v is an energy drink brand produced by frucor , a new zealand-based beverage manufacturer .

the product 's success , a market share over 60 % in new zealand and 42 % in australia , makes it the most popular brand of energy drink in both countries .

it was available in south africa as early as 2001 and introduced into the united kingdom in 2004 and to the maldives in 2008 .

the company established netherlands-based frucor brands international in 2010 and entered the market in papua new guinea and spain in 2011 and south korea in 2012 .

v ( drink )

v is a carbonated drink energy drink specially formulated with guarana , vitamins & caffeine too .
v energy drink is the most popular energy drink in new zealand and has a strong following in australia as well .
v energy drink has its own unique external culture . as we all know the target audience of v drink is specifically males between the ages of 18 to 24 .
the target audience of v drink is specifically males between the ages of 18 to 24 .
v delivers four varieties , but i decided to give v “black” a go .
v energy was the original v drink . in 2001 , the company released v energy sugarfree , a sugar - free version which has a different flavour to the standard product .
v16 energy drink is perfect for anyone looking for a caffeine free energy drink that provides long lasting energy .
here’s a review of v energy drink as well as two versions that didn’t quite catch on .
v energy drink is recommended for healthy adults only who understand their tolerance and sensitivity to caffeine .
with slightly less caffeine than a red bull , v energy drink original will energize you about the same although the sugar in v energy drink will wear off quickly producing a crash - like feeling .
essays , uk . ( november 2013 ) . v energy drink offers marketing essay . retrieved from urltoken
v energy drink also comes in several different flavors / varieties , but they vary by location / country .
v energy drink is giving viewers the skills that are super essential to life in a new content series .
v isokinetic was a non - carbonated sports drink that came in a 600ml plastic bottle . it is now discontinued .
v energy drink contains 9 . 16 mgs of caffeine per fluid ounce ( 30 . 99mg / 100 ml ) .
on 5 june 2013 it was announced on the official new zealand v facebook page that a new flavour of v would be released in new zealand on 1 july . called v energy graphite , this drink ' s flavour consists of
big black v is a pretty unique energy drink . v is australia and new zealand’s most popular energy drink and was developed by the frucor company in 1997 . up until recently v really had the market cornered here but , the tides are turning as more and more competitors jump into the ring .
only v guarana energy drink provides that reliable , uplifting buzz of energy to help you achieve and get more out of every day .
the internal organisation structure includes all the organisational factors that contribute in the production of the v drink . this structure includes the following :
v energy drink offers marketing essay .
ukessays . com . 11 2013 . all answers ltd . 07 2018 < urltoken > .
ukessays . v energy drink offers marketing essay [ internet ] . november 2013 . [ accessed 9 july 2018 ] ; available from : urltoken
launching into the australian market in 1999 , v guarana energy drink turned the energy drink category on its head – delivering all the pick - me - up qualities of caffeine and guarana in our iconic slimline green can .
extra strength energy drink , berry , 1 . 93oz bottle , 12 / pack
much more like a vitamin drink in taste and ingredients as it is stated .
red bull energy drink blueberry 24 pack 8 . 4 fl oz , blue edition
working with the youtube influencers was a new experience for tkt sydney . the agency has been working with v energy drink for four years on tv commercials , but wanted to connect with “light or lapsed” younger energy drink consumers .
v guarana energy drink is unique and renowned for its cheeky , quirky sense of humour and its positive , full - of - life attitude .
ukessays . november 2013 . v energy drink offers marketing essay . [ online ] . available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 july 2018 ] .
all answers ltd , ' v energy drink offers marketing essay ' ( ukessays . com , july 2018 ) < urltoken > accessed 9 july 2018
the makers of v energy drink have unveiled a new flavour to kick off the spring . it ' s called v carnival and it ' s an unmitigated disaster . read on for our shell - shocked verdict .
v iced chocolate was announced on the v energy nz facebook page on 28 september 2016 , was released on 3 october 2016 in stores .
it’s pretty sweet and the energy ingredients really shine though with v original , however , it must work for many because this drink is pretty popular down under .
v energy drink offers their consumers a superior product coupled with amazing value , providing a beverage that not only enhances their energy but also offers an enjoyable taste .
v energy drink offers marketing essay .
all answers ltd . ukessays . com , november 2013 . web . 9 july 2018 . < urltoken > .
in fact , a medium - sized drink in the u . s . , which is 21oz of liquid , is an ounce more than japan ' s large - sized drink .
v energy drink is known for being pretty out there but it has taken its strange status to a new level with a slew of social videos from tkt sydney .
if you’re a fan of lemon and lime , then v sports energy drink will be right up your alley . i found the drink to be quite refreshing . it has the normal uncarbonated , lightly sweetened taste of a sports drink with just the slightest taste of the energy ingredients finishing off the flavour , but it’s well within the pleasant tasting level .
v zero is the same flavour as v green but made without sugar and is different from v sugarfree , which has its own unique flavour . zero was launched in the new zealand market in september 2015 . [ 6 ]
v spiked punch [ 7 ] announced on vnz facebook on 6 march 2017 , on 27 february they announced they were trialing a new recipe for the original v drink . the release of v spiked punch confirmed that the previous announcement was a joke , and the new recipe was released as the new spiked punch flavour .
with the introduction of the nitrous technology ( an advanced way to manufacture energy drinks ) the carbonated ways is in intense pressure . soon the carbonation will be outdated and v drink has to adopt this nitrous method to manufacture the drink . the taste of the nitrous manufactured drink is far better than the carbonation taste that is another reason of adoption of nitrous method .
runa organic clean energy drink from the guayusa leaf , unsweetened watermelon , 12 f . . .
xyience energy drink | frostberry blast | sugar free | zero calories | natural flav . . .
i think v energy has produced a winner here and i would definitely reach for v isokinetic again when i’m looking for a sports drink . it has a good blend of taste / energy / sweetness and v seems to do the trick . the only downside is v isokinetic’s smaller size for your money but guarana doesn’t just grow on trees ya know…oh . . wait . . i guess it does .
v drink is a dominant product in competitive australian - new zealand energy drink market . statistics from 2007 reveal that the australian energy drink market is worth $ 325 million , up from approximately $ 200 million in 2004 . at that time , two products red bull and v dominated the market , capturing 90 % of the market share . coca cola , in their failed attempt to initially capture a slice of the market , reformulated their mother energy drink in 2008 backed by a $ 3 million advertising campaign . as a consequence of successfully reformulating and relaunching their mother drink , coca cola at present holds approximately 14 % market share eroding the once dominant positions of red bull and v . in response to this , red bull and v have both added additional product lines into the market place including increased drink / can sizes , compact energy shots and additional flavours and variations of their original products . now there are three dominant leaders in the energy drink market . ( www . oppapers . com )
below is the product positioning map for the v drink and its competitor . this describes the price of the 500ml can of each brand and the amount of energy they provide .
v black is a quality drink in my opinion . i can see why it remains the go to drink for kiwis and aussies alike , but will it continue to be as the big players like monster and rockstar are now on the scene . time will tell i guess .
mother energy drink in 2008 backed by a $ 3 million advertising campaign . as a consequence of successfully reformulating and relaunching their mother drink , coca cola at present holds approximately 14 % market share eroding the once dominant positions of red bull and v . in response to this , red bull and v have both added additional product lines into the market place including increased drink / can sizes , compact energy shots and additional flavours and variations of their original products .
the millennials have long been hailed the holy grail for marketers , but capturing the attention of the elusive demographic has been a difficult feat for many brands – including v energy drink .
be sure to find out what v is up to at https : / / v . co . nz , on facebook , twitter , youtube , and instagram
the original flavor of v energy drink is somewhat typical of other “green” colored energy drinks and similar to monster original . it’s that flavor that has hints of citrus , but you can’t quite place . . a . k . a a term that can be called “green energy drink flavor” .
the drink was originally available in six different varieties and two standard size packages , which were supplemented with limited edition 300 ml aluminium bottles . v has recently become available in other sizes .
v energy drink is best known for the tagline “the massive hit that improves you a bit” . the brand has previously invested heavily in tv , with several big budget commercials rolling out .
andrew fenwick , marketing manager at frucor , the parent company of v energy drink , tells adnews the decision to experiment with more native content was led by the changing habits of millennials .
urltoken no one beats the acai berry high antioxidant energy drink powered with cacao that is readily available in the market today . xocai xe healthy energy drink is a grape / berry flavored high antioxidant energy drink powered with cacao . it is a revolutionary item that incorporates the wellness advantages of both cacao and the acai berry . xocai ' s xe energy drink embodies the finest of the proven natural energy boosters from around the world . let xocai ' s xe , the very best energy drink , help you fight your daily battles . we are independent san jose healthy chocolate and xe energy drink distributors . to buy xe , the most effective energy drink , call 408 - 390 - 4876 , or check out our site for more info .
when two worlds collide… . . the v energy donut . exclusively at donut king !
made their own flavours of v drinks , which were announced on their tv show .
red bull sugar free , red bull zero , v sugarfree and v 0 % sugar all have no sugar , but use artificial sweeteners instead - which raises other health concerns .
in late february 2014 , v nz announced the limited edition v kaboom . it was re - released in new zealand in september 2017 after popular demand to relaunch the flavour .
drinks are reviewed by an independent drink reviewer and do not necessarily reflect the views or beliefs of this site .
mixing energy drinks with alcohol increases dehydration and the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviours such as drink - driving .
runa organic clean energy drink from the guayusa leaf , lime , 8 . 4 ounce ( pack of 24 )
media insight has won the media contract for the v energy drink and is relaunching the brand with a sponsorship of itv1 ' s i ' m a celebrity . . . get me out of here !
vita - v organic energy shots . best energy drink for increased stamina and focus boost . no jitters or crash . tasty superfood fruits and raw green coffee beans . natural caffeine . ( 12 - pack )
frucor doesn ' t separately disclose sales for v , it is selling about $ 90 million of the drink a year , based on results of red bull , which has 20 per cent of the market .
the drink’s boast is 600mg of guarana and 2000mg of taurine . the drink has a rather week vitamin b complex and 155mg of caffeine for a 500ml can . again , caffeine is limited do to caffeine restrictions in nz and au .
upon request , these stores can increase a boost of caffeine in the coffee like the double or triple 5 shots of caffeine option added to any starbucks drink . starbucks is the well known coffee drink provider to everyone who does drink coffee and does not drink coffee . its popularity has allowed them to sell their own specialty energy drinks in stores such as the starbucks double shot which reflects the taste of an ice coffee . starbucks is a definite concern for v because it has an already well - established name and definitely similar targets to some of v ' s . many companies are well established and have developed brand loyalty with their customer . these brands are pepsi , coca cola , 7 up , ginger ale , sprite . thus , many people would still prefer to drink sodas over energy drinks .
in early october 2014 , they announced a new limited edition , v gnarly . [ 5 ]
hot sale vita - v organic energy shots . best energy drink for increased stamina and focus boost . no jitters or crash . tasty superfood fruits and raw green coffee beans . natural caffeine . ( 12 - pack )
young children can suffer disturbed sleep patterns , bedwetting and anxiety from the caffeine in just one can of an energy drink .
v8 energy , juice drink with green tea , pomegranate blueberry , 8 oz . can ( 4 packs of . . .
g organic , mixed berry , gatorade sports drink , usda certified organic , 16 . 9 oz . bot . . .
frucor ' s product range includes mizone sports water , v energy drink , gforce fruit drink , evian mineral water and h2go spring water . mizone , v , and gforce are manufactured in new zealand , by frucor beverages new zealand limited and imported to australia . evian mineral water is manufactured in france and imported to australia . the h2go pure spring water brand is contract - packed for frucor by a third - party filling operation in australia .
hr will help us to find out the best people suitable for the advertisement making , web designing as we will upgrade our website v republic . and there is need to employ some student brand managers who would be used to promote the v drink in the university campuses ( www . frucor . co . nz ) .
hot sale vita - v organic energy shots . best energy drink for increased stamina and focus boost . no jitters or crash . tasty superfood fruits and raw green coffee beans . natural caffeine . ( 12 - pack ) - urltoken
v ' s previous special editions have been very hit - and - miss affairs : v kaboom ! bordered on sickly - sweet while v graphite was indistinguishable from arch - rival mother . the others range from
meh
to acceptably novel , but none have been a patch on the mainstay flavours .
october 2011 saw the introduction of v energy blue , with a distinct flavour and bright blue color .
take the vita - v challenge . compare vita - v with 5 hour energy , guru energy drink , monster energy , gu energy gel , monster , rockstar , runa , red bull , kirkland , guayaki , red rain , honey stinger , cliff shot bloks & rockstar energy drink . feel how vita - v gets your motor steadily humming naturally , not all revved up . you ' ll be at your peak performance with added energy when exercising or playing sports . feel extra focus & mental clarity when studying or working . you ' ll love the real fruit taste !
built off v energy’s brand platform ‘the massive hit that improves you a bit’ , the latest work to come out of the v shed reinforces the brand’s commitment to helping people be “a bit better” at life .
the 600ml bottle of v isokinetic has the usual potassium and sodium of a sports drink but the bonus of 720mg of guarana , a splash of b vitamins , and a caffeine content of 102mg . v isokinetic is about 150ml smaller than other sports drinks and it contains more sugar , no doubt needed to cover up the bitterness of the caffeine .
then in march 2015 , a third announcement introduced limited edition v carnival , with a cream soda flavour .
the management includes highly skilled and talented people with the new innovative ideas . management always includes the whole staff in the process of decision making . this involvement makes the staff feel that they are an important part of the company and leads to highly motivated workforce . frucor ' s long - time managing director , mark cowsill , helped come up with the innovative v energy drink and says the drink is typical of the company ' s overall approach to business . innovation is the name of the game . it ' s all about ' v ' . frucor ' s bright green energy drink has captured consumer interest big - time . so much so that it now accounts for 60 percent of the australian energy drink market , despite being only 10 years old .
urltoken : vita - v organic energy shots . best energy drink for increased stamina and focus boost . no jitters or crash . tasty superfood fruits and raw green coffee beans . natural caffeine . ( 12 - pack ) : grocery & gourmet food
v8 energy , juice drink with green tea , orange pineapple , 8 oz . can ( 4 packs of 6 , t . . .
v8 energy , juice drink with green tea , orange pineapple , 8 oz . can ( 4 packs of 6 , t . . .
the number 1 energy brand in new zealand by a country mile , v is certainly new zealand’s favourite energy drink . created back in 1997 , new zealanders have embraced this home grown hero and have been on a guarana fuelled energy ride ever since !
{ { cite web | last = essays | first = uk urltoken | title = v energy drink offers marketing essay | publisher = ukessays . com | date = november 2013 | accessdate = 9 july 2018 | location = nottingham , uk } }
v . s . , very special : three years of aging in wooden casks . very often called three star
v pure was released in nz in may 2016 . it is made from 6 natural ingredients . which include apple juice , lemon juice , guarana seed extract , green coffee beans , sparkling water , and natural v flavor .
v is an energy drink brand produced by frucor , a new zealand - based beverage manufacturer . it was launched in methven , new zealand in august 1997 and in australia in 1999 . the product ' s success , a market share over 60 % in new zealand [ 1 ] and 42 % in australia , [ 2 ] makes it the most popular brand of energy drink in both countries .
to get its message across , v recruited youtube sensations rackaracka , aunty donna and notorious super bowl crasher dion rich .
in april 2018 , v together with donut store chain donut king released in australia a v flavoured donut . the donut was sold through donut king stores nationwide and contained a gooey guarana filling and covered in green sugar crystals . [ 10 ]
in 2018 v energy celebrated its 21st birthday of being in new zealand . they made a montage of all their adverts .
v is the market - leading energy drink in australasia and outsells red bull by a ratio of three to one in new zealand and australia . despite red bull ' s dominance of the uk energy drinks market , it has attracted some controversy over the levels of caffeine it contains .
v carnival is a limited - edition energy drink that packs in 611kj of energy , 300mg of guarana extract , 118mg of sodium and a massive 34 . 6g of sugar . that works out to 38 % of your recommended daily sugar intake , or around nine teaspoons . yeuck .
with all of the variety of beverages out there , it is no surprise that the market of energy drinks is extremely competitive and filled with a lot of advertising clutter , making it difficult for v to stand out and for the consumers to decide what drink best fits their needs .
the drink sponsored i ' m a celebrity . . . get me out of here ! in the uk for its second series in 2003 . [ 9 ]
so did carnival manage to buck v ' s trend of subpar special - edition flavours ? no . no it did not .
v is the most popular energy drink in new zealand , so when frucor briefed colenso on a new campaign for this iconic kiwi brand the natural expectation was for a regular campaign for its master brand . however , what frucor received was an idea for an entirely new direction . why ? frucor ' s research revealed that people have an increasing need for energy , but a significant preference shift towards products made with natural ingredients is emerging . colenso suggested instead of producing a new campaign , frucor should create a whole a new kind of energy drink made with only natural ingredients . concurrently frucor r & d had been working on a concept in this realm , and with added encouragement from colenso everything clicked into place . this product evolved to become v pure , a revolutionary energy drink with the same energy hit of v - but made with only six natural ingredients . view the spot
comparison : a medium - sized drink in the u . s . , which is 21oz of liquid , is big enough to overflow japan ' s 20oz large cup
v energy drinks , the dominating ed company in the lands down under hasn’t released anything new in awhile since their little pocket rocket last year . i was excited to see the new v isokinetic energy + hydration beverage glowing green in the cooler of new world . powerade , gatorade , and mizone have a pretty good market share in the sports hydration arena but they lack v’s trademark ingredient , guarana .
this means that the minimum caffeine content should be 145mg per litre of energy drink and maximum of 30mg / l and the same rule is followed by australian manufacturing companies .
my first sip of v black was pleasant , yet i couldn’t place the flavor . second sip gave me hints of citrus . third sip brought a hint of cola , but still wasn’t convinced . i went to v’s website and discovered that black is coffee and citrus flavored . hmm , now i’m a huge coffee fan , but i really couldn’t taste coffee . despite my palate’s confusion , this is a good tasting drink and was enjoyable .
i was having a rough morning and my usual two cups of coffee just weren’t cutting it today so i was glad this was a “review day” ! v isokinetic sports energy drink , thankfully , took me to the next level of alertness and i feel much more with it . however , v isokinetic is best enjoyed while doing some sort of physical activity because drinking it while sitting at my desk has just produced many trips to the loo !
v energy berry , released in new zealand in 2005 and australia in 2007 , had berry juices , flavourings and lemon juice ; it was discontinued in january 2013 . v energy lemon followed in 2008 with a yellow and gold label , but was discontinued in october 2009 .
over the past few years , the market has revealed that there is a strong increase in the consumption of energy drink beverages . while there are currently many brands of energy drinks on the market , v distinguishes itself amongst its competitors by offering different size cans , thus enabling our consumers to get more for their money . according to tablebase data , v is positioned first amongst brands such as red bull , mother and monster with 60 % market share .
this is how we position our products in the market . below is the product positioning map for the v drink and its competitor . this describes the price of the 500ml can of each brand and the amount of energy they provide . this makes the customer aware about how much energy they are getting on what price .
mother is an energy drink marketed to australians and new zealanders by coca - cola . coca cola , in their failed attempt to initially capture a slice of the market , reformulated their
there’s no better inspiration for a modern - day energy drink . we’ve done our own thinking , and carefully created a unique guarana potion enhanced by caffeine , vitamins and minerals . but in every can and bottle of v is a little bit of this amazonian spirit . and a spark , a challenge to create the extraordinary .
v double hit , released in october 2008 , is a 500ml aluminium can , available in original , sugar free , blue , and black .
v reactor was released in march 2015 as a limited edition flavour to promote avengers : age of ultron . it has a strong sour taste .
a limited - edition variety of v flavoured with blood orange called v energy not orange was released in september and october 2012 in new zealand and in australia in march 2013 . it appears intermittently for a limited amount of time in selected markets . v energy purple plasma was another limited edition first released in late 2012 as a tie - in to the halo 4 video game , with halo characters appearing on the side of each can .
v bling was released in february of 2018 . it features a gold can and a smooth taste with hints of vanilla on top of the regular v flavour . it is marketed with the slogan
you can ' t buy success , but now you can buy what it tastes like
.
the primary consumer group of v includes extreme sports enthusiasts , music lovers , and young adults . this may be the result that v sponsored and promoted themselves through events of extreme sports and music concert tours . this group of consumers is excited by speed , energy , flash , and instant thrill .
“reaching the 18 - 24 key target is the trickiest thing for v . they are becoming harder to reach with traditional mediums , ” he says .
v morph was released in march 2016 as a limited edition passionfruit flavour , along with a fancy glittery bottle ; to promote x - men : apocalypse .
in 2008 v energy wanted us to make them a giant v can to go on top of their ' remote control ' moster truck . the truck would go on to be used in a tv commercial and also tour around as part of their marketing strategy . the can looked exactly like the real thing !
changes such as with education , sports , clubs , and part - time jobs are far more demanding in a college setting . v is targeting customers across the new zealand that are at this turning point in their lives , when energy is a necessary component to successfully make it through any given day . v energy drink is the perfect solution for 18 to 24 - year - olds who live fast - paced , hectic lifestyles making it through long days and nights of classes , studying , projects , and overtime work .
tried the carnival v , i couldn ' t place the flavour , but it felt ' gritty ' like eating a biscuit . wasn ' t very nice .
when the company first created v energy shots , samples were sent to members of its online community v republic , with a warning that they shouldn ' t be consumed by those under 16 years of age . however , frucor sent the samples without checking the ages of all recipients . the company later apologised to recipients .
the strategy is to emphasize v ' s distinctive taste of guarana and taurine . the taste is more enjoyable and the size provides a longer lasting boost of energy , which led to the creation of the ' vitalizes body and mind ' slogan . v will launch specific event sponsorships that will attract the target and increase revenue .
v 0 % sugar , released in australia in late 2013 in citrus fusion , tropical rush , and blood orange burst , was a new sugar - free version .
since choice first looked at energy drinks back in 2005 , there ' s been a growing trend of mixing them with alcohol . the problem with this combination is that it can mask the effects of intoxication . consuming an energy drink alongside alcohol can make you feel more alert , and less drunk . many people use energy drinks as mixers for exactly that reason - it enables them to drink more alcohol , and for longer .
frucor is 100 % owned by groupe danone , one of the world ' s leading biscuit , dairy and drink companies . but its been acquired by suntory of japan in october 2008 from its previous owner danone .
v black other than the statements of being “big” and “more guarana” , makes no promises regarding energy , but relies on their reputation to speak louder than words . i received a good , late morning “pick me up” from v black and i felt ready to tackle the rest of my day and especially that foot long subway waiting for me .
v iced coffee , sold in 600ml plastic bottles , has been relaunched in nz with 720 mg of guarana per bottle , under the logo
the cousin once removed
.
how much you drink again depends largely on how long you will be racing for and by understanding how much you need , you may be able to save time as you don’t necessarily have to weigh down your bike with litres of fluid . it’s difficult to reach a level of dehydration that will impact performance within an hour , so the fastest sprint athletes may need very little fluid to get through the race . however , a good guide is to drink 300 - 800mls of fluid per hour depending on weather conditions ( if it’s hotter , you’ll sweat more , so need to drink more ) . work out how long you’ll be out there and prepare your drinks accordingly .
the ad was done in a candid handy cam style , and was part of a series of ad ' s in which people do crazy things with machines carrying the v logo .
despite these three main competitors , red bull , mother and monster , the energy drinks industry is heavily competitive . v needs to maintain its market share by continuing to maintain its position .
the v skills - 24 essential skills in total - are delivered through 14 million printed cans as well as snapchat videos , street murals , gifs , outdoor billboards , and youtube videos .
their slogan is â€•unleash the beast , which supports its image as the â€•meanest energy supplement on the planetâ€ - according to its own homepage . similar to red bull and v , monster energy sponsors sporting events , concerts , and parties . monster energy offers 7 flavors with an addition of 8 flavors mixed with coffee known as java monster . unlike v who has 5 international locations ,
v gives you the energy to take on whatever life throws at you , with the power of guarana at the heart of the brand and our product range . as the legend goes amazonian indians would suck on gobfuls of the small but mighty guarana berries , to help them get more stuff done . v combines guarana , caffeine and vitamins to help people get more out of life today
v’s claim to fame is its use of guarana as a caffeine source as well as additional caffeine . sucrose , guarana , caffeine , b vitamins , and taurine make up it’s energy blend .
three flavors ( pick your favorite shot ) . vita - v energy shots has no : sodium , gluten , dyes , processed sugar , high fructose corn syrup , additives , preservatives , gmos , herbal stimulants , dextrose , pesticides , sucralose , synthetic fertilizers , radiation , & unpleasant , medicine taste . instead , enjoy vita - v ' s tasty , non - gmo project verified , low calorie , natural alternative for guilt - free energy . vita - v comes in three , delicious , hand crafted flavors - - grape , berry and our original mixed fruit flavor .
vita - v energy co . is about creating real organic energy that ' s both delicious & healthy , & makes you feel good . we source only organic ingredients from partners we trust .
viter energy wintergreen caffeinated mints - 40mg caffeine & b - vitamins per powerful sugar free mint . boost energy , focus & fresh breath . 2 pieces replace 1 coffee , energy drink , caffeine candy & gum ( 6 x 20 piece containers )
drink up : in hong kong , a small beverage from mcdonald ' s is just about the same size as one from the u . s . , but a medium - sized one is significantly shorter - just minimally bigger than the hong kong small
the new year is nearly upon us , which means you might need a bit of v to help you get through some banger nights . tag a mate that’s gonna need 10 / 10 saving .
v energy black was released in australia and new zealand in 2004 , featuring coffee flavouring in place of fruit . in australia it was marketed toward students and advertised as less acidic , with twice the
v energy deadpool promotion prize winners major prize ( $ 50 , 000 ) : a . edwards - tas consolation prize ( $ 500 ) : t . tan - nsw , b . s . . .
the standard size of v drinks is a 250 ml can . limited edition flavours can be available in 300ml aluminium bottles , 350ml glass bottles , 500ml cans , 500ml pet plastic bottles , or 710ml cans .
they ' re fizzy drinks with a difference . red bull
vitalizes body and mind
, mother gives you
heaps of energy
and v is
the massive hit that improves you a bit
.
energy drinks such as red bull and v have obvious appeal to kids but can contain as much caffeine as a cup of coffee . even small amounts of caffeine can make kids anxious and disturb their sleep patterns .
long lasting energy - effervescent powder - based on an herbal adaptogen formula used for years by russia ' s top athletes , v16 energy drink turns a glass of water into a quick pick me up beverage that leaves you feeling refreshed and awake within minutes . 28 pouches per carton
in conclusion , v carnival is a bit of an acquired taste . they certainly nailed the flavours of a carnival , but it ' s not something that should ever have been put into a can . best avoided .
you’ve seen those cognac abbreviations : v . o . , x . o , v . s . o . p , and so on . what in the world do all those designations mean ? the labels tell you how old the cognac ( brandy made in the french region of cognac ) inside really is , as dictated by the very strict french laws governing such things . and you don’t even have to know how to speak french .
part of its secret is guarana , the stimulant extracted from the brazilian plant . this is then combined with caffeine to create the popular new drink that is giving consumers the buzz they want when they fancy a change from hot coffee . ( www . istart . co . nz )
drinking more than 800mls isn’t recommended , even for heavy sweaters as your gut is unable to absorb it . instead , to maximise fluid absorption most athletes should look to include 250 - 750mg sodium in their 500ml drink and there are lots of commercially available products to make this super simple .
based on v ' s estimated sales from the previous year , the campaign allocated an advertising budget of $ 10 million to execute and utilize different media vehicles : magazine , internet , prime - time television , ambient , and event sponsorships . these media vehicles allowed rockstar to reach the desired reach and frequencies while keeping within the budget . research dictates that the top 4 dmas are heavily populated with the target audience that v is aiming to attract current and future consumers .
maintaining energy levels and mental clarity throughout the day has become an increasingly difficult challenge . v16 energy drink is a unique combination of adaptogens , vitamins , nutrients , and a balanced blend of b - vitamins in a caffeine - free , effervescent formula designed to provide quick energy and mental focus . *
even for hardcore sweet - tooths , this drink is off the charts . it also has an aftertaste that can only be described as vile : it ' s kind of a cross between creaming soda and caremelised popcorn . i feel like my taste buds were molested by a grubby - handed carnie .
vita - v
superfruit grape
extra strength organic energy shots . natural boost . delicious real fruits . caffeine from raw green coffee beans . no jitters no junk no gluten . non - gmo vegan ( 12 - pack / grape )
vita - v
superfruit berry
extra strength organic energy shots . natural boost . delicious real fruits . caffeine from raw green coffee beans . no jitters no junk no gluten . non - gmo vegan ( 12 - pack / berry )
red bull is known to be the 2nd energy drink in the new zealand . its main headquarters are in austria . their popular slogan is â€•red bull gives you wings ! red and travels . however , they also sponsor in many different activities like video gaming and cultural arts . red bull has only two products , the original , sugar - free , while v has 7 products with different flavours . red bull has sold more than 4 billion cans in red bull earned $ 79 , 817 , 000 . their growth increased by 26 . 5 % .
v . s . o . p . , very superior old pale : minimum aging is eight years in wood for the youngest in the blend . industry average is between 10 and 15 years old , which is why it’s sometimes known as five star
armagnac is blended with older vintages than similarly labeled cognacs . hence , a v . s . o . p . armagnac could be considered a better value than a similarly aged cognac . ( armagnac is brandy made in the armagnac region of france . )
the energy shots ( described as
pocket rockets
) are claimed to be as effective as the larger cans but have an extremely bitter taste that , according to the v pocket rocket website , is to stop young children from drinking them . [ 8 ]
the frucor beverages - owned drink has been inactive since 2001 , when it spent £4 . 5 million on its advertising . however , it is returning in an attempt to challenge red bull ' s stranglehold on the uk energy drinks market and the £1 million sponsorship of itv1 ' s flagship spring entertainment show is the centrepiece of this attack .
coffee versus vita - v ' s organic , raw green coffee beans . did you know non - organic coffee is heavily sprayed with toxic pesticides ? customers report our non - toxic , pesticide free , usda certified organic , raw , green coffee beans gave them zip with no jitters . no crash . they experienced a more subtle , smoother , naturally awake & alert vitality over other energy shots , yerba mate & coffee . unlike coffee , you can carry vita - v energy shots with you in your bag or pocket . no refrigeration required .
within energy drinks , v ' s main competitors are red bull , mother and monster energy . it is ranked 1st in the market with 60 % share , followed by red bull [ 20 % ] , mother [ 14 % ] , monster energy [ 3 % ] .
the main objectives are to increase female users and to continue to retain the market share as it is almost on breakeven point and try to increase it if possible . the communication objectives are to eliminate gender biases and to break the image and perception that v is only for a distinctive group .
the story of v started centuries ago , deep in the amazon with the original overachievers – the amazonian indians . in a single generation , they went from hunting with spears to building a sophisticated civilisation . what was their secret ? the answer lies in a small but potent berry . the guarana berry .
when it comes to alcohol , not all drinks are created equal . there are different flavours , different sizes and different amounts of alcohol . it ' s important to learn what 1 standard drink actually is , in order to stay within the limits outlined in canada ' s low risk alcohol drinking guidelines and reduce your risk for acute and chronic alcohol related harms . serving sizes may be larger than you think ; check your pour .
before i continue , let me preface this review by reiterating my enduring love for the v brand . the blue and green variants are pretty much my joint - favourite beverages of all time . i was therefore filled with excitement when i saw this limited - edition flavour peeking out of my local iga ' s refrigerator . . . excitement tempered with trepidation .
craig irwin , marketing director at frucor beverages , explains why they embraced this approach :
v has been the market leader for years , but at frucor we know that it ' s unbelievably important to stay in touch with what your customers want , and to keep innovating if you want to stay relevant . so when we saw the idea for v pure we quickly applied the energy and resources we needed to make the idea a reality . the initial feedback to v pure has been outstanding and it has opened up new market segments for the brand , which just goes to prove that you are better to make products that people want than to make them want your product .
all colenso had to do then was tell people about it in a way that highlighted the natural properties of the product . through omd ' s extensive media strategy v pure will be launched with a 60
film that will run on digital channels and cinema only . accompanied by various other short form edits which will play out online , the campaign also includes ooh and real world brand activations . dave brady , art director at colenso bbdo , explains how important it was to get the right team behind such an important launch :
after seeing the coco de mer ' x ' spot directed by vicky lawton through rankin films , we knew she was right for the job . she couldn ' t have been more up for it and brought so much to a very ambitious and action - packed production . we really wanted to elevate the tone for v pure and leave viewers feeling as energised as they would be after drinking a bottle .
client : frucor - craig irwin , john alexander , ursla bowden , agency : colenso bbdo film company : rankin films media agency : omd pr agency : beat pr
the target audience lives an active college lifestyle and is primarily males between the ages of 18 - 24 . thus , it is at this time in the consumer ' s life that dramatic changes are taking place . the primary consumer group of v includes extreme sports enthusiasts , music lovers , and young adults which are why this campaign consists of event sponsorships and promotions which will grab the targets attention .
toby jenner , the managing director at media insight , said :
in such a hugely competitive market where one player has almost a 70 per cent share , we needed an opportunity that allows v to assume ' thought leadership ' of the category . celebrity , we believe , will allow us to do just that , through not only the sponsorship but also online , promotions , public relations and licensing .
vita - v organic energy shots . best energy drink for increased stamina and focus boost . no jitters or crash . tasty superfood fruits and raw green coffee beans . natural caffeine . ( 12 - pack ) i needed a safer alternative to five hour energy shots and red bull . these are packed with a lot of vitamins and caffeine in the amount of a cup of coffee . the vitamins do give an extra boost . if you are sensitive to stimulants as i am i suggest start with a half of a bottle until you know how your body will react to it . it does have a slight after taste of vitamins , but otherwise doesn ' t taste too bad . the liquid is not clear and i am guessing that is due to the vitamins in it . i didn ' t have any energy crashes . it definitely gave me a boost . i am best with only taking a half a bottle at a time .
not the greatest taste but seems to help with energy . i bought these originally as a natural source of energy during pregnancy but once i got them they do say not recommended for pregnant or breast feeding mothers and i couldn ' t find the source of the caffeine in them to know for sure what was in them . my husband was going to start drinking them but he didn ' t like the taste either . definitely better cold and if you drink them fast , may be good in a smoothie . this one had a banana / pineapple flavor ?
“the more people we spoke to the more we heard that they wanted a few life hacks to be a bit better at a range of different things that they are not taught at school or university . i think we’ve struck a really nice balance working with some amazing talent to deliver a suite of 24 skills that delivers the utility in an entertaining way which will really cut through to make sure everyone can grab a v and become a bit better . ”
typically , this age group of 18 to 24 - year - olds is either thinking about college , in college , or just recently graduated from college with or without a career . in the same way , situation it appeals to the young ones who are casually dressed with the hoodies and the rapper ' s clothes in its advertisement . the professionals are never included in these adverts as they are mostly health conscious and they prefer coffee for the energy . so v creates its own unique environment .
feel the focused & awake difference . other energy shots have artificial , synthetic , & chemical ingredients that can make you jittery , jacked up , wired , and then like a roller coaster , you crash down . instead , vita - v is the healthy alternative to chemically based energy shots . it ' s made from usda organic super fruits & raw , green coffee beans—real food for naturally sustained , refreshed energy . it ' s a little bottle of get - up - and - go filled with things your body naturally yearns for .
feel the focused & awake difference . other energy shots have artificial , synthetic , & chemical ingredients that can make you jittery , jacked up , wired , and then like a roller coaster , you crash down . instead , vita - v is the healthy alternative to chemically based energy shots . it ' s made from usda organic super fruits & raw , green coffee beansâ€”real food for naturally sustained , refreshed energy . it ' s a little bottle of get - up - and - go filled with things your body naturally yearns for .


the life events and difficulties schedule is a psychological measurement of the stressfulness of life events .

it was created by psychologists george brown and tirril harris in 1978 .

instead of accumulating the stressfulness of different events , as was done in the social readjustment rating scale by thomas holmes and richard rahe , they looked at individual events in detail .

the schedule is made up of an interview by which as much contextual information around the event as possible is collected .

the event is then rated by " blind " raters using this contextual information .

critics of this method note the fact that the impact of the independent variable , the event itself , is measured by evaluating it using mediating and moderating variables .

life events and difficulties schedule

adaptation and validation of the life events and difficulties schedule for use with high school dropouts .
adaptation and validation of the life events and difficulties schedule for use with high school dropouts . - pubmed - ncbi
the computerised life events assessment record ( clear ) is under development as a tool for online assessment of adult life events . based on the life events and difficulties schedule interview , clear seeks to assess life events to self and close others , link these to other events and difficulties , and utilize calendar - based timing , to improve upon checklist approaches .
costello cg , devins gm . two - staged screening for stressful events and chronic difficulties .
white , kevin .
life events and difficulties schedule .
in the sage dictionary of health and society , 127 - 128 . london : sage publications ltd , 2006 . doi : 10 . 4135 / 9781446215159 . n494 .
white , k . ( 2006 ) . life events and difficulties schedule . in the sage dictionary of health and society ( pp . 127 - 128 ) . london : sage publications ltd doi : 10 . 4135 / 9781446215159 . n494
broadhead j c , abas m a . life events , difficulties and depression among women in an urban setting in zimbabwe .
white , k 2006 , ' life events and difficulties schedule ' , in the sage dictionary of health and society , sage publications ltd , london , pp . 127 - 128 , viewed 9 july 2018 , doi : 10 . 4135 / 9781446215159 . n494 .
kendler k s , neale m , kessler r , heath a , eaves l . a twin study of recent life events and difficulties .
white , kevin .
life events and difficulties schedule .
the sage dictionary of health and society . london : sage publications ltd , 2006 . 127 - 128 . sage knowledge . web . 9 jul . 2018 , doi : 10 . 4135 / 9781446215159 . n494 .
farmer anne e , mcguffin peter . humiliation , loss and other types of life events and difficulties : a comparison of depressed subjects , healthy controls and their siblings .
ormel j , oldehinkel aj , brilman ei . the interplay and etiological continuity of neuroticism , difficulties , and life events in the etiology of major and subsyndromal , first and recurrent depressive episodes in later life .
ormel j , oldehinkel a j , brilman e i . the interplay and etiological continuity of neuroticism , difficulties , and life events in the etiology of major and subsyndromal , first and recurrent depressive episodes in later life .
monroe sm , slavich gm , torres ld , gotlib ih . major life events and major chronic difficulties are differentially associated with history of major depressive episodes .
meaning , measurement , and stress of life events . in dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp . editors . stressful life events , their nature and effects .
the clear “stress online : developing a reliable and valid interactive online method for measuring stressful life events and difficulties” project is funded by the economic and social research council ( esrc es / k00638x / 1 ) .
 * pcs2 leds data are complete for life events only . due to restructuring of the laboratory that conducted the leds scoring , data on difficulties are not available .
zautra aj , reich jw . life events and perceptions of life quality : developments in a two - factor approach .
dohrenwend bs , krasnoff l , askenasy ar , dohrenwend bp . exemplification of method for scaling life events : the peri life events scale .
dohrenwend bs , krasnoff l , askenasy ar , dohrenwend bp . exemplification of a method for scaling life events : the peri life events scale .
tennant c . life events , stress , and depression : a review of the findings .
there is currently no sophisticated technological application of social risk factor assessment , such as life events and difficulties . clear is designed to gather reliable and valid life - event data while combating the limitations of interviews ( eg , time consuming and costly ) and life - event checklists ( eg , inability to accurately measure severity and independence of life events ) . the advantages of using such innovative methodology for research , clinical practice , and interventions are discussed .
grant i , gerst m , yager j . scaling of life events by psychiatric patients and normals .
norman rmg , malla ak . stressful life events and schizophrenia i : a review of the research .
brown gw , harris to , hepworth c . life events and endogenous depression : a puzzle reexamined .
it is also hoped that the clear approach to assessing life events and difficulties will aid those in clinical practice . the provision of recent life charts of events labeled in terms of their likely stressful nature and with attributes relating to loss , danger , humiliation , and entrapment will allow clinicians to consider the level of stressor experienced in seeking to estimate patient appraisal and coping capacity .
vinokur a , selzer ml . desirable versus undesirable life events : their relationship to stress and mental distress .
hunt n , bruce - jones w , silverstone t . life events and relapse in bipolar affective disorder .
life stress was assessed from 1 year before the onset of depression up to the day of the interview using the life events and difficulties schedule ( leds ; brown and harris , 1978 ) . this system first employs a 2 - hour semistructured interview in which the interviewer systematically inquires about potential stressors . next , the interviewer presents the reported events and chronic difficulties to a panel of raters who judge each stressor using a 520 - page manual that outlines explicit rules and criteria for rating life stress . the manual also includes 5000 case vignettes that are used as anchors in the rating process . ratings are finalized after a consensus discussion that considers extensive information about the stressor , the context surrounding the stressor , and the individual’s biographic circumstances ( i . e . , “contextual” ratings ; brown and harris , 1978 , 1989 ) .
brown gw , birley jlt . crises and life changes and the onset of schizophrenia .
brown gw , bifulco a , harris to . life events , vulnerability and onset of depression : some refinements .
brown gw , harris to . life events and measurement . in : brown gw , harris to , editors .
links between life events and clinical disorders have a long history , given the fact that stressful life events are an important predictor of the onset and course of various disorders across the life span , including depression , eating disorders , and psychosis [ 1 - 5 ] . in addition , long - term stressors ( difficulties ) play an important role in the onset and maintenance of disorder , notably depression , but these are often overlooked [ 6 , 7 ] .
cohen l , towbes l , flocco r . effects of induced mood on self - reported life events and perceived and received social support .
( 1 ) to argue that life events need sophisticated measurement not satisfactorily captured in checklist approaches . ( 2 ) to review life - events measures and key findings related to disorder , exemplifying depression . ( 3 ) to describe an ongoing study with a new online measure and to assess its psychometric properties and the association of life events in relation to disorder and educational outcomes .
johnson jh , bradlyn as . assessing stressful life events in childhood and adolescence . in : karoly p , editor .
kendler ks , karkowski lm , prescott ca . causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression .
goodyer im , altman pme . lifetime exit events and recent social and family adversities in anxious and depressed school - age children and adolescents—i .
goodyer im , altman pme . lifetime exit events and recent social and family adversities in anxious and depressed school - age children and adolescents—ii .
brown gw . meaning , measurement , and stress of life events . in : dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , editors .
brugha ts , cragg d . the list of threatening experiences : the reliability and validity of a brief life events questionnaire .
raphael kg , cloitre m , dohrenwend bp . problems of recall and misclassification with checklist methods of measuring stressful life events .
brugha ts , cragg d . the list of threatening experiences : the reliability and validity of a brief life events questionnaire .
rahe rh , arthur rj . life change and illness studies : past history and future directions .
brown gw , sklair f , harris to , birley jlt . life events and psychiatric disorders : i . some methodological issues .
faravelli c , ambonetti a . assessment of life events in depressive disorders : a comparison of three methods .
brett jf , brief ap , burke mj , george jm , webster j . negative affectivity and the reporting of stressful life events .
raphael k g , cloitre m , dohrenwend b p . problems of recall and misclassification with checklist methods of measuring stressful life events .
dohrenwend bp . stressful life events and psychopathology : some issues of theory and method . in : barrett jf , rose rm , et al . , editors .
mazure cm , bruce ml , maciejewski pk , jacobs sc . adverse life events and cognitive - personality characteristics in the prediction of major depression and antidepressant response .
the first observations concerning life events occurred in the early 20th century in the clinical field when understanding the experience of depressed patients [ 65 ] , with meyer the first to create life charts to document events linked to disorder [ 66 ] . thus , clinical approaches as a basis for treatment were an original driver for investigating life events and depression , and a need still exists in modern approaches such as cognitive behavioral therapy [ 67 ] where understanding individual appraisal and response to events is critical to effect cognitive and behavioral change . having easy access to sophisticated measures of life events are therefore of potential help to clinicians and could be used in combination with tailored digital health interventions ; for example , cognitive behavioral therapy packages formulated to be used in response to severe life events occurring within an individual’s life .
monroe sm , harkness kl . life stress , the “kindling” hypothesis , and the recurrence of depression : considerations from a life stress perspective .
klein dn , rubovits dr . the reliability of subjects’ reports on stressful life events inventories : a longitudinal study .
neugebauer r . the reliability of life - events reports . in : dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , editors .
schless ap , schwartz l , goetz c , mendels j . how depressives view the significance of life events .
williams cl , uchiyama c . assessment of life events during adolescence : the use of self - report inventories .
pine ds , cohen p , johnson jg , brook js . adolescent life events as predictors of adult depression .
dohrenwend bp . problems in defining and sampling the relevant population of stressful life events . in : dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , editors .
lennon mc , dohrenwend bp , zautra az , marbach jj . coping and adaption to facial pain in contrast to other stressful life events .
theorell t . life events before and after the onset of a premature myocardial infarction . in : dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , editors .
zimmerman m , pfohl b , stangl d . life events assessment of depressed patients : a comparison of self - report and interview formats .
dohrenwend bp , shrout pe . “hassles” in the conceptualization and measurement of life stress variables”
rutter m . meyerian psychobiology , personality development , and the role of life experiences .
wittchen hu , essau ca , hecht h , teder w , pfister h . reliability of life event assessments : test - retest reliability and fall - off effects of the munich interview for the assessment of life events and conditions .
grant i , sweetwood hl , yager j , gerst m . quality of life events in relation to psychiatric symptoms .
dohrenwend bp . inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology : toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability .
keller mc , neale mc , kendler ks . association of different adverse life events with distinct patterns of depressive symptoms .
thoits pa . dimensions of life events that influence psychological distress : an evaluation and synthesis of the literature . in : kaplan hb , editor .
beards s , gayer - anderson c , borges s , dewey me , fisher hl , morgan c . life events and psychosis : a review and meta - analysis .
test - retest reliability of clear will be undertaken using an additional 20 undergraduates , 20 depression cases , and 20 controls from each of the samples , measured an optimal 3 - 4 weeks apart for stability in reporting ( using cohen kappa and icc ) . clear will be tested on the remaining participants ( n = 285 ) and the rates and types of life events and difficulties reported in the 3 samples will be compared and analyzed in relation to sex , social class , and age using chi - square statistics . the association between life events and past / recent depressive disorder and physical illness ( decc sample ) , and academic performance ( undergraduate sample ) will be tested using logistic regression to look at the contribution of life events and indicators of social disadvantage to health and educational outcomes . once both reliability and validity of clear have been determined , the program will be available for more general use .
sarason ig , johnson jh , siegel jm . assessing the impact of life changes : development of the life experiences survey .
shrout p , link bg , dohrenwend bp , skodol ae , stueve a , mirotznik g . characterizing life events as risk factors for depression : the role of fateful loss events .
dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , dodson m , shrout pe . symptoms , hassles , social supports and life events : the problem of confounded measures .
wittchen h u , essau c a , hecht h , teder w , pfister h . reliability of life event assessments : test - retest reliability and fall - off effects of the munich interview for the assessment of life events and conditions .
levav i , krasnoff l , dohrenwend bs . israeli peri life event scale : ratings of events by a community sample .
dohrenwend bruce p . inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology : toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability .
lloyd c , alexander a a , rice d g , greenfield n s . life events as predictors of academic performance .
three - phase design for comparing reliability and validity of checklist and stem question screening instruments for measuring major stressful events .
kanner ad , coyne jc , schaefer c , lazarus rs . comparison of two modes of stress measurement : daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events .
lewinsohn pm , rohde p , gau jm . comparability of self - report checklist and interview data in the assessment of stressful life events in young adults .
using data collected from the leds , we derived several measures of major stressful life events . we selected events based on the leds classification of provoking agents . provoking agents are defined as events that have a severity rating of 1 or 2 and directly involve the respondent or the respondent and another person or persons .
the life events and difficulties schedule ( leds ) is considered the standard for measuring psychosocial stressor exposure , but it has not been used with academically at - risk adolescents , including high school dropouts . the goal of this study was to ( 1 ) adapt the leds for use with this population , and ( 2 ) examine the reliability ( interrater ) and validity ( concurrent and predictive ) of this adaptation among a sample of vulnerable adolescents ( n = 545 ) . good reliability coefficients ( . 79 - . 90 ) were obtained , and stressor exposure was associated with concurrent criteria indexing mental health outcomes ( depression ) and major risk factors for dropout ( administratively recorded and self - reported ) . also , leds scores predicted dropout beyond these risk factors . the adapted leds appears useful for describing academically struggling adolescents ' stressor exposure .
in the present study , we use a state - of - the art interview - based measure of life stress with a sample of adults diagnosed with mdd to address 2 of the distinct limitations of previous research . first , we attempt to replicate the findings of previous studies , which have demonstrated that exposure to a severe life event before the onset of depression is associated with greater overall severity of depression ( hammen et al . , 1992 ; monroe et al . , 1992 ) . we also examine the relation between severe life events and specific classes of depressive symptoms ( i . e . , cognitive and somatic symptoms ) , as suggested by persons ( 1986 ) and costello ( 1993 ) . consistent with previous research , we predict that individuals who have experienced an acute major negative life event before the onset of depression will report greater overall severity of depression , and more intense cognitive symptoms of depression , than will their counterparts without such stress . in a similar vein , we also examine the relation between major negative life events and level of global functioning . second , we examine the relation between preonset chronic difficulties and depressive symptomatology to contribute to the sparse literature on chronic stress and depression . in a manner parallel to the life events analyses , we also test the association between chronic difficulties and specific classes of symptoms . consistent with previous work by mcgonagle and kessler ( 1990 ) , we predict that individuals who have experienced a major chronic difficulty will report greater overall severity of depression than will individuals without such difficulties . given the absence of relevant empirical research and theory for making predictions concerning the relations between chronic difficulties and specific depressive symptoms and level of global functioning , we make no predictions and instead conduct descriptive analyses of these associations .
turner rj , wheaton b . checklist measurement of stressful life events . in : cohen s , et al . , editors .
tennant c , bebbington p , hurry j . the role of life events in depressive illness : is there a substantial causal relation ?
zuckerman l , oliver jm , hollingsworth hh , austrin hr . a comparison of life events scoring methods as predictors of psychological symptomatology .
in the present investigation we found severity of depression and global functioning to be associated with exposure to preonset severe life events , but not with exposure to preonset severe difficulties . thus , although both acute and chronic stressors often precede depression , only acute stress was found to be associated with the clinical characteristics of this disorder . these findings highlight the potential specificity with which stress influences key clinical aspects of depression .
bebbington p , tennant c , stuart e , hurry j . the domain of life events : a comparison of two techniques of description .
both pcs1 and pcs2 contain variables identifying provoking agent events within each of the aforementioned 10 domains , as well as the total number of provoking agent events across all domains . pcs1 also contains variables indicating the total number of negative life stressors ( leds . negev _ tot ; includes both events with ratings of 1 , 2 , or 3 and all difficulties irrespective of threat rating ) as well as information on the duration of individual life events ( see pcs1 data codebook for these and other leds event variables . ) the table below lists the events variables included in the data set along with the leds construct they represent ( if applicable ) and a brief definition . all variables are available in 2 forms : as a dichotomous variable indicating whether an event meeting the definition occured and as a continuous variable indicating the total number of occurrences of that type of event .
almost four decades ago , holmes and rahe ( 1967 ) published a checklist of 43 events , such as death of a spouse , divorce , fired at work , and sex difficulties , called the schedule of recent experiences ( sre ) . its purpose was to inventory “fundamentally important environmental incidents” ( meyer , 1951 , p . 53 ) that were found ( in analyses of patients’ charts ) to frequently precede illness onsets . stressful events were defined as occurrences that were likely to bring about readjustment - requiring changes in people’s usual activities . a magnitude estimation procedure was used by panels of judges to assign life change unit ( lcu ) scores to each of the 43 events on the list ( holmes & rahe , 1967 ) . a summation of these scores on events occurring in a given , usually quite recent , period of time was taken as the indicator of amount of stress . the checklist can be answered in either a self - administered questionnaire or an interview .
this paper argues that life events are complex phenomena not currently served by the most commonly used measurement approach , that is , checklists . this is potentially damaging research investigating the etiology of depression : problematic measurement must surely lead to problematic results . it is hoped that clear’s technological advances will produce a useful compromise between life - event checklists and interview approaches , overcoming some of the limitations of questionnaires while reducing the burden inherent in face - to - face interviews . clear should have the capacity to capture life - event details and context , different attributes of the event , timing of the event , and linkages between events and difficulties . although it will not provide exhaustive coverage of all possible events , it is presumed that the majority of events will be captured and that most respondents will be able to rate the bulk of their events accurately given the guidance provided through the menus , examples , and appropriate benchmarking . thus , this new method of measuring life events may be able to gather high - quality data , hopefully with reliability and validity comparable to the gold - standard interview approach , overcoming the problems inherent in relying on checklist approaches in etiological research .
goodman la , corcoran c , turner k , yuan n , green bl . assessing traumatic event exposure : general issues and preliminary findings for the stressful life events screening questionnaire .
dohrenwend bp , link bg , kern r , shrout pe , markowitz j . measuring life events : the problem of variability within event categories .
dohrenwend bp , link bg , kern bg , shrout r , markowitz j . measuring life events : the problem of variability within event categories .
monroe sm , slavich gm , torres ld , gotlib ih . severe life events predict specific patterns of change in cognitive biases in major depression .
gorman dm . a review of studies comparing checklist and interview methods of data collection in life event research .
norris fh . epidemiology of trauma : frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups .
stueve a , dohrenwend bp , skodol ae . relationships between stressful life events and episodes of major depression and nonaffective psychotic disorders : selected results from a new york risk factor study . in : dohrenwend bp , editor .
goodman l a , corcoran c , turner k , yuan n , green b l . assessing traumatic event exposure : general issues and preliminary findings for the stressful life events screening questionnaire .
monroe sm , harkness kl , simons ad , thase me . life stress and the symptoms of major depression .
is designed for the purposes of ( a ) comparing the major stressful events and their characteristics identified by each screening instrument to the major stressful events and their characteristics identified by the other screening instrument , as well as ( b ) testing the ability of each screening instrument to identify the major stressful events and their important characteristics elicited and measured by the full intensive interview and narrative ratings from phase 3 . the results would be relevant for retrospective research over the life course or long periods of the life course . as noted earlier , such research must rely on personal interviews and life calendar aids to recall . additional tests of the two types of screening instruments could be developed for different purposes ; for example , the study of minor and major events longitudinally in relation to the onset and recurrent course of major depression . if particularly sensitive events were to be investigated , especially with children or adolescents (
norris f h . epidemiology of trauma : frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups .
major life events and chronic difficulties have been found to be associated with the onset of depression . little is known , however , about how exposure to such stressors is related to the clinical presentation of this disorder . we addressed this issue by administering an interview - based measure of life stress , the beck depression inventory , and the global assessment of functioning scale to 100 adults diagnosed with major depressive disorder . participants who experienced a preonset severe life event exhibited greater overall levels of depression severity , endorsed more cognitive and somatic symptoms of depression , and functioned at lower levels than did their counterparts without preonset severe life events . in contrast , exposure to a preonset severe difficulty was unrelated to participants’ severity of depression , cognitive and somatic symptoms , or level of global functioning . these findings highlight the potentially greater importance of acute stress compared with chronic stress for influencing these key clinical features of depression .
this paper outlines the ineffective measurement of life events in many contemporary research studies . it also presents a new online computerized approach—computerised life events assessment record ( clear ) —designed to optimize interview advantages while incurring low cost and being time effective . the ongoing development and future testing of clear will be outlined with a focus on clinical health . it is expected that this new online method will offer an enhanced but readily available life - event measure with important implications for studying disorders .
kendler k s , karkowski l m , prescott c a . the assessment of dependence in the study of stressful life events : validation using a twin design .
katschnig h . measuring life stress—a comparison of the checklist and the panel technique . in : katschnig h , editor .
monroe sm , kupfer dj , frank e . life stress and treatment outcomes : i . response during index episode .
the extreme situation end of the continuum of usual activities is characterized far more by chronic stressors or ongoing difficulties that make severe and continuing demands on individuals . events in such extreme situations need to be assessed not only for their impact on usual activities of the extreme situations but also on the activities in the more usual situations to which the individuals may return—as , for example , the return of a veteran to civilian life after service in a war zone .
frank e , anderson b , reynolds cf , iii , ritenour a , kupfer dj . life events and the research diagnostic criteria endogenous subtype . a confirmation of the distinction using the bedford college methods .
johnson sheri l , cueller amy k , ruggero camilo , winett - perlman carol , goodnick paul , white richard , miller ivan . life events as predictors of mania and depression in bipolar i disorder .
zimmerman m , o’hara mw , corenthal cp . symptom contamination of life event scales .
due to a restructuring of the laboratory that conducted the leds scoring , data on chronic difficulties are only available for pcs1 . to be identified as a difficulty , a chronic stressor must have lasted 1 month or longer ; could not have ended more than 6 months prior to viral challenge ; and had a contextual severity rating of 1 , 2 , or 3 ( q6 criterion cited in codebook ) . in addition , if the chronic stressor was health - related , it needed to have resulted in at least one of the following outcomes ( q4 criterion cited in codebook ) : major role change ( e . g . , giving up job ) ; major caring responsibility ( e . g . , constant care or supervision of another ) ; major stigma or embarrassment ( e . g . , hiv + status , severe mental handicap ) . among the several difficulties variables included in the pcs1 data set are total number of difficulties lasting 1 month or longer , 6 months or longer , and 24 months or longer . difficulties also are categorized based on whether they are interpersonal in nature ( see pcs1 data codebook ) .
kendler ks , kessler rc , walters ee , maclean c , neale mc , heath ac , et al . stressful life events , genetic liability , and onset of an episode of major depression in women .
prior to being administered the leds , participants completed a brief demographic interview ( pcs1 , pcs2 ) . the interview was designed to collect information that would facilitate raters’ judgments of the contextual threat associated with participants’ experienced life events and difficulties . this information includes conventional sociodemographic information such as age , sex , race , and marital status , as well as data on childhood experiences such as birth order , religious upbringing , and whether the respondent attended a traditional grade school or boarding school . the leds demographics interview also collects some information on social relationships such as number of children and grandchildren , number of friends , and number of confidants .
asap , the automated stress assessment program , is a quick and reliable way to assess acute life events and chronic difficulties that occurred over the past year . based on gold - standard , interview - based methodologies for assessing stress , this computer - based program systematically inquires about potential sources of stress in several domains of functioning ( e . g . , work , school , financial , interpersonal , etc ) . probes regarding stressor severity , frequency , timing , and duration are accompanied by additional questions that probe the extent to which participants’ ruminated over the stressors and felt as though they had control over the stressors . biographical details about the individual and contextual information about each life stressor are also collected . the information is used to calculate the final life stress ratings , which are computed automatically by the program .
as noted earlier , the best - known example of a narrative - rating method is the life events and difficulties schedule ( leds ) developed by brown and colleagues ( e . g . , brown & harris , 1978 ) . leds has been used more frequently abroad than in the united states ( e . g . , brown & harris , 1989 ) , but it , or variations of it , have been adopted by a number of u . s . investigators in recent years ( duggal et al . , 2000 ; frank , anderson , reynolds , ritenour , & kupfer , 1994 ; garber , keiley , & martin , 2002 ; goodyer & altman , 1991a , 1991b ; hammen , 1991 ; kendler , hettema , butera , gardner , & prescott , 2003 ; mcquaid , monroe , roberts , kupfer , & frank , 2000 ; monroe , kupfer , & frank , 1992 ; rudolph & hammen , 1999 ) .
with respect to severe life events in relation to cognitive and somatic symptoms of depression , we predicted that the presence of a severe life event before the onset of depression would be associated specifically with elevated cognitive symptoms of depression . this prediction was validated both among participants who completed the bdi - ia ,
dohrenwend bp . the role of adversity and stress in psychopathology : some evidence and its implications for theory and research .
dyrbye liselotte n , thomas matthew r , huntington jefrey l , lawson karen l , novotny paul j , sloan jeff a , shanafelt tait d . personal life events and medical student burnout : a multicenter study .
meyer a . the life chart and the obligation of specifying positive data in psychopathogical diagnosis . in : winters eg , editor .
monroe sm , kupfer d , frank e . life stress and treatment course in recurrent depression 1 : response during index episode .
since the publication of this economical measurement procedure , the sre , a tremendous increase has occurred in the construction of such measures and in quantitative research on relations between inventoried life events and health . for example , a search of the terms life events , life change , stressful life events , and life stress ( or a combination of these terms ) using psycinfo ( urltoken ) shows an increasing rate of publications on these topics , from 292 in the decade of 1967 to 1976 , to 2 , 126 in 1977 to 1986 , to 4 , 269 in 1987 to 1996 , to 3 , 341 in the truncated 1997 to 2005 portion of the present decade . this voluminous literature documents that life events are related to a wide variety of physical and psychological problems in both cross - sectional and longitudinal research ( e . g . , breslau , 2002 ; brown & harris , 1989 ; dohrenwend & dohrenwend , 1974 ; grant , compas , thurm , mcmahon , & gipson , 2004 ; gunderson & rahe , 1974 ; paykel , 1974 ; rahe & arthur , 1978 ) .
how much can be accomplished with economically closed questions and closed probes to identify stressful events and measure their important characteristics needs to be empirically investigated . this investigation could be done by comparing and contrasting types of checklist approaches on their ability to screen the events of interest and to measure their important characteristics in samples of respondents from relevant populations of interest . if the interest is in major stressful events , then the focus could be on the occurrence of such events over the full life course . for life course coverage , personal interviews would be indicated , because dating , preferably with the aid of life calendar procedures , would be required . a field experiment designed to test the contrasting screening measures could involve data collection in three phases of increasingly more labor - intensive methods as shown in
in “characterizing life events as risk factors for depression : the role of fateful loss events” by p . e . shrout , b . g . link , b . p . dohrenwend , a . e . skodol , a . stueve , & g . mirotznik .
jenkins cd , hurst mw , rose rm . life changes : do people really remember ?
tennant c , andrews g . the pathogenic quality of life event stress in neurotic impairment .
to determine whether participants experienced a severe acute event and / or a severe chronic difficulty during the last year . acute events have durations of less than 1 month , with most lasting only hours or minutes ( e . g . , a severe reprimand at work or a fight with a spouse ) . difficulties typically last a month or more and involve the disruption of everyday routines ( e . g . , ongoing marital problems or unemployment ) .
paykel es . life stress and psychiatric disorder : applications of the clinical approach . in : dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , editors .
dohrenwend bp , raphael kg , schwartz s , stueve a , skodol ae . the structured event probe and narrative rating method ( seprate ) for measuring stressful life events . in : goldberger l , breznitz s , editors .
kubany es , haynes sn , leisen mb , owens ja , kaplan as , watson sb , et al . development and preliminary validation of a brief broad - spectrum measure of trauma exposure : the traumatic life events questionnaire .
) . as an alternative test , we examined the relation between severe difficulties rated 1 to 4 , but which were present for a minimum of 2 years ( i . e . , instead of 1 year ) , and depression symptom severity . the presence of a severe difficulty defined in this way was unrelated to depression severity ,
1 . brown , g . w . , & harris , t . o . ( eds . ) . ( 1989 ) . life events and illness . new york : guilford press . 2 . harris , t . o . ( 1991 ) . life stress and illness : the question of specificity . annals of behavioral medicine , 13 , 211 - 219 .
sarason ig , sarason br . life change , social support , coping and health . in : kaplan rm , mh criqui , editors .
breslau n , davis gc , andreski p , peterson e . traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults .
the data generated will be rated blind / reviewed by separate researchers and compared using cohen kappa and intraclass correlation coefficients ( iccs ) for level of agreement between the 2 methods . the total number of life events captured , the domain category , severity rating , and the timing of events will be compared to give an indication of how well clear mimics the in - person method for full reporting and recall . any further modifications will be made to clear if required .
the main alternative approach , unlike traditional checklists , involves intensive , time - consuming , and expensive semistructured interviews to obtain detailed narrative information about life events that facilitates judgments by trained raters of the important characteristics of the events . these narrative - rating procedures are far superior to traditional checklists in reliability and validity . however , the gains are bought at tremendous loss in economy , and narrative - rating measures are rarely used .
yager j , grant i , sweetwood hl , gerst m . life event reports by psychiatric patients , non - patients , and their partners .
monroe sm , mcquaid jr . measuring life stress and assessing its impact on mental health . in : avison wr , gotlib ih , editors .
kasch kl , rottenberg j , arnow ba , gotlib ih . behavioral activation and inhibition systems and the severity and course of depression .
severe life events are acknowledged as important etiological factors in the development of clinical disorders , including major depression . interview methods capable of assessing context and meaning of events have demonstrated superior validity compared with checklist questionnaire methods and arguments for interview approaches have resurfaced because choosing the appropriate assessment tool provides clarity of information about gene - environment interactions in depression . such approaches also have greater potential for understanding and treating clinical cases or for use in interventions .
monroe sm , slavich gm , georgiades k . the social environment and life stress in depression . in : gotlib ih , hammen cl , editors .
3 . wethington , e . , brown , g . w . , & kessler , r . c . ( 1995 ) . interview measurement of stressful life events . measuring stress : a guide for health and social scientists , 59 - 79 .
difficulties with recall can be a problem for both interview and checklist methodology , even over a 12 - month period [ 24 ] . comparisons of longitudinal and cross - sectional studies demonstrate that more events are reported longitudinally than retrospectively [ 57 ] . however , using web - based systems to conduct prospective longitudinal assessments may be a lower resource - intensive method of obtaining detailed descriptions of psychopathology processes over time [ 58 ] . in addition , when clear is used retrospectively , recall may be aided as respondents can edit their responses and can complete it over a few sittings and see their own calendar of events before finalizing sequences . studies have found that respondents who initially fail to report serious events , when given more time to think after initial prompting trigger greater recall or appraisal of the event [ 59 ] .
, the findings are surprising . the modal ratings of the narratives describing the events in these categories were
given the personal , social , and economic costs of mdd , much research has focused on identifying factors that may underlie the development of depression . one such variable , the experience of stress , is thought to be an important risk factor for the disorder . research on life stress and depression has focused to a large extent on the role that life events–and in particular , acute negative life events–play in the onset of mdd . in this context , severe acute life events that possess a high degree of threat and unpleasantness , such as the death of a spouse or loss of an important job , have been found consistently to precede the onset of depression ( hammen , 2005 ; kessler , 1997 ; monroe et al . , 2008 ; paykel , 2003 ) . this association seems to be especially robust when interview - based measures of life stress are used ( hammen , 2005 ) , although most studies in this area have used event checklist measures of stress , for which the limitations are well documented ( e . g . , dohrenwend , 2006 ) . nonetheless , there is now evidence of a causal relation between acute negative life events and the onset of depression ( kendler et al . , 1999 ) , establishing the importance of such stressors for understanding the disorder .
foley d l , neale m c , kendler k s . a longitudinal study of stressful life events assessed at interview with an epidemiological sample of adult twins : the basis of individual variation in event exposure .
each stem menu of events leads down a path until the options are no longer relevant . however , at each stage , the respondent is given the option of rating “something else / other . ” in this way , stressful events that do not fit into proscribed categories or criteria can also be included . this ensures that the specification of events does not make the definition of events too narrow [ 56 ] .
the timing of events is critical to determining their etiological role in depression onset . events that occur after onset can only have a maintenance role at best . therefore , precise timing of events is required . in addition , other important stressors are chronic , with severity levels that can vary over time . these are termed “difficulties” and comprise problematic situations , which last 4 weeks or more , and can go on for years . these can occur in as many domains as events , and can be antecedent or consequent to the event . an important analysis of such linkages showed that an event preceded by a severe difficulty ( hence “matched” ) for at least 6 months and in the same domain greatly increased the risk of depression onset [ 6 ] . in this case , the potential for entrapment or an erosion of hope can add to the burden of the ongoing problem ( eg , a partner’s demand for a divorce in the context of a conflictual marriage ; or a failed attempt at rehousing in the ongoing problem of serious overcrowding ) . using these criteria , women with a severe event “matching” a difficulty had a threefold greater chance of developing depression [ 6 ] . questionnaire measurement cannot reflect such links and is imprecise regarding the timing of the event in relation to onset of disorder . severe events of etiological importance occur within 6 months of onset and often within half of that time [ 35 ] . in addition , the effects of life events gradually decay over time , with the strongest effect in the month immediately following the life event with some variation by event type [ 2 , 36 ] . without knowing the timing of events , any precision is lost , which restricts the causal attribution of life events to disorder [ 37 ] and the investigation of specific stressors for different disorder outcomes [ 38 ] .
: early adversity ( i . e . , before age 18 ) and recent life stress ( i . e . , past 1 - 2 years )
drasch k , matthes b . improving retrospective life course data by combining modularized self - reports and event history calendars : experiences from a large scale survey .
life - event interviews also categorize “independence” of the event . this is the extent to which the event is likely to be separate from the actions , planning , or control of the individual , that is , it occurs externally to the individual . independence allows researchers and clinicians to estimate whether the event is a cause or consequence of disorder . for example , losing a job because the employer has gone bankrupt would be judged totally independent outside of personal control ; personal health events are “nearly totally” independent , interactions with close others only “possibly independent , ” and intentional acts as “nonindependent” [ 9 ] . events that are a part of the depression itself or its treatment ( suicide attempt or psychiatric hospital admission ) are rated as “least independent” and termed “illness related . ” genetically sensitive twin studies of depression and life events have described genetic influences for nonindependent events , but not for independent events [ 39 ] . both relate to depression .
respondents complete clear by providing demographic information ; information about close others ; and life events and difficulties over the past year in 12 domains ( education , work , reproduction , housing , money , crime , health , romantic , other relationships , children , death , and miscellaneous ) . the assessment also includes a fixed battery of measures , a depression questionnaire ( general health questionnaire , ghq , [ 52 ] ) , and an interpersonal vulnerability questionnaire ( vulnerable attachment style questionnaire , vasq [ 53 ] ) . however , for projects tailored to other research questions , the integrated calendar system can be used to record events over a greater observation period , and paper or electronic questionnaires can be used in addition to clear . the information is provided through a mixture of checklists for closed answers , text boxes for open - ended answers , and logic - driven checklist menus . clear also contains a feedback system that allows for a personalized calendar , menus , and references to specified close others .
among the different in - person semistructured interviews , probably the most widely used is the leds [ 9 , 27 ] . this approach encourages narrative accounts of events that can elicit the full social context , their timing , and sequence in relation to disorder onset . leds encapsulates a large range of events to the self and close others . it deals with the likely meaning of events by collecting contextually relevant information ( both biographical and current circumstances ) and rates according to precedent examples , stripped of subjective response .
kendler ks , hettema jm , butera f , gardner co , prescott ca . life event dimensions of loss , humiliation , entrapment , and danger in the prediction of onsets of major depression and generalized anxiety .
checklists have continued to be dominant in research on the role of stressful life events in psychopathology , as well as other health outcomes . all of the previously discussed studies of potentially traumatic and other major negative events focused on various types of psychopathology and used traditional checklists with broad - event categories to inventory events over the life course . checklists in the form of self - administered questionnaires or in the form of structured interviews consisting of closed questions with fixed alternative response categories have been relied on in other influential research on the role of life events in psychopathology conducted in recent years . the behavioral genetics study of depression by kendler et al . ( 1995 ) , the nationwide epidemiological research on the comorbidity of psychiatric disorders by kessler et al . ( 1995 ) , and , most recently , the study of gene - by - environment interaction for depression by caspi et al . ( 2003 ) . are examples .
grant ke , compas be , thurm ae , mcmahon sd , gipson py . stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology : measurement issues and prospective effects .
miller pm , salter dp . is there a short - cut ? an investigation into the life event interview .
new york : oxford university press ; 1997 . interview measurement of stressful events in measuring stress : a guide for health and social scientists ; pp . 59–79 .
hudgens rw . personal catastrophe and depression : a consideration of the subject with respect to mentally ill adolescents , and a requiem for retrospective life - event studies . in : dohrenwend bs , dohrenwend bp , editors .
recall is also helped through a personalized calendar that is updated as life events and anchoring anniversaries or social occasions ( eg , holidays , birthdays ) are added to the system . the timing of important psychopathology - related timings ( eg , peak depression ) can be added to the calendar . events are often linked to other events in autobiographical memory ; therefore , the use of calendars can lead to better quality ( ie , more complete and accurate ) retrospective reports of events , even after several years [ 58 , 59 ] . when used in conjunction with self - report methods it improves completeness of the data and dating accuracy [ 60 ] . in addition , the use of multiple , self - generated , and personal landmarks further enhances memory [ 61 ] .
we conducted analyses to test whether participants with and without a preonset severe acute event ( n s = 19 and 81 , respectively ) and with and without a preonset severe chronic difficulty ( n s = 15 and 85 , respectively ) differed on bdi and level of global functioning scores . for the bdi analyses , we tested for differences on 5 scale scores . first , as an overall measure of depression severity , we combined bdi total scores for participants who completed the bdi - ia and the bdi - ii . next , we conducted separate analyses for participants who completed the bdi - ia and the bdi - ii to test for potential differences between these 2 measures . finally , after the recommendations of investigators who have underscored the importance of examining specific symptoms and classes of symptoms of depression ( e . g . , costello , 1993 ; persons , 1986 ) , we analyzed the association of severe acute life events and chronic difficulties with participants’ cognitive and somatic subscale scores for each version of the bdi ( i . e . , ia and ii ) . because of minor differences between the items comprising the subscales , we were unable to combine the cognitive and somatic subscale scores across participants completing the bdi - ia and the bdi - ii ; these analyses were thus conducted separately by bdi type .