the dwarf manatee ( trichechus pygmaeus , or mistakenly trichechus bernhardi ) is a possible species of manatee found in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuanã river .

according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposed it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast-running water , and feeds on different species of aquatic plants from the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper , slower-moving waters and the plants found there .

the dwarf manatee reportedly migrates upriver during the rainy season when the river floods to the headwaters and shallow ponds .

based on its small range , the dwarf manatee is suggested to be considered critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .

the dwarf manatee is typically about 130 cm ( 4.3 ft ) long , and weighs about 60 kg ( 130 lb ) , making it the smallest extant sirenians .

it may actually represent an immature amazonian manatee , but it is reported to differ in proportions and colour .

it is , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two .

mutation rates in manatees – if the dwarf manatee is distinct – suggests a divergence time of less than 485,000 years .

daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and one of the world 's foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees .

dwarf manatee

however , the validity of the dwarf manatee as a species is the subject of debate , with some believing it to be an immature amazonian manatee .
dwarf sperm whales are usually solitary , but have occasionally been seen in small pods .
the dwarf sperm whale is the smallest species commonly known as a whale . it grows up to
picture info : picture 1 : marc van roosmalen with juv . female dwarf marmoset callibella humilis picture 2 : dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 3 : marc van roosmalen with dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 4 : callicebus ( hoffmansi ) sp . nov . rio mamuru titi monkey picture 5 : agouti - colored agouti dasyprocta sp . nov . picture 6 : cacajao ( calvus ) sp . nov . rio pauini bald - headed uakary
the amazonian manatee are the smallest ones out there . they are only found in freshwater locations . this is where the debate for the dwarf manatee comes in . they too are only seen in freshwater . they are extremely small so they are termed dwarf to identify them . many researchers feel that they are genetically mutated from the amazonian though and not a distinctly different species .
the manatee has been protected by peruvian law since 1973 , via supreme decree 934 - 73 - ag , prohibiting hunting and commercial use of the manatee .
the manatee consumes approximately 8 % of its body weight in food per day .
there are no national management plans for the amazonian manatee , except in colombia .
there is a debate about there being three or four species of manatees . since it isn’t known for sure , i think it is only right to touch on all four of them here . the manatee species that have been identified are the florida manatee , the west african manatee , and the amazonian manatee . the one that is debated over is the dwarf manatee . some feel they are a separate species while others view them as a smaller version of others out there . only time will tell what the verdict is on that one .
according to van roosmalen’s scientific description of the dwarf manatee , it lives in one of the tributaries of rio aripuanã where it inhabits shallow , fast running water . this distinguishes it from the amazonian manatee which is known to prefer deep and slow moving waters and is found throughout a much larger part of south america . there is also a difference in diet ; both animals feed on aquatic plants but on different species . in addition to this , there is a significant disparity in both proportions and colour . the dwarf manatee weighs about 60 kg as an adult and has a dark , almost black , body adorned with a white patch on the abdomen . the amazonian manatee is much larger than the dwarf manatee and can weigh over 500 kg . this difference has been used by both sides ; those who believe that it is a separate species and those who believe it to be an immature amazonian manatee .
the dwarf manatee ( trichechus “pygmaeus” , or mistakenly trichechus “bernhardi” ) is a possible species of manatee that lives in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuanã river . according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposes it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast running water and feeds on different species of aquatic plants than the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper slower moving waters and the plants found there . based on its tiny range , it has been suggested that the dwarf manatee is critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .
the amazonian manatee lacks nails on its flippers , setting it apart from other manatees .
they are occasionally found overlapping with the west indian manatee along the coasts of brazil .
all three species of manatee—the amazonian manatee , west indian manatee , and west african manatee—and the related dugong are considered vulnerable ( defined as facing a high risk of extinction in the wild ) by the iucn red list of threatened species . this is due to a variety of threats including boat collisions , hunting , habitat destruction , and toxic red tides .
international trade of the amazonian manatee and any of its products is prohibited under appendix i of cites . other local projects and organizations helping to conserve the manatee include projeto peixe - boi / centre for aquatic mammals , mamiraua project and the friends of the manatee association . amazonian manatee hunting has been prohibited since 1973 ; however , its population trend is still decreasing .
the manatee does not have incisors or canine teeth , only cheek teeth ( molars ) .
the dwarf sperm whale was actively hunted by commercial whalers . occasional harpoon kills are still made by indonesian and japanese fishermen . since the dwarf is more coastal than the pygmy , it may be more vulnerable to human activities such as fishing and pollution . insufficient data exist as to whether such activities threaten the species survival .
as the story goes , marc came across the skull of a dwarf manatee and , suspecting it was a new species , searched for it for two years before finding a living specimen . upon locating a couple , he fenced in a portion of the river and studied them in their natural habitat for four months . like its saltwater brethren , the dwarf river manatee lives mostly off aquatic plants but hopes someday to land a lucrative career as a pet in japan . much more info can be found on marc’s site .
5 . the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) lives entirely in freshwater rivers throughout south america in the amazon basin . it is hard to estimate their numbers due to their secretive nature and the murky water where they often live . a fourth dwarf manatee species was described in the mid - 2000s , but this claim was called into question and it is believed to actually be a juvenile amazonian manatee . the main threat to this species is illegal harpoon hunting for subsistence .
see the supplementary material for table 1 : summary of reported data by country for extant manatee populations .
, comes from latin meaning
hair
, referencing the whiskers around the manatee ' s mouth .
the manatee ' s upper lip is modified into a large bristly surface , which is deeply divided .
as of 1977 the population count of the amazonian manatee was estimated to be around 10 , 000 .
i met marc two years ago on a school trip to the amazon rain forest and we traveled down the aripuana tributary where he found the dwarf manatee . unfortunately we didn’t see one , but we did see its teethmarks left behind on the aquatic grass it feeds from = )
the manatee has thick stubby bristles on this mouth . this helps it to uproot foot on the river bed .
maintaining an herbivorous diet , the manatee has a similar post - gastric digestive process to that of the horse .
the amazonian manatee occurs exclusively in freshwater and is the only manatee to do so . it prefers blackwater lakes , oxbows and lagoons . they seem to live most successfully in temperatures of 22 - 30’c ( 72 - 86’f ) .
the manatee has muscular lips which it uses with its front flippers to grab food and pull it into its mouth .
dwarf manatees are typically about 130 cm long , and weigh about 60 kg , making them the smallest extant sirenians . it is overall very dark , almost black , with a white patch on the abdomen . it has been suggested that it actually represents an immature amazonian manatee , but they are reported to differ in proportions and colour . they are , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two . based on mutation rates in manatees – if the dwarf manatee is distinct – this suggests a divergence time of less than 485 , 000 years . daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and the world’s foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees .
mgmvr : my website designer mistakenly named the dwarf manatee after the late prince bernhard of the netherlands like i had done with the new titi monkey callicebus bernhardi in my 2002 review of the genus callicebus . it took a while before i noticed it on my website . i then changed the name into trichechus pygmaeus as in the paper i submitted earlier to nature .
the dwarf sperm whale ( kogia sima , formerly kogia simus ) is one of three extant species in the sperm whale family . they are not often sighted at sea , and most extant information comes from the study of stranded carcasses .
l marino , k sudheimer , da pabst , wa mclellan , and ji johnson ( 2003 ) . magnetic resonance images of the brain of a dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) . journal of anatomy , 203 ( 1 ) : 57–76
still , splitting hairs can only go so far . if the pictured animal is adult , that’s a different manatee , whatever science calls it .
yeah there is a dvd out about this guy and his search for the pygmy manatee . it is real interesting . it is called the species hunter
for more information on the efforts underway to defend the manatee’s discoverer marc roosmalen against the allegedly fictional charges he is facing in brazil , visit urltoken .
the amazonian manatee has the smallest degree of rostral deflection ( 25° to 41° ) among sirenians , an adaptation to feed closer to the water surface .
the amazonian manatee has a large paddle like tail which helps propel it through the water . it moves at 5mph but can reach speeds of up to 15mph .
regardless of whether this is truly is new species or merely an immature version of the amazonian manatee , i certainly agree with christopher collinson’s comments on the tetrapod zoology blog : “ on a side note , why the heck are those dwarf manatees so friggen adorable ? they have way more cutesy factor than any one animal should be allowed to posess , its at least like a million times more than regular old plain jane manatees . ”
i give the chinese about two weeks to discover the incredible , magical , aphrodisiac powers from dried , ground pygmy manatee testicles . these things are f - ed .
the amazon ox manatee is gray and bears a white patch on its chest or several white markings on its chest and abdomen . its body is covered with fine hairs and its upper and lower lips are covered with thick bristles . it has two axillary mammae . the largest manatee recorded was a male 2 . 8m in length .
mgmvr : claims that the holotype skull and mandible of the dwarf manatee that i collected simply represent a juvenile common amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis come from daryl domning , who was the referee for the article on the dwarf manatee . it was therefore rejected for publication by the editors of nature . since then i have seen several solitary ranging specimens of the ‘pretinho’ – as the animal is called in the area of the rio arauazinho , the only clearwater - river in which it seems to occur – that were all adults of about 1 . 3 m long . we even kept alive an adult male my field assistant had captured before . after four months it managed to escape from the coral we had constructed in a bend of the rio arauazinho . this specimen also measured 1 . 3 m and weighed only 60 kg . we fed him with the species’ prime food eleocharis minima , an amphibious grass belonging to the cyperaceae . he only took it in if we had fixed the grass on the sandy bottom of his pan . a specimen of the common amazonian manatee of this size and weight would still have been nursed by its mother and would not have fed on any plant material at all . it soon would have starved to death .
the amazonian manatees of peru have experienced much of their decline due to hunting by human populations for meat , blubber , skin and other materials that can be collected from the manatee .
the discovery of a valid species of pygmy sea cow calls for a review of the latest on the amazonian dwarf manatee debate . in regard to this alleged new species , wikipedia has a good , new ( december 23 , 2009 ) overview of what has occurred since the announced “discovery” of this new species , written possibly by an unknown british or canadian author ( rn1970 ? ) , ( given in plain text below to retain the italicized names , which are critical to the passage ) :
at this time manatees made their first appearance in caribbean and in north america . they evolved in rivers of sa and only at this time spread north to caribbean . at this time they evolved renewable teeth to withstand wear of griding sea grasses . perhaps disappearance of dugongs , manatees filled the vacuum ( domning , sa ;
west indian tuskers
) there are three living species of manatee ( family trichechidae ) and one species of dugong ( family dugongidae ) ( fig . 1 ) ) . the florida manatee ( trechcus manatus latirostris ) is one subspecies of the west indian manatee . the antilian manatee ( trichechus manatus manatus ) is the other west indian subspecies . west indian manatees occupy coastal and estuarine waters throughout the caribbean .
this might not be news for some of you , but for those of you that has missed it : a new species of manatee might have been encountered by dr marc van roosmalen in the brazilian amazon ! not only is this believed to be an entirely new species of manatee ; it is also the smallest living member of the order sirenia , measuring no more than 130 cm as an adult .
probably the most well known group of manatee is the florida species . people come from all over to watch them during the year . this is also the place where many manatees migrate in the winter months as they have to move to warmer bodies of water . it is important to understand that the term florida manatee pertains to those that are there all year as well as many that migrate there .
dwarf sperm whales and pygmy sperm whales are unique among cetaceans in using a form of
ink
to evade predation in a manner similar to squid . both species have a sac in the lower portion of their intestinal tract that contains up to 12 l of dark reddish - brown fluid , which can be ejected to confuse or discourage potential predators .
the dwarf sperm whale is similar in appearance and behavior to its relative , the pygmy sperm whale . identification may be close to impossible at sea ; however , the dwarf is slightly smaller and has a larger dorsal fin . the body is mainly bluish gray with a lighter underside with possible yellowish vein - like streaks . a white false gill is behind each eye . the flippers are very short and broad . the top of the snout overhangs the lower jaw , which is small . dwarves have long , curved , sharp teeth ( none to six in the upper jaw and between 14 and 26 in the lower ) . these teeth led to the species being described as the
rat porpoise
in the lower antilles .
gallican g . j . , r . c . best , and j . w . kanwisher . 1982 . temperature regulation in the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . physiological zoology the university of chicago press 255 - 262 .
today , the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the family kogiidae and genus kogia . the two species were not regarded as separate until 1966 . most taxonomists regard the family kogiidae as belonging to the superfamily physeteroidea , though some consider this taxon to be a subfamily ( kogiinae ) of the family physeteridae .
pazin - guterres , michelle ( 2014 ) .
feeding ecology of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) in the mamirauá and amanã sustainable development reserves , brazil .
. aquatic mammals 40 ( 2 ) : 139–149 .
- manatees are closely related to elephants , - another name for the amazonian manatee is yara , which is a brazilian indian word meaning ‘lady of the water’ . - manatees are believed to be the origin of the mermaid myths .
the similarity in dna as analysed by my geneticist in the netherlands could be explained for as follows . either some gene flow has taken place between the inunguis population of the rio aripuanã and the ancient pygmaeus population that was allopatrically confined to the rio arauazinho during the last glacials of the late - pleistocene and holocene when ocean levels dropped over 100 - 120 m . but during the interglacials males of inunguis theoretically could have mated once - in - a - while with pygmaeus females while foraging during the annual flood in the clearwater floodplain forest ( igapó ) of the lower rio arauazinho . or , during one of the last glacials a population of inunguis got trapped in the rio arauazinho basin and had to drastically change its feeding and foraging habits and dwarf in a time scale of some tens of thousand years at the most . we know that this is possible from a number of other creatures that dwarfed in relatively short periods of time , such as the now extinct homo floresiensis from the isle of flores and the dwarf elephant elephas cretensis from the isle of crete . nobody objects if palaeontologists give extinct creatures species status but many question the validity of new extant species if not backed up by dna genome analysis . this is bad news for nature conservationists with a species protection approach like me . if the dwarf manatee would have been accepted by the scientific community as a full and valid species , announced as such in nature , no doubt the whole rio arauazinho would have been declared a rigidly protected nature reserve . it is sad to witness that because of scientific squabbling over taxonomy , a unique population of maybe not more than one hundred dwarf manatees is going extinct soon after the lower rio aripuanã basin has been declared a ‘sustainable development reserve’ . in nowadays brazil that means a ‘carte blanche’ to destruction .
) are found only in the united states , although a few vagrants have been known to reach the bahamas . their year - round distribution is restricted to peninsular florida because they need warm water to survive the winter . during the non - winter months ( march to november ) , some manatees disperse to adjoining states . along the atlantic coast these states include georgia ( highest manatee use outside of florida ) , south carolina , north carolina , and virginia ; one satellite - tagged manatee traveled as far north as rhode island ( deutsch
the amazonian manatee is a seasonal breeder with a gestational period of 12–14 months and a prolonged calving period . most births take place between december and july , with about 63 % between february and may , during a time of rising river levels in their native region .
13 . if you are a mammal—whether that’s a human , giraffe , whale or rat—then you typically have seven neck vertebrae . only tree sloths and manatees have an irregular number of vertebrae—just six for the manatee . scientists think this may have to do with their slow metabolism .
the gestation period of an amazonian manatee is one year . breeding has been reported to occur throughout the year but reproduction in the central amazon basin is seasonal as nearly all births take place from december – july ( mainly from february – may when the water level rises ) . a female manatee will give birth to one calf every two years . the calf will measure about 30 inches ( 80 cm ) at birth . it will begin to nurse after a few hours by suckling from a teat under the pectoral flippers and will do so underwater .
international trade of this species is prohibited due to its listing on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) . this species has suffered huge losses but is locally abundant in the more remote regions of the amazonian river basin . however , it is very difficult to control hunting in these economically depressed areas and they are still killed for meat ( 3 ) . while numerous federal , state , and local conservation measures are in place to protect the florida manatee ( t . manatus latirostris ) , south america has limited resources for funding comprehensive conservation projects . several effective programs in brazil include surveys by projeto peixe - boi / center for aquatic mammals ( 14 ) , sustainable use research by mamirauá project ( 15 ) , and education / outreach efforts by the friends of the manatee association ( 16 ) . the harbour branch division of marine mammal research and conservation conducts manatee conservation outreach programs in brazil and plays an important role in rehabilitating injured , sick or orphaned individuals ( 12 ) . it is hoped that these measures combined with stronger hunting laws will allow the ancient and wonderful amazonian manatee to recover ( 12 ) ( 13 ) .
3 . warm water is a must for the west indian and west african manatee species . with low metabolic rates and minimal fat protection from cold water , they stick to water that is 60 degrees or warmer . they may look fat and insulated , but the large body of the manatee is mostly made up of their stomach and intestines ! in colder months , they find their way to warm river tributaries or warm water outputs from power plants . in 2010 at least 246 manatees died in florida due to cold stress from the colder - than - normal winter .
seasonal breeding in the amazonian manatee , trichechus inunguis ( mammalia : sirenia ) robin c . best biotropica , vol . 14 , no . 1 ( mar . , 1982 ) , pp . 76 - 78 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken
once known to occur in large herds and have healthy populations ( 2 ) , the amazonian manatee has suffered from extensive hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . it has been sought for meat , oil and fat , and at one time for its hide , which was in demand for use as water hoses and machine belts ( 7 ) . threats now include hunting and accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets . the deforestation of large areas of the forests surrounding this manatee ' s river habitats has also caused soil erosion , degradation of food supplies and the reduction of vegetation in the waterways ( 7 ) .
classified as vulnerable ( vu a1cd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , listed on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) , and listed as endangered by the us endangered species act . ( 5 ) . the amazonian manatee also has a global heritage status rank of g2 ( 5 ) .
the west african manatee continues to decrease in numbers . they are found along africa in the tropical and sub tropical waters . they tend to be losing their natural habitat due to global warming as well as human interactions . conservation efforts there aren’t as great as in the usa though and that is a concern .
regardless of which species a manatee belongs to , they all have certain things in common . they are very gentle creatures as well as very intelligent . they are herbivores and live their entire lives in the water . they must find water that is at least 60 degrees fahrenheit or warmer in order to survive .
the amazonian manatee is a most bizarre - looking aquatic mammal , and was first described as a curious combination of a hippopotamus and a seal ( 6 ) . its body is large , dark grey to black and smooth - skinned , and its forelimbs are modified into flippers like a seal ' s ( 17 ) . it has no hind limbs , and the rear of the body forms a flat , rounded horizontal paddle ( 7 ) . the head is rounded , with nostrils on the upper surface of the snout ( 8 ) . the amazonian manatee is smaller and more slender than the other two manatee species ( west indian manatees trichechus manatus and west african manatees t . senegalensis ) ( 7 ) . it can also be identified by the lack of nails on its flippers , a characteristic referred to in its scientific name , t . inunguis , which literally means ' no nails ' ( 9 ) . a unique feature ( amongst mammals ) of the manatee is the constant replacement of molar teeth ; new teeth enter at the back of the jaw and replace old and worn teeth at the front ( 10 ) . recent evidence suggests that manatees may possess a unique 6th sense that enables them to detect pressure changes through sensory hairs ( 11 ) .
metabolism and respiration of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . g . j . gallivan and r . c . best . physiological zoology , vol . 53 , no . 3 ( jul . , 1980 ) , pp . 245 - 253 . published by : the university of chicago press . article stable url : urltoken
other highly memorable discoveries were those of some large terrestrial mammals whose existence i did not know of until i had close encounters with them while hiking alone through the forest . first spotting of a giant peccary ( pecari maximus ) family silently crossing my trail while i was watching a group of gray sakis in the canopy , or a group of dwarf peccaries ( pecari ? ) bumping literally into my feet while chasing one another through the undergrowth . and , back in camp , asking the locals what the hell the creature was that i had come upon that day…
eventually , however , van roosmalen ' s iconoclastic style bred resentment . in a country where foreigners—especially foreign scientists—are often regarded with suspicion , his pale complexion and heavily accented portuguese marked him as an outsider , even after he became a naturalized brazilian citizen in 1997 . colleagues were irked by van roosmalen ' s habit of failing to fill out the cumbersome paperwork required by the institute before venturing into the field . they also questioned his methodology . for example , says mario cohn - haft , an american ornithologist at inpa , he often based his findings of a new species on a single live , orphaned monkey , whose provenance could not be proved and whose fur color and other traits might have been altered in captivity . louise emmons , an adjunct zoologist at the smithsonian institution , characterizes van roosmalen ' s discovery of a new species of peccary as
not convincing scientifically ,
and smithsonian research associate daryl domning questions his
discovery
of a dwarf manatee on an amazon tributary .
there ' s no doubt at all in my mind that his ' new species ' is nothing but immature individuals of the common amazonian manatee ,
says domning .
this is even confirmed by the dna evidence he himself cites .
evoked brain potentials demonstrate hearing in a manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . theodore h . bullock , daryl p . domning and robin c . best , journal of mammalogy , vol . 61 , no . 1 ( feb . , 1980 ) , pp . 130 - 133 published by : american society of mammalogists article stable url : urltoken
the manatee is a large , cylinder shaped animal where the general coloration is grey , although most amazonian manatees have a distinct white or bright pink patch on the chest . the forelimbs have been modified into flippers and have a flat , rounded , horizontal paddle at the rear . the upper lip has evolved into a large , bristly surface .
11 . manatee brains are smooth ( compared to our own that have the familiar ins and outs of cortical folds ) and the ratio of their brain to their body size is the lowest of any mammal . they may not be as clever as dolphins , but manatees can learn basic tasks , are extremely sensitive to touch and can differentiate colors .
ecology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken
i once read a claim that in this day and age , there cannot be anymore large animals out there to be discovered , besides the stuff lurking around in the deep oceans . and lo and behold , they go and find a manatee , which , if it’s like its larger cousin , is not prone to evading detection . so what else is out there ?
the amazonian manatee’s main threat is hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . they have been sought for their meat , oil and fat , and in the past , its hide , which could be used for water hoses and belts . other threats to this creature include accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets and degradation of food supplies by soil erosion , which is caused by deforestation .
ecology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador . robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson . biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 . published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation . article stable url : urltoken
the dwarf sperm whale prefers deep water , but is more coastal than the pygmy sperm . its favorite habitat appears to be just off the continental shelf . in the atlantic , strandings have been observed in virginia , united states in the west and spain and the united kingdom in the east , and as far south as southern brazil and the tip of africa . in the indian ocean , specimens have been found on the south coast of australia and on many places along the indian ocean ' s northern coast - from south africa to indonesia . in the pacific , the known range includes the japanese coast and british columbia . no global population estimates have been made . one survey estimated a population of about 11 , 000 in the eastern pacific .
we are not sure what the bigger story here is : the discovery of a new species of tiny adorable river manatee or the fact that this happened in july and we just learned about it last week ! anyway , these critters were discovered by a pioneering amazonian biologist by the name of marc van roosmalen and covered by darren naish of tetrapod zoology a few months back . tetrapod is kind of the better researched , actually informative , articulate and all around nerdier version of zooillogix .
the amazonian manatee ( trichechus ininguis ) lives entirely in the amazon river and its tributaries . a third species of manatee , the west african , ( trichechus senagalensis ) occupies the coastal waterways of the west african continent . dugongs ( dugong dugon ) occupy the marine coasts of east africa , the indian subcontinent , malaysia , indonesia and northern australia . a fifth , and largest sirenian of recent times , the stellars sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) , was also a member of the family dugongidae . these enormous sirenians had evolved further to occupy the colder waters along the shores of the eastern pacific ocean . these animals survived off the aleutian islands until 1872 , when the last animal of this species was killed for food , 28 years after being first sighted . although there is only one living species of dugong , ancestors resembling them were diverse and widely distributed in the fossil record . sirenians were most diverse in the miocene ( 5 - 25 mya ) when tropical conditions were widespread .
14 . manatees have no natural predators in the wild but humans have played a large part in making all three species at risk of extinction . about half of west indian manatee deaths are caused by humans , and most are due to boat collisions . manatees are quite buoyant and use their horizontally placed diaphragm and breathing to control their buoyancy . this and their average speed of 3 to 5 miles per hour means that manatees are way too slow to escape from the path of a speeding boat .
in september 2002 , wildlife - researcher dr marc van roosmalen collected a complete skull from a recently killed specimen , but it would take an additional two years before he could finally photograph , film and examine a live specimen in its natural environment . as per usual when a new mammal is “discovered” , the species is only new to the scientific community , not to the locals of the area , and the skull of the specimen collected by van roosmalen came from a manatee that had been killed and eaten by the locals .
. 2003 ) , and another manatee was observed in new york ( long island ) . along the gulf coast west of florida , manatees are occasionally sighted in alabama , mississippi , louisiana , and texas . the source ( florida or mexico ) of the texas manatees is not always clear , but the weight of recent genetic and other evidence suggests most are from the florida subspecies . major freshwater bodies utilized by manatees in florida include lake okeechobee , st . johns river , suwannee river , caloosahatchee river , among others .
despite their size and stubbly snout , manatees seem cute and cuddly to many ocean visitors . these large , slow - moving marine mammals hang out in coastal areas and rivers where florida spring - breakers can easily see them and think that it is a good idea to hop on for a ride . not only is this and other forms of harassment such as hugging the sea creatures illegal ( the west indian manatee is listed as endangered in the united states ) , but it can also impact manatees’ natural behavior , changing the way they interact with humans .
justification : listed as vulnerable because the number of mature individuals is currently estimated to number less than 10 , 000 ( based on combined population estimates for the florida and antillean subspecies ) and is expected to decline at a rate of at least 10 % over the course of three generations ( given a generation time of ~ 20 years ) as a result of both habitat loss and anthropogenic factors . trichechus manatus latirostris : en c1 : the florida manatee subspecies is listed as endangered on the basis of a population size of less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and the population is estimated to decline by at least 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years ) due to anticipated future changes in warm - water habitat and threats from increasing watercraft traffic over the next several decades . trichechus manatus manatus : en c1 : the antillean manatee subspecies is listed as endangered because the current population is estimated at less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and is predicted to undergo a decline of more than 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years for an unexploited population , based on t . m . latirostris data ) without effective conservation actions , due to current and projected future anthropogenic threats ( habitat degradation and loss , hunting , accidental fishing - related mortality , pollution , and human disturbance ) .
the west indian manatee is currently divided into the florida ( t . m . latirostris ) and antillean ( t . m . manatus ) subspecies ( hatt 1934 , domning and hayek 1986 ) . recent mtdna data ( garcía - rodríguez et al . 1998 , vianna et al . 2006 ) indicate three distinctive lineages corresponding geographically with : ( 1 ) florida and the greater antilles ; ( 2 ) western and southern gulf of mexico , central america , and nw south america west of the lesser antilles ; and ( 3 ) ne south america east of the lesser antilles . evidence exists for viable hybridization with t . inunguis near the mouth of the amazon , in guyana , french guiana , and possibly suriname .
marc g . m . van roosmalen ( mgmvr ) : most fun but also most time and energy consuming for me was finding the ‘land of dermis’ , where the relatives of dermis occur – the baby black - capped dwarf marmoset that was delivered on my manaus doorstep april 1996 . with decades of experience in keeping all kinds of primates in halfway houses i knew right away that dermis represented a new species of monkey and , undoubtedly , also a new primate genus . that event instantly took away the scepsis in me as a primatologist that nowadays it would be impossible to find new species of primates hitherto unknown to science . the quest that followed to find the monkey’s distribution somewhere in the huge rio madeira basin had me stumbling into a conan doyle type of ‘lost world’ – the rio aripuanã basin – a hotspot of biodiversity that i soon recognized to be a totally new ecosystem within amazonia , whose fauna and flora had never before been inventoried by naturalists , animal collectors , botanists and ornithologists alike . it took me a number of boat surveys to find callibella humilis , a needle in a haystack as big as france . during innumerable surveys of the local rainforest and through interviews with the locals showing pictures of dermis i happened to identify at least five other hitherto undescribed primates in the area .
during the warm season ( march or april through october or november , depending on latitude and year ) , manatees disperse throughout the coastal waters , estuaries , and major rivers of florida and some migrate to neighboring states , particularly south - eastern georgia . their range constricts dramatically in the winter season ( december to february ) when manatees seek shelter from the cold at a limited number of warm - water sites or areas in the southern two - thirds of florida . these sites include 10 principal power plant thermal outfalls ( seven on the atlantic coast , three on the gulf coast ) and four major artesian springs ( blue spring , springs at the head of crystal river , homosassa spring , and warm mineral spring ) that are frequented by a large proportion of the manatee population during winter .
the next morning , our last on the rio negro , the crew anchored the boat at the base of a cliff , and van roosmalen , vivi and i climbed a steep wooden staircase to a nature camp at the edge of the jungle . with a local guide and his two mangy dogs leading the way , we followed a sinuous trail through terre firma vegetation : primary rain forest that , unlike the igapó we ' d been exploring , sits high enough above the river to avoid submersion during the rainy season . van roosmalen pointed out lianas as thick as large anacondas , and explained how these and other epiphytes ( flora , in this setting , that live on other plants in the forest canopy ) function as giant vessels for capturing carbon dioxide , and thus play a vital role in reducing global warming .
the total surface of leaves in a rain forest is a thousand , maybe even a million times bigger than the monoculture they want to convert the amazon into ,
he told me . farther down the jungle trail , he showed me a dwarf species of palm tree that captures falling leaves in its basketlike fronds ; the decomposing material scatters around the base of the tree and fortifies the nutrient - poor soil , allowing the palm to thrive .
every creature in the rain forest develops its survival strategy ,
he said .
for van roosmalen , the journey into the depths of the brazilian prison system marked the low point of a terrible fall from grace . at the height of his career , just five years earlier , the scientist had been hailed as one of the world ' s most intrepid field naturalists and a passionate voice for rain forest preservation . in his native holland , where he is a household name , he received the country ' s highest environmental honor , the order of the golden ark , from the netherlands ' prince bernhard , consort to queen juliana , in 1997 ; the national geographic documentary species hunter , filmed in 2003 , celebrated his adventurous spirit as he trekked up remote amazonian tributaries in search of rare flora and fauna . van roosmalen claimed to have identified seven never - before - seen species of primates—including a dwarf marmoset and a rare orange - bearded titi monkey—along with a collarless , piglike peccary and a variety of plant and tree species . he had used these discoveries to promote his bold ideas about the amazon ' s unique evolutionary patterns and to give momentum to his quest to carve these genetically distinct zones into protected reserves , where only research and ecotourism would be allowed .
time after time after time , [ van roosmalen has contributed to ] this sense that we ' re still learning about life on earth ,
says tom lovejoy , who conceived the public television series nature and today is president of the h . john heinz iii center for science , economics and the environment in washington , d . c .
listed on appendix i of cites . presently there are no national management plans specific for the species , except in colombia . management plans exist for two protected areas ( pacaya samiria in peru and mamiraua reserve in brazil ) , and two communities in colombia ( puerto narino and mocagua ) have informal local management agreements ( ministerio de ambiente , vivienda y desarrollo territorial and fundacin omacha 2005 ) . amazonian manatees have been recorded from two protected areas in ecuador , two in colombia , four in peru and 23 in brazil . unfortunately , hunting continues even within protected areas . presently , inpa ( instituto nacional de pesquisas da amaznia ) cares for 34 captive manatees including eight calves , 18 juveniles and eight adults ( da silva et al . 2006 ) . cppma currently maintains 31 manatees , mostly orphans . so far , the centro mamiferos marinhos - conselho nacional de seringueiros facility in alter - do - cho ( pa , brazil ) has rescued six orphans ( two of which died ) and a sick adult manatee ( luna 2005 pers . comm . ) .
amazonian manatees are aquatic mammals and live almost entirely underwater . indeed the three manatee species and the closely related dugong are unique in that they are the only plant - eating marine mammals ( 7 ) . they feed entirely on aquatic vegetation near lake edges , such as emergent grasses , water lettuce and floating vegetation . shy and secretive , only their nostrils protrude from the surface of the water to breathe as they search for lush vegetation ( 7 ) . despite being slow grazers they are able to consume up to eight percent of their body weight in one day ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . most feeding occurs during the wet season , when they graze upon new plant growth in seasonally flooded water . during the dry season , individuals return to the main water courses , or to deep flooded backwaters where herds congregate ( 7 ) . here they may not eat for weeks or months due to the lack of food . however , manatees have large fat reserves and slow metabolic rates ; at one third of the usual rate for a mammal of its size . this enables them to survive until the water levels rise again and food becomes more abundant ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . these mammals are active by day and night . they are found individually or in small groups of between four and eight animals ( 7 ) . mothers nurse their calves from a teat behind the flipper , and it is the mothers and calves that form the closest bonds ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . a single calf is born after a gestation period of approximately 13 months . it is dependant on its mother for a considerable time , so interbirth intervals may be as long as three and a half years or more . individuals mature at five or six years of age and members maintain group contact by underwater vocalisations ( 8 ) . the lifespan of this animal is unknown , but individuals have lived past twelve and a half years in captivity ( 7 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
van roosmalen was let out of jail this past august .
in the best light he was naive ,
says a colleague .
in 2000 , time designated van roosmalen a
hero for the planet .
he began his fieldwork in suriname in 1976 . there , amid jaguars , toucans and macaws , he says , you could
feel the breeze of evolution on your neck .
van roosmalen ( in a rio negro village last year ) says he won ' t go back to jail .
before his arrest , van roosmalen ( with vivi last november ) championed rain forest preserves .
you have to see the amazon basin as an archipelago with islandlike areas ,
he argues .
it ' s like the galapagos . each island has its own ecological evolution .
van roosmalen had high hopes that a captive saki monkey he ' d heard of would turn out to be a new species .
at seven o ' clock in the morning on june 15 , 2007 , the bell rang at the front gate of marc van roosmalen ' s modest house on the outskirts of manaus , brazil . for van roosmalen , a dutch - born primatologist and amazon adventurer who had been chosen one of time magazine ' s
heroes for the planet
in 2000 , that was a somewhat unusual event : visitors had lately become scarce . the 60 - year - old scientist was dwelling in semi - isolation , having separated from his wife , become estranged from his two sons , lost his job at a brazilian research institute and been charged with a raft of offenses , including misusing government property and violating brazil ' s biopiracy laws . but things had begun to turn around for van roosmalen : he had been exonerated in three successive trials and had even begun to talk optimistically about getting his old job back . in july , he was planning to travel on a research vessel up the rio negro , the amazon ' s main tributary , with a group of biology students from the united states , his first such trip in years .
van roosmalen buzzed open the compound gate , he told me recently . moments later , he said , five heavily armed federal police officers burst into the garden , bearing a warrant for his arrest . then , as his 27 - year - old brazilian girlfriend , vivi , looked on in horror , van roosmalen says , police cuffed his hands behind his back and placed him in the back seat of a black mitsubishi pajero . van roosmalen asked where they were heading . it was only then , he says , that he learned that he had just been found guilty , in a criminal procedure conducted in his absence , of crimes ranging from keeping rare animals without a permit to illegal trafficking in brazil ' s national patrimony , to the theft of government property . the sentence : 14 years and 3 months in prison .


the golden-headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) , also the golden-headed tamarin , is a lion tamarin endemic to brazil .

it is found only in the lowland and premontane tropical forest fragments in the state of bahia , and therefore is considered to be an endangered species .

it lives at heights of 3 – 10 metres ( 9.8 – 32.8 ft ) .

its preferred habitat is within mature forest , but with habitat destruction this is not always the case .

several sources seem to have different information on the number of individuals within a group , and the type of social system that may be apparent .

the golden-headed lion tamarin lives within group sizes ranging from 2 to 11 individuals , with the average size ranging from 4 to 7 .

according to various sources , the group may consist of two adult males , one adult female , and any immature individuals , one male and one female and any immature individuals , or there may be one producing pair and a varying number of other group members , usually offspring from previous generations .

there is not much known on its mating system , but according to different sources , and information on the possible social groups , it can be assumed that some may practice monogamous mating systems , and some may practice polyandrous mating systems .

both males and females invest energy in caring for the young , and all members of the group also help with juvenile care .

golden - headed lion tamarin

pinto lpd , rylands ab . geographic distribution of the golden - headed lion tamarin ,
golden - headed lion tamarin geographic range . map courtesy of oona räisänen & iucn red list
golden - headed lion tamarin climbing a tree - trunk . courtesy of arkive . org .
play behavior of the golden - headed lion tamarin in brazilian cocoa agroforests . - pubmed - ncbi
play behavior of the golden - headed lion tamarin in brazilian cocoa agroforests - abstract - folia primatologica 2014 , vol . 85 , no . 3 - karger publishers
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golden - headed lion tamarins are one of four species of lion tamarins , all of which are from the rainforests of brazil , and all are endangered species . our golden - headed lion tamarins came to us from the brevard zoo in florida . in the wild a golden - headed lion tamarin’s diet mainly consists of fruit , flowers , and insects . when you visit the zoo you may hear high - pitched trills and whines coming from these small creatures .
this fragmentation of the forest threatens loss of genetic diversity in small isolated populations , and collection golden - headed lion tamarin for the pet trade also used to be a big problem .
not to be confused with the golden lion tamarin , the golden - headed lion tamarin - - also called the golden - headed tamarin , and the gold and black lion tamarin - - is only found in the state of bahia in brazil . preferring tall evergreen broadleaf forests and semi - deciduous forests along the atlantic coast , they live in the food - rich forest canopy at 10 to 33 feet ( 3 to 10 meters ) . this small monkey thrives in the mature forest habitats that are quickly diminishing and becoming ever more fragmented , thereby impacting the viability of the species .
cite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) behavior . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .
when threatened , the golden - headed lion tamarin raises its mane and fluffs it body hair to appear larger . at the same time , it flicks its tongue to frighten away the threat .
cite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) conservation . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .
golden - headed lion tamarins were once found much more widely across eastern brazil . today , surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed .
raboy be , dietz jm ( 2004 ) . diet , foraging , and use of space in wild golden - headed lion tamarins .
an estimated 2 % of the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s original habitat remains in brazil’s atlantic forest , one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth . the majority of the original forest has been cleared for farming , mining , ranching & expanding urban centers . most golden - headed lion tamarins are confined to the protected una biological reserve .
cite this page as : cawthon lang ka . 2005 july 20 . primate factsheets : golden - headed lion tamarin ( leontopithecus chrysomelas ) taxonomy , morphology , & ecology . < urltoken > . accessed 2018 july 9 .
golden lion tamarins move quadrupedally through the trees and can spring and leap between branches and vines .
golden lion tamarins were upgraded from critically endangered to endangered in 2003 following these extensive conservation efforts . about one - third of the wild population today originated from golden lion tamarins raised in human care . about 3 , 200 golden lion tamarins live in the wild , most in or near the
raboy be , neves lg , zeigler s , saraiva n , cardoso n , santos g , ballou j , leimgruber p ( 2010 ) . strength of habitat and landscape metrics in predicting golden - headed lion tamarin presence or absence in forest patches .
information about wild golden - headed lion tamarin ecology primarily comes from research that has been conducted at una biological reserve by raboy and dietz since 1991 . comparative research on the ecology of golden - headed lion tamarins and golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) is unfolding and preliminary results suggest that the two are not as similar as expected given their taxonomic relationship . care should be taken to avoid assuming the two exhibit identical ecological behaviors such as foraging , diet , and ranging patterns ( dietz 1997 ; raboy & dietz 2004 ) .
some of the problems contributing to their status in the wild include massive deforestation for commercial agriculture crops , habitat fragmentation , and encroaching human populations . export for the international pet trade may also be a factor contributing to declining golden - headed lion tamarin populations .
thirty years ago , fewer than 200 golden lion tamarins could be found in their native habitat in brazil .
striking manes around their head is what gives them the name lion tamarin . all lion tamarins are endangered because of the serious level of destruction of the atlantic rain forest where they are found .
golden - headed lion tamarins are found only in brazil . due to habitat destruction , they are confined to the southern part of the state of bahia , brazil ( mitchell and erwin 1986 ) .
in tamarin society , males and females mate for life and take equal part in raising their young .
because of their relatively large home range sizes , golden - headed lion tamarins encounter other groups less frequently than golden lion tamarins , but when they do , they exhibit territorial behavior . intergroup behavior is aggressive and includes bouts of vocalizing , chasing , and fighting between individuals ( dietz et al . 1996 ; raboy & dietz 2004 ) .
there is scant data available on accidental mortality but there have been some unpublished reports of golden - headed lion tamarins getting caught in snare traps set for other animals and accidentally being killed ( oliver & santos 1991 ) .
following this important meeting , the zoo made a major commitment to the captive breeding and conservation of the golden lion tamarin and launched a long - term investigation into the reproduction , social behavior and husbandry of the species in human care . for many years , golden lion tamarins were free - ranging at the zoo to help them prepare for eventual reintroduction to the wild in brazil .
the zoo played an important role in creating the golden lion tamarin conservation program , which is still active today in field research , reintroduction , environmental education and habitat restoration . currently , the international committee for the conservation and management of lion tamarins advises the brazilian government on the research and conservation activities for these species .
in the early 1970s , there were as few as 200 golden lion tamarins in the wild . they were upgraded from critically endangered to endangered in 2003 following intensive conservation efforts . about one - third of the wild population today originated from golden lion tamarins raised in human care .
the zoo population of golden lion tamarins has been managed globally since 1973 . in 1981 , golden lion tamarins became one of the first species to be designated as part of the association of zoos & aquariums’ species survival plan , with 143 zoos participating in the captive breeding program .
the rapid rate of habitat destruction within the range of the golden - headed lion tamarins indicates that their numbers will not remain high for long and suggests that forest fragmentation will continue to whittle away at the existing population much like the pattern seen in golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) ( oliver & santos 1991 ; rylands 1993 - 1994 ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . actions must be taken immediately to stop habitat destruction and begin to reconnect patches of forest that still harbor golden - headed lion tamarins ( oliver & santos ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) .
cool animal fact : golden - headed lion tamarins also communicate using smell . they have scent glands which they use to mark their territory and pathways to food sources . individuals can be identified by one another based on their scent .
as with other lion tamarins , golden lion tamarins are a social species . in the wild , they live in groups of two to eight family members . the groups comprise a breeding pair , offspring of one or two litters and possibly other relatives . golden lion tamarins groom much like other primates . the juveniles play , chasing and wrestling with each other .
both male and female golden - headed lion tamarins have well - developed scent glands on their chest and around their genitals which secrete chemicals used to communicate information about the individual including sex and reproductive status as well as territory demarcation . unfortunately , no work has been done to analyze the chemical composition of these secretions and therefore little information is understood about the mechanism by which these work to signal other golden - headed lion tamarins ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .
the limited data available on fecundity and mortality in golden - headed lion tamarins suggests that the population grows more slowly and is subject to higher levels of predation compared to golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) ( dietz 1997 ) . wild golden - headed lion tamarins have never been seen producing more than one litter per year , so population growth is relatively slow . furthermore , disappearance rates are high within the population at una biological reserve and may be attributed to density of predators . mammalian and avian predators are a threat to these small animals , and when forest conditions are right , the predator population can thrive and have a negative effect on golden - headed lion tamarins ( dietz 1997 ) . unidentified disease is another contributor to mortality at una . certain illnesses can sweep through a group and kill all of the members within a few days ( dietz 1997 ) .
the nature of habitat fragmentation throughout the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s range will probably lead to problems associated with inbreeding including inbreeding depression , genetic drift , lack of genetic diversity , and lower recruitment rates . the total population at una is estimated to be between 240 and 460 individuals . though there is a wide discrepancy between estimates , the population is still thought to be less than the 500 breeding individuals necessary to maintain genetic diversity over the long term ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . additionally , the population at una represents the largest population in the most intact forest in the entire range of the golden - headed lion tamarin , so it is clear that other subpopulations are subject to loss of genetic diversity over time .
with a long , golden lion - like mane around its face the golden - headed lion tamarin is suitably named . about the same size as a squirrel , they can grow up to 30 cm long ( females are usually slightly larger ) plus a tail of approx . 35 cm ; the body is predominantly black with golden - orange limbs and males and females are similar in appearance . they have sharp claws ( unusual in primates as most others have nails ) , and they use these for climbing and catching prey . their food consists mainly of insects and lizards , as well as soft fruit .
golden - headed lion tamarins are diurnal and spend most of their time in tropical forests at heights of 3 to 10 meters . they do not even come down to sleep at night . leontopithecus chrysomela sleeps in tree holes , vines , or epiphytes .
key research on golden - headed lion tamarins began with adelmar coimbra - filho in the early 1970s and revolved around taxonomic history , geographic distribution and habitat type . he was the first to set up a captive breeding colony of the species and was instrumental in getting the land set aside for una , where long - term research on golden - headed tamarins is still being conducted ( rylands et al . 2002b ) . russell mittermeier , james dietz , anthony rylands , and becky raboy have also contributed greatly to the current base of knowledge about wild golden - headed lion tamarins while kristel de vleeschouwer and linda van elsacker have been driving forces behind captive research ( rylands et al . 2002b ) .
generally hunters in this region are either leisure hunters or subsistence hunters and though golden - headed lion tamarins are seldom hunted for food , there are a few reports that hunters kill and eat them ( oliver & santos 1991 ; dos santos & blanes 1997 ) .
the golden - headed lion tamarin lives only in the altantic rainforest of coastal brazil . the primary ( undisturbed ) forest is now extremely fragmented , and while these monkeys will use forest regrowth and rubber plantations where some native trees remain , they depend on old growth forest for sleeping sites . home ranges can be from 40 to 100 hectares , depending on how rich the forest is in food .
golden - headed lion tamarins are primarily insectivorous and frugivorous . however , they have been known to eat invertebrates such as spiders and snails . there are also records of this species eating lizards , bird eggs , and even small birds ( nowak and paradiso 1983 ) .
conservation status and threats the iucn red list categorized the golden - headed lion tamarin as endangered in 1982 , and it remains so today . as previously stated and worth repeating , just 2 % of its original habitat remains in brazil’s atlantic forest , one of the most endangered ecosystems on earth . the majority of the original forest has been cleared for farming , mining , ranching & expanding urban centers . most golden - headed lion tamarins are confined to the protected una biological reserve . surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed . conservation efforts in 1980 the brazilian government created the una biological reserve for the protection of the golden - headed lion tamarin and its habitat . over the years the park has been slowly growing as the government acquires more land . the population at una is the largest population in the most intact forest . there is also a captive breeding colony of 25 golden - headed lion tamarins at the rio de janeiro primate center . in the early 1990s , the landowner ' s environmental protection plan was created to educate the community about the importance of protecting the forest and the tamarins . the protection plan included conservation activities on over 70 % of the neighboring farms , educating farmers on how to use sustainable agriculture in order to preserve the tamarins ' habitat . the plan also educates school children , hunters and forest guards on conservation , property rights and land use . this method of educating and involving the community has had great success for preserving the tamarin and their habitat .
appearance , size , & weight the golden - headed lion tamarin is a beautiful little monkey with a long , thick golden to orange mane around the face , as their name implies . the body is shiny black with golden to orange limbs , hands , and feet . its long tail is black and golden . weighing in at about 17 to 25 ounces ( 500 to 700 grams ) and measuring 8 to 13 inches ( 20 to 34 centimeters ) in body length plus a 12 to 15 inch ( 32 to 40 centimeter ) long tail , females are typically the larger gender , a rather uncommon occurrence in primates . with arms and legs of similar size to each other , the golden - headed lion tamarin comfortably moves through the forest canopy quadrupedally ( on all fours ) . as all callitrichids ( the family of new world monkeys that includes marmosets and tamarins ) , their fingers are long and dexterous , and they have claws rather than nails on all but the big toe . this clawed adaptation allows them to cling to and climb trees as easily as squirrels do .
translocation program , where they may pose a risk to both translocated animals and the local animals ( although there was no golden - lion tamarin in the release site , there are other primate species ) . alternatively , in cases of zoonosis , potentially presenting a risk to the human population living in the area [
the iucn classes the golden - headed lion tamarin as endangered . once found widely across eastern brazil , today it only survives in pockets of eastern brazil , with total numbers estimated at 6 , 000 - 15 , 000 individuals . the primary threat is the ongoing destruction of the atlantic rainforest , with an estimated 2 - 5 % of their original habitat surviving as a result of deforestation for timber , charcoal and agriculture .
historically , collection for the pet trade , severe habitat loss and fragmentation were the primary threats to golden lion tamarins . habitats were destroyed to make way for sugar cane and coffee production , cattle grazing , logging , charcoal and urbanization . as a result , in the early 1970s , there were as few as 200 golden lion tamarins in the wild .
some information about social behaviors must be extrapolated from studies of captive golden lion tamarins ( l . rosalia ) simply because there is not enough data from wild or captive studies on golden - headed lion tamarins . though the two species are closely related and likely share a repertoire of similar behaviors , using data from golden lion tamarins should be done prudently as new research on golden - headed lion tamarins will likely reveal similarities and differences between the species . among golden lion tamarins , grooming is a major form of social activity and occurs between all family members either as they huddle in close contact during the day or evening or between pairs of individuals throughout the day ( kleiman et al . 1988 ) . adult females groom males more frequently than the reverse , and this may indicate that adult males are dominant over adult females within the group . juveniles and subadults have high frequencies of grooming neonatal infants as they are interested in the youngest group members and attempt to make contact with them as often as possible . they will also groom the infants ' mother in an attempt to get closer to the newborn ( kleiman et al . 1988 ) .
vocalizations among golden - headed lion tamarins are based on activity and behavior . trills are used when activity is solitary . clucks can be heard while an animal is foraging . long calls indicate vigilance . whines are made when two individuals are making contact with one another ( nowak and paradiso 1983 ) .
like most primates , golden - headed lion tamarins are a social species , typically living in family groups of 4 to 8 individuals . they breed once a year . when threatened they will fluff up their fur to make themselves appear bigger than they really are , and this helps them ward off predators .
oliveira cr , ruiz - miranda cr , kleiman dg , beck bb ( 2003 ) . play behavior in juvenile golden lion tamarins ( callitrichidae : primates ) : organization in relation to costs .
at the smithsonian ' s national zoo , golden lion tamarins eat fruits , carrots , sweet potatoes , green beans , hard - boiled eggs , mealworms , crickets , and a marmoset gel .
just 2 - 5 % of the golden - headed lion tamarin’s original habitat remains in brazil ( 3 ) . this species is now only found in the east of brazil , in the southern portion of bahia ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 7 ) . here , the majority are confined to the protected una biological reserve ( 3 ) . they were originally found much more widely across eastern brazil ; today , surviving populations are scattered and thinly distributed ( 7 ) .
in the eastern half of their range , golden - headed lion tamarin habitat is characterized by wet conditions throughout the year , but in 1995 , a severe drought occurred and resulted in a serious wildfire that threatened una biological reserve ( anonymous 1995 ) . the fire was started when neighboring farmers lost control of a fire they started to help clear their fields , a common technique used in south america to clear land of growth and add nutrients to the soil before planting crops .
a striking species , golden lion tamarins are small social south america primates with a magnificent reddish - gold coat and a long , backswept mane . once down to 200 individuals in the wild , intensive conservation efforts have helped the population recover . still an endangered species , there are about 3 , 200 in the wild—about a third of which are descendants of golden lion tamarins raised in human care .
their sleep patterns are regular , meaning that they sleep from dusk until sunrise , oftentimes with a midday nap . golden lion tamarins sleep in tree holes for warmth and protection from predators at night .
golden - headed lion tamarins live in family groups of 10 or more . multi male and female groups occur in the wild . following a gestation of between 125 - 130 days the female will normally give birth to twins and as with many tamarins , older siblings and the male will take turns in baby - sitting .
golden - headed lion tamarins have a pretty broad communications repertoire . their vocalizations are based on activities and social interactions . long calls maintain pair bonds and signal a group ' s presence in their territory . trills are used when activity is solitary , and they cluck while foraging . when two individuals make contact , they whine .
like other lion tamarins , the golden - headed lion tamarin is diurnal , that is , it sleeps at night and is active during the day . they live in groups ranging from 2 to 11 individuals , averaging at 5 to 8 . groups typically consist of 2 adult males , 1 adult female , and their offspring . although less is known about the mating habits of this tamarin species , scientists assume that , like other tamarin species , they are primarily monogamous . only one female in the group breeds and , like other callitrichids , she usually gives birth to twins . any other females’ reproduction is suppressed by the pheromones and dominant behavior of the breeding female . both males and females care for the young , and all group members assist in childcare . at night , they sleep in holes in trees that were created by woodpeckers and they may occupy the same nest for 6 days before moving on .
information about visual communication in golden - headed lion tamarins in also limited and therefore what is known about visual signals in golden lion tamarins must be applied to the former species ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . the repertoire of visual signals is limited compared to the other communication forms , but includes both postural and facial expressions that act as signals to nearby individuals ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; kinzey 1997 ) . golden lion tamarins exhibit tongue - flicking , arch - walking , tail thrashing , rump displays and piloerection in sexual and social contexts ( kinzey 1997 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . most visual signals are used during territorial encounters , social interactions , and reproductive events ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .
li z , rogers e ( 2004 ) . habitat quality and activity budgets of white - headed langurs in fusui , china .
golden - headed lion tamarins are one of four species of lion tamarins in the genus leontopithecus that have similar body shapes and share several common features including a lionlike mane of hair surrounding their dark brown , or black , hairless faces ( rowe 1996 ) . the golden - headed lion tamarin has black fur over its entire body except for on its head and mane , where the fur is a light to deep golden color . it also has golden fur on part of its tail , hands , feet , and forearms ( rowe 1996 ; groves 2001 ) . males and females are about the same size and weight , though a female ' s weight fluctuates more than a male ' s during certain times in the reproductive cycle . in captivity , males weigh between 540 and 700 g ( 1 . 19 and 1 . 54 lb ) and average 620 g 1 . 37 lb ) and measure , on average , 250 mm ( 9 . 84 in ) while females weigh between 480 and 590 g ( 1 . 06 and 1 . 30 lb ) and average 534 . 8 g ( 1 . 18 lb ) and measure , on average 236 . 3 mm ( 9 . 30 in ) ( rosenberger & coimbra - filho 1984 ) . based on a few specimens , wild male golden - headed lion tamarins weigh 550 g ( 1 . 21 lb ) , and the average weight of wild females is 591 g ( 1 . 30 lb ) ( leigh 1994 ; raboy 2002 ) .
blumstein dt ( 1998 ) . quantifying predation risk for refuging animals : a case study with golden marmots .
the first year of life is the most difficult for golden lion tamarins ; 50 percent of infants die during this time . the remaining individuals usually live for eight years and up to 15 years in human care .
diet primarily a frugivore , or fruit eater , the golden - headed lion tamarin has a fairly broad diet , consuming plants , fruits , flowers , nectar , insects and small invertebrates , including include insect larvae , spiders , snails , frogs , lizards , bird eggs and small snakes . they find animal prey in the leaf litter of the forest floor , in the holes and crevices of trees , and by breaking open rotting wood to find large insects . their long hands and slender fingers are well adapted to this method of foraging . only occasionally do they supplement their diets with less nutritious gum and tree sap since their preferred foods are available year round . the golden - headed lion tamarin , like all marmosets and tamarins , plays an important role in seed dispersal . the seeds of the fruits that they consume pass through the monkeys’ digestive tracts unharmed and are defecated far enough away from the parent plant to result in greater distribution of the plant species . this , in turn , regrows the forest ' s resources and ultimately feeds more animals .
golden - headed lion tamarins are endemic to brazil and are found in small and disjunctive areas of forest in the coastal states of bahia and minas gerais ( rylands et al . 2002a ) . they are the northernmost species of lion tamarins and are found in the very southeastern area of bahia and the extreme northeast of minas gerais within 150 km ( 93 . 2 mi ) of the atlantic coast and at altitudes below 500 m ( 1640 ft ) . the range is bound by the rio de contas in the north , the rio jequitinhonha in the south , the atlantic ocean in the east , and a change in altitude and vegetation in the west ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . the total area extends over about 19 , 000 km² ( 7336 mi² ) , but the forests in which they are found are highly fragmented because of land use activities including cattle ranching and cocoa cultivation . they are found in over 100 sites throughout their range , but are protected only in bahia at una biological reserve , a 94 km² ( 36 . 3 mi² ) area that has a golden - headed lion tamarin population of 450 individuals as of 2000 ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; rylands et al . 2002a ; cruz pers . comm . ) . there are more golden - headed lion tamarins than all of the other three species combined ( l . rosalia , l . chrysopygus , and l . caissara ) , with the total wild population estimated to be between 6 , 000 and 15 , 000 individuals ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . there are about 600 golden - headed lion tamarins in captivity around the world ( rylands et al . 2002a ) .
continued conservation efforts ( such as reforestation and the creation of wildlife corridors ) are essential to sustain and grow the overall population , and to ensure all of the hard work put into saving golden lion tamarins is not undone .
another important behavior of cooperative infant care is food provisioning . for the first four weeks , the infants exclusively nurse , but food sharing begins during week five ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . by week 12 , young golden - headed lion tamarins are being provisioned at the highest rates , and sharing will decrease over time such that by about five months of age , they are no longer being provisioned by group members ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . though there is no data from wild golden - headed lion tamarins , wild golden lion tamarin juveniles ( l . rosalia ) are provisioned until 21 months of age , and the pattern may be similar across species ( tardif et al . 2002 ) . sharing food with infants may teach them an appropriate diet and provide them with important nutrients . in younger infants , foods that are high in lipids and protein that they are unable to acquire on their own , such as insects , are shared more frequently than other types of foods . older juveniles receive a wider variety of foods , probably as a way to learn about appropriate foods ( tardif et al . 2002 ) .
the golden - headed lion tamarin’s name describes its striking appearance perfectly . the thick , long golden to orange mane around its face is indeed reminiscent of a male lion’s mane ( 3 ) . when in danger or defending its territory , this tamarin raises its fantastic mane and fluffs up its fur to give it the appearance of being bigger than it really is , whilst flicking its tongue at the intruder to scare them away ( 5 ) . females and males are very similar in appearance , as are the young , but unlike most other primates , it is the adult female that is usually larger than the adult male ( 6 ) . the body is predominantly shiny and black , with golden to orange limbs and paws , and a black and golden coloured , long tail ( 7 ) . its fore and hind limbs are similar in size , allowing it to move quadrupedally through the forest ( 6 ) . their fingers are long and dextrous and , like all callitrichids , the nails have evolved into claws on all but the big toe , which has a flattened nail , allowing them to climb in a squirrel - like fashion through the trees ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
other characteristics shared by lion tamarins include the presence of claw - like nails ( called tegulae ) instead of flat nails ( called ungulae ) as seen in humans and other primates , and the tendency to give birth to twins more frequently than singletons ( sussman 2000 ) . the claw - like nails seen in golden - headed lion tamarins aid in their locomotion patterns of quadrupedal running , clinging , and leaping between trees . having nails at the ends of their fingertips instead of on top of their fingertips allows them to efficiently grip vertical surfaces and may help stabilize them on small branches ( sussman 2000 ) . the pattern of twinning that is common among golden - headed lion tamarins is an unusual characteristic for primates because of the high time and caloric investment necessary to carry and care for two infants at once . lion tamarins and other callitrichines that exhibit this pattern have evolved social organizations and behaviors that include cooperative breeding to decrease the energetic strain on the mother and increase infant survival ( sussman 2000 ) .
the only significant protected area in which golden - headed lion tamarins are found is una biological reserve , a 94 km² ( 36 . 3 mi² ) park created specifically for their protection in 1980 . though the original governmental decree was for an area of 114 km² ( 44 . 0 mi² ) , this amount of land was not purchased immediately and for the last 25 years , the park has been growing incrementally as the government continues to acquire land ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; cruz pers . comm . ) . forests surrounding una are still relatively intact and it should be a priority to purchase them and integrate them into the biological reserve because , as it exists now , una is not large enough to support a self - sustaining population of golden - headed lion tamarins ( rylands 1993 - 1994 ; de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ) . if purchase and integration is not possible , it will be essential to work with land owners to persuade them to initiate tamarin - friendly land use patterns . existing programs to educate private land owners in the areas around the reserve should continue while corridors should be grown connecting remaining old growth forests on private lands with una forests . ( de s . pinto & rylands 1997 ; mallinson 2001 ) . the landowners ' environmental education programme began in the early 1990s and focused on educating the community surrounding the reserve about the importance of protecting not only the reserve itself but contiguous forests . on over 70 % of the farms in the area , conservation activities have been undertaken including sustainable agricultural practices that focus on preserving forests and golden - headed lion tamarin habitat ( mallinson 2001 ) . school children , farm workers , hunters , and forest guards have been involved in the education program focusing on conservation , property rights , and land use as well as developing alternative sustainable economic undertakings ( mallinson 2001 ) . as land is purchased for more forest reserves or protected areas in areas other than una , programs like this should certainly be part of the transition from private to reserve land so that communities neighboring new reserves understand the importance of their actions on the golden - headed lion tamarin ' s habitat and ultimate survival .
interesting fact : all lion tamarins have long fingers and sharp claws to help them catch grubs and bugs in the trees .
following the drop in cocoa prices and the spread of witch ' s broom disease , unemployment rates soared in the region surrounding una biological reserve . displaced workers swarmed to the forests , both protected and unprotected , clearing the land for subsistence agriculture because of their lack of economic prospects ( padua et al . 2002 ) . additionally , cocoa plantation owners began to cut the primary forests of the cabruca and sell the lumber to supplement income . this resulted in an increased rate of forest fragmentation both within una and in the surrounding areas and directly impacting the golden - headed lion tamarin ( padua et al . 2002 ) .
while the estimate of golden lion tamarins living in the wild has continued to rise in recent years , they are still classified as endangered because their habitat remains fragmented in to small , unconnected areas , each only capable of supporting a small number of groups . this has decreased the quality of tamarin habitat and limited their ability to grow populations . without intervention , inbreeding will contribute to the local extinction of many of these small populations , and eventually the entire species .
golden lion tamarins live in the heavily populated atlantic coastal regions of southeastern brazil . they live in humid forests with many vines , bromeliads , and other epiphytes . they occupy the closed canopy , often remaining 29 to 100 feet ( 10 to 30 meters ) off the ground .
the landowners ' environmental education programme needs to incorporate information about burning fields and the potential harm that can be done to neighboring forests , especially under certain environmental conditions . while the newly established buffer zone between the reserve and other lands might decrease the chance of a fire spreading too quickly to the center of the reserve , in some situations , una , and the golden - headed lion tamarins that live there , might be subject to serious natural disasters .
in 1972 , the zoo held a ground - breaking conference bringing together 28 european , american and brazilian biologists to save the golden lion tamarin . long - term recommendations for husbandry were developed for research and conservation activities , including support for the breeding program in brazil , studies of breeding biology , protocols for captive husbandry and management , medical programs , hand - rearing guidelines , inter - institutional cooperation and the establishment of a studbook and a data bank to record all aspects of their propagation in human care .
both vocal and chemical communication are important to golden - headed lion tamarin groups . because they live in tropical forests , visual communication is less important in long - distance interactions but is important in interactions between individuals that are in proximity ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . the only available information about vocal and visual communication in lion tamarins is for the golden lion tamarin ( l . rosalia ) , but it is believed that similarities exist among all species of leontopithecus ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . there are six discrete categories of vocalizations in golden lion tamarin communication : tonal , clucks , trills , atonal , multisyllable , and combination ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . tonal vocalizations include the
whine
and
peep
calls and serve as alarm and affiliation calls .
whines
are given in reaction to the presence of predators while
peeps
are sounded by solitary young after being reunited with the group or by any group member upon finding food ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .
clucks
signal reaction to the presence of a novel item or are giving during foraging bouts . they also can signal aggression when golden lion tamarins encounter neighbors or intruders and are given while chasing or mobbing predators ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ) .
trills
have multiple purposes but mainly serve to indicate the location of the caller to other individuals over long distances . atonal calls such as
rasps
or
screeches
are heard mostly during playing or as playing escalates to fighting ( kleiman et al . 1988 ; boinski et al . 1994 ) . multisyllable calls include the most important vocalizations for group cohesion , the
short
and
long calls .
these are typically heard as golden lion tamarins leave their sleeping sites in the morning to locate their neighbors and are heard throughout the day as individuals keep in vocal contact with other group members ( peres 1991 ; ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) . combination calls also serve multiple purposes and include
trill - rasps ,
trill - whines ,
and
cluck - whines .
these are used by juveniles begging for attention , protection , or food or by group members as they defend their territory against intruders or predators ( ruiz - miranda & kleiman 2002 ) .
each group has one breeding pair . the breeding season is between september and march , the warmest and wettest time of year . after a gestation period of about four and a half months , the female usually gives birth to twins . golden lion tamarins are born fully furred with their eyes open . they cling to their mothers for the first few weeks . all members of the group will carry and care for the infants , but the adult male usually does the largest share . the mother only takes the babies to nurse them . after about five weeks , babies begin to explore on their own ; they are weaned at 3 months . as with golden - headed lion tamarins , sexual maturity is reached at 18 months for females and 2 years for males .
golden - headed lion tamarins are sympatric with three other species of primates , the black tufted - ear marmoset ( callithrix kuhli ) , the yellow breasted capuchin ( cebus xanthosternos ) , and the northern masked titi ( callicebus personatus melanochir ) . the tamarins do not compete for resources with these other species because of differences in foraging techniques at different heights of the forest and the exploitation of different animal prey ( rylands 1989 ; 1993 ) . they form mixed - species groups with the black tufted - ear marmosets and often travel together with them for the entire day . during these associations , individuals of both species use the same pathways in the canopy , forage side - by - side in fruit trees , and coordinate periods of travel and rest ( raboy 1998 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins and black tufted - ear marmosets both utilize fruit as a major food resource and both are small and vulnerable to a number of predators . this interesting pattern of association is probably beneficial to both species in foraging benefits and increased detection of , and safety from , predators ( raboy 1998 ) . because of their excellent skills as insect foragers , golden - headed lion tamarins often facilitate the capture of insects by other species as well . birds like the white - fronted nunbird and the woodcreeper follow behind the tamarins as they forage in microhabitats and capture insects that are flushed out of bromeliads ( raboy 1998 ; hankerson et al . in press ) .
golden lion tamarins are small monkeys , weighing 17 to 24 ounces ( 482 to 680 grams ) and measuring 6 to 10 inches ( 15 to 25 centimeters ) in length with a tail of about 12 to 15 inches ( 32 to 40 centimeters ) . males and females are similar in appearance and size .
with records of over 100 localities where l . chrysomelas still occur through the region bounded by the rio de contas in the north and the rio jequitinhonha in the south , more populations remain than of all the other three lion tamarin species combined . however , the remaining forests are being destroyed at an unprecedented rate for the region and the populations surviving are seriously depleted and fragmented . an important aspect which has contributed to the more favourable situation of the golden - headed lion tamarin is the traditional and fairly widespread use of the “cabruca” system for shading cacao trees . some of the original canopy trees are left standing , and this allows for connectivity between forest patches . if well managed , this could be an important management tool for future conservation efforts . threats to golden - headed lion tamarins come from socio - economic transformations resulting from the difficulties of the cocoa industry ( low prices and disease epidemics ) , that have dominated the region over the last 15 years , resulting in the expansion of alternative crops , notably african palm oil and coconuts ( alger and caldas 1994 ) . in the west of its range , the forest is increasingly destroyed and fragmented as a result of cattle ranching ( pinto 1994 ; pinto and rylands 1997 ) . a study by dietz et a l . ( 2000 ) examined inbreeding depression in small ( 50 or less ) isolated populations of l . rosalia . they concluded that it reduced probability of long - term survival by about one - third . there is every reason to believe that inbreeding depression is likewise prejudicial to the isolated populations of l . chrysomelas , most especially in the western half of its range where forest fragmentation is extreme ( pinto and rylands , 1997 ) .
in the early 1980s , large numbers of golden - headed lion tamarins were illegally exported from brazil to countries like belgium , france , french guiana , and japan in order to supply the booming pet trade and exotic animal collectors ( mallinson 2001 ; rylands et al . 2002a ; b ) . the brazilian environmental agency ibama concentrated efforts on recovery of illegally exported tamarins and , in 1986 , was able to begin a captive breeding colony with seized animals ( mallinson 2001 ) . the large numbers of recovered animals helped establish a genetically diverse founder population from which to begin captive breeding programs in brazil , europe , japan , and the united states ( ballou et al . 2002 ) . seizures of golden - headed lion tamarins continue today , though not nearly at as high of a rate as was seen in the 1980s . the international demand for these animals as pets still exists , and though it is not nearly as high , coupled with the other threats to the population , it may affect the future potential of the population to survive .
like other lion tamarins , golden - headed - lion tamarins are diurnal . they feed mainly on fruits , and play an important role in seed dispersal . they also feed on flowers and nectar ( 2 ) , and prey on small animals such as frogs , snails , lizards and spiders , and may opportunistically feed on gums , saps and latex from trees ( 3 ) ( 5 ) . animal prey is found in the forest floor litter and in the trees , in holes and crevices , and by breaking rotting wood to find large insects ( 6 ) ( 8 ) . their long hands and slender fingers help with this method of foraging ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
administrators of una biological reserve continue to confiscate illegally kept golden - headed lion tamarins and , in 1999 , the captive population was over 600 individuals ( ballou et al . 2002 ) . one effort to decrease the number of animals taken as pets or killed for food is education . when poachers or hunters are encountered , they receive information about the importance of conservation and the brazilian laws that forbid the activity ( padua et al . 2002 ) . this simple message has been successful in decreasing hunting rates by 50 % according to ibama ( dos santos & blanes 1997 ; padua et al . 2002 ) . not only are hunters directly confronted if caught , education programs for all land owners and community members have been aimed at educating people about the endemism present in nearby the forests ( dos santos & blanes 1997 ) . armed with information about conservation of their unique surroundings , community members begin to see golden - headed lion tamarins not as food or a potential source of income , but as an important part of the ecosystem and part of the local heritage .
there are no external signs of ovulation , therefore reproductive females attract attention from breeding males by presenting their rumps toward the male and slightly lifting the tail . the male responds to this behavior by inspecting and sniffing the female ' s genitals , evaluating her attractiveness and reproductive status ( de vleeschouwer et al . 2000 ) . the highest occurrence of sexual behavior is during the peak of female receptivity , and once a female conceives , gestation lasts about four months ( 129 days ) ( french et al . 2002 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins exhibit birth seasonality even though they live in an area in which resources are equally abundant year - round . most births occur from october through april and there is a significant absence of births from may to september ( bach et al . 2001 ) . most primates that exhibit birth seasonality do so because reproductive events are energetically expensive , and to maximize likelihood of infant survival , breeding , birth , and lactation occur during times of high resource abundance ( sussman 2000 ) . golden - headed lion tamarins seem to exhibit birth seasonality in accordance with photoperiod . this may be an adaptation because there may be behavioral advantages of raising offspring during longer days ( bach et al . 2001 ) . in captivity , golden - headed lion tamarins can have one or two litters per year but in the wild they usually only have one per year ( de vleeschouwer et al . 2001 ) . rates of twinning are similar in captivity and in the wild , with more than half of the births resulting in twins rather than singletons ( bach et al . 2001 ) .
having a healthy predator population within una is essential for the functioning of the ecosystem , but other efforts to decrease golden - headed lion tamarin mortality have been undertaken . current studies require that habituated animals be captured every six months to replace radio transmitter batteries . at this semiannual event , veterinary care is provided for the animals as a routine way to check their health and evaluate any concerns ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . by monitoring the health of the animals over time , changes can be noted and care can be provided in certain circumstances . monitoring and attempting to provide care for sick tamarins is an expensive and relatively futile process compared to eliminating sources of inbreeding depression that might cause certain individuals to be at higher risk for health problems . it is essential that una does not become an island of forest , cutting off dispersing golden - headed lion tamarins from entering new territories , starting new groups , or immigrating into the breeding position of existing groups . efforts to connect patches of forest throughout the range will increase the likelihood of gene flow in the population and will help to decrease the chances of the loss of genetic diversity ( dietz et al . 1996 ) . currently , studies to evaluate and prioritze areas for forest linkage are underway and will hopefully lead to management strategies and eventual reconnection of forest fragments ( raboy pers . comm . ) .