mites , sarcoptic mange , scabies , demodectic mange , itch mites , nasal mitesnotoedric mange , walking dandruff .
the biology of mites , parasites of livestock - cattle , sheep , goats , pig , poultry - , dogs and cats . scab , mange
chakrabarti a , pradhan nr . demodicidosis in livestock in west bengal ( india )
drummond ro . tick - borne livestock diseases and their vectors . chemical control of ticks .
sutherst rw . management of arthropod parasitism in livestock . in : dunsmore jp , editor .
rotational grazing of livestock species should be followed to minimize or limit the infection from pasture .
mites are able to cause mange on different species of livestock but are somewhat host specific , thus infecting some species more severely than others .
cattle mites are not vectors of other pathogens , i . e . they do not transmit microbial diseases as many other livestock parasites do .
sheep mites are not vectors of other pathogens , i . e . they do not transmit microbial diseases as many other livestock parasites do .
horse mites are not vectors of other pathogens , i . e . they do not transmit microbial diseases as many other livestock parasites do .
subject acarology . soil mites > biological control . soil mites > integrated control . agricultural pests . beneficial insects . soil management . soil mites .
basu bc , menon bp , sengupta cm ( 1952 ) studies on the mange mites of livestock in india . indian veterin j 22 : 143–149
. fipronil , methoprene and amitraz are all pesticides used also on livestock and agriculture .
is found in the veins of the nasal mucosa of livestock in the indian subcontinent . infection rates of 40 - 50 %
the use of pathogenic fungi against crop and livestock pests has been intensively investigated . there are already numerous commercial products containing spores of these fungi that are used against crop pests . there use against livestock pests is much less developed and little is known so far on their field efficacy against ticks and mites that affect livestock and / or pets .
quarantine importance : numerous important pests of crops , livestock , wildlife , native flora , and humans .
skin must be squeezed to extrude mites from hair follicles trichogram : is the examination of hair plucked from a follicle for mites . finding a few mites is normal ! it is only demodecosis if you find numerous mites or many life stages
chorioptic mites of cattle ( also called
leg mites
, or
barn itch
) are less harmful than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they are not transmitted to humans .
bram ra . tick - borne livestock diseases and their vectors . 1 . the global problem .
chakrabarti a , pradhan nr ( 1985 ) demodicosis in livestock in west bengal ( india ) .
identify and prepare a list of livestock feeds common in your school or in neighboring areas for the following animals .
wharton rh . tick - borne livestock diseases and their vectors . acaricide resistance and alternative methods of tick control .
. such products containing amitraz are often used in many countries for mite control on livestock and dogs .
chorioptic mites of horses ( the itchy leg mite ) are less harmful than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they are not transmitted to humans .
attempts to infect and demonstrate transovarial transmission of r . tsutsugamushi in three species of leptotrombidium mites
sarcoptic mites of sheep are a species - specific strain of sarcoptes scabiei , a mite species that infests also cattle , pigs , other livestock and also humans . this means that it can be transmitted to humans . they are less abundant on sheep than psoroptic mites .
sikes rk , chamberlain rw . laboratory observations on three species of bird mites .
litwin sb . “pigeon mites” causing a pruritic dermatitis . report of a case .
mites infest sheep worldwide . the most important parasitic mite species of sheep are :
psoroptic mites of horses are usually not infectious for humans , dogs and cats .
zhao ye , cheng h . rapd analysis and sequence alignment of genomic dna of hair follicle mites
to our knowledge ixodiphagus wasps are not yet commercially available in most countries where ticks are a problem for livestock .
helson gah ( 1956 ) some arthropods affecting man and livestock in new zealand . n z vet 4 : 11–18
agricultural hygiene helps protect livestock and crops from pests and disease , including insects , parasites , pathogens and weeds .
chorioptic sheep mites ( also called
leg mites
, or
foot scab
) are quite abundant worldwide , but less harmful than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they are not transmitted to humans .
they are parasites that are found in the body of the livestock eg . tapeworms , roundworms , liver - flukes . livestock houses should not only provide protection against elements of environment but also must allow ease in maintenance of high standards of hygiene . dirty environments promote infection by internal parasites .
sarcoptic mites of cattle are a species - specific strain of sarcoptes scabiei , a mite species that infests also sheep , pigs , other livestock and also humans . this means that it can be transmitted to humans .
mange or scabies in livestock is a skin condition caused by microscopic mites in or on the skin . the mites cause intense itching and discomfort which is associated with decreased feed intake and production . scratching and rubbing results in extensive damage to hides and fleece .
scab and mange mites of veterinary importance have a worldwide distribution but they tend to be more frequent in regions with cold climate a hard winters . such mites live in the skin of their hosts . infestations with mites are technically called acariasis .
so far there are no reports on serious problems of cattle mites resistance to parasiticides .
sulzberger mb , kaminstein i . avian itch mites as a cause of human dermatoses .
sarcoptic mites of horses are a species - specific strain of sarcoptes scabiei , a mite species that infests also sheep , cattle , pigs , other livestock and also humans . this means that it can be transmitted to humans .
mg was fed to 50 mites at 75–85 % rh . the number of mites was assessed after 25 days , so the bioassay used population suppression as the measure of efficacy .
however , to our knowledge there are still no commercial products based on bacillus thuringiensis approved for use on livestock or pets .
williams , r . e . ( 2010 ) veterinary entomology : livestock and companion animals . boca raton , crc press .
in cattle are the most common . liver flukes attack many types of livestock , especially cattle , sheep and goats . water snail lymnaea species , is the intermediate host . control liver fluke basically involves drenching of livestock animals with antihelminthic drugs and elimination of the intermediate host by draining swampy area .
diagnosis has to be confirmed examining skin scrappings of affected parts under the microscope for visualization of the mites .
diagnosis has to be confirmed examining skin scrappings under the microscope for visualization of the mites .
so far there are no biological control methods against ticks and mites of dogs and cats .
pathogenic impact and economic importance of mange mites in ruminants | dr . tekeste abriham - urltoken
aka scab , psoroptic mange is caused by species of psoroptes . non burrowing skin mites .
positive diagnosis of the problem by a physician . scabies mites are extremely small ; females measure about 1 ⁄ 60 inch . in the case of both scabies and straw itch mites , the rash or bites associated with these mites is the primary diagnostic characteristic .
insects and mites that feed on fungus or stored grain that is damaged include the foreign grain beetle , indian meal moth , psocids and grain mites .
bram ra , george je , reichard re , tabachnick wj . the threat of foreign arthropod - borne pathogens to livestock in the united states .
( b ) to keep livestock away from pastures contaminated with metacercariae . this may only be possible when the number of animals involved is small .
) . scabies mites have greatest survival away from a host in conditions of low temperature and high relative humidity . mites have been shown to remain infective after up to 36
scab and mange mites are typical winter pests in regions with a cold or moderate winter . and they affect mainly stabled livestock , because crowding creates a warm and humid microclimate that favors mite development and transmission .
) . adult female mites burrow into the upper epidermis of the host at the rate of approximately 0 . 5–5
is common in house dust in tropical climates and may be more prevalent than pyroglyphid mites and is a significant cause of sensitivity . this species has been reported to occur in small numbers in some homes in the southern subtropical united states . sensitivity to storage mites may be 6–22 % in urban and rural populations in europe . there is little cross - reactivity between storage mites and house dust mites . however , many patients are sensitive to both storage mites and the pyroglyphid house dust mites .
number of laying hens per country in millions ( 2012 ) and the percentages of farms infested by dermanyssus gallinae . image reproduced from mul ; ©wageningen ur livestock research .
mites : re - evaluation of species integrity . med vet entomol 25 : 370–376 . doi :
in most countries there are no injectables approved for the control of mites on dogs and cats .
so far there are almost no reports on confirmed resistance of dog or cat mites to acaricides .
of dogs . milbemycin oxime has no efficacy against fleas or ticks . milbemycin oxime is exclusively used on pets , not on livestock or in agriculture .
parasitic mites often have adaptations for being on animals claws , suckers , etc .
taxonomic priority in psoroptes mange mites : p . ovis or p . equi ?
, natural or synthetic that will keep mites away from horses . and there are
so far there are no drenches that reliably control mites on dogs and cats .
there are also reports of a good efficacy of thuringiensin suspensions against northern fowl mites when directly applied on infested chicken .
although the disease can manifest in a number of ways , the only form is the presence of ectoparasites—ticks and mites .
whereas there are numerous topical and systemic acaricides that control mites on livestock in most countries , only a fraction are also approved for use on horses or other equids . the reason is often that the horse market is smaller than the livestock market and thus it is not attractive enough for most animal health companies to invest in a claim for use on horses .
ingested by the host , which in turn is influenced by the climate , the amount of protection of larvae provided by vegetation , the livestock density and the grazing pattern of the ruminants present .
smith mg , blattner rj , heys fm . st . louis encephalitis : infection of chicken mites ,
if a herd is free of mites , contamination can only come from animals brought in . consequently , to avoid contamination treat all incoming animals against mites , especially during the winter months .
infestations with mites are technically called acariosis or acariasis , both on animals and humans .
the eu label does not include any mites among the parasites controlled by certifect .
chamberlain rw , sikes rk , sudia rw . attempted laboratory infection of bird mites with the virus of saint louis encephalitis .
hall , m . t . b . , 1977 ; diseases and parasites of livestock in the tropics . longman group ltd , london . pp 22 – 257 .
harm to birds by bloodsucking mites is comparable to that of ticks for large livestock . besides stress and pain caused by itching and inflammation of the skin , blood loss can be considerable , which can cause anemia that can be fatal . egg production can be substantially reduced .
( ii ) arachnida like ticks and mites various microenvironments eg . under the tail , belly region , anal region around the neck among other areas , favour the proliferation for different types of external parasites . this affects the distribution of the parasites and livestock production in general .
life - threatening anemia by direct consumption of host blood is possible when mites are seen in high numbers .
whitten lk ( 1962 ) parasitic mites of domestic animals in new zealand . n z entomol 3 : 9–12
durden la jlk , turell mj . mechanical transmission of venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus by haematophagous mites ( acari )
cahn mm , shechter fr . pruritus from an unusual source - bird mites ; report of a case .
vacated facilities where sheep infected with psoroptic mites were hold must be kept vacant for at least 2 weeks . this is necessary to allow surviving mites or eggs to die before arrival of new stock .
zhao ye , cheng h , xun m , wu lp . extraction and random primer pcr detection of genomic dna of parasitic mites
chamberlain rw , sikes rk . laboratory investigations on the role of bird mites in the transmission of eastern and western equine encephalitis .
taxonomic priority in psoroptes mange mites : p . ovis or p . equi ? | springerlink
written by a globally prominent entomologist , agricultural acarology : introduction to integrated mite management provides tools for developing integrated mite management programs for agriculture , including management of plant - feeding mites , mites attacking bees and livestock , and stored products . emphasizing the biology , ecology , behavior , and diverse methods of controlling mites , this book provides an overview of the management of agriculturally important mites using all available integrated pest management ( ipm ) tools , including biological control , cultural practices , host - plant resistance , and pesticides . agricultural acarology prepares agricultural managers to identify , manage , and contribute to the field of integrated mite management . an accompanying cd - rom contains numerous color photographs of mites and the damage they cause , and pdfs of key publications .
fleas and lice are two of the most common and irritating parasitic insects of humans and livestock . lice commonly live among the hairs of their hosts , feeding on blood . some species are carriers of typhus fever . fleas usually infest birds and mammals , and can feed on humans when they are transferred from pets or livestock . fleas are known to carry a variety of devastating diseases , including the plague .
all mites are highly contagious among dogs and / or cat . depending on the species they can be contagious for humans as well . however , they are not transmitted by vectors ( e . g . flies , mosquitoes , etc . ) . mites do not transmit microbial diseases , neither to pets , nor to humans or livestock .
are labeled for use against sarcoptic mange mites , but it is generally not considered the compound of choice . if
mites are microscopic parasites , mostly not bloodsucking , which live on the skin of numerous domestic and wild animals .
surveys for ectoparasites on wildlife associated with amblyomma variegatum ( acari : ixodidae ) - infested livestock in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands .
the life cycle of nasal mites is not completely understood . usually these mites remain inside the nasal channels but a few mites may reach the outer nose . nasal mites often cause light or no symptoms at all , but strong infestations can lead to chronic sneezing , nasal discharge , coughing , nasal bleeding ( epistaxis ) , and restlessness . in very infrequent severe cases serious impairment of the respiratory function can occur .
steelman , c . d . , 1976 ; effects of external and internal arthropod parasites on domestic livestock production . ann . rev . entomol . 21 : 155 – 175 .
the principle of a parasite control strategy is to keep the challenge to young livestock by the pathogenic trichostrongyle parasites at a minimum rate . this is achieved in the following ways .
of mange and mites like ticks , mites belong to the arachnida family . there are more than 45 000 mite species . most can only be seen with a microscope and live in a diverse array of habitats . many live as parasites on plants and animals . ‘mange’ is the name given to skin diseases caused by parasitic mites in wild and domestic animals . sheep scab , for example , is caused by mites .
skin irritation in humans handling infested materials . a related group of astigmatid mites , also ancestrally nest inhabiting , is the family pyroglyphidae . these mites have colonized human habitations from bird nests and are the primary source for allergens in house dust . commonly known as house dust mites , species particularly in the genus
fleas and lice are two of the most common and irritating parasitic insects of humans and livestock . lice commonly live among the hairs of their hosts , feeding on blood . some species are carriers of the epidemic inducing typhus fever . fleas usually infest birds and mammals , and can feed on humans when they are transferred from pets or livestock . fleas are known to carry a variety of devastating diseases , including the plague .
for catching mites , for the simple reason that they spend their whole life on the animals .
may also be prevalent . domestic dwellings can also contain storage mites ( e . g . ,
figure 1 . gravel mulch can help stop or slow pests such as millipedes and clover mites .
health plays a major role in determining the productivity of farm animals . in your previous studies , you learnt the role played by parasites and pathogens in livestock production . the health and productivity of farm animals is also dependent on the plane of nutrition exposed to them . in this topic you are expected to understand the diverse sources of livestock feeds , categorize them and explain their digestion in various farm animals .
parasites cause considerable damage to livestock and loss of income to farmers . in this lesson , we shall explore the effects of parasites on livestock and the most susceptible stage of their lifecycle in order to successfully control them . parasitism is an association between two organisms in which one is called a parasite and the other a host in the context of the association . the parasite benefits by nourishing itself at the expense of the host .
other mites , especially certain bird mites ( e . g . the red fowl mite , dermanyssus gallinae ) do not live in the skin of the hosts but are bloodsuckers . they behave rather like soft ticks .
palimpestov ma ( 1947 ) peculiarities in the development of psoroptid mange mites . vet 24 : 6–9 ( in russian )
smith mg , blattner rj , heys fm . the isolation of the st . louis encephalitis virus from chicken mites (
are labeled for use against mange mites in cattle , but it is generally not considered the compound of choice . if
kirkwood a ( 1963 ) longevity of the mites dermanyssus gallinae and liponyssus sylviarum . exp parasit 14 : 358 - 366
review and resolution of some nomenclatural issues regarding the genus psoroptes ( acari : psoroptidae ) , scab - mites of domestic and wild mammals .
summarizing , a lot of research is still needed until reliable products based on these nematodes become commercially available for the control of ticks or mites of veterinary importance .
, glycyphagidae , carpoglyphidae , echimyopididae , and chortoglyphidae are medically important because they are the sources of potent allergens . many species of these mites are often referred to as “storage mites” because they occur in stored hay , grain , and straw , in processed foods made from grain ( flour , baking mixes ) , and in dust in grain and hay at storage , transfer , and livestock feeding facilities . also , stored product mites may occur in homes in significant numbers . thus , humans may be exposed to storage mites and their allergens , occupationally and in the home . inhalation or contact on the skin or mucus membranes of the eyes with allergens from storage mites can induce allergic reactions . these mites and their allergens can also occur in bread , pancakes , cakes , pizza , pasta , and bread made from ingredients contaminated with mites . humans have had anaphylactic reactions after eating these mite - contaminated foods .
certain insect species are the carriers of some of humanity ' s most dreaded diseases , including malaria , typhus , and plague . as consumers of agricultural crops and parasites of our livestock , insects are also humankind ' s number one competitor for resources .
( a ) controlling the density of livestock ( stocking rate ) . overstocking forces the animals to graze closer to faecal material and closer to the ground , and may result in the consumption of a higher number of infective larvae .
attacks only at night and hide in crevices during the day which might be a reason for low incidence of mites reported by many authorities . furthermore , iwuala and okpala ( 1977 ) [ 17 ] indicated that mites species
the second treatment if necessary should be given three weeks after the pre - rains treatment . two successive treatments three weeks apart should prevent livestock from acquiring parasite burdens .
mites affect all kinds of livestock end pets , as well as humans and wildlife . mites are often quite species - specific , i . e . they are occur only on one type of host and a few closely related species , e . g . on canids such as dogs , wolves and foxes , but not on cats ; or on cattle and buffaloes but not on sheep or goats , etc .
2013 . of mites and men : preliminary evidence for increasing incidence of avian ectoparasitosis in humans and support of its potential threat to medical health ; pp . 635–636 .
as all arachnids , adults have 4 pairs of legs ( larvae only 3 ) , whereby those of scab and mange mites are often rudimentary .
so far there are very few products for oral delivery approved for the control of mites of dogs and cats . the most relevant one is :
eggs of ticks and mites deposited in cracks and crevices in the walls , floors and wood work of the animal houses should be removed periodically .
certain insect species are the carriers of some of humanity ' s most dreaded diseases , including malaria , typhus , and plague . as consumers of agricultural crops and parasites of our livestock , insects are also humankind ' s number - one competitor for resources .
scab , mange and other mites are very small arachnid parasites . most of them can be seen only under the microscope .
valiente moro c , chauve c , zenner l . vectorial role of some dermanyssoid mites ( acari , mesostigmata , dermanyssoidea )
mites are tiny parasites ( < 1 mm ) that live in the skin of horses , donkeys and many other mammals and vertebrates worldwide . mites are not insects but belong to the group called acarina , together with ticks .
with a number of anthelmintics available in several formulations ( ready - to - use drench , paste , powder , mineral premix , urea / molasses / anthelmintic blocks , pour on , injectable , slow release and pulse release devices ) , it is recommended that the ideal formulation is selected by considering availability , price , parasite species to be treated , type of livestock , livestock numbers and type of management .
cattle mites : biology , prevention and control . cattle mange . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , demodex
taxa most similar to mites : ricinuleids have a cucullus and opisthosomal segmentation . opilionids have opisthosomal segmentation .
mites in cows : a case report from iran . j fac vet med univ tehran 53 : 50–51
zemskaya aa , pchelkina aa . gamasoid mites and q fever . in : markevich ap , editor .
cheyletiella mites infest mainly cats , but can also affect dogs , foxes , rabbits and also humans .
, e . g , houseflies . but in very high numbers , the nuisance may be considerable and have an impact on productivity of livestock operations . and they can also trasmit animal diseases .
on the other hand , as indicated above , some mites are beneficial to humans in their role as biological control agents against agricultural pests . also , the natural role of mites in providing “ecosystem services” in the form of nutrient cycling cannot be overlooked .
diagnosis is based on the presence of the previously mentioned symptoms , but has to be confirmed examining skin scrappings of affected parts under the microscope for visualization of the mites .
scab and mange mites are minuscule ( 0 , 15 a 0 , 8 mm ) and not visible for the naked eye . infestations are recognized by the symptoms and clinical signs they cause on livestock or pets . to determine the specific agent examination of skin scrappings under the microscope is often required .
various methods including dipping , spraying , ear tagging or pour on , have been used to apply chemicals to protect livestock against ticks . direct application of acaricides to animals is the most popular method of controlling ticks on livestock ( drummond , 1983 ) . applications of acaricide to tick - infested cattle via dipping or sprayer can be equally effective under ideal conditions with proper handling of equipments without injuring animals and subsequent dilution of a product ( george , 2000 ) .
sikes rk , chamberlain rw ( 1954 ) laboratory observations on three species of bird mites . j parasitol 40 : 691 - 697
species of knemidocoptes these burrowing mites cause severe inflammation in the legs which will become swollen and encrusted leading to immobilization and death .
ectoparasites live on the outer surface of humans . they include lice and the mites that cause scabies ( skay - beez ) .
control may also be directed at the intermediate host , the oribatid mites . it has been shown that the habitat of the mites can be destroyed by ploughing and where this is feasible , newly sown pastures can be kept free of tapeworms for several years .
surveys for ectoparasites on wildlife associated with amblyomma variegatum ( acari : ixodidae ) - infested livestock in st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . - pubmed - ncbi
mbati pa , hlatshwayo m , mtshali ms , mogaswane kr , de waal td , dipeolu oo . ticks and tick - borne diseases of livestock belonging to resource - poor farmers in the eastern free state of south africa .
cattle mites : biology , prevention and control . cattle mange . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , demodex .
sometimes mites are not easily identified , and the complaint will center on behavior changes or an unthrifty appearance .
mites from china based on coi and 18s rdna gene sequences . vet parasitol 184 : 392–397 . doi :
all mites are very small ( < 0 . 5 mm ) and only visible under the microscope . they
coetzer , j . a . w . ( 1994 ) infectious diseases of livestock with special reference to southern africa . cape town : oxford university press . isbn 0 - 19 - 570506 - 8 .
is a member of the class arachnida , subclass acari , order astigmata and family sarcoptidae . scabies mites are obligate parasites that burrow into the skin of their host , reproducing and laying eggs in the burrows . adult female mites are approximately 0 . 2–0 . 5
as indicated above , there are a number of instances in which mites are important to humans . many species are serious pests of agricultural crops , either through direct damage or indirectly as vectors of plant pathogens . other species are parasitic on domestic animals and cause losses in meat , egg , and fiber production . others , such as the human scabies mite , are direct agents of human disease or , as in the case of chiggers and ticks , vectors of pathogens . other mites may affect humans by infesting stored food products . many species of astigmata are known as stored - product mites because they have moved from their ancestral rodent nest habitats into human food stores . such mites may also cause damage in animal feed by causing allergic reactions in livestock and are also known to cause
instead of thorax and abdomen mites have just an abdomen ( also called idiosoma ) . the abdomen contains all the major organs ( digestive tract , reproductive organs , nervous system , etc . ) . female mites are always larger than males .
mites are microscopic , round with short legs adult females burrow into the skin and lay eggs in resulting tunnel eggs hatch and development of larva to nymph to adult occurs rapidly in 17 - 21 days . adult mites can live for 4 weeks
act as intermediate hosts . the mites , which are soil - inhabiting , surface during the night and early morning to feed on manure . during their feeding they accidentally ingest eggs of the intestinal tapeworms present in the manure , and the larval stage called a cysticercoid develops in the mites . ruminants become infected by ingesting herbage containing mites carrying the infective stage of the parasite .
this site presents the parasites of veterinary importance for livestock and pets grouped into ectoparasites and endoparasites . a good reason for this classificastion is that the veterinary medicines for the control of such parasites are classically divided into ectoparasiticides and endoparasiticides .
nakamae h , fujisaki k , kishi s , yashiro m , oshiro s , furuta k . the new parasitic ecology of chicken mites
of the flocks remains the preferred option for sheep scab prevention in many regions . to ensure effective prevention the acaricide must reach the mites
are notoriously difficult to control for multiple reasons , one of these being the tendency of mites to seek refuge in poultry house sub - structures when not feeding . the majority of the
among the numerous chemical classes of parasiticides , only the macrocyclic lactones are appropriate for use as injectables against various mite species . however , whereas several macrocyclic lactones are enormously used as injectables on livestock , there are almost no injectable macrocyclic lactones for pets . in some countries the classical 1 % injectable formulation of ivermectin for livestock is also approved for use on dogs and even cats . but in most countries , including the eu and the usa this classic 1 % ivermectin formulation is usually not approved for use on cats and dogs ( see table below for a summary on macrocyclic formulations for pets and livestock )
sarcoptes mites of most domestic mammals ( and other mite species too ) can be contagious for humans , causing the so - called pseudoscabies , characterized by intense itch . however , the mites cannot complete development on humans and the infestation recedes spontaneously .
review and resolution of some nomenclatural issues regarding the genus psoroptes ( acari : psoroptidae ) , scab - mites of domestic and wild mammals . - pubmed - ncbi
uesugi y , aiba s , suetake t , tagami h . multiple infestations with avian mites within a family .
the following factors should be considered in the control of internal parasites ; 1 . nutritional status , 2 . size of the animal , 3 . the environment of livestock . the stock person should ensure that all predisposing factors to infection are controlled , these include ,
in regions with a cold winter ( canada , most of the usa and europe , etc . ) psoroptic mange is a typical winter pest , favored by livestock crowding due to indoor confinement during the cold season .
on the side of the body , head , back , hip , legs and abdomen of cow aged 2 - 14 years in july . a heifer was infested with mites of the genus
pyemotes tritici commonly breed in stored grain , dried beans and peas , wheat straw , hay and other dried grasses . they are frequently a problem for people doing landscaping or feeding horses and other livestock . the mites are actually beneficial because they attack insects that feed on stored grain and similar materials . people who handle mite - infested materials will be attacked . the bites of straw itch mites are characteristically found on the trunk of the body and on the arms .
the study of arthropod ectoparasites has been driven in the past in canada principally by the need for answers to specific problems affecting man , domestic animals or wild game species . our knowledge of the fleas arose from initial concerns about plague in western canada . where ticks caused paralysis and death in livestock in british columbia , a specialist in the field was appropriated to conduct the needed research . lice , keds , and mites are frequent pests on confined livestock and poultry and several studies have been conducted to measure impact on performance and for pest control .
mites , more closely related to spiders than insects and extremely small , utilize microenvironments of moderate temperature and raised humidity . the most important family
in baltic amber , water mites have been found too . they parasitize representatives of chironomidae ( nonbiting midges ) or trichoptera ( caddis flies ;
durden la , linthicum kj , monath tp . laboratory transmission of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus to chickens by chicken mites ( acari : dermanyssidae )
they refer to parasites found on outside the body of the livestock on or under the skin of the host . most of the ectoparasites belong to the class arthropoda with two distinct classes namely ( i ) insecta for example tsetse flies , lice , keds , fleas .
mites are readily killed ; however , successful treatment requires removal of contaminated forage and treatment of environment ( e . g . pyrethrin sprays ) before new forage replaced .
can reach a length of 1 . 3 mm . the life cycle of feather mites consists of oviparous adults one larval and two nymphal stages . birds become infected with teleonymphs by contact . in the past feather mites were considered to be apathogenic , but under conditions of high host concentrations , they can cause skin and feather alterations .
chicken mites these are blood sucking mites of poultry in wood framed houses . - nocturnal feeders that hide in the day time - rapid lifecycle - 7 days with adult females producing eggs after each meal - adults can survive up to 8 mos without feeding !
sarcoptic mites are very small ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mm ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , horses can pick mites from the immediate environment and they can also be passively transmitted by saddlery or tools and equipment in the stable . but there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , rats , mites , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .
mites inhabiting vegetation , vegetable matter , hay , straw , cereals and other stored foods , and bedding may cause dermatitis in animals contacting the infested environment or feed . these mites belong to the suborders sarcoptiformes ( astigmata ) , trombidiformes ( prostigmata ) , and parasitiformes ( mesostigmata ) . forage mites include mites in the genera acarus , tyrophagus , , glycyphagus , pyemotes , neoschoengastia , euschoengastia , caloglyphus , lepidoglyphus , cheyletus , and suidasia . many species of larval trombiculidae ( harvest mites , red bugs , or chiggers ) are capable of producing skin lesions and irritation in the horse . genera represented include eutrombicula , neotrombicula , and leptotrombium .
ectoparasitism refers to an infestation of the reptilian host by one of several groups of acarids ( ticks and mites ) of the genera ophionyssus , ixodes , hyalomma , haemaphysalis , amblyomma , aponomma , agrasidae , and ornithodoros .
disease : blood - feeding by these large flies is painful but loss of livestock productivity by biting - stress is poorly known . tsetse - flies are notorious as the biological vectors of the trypanosoma species of protozoa that cause nagana in cattle and sleeping - sickness in humans .
( 1975 ) [ 5 ] divided mites into the following families : - family psoroptidae : - e . g .
horse mites : biology , prevention and control . horse mange , horse scab . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , demodex
adult mites are small ( 0 . 15 a 0 . 55 mm long ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , dogs can pick mites from the immediate environment . there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .
is a broad - spectrum insecticide effective against adult fleas , but not against mites or ticks . it belongs to the
another prominent class of arthropods that contains parasitic species is the arachnids . included in this group are spiders , scorpions , ticks , and mites .
sarcoptic mites are very small ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mm ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , sheep can pick mites from the immediate environment or fomites . there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .
most bloodsucking mites are not that species - specific as scab and mange mites . many such mite species can infect and survive on several bird species , also on wild birds . this means that wild birds are vectors of such mites and can transmit the infestation e . g . between poultry houses . even rodents and other domestic and wild animals ( e . g . dogs , cats , foxes , etc . ) and even workers can be passive vectors and such mites in industrial bird production facilities .
the life cycle is completed in 4 to 6 weeks . survival off the host is limited to a few days . whereas immature mites remain mostly below the epidermis , adult mites are on the skin surface , move freely and spread the infestation throughout the host ' s body . transmission mainly of adult mites is by contact , mostly from freshly shorn sheep to shorn or wooly sheep .
sarcoptic mites are very small ( 0 . 3 to 0 . 5 mm ) and can be seen only under the microscope . as all mite species , sarcoptic mange mites spend their whole life on the same host . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close physical contact . however , cattle can pick mites from the immediate environment or fomites . there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .
as all mite species , psoroptes mites spend their whole life on the same host . transmission within a herd is mostly by physical contact . the mites do not actively jump or crawl from one host to another one , but are passively transmitted when animals come in close contact . nevertheless , psoroptic mites and eggs can survive 2 to 3 weeks off the host by suitable conditions ( maximum to 12 weeks by cold weather ) , i . e . animals can pick mites or eggs from their environment or can be transmitted by fomites . but there are no external vectors that transmit the mites , e . g . insects , worms , rats , mites , birds , etc . , as it happens with many other parasites .
lancaster , j . l . & meisch , m . v . ( 1986 ) arthropods in livestock and poultry production . chichester : ellis horwood ltd . isbn 0 - 85312 - 790 - 5 .
psoroptes mites produce typical scabs on the skin of affected animals , thus their common name scab mites . psoroptes mites do not dig tunnels in the skin . in the past it was thought that they pierce the skin of their hosts . today it is believed that they do not pierce the skin , but that the mite feces cause an allergic reaction of the host ' s skin , which reacts producing exudations and skin thickening and hardening ( lichenification ) with formation of papules , scales and crusts ( excoriations ) , often with hair loss . the mites than suck the exudates and secretions produced .
transmission of o . tsutsugamushi by different generations of 12 colonies of leptotrombidium chiggers .
was found on 108 wormed pigs in usa . mohr ( 1961 ) [ 18 ] reported that 4 species of mites that cause mange in cattle are
baker as . mites and ticks of domestic animals : an identification guide and information source . london : the stationary office ; 1999 . [ links ]
an inventory among most european countries revealed that on average 83 % of the poultry farms are infested with poultry red mites ( see figure 5 ) .
for the control of ear - mites special ear - drops are often used ( e . g . with pyrethrins , ivermectin or milbemycin oxime ) .
species that predates on other mites and is used as a biological control weapon in crop protection . it also predates on tick larvae , particularly those that climb onto shrubs or grass blades questing for potential hosts . but results of trials run in australia with these mites to control
the medical and economic importance of ticks has long been recognized due to their ability to transmit diseases to humans and animals . ticks cause great economic losses to livestock , and adversely affect livestock hosts in several ways . loss of blood is a direct effect of ticks acting as potential vector for haemo - protozoa and helminth parasites . blood sucking by large numbers of ticks causes reduction in live weight and anemia among domestic animals , while their bites also reduce the quality of hides . however , major losses caused by ticks are due to their ability to transmit protozoan , rickettsial and viral diseases of livestock , which are of great economic importance world - wide . there are quite a few methods for controlling ticks , but every method has certain shortcomings . the present review is focused on ticks importance and their control .
mode of action , i . e . although topically administered , it is absorbed through the skin into the pet ' s blood and distributed throughout the whole body . moxidectin is also used on livestock but not in agriculture or hygiene .
cattle demodectic mange mites are even smaller ( ~ 0 . 25 mm ) than psoroptic or sarcoptic mites . they get into the hair follicles and sebaceous glands and build nodules and papules that can become infected with secondary bacteria . the life cycle can be completed in about 2 weeks , but is poorly understood . demodex mites can survive up to 4 months off the host .
also the simplified passive tape trap ( spt , roy et al . 2014 ; chiron et al . 2014 ) method is easy to make . use a 5 – 8 cm long section of 3 cm wide painter’s masking tape and wrap it around cylindrical bars in the poultry system , joining the two ends , but leaving a central space near the bar to serve as a mite refuge ( see figure 4 ) . the number of mites trapped on this sticky refuge should be scored to four different levels : 0 = no mites visible in the trap ; 1 = 1 - 9 mites visible in the trap ; 2 = sparse groups of > 10 mites visible in the trap ; 3 = clusters of mites visible in the trap .
the introduction of large numbers of ducks into rice fields after harvest has been used to reduce the snail population . the ducks eat the snails and the fluke species specific to the ducks compete with the fluke species of ruminants in the infection of snails . it is reported that snails infected with duck flukes will not become infected with flukes of livestock .
gray ( 1961 ) [ 9 ] discovered mites to be an irritating and parasitic ectoparasite likewise other forms of mites like chiggers . recently , yerubam ( 1984 ) [ 10 ] discovered that out of 30 herds of local ( black ) goats monitored throughout 1983 in different part of israel , ten ( 10 ) were infested with mites . he also stated that the infested goats were aged 2 years or more and were in good physical condition . steelman ( 1976 ) [ 11 ] observed large numbers of nodules caused by
maggots , several mites species that get into the respiratory system , etc . ) , as well as worms that remain on the skin of their hosts .
griffiths da , atyeo wt , norton ra , lynch ca ( 1990 ) the idiosomal chaetotaxy of astigmatid mites . j zool ( london ) 220 : 1–32
proper disposal of carcasses of animals died of infectious disease is of utmost importance in preventing the spread of diseases to other animals and humans .
if a herd is free of mites , contamination can only come from cattle brought in . consequently , to avoid contamination all incoming animals must be treated against mites , also those that went to the a fair or to the market and came back unsold : they may have picked mites from other sheep . two injections with a macrocyclic lactone ( e . g . doramectin , ivermectin , moxidectin ) with 7 to 10 days interval should do the job , but keep the animals isolated until 10 days after the second injection . remember that sheep may be infected with mites without showing clinical signs ! topical sprays and pour - ons are not reliable for controlling psoroptic mites .
sheep mites : biology , prevention and control . sheep scab , sheep mange . psoroptes , sarcoptes , chorioptes , psorergates , demodex
heavy infestations cause severe anemia and can kill nestlings . older birds suffer reduced weight gains and egg production these mites are zoonotic !