antheraea mylitta is a species of moth in the family saturniidae known commonly as the tasar silkworm and vanya silkworm .

it is actually one of a number of tasar silkworms , species that produce tussar silk , a kind of wild silk that is made from the products of saturniid silkworms instead of the domesticated silkworm ( bombyx mori ) .

this species is native to india .

this species is variable , with at least 44 identified ecoraces , populations adapted to varied ecological conditions and food plants .

ten ecoraces are used for silk production and have been studied to obtain data about their life cycles and silk characteristics .

some ecoraces are so well differentiated that they do not interbreed in nature , though they are not genetically distinct and can be bred in captivity .

this species feeds mainly on terminalia trees and on shorea robusta .

it also eats many other kinds of plants , with various ecoraces specializing on certain taxa .

other plants appearing in its diet include indian jujube ( ziziphus mauritiana ) , axlewood ( anogeissus latifolia ) , jambul ( syzygium cumini ) , kumbi ( careya arborea ) , anjan ( hardwickia binata ) , and species of teak ( tectona spp. ) and crepe myrtle ( lagerstroemia spp. ) .

tussar silk from this and related species of wild silkworms is a different color from domesticated silkworm silk , and it is coarser and stronger , making it more favorable in some applications .

like the domesticated silkworm , this species is susceptible to pébrine , a disease caused by microsporidian fungi in the genus nosema .

it is lethal to the larvae .

it is also commonly infected with the antheraea mylitta cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus ( amcpv ) , a reovirus which has been reported to destroy around 20 % of each silk crop by inducing diarrhea in the larvae , leading to a condition known as grasserie .

natural enemies of this silkworm include the uzi fly ( blepharipa zebina ) , which is a parasitoid that uses the silkworm larvae as a food source for its maggots .

many ecoraces are threatened due to extensive deforestation and the collection of cocoons from wild populations .

antheraea mylitta

silk protein fibroin from antheraea mylitta for cardiac tissue engineering . - pubmed - ncbi
molecular identification of tropical tasar silkworm ( antheraea mylitta ) ecoraces with rapd and scar markers .
molecular identification of tropical tasar silkworm ( antheraea mylitta ) ecoraces with rapd and scar markers . - pubmed - ncbi
table 1 - heterosis in the interspecific cross between antheraea pernyi and a . roylei
parasitization of fifth instar tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta , by the uzi fly , blepharipa zebina ; a host - parasitoid interaction and its effect o . . . - pubmed - ncbi
parasitization of fifth instar tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta , by the uzi fly , blepharipa zebina ; a host - parasitoid interaction and its effect on host ' s nutritional parameters and parasitoid development .
the human heart cannot regenerate after an injury . lost cardiomyocytes are replaced by scar tissue resulting in reduced cardiac function causing high morbidity and mortality . one possible solution to this problem is cardiac tissue engineering . here , we have investigated the suitability of non - mulberry silk protein fibroin from indian tropical tasar antheraea mylitta as a scaffold for engineering a cardiac patch in vitro . we have tested cell adhesion , cellular metabolic activity , response to extracellular stimuli , cell - to - cell communication and contractility of 3 - days postnatal rat cardiomyocytes on silk fibroin . our data demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin exhibits similar properties as fibronectin , a component of the natural matrix for cardiomyocytes . comparison to mulberry bombyx mori silk protein fibroin shows that a . mylitta silk fibroin is superior probably due to its rgd domains . 3d scaffolds can efficiently be loaded with cardiomyocytes resulting in contractile patches . in conclusion , our findings demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin 3d scaffolds are suitable for the engineering of cardiac patches .
the human heart cannot regenerate after an injury . lost cardiomyocytes are replaced by scar tissue resulting in reduced cardiac function causing high morbidity and mortality . one possible solution to this problem is cardiac tissue engineering . here , we have investigated the suitability of non - mulberry silk protein fibroin from indian tropical tasar antheraea mylitta as a scaffold for engineering a cardiac patch in vitro . we have tested cell adhesion , cellular metabolic activity , response to extracellular stimuli , cell - to - cell communication and contractility of 3 - days postnatal rat cardiomyocytes on silk fibroin . our data demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin exhibits similar properties as fibronectin , a component of the natural matrix for cardiomyocytes . comparison to mulberry bombyx mori silk protein fibroin shows that a . mylitta silk fibroin is superior probably due to its rgd domains . 3d scaffolds can efficiently be loaded with cardiomyocytes resulting in contractile patches . in conclusion , our findings demonstrate that a . mylitta silk fibroin 3d scaffolds are suitable for the engineering of cardiac patches .
jolly , m . s . , narasimhanna , m . n . , sinha , s . s . & sen , s . k . 1969 interspecific hybridisation in antheraea . ind . j . hered . , 1 : 45 - 48 .
wild silk is very vital biological resource and has a very crucial role in economic and social development of mankind . wild silk is better than other silks from the view point of healthcare . therefore , the book contain taxonomy of wild silkmoths , under which 9 new subspecies of antheraea mylitta have been described for avoiding confusion with ecoraces which refer to antheraea mylitta indica , a . m . jujubi , a . m . arjuni , a . m . greyi , a . m . kolhapurensis , a . m . koynei , a . m . sathei , a . m . badami and a . m . sahyadricus . the book also contains biology of wild silkmoths attacus atlas ( linn . ) , actias selene hubner and a . m . kolhapurensis . rearing techniques for a . atlas , a . selene and a . m . kolhapurensis with different food plants and their assessment by food consumption potential / cocoon characterization and development rate has given special emphasis in the book . thus , the book is unique on biodiversity of wild silkmoths and the wild silk technology which will be very helpful for students , teachers , farmers , sericulturists and researchers in india and at global scenario .
the tropical tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta , has several ecoraces , 10 of which are commercially exploited for the production of tasar silk . these ecoraces are identified by morphological markers that are greatly influenced by photoperiod , humidity , altitude , and host plants . the dna markers , random amplification of polymorphic dna ( rapd ) , and sequence - characterized amplified region ( scar ) are identified to complement the existing morphological markers . seven rapd bands are selected that identify 8 of the 10 ecoraces . these identified rapd fragments are sequenced and primers are designed for scar markers . of the seven sets of primers , a single primer pair produced polymorphic scar bands that diagnose 5 of the 10 ecoraces . all 10 ecoraces are identified by the use of rapd and scar markers together .
genome segment 2 ( s2 ) from antheraea mylitta cypovirus ( amcpv ) was converted into cdna , cloned and sequenced . s2 consisted of 3798 nucleotides with a long orf encoding a 1116 amino acid long protein ( 123 kda ) . blast and phylogenetic analysis showed 29 % sequence identity and close relatedness of amcpv s2 with rna dependent rna polymerase ( rdrp ) of other insect cypoviruses , suggesting a common origin of all insect cypoviruses . the orf of s2 was expressed as 123 kda soluble his - tagged fusion protein in insect cells via baculovirus recombinants which exhibited rdrp activity in an in vitro rna polymerase assay without any intrinsic terminal transferase activity . maximum activity was observed at 37 °c at ph 6 . 0 in the presence of 3 mm mgcl 2 . site directed mutagenesis confirmed the importance of the conserved gdd motif . this is the first report of functional characterization of a cypoviral rdrp which may lead to the development of anti - viral agents .
the uzi fly , blepharipa zebina , is a well - known larval endoparasitoid of the tropical tasar silkworm , antheraea mylitta . the present study dealt with the effect of the number of maggots developing per host on host nutritional parameters , parasitoid development and reproduction . nutritional indices for ingestion , digestion , approximate digestibility , relative consumption rate , relative growth rate , and gain in body weight declined significantly with the increase in parasitoid burden , but the efficiency of conversion of digested food recorded a significant increase . the efficiency of conversion of ingested food remained little affected . the developmental period was significantly extended in larvae parasitized with 5 and 10 maggots per larva ( mpl ) . cocoon shell weight decreased by 27 - 63 . 5 % in parasitized groups ( 1 , 2 , and 5 mpl ) while larvae parasitized with 10 mpl could not spin cocoons . the maggot development period , recovery percentage , and fecundity of the uzi fly declined significantly with the increase in number of maggots developing per host .
antheraea mylitta drury , the semi - wild silk - producing lepidopteran insect commonly known as tasar silkworm is unique to india and is distributed over a wide tropical forest range covering the states of andhra pradesh , bihar , chhattisgarh , madhya pradesh , maharashtra , orissa , and uttaranchal . the populations found in different areas are know by their specific local names and are considered as different ecotypes , but it is difficult to separate the populations on the basis of morphological and life - cycle traits and thus molecular characterization was attempted . the present communication relates to the results obtained from the analysis of polymorphism unraveled by twelve issr primers for 11 populations of a . mylitta belonging to six ecotypes and 41 individuals of railey ecotype collected from five zones of dandakarnya forest in madhya pradesh . this communication , further , presents molecular evidences on genetic differences between eleven ecotype populations and highlights the genotypic diversification of a single ecotype into further separate discrete gene pools . the canonical discriminant function analysis revealed grouping of the five populations of railey ecotype into two “clumps , ” while accessions of other ecotypes stood separated from each other . the railey populations on detailed study , further , revealed separation of two ( tokapal and nangur ) populations into discrete gene pools and the other three ( kondagaon , darba , and tongpal ) populations , overlapped in spite of larger geographic distance between them . the analysis also identified nine markers , which can be utilized to characterize specific population and will be of help to follow the ongoing genetic changes triggered by various ecological factors and human influences on the railey ecotype .
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m . s . jolly , s . k . sen and m . g . das
silkworms are notoriously finicky eaters : they must have mulberry leaves . but not all of them . wild sericulture is traditionally practiced in india and china with silkworms which feed on the leaves of a large variety of naturally grown forest trees . the authors describe the indian tasar silk industry and the way it is being made more economic through management and the use of interspecific hybrid moths .
) which must be fed exclusively on the leaves of white and black mulberry trees . most , but not all , commercial silk originates this way . in india , the extensive cottage industry concerned with silk weaving gets its raw material from so - called tasar silkworms that feed on the leaves of a variety of trees which grow wild in tropical , subtropical and temperate zones . for centuries indian raw silk has been gathered by the families of forest and hill tribes . the economic significance of their work can be seen in the fact that the country ' s current output of tasar silk now accounts for export earnings of us $ 4 . 4 million annually .
tasar silk has been produced for a very long time . outside of india it may be called tusah , tussore , tusser or tussur silk . the uneven tan filaments are coarser , stronger and shorter than the normal cultivated silk and it is used in fabrics such as pongee and shantung .
a distinct belt of humid , dense forest sprawling over the central and southern plateaus at an elevation of 600 m is the home of tropical tasar . it extends through the states of bihar , madhya pradesh , orissa and maharashtra and touches the fringes of andhra pradesh , karnataka , west bengal , manipur and assam . the temperate tasar belt , at an elevation of 700 to 2200 m , on the other hand , includes the states of jammu and kashmir , uttar pradesh , himachal pradesh , meghalaya , manipur and assam , while west bengal , arunachal pradesh and nagaland rank next in importance . this oak tasar zone was established on a production basis in 1973 .
tasar silk culture is known as wild or forest sericulture . more than a hundred thousand tribal families are at present engaged in the tropical tasar zone , and the temperate tasar zone promises full and part - time employment for about 1 million people .
has been exploited commercially and is the chief producer of tasar silk in the tropics . it exists in the form of nearly 20 eco - races of a uni - , bi - and trivoltine nature .
silk is the finest tasar silk ever produced in india , and the insect has outrun its parents both quantitatively and qualitatively ( table 1 ) .
is abundant throughout india except in a few low - lying tracts . it ascends to the tops of high mountains and also occurs in higher coastal areas ( hairs , 1921 ) .
q . flex , q . semicarpifolia , q . semiserrata and q . glauca
in india the genus is distributed along the western sub - himalayan range , between altitudes of 1300 and 2200 m , and in the eastern hilly tracts at altitudes between 700 and 1600 m . both areas constitute the temperate tasar zone . in the tropical belt the tasar food plants cover an area of 7 . 7 million ha , while in the temperate zone nearly 0 . 8 million ha of oaks are available .
the average income per family for traditional rearers is $ 2530 per year . however , new techniques of rearing evolved at the central tasar research station at ranchi ( table 2 ) can now ensure a handsome income of about $ 250 within 40 to 45 days ( jolly , 1973 ) . similarly , the techniques of rearing evolved for the oak tasar zones have been found to be very successful .
in the traditional practice the tasar larvae feed on irregularly distributed food plants in forests or along the embankments of paddy fields . this creates management problems resulting in losses due to pests , diseases and natural hazards . recent research carried out at ranchi has developed an economic plantation method with close spacing . a large increase in foliage productivity has been recorded with a spacing of 122 cm in either direction , and with the kind of record yields of 17 . 2 tons per ha now being achieved a net return of $ 497 . 50 per ha per year ( table . 3 ) through tasar culture can be anticipated , even under rainfed conditions where the soil fertility is submarginal ( des
this type of economic plantation would invariably reduce the amount of labour required , since overlapping twigs will permit the silkworms to move from one plant to another instead of being transferred by hand .
the tasar industry provides democratic tremendous scope for future extension in many parts of the world . the species of
are widely distributed in indo - australian and palaeoarctic regions extending eastward from india to the philippines through viet nam and also dispersed throughout democratic kampuchea ; southeastward to australia through sri lanka , singapore , malaysia , indonesia and new guinea ; northeastward to china , japan and amurland ( u . s . s . r . ) and westward to the united states and latin america . nearly 36 species and 40 forms are known in these regions .
consists of about 250 species found within sri lanka , india , burma , lao , democratic : kampuchea and some parts of viet nam , and also extends through indonesia , malaysia and new guinea up to australia . some of its species are also reported in the african continent . the genus
is a very large genus of some 300 species growing throughout the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere extending to the tropics of latin america in the west and malaysia in the east .
it is to be noted that out of this vast trasure of tasar flora , only 1015 percent have been examined with reference to the tasar industry in india , while out of numerous tasar insect species and forms only three or four have been put to use .
the main tasar silk - producing countries of the world today are china and india . india ranks after china , with an annual production of about 400 tons of tasar raw silk and 200 tons of silk waste ( jolly
tasar silk has appeared in the export market quite recently . the export figure reached us $ 2 . 6 million in 1973 . the major markets are the federal republic of germany , the united states and japan . foreign exchange earned through the export of tasar silk waste in 1973 was $ 1 . 8 million .
the forests which provide food for tasar silkworms are now being utilized in india mainly for fuel and timber , which are of less economic importance than the returns from silk . if these forests were completely diverted to tasar silk production they could provide a significant increase in income for a vulnerable section of society , as has already been shown . there would also be environmental benefits .
woodlands utilized for tasar silk production are protected from deforestation , which in turn benefits soil and watershed conservation and management . wherever tasar culture is practiced , the trees are better cared for in general . silkworm excrete and dead remains also enrich the quality of the soil .
the hundred thousand tribal families engaged in tasar silk production in the traditional belt are a very small percentage of the total tribal population in india . the temperate zone of india alone can provide employment for nearly 1 million people .
we believe that we have shown during the past 10 years at our research station that the tasar silk industry has a significant agri - silvicultural potential for many forest - rich developing countries , and in particular for countries which wish to create employment and raise the standard of living of forest - dwelling peoples who may be lagging behind the rest of the country .
jolly , m . s . 1970 oak oriented tasar culture in the offing .
jolly , m . s . 1974 new dimensions of tasar industry in india .
jolly , m . s . , chaturvedi , s . n . & prasad , s . 1968 a survey of tasar crops in india .
, p . 1 - 17 and 86 - 106 . 1st edition . bombay , ambika publishers .
a . pernyi g . m . proc . xii international silk congress , barcelona .
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patra c 1 , talukdar s , novoyatleva t , velagala sr , mühlfeld c , kundu b , kundu sc , engel fb .
department of cardiac development and remodelling , max - planck - institute for heart and lung research , parkstrasse 1 , 61231 bad nauheim , germany .
central tasar research and training institute , piska nagri , ranchi - 835 303 , jharkhand , india . ssrathlee @ urltoken
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jolly , m . s . , sen , s . k . , and ashan , m . m . ,
, ranchi , india : central tasar res . training inst . , 1972 .
akai , h . , nagashima , t . , and aoyagi , s . , ultrastructure of posterior silk gland cells and liquid silk in indian tasar silkworm ,
siddique , a . a . , chatterjee , s . n . , goel , a . k . , and sengupta , a . k . , genetic divergence in tasar silkworm
thnagavelu , k . and sinha , a . k . , population ecology of
, akai , h . , kato , y . , kiuchi , m . , and inouch , j . , eds . , tsukuba , japan : int . soc . wild silkmoths , nat . inst . sericult . entomol . sci . , 1992 , pp . 87 - 92 .
alam , m . o . , suresh , m . r . , and sit , s . c . , survey , collection and characterization of modal ecorace of indian wild silk insect
fang , d . q . and roose , m . l . , identification of closely related
tsumura , y . , ohba , k . , and strauss , s . h . , diversity and inheritance of inter - simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in douglas fir (
nagaoko , t . and ogihara , y . , applicability of inter - simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in wheat for use as dna markers comparison to rflp and rapd markers ,
reddy , d . k . , nagaraju , j . , and abraham , e . g . , genetic characterization of the silkworm
ramkumar rao , k . v . s . and mohobia , g . p . , studies on grainage behavior of nature - grown raily ecorace under natural and captive conditions ,
singh , b . m . k . and srivastava , a . k . , ecoraces of
, ranchi : central tasar res . training inst . , 1997 , base paper 6 : 39 .
sinha , a . k . and naqni , a . h . , need for maintenance of germplasm of non - mulberry silkworm , in
, ranchi : central tasar res . training inst . , 1997 , base paper 7 : 16 .
kantety , r . v . , zhang , x . , bennetzen , j . l . , and zehr , b . z . , assessment of genetic diversity in dent and popcorn (
provost , a . and wilkinson , m . j . , a new system of comparing pcr primers applied to issr fingerprinting of potato cultivars ,
chatterjee , s . n . , mohandas , t . p . , and tanushree , t . ,
zietkiewics , e . , rafalski , a . , and labuda , d . , genome fingerprinting by simple sequence repeats ( ssr ) - anchored amplification ,
breto , m . p . , ruiz , c . , pina , j . a . , and asins , m . j . , diversification of
culley , t . m . and wolfe , a . d . , population genetic structure of the cleistogamous plant species
breto , m . p . , ruiz , c . , pina , j . a . , and asins , m . j . ,
charlesworth , d . and wright , s . , breeding system and genome evolution ,
rao , k . v . s . , ramkumar , mahobia , g . p . ,
chatterjee , s . n . , vijayan , k . , roy , g . c . et al . russian journal of genetics ( 2004 ) 40 : 152 . urltoken
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sepia kiensis is a species of cuttlefish native to the indo-pacific , specifically the kai islands , possibly to timor and northern australia .

it lives at depth to 256 m .

the validity of s. kiensis has been questioned .

s. kiensis grows to a mantle length of 37 mm .

the type specimen was collected off kai island in the arafura sea .

it is deposited at the natural history museum in london .

sepia kiensis

how can i put and write and define sepia kiensis in a sentence and how is the word sepia kiensis used in a sentence and examples ? 用sepia kiensis造句 , 用sepia kiensis造句 , 用sepia kiensis造句 , sepia kiensis meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .
sepia kiensis - buy sepia kiensis by surhone , lambert m . | editor ; tennoe , mariam t . | editor ; henssonow , susan f . | editor online at best prices in india - urltoken

' sepia kiensis
' is a species of cuttlefish native to the indo - pacific , specifically the kai islands , possibly to timor and northern australia .
yes , it ' s a cephalopod ! this squid and other cephalopods are featured in the cephalopod pages maintained at the national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology ! see the following links for more information on cephalopods .
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expedition journals from the search for the giant squid off new zealand , 1999 .
this page was created by jim felley , mike vecchione , clyde roper , mike sweeney , and tyler christensen . if you have questions or comments , contact mike vecchione .
hoyle , w . e . ( 1885 ) . diagnoses of new species of cephalopoda collected during the cruise of h . m . s . challenger , ii : the decapoda . annals and magazine of natural history . series 5 , 16 : 181 - 203 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 194 [ details ]
reid , a . , jereb , p . & roper , c . f . e . ( 2005 ) . family sepiidae . pp . 57 - 152 , in p . jereb & c . f . e . roper eds . cephalopods of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of cephalopod species known to date . volume 1 . chambered nautiluses and sepioids ( nautilidae , sepiidae , sepiolidae , sepiadariidae , idiosepiidae and spirulidae ) . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes [ rome , fao ] . 4 ( 1 ) : 262 pp . 9 pls . page ( s ) : 143 [ details ]
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the heliconiinae , commonly called heliconians or longwings , are a subfamily of the brush-footed butterflies ( family nymphalidae ) .

they can be divided into 45 – 50 genera and were sometimes treated as a separate family heliconiidae within the papilionoidea .

the colouration is predominantly reddish and black , and though of varying wing shape , the forewings are always elongated tipwards , hence the common name .

most longwings are found in the tropics , particularly in south america ; only the argynnini are quite diverse in the holarctic .

especially tropical species feed on poisonous plants , characteristically passifloraceae vines , as larvae , becoming poisonous themselves .

the adult butterflies announce their acquired toxicity with strong aposematic colours , warning off would-be predators .

there are several famous cases of batesian and müllerian mimicry both within this group and with other butterflies .

other commonly seen food plants are fabaceae ( which also contain several toxic species ) , and particularly among northerly species of violaceae .

heliconiinae

a generic revision of the heliconiinae ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae ) . american museum novitates ; no . 1197
phylogenetic relationships of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use .
phylogenetic relationships of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use . - pubmed - ncbi
heliconiinae ( nymphalidae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 229 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ nl4a ] , 261
argynnini ( heliconiinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 235 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ nl4a ] , 261
penz , c . , and d . peggie . 2003 . phylogenetic relationships among heliconiinae genera based on morphology ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . systematic entomology 28 : 451 - 479 .
acraeini ( heliconiinae ) ; vane - wright & de jong , 2003 , zool . verh . leiden 343 : 236 ; [ wahlberg ] ; [ afrl ] ; [ nl4a ] , 262
penz , c . m . & p . djunijanti . 2003 . phylogenetic relationships among heliconiinae genera based on morphology ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . systematic entomology 28 : 451 - 479 . [ links ]
penz , c . m . 1999 . higher level phylogeny for the passion - vine butterflies ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) based on early stage and adult morphology . zoological journal of the linnean society 127 : 277 - 344 . [ links ]
lamas , g . 2004 . heliconiinae , p . 262 - 274 . in : j . b . heppner ( ed . ) . atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . gainesville , association for tropical lepidoptera , scientific publishers , vol . 5a , 439p . [ links ]
paluch , m . ; m . m . casagrande & o . h . h . mielke . 2005 . comportamento de agregação noturna dos machos de actinote surima surima ( schaus ) ( lepidoptera , heliconiinae , acraeini ) . revista brasileira de zoologia 22 : 410 - 418 . [ links ]
freitas , a . v . l . ; r . b . francini & t . s . souza . 2009b . immature stages and natural history of the threatened butterfly actinote quadra ( nymphalidae : heliconiinae : acraeini ) . tropical lepidoptera research 19 ( 2 ) : 82 - 88 . [ links ]
freitas , a . v . l . ; l . a . kaminski ; r . g . matos & k . l . silva - brandão . 2009a . immature stages of the andean butterfly actinote rufina ( nymphalidae : heliconiinae : acraeini ) . tropical lepidoptera research 19 ( 1 ) : 18 - 21 . [ links ]
the subfamily heliconiinae is composed of a diverse group of species distributed widely in the new and old world tropics , and it also includes the largely holarctic fritillaries ( argynnini ) . many species in heliconiini and acraeini sequester and / or synthesize cyanogenic glucosides , which render them unpalatable to predators . as a result , they act as müllerian mimics or models for palatable batesian species in other groups .
francini , r . b . ; a . v . l . freitas & k . s . brown jr . 2005 . rediscovery of actinote zikani ( d ' almeida ) ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae , acraeini ) : natural history , population biology and conservation of an endangered butterfly in se brazil . journal of the lepidopterists ' society 59 ( 3 ) : 134 - 142 . [ links ]
silva - brandão , k . l . ; n . wahlberg ; r . b . francini ; a . m . l . azeredo espin ; k . s . brown jr ; m . paluch ; d . c . lees & a . v . l . freitas . 2008 . phylogenetic relationship of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 : 515 - 531 . [ links ]
silva - brandão , k . l . , wahlberg , n . , francini , r . b . , azeredo - espin , a . m . l . , brown , k . s . j . , paluch , m . , lees , d . c . & freitas , a . v . l . 2008 . phylogenetic relationships of butterflies of the tribe acraeini ( lepidoptera , nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) and the evolution of host plant use . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 46 , 515 - 531 .
a higher level phylogeny for the passion - vine butterflies ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) was generated by cladistic analysis of 146 morphological characters from all life stages . the 24 species studied were selected representatives of the ten currently accepted genera of the sub - tribe heliconiiti . analyses of only characters from larvae and pupae did not produce well resolved trees . however , some characters of the immature stages provided critical support for the monophyly of two clades . analysis of only adult characters yielded a tree that closely resembled that obtained from all data combined . the phylogeny here derived from the combined analysis of early stage and adult characters differed in topology from all previously proposed hypotheses , and supported the monophyly of all currently recognized genera . characters supporting each clade are described and illustrated , and various hypotheses of phylogenetic relatedness of passion - vine butterfly taxa are discussed .
the tribe acraeini ( nymphalidae , heliconiinae ) is believed to comprise between one and seven genera , with the greatest diversity in africa . the genera abananote , altinote , and actinote ( s . str . ) are distributed in the neotropics , while the genera acraea , bematistes , miyana , and pardopsis have a palaeotropical distribution . the monotypic pardopsis use herbaceous plants of the family violaceae , acraea and bematistes feed selectively on plants with cyanoglycosides belonging to many plant families , but preferentially to passifloraceae , and all neotropical species with a known life cycle feed on asteraceae only . here , a molecular phylogeny is proposed for the butterflies of the tribe acraeini based on sequences of coi , ef - 1alpha and wgl . both maximum parsimony and bayesian analyses showed that the tribe is monophyletic , once the genus pardopsis is excluded , since it appears to be related to argynnini . the existing genus acraea is a paraphyletic group with regard to the south american genera , and the species of acraea belonging to the group of
old world actinote
is the sister group of the neotropical genera . the monophyly of south american clade is strongly supported , suggesting a single colonization event of south america . the new world actinote ( s . str . ) is monophyletic , and sister to abananote + altinote ( polyphyletic ) . based on the present results it was possible to propose a scenario for the evolution in host plant use within acraeini , mainly concerning the use of asteraceae by the south american genera .
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the root of the current tree connects the organisms featured in this tree to their containing group and the rest of the tree of life . the basal branching point in the tree represents the ancestor of the other groups in the tree . this ancestor diversified over time into several descendent subgroups , which are represented as internal nodes and terminal taxa to the right .
you can click on the root to travel down the tree of life all the way to the root of all life , and you can click on the names of descendent subgroups to travel up the tree of life all the way to individual species .
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this neotropical forest genus is characterized by expanded androconial areas on the costal margin of the hindwing in adult males .
etymology : turner 1976 named this new genus after the chilenian poet pablo neruda , who won the nobel prize for literature in 1971 .
turner jrg . 1976 . adaptive radiation and convergence in subdivisions of the butterfly genus heliconius ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) . zool . j . linn . soc . 58 : 297 - 308 .
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each tol branch page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a branch of the tree of life . the major distinction between a branch and a leaf of the tree of life is that each branch can be further subdivided into descendent branches , that is , subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .
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brower , a . v . z . 2000 . phylogenetic relationships among the nymphalidae ( lepidoptera ) , inferred from partial sequences of the wingless gene . proceedings of the royal society of london series b biological sciences 267 : 1201 - 1211 .
freitas , a . v . l . , and k . s . j . brown . 2004 . phylogeny of the nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) . systematic biology 53 : 363 - 383 .
wahlberg , n . , e . weingartner , and s . nylin . 2003 . towards a better understanding of the higher systematics of nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 28 : 473 - 484 .
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actinote discrepans photographed in rio grande do sul , brazil , in april 2010 .
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correspondence regarding this page should be directed to niklas wahlberg at and andrew v . z . brower at
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the nymphalidae is a family of several thousand species found in all zoogeographical regions of the world . most are medium or large in size , but the family is highly variable given that it also includes the satyrinae , a subfamily that has been designated as a family in its own right in earlier classifications .
the forelegs in both sexes are vestigial and useless for walking . in the male , there are typically only 2 tarsal joints and the legs have a brush - like appearance , resulting in a common name for this family - the
brush - footed butterflies
. the female foreleg has 4 tarsal joints which , when compared with the male , provides a mechanism of determining the sex of the adult . the midleg and hindleg are normal in both sexes and both tibia and tarsus may have spines .
the forewing always has 12 veins . given the variability of this family , there are no further distinguishing characteristics that apply to the family as a whole .
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silva - brandão kl 1 , wahlberg n , francini rb , azeredo - espin am , brown ks jr , paluch m , lees dc , freitas av .
depto . de zoologia , ib , universidade estadual de campinas , cp 6109 , cep 13083 - 970 , campinas , sp , brazil .
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american museum novitates novitates ( latin for
new acquaintances
) , published continuously and numbered consecutively since 1921 , are short papers that contain descriptions of new forms and reports in zoology , paleontology , and geology . new numbers are published at irregular intervals .
department of library services american museum of natural history central park west at 79th st . , new york , ny 10024 © american museum of natural history , 2011
towards a better understanding of the higher systematics of nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) . - pubmed - ncbi
towards a better understanding of the higher systematics of nymphalidae ( lepidoptera : papilionoidea ) .
department of zoology , stockholm university , s - 106 91 stockholm , sweden . niklas . wahlberg @ urltoken
higher classification is mainly after [ wahlberg ] , november 2005 , except some clump / split of genera is not done yet .
the exact identification of these species is still unknown , but tentatively assumed to belong into this group .
checklist of afrotropical papilionoidea and hesperoidea ; compiled by mark c . williams , 7th ed . ( 2008 ) ( april 2007 ) ;
vane - wright & de jong , 2003 the butterflies of sulawesi : annotated checklist for a critical island faunda zool . verh . leiden 343 : 3 - 268 , pl . 1 - 16
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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present address : department of biology , university of oregon , eugene or 97403 , u . s . a . e - mail : penz @ darkwing . uoregon . edu . from april 2000 : dept . invertebrate zoology , milwaukee public museum , 800 west wells street , milwaukee , wi 53233 , u . s . a .
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responsibility michael parsons . imprint san diego ; london : academic press , c1999 . physical description xvi , 736 p . , [ 172 ] p . of plates : ill . ( some col . ) , maps ; 30 cm .
zoologia ( curitiba , impr . ) vol . 28 no . 5 curitiba oct . 2011
i museo entomológico piedras blancas , comfenalco antioquia . medellín - colombia . e - mail : paduve12 @ urltoken ii grupo de entomología universidad de antioquia geua , universidad de antioquia . calle 67 , no . 53 - 108 , medellín - colombia , aa 1226 . e - mail : mwolff @ urltoken
the immature stages ( eggs , larvae and pupae ) , oviposition and larval behavior of altinote ozomene ( godart , 1819 ) are described here for the first time . larvae were reared from egg clutches collected from the host plants erato vulcanica ( klatt ) h . rob and munnozia senecionidis benth ( asteraceae ) . eggs were laid in groups on the undersides of leaves . the number of instars varied from five to eight within the same egg clutch , and the corresponding development time from larva to adult varied from 91 to 115 days . most ( 72 % ) larvae pupated during the sixth instar . the first four instars fed only on the leaf cuticle , whereas later instars consumed the whole leaf . larvae were gregarious during all instars but rested together only during the day in later instars , either hidden inside dry leaves , on the stem at the base of the host plants , or in the leaf litter . larvae showed similar morphology and behavior to those previously described for species of actinote hübner , 1819 from southeastern brazil and the andes .
key words : host plant ; immature behavior ; lepidoptera ; life cycle ; neotropical .
the nymphalid acraeini ( lepidoptera ) comprises between one and seven genera , depending on the taxonomy adopted , and occurs both in the neotropics and the old world , with the greatest diversity in africa ( silva - brandão et al . 2008 ) . three genera are found in the neotropics : actinote hübner , 1819 , abananote potts , 1943 and altinote potts , 1943 ( lamas 2004 ) . according to the most recent phylogeny of acraeini , which was proposed by silva - brandão et al . ( 2008 ) , altinote and abananote are embedded within actinote . several species , however , were not included in that study , including altinote ozomene ( godart , 1819 ) . given the current disarray in the systematics of acraeinae at the generic level , knowledge of the morphology and biology of the immature stages of the species in this subfamily could be of particular value in developing a stable classification ( harvey 1991 , penz 1999 , penz & peggie 2003 , freitas & brown 2004 , silva - brandão et al . 2008 ) .
most of the existing descriptions of the immature stages of neotropical acraeini involve members of actinote ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . currently , no detailed descriptions exist for species of altinote , except for brief notes on altinote ozomene nox ( h . w . bates , 1864 ) ( sensu lamas 2004 , harvey 1983 , devries 1987 ) . the present paper thus provides the most complete description to date of the biology and morphology of the immature stages of an altinote species , focusing on al . ozomene .
the study was conducted between january 2006 and december 2009 in the parque ecológico piedras blancas nature reserve in the northeastern region of medellín , colombia ( 6º17 ' 40 . 68
n , 75º30 ' 4 . 32
w ) . the altitude at this site is 2350 m , and the average temperature is 15ºc . the area consists primarily of large pine plantations interspersed with small fragments of native forest dominated by quercus humboldtii bonpl ( fagaceae ) . observations of the behavior of the immature stages were conducted in the field . host plants were identified , collected and deposited in the herbarium of the universidad de antioquia ( hua ) .
eggs were collected in the field and taken to the laboratory where they were reared in plastic containers with host plant leaves . to determine the time spent in the embryonic phase ( from oviposition to eclosion of the eggs ) , five egg clusters were observed daily after oviposition . to determine the time spent in each larval instar , 4680 eggs from 39 egg clusters collected in the field were monitored daily from the hatching of larvae to the emergence of adults .
the samples of first instar larvae were placed in acetic acid for 48 hours , and the samples of other instars were fixed in kahle solution ( borror & delong 1971 ) and then transferred to 80 % ethyl alcohol . adults were mounted on entomological pins and deposited in the museo entomológico de piedras blancas ( mepb ) and in the laboratorio de colecciones entomológicas , universidad de antioquia ( ceua ) . in the following descriptions , t1 - t3 refer to thorax segments and a1a10 to abdominal segments . chaetotaxy of the first instar is described using the terminology of stehr ( 1987 ) . body length was measured at each stage using a millimeter rule under a stereomicroscope .
eggs of al . ozomene were collected from leaves of the asteraceae plants erato vulcanica ( klatt ) h . rob ( fig . 1 ) and munnozia senecionidis benth ( fig . 2 ; velez et al . 2008 ) . the former is a shrub , 4 m in height , with a 5 - cm diameter stem ; the latter has a prostrate habit of growth . both species are abundant in the study area , especially in open areas , scrub and forest edges and along stream margins , paths and tracks ( toro 2000 ) .
eggs were laid in clusters on the undersides of leaves . females typically alighted on the underside of the leaf around noon and remained there for over 2 . 5 hours , laying eggs ( fig . 3 ) . eggs and / or larvae were often found concentrated on plants within close proximity . eggs were sometimes laid on plants where eggs or larvae were already present ( up to two egg clutches were found on the same plant ) , generally on different leaves on large plants , and rarely on the same leaf . the number of eggs in each clutch varied from 100 to 380 ( n = 39 clutches ) . several clutches included four or five infertile eggs ( fig . 6 ) . larvae from clutches that contained fewer than 30 viable eggs ( either because oviposition was interrupted or because most of the eggs died from fungal attack ) died within the first three instars .
eggs from a single clutch hatched within 24 hours of one another . in 92 % ( 36 ) of the clutches , the number of instars varied within the same clutch from five to eight ( tab . i ) . in each of the other three clutches , all larvae showed the same number of instars : five in one clutch and six in the other two clutches . most of the larvae that reached adulthood ( 72 % , n = 349 ) pupated during the sixth instar , and 17 % pupated during the seventh instar ( tab . i ) .
the total developmental time was directly related to the number of molts : the time from egg to adult was 91 , 97 , 110 and 115 days for larvae that passed through five to eight instars , respectively ( tab . i ) . this is related to the fact that all instars are of similar duration ( 8 - 10 days ) , except for the final instar ( whether it is the fifth or the eighth ) , which typically lasts 13 - 14 days ( tab . i ) . however , a few larvae that passed through more than five instars pupated after only two or three days in their last instar . no relationship was observed between either the number of instars or the total developmental time and the sex of the adult butterfly . after emerging from pupae , the adults spend two or three days hanging , eliminating meconium , before they fly .
eggs ( figs 4 - 5 ) of al . ozomene are 0 . 6 - 0 . 8 mm in diameter , 0 . 9 - 1 . 1 in height ( n = 14 ) and barrel shaped , with a flat base adhered to the leaf and a flat apical region . the micropyle region resembles a rosette , with tiny ridges surrounded by a ring of polygonal cells , and a similar ring is present in the preapical area . slightly elevated longitudinal ridges run from the apex to the base , varying in number from 17 to 22 ( n = 16 ) and separated by slight grooves . poorly defined transverse ridges are also observed . eggs are ivory - colored from oviposition until the day preceding eclosion , when they become translucent , with the dark - colored head of the larva visible in the apical region . in many cases , the apical region of the egg was observed to be covered with a drop of viscous , transparent liquid throughout the embryonic period . eggs without this liquid were observed to develop a fungus .
first instar larvae ( figs 6 - 12 ) have a round , smooth head without scoli and with golden setae . the body is cylindrical , without scoli and with simple , dark brown setae arising from sclerotized brown pinacula standing out slightly from the skin . the head is black , and the body is ivory - colored immediately after hatching , becoming greenish - white the next day , once food is observable through the translucent skin . the prothoracic shield and anal shield are dark brown . the thorax becomes brown or chestnut and is darkest in t1 and fades through t3 . a1 is brown or dark yellowish ochre , and a2 is similar but has diffuse brown dorsolateral marks . the rest of abdomen is pale , clear yellow or greenish - yellow due to food showing through the skin .
chaetotaxy is illustrated in figures 10 - 12 . d1 and d2 are present in all body segments . d1 is posterior and dorsal to d2 in t1 and anterior and dorsal to d2 in the remaining segments . d1 is shorter in a1 - a7 than in a8 - a9 . sd2 is absent in a1 - a9 . l2 is absent in t2 , t3 and a9 , and l3 is absent in all segments . sv1 is present in all segments . sv2 is absent in a1 , a7 , a8 and a9 . sv1 and sv2 originate on the same sclerotized plate in a2 and are located on the lateral shield , outside of the prolegs , in a3 - a6 , with sv2 being anterior and shorter and sv1 lateral and longer . sv3 is found on t1 and a10 and sometimes on t2 and / or t3 . v1 is present on a1 , a2 and a10 . the coxae of the thoracic legs are surrounded by a laterally open , chitinous horseshoe - shaped plate with five setae : one anterior , one posterior and three setae on the internal mesal margin . exv1 is located very close to the midline in a10 , and the setae on both sides of the body originate on the same plate . the spiracles are circular and are larger on t1 and a8 , with protruding edges .
second instar larvae ( fig . 13 ) exhibit a shiny black head with thin pale setae , a translucent white clypeus , a brown labrum and a brown mandible . the thorax and a1 are generally brown , and the other abdominal segments are creamy yellow , with or without diffuse brown marks . on a few individuals , the abdomen is dark brown . from the second instar on , the larvae have ivory - colored infraspiracular bands that generally extend from t1 to a10 , and the subventral and ventral regions of the abdomen are creamy yellow . scoli are generally brown on the thorax and on a1 , and the abdominal infraspiracular scoli are creamy yellow . the other scoli vary from brown to creamy yellow . the scoli setae range from chestnut and creamy yellow to brown .
the head is smooth , without scoli , spines or chalazae . a pair of dorsal scoli is arranged linearly on each segment except for a10 , where it is absent . the t1 scoli are slightly longer than the remaining thoracic scoli , and the abdominal scoli are uniform in size and slightly smaller than those of t3 . from a1 to a8 , a second line of supraspiracular scoli appears below the dorsal scoli , each slightly anterior to a spiracle . one scolus is present adjacent to the anal shield on a10 , in line with the other supraspiracular scoli on the abdomen . in the lateral region of the thorax , one scolus appears between t1 and t2 and another between t2 and t3 ; both of these are in line with the abdominal spiracles . a third line of infraspiracular scoli that are posterior to the spiracles also appears on a1 to a8 . these scoli are the same size as the supraspiracular scoli and slightly shorter than the dorsal scoli on the abdomen .
the chitinous prothoracic shield is shiny black and almost oval in shape , with two setae that are longer than the dorsal scoli of the same segment . the anal shield is black , round and convex . chitinous plate on t1 - t3 and a9 , located below dorsal scolus : on t1 above spiracle , almost triangular in shape , with several setae , on t2 , t3 and a9 rounded in shape ; very small plate under these : on t1 anterior and opposite spiracle , almost square in shape , with several setae , on t2 and t3 , posterior to lateral scoli , rounded in shape . only the plates on t1 protrude from the skin . subventral , elliptic verruca with numerous setae are present above each thoracic leg , and these are arched in t2 and t3 . several ventral setae are clustered together on a1 , a2 , a7 and a8 , with one seta in each cluster that is longer than the others . the circular spiracles are the same size on t1 and a8 and larger on the remaining segments . the spiracle on t1 is slightly more ventrally located .
the chitinous plate surrounding the coxa of each thoracic leg is horseshoe - shaped , outwardly open , and of the same dark brown or gray color as the legs . prolegs exhibit dark grey plates on their lateral margins , with uniserial , biordinal crochets arranged in a mesal penellipse . two small grey verrucae are present in the region posterior to a10 under the anus , one of which is inferior and smaller .
the arrangement of scoli , plates , and verrucae in the third through eighth instars is the same as described for the second instar .
third instar larvae ( figs 14 - 15 ) are slightly variable in coloration , but the thorax is generally brown , the abdomen is brown or dark chestnut , and the thorax and a1 are darker than the abdomen . the abdomen is creamy yellow below the infraspiracular band . the scoli on the thorax and the back of the abdomen are dark brown , the abdominal supraspiracular and infraspiracular scoli are creamy yellow , and the supraspiracular scoli on a1 are typically brown . the spiracles on t1 and a8 are elliptical , equal in size and slightly larger than those on the rest of the abdomen , which are circular .
fourth instar larvae ( figs 16 - 18 ) exhibit a shiny black head and a dark brown , almost black body . the scoli are generally brown , although the infraspiracular scoli tend to be creamy yellow but are also occasionally brown . all of the body plates , including the prothoracic and anal shields , are shiny and black .
fifth to eighth instar larvae ( figs 19 - 21 ) are very similar to the fourth instar and to each other in color and morphology ( except in the shape of the spiracle ; see below ) , whether in their last instar or not . for example , all sixth instar larvae are similar to each other regardless of whether they then molt to a seventh instar larvae or whether they pupate . after the fifth instar , all body spiracles are elliptical in shape .
body length varies considerably within and between the fifth to eighth instars ( tab . ii ) . for example , in some cases , fifth instar larvae have the same body length as those of the sixth , seventh or eighth instars ; yet at the same time , sibling larvae at the same instar can exhibit differences in length of up to 10 mm . no relationship was found between the size of the larvae and the number of molts . the larvae pupated independently of their final size ( 25 - 40 mm ) . although it was not determined whether adult size is related to the size of the last instar larvae , it seems likely that the smaller pupating larvae become male butterflies , which are smaller than females .
pupae ( figs 23 - 24 ) are white , with thin , discontinuous black lines on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the abdomen and a thick discontinuous band on both sides of the ventral midline that forms a barrel - like figure on each segment . a black outline is present on the proboscis , legs , antennae , eyes , labrum and wings . the clypeus and labrum are black . barely noticeable tiny black setae are distributed over the entire body , except the wing pads , antennae and legs . the cephalic region contains a pair of small protuberances , and the pronotum and mesonotum each possess a pair of aligned dorsal protuberances ; these proturbances decrease in size on the metanotum , where they appear only as small buttons . t2 exhibits a lateral protuberance at the base of the wings , crossed by a thick black line . lateral projections are present at the base of the wing pads . the spiracles on t1 are crescent - shaped and partially visible . the spiracles on a1 are hidden , those on a2 are hidden at the posterior end , and all others are elliptical and black . five pairs of identically shaped black dorsal spines without ramifications or setae appear on a2 to a6 , along the same line as the thoracic protuberances . a v - shaped marking that opens toward the anterior end appears at the base of each spine on a3 - a7 . posterior to this v - shaped marking , there is a transverse line and several supraspiracular lines . a cremaster formed by the ventral region of a9 and the dorsal and ventral regions of a10 is completely modified into a corrugated black structure .
larvae emerge at the preapical region of the egg ( fig . 5 ) and immediately feed on the chorion and on infertile eggs , if present . all activities including feeding , molting , resting and displacing are gregarious , from hatching to adulthood .
within the first several hours after hatching , larvae form a close line such that each individual is in physical contact with its neighbors and begin to feed simultaneously , starting at the edge of the leaf ( fig . 9 ) . the first to fourth instars eat only the leaf cuticle ( figs . 9 and 16 ) and frequently consume less than half of the leaf before passing on to the next leaf . third and fourth instars rapidly devour the leaf cuticle ; the leaf then dries and folds and the two ends are joined with silk ( fig . 18 ) . the first instars weave silk threads on the leaf surface , forming a dense web , under which they move and deposit their feces ( figs . 9 and 18 ) or spend periods of rest or premolt .
beginning at the fifth or sixth instar , larvae rest during the day and become active in the early evening . beginning at 06 : 00 to 07 : 00 h , they climb down the stem , one after the other , and hide either among dry leaves attached to branches close to the ground , at the base of the stem , among cracks in the stem or under dry leaves on the ground near the plant ( fig . 22 ) . between 18 : 30 and 19 : 30 h , the larvae emerge from their hiding place and climb , single file , back up the stem of the same plant until they reach the leaves , where they form small groups to feed . in the later instars , the larvae feed simultaneously on the leaves from the edges ( fig . 19 ) and either eat the whole leaf or leave only the veins uneaten .
during the first four instars , larvae from different egg clutches do not mix ; each group remains on its own leaf . however , groups of older larvae may hide in the same places close to or on the ground , and these groups may mix when they climb back up the plant to feed . one or two later - instar larvae have been observed together with early - instar larvae on the same leaf . when larvae begin to pupate , they individually move three or four meters away from the host plant and attach themselves to the undersides of leaves on other plants at a minimum height of 60 cm above the ground .
larvae of the syrphid fly xanthandrus bucephalus ( wiedemann , 1830 ) ( diptera : syrphidae ) were observed preying on first - to third - instar al . ozomene larvae ( fig . 15 ) . this solitary predator apparently goes unnoticed inside the silk mass of larvae and feces . occasionally , spiders were also seen preying on larvae . larvae and pupae collected in the field were often found to be parasitized by different species of tachinidae ( diptera ) and braconidae ( hymenoptera ) . predation on adults was not observed .
during the first three or four instars , when one individual in a group is threatened , the whole group reacts simultaneously by raising their bodies , standing on the last pair of prolegs ( fig . 17 ) and / or moving the anterior half of the body rhythmically from side to side . older larvae entwine themselves together and fall freely from the leaf , suspended by a silk thread . when the pupae are disturbed , they move the first abdominal segments from one side to the other , forming an angle of up to 120º .
altinote ozomene adults were normally observed in open areas and at forest edges . males ( fig . 25 ) fly low , frequently alighting on the ground , and can be caught by hand . adults form small groups of four or five individuals while feeding on the ground or on avian ( duck ) excrement on the banks of a reservoir . on several occasions , adults were observed feeding on the ground together with males of gnathotriche mundina steinii ( dewitz , 1877 ) ( lepidoptera : nymphalidae ) , an unrelated species with a very similar wing pattern . females ( fig . 26 ) were observed less often than males .
altinote ozomene feed on asteraceae , as has also been observed of al . ozomene nox ( sensu lamas 2004 ; harvey 1983 , devries 1987 ) and species of actinote ( devries 1987 , paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , 2005 , francini et al . 2004 , 2005 , francini & freitas 2010 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . valencia et al . ( 2005 ) recorded clibadium sp . ( asteraceae ) as a host plant for al . ozomene in the western cordillera of the colombian andes .
as in all known species of actinote , al . ozomene lays egg clutches under leaves ( devries 1987 , paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , 2005 , francini et al . 2004 , 2005 , francini & freitas 2010 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . the maximum number of eggs per oviposition in al . ozomene is notably less than that in actinote pellenea pellenea hübner , 1821 ( francini & freitas 2010 ) and slightly less than that in actinote surima ( schaus , 1902 ) ( paluch et al . 1999 ) and ac . carycina jordan ( paluch et al . 2001 ; table iii ) . the number of eggs per oviposition in al . ozomene is likely a limiting factor for larval survival because first - instar larvae in groups of fewer than 20 died and larvae of the first four instars generally only survived if they were in large groups , which was probably due to a better response to leaf structural defenses . when the number of larvae is small , the silk web on which the larvae move is equally small ( pers . obs . ) , leaving the leaf trichomes exposed , which may impede larval displacement and anchorage on the leaf and therefore affect feeding , as suggested by fordyce & agrawal ( 2001 ) . in addition , oviposition in al . ozomene tends to occur in a grouped fashion , on closely spaced plants or on leaves of the same plants , as has been described for ac . pellenea pellenea ( francini & freitas 2010 ) . other factors , including habitat and plant characteristics , may also affect female preference during oviposition . although the general behavior of al . ozomene is similar to that described for species of actinote ( tab . iv ) , nocturnal gregarious feeding has only been recorded in al . ozomene , and hiding in dry leaves during later instars has only recently been described for ac . conspicua ( freitas et al . 2010 ) . however , in contrast to al . ozomene , larvae of ac . conspicua hide individually or in pairs and only during the last instar .
most species of actinote have univoltine or bivoltine life cycles ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , 2005 , francini et al . 2005 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . a multivoltine cycle is presently known for only ac . pellenea pellenea ( francini & freitas 2010 ) . since 2004 , we have found al . ozomene frequently throughout the year , at low densities , except during the second half of 2005 , when no adults or immature stages were found .
a variable number of instars , as observed here in al . ozomene , has never been recorded in actinote ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , paluch et al . 2005 , francini et al . 2005 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . however , our observations suggest that such variation may occur in other species of altinote ( unpubl . data ) , and further investigation of this phenomenon might reveal both why it occurs and whether it is restricted to this genus .
the immature stages of al . ozomene are similar to those of some species of actinote from brazil and the andes in several morphological features . these include the initial color , shape and size of the eggs , the body color and arrangement of the setae in the first instar , the absence of spines on the head , the arrangement of scoli in other instars , the shape of the pupa and the number and arrangement of its abdominal spines ( paluch et al . 1999 , 2001 , francini et al . 2005 , freitas et al . 2009a , b , 2010 ) . al . ozomene differs from the species of actinote in egg color during the days following oviposition ( the eggs become reddish in actinote ) and in the color pattern of the larvae after the first instar . additional studies are clearly needed to identify additional characters that vary within the tribe and thus might provide useful information for phylogenetic studies .
we thank eliana flórez , juan d . marín , diana grisales , andrés vélez , and marisol ortega for help with rearing the larvae in the laboratory and alvaro idarraga for the identification of the host plants . this study was funded by comfenalco - antioquia .
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valencia , c . a . ; z . n . gil & l . m . constantino . 2005 . mariposas diurnas de la zona central cafetera colombiana . guía de campo . chinchiná , cenicafé , 244p . [ links ]
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papilio doris linnaeus , 1771 ; mantissa plant . 2 : 356 ; tl :
surinami
[ surinam ]
crenis brylle hübner , 1821 ; index exot . lep . : [ 2 ]
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weymer , 1891 exotische lepidopteren . v stettin ent . ztg 51 ( 7 - 12 ) : 280 - 294
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