biston strataria , the oak beauty , is a moth of the family geometridae .

it is native to europe , but is primarily found in the united kingdom .

b. strataria is found in a variety of habitats , but is mostly found in woodlands where it rests on the bark of trees , camouflaged by its mottled black and grey wings .

the male has feather-like antennae while those of the female are more thread-like .

the moth has a wingspan of 40 to 56 mm ( 1.6 to 2.2 in ) .

the larvae are mainly brown with three lumps near the end of the abdomen .

they have evolved to resemble sticks which helps protect them from predators .

the larvae feed on many species of trees , but the most commonly used host plants are oaks .

biston strataria

aedeagus of biston . 105 biston bengaliaria 106 biston pustulata 107 biston suppressaria 108 biston regalis 109 biston brevipennata 110 biston quercii 111 biston falcata falcata ( holotype of amphidasis erilda ) 112 biston falcata falcata 113 biston falcata satura 114 biston thibetaria 115 biston panterinaria panterinaria 116 biston panterinaria exanthemata . scale bar = 1 mm .
oak beauty ( biston strataria ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .
male genitalia of biston . 70 biston melacron 71 biston marginata 72 biston thoracicaria 73 biston betularia parva 74 biston betularia nepalensis 75 biston robustum . scale bar = 1 mm .
male genitalia of biston . 76 biston mediolata sp . n . 77 biston contectaria 78 biston bengaliaria 79 biston pustulata 80 biston suppressaria 81 biston regalis . scale bar = 1 mm .
male genitalia of biston . 95 biston panterinaria panterinaria . from chebaling , shixing , guangdong 96 biston panterinaria exanthemata . scale bar = 1 mm . aedeagus of biston . 97 biston melacron 98 biston marginata 99 biston thoracicaria 100 biston betularia parva 101 biston betularia nepalensis 102 biston robustum 103 biston mediolata sp . n . 104 biston contectaria . scale bar = 1 mm .
habitat : biston strataria colonizes deciduous trees rich stocks of all kinds , especially forests , but also grasslands with trees , hedges and gardens .
remarks : the distribution extends from morocco across europe and most of temperate asia . in central europe biston strataria is common in most regions .
male genitalia of biston . 82 biston brevipennata 83 biston quercii 84–88 . biston falcata 84 biston falcata falcata ( holotype of amphidasis erilda ) 85 biston falcata falcata ( nyalam , tibet ) 86 biston falcata falcata ( mainling , tibet ) 87 biston falcata satura ( zhouqu , gansu ) 88 biston falcata satura ( shalin , gansu ) . scale bar = 1 mm .
female genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 117 biston marginata 118 biston thoracicaria 119 biston betularia parva 120 biston betularia nepalensis . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )
female genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 121 biston mediolata sp . n . 122 biston bengaliaria 123 biston suppressaria 124 biston regalis . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )
biston leach , 1815 , brewster’s edinburgh encyclopaedia , 9 : 134 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schiffermüller , 1775 ( = phalaena strataria ( hufnagel , 1767 ) ) , by subsequent designation by westwood , 1840 .
antennae of biston . 1 bipectinate , with long rami ( male of biston melacron ) 2 bipectinate , with short rami ( male of biston thibetaria ) 3 filiform ( female of biston betularia ) . scale bar = 1 mm .
female genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 125 biston falcata falcata ( diqing , yunnan ) 126 biston falcata falcata ( gyirong , tibet ) 127 biston falcata satura ( zhouqu , gansu ) 128 biston thibetaria . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )
female genitalia of biston and enlarged view of signum . 129 biston panterinaria panterinaria 130 biston panterinaria exanthemata . scale bar for female genitalia = 1 mm . ( s = signum )
adults of biston . 4 – 6 biston melacron . 4 male ( holotype 5 male 6 ditto , underside 7 – 10 biston marginata . 7 male 8 ditto , underside 9 female 10 ditto , underside 11 – 12 biston thoracicaria . 11 male 12 female 13 – 16 biston betularia parva . 13 male ( holotype of biston huberaria tienschana ) 14 male ( holotype of biston cognataria sinitibetica ) 15 mal 16 female 17 – 18 biston betularia nepalensis . 17 male 18 female 19 – 20 biston robustum . 19 male ( holotype of biston robustum kiangsua ) 20 male . scale bar = 1 cm .
here , we divide the chinese biston into three species groups based on morphological characters . group i includes the “typical” species of biston . group ii includes biston brevipennata inoue , 1982 and the species which were treated in the subgenus eubyjodonta of biston by wehrli ( 1941 ) . group iii includes biston perclara ( warren , 1899 ) , biston thibetaria ( oberthür , 1886 ) and biston panterinaria ( bremer & grey , 1853 ) which was considered slightly different from the typical species of biston by sato ( 1996 ) .
the external characters of this species are close to those of biston suppressaria and biston inouei holloway , 1994 ( borneo ) , but it can be distinguished from those species by the following differences : this species ( length of forewing : 27–28 mm in male ) is larger than biston suppressaria and smaller than biston inouei ; the protrusion between m 1 and m 3 of the forewing postmedial line is relatively acute , but blunt or bilobed in biston suppressaria and biston inouei ; the hindwing basal line is more distinct in biston contectaria and biston inouei ; the projection between m 1 and m 3 of the the hindwing postmedial line is relatively acute in biston contectaria and biston suppressaria , but blunt in biston inouei . in the male genitalia , the apex of the uncus is broader than that of biston suppressaria and biston inouei , and is almost not bifurcated ; the median process of the gnathos is shorter and round distally , whereas it is longer and pointed in biston suppressaria and biston inouei ; the costa and the ventral margin of the valva are curved , while those of biston suppressaria and biston inouei are less curved or even incurved or concavely curved ; the costa is expanded and has dense setae basally , while it is straight in biston suppressaria and biston inouei ; the juxta is shorter and less pointed apically .
biston luculentus inoue , 1992 , described from se . thailand , is similar to biston suppressaria benescripta , but has the transverse lines even more clearly expressed ( e . g . see fig . 37 which is almost identical with biston luculentus ) . like biston suppressaria benescripta , also the biston luculentus form occurs sympatrically with typical biston suppressaria suppressaria or with biston suppressaria benesparsa wehrli , the latter being a rather rare form , at many places . also at the type locality of biston luculentus ( prov . chanthaburi , khao soi dao ) it occurs together with typical suppressaria ( coll . zfmk ) comparison of the genitalia of the two revealed no differences . thus we follow stüning ( in litt . ) and synonymize biston luculentus with biston suppressaria . besides , we also believe that the strange , almost patternless female figured by inoue ( 1992 ) as paratype of biston luculentus , belongs to another , still unidentified species .
adults of biston . 43 biston brevipennata , male 44 – 45 biston quercii . 44 female ( holotype ) 45 male 46 – 53 biston falcata . 46 male ( holotype of amphidasis erilda ) 47 male ( holotype of biston erilda satura ) 48 female ( holotype of biston emarginaria ) 49 female ( holotype of amphidasis clorinda ) 50 male ( lijiang , yunnan ) 5 1 female ( gyirong , tibet ) 52 male ( zhouqu , gansu ) 53 female ( zhouqu , gansu ) . scale bar = 1 cm .
the genus biston leach , 1815 is reviewed for china . seventeen species are recognized , of which biston mediolata sp . n . is described . biston pustulata ( warren , 1896 ) and biston panterinaria exanthemata ( moore , 1888 ) are newly recorded for china . the following new synonyms are established : biston suppressaria suppressaria ( guenée , 1858 ) ( = biston suppressaria benescripta ( prout , 1915 ) , syn . n . = biston luculentus inoue , 1992 syn . n . ) ; biston falcata ( warren , 1893 ) ( = amphidasis erilda oberthür , 1910 , syn . n . = amphidasis clorinda oberthür , 1910 , syn . n . = biston emarginaria leech , 1897 , syn . n . ) ; biston panterinaria panterinaria ( bremer & grey , 1853 ) ( = biston panterinaria abraxata ( leech , 1889 ) , syn . n . = biston panterinaria lienpingensis ( wehrli , 1939 ) , syn . n . = b . panterinaria szechuanensis ( wehrli , 1939 ) , syn . n . ) . biston falcata satura ( wehrli , 1941 ) , comb . n . is proposed . a key to chinese biston and diagnoses for chinese species are provided . illustrations of external features and genitalia are presented .
adults of biston . 31 – 32 biston pustulata . 31 male 32 ditto , underside . 33 – 40 biston suppressaria . 33 male ( holotype of biston suppressaria benesparsa ) 34 ditto , underside 35 male ( cili , hunan ) 36 ditto , underside 37 male ( diaoluoshan , hainan ) 38 male ( bawangling , hainan ) 39 female 40 ditto , underside ; 41 – 42 biston regalis . 41 male 42 female . scale bar = 1 cm .
biston perclara : prout , 1914 , ent . mitt . , berlin 3 : 264 .
adults of biston . 64 – 65 biston panterinaria panterinaria . 64 female ( fangshan , beijing ) 65 female ( yingtaogou , beijing ) ; 66 – 69 biston panterinaria exanthemata . 66 male 67 ditto , underside 68 female 69 ditto , underside . scale bar = 1 cm .
adults of biston . 21 – 24 biston mediolata sp . n . 21 male ( holotype ) 22 ditto , underside 23 female ( paratype ) 24 ditto , underside . 25 – 26 biston contectaria . 25 male 26 ditto , underside ; 27 – 30 biston bengaliaria . 27 male 28 ditto , underside 29 female 30 ditto , underside . scale bar = 1 cm .
biston quercii : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 359 .
final instar larva and metamorphosis of biston pustulata in singapore ( lepidoptera : geometridae : ennominae ) .
two new species of the genus biston ( lepidoptera , geometridae , ennominae ) from central asia .
male genitalia of biston . 89 biston thibetaria ; 90 – 94 . biston panterinaria panterinaria . 90 from sanpu , beijing 91 from dayu , jiangxi 92 from wuyanling , taishun , zhejiang 93 from taiyuan , pengshui , sichuan 94 from chebaling , shixing , guangdong . scale bar = 1 mm .
biston suppressaria : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 247 .
biston falcata : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 246 .
two new species of the genus biston leach from malaysia and the philippines ( lepidoptera , geometridae ) .
biston contectaria : yazaki , 1992 , in haruta , tinea , 13 ( suppl . 2 ) : 33 .
biston bengaliaria : yazaki , 1992 , in haruta , tinea , 13 ( suppl . 2 ) : 33 .
adults of biston . 54 biston perclara , male 55 – 57 biston thibetaria . 55 male ( syntype ) 56 male 57 female 58 – 63 biston panterinaria panterinaria . 58 male ( syntype of culcula panterinaria lienpingensis ) 59 female ( syntype of culcula panterinaria szechuanensis ) 60 male ( dayu , jiangxi ) 61 male ( jiulianshan , jiangxi ) 62 male ( shixing , guangdong ) 63 male ( pengshui , sichuan ) . scale bar = 1 cm .
biston contectaria walker , sensu xue , 1992a ; in liu , iconography of forest insects in hunan china : 880 .
biston ( cusiala ) bengaliaria : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 247 .
biston panterinaria : sato , 1996 , trans . lepid . soc . japan , 47 ( 4 ) : 223–236 .
the subspecies of biston regalis from china is biston regalis comitata ( warren , 1899 ) ( eubyjodonta comitata warren , 1899 , novit . zool . , 6 : 50 . syntypes 2♂ , russia : amurland , sidemi . ( bmnh ) ) .
biston thibetaria : parsons et al . , 1999 , geometrid moths of the world , a catalogue , 1 : 88 .
peppered moth - biston betularia f . insularia - thierry - mieg , 1886 - 30w skinner - fleet - 9 june 2015
latin name : biston strataria size : wingspan approximately 55mm distribution : found throughout england and wales . less common in scotland and n . i . months seen : march to may . habitat : woods , parks and gardens . food : caterpillars feed on various trees including oak ( hence the name ) , hazel and alder . special features : the oak beauty is mostly white , dappled with alternate bands of brown and black . it flies at night and is readily attracted to light . uk safari moth section
biston thoracicaria : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 359 , pl . 19 : g .
biston betularia : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 358 , pl . 19 : g .
biston regalis : prout , 1915 , in seitz , macrolepid . world , 4 : 359 , pl . 19 : h .
biston falcata clorinda : parsons et al . , 1999 , geometrid moths of the world , a catalogue , 1 : 86 .
the external characters of this species are close to those of biston marginata as follows : the male antennae are partially bipectinate and filiform at tip ; the forewing postmedial line bilobedly protrudes between m 1 and m 3 , and slightly protrudes outwards between cua 2 and 1a + 2a . but it can be distinguished from biston marginata by the following characters : the hindwing outer margin is concave between m 1 and m 3 , whereas it is evenly round in biston marginata ; the transverse lines are black but dark brown in biston marginata ; the hindwing postmedial line is waved after m 3 , but straight in biston marginata ; the transverse lines on the underside of the wings are more conspicuous . the most distinct differences are in the male genitalia : the apex of the uncus is broader and bifurcated , whereas it is narrower and round in biston marginata ; the median process of the gnathos is broader and round terminally , while in biston marginata , it is slenderer and acute apically ; the setose area of the valva is much weaker ; the juxta is narrower , and sharply pointed apically , while in biston marginata , it is broader and round apically ; the cornutus is shortly digitiform , but is thornlike in biston marginata . in the female genitalia ( inoue 1977 ) , the signum is much longer than in biston marginata .
biston ( cusiala ) bengaliaria f . contectaria : hampson , 1895 , fauna br . india ( moths ) , 3 : 248 .
biston pustulata : holloway , 1994 , malay . nat . j . , 47 : 210 , pl . 12 , fig . 452 .
biston ( buzura ) suppressaria : wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 436 .
there are two chinese subspecies of biston robustum , they are biston robustum robustum butler , 1879 and biston robustum subrobustum inoue , 1964 ( biston robustum subrobustum inoue , 1964 , kontyû , 32 ( 2 ) : 338 , pl . 8 , fig . 3 . holotype ♂ , taiwan ( central ) : puli . ( bmnh ) ) . the former is distributed in the mainland china , the latter is distributed in taiwan . the description of biston robustum kiangsua wehrli was based on a single , rather aberrant specimen , with a single printed label “shanghai china” . similar forms occur in japan , as mentioned by wehrli ( 1941 ) . so this name very probably does not denote a valid subspecies and it is synonymized correctly .
the external characters of this species are close to those of biston betularia as follows : the male antennae are partially bipectinate and filiform at apex ; the forewing postmedial line protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 and between cua 2 and 1a + 2a ; the discal spots of both wings are stripe - like . but it can be distinguished from biston betularia by the following characters : distinctly smaller ; the wing colour is dark brown , but greyish black in biston betularia ; the hindwing basal line is present , but absent in biston betularia ; the forewing r 1 and r 2 are separate , but stalked in biston betularia . in the male genitalia , the apex of the uncus and the median process of the gnathos are more slender than those of biston betularia ; the valva is more slender and longer ; the juxta is much narrower ; the cornutus is small and spine - like , whereas biston betularia has two kinds of cornuti , one is a large bundle of spines , the other is a small tuft of spines . in the female genitalia , the corpus bursae is curved in the anterior half , while in biston betularia , it is expanded posteriorly and narrow medially ; the signum is elliptic , with several small marginal spines , whereas it is bar - like and without marginal spines in biston betularia .
other beautiful bark mimics include the closely related , large and impressive oak beauty ( biston strataria ) ( photo 5 ) whose larvae also develop on a range of tree species ( including oak ) , and the somewhat smaller common carpet ( epirrhoe alternata ) ( photo 6 ) . the latter often finds its way into houses at night when the lights are on and the wind - ows have been left open . despite its name it does not pose any danger to floor coverings , the name solely based on its appearance not its feeding habits , the larvae being found on bedstraws and cleavers .
the genus biston resembles cusiala moore and iulotrichia warren in : the postmedial lines of both wings often protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; the apex of the uncus is often bifurcated . but biston differs from cusiala and iulotrichia in the following characters : the forewing fovea of the male is absent in biston but present in cusiala and iulotrichia ; in the male genitalia , the aedeagus vesica has numerous , very small , spine - like cornuti , arranged as two pair of longitudinal combs in cusiala and iulotrichia , which is absent in biston . the members of biston also resemble lycia hübner , 1825 and cochisea barnes & mcdunnough , 1916 , both of which belong to the former bistonini . but both of these genera can be distinguished from biston by the single pair of spurs on the hind tibia , as well as apterous or brachypterous female in lycia , and absence of the tongue in cochisea .
the purpose of this paper is , to review all known chinese biston species , to determine their diagnostic characters , to develope a key for their determination and to provide illustrations of external features and genitalia ; furthermore , one new species , biston mediolata sp . n . , will be described , biston pustulata ( warren , 1896 ) will be recorded as new for the fauna of china and several new synonyms and a new combination will be proposed . this results , to our present knowledge , in 17 species and nine subspecies of biston for the fauna of china and 52 species with 33 subspecies worldwide .
the diagnostic characters of external morphology of the species can be seen in the previous species . the male genitalia of the species are close to those of biston suppressaria . but it can be distinguished from the latter by the following characters : the vesica is less strongly sclerotized posteriorly ; the cornutus is small and spine - like but absent in biston suppressaria . the female genitalia are similar to those of biston betularia , but they differ in the following characters : the ductus bursae is shorter and the antrum is absent ; the corpus bursae is almost even in width , while in biston betularia it is enlarged , wrinkled and weakly sclerotized posteriorly , narrow medially and swollen anteriorly ; the signum is oval with several marginal spines , but a transverse bar in biston betularia .
biston robustum kiangsua wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 433 , pl . 36 : b . holotype ♂ , china : shanghai . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston robustum robustum by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )
biston cognataria alexandrina wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 432 , pl . 36 : a . syntypes 4♂ , kirghizstan : alexander mountains . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia betularia by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )
descriptions of a new species and a new subspecies of the genus biston leach from the philippines , with notes on the two known species ( geometridae , ennominae ) .
the external characters of this species are close to those of biston contectaria , but it can be distinguished from that species by the following differences : the wings are pale yellow but white in biston contectaria ; the forewing postmedial line is much narrower and protruding outwards between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , while in biston contectaria , it is broader and without such a protrusion ; the discal spot on the hindwing upperside is large , round , black , while in biston contectaria it is almost absent ; the discal spots on the underside of both wings are larger and heavier . the male genitalia are close to those of biston suppressaria , but it can be distinguished by the square apex of the juxta , the shorter median process of the gnathos and the presence of a cornutus which is a short spinous patch . the female genitalia are similar to those of biston suppressaria . but it differs in that the corpus bursae is coiled anteriorly ; the signum is longer and narrower ; the ostium bursae is more strongly sclerotized .
holloway ( 1994 ) proposed a very broad concept of the tribe boarmiini which also subsumed the previously separate tribe bistonini , and provided the diagnostic characters for the genus biston .
biston cognataria sinitibetica wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 433 , pl . 36 : a . syntypes ♂ , ♀ , china ( west ) : kangding . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia parva leech , 1897 by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )
biston ( eubyjodonta ) quercii : wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 434 , pl . 36 : f .
biston ( eubyjodonta ) huberaria tienschana wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 435 , pl . 36 : d , g . holotype ♂ , china : xinjiang , ürümqi , tian - shan . ( zfmk ) ( treated as a synonym of biston huberaria by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )
biston robustum butler , 1879 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 5 ) 4 : 371 . syntype ( s ) , japan : yokohama . ( bmnh )
experiments were made to find out whether caterpillars of ennomos alniaria , biston strataria and b . hirtaria are protected from jays and chaffinches by their resemblance to sticks . being used to the inedibility of sticks , the birds do not peck at the larvae . however , once it has found one by accident , a bird will usually peck at all similar objects until it is discouraged by finding only sticks . the original situation is then restored . the caterpillars are confused only with sticks of their own food plants , and some birds are able to distinguish them even from these . even in its present highly refined form , therefore , the adaptation does not yet give the maximum possible protection , and all steps in its evolution will have had a considerable selective advantage .
the larva is often twig - like with the characteristic 45 degree resting posture and an obtusely cleft head ( holloway 1994 ) . singh ( 1953 ) recorded the larva of biston suppressaria ( guenée , 1858 ) . issiki et al . ( 1977 ) illustrated the larva of biston robustum butler , 1879 . yamamoto et al . ( 1987 ) described and illustrated the larvae of biston betularia ( linnaeus , 1758 ) , biston robustum , biston regalis ( moore , 1888 ) and biston panterinaria . wagner ( 2001 ) recorded the larva of biston betularia . sato ( 2001 ) described the larva of biston marginata shiraki , 1913 . leong ( 2009 ) gave a description of the final instar larva and metamorphosis of biston pustulata . most species are highly polyphagous . the larval host plants have been recorded from the families aceraceae , adoxaceae , anacardiaceae , apocynaceae , aquifoliaceae , asteraceae , berberidaceae , betulaceae , bombacaceae , cannabaceae , caprifoliaceae , celastraceae , compositae ( asteraceae ) , cornaceae , corylaceae , cupressaceae , elaeagnaceae , ericaceae , euphorbiaceae , fagaceae , ginkgoaceae , grossulariaceae , guttiferae ( clusiaceae ) , iridaceae , juglandaceae , lardizabalaceae , lauraceae , leguminosae ( fabaceae ) , lythraceae , meliaceae , melianthaceae , myricaceae , myrtaceae , oleaceae , palmae , pinaceae , platanaceae , rhamnaceae , rosaceae , rutaceae , salicaceae , sapindaceae , sterculiaceae , styracaceae , solanceae , theaceae , tiliaceae , ulmaceae , verbenaceae ( summarized from inoue 1965 ; holloway 1994 ; zhang 1994 ; parsons et al . 1999 ; sato 2001 ; robinson et al . 2004 ) . patočka ( 2004 ) and patočka and turcani ( 2005 ) construct a key for the pupae of central european species . nakamura ( 2004 ) described and gave a key for the pupae of japanese species .
dasyphara billberg , 1820 , enumeratio insect . mus . g . j . billberg : 89 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schiffermüller , 1775 . [ junior objective synonym of biston leach . ]
übersicht über die afrikanischen arten der gattung biston leach , [ 1815 ] 1830 ( lepidoptera : geometridae : boarminae : boarmini ) . lambillionea 105 ( 1 ) ( supplement ii ) , mars : 1–34 .
amphidasis treitschke , 1825 , in ochsenheimer , schmett . eur . , 5 ( 2 ) : 434 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schiffermüller , 1775 . [ junior objective synonym of biston leach . ]
the wing pattern of this species is similar to that of biston exalbescens inoue , 2000 ( philippines ) as follows : the forewing postmedial line is weakly waved , broadly protruding outwards between r 5 and m 3 and below cua 2 ; the hindwing outer margin is concave between m 1 and m 3 ; the hindwing postmedial line protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; dark brown bands are present basally of the forewing antemedial line and distally of the postmedial line of both wings , and usually absent at apical area and between m 3 and cua 1 of the forewing . but the species can be distinguished from biston exalbescens by the following characters : the forewing antemedial line is thinner , the dark brown band basally of it is narrower ; the medial lines of both wings are less conspicuous . in the male genitalia , it differs in the much stronger central setose area of the valva ; the median process of the gnathos is spatulate terminally , but pointed in biston exalbescens ; the juxta is longer and narrower ; the vesica with two cornuti , a basal , oval plate with a lateral tooth and an elongate , sclerotized , spined fold . the female genitalia of this species are close to that of biston betularia , but it has a nearly triangular lamella postvaginalis , which is absent in biston betularia ; the ductus bursae is broader and sclerotized , without antrum ; the corpus bursae is pouched , but enlarged posteriorly and narrow medially in biston betularia ; the signum is almost oval , but bar - like in biston betularia .
biston marginata shiraki , 1913 , spec . rep . formosa agric . exp . stn , [ special reports no . 8 ] publication no . 68 : 433 , pl . 44 . syntypes , china : taiwan .
the wing pattern of this species is similar to that of biston contectaria as follows : the forewing outer margin is almost straight anteriorly ; the antemedial line is black , broad and almost straight ; the postmedial line acutely protrudes between m 1 and m 3 ; the medial lines of both wings are greyish yellow and indistinct ; pale yellow bands are present basally of the forewing antemedial line and distally of the postmedial line of both wings ; the hindwing basal line is black and distinct . but this species is smaller and can be distinguished by the following characters : the postmedial lines of both wings are narrower ; the forewing postmedial line weakly protrudes outwards between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , while in biston contectaria , it is straight ; the protrusion between m 1 and m 3 of the hindwing postmedial line is round but sharply angled in biston contectaria ; the discal spots on the underside of both wings are larger and heavier . in the male genitalia : the much broader uncus and valva of the new species are distinctly different from biston contectaria . the female genitalia are similar to those of biston panterinaria as follows : the apophyses posteriores are long ; the ostium bursae is sclerotized ; the ductus bursae is very short ; the corpus bursae is curved medially ; the signum is elliptic and narrow . but it can be distinguished from biston panterinaria by presence of the lamella postvaginalis .
this species is very close to biston pustulata , but we can distinguish it by the following characters : the protrusion between m 1 and m 3 of the forewing postmedial line is shorter , shallowly bilobed and sometimes round ; the projection between m 1 and m 3 of the hindwing postmedial line is round . in the male genitalia , it differs in the round apex of the juxta . the diagnostic characters of the female genitalia can be seen in biston bengaliaria .
biston brevipennata inoue , 1982b , bull . fac . domestic sci . , otsuma woman’s univ . , 18 : 176 , figs 40e , 41b . holotype ♂ , nepal : lete , 2400 m near nilgiri . ( bmnh )
biston fragilis inoue , 1958 , tinea , 4 ( 2 ) : 254 , pl . 34 , fig . 30 . holotype ♂ , japan : oita prefecture , saeki . ( bmnh ) ( synonymized by inoue ( 1965 ) )
? marmoraria sepp , 1792 , nederlandsche insecten , 2 : pl . 10 , pl . 11 , syntype ( s ) , netherlands . ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia betularia by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )
phalaena ( geometra ) ulmaria borkhausen , 1794 , natur . eur . schmett . , 5 : 181 . syntype ( s ) , europe . ( treated as a synonym of biston betularia betularia by parsons et al . ( 1999 ) )
the hainan specimen is different from specimens of bornean material in the distinct transverse lines and the more acute projection between m 1 and m 3 of the hindwing postmedial line . however , the male genitalia of the hainan specimen are almost indentical to those of biston pustulata from borneo which were illustrated by holloway ( 1994 ) . thus we classify the hainan specimen as biston pustulata . if these differences prove constant in a larger number of specimens , the hainan population should be described as a separate subspecies .
pachys hübner , 1822 , syst . - alphab . verz . : 38 – 44 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 52 . type species : geometra prodromaria denis & schiffermüller , 1775 . [ junior objective synonym of biston leach . ]
biston melacron wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 430 , pl . 35 : h . syntypes 3♂ , china : west tien - mu - shan , 1600 m . ( zfmk )
the external characters of this species are similar to those of biston thibetaria as follows : the forewing antemedial line and the postmedial lines of both wings are black and thick ; black patches are present distally of the forewing postmedial line between m 1 and m 3 , reaching the outer margin ; another smaller black patch is present distally of the forewing postmedial line below m 3 . but in this species the broad bands placed basally of the antemedial line of the forewing and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings are pale yellow and indistinct , whereas they are yellowish green and distinct in biston thibetaria ; the discal spots of both wings are less distinct or have completely vanished ; the forewing postmedial line is straight between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , while it is slightly excurved in biston thibetaria . the male genitalia of the species are almost identical to those of biston thibetaria . but the median process of the gnathos of the species is truncate apically and the incision of posterior margin of the juxta is less deep .
biston indeed has some typical features in common with the boarmiini : the postmedial lines of both wings often protrudes outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; in the male genitalia , the socii are usually absent ; the valva has a strong cucullus . however , biston also has some features atypical for boarmiini : a fovea is absent in the male forewing ; in the male genitalia , the valva is simple , without any ornamentation ( holloway 1994 ; pitkin 2002 ; viidalepp et al . 2007 ; young 2008 ) .
biston exotica inoue , 1977 , bull . fac . domestic sci . , otsuma woman‘s univ . , 13 : 322 , figs 65–67 . holotype ♂ , japan : kochi prefecture , kubokawa . ( bmnh ) ( synonymized by heppner and inoue ( 1992 ) )
biston ( buzura ) suppressaria f . benesparsa wehrli , 1941 , in seitz , gross - schmett . erde , 4 ( suppl . ) : 436 , pl . 36 : f . holotype ♂ , china : hunan , höng - shan . ( zfmk )
biston emarginaria leech , 1897 , ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 6 ) 19 : 322 , pl . 7 , fig . 8 . holotype ♀ , china : sichuan , pu - tsu - fong . ( bmnh ) , syn . n .
the external characters of this species are close to those of biston porphyria ( butler , 1889 ) ( india ) as follows : the male antennae are bipectinate to tip ; greyish brown bands are present basally of the antemedial line of the forewing and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings ; the forewing medial line converges with the postmedial line at 1a + 2a ; the hindwing postmedial line acutely protrudes between m 1 and m 3 ; the submarginal lines of both wings are dark grey . but the species can be distinguished by the following characters : this species ( length of forewing : 28–30 mm in male ) is larger than biston porphyria ; the wings are broader ; the hindwing medial line is more conspicuous . the male genitalia of the species are similar to those of biston betularia as follows : the apex of the uncus is bifurcated ; the median process of the gnathos is about one - half length of the uncus ; the juxta is long , narrow , and acute apically . but it can be distinguished from biston betularia by the longer and narrower valva and the absence of cornuti .
biston luculentus inoue , 1992 , bull . fac . domest . sci . otsuma wom . univ . , 28 : 171 , figs 59 , 60 , 62–64 . holotype ♂ , thailand : chanthaburi , khao soi dao , 400 m . ( uos ) , syn . n .
this species is very distinct and is easily recognizable by the thick black lines and yellowish green bands placed basally of the antemedial line of the forewing and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings , the large , black ringed and pale - centred discal spots on both wings , as well as the black - belted abdomen and the fresh yellow anal tuft . the male genitalia of biston thibetaria are close to those of biston panterinaria : the apex of the uncus is bifurcated and about four - fifths as long as the basal width ; the median process of the gnathos is short and round apically ; the valva is broad basally and narrow apically ; the ventral margin of the valva is slightly sinuous ; the juxta has a deep incision at the middle on the posterior margin ; the cornutus is stick - like ; a narrow sclerotized band is present on lateral side of the aedeagus . but it can be distinguished from that species by the strongly rounded basal half of the valva . the female genitalia of the species are close to those of biston panterinaria as follows : the ostium bursae is weakly sclerotized ; the ductus bursae is very short ; the corpus bursae is curved medially , striated in the posterior half and enlarged at tip ; the signum is oval and with marginal spines . it differs in having an oval lamella postvaginalis , which is absent in biston panterinaria .
the wing pattern of this species is similar to that of biston falcata as follows : the forewing antemedial line is black , slightly waved ; the postmedial lines of both wings are black and dentate ; broad brown bands are present basally of the forewing antemedial line and distally of the postmedial lines of both wings ; the speckles scattered on the wings are black , and often gather to a black patch basally of the submarginal lines ; the hindwing medial line is black and double . but it can be distinguished by the following characters : the outer margins are more undulating , there are distinct marginal processes in the centre of both wings , absent in biston falcata ; the hindwing discal spot is present . the male genitalia are similar to those of biston falcata as follows : the apex of the uncus is round ; the median process of the gnathos is broad and round apically ; the juxta is long , narrow , acute and with a longitudinal arris apico - ventrally ; the cornutus is shaped as a spinous patch . but this species is characterized by the narrower juxta and the longer spines of the cornutus .
china , shanghai ( zfmk ) : 1♂ ( holotype of biston robustum kiangsua ) . shandong ( izcas ) : gujiding , 13 . iv . 1981 , 3♂ . jiangsu ( izcas ) : nanjing , qixiaqu , yaohuamen , 16 . iii . 2006 , coll . lang songyun , 3♂ . more material from shaanxi , 2♂ from taiwan , many from japan , 2♂ from korea and many from vietnam in coll . zfmk .
venation . forewing : sc free , r 1 and r 2 usually stalked ( separate in biston thoracicaria ) , diverging before anterior angle of cell ; r 2 sometimes connected by a short transverse bar with r 3–4 or r 3–5 ; r 3–5 before or from anterior angle of cell , not stalked with m 1 ; m 1 from anterior angle of cell ; m 3 from posterior angle of cell ; cua 1 before posterior angle of cell . hindwing : sc + r 1 close to cell less than onehalf length of cell ; rs before anterior angle of cell ; m 1 from anterior angle of cell ; m 2 absent ; m 3 from posterior angle of cell ; cua 1 before or from posterior angle of cell ; 3a absent .
male genitalia . uncus short and broad , ratio of length to basal width variable , often bifurcate terminally , sometimes bifurcation very shallow or on ventral side below apex , so the latter apparently square or round . arms of gnathos connected medially , with median process robust or slender , round , acute or square terminally . valva simple ; costa sclerotized , straight or incurved , with terminal half often broadened , bearing long setae from center to apex ; sacculus sometimes sinuous . saccus round or semicircular . juxta well developed , pointed , or round or flat apically , sometimes elongate , without lateral brushes of long setae , except in biston melacron wehrli , 1941 . aedeagus often cylindrical , sclerotized dorsally ; vesica usually wrinkled , scobinate , with or without cornuti ; shape of cornuti various .
many other geometrid larvae are similarly well camouflaged and often rest in a stretched out rigid position to perfect the illusion , like the peppered moth larva ( biston betularia ) in photo 3 , which feeds on a range of different shrubs and trees . at first glance , adult peppered moths ( photo 4 ) do not appear to be particularly well camouflaged until one realizes that they prefer to rest on light coloured tree bark mottled with lichens . when , in the middle of last century , heavy industrial pollution in parts of the country caused lichens to die off and tree bark to darken , the lighter coloured peppered moths became much more obvious to predators and only the darkest specimens survived , giving rise to almost all - black populations in the areas of the worst pollution . as air quality improved , lighter coloured individuals were once again seen in the population .
specimens of biston were obtained from institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing , china ( izcas ) and zoologisches forschungsmuseum alexander koenig , bonn , germany ( zfmk ) . the other museums cited here , where types are deposited , are the natural history museum , london , united kingdom ( bmnh ) , the linnean society of london , united kingdom ( lsl ) , the zoologische staatssammlung muenchen , munich , germany ( zsm ) and the zoological institute , russian academy of sciences , saint - petersburg , russia ( zisp ) . terminology for wing venation followed the comstock - needham system ( comstock 1918 ) as adopted for geometridae by scoble ( 1992 ) and hausmann ( 2001 ) , and that of the genitalia was based on pierce ( 1914 ) , klots ( 1970 ) and nichols ( 1989 ) . photographs of adult moths and their genitalia were taken with digital cameras . composite images were generated using auto - montage software version 5 . 03 . 0061 ( synoptics ltd ) . the plates were compiled using adobe photoshop software .
we wish to express our hearty thanks to dr . dieter stüning , the zoologisches forschungsmuseum alexander koenig , bonn , germany , for providing help on many aspects , for example , suggesting the synonymies of b . falcata and b . suppressaria , preparation of the data and photographs of zfmk material of chinese biston , description of the male genitalia of b . perclara and making many linguistic corrections and comments . special thanks go to sir anthony galsworthy , the natural history museum , london , united kingdom and mr manfred sommerer , munich , germany , for providing the photos of some type material deposited at bmnh . we are grateful to all collectors whose contributions made our work possible . we appreciate the work of ms yang chao and ms yan keji for preparing some specimens and photographs . our thanks are also due to the reviewers for their valuable comments and corrections on the manuscript . we also appreciate mr . william oosterman , 132 pine street , oxford , pa 19363 , united states , for making many linguistic corrections . this work was supported by the key project of scientific innovation of cas ( kscx2 - yw - z - 0909 ) , the national science foundation of china ( no . 31172127 , 20870320 ) , the national science fund for fostering talents in basic research ( nsfc - j0930004 ) and a grant from the key laboratory of the zoological systematics and evolution of the chinese academy of sciences ( no . o529yx5105 ) .
description : wingspan 51 - 56mm . forewings are generally a mixture of mottled brown and white , with a distinct darkish band running across the outer edge of the forewing . the males have long feathery antennae and the body is quite hairy .
flight period : from mid - march to early april , although in some milder years the emergence can be earlier .
status : mainly confined to western counties at well - trapped sites such as , crom and garvary , where it is taken regularly in most years . increased fieldwork in the east has led to its discovery at the argory and peatlands in the late 1990 ' s and its rediscovery at rostrevor in south east down , where it hadn ' t been seen since the early part of the twentieth century . an early spring species , which may exist in small isolated populations at a few other woodland sites , particularly in antrim around glenarm and banagher in londonderry , where suitable habitat exists .
ecology : an attractive species associated mainly with old established woodland . adult males are frequently seen at light , females less so . their mottled appearance aids their concealment when at rest during the day on the trunks of trees . the larvae can be found on a variety of trees including oak quercus spp . , elm ulmus spp . , hazel corylus avellana , aspen populus tremula and alder alnus glutinosa from late spring onwards . it overwinters in the pupal stage .
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wingspan 40 - 50 mm . a large - bodied , attractive species with alternate bands of chestnut and white , speckled with black .
the caterpillars feed on a number of deciduous trees ; the species is not restricted to oak .
reasonably common in england and wales , scarcer in scotland and ireland . lycia hirtaria . in a recent survey to determine the status of all macro moths in britain this species was classified as common .
fairly frequent but not common in leicestershire and rutland . l & r moth group status = b ( scarce resident or restricted distribution or regular migrant ) .
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recorded in 60 ( 87 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1873 . last recorded in 2018 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
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host plants : the species is polyphagous on deciduous wood . noteworthy are salix , quercus , prunus .
life cycle : the moths overwinter in part developed in the pupal case and hatch early from february to april . the caterpillar lives from april to early july .
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the larva lives on various deciduous trees , with a preference for quercus . hibernates as a pupa underground .
the adults fly in one generation a year ; usually from early march till early may , but in mild conditions , the first moths can be seen from mid february onwards . they are attracted to light .
belgium , luxembourg , nassogne , 25 february 2007 . male ( photo © chris steeman )
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eubyja hübner , 1825 , verz . bekannter schmett . : 318 . type species : phalaena betularia linnaeus , 1758 , by subsequent designation by grote , 1902 .
amphidasys sodoffsky , 1837 , bull . soc . imp . nat . moscou , 10 : 90 . [ emendation of amphidasis treitschke . ]
amphidasea unger , 1856 , arch . ver . freunde naturg . - mecklenb . , 10 : 61 . [ emendation of amphidasis treitschke . ]
buzura walker , 1863 , list specimens lepid . insects colln br . mus . , 26 : 1531 . type species : buzura multipunctaria walker , 1863 , by monotypy .
culcula moore , 1888 , in hewitson & moore , descr . new indian lepid . insects colln late mr w . s . atkinson , ( 3 ) : 266 . type species : culcula exanthemata moore , 1888 , by monotypy .
eubyjodonta warren , 1893 , proc . zool . soc . lond . , 1893 : 416 . type species : eubyjodonta falcata warren , 1893 , by original designation .
blepharoctenia warren , 1894 , novit . zool . , 1 : 428 . type species : amphidasys bengaliaria guenée , 1858 , by original designation .
epamraica matsumura , 1910 , thousand insects japan , ( suppl . ) 2 : 130 . type species : epamraica bilineata matsumura , 1910 , by monotypy .
) . frons not protruding , smooth - scaled . tongue well developed . labial palpus small , with hair - scales , not extending beyond frons . compound eyes setose .
thorax . legs covered with hair - scales . hind tibia slightly dilated , with two pairs of spurs in both sexes , without hair - pencil . frenulum developed . forewing without basal fovea in male , triangular , outer margin straight or waved , hindwing round , outer margin smooth , sometimes concave between m 1 and m 3 or protruding between m 1 and cua 1 . wings white , pale yellow or greyish brown , transverse lines black , brown or white . pattern of forewing : antemedial line slightly waved , often accompanied by a band basally ; medial line waved , usually inconspicuous ; postmedial line waved or dentate , sometimes protruding outwards between m 1 and m 3 and between cua 2 and 1a + 2a , often accompanied by a band posteriorly ; submarginal line sometimes indistinct ; terminal line sometimes appearing as a series of short stripes between veins ; discal spot black or grey , shortly strip - like , dot - like or elliptic , pale - centred . hindwing sometimes with basal line ; medial line often indistinct , sometimes double ; postmedial line waved or dentate , sometimes protruding outwards between m 1 and m 3 ; terminal line similar to those of forewing ; discal spot sometimes smaller and less conspicuous than on forewing . terminal spots occasionally present on both wings , wedge - shaped . underside paler , transverse lines often similar to those of dorsal surface .


the mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis ) is a species of ground squirrel found only in the mojave desert in california .

the squirrel was discovered in 1886 by frank stephens of san diego ( after whom the stephens soft-haired ground squirrel is named ) .

it is listed as a threatened species under the california endangered species act , but not under the federal endangered species act .

the iucn lists this species as vulnerable .

the mojave ground squirrel measures about nine inches from nose to tail and feeds on leaves and seeds from february to july .

near the end of july , the squirrels begin a period of estivation , but this may occur as early as april in drought years .

litters do not survive if drought years force an early hibernation .

local populations can be wiped out if a drought lasts for multiple years .

this squirrel inhabits the western mojave desert in portions of inyo , kern , los angeles , and san bernardino counties .

it can occupy joshua tree woodlands , creosote scrub , saltbush scrub and mojave mixed woody scrub .

typical forage plants are those that meet nutritional and water content requirements .

these can include shrubs such as winterfat , spiny hopsage , and boxthorn ( lycium spp. ) .

preferred annuals include coreopsis spp. , eremalche spp. , astragalus spp. , and lupine .

soils are usually friable and conducive to burrow excavation .

areas of preferred habitat include habitat types that provide ample forage to allow mohave ground squirrels to persist during drought periods .

these persistent populations may act as core areas from which populations expand from during adequate rainfall years which are required for mohave ground squirrels to reproduce .

this dynamic expansion and contraction in populations can make it challenging to determine whether the species is present since extended periods of drought can cause a die-off on local populations until surrounding populations expand during consecutive reproductive years .

mohave ground squirrels emit a high-pitched " peep " as an alarm call , when startled or when young begin to emerge from their natal burrows .

the vocalization is sometimes confused with that of the horned lark .

mohave ground squirrels can occasionally be sighted perched in lycium cooperii or in creosote bush ( larrea tridentata ) during mid-morning ( 9-11 a.m. ) hours ( april – june ) basking in the sun .

males emerge from hibernation in early february and females are soon to follow .

reproduction occurs in early march and gestation lasts for about four weeks .

litters range from 4-6 individuals .

juveniles emerge from the natal burrows in late may to mid june .

predators include badgers , coyotes , snakes , falcons and hawks .

mohave ground squirrel

burt , w . 1936 . notes on the habits of the mohave ground squirrel .
krzysik , a . 1994 . the mohave ground squirrel at fort irwin , california .
the male , female and juvenile mohave ground squirrel are all similar in appearance ( 3 ) .
the mohave ground squirrel is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 2 ) .
mohave ground squirrels are generally solitary . usually only one squirrel is observed harvesting seeds from a particular joshua trees (
the mohave ground squirrel is endemic to the northwest mohave desert in california , united states ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) .
mohave ground squirrels are generally solitary . zembal and gall ( 1980 ) only observed one squirrel harvesting seeds from a particular joshua tree (
the mohave ground squirrel is a diurnal species found in the mojave desert in san bernardino , los angeles , kern , and inyo counties .
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the mohave ground squirrel was listed as ‘threatened’ in 2011 by the california department of fish and game and is therefore protected under the california endangered species act ( 10 ) .
there is little information regarding predators specific to mohave ground squirrels . common predators in the mohave desert , such as the
environmental stressors and encroaching urbanization has threatened the population of mohave ground squirrels , causing a moderate decline in their numbers . habitat fragmentation is the primary threat to the ground squirrel’s existence but erosion caused by grazing livestock and orv use has impacted their habitat . due to the decline in mohave ground squirrels ' numbers
the mohave ground squirrel ( xerospermophilus mohavensis ) is a calm , solitary ground squirrel ( 3 ) , with a uniformly brown or pink - brown upperside , which contrasts with its cream - white underside ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the lack of markings on its back makes this species one of the only uniformly - coloured ground squirrels throughout most of its range ( 5 ) .
in order to monitor and manage populations of mohave ground squirrels , a mohave ground squirrel conservation strategy has been prepared through the cooperation of several management groups . the overall goals of this strategy were to protect the mohave ground squirrel by fostering communication among parties interested in the conservation of this species , determining their range , determining their ecological requirements , developing effective long - term conservation methods and developing and implementing an adaptive management plan . the plan outlined preliminary measures to monitor and restore the population of mohave ground squirrels . this plan has not yet been implemented .
the mohave ground squirrel occupies all major desert scrub habitats in the western mojave desert . the mainly solitary mohave ground s quirrel hibernates from august to march , when food is scarce . it carries its tail over its back when running ; the white underside helps reflect the sun ' s rays .
the west mojave coordinated management plan could provide protection for certain areas within the mohave ground squirrel’s range , although areas of suitable habitat must first be identified for this method of conservation to be successful ( 9 ) .
are social by comparison , and are found in overlapping areas with mohave ground squirrels . however , mohave ground squirrels are dominant , as antelope ground squirrels have been observed retreating from them . although solitary and very intolerant of their own species , mohave ground squirrels are described as calm , docile and readily approached .
in spring and early summer ( 5 ) , the mohave ground squirrel is active above ground , coinciding with the growing season of green plants ( 3 ) . during this time , seeds , fungi , fruits and forbs are most abundant , which are the primary components of the mohave ground squirrel’s diet ( 2 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) ( 9 ) . however , this species is omnivorous ( 3 ) , and arthropods such as caterpillars are also taken ( 4 ) . the late winter months and early summer are spent accumulating fat for aestivation ( 9 ) , with some individuals gaining up to 200 grams in weight ( 3 ) . during the time the mohave ground squirrel is active , it is diurnal , and although it is a ground squirrel , it is occasionally known to climb joshua trees while foraging ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
natural predators to mohave ground squirrels include badgers , coyotes , snakes , falcons and hawks .
) , the mohave ground squirrel is less common , making them an unlikely prey species upon which their predators are significantly dependent . the burrows constructed by this species may contribute to soil aeration , based on similar practices by
) are social organisms by comparison , and are found in coinciding regions with mohave ground squirrels . however , mohave ground squirrels are dominant , as antelope ground squirrels have been observed retreating from them . although solitary and very intolerant of their own species , mohave ground squirrels are described as placid , docile and readily approached .
determining population size of the mohave ground squirrel is difficult due to its elusive nature . the species is inactive throughout much of the year , and abundance as well as the period of surface activity varies from year to year .
little is known about the reproductive behavior of mohave ground squirrels . all knowledge on the subject is based strictly on above - ground observations .
make up 5 to 8 % of mohave ground squirrels ' diet . plants in their diet include
have opportunistically expanded their range into the range of mohave ground squirrels . these two ground squirrels are close relatives ; the only organisms found in the subgenus
the mohave ground squirrel ( spermophilus mohavensis ) is one of the more elusive animals of the california desert . their highly developed desert survival skills allow them to avoid the extremes of the hostile climate . they are very hard to find and even more difficult to observe and study . mohave ground squirrels are small brown squirrels with white bellies and thin tails .
bell , k . c . and matocq , m . d . ( 2010 ) development and characterisation of polymorphic microsatellite loci in the mohave ground squirrel . conservation of genetic resources , 2 ( 2 ) : 197 - 199 . available at : urltoken
the tail of the mohave ground squirrel is short and tufted ( 3 ) , and is generally narrower at the base and somewhat banded near the tip ( 4 ) . the underside of the tail is creamy - white ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) , and the tail is often held up against the squirrel’s back , hiding the grey - brown upperside ( 3 ) ( 6 ) . the ears of the mohave ground squirrel are small ( 4 ) and the large , round eyes are surrounded by a pale ring ( 3 ) , which is conspicuous against its brown cheeks ( 3 ) ( 7 ) .
the patchy and fragmented distribution of mohave ground squirrel populations increases this species’ vulnerability to local extinctions , especially during times of drought when most reproduction is halted ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 9 ) . the range of the mohave ground squirrel has been greatly reduced due to urbanisation , agriculture and military land use ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) . off - road vehicle use is permitted in certain parts of this species’ range , and is highly destructive to the habitat ( 2 ) .
part of the mohave ground squirrel’s range falls within a number of protected areas , offering it a certain degree of protection , although this may be insufficient for its future conservation ( 2 ) . the habitat of the mohave ground squirrel needs protection from development and off - road traffic to prevent local extinctions from occurring ( 2 ) ( 9 ) . improving the existing habitat by restoring disturbed vegetation , modifying grazing practices and banning rodenticide use could be vital to the survival of this threatened rodent ( 2 ) ( 9 ) .
make up 5 to 8 % of mohave ground squirrels ' diet . plants in their diet include spotted locoweed (
the mohave ground squirrel occupies portions of inyo , kern , los angeles and san bernardino counties in the western mojave desert . the species ranges from near palmdale on the southwest to lucerne valley on the southeast , olancha on the northwest and the avawatz mountains on the northeast .
rodenticides are used in areas occupied by the mohave ground squirrel , especially in alfalfa plantations , which are an important food source for some populations ( 3 ) . the specific habitat requirements of this species means that many areas throughout its range are unsuitable for it ( 2 ) .
mohave ground squirrels eat a variety of foods , but feed primarily on the leaves and seeds of forbs and shrubs .
the mohave ground squirrel is found between elevations of 610 and 1 , 800 metres ( 2 ) , where there are plenty of creosotebush ( larrea tridentate ) , saltbush ( atriplex spp . ) and joshua trees ( yucca brevifolia ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 8 ) .
, likely prey upon mohave ground squirrels . if danger is imminent , mohave ground squirrels quickly find a burrow , but they have been observed immediately poking their heads back out for observation . sometimes these ground squirrels freeze in the presence of danger and wait , relying on their cryptic coloration for protection .
aestivation begins in august and ends in february or march ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , with males generally emerging up to two weeks earlier than females ( 3 ) . the mohave ground squirrel occupies three different burrows : a home burrow used to sleep in during the active period , an accessory burrow which is used for social interactions and thermoregulation , and an aestivation burrow , where it spends six or seven months aestivating ( 3 ) . the burrows built by the mohave ground squirrel are usually around 5 . 5 metres long and 1 metre deep ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
the u . s . army corps of engineers developed an assessment of mohave ground squirrels at fort irwin , california in 1993 . they concluded that mohave ground squirrels may be extinct from numerous sites on the base and strict management plans were proposed to protect the regions where these ground squirrels may still be found .
the mohave ground squirrel is found in open areas ( 3 ) , such as deserts ( 2 ) , where there is an abundance of herbaceous , shrubby plants and sandy or gravelly soil , which this species uses to build burrows ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) ( 7 ) .
the feet of the mohave ground squirrel are large with long , curved claws on the toes and a long , blunt claw on the thumb ( 3 ) . the front feet are pink - brown or pink - cinnamon and have hairless palms , while the palms of the hind feet are heavily furred ( 3 ) .
although it is usually silent , the mohave ground squirrel sometimes produces both low and shrill whistles , as well as a high - pitched ‘peep’ ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the young of this species are capable of producing a high - pitched squeak , which is thought to be associated with feeding ( 3 ) .
more research needs to be done into various aspects of the mohave ground squirrel’s biology , including studies on its reproduction , dispersal , feeding habits , population size , the genetic variation within populations and the effects of certain threats , to ensure that effective conservation measures can be established and implemented ( 2 ) ( 9 ) .
little information is available about the ecosystem services provided by mohave ground squirrels . they may provide seed dispersal , specifically for joshua trees (
due to the limited distribution of mohave ground squirrels , this species is threatened . major threats and causes of decline are development ( most notably urbanization , agriculture and military uses ) , habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation . in 1971 , the state of california first listed mohave ground squirrels as rare , stimulating population assessments and management activities . population estimates are ineffective due to the inactivity of the mohave ground squirrel for most of the year and their uneven distribution , which is due partly to the annual variation in food availability . thus habitat quality is deemed the best indicator for the health of the population . in order to preserve mohave ground squirrels , preservation of large tracts of land , with a minimum size of 24 , 281 ha is emphasized .
helgen , k . m . , cole , f . r . , helgen , l . e . and wilson , d . e . 2009 . generic revision in the holarctic ground squirrel genus spermophilus . journal of mammalogy 90 ( 2 ) : 270 - 305 .
a generally solitary species ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , the mohave ground squirrel is only gregarious during the mating season in early spring , when the male and female will enter a burrow within the male’s territory for several hours to mate ( 3 ) . after copulation , the female usually stays within the male’s territory the following day , then leaves to establish its own home range ( 3 ) . in march or april ( 2 ) , the female gives birth to a litter of between 4 and 9 young , after a gestation period of 29 or 30 days . the young ground squirrels are usually weaned after around 32 days ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . in years of drought , the mohave ground squirrel may not reproduce ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
2013 .
basic facts about mohave ground squirrels
( on - line ) . defenders of wildlife . accessed may 02 , 2013 at urltoken .
helgen , k . m . , cole , f . r . , helgen , l . e . and wilson , d . e . ( 2009 ) generic revision in the holarctic ground squirrel genus spermophilus . journal of mammalogy , 90 ( 2 ) : 270 - 305 .
mohave ground squirrels emit a high - pitched
peep
as an alarm call , when startled or when young first begin to emerge from their burrows .
. when they perceive danger , mohave ground squirrels go inside their burrow , but they poke their heads out for observation . sometimes these ground squirrels freeze in the presence of danger and wait , relying on their cryptic coloration for protection .
. mohave ground squirrels are usually found on flat , non - hilly land . they have been seen in all major scrub habitats in the western mojave desert .
) , and store them in their burrow . mohave ground squirrels make frequent trips to their burrows to stash seeds , at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes .
little is known about communication between mohave ground squirrels , such as scent or physical displays , as much of the year they are aestivating or hibernating . when active , they are generally solitary , which makes observations difficult . reproductive rituals are also difficult to document as the activity takes place below ground . the call of mohave ground squirrels is described as a “shrill whistle . ” there is a high pitched beep accompanied by a slight rasping sound , similar to a horned lark . neonatal mohave ground squirrels produce high - pitched squeaky noises , presumably associated with suckling .
) mohave ground squirrels exhibit reduced body temperature , reduced oxygen consumption , prolonged periods of apnea , a state of deep sleep greater than torpor and arousal stimulated by heat .
observations of mohave ground squirrels ' activities show that they are more calm during cloudy weather than on warm , sunny days . if threatened , mohave ground squirrels typically hold their tail over their back when running . however , they rarely run long distances , as most of their time is spent near burrows . when danger is perceived , they may also remain still , blending into their environment due to their cryptic coloration . if disturbed while feeding , mohave ground squirrels stand on their hind legs to better survey the area .
. mohave ground squirrels are less common than the other ground squirrels found in their habitat , due to this , it is less likely that predators are dependent on them as a significant food source . their burrows may contribute to soil aeration , based on similar practiced by
) , were collected and stored in the animal ' s burrow . zembal and gall ( 1980 ) observed the behavior of mohave ground squirrels and reported that these ground squirrels make frequent trips to their burrows to stash seeds , at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes .
observations of mohave ground squirrels ' activities have revealed that they are more subdued during cloudy weather than on warm , sunny days . if threatened , mohave ground squirrels typically carry their tail over their back when running . however , they rarely run any extended distances , as most of their time is spent near burrows . their cryptic coloration offers them another option when danger is perceived , remain still and blend into the environment instead of fleeing . if disturbed while feeding , mohave ground squirrels stand erect on their hind legs to better survey the area .
it seems that that the mohave ground squirrel controls its population and food sources by refusing to mate when there is significantly low rainfall . they will often hibernate early , sometimes as early as april , and wait until the next year to try again . this leads to near extinction in the areas with little or no rain , but the population seems to increase steadily after the rains return . breeding occurs soon after they emerge from hibernation .
the lifespan of wild mohave ground squirrels is not known , but it is thought to be about 5 years or more . in captivity , they have lived up to 7 . 8 years .
) have a patchy distribution throughout the northwestern mohave desert in california . they are found in portions of inyo , kern , los angeles and san bernardino counties . a small population of mohave ground squirrels can also be found in the coso hot springs area , about 13 kilometers northeast of inyo county .
mohave ground squirrels spend much of their year in aestivation or hibernation , so little is known about their communication . these animals are generally solitary , which makes observations difficult . even mating behavior is difficult to observe because it takes place below ground . their call is described as a “shrill whistle . ” it is a high pitched ' beep ' , with a slight rasping sound , similar to a horned lark . newborn mohave ground squirrels produce high - pitched squeaky noises , likely associated with suckling .
. mohave ground squirrels eat flowers , seeds and leaves . they may eat different foods at different times of the year ; some plants are highly valued at certain times of year for their water content .
due to their limited distribution , mohave ground squirrels are considered threatened . major threats to this species include development , habitat fragmentation and habitat degradation . in 1971 , the state of california first listed mohave ground squirrels as rare , which led to studies about their population , however , estimating their population size is difficult because this species is inactive most of the year and they are unevenly distributed , due partly to the yearly change in food availability . so the quality of their habitat is probably the best indicator of a healthy population . in order to preserve mohave ground squirrels , preserving large areas of land is encouraged .
mohave ground squirrels typically enter aestivation in july or september , after building up their fat reserves , when temperatures decrease to between 20 and 30 degrees celsius and their food sources are reduced due to lack of water . this period of inactivity continues until february . during hibernation mohave ground squirrels have reduced body temperature , reduced oxygen consumption , prolonged periods of apnea ( a state of deep sleep ) and are awakened by heat .
there is limited information regarding the longevity of wild mohave ground squirrels , but their lifespan is speculated to be about 5 years or more . their maximum lifespan in captivity , however , is 7 . 8 years .
) , which , when available , appear to be their preferred food , however , joshua trees do not flower annually . seed harvesting occurs during the day , from about three hours after sunrise until one hour prior to sunset . mohave ground squirrels demonstrate larder hoarding of seeds , storing them in their burrows . mohave ground squirrels are omnivorous , the majority of their diet is composed of various plants as well as a smaller percentage of
) growth . mohave ground squirrels are often seen in areas with level topography and few ravines . however , they have been documented in all major scrub habitats in the western mojave desert including mojave creosote scrub ( dominated by
grinnell , j . , j . dixon . 1910 . natural history of the ground squirrels of california .
) have a patchy distribution throughout approximately 20 , 000 square kilometers of the northwestern mohave desert in california . their range includes portions of inyo , kern , los angeles and san bernardino counties . a small subpopulation of mohave ground squirrels can also be found in 39 square kilometers of the coso hot springs area , about 13 km northeast of inyo county .
mohave ground squirrels ' burrows enter the ground at a 35 degree angle . excavated dirt is presumably scattered , as none was observed at the entrance of a burrow system by burt ( 1936 ) . however , it was noted that when squirrels entered a burrow , a plug of dirt and grasses was used to cover the entrance from within .
) . various parts of the plants are consumed including the flower , seed or leaves . their diet varies seasonally ; different plants are valued at certain times of year for their water content . shrub species consumed by mohave ground squirrels include
the entrance to mohave ground squirrels ' burrows is at a 35 degree angle . when they dig their burrow , they likely scatter the dirt . however , when squirrels entered a burrow , they plug the entrance from within using dirt and grasses .
, when they are available , they seem to be their preferred food , unfortunately , joshua trees do not flower every year . mohave ground squirrels harvest seeds during the day , from three hours after sunrise until one hour before sunset . these animals are
male mohave ground squirrels have large territories , averaging 6 . 7 hectares , immediately after emerging from hibernation in february , probably to mate with as many females as possible . males maintain their territories until june , at which time dominant ground squirrels take the best foraging areas . this allows the dominant individuals to occupy smaller home ranges , while juveniles may be forced to roam an area twice the size of their dominant counterparts . home range sites and sizes are dependent on food quality , which is related to rainfall . after the mating season , the average home range size of mohave ground squirrels is 1 . 24 hectares for males and 1 . 20 hectares for females .
mohave ground squirrels occupy an area with hot , rainless summers and moderate winters , although temperatures may occasionally fall below freezing . these squirrels are most often found at elevations from 600 to 1 , 800 meters above sea level , in hot deserts known as the lower sonoran zone . mohave ground squirrels are found in areas with 10 to 19 % plant cover . they are often found in lower elevation deserts , but these squirrels can also be found in the joshua tree belt , at elevations from 400 to 1 , 800 meters . their preferred habitat seems to include sandy soil or a sandy gravel mix , with
the overall body length of mohave ground squirrels ranges from 210 to 230 mm in adults , their tail lengths range from 42 to 72 mm . they weigh about 85 to 130 grams . these squirrels are uniformly brown and have no distinguishing spots or stripes . they have a short , broad , flat , furred tail . the underside of their tail is white with some black hairs near the tip . mohave ground squirrels ' winter pelage is a drab cinnamon color , with a silvery white underside . their summer pelage is “browner” , with shorter hair length . seasonal molts occur in early may and in autumn . mohave ground squirrels are cryptically colored to match their sandy environment . this is very advantageous because when they are threatened , they often crouch and wait . their forefeet are hairless , but their rear feet have long hairs . their ears tend to blend into the rest of their head and they have white eyelids . sexual dimorphism is not displayed by this species .
mohave ground squirrels occupy an area with hot , rainless summers and moderate winters , although temperatures may occasionally fall below freezing . these squirrels are most often found at elevations from 600 to 1 , 800 m above sea level , occupying the lower sonoran zone . mohave ground squirrels are found in perennial plant communities , with plant cover ranging from 10 to 19 % . their range seems to be restricted to lower elevation deserts , but these squirrels can also be found in the joshua tree belt , at elevations from 400 to 1 , 800 m . their preferred habitat seems to include sandy soil or a sandy gravel mix , with infrequent sage brush (
this species biggest threat is habitat loss and fragmentation ( harris and leitner 2004 ) . the primary cause of the decline is the conversion of habitat to urban , suburban , agricultural , military , and other human uses ( gustafson 1993 ) , including livestock grazing , off - highway vehicle use , energy production , and transportation infrastructure ( california department of fish and game 1990 , stewart 2005 ) . over 78 % of the habitat within the species ' range is either naturally unavailable , severely degraded , or is in a land - use category that represents a threat to the ground squirrel ; the remainder is under threat from continued development and habitat fragmentation ( stewart 2005 ) . the planned fort irwin expansion would fragment one of four remaining populations that appear to be stable , posing a serious threat to the species ' persistence ( stewart 2005 ) . current regulatory mechanisms are believed to be inadequate to protect this species ( stewart 2005 ) . this species may be expanding its range at the expense of the mohave ground squirrel ( wessman , in hafner 1992 ) . this species fails to reproduce during years of drought rather than risking a delay in accumulating fat reserves for aestivation . periods of prolonged drought therefore is a potential threat to the population . the taxon exists as isolated populations with a scattered distribution . recruitment from neighbouring colonies is thought to be rare ( hafner et al . 1998 ) .
gustafson , j . , s . harris , r . jones , s . juarez , t . moore , d . racine , a . tenneboe , j . vance , t . dayak , c . bernis , p . leitner , t . recht , l . oviatt , r . scott , c . wilkerson , c . everly , s . collis , b . wood , m . quillman , b . shomo , s . ellis , l . lapre , b . parker , c . sullivan , r . mcmorran , c . gonzalez , m . joia , t . campbell , j . o ' gara . 2006 .
mohave ground squirrel conservation strategy
( on - line ) . desert mangers group . accessed march 21 , 2013 at urltoken .
mohave ground squirrels typically enter aestivation in july or september , after building up their fat reserves , when temperatures decrease to between 20 and 30 degrees celsius and their food sources diminish due to lack of water . this period of dormancy continues until february . during hibernation ( a descriptor used interchangeably with aestivation in the literature when describing
, and are not found in coinciding ranges , but contact one another along a competitive zone . due to the close genetic and morphologic relationship of these two ground squirrels , hafner and yates ( 1983 ) investigated hybridization of the two species but found limited cases . hafner ( 1992 ) investigated the persistence of the contact zone between these two species , despite the presence of appropriate habitat for each on either side of the division and no known reason for their separation . in an effort to explain the distribution of mohave ground squirrels and round - tailed squirrels , hafner mentioned a remarkable geographic similarity between the current contact zone of these ground squirrels and the wisconsinan pluvial maximum , a former aquatic feature present during the pleistocene epoch .
male mohave ground squirrels establish large territories , averaging 6 . 7 ha , immediately after emerging from hibernation in february , presumably to mate with as many females as possible . territories of the males remain consistent until june , at which time dominant individuals take possession of the best foraging areas . this characteristic allows the dominant individuals to occupy smaller home ranges , while juveniles may be forced to roam an area twice the size of their dominant counterparts . home range sites and sizes are dependent on forage quality , which is directly related to rainfall . post - mating , the average home range size of mohave ground squirrels is 1 . 24 ha for males and 1 . 20 ha for females ; however , there is no significant difference between male and female home range size .
mohave ground squirrels are diurnal . after emerging from their burrow in the morning , they bask in the sun , periodically rotating to warm different parts of their bodies . they feed continuously during daylight hours , from three hours after sunrise until one hour prior to sunset . they forage in shaded areas in the middle of the day , due to the extreme heat . they collect food , such as joshua tree seeds (
this species is rare throughout much of its range . significant population declines have been recorded across most of the range between 1980 and 2000 , and this decline is not correlated with winter rainfall , which generally increased between 1984 and 1998 ( leitner 2001 , brooks and matchett 2002 ) . hafner ( 1992 ) hypothesized that low dispersal ability might be one of several possible explanations for the persistence of a stable contact zone between s . mohavensis and s . tereticaudus , the species is relatively mobile compared to other ground squirrel species . harris and leitner ( 2004 ) found that the size of female home ranges in years of no reproduction appears to vary in response to food availability , and that alternating size of the home range may be an adaptive response to an arid , variable environment . total adult population size is unknown but may exceed 100 , 000 ( assuming an average density of about one adult per hectare ( leitner and leitner 1998 ) and 430 , 000 hectares of occupied habitat ) . however , the spatial and temporal distribution of this species is highly dynamic , which makes it difficult to make a reliable estimate of overall population size . stewart ( 2005 ) mapped 22 locations in which this species was captured during trapping surveys in 2002 - 2004 ( leitner 2005 ) . these represent four core areas plus two additional areas in which squirrels are present at low densities ( stewart 2005 ) . this ground squirrel exhibits large fluctuations in local population size . further information on overall trend is needed . recent monitoring data reveal that over twenty percent of the historical range of this species is no longer occupied ( stewart 2005 ) .
mohave ground squirrels exhibit diurnal activity patterns . after emerging in the morning , they have been observed basking in the sun , periodically rotating to warm different parts of their bodies . feeding occurs continuously during daylight hours , from three hours after sunrise until one hour prior to sunset . the extreme heat during the middle of the day dictates that foraging occurs in shaded areas , well protected from the sun . choice foods , such as joshua tree seeds (
the mohave ground squirrel inhabits desert areas with deep sandy or gravelly friable soils and an abundance of annual herbaceous vegetation . this species prefers arid flat terrains with desert shrubs ( harris and leitner 2004 ) . habitats include alluvial fans where desert pavement is absent . habitats in order of decreasing favourability : ( 1 ) creosotebush association , ( 2 ) shadscale association , ( 3 ) alkali sink association , and ( 4 ) joshua tree association . nests are in underground burrows . individuals may use several different burrows . mating occurs in february - march ( harris and leitner 2004 ) . litter size is 4 - 6 ; young are born in late march or early april ( biosystems analysis 1989 ) . no reproduction occurs during the driest years ; for example , harris and leitner ( 2004 ) found that no reproduction occurred at their study site when early winter precipitation ( october - january ) was less than 30 mm . populations fluctuate with environmental conditions ( leitner and leitner 1998 ) . populations in marginal habitats may become extirpated during extended droughts . after the return of favourable conditions , those areas may be recolonized from adjacent areas following the resumption of reproduction and dispersal of offspring from core habitats ( gustafson 1993 ) . long - distance movement by juveniles might be critical for connecting local populations and recolonizing sites after local , drought - related extirpation ( harris and leitner 2005 ) . mohave ground squirrels feed on green vegetation and seeds , and may also eat carrion . this species remains underground august until late winter or early spring ( reportedly emerges in february or march , or , according to biosystems analysis [ 1989 ] , march in the south and may in the north ) . active during the spring and summer .
offspring are altricial at birth ; they are generally blind and unable to hear , with scarce hair , found only on their heads . young make high - pitched squeaking noises , likely associated with suckling . litters emerge from the burrows from late april to mid may . females continue lactating through may . during years with drought and limited resources , mohave ground squirrels may not reproduce . this may continue for several years . choosing not to reproduce when conditions are poor may help the animals maintain fat reserves for aestivation and hibernation .
offspring are altricial at birth ; they are generally blind and unable to hear , with scarce hair , found only on their heads . young are able to make high - pitched squeaking noises , presumably associated with suckling . litters emerge from the burrows from late april to mid may . lactation may persist through may . during years with substantial drought and reduced resources , mohave ground squirrels may fail to reproduce . suspending reproduction may occur for several years if conditions are not adequate . this may help maintain fat reserves for aestivation and hibernation .
the overall body length of mohave ground squirrels ranges from 210 to 230 mm in adults , their tail lengths range from 42 to 72 mm and they weigh 85 to 130 grams . these squirrels have all brown fur , with no spots or stripes . they have a short , broad , flat , furry tail . the underside of their tail is white with some black hairs near the tip . during their winter coloration , most of their body is a drab cinnamon color and their underside is silvery white . in the summer , their fur is shorter and their coloration is “browner
. they molt some of their fur each year during early may and in autumn . mohave ground squirrels are cryptically colored , meaning their fur matches their environment , making them difficult to find . when they are threatened , they often crouch and wait , blending into their surroundings . their front feet are hairless , but their rear feet have long hairs . their ears blend in to the rest of their head and they have white eyelids . males and females of this species are about the same size .
the young are usually weaned after only about a month and will leave the nest . often , the young ground squirrels will settle close to their mother’s burrow , but sometimes a young male will travel far , often up to four miles , to establish his own territory .
mohave ground squirrels emerge from hibernation in february ; the males emerge up to two weeks before the females and begin establishing and defending territories . during the breeding season , the average male territory size is 6 . 7 hectares , this helps males mate with multiple females . mating is believed to take place in the male’s burrow . the annual breeding season takes place during february and march . they have about a one month gestation period and young are generally born in late march or early april . litters may range from 4 to 9 offspring . females can usually begin mating at 1 year of age , while males do not begin mating until two years of age .
mohave ground squirrels emerge from hibernation in february ; the males emerge up to two weeks prior to the females and may establish and defend territories , with an average size of 6 . 7 ha , in an attempt to mate with multiple females . copulation is believed to take place in the male’s burrow . the annual mating season takes place during february and march . they have about a one month gestation period and birth generally occurs in late march or early april . litters may range from 4 to 9 offspring . females are capable of reproduction at 1 year of age ( if conditions allow ) , while males do not generally reach sexual maturity until two years of age .
harris and leitner 2004 ) . its range coincides with a cool mesic wisconsinan refugium in the mohave desert . this species occurs in southwestern inyo , eastern kern , extreme northeastern los angeles , and northwestern san bernardino counties ( wessman 1977 , california department of fish and game 1990 , best 1995 ) from olancha , inyo county , south to victorville , san bernardino county , and from the tehachapi mountains of kern county to the granite mountains in san bernardino county ( biosystems analysis 1989 ) . the mojave river generally defines the extreme southeastern boundary of the range , but the species historically occurred east of the river in lucerne valley ( stewart 2005 , see list of specimens examined by hafner 1992 ) .
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hybridize along a small , narrow , stable contact zone ( helendale , coyote dry lake ) that coincides with a wisconsinan pluvial barrier ; the two taxa exhibit a consistent difference in diploid number ( hafner and yates 1983 , hafner 1992 ) . this species is now recognized under a new genus
justification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is approximately 27 , 000 km² , yet its range is severely fragmented , and there is ongoing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat . only 9 % of habitat in protected areas is deemed suitable . populations also experience extreme fluctuations , partly due to the effects of drought which deters the species from breeding in some years . further population studies may merit a vulnerable listing using criterion b1 or a .
only 9 % of the suitable habitat within the historical range exists in a protected state . stewart ( 2005 ) determined that this species occurs on a large number of protected areas ( federal wilderness areas , state parks , state ecological reserves , etc . ) on lands encompassing about 1 , 800 km² . nearly two - thirds of the range is in federal ownership ( stewart 2005 ) . habitat needs to be protected from development and excessive grazing . off - road vehicle traffic should be restricted or eliminated at inhabited sites . consideration of this species in federal land use decisions should be promoted . obtain data on reproduction , dispersal , demography , food habits , habitat needs , and the effects of fire , grazing , and off - road vehicle use .
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mating season : spring . gestation : less than a month . litter size 6 - 9 young .
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hafner , d . j . , yensen , e . and kirkland jr , g . l . ( 1998 ) north american rodents : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc rodent specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken
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aestivation period of dormancy occurring the summer or dry season , comparable to hibernation in winter . arthropods a major grouping of animals that includes crustaceans , insects and arachnids . all arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton ( exoskeleton ) . diurnal active during the day . endemic a species or taxonomic group that is only found in one particular country or geographic area . forb any herbaceous ( non - woody ) flowering plant that is not a grass . genetic diversity ( genetic variation ) the variety of genes within a particular species , population or breed causing differences in morphology , physiology and behaviour . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . herb a small , non - woody , seed bearing plant in which all the aerial parts die back at the end of each growing season . home range the area occupied by an animal during routine activities , which is not actively defended . omnivorous feeding on both plants and animals . territory an area occupied and defended by an animal , a pair of animals or a group . thermoregulate to control body temperature .
reid , f . ( 2006 ) a field guide to the mammals of north america , north of mexico . peterson field guides , new york .
bowers , n . , bowers , r . and kaufman , k . ( 2007 ) kaufman field guide to mammals of north america . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york .
feldhamer , g . a . , thompson , b . c . and chapman , j . a . ( eds . ) wild mammals of north america : biology , management , and conservation . second edition . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .
kays , r . w . and wilson , d . e . ( 2009 ) mammals of north america . princeton university press , princeton .
hafner , d . j . , yensen , e . and kirkland jr , g . l . ( 1998 ) north american rodents : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc rodent specialist group , iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available at : urltoken
california department of fish and game ( 2011 ) state and federally listed endangered and threatened animals of california . california department of fish and game , california . available at : urltoken
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of seeds , meaning they store them in their burrows . they are omnivorous , the majority of their diet is composed of plants as well as a smaller percentage of
caleb eckloff ( author ) , northern michigan university , john bruggink ( editor ) , northern michigan university , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .
2012 .
the animal ageing and longevity database
( on - line ) . human ageing genomic resources . accessed february 16 , 2013 at urltoken .
morton , s . 1979 . diversity of desert - dwelling mammals : a comparison of australia and north america .
waitman , b . , s . vander wall , t . esque . 2012 . seed dispersal and seed fate in joshua tree (
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spermophilus mohavensis
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
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living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
in deserts low ( less than 30 cm per year ) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity . vegetation is typically sparse , though spectacular blooms may occur following rain . deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate . in dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry . this is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants . in dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil . salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .