from 1996 to 2007 , guatemala was one of the major providers for children for international adoption , peaking at 5,577 children adopted in 2007 .

since reforms in 2007-8 , aimed at combating extensive corruption in the adoption process , the numbers have fallen drastically .

however , the numbers of children placed with guatemalan families has remained roughly constant at around 250 per year both before and after the new legislation .

adoption in guatemala

adoption groups transracial adoption group u . s . adoption group u . s . newborn waiting group foster adoption waiting group older parents adoption group new to adoption group foster adoption group open adoption group christian adoptive families single parent adoption group older child adoption group guatemala adoption group china adoption group korea adoption group see all adoption groups
gibbons jl , wilson sl , rufener ca . gender attitudes mediate gender differences in attitudes toward adoption in guatemala .
guatemala is party to the hague convention on protection of children and co - operation in respect of intercountry adoption ( hague adoption convention ) .
“karen’s case is actually a high - profile criminal investigation in guatemala , ” says investigative journalist erin siegal mcintyre . she’s spent several years looking into karen’s adoption and guatemala ' s broken adoption system in general .
department of psychology , universidad del valle de guatemala , 18 ave . 11 - 95 zona 15 vista hermosa iii oficina g203 , guatemala , guatemala
in each case , prospective parents paid tens of thousands of dollars in fees . all that money fuelled a lucrative adoption industry in guatemala , and an underground trade in abducted children .
rotabi ks . fraud in intercountry adoption : child sales and abduction in vietnam , cambodia , and guatemala . in : gibbons jl , rotabi ks , editors .
we found an adoption agency in the us which handled adoptions from guatemala . the agency had attorneys in guatemala who were referred mothers who were relinquishing their babies , and handled the legal arrangements for inter - country adoptions . we commenced the long process to arrange a legal adoption from guatemala .
comisión internacional contra la impunidad en guatemala , cicig ( 2010 ) report on players involved in the illegal adoption process in guatemala since the entry into force of the adoption law ( decree 77 - 2007 ) . urltoken . accessed 06 jul 2015
in 2011 , a guatemalan judge ruled that karen should be returned to guatemala .
bebé robada iba a ser dada en adopción en guatemala [ stolen baby was going to be given in adoption in guatemala ] ( 2008 , july 23 ) agencia ap . urltoken . accessed 06 jul 2015
karen was originally presented for adoption in guatemala by a woman who claimed to be her mother . but her dna didn’t match karen’s .
so in all reality , adoption from guatemala is basically not an option right now . i wish i had better news for you .
gibbons jl , ashdown bk . ethnic identification , attitudes , and group relations in guatemala .
bunkers km , groza v , lauer dp . international adoption and child protection in guatemala : a case of the tail wagging the dog .
groza v , bunkers km . adoption policy and evidence - based domestic adoption practice : a comparison of romania , ukraine , india , guatemala , and ethiopia .
bailey : because adoptions are criminalized in this - in guatemala . and so anything that even reeks of adoption - right ? - is bad . you ' re guilty .
rotabi ks , morris aw , weil mo . international child adoption in a post - conflict society : a multi - systemic assessment of guatemala .
and we don ' t foresee any new adoptions from guatemala taking place in the near future .
u . s . adoption agencies in ethiopia respond to u . s . embassy documents in which they are mentioned
bunkers km , groza v . intercountry adoption and child welfare in guatemala : lessons learned pre - and post - ratification of the 1993 hague convention on the protection of children and cooperation in respect of intercountry adoption . in : gibbons jl , rotabi ks , editors .
in ongoing discussions with the government of guatemala about their readiness to resume intercountry adoption , they have indicated that their priority is to continue developing their domestic adoption processes , but they are receptive to ongoing discussions .
adoption notice : expiration of accreditation for adoption s . t . a . r . , aaa full circle adoptions & family building center , inc . , buckner adoption & maternity services , and grace international adoption agency
in terms of domestic adoption , i think that you might have misread a post . some families went ( including me ) went down to guatemala during the adoption process . i was given the legal right to be my daughter ' s foster mother until the adoption was completed . this was under the old system . right now , starting a new adoption process from guatemala is not possible .
while marriage and age are not qualifying factors for guatemala , sexual orientation is a factor . single men are usually discouraged from adopting in guatemala . ( cases involving single men are evaluated on a case by case basis in guatemala . if you are a single man interested in adopting please consult an adoption agency regarding your ability to successfully adopt a child from guatemala . ) all singles applying to adopt from guatemala must state that they are heterosexual . the guatemalan government requires that all single individuals who are adopting from guatemala sign a statement indicating they are not involved in a gay or lesbian relationship and are not homosexual .
in december 2007 , guatemala passed new adoption legislation that incorporated the hague adoption convention into guatemala’s adoption system , created the guatemalan national adoption council ( cna ) , and established a transition period for cases initiated prior to its enactment . the guatemalan government subsequently suspended new adoption applications until they could create a new adoption process . as of 2016 , the cna has completed its processing of the most of the transition cases that were pending when the new law went into effect . the three remaining transition cases are pending in various judicial processes .
learn more about siegal ' s extensive investigation of fraud , corruption , and child trafficking in international adoption between guatemala and the united states at findingfernanda . com .
u . s . embassy in guatemala plays an important part in the adoption process , facilitating dna testing and issuing pre - approval from the department of homeland security . other major adoption authorities include minor ' s court ( local authorities ) and solicitor general ' s office ( pgn ) that reviews and approves all international adoption cases in guatemala . please see u . s . department of state overview for more details .
guatemala was once one of the most popular countries for foreign adoption , just after china . ten years ago though , guatemala ' s government clamped down after mass corruption was exposed in its adoption system . this week , a 64 - year - old american woman is set to stand trial on charges related to adoptions that she facilitated . maria martin reports from guatemala .
despite the denial by the majority of guatemalan adults of the importance of ethnicity in influencing their willingness to adopt , adoption attitudes are known to be embedded in people’s social attitudes , cultural assumptions , and beliefs ( bausch 2006 ; evan b . donaldson institute 2002 ; hollingsworth 2000 ) . because of the documented prejudice and discrimination in guatemala against indigenous persons ( e . g . hale 2006 ) , we set out to investigate whether attitudes about adoption differed for inter - ethnic adoption and adoption in general , and also whether attitudes toward the two ethnic groups in guatemala were related to attitudes about adoption .
on november 26 , 2002 guatemala ratified the hague convention on intercountry adoption , a treaty created to end adoption trafficking , which entered into force in guatemala on march 1 , 2003 . 8 several developed countries ( including canada , germany , the netherlands , spain , and the united kingdom ) filed official objections to guatemala’s accession to the convention , citing guatemala’s widespread questionable adoption procedures , which , as the adoption council of canada wrote in 2004 , included widespread “illegal and unethical practices … and issues of child trafficking . ” these countries stopped all their citizens’ adoptions from guatemala . for the next six months , as guatemala attempted to revise its adoption laws , adoption processing slowed down . however , by the fall of that year , reportedly after lobbying by wealthy guatemalan adoption attorneys , including one who had been married to a constitutional court justice , the guatemalan constitutional court overturned the hague ratification , and private adoptions resumed .
amy and rob carr in guatemala with geovany archilla rodas , whom they have been trying to adopt since 2007 .
intercountry adoptions are not currently possible between guatemala and the united states because the government of guatemala is not processing intercountry adoptions with any country at this time .
she reminded herself of that in guatemala after she and her husband and geovany visited their lawyer . she arrived feeling hopeful . she left in tears .
adoption notice : accreditation renewal refusal for amazing grace adoptions , adopt abroad international , and faith international adoption , inc .
index of u . s . adoption agencies and orphanages mentioned in u . s . embassy documents
vida is a not - for - profit international and domestic adoption agency , founded in 1986 .
for questions about a pending form i - 600 petition for a child from guatemala : uscis guatemala city field office email : guatemala . adoptions @ urltoken phone : 011 - 502 - 2326 - 4000 ( ask to be transferred to uscis )
m . martin : guatemala ' s international anti - corruption commission , set up with the united nations , documented over 3 , 000 cases of irregular adoptions before international pressure led guatemala to put a halt to them in 2007 . after this , guatemala set up a new agency , the national council of adoptions . it worked to encourage keeping children in guatemala . rudy zepeda is its spokesperson .
bailey , they say , was a player in the widespread corruption of the adoption industry in guatemala that preyed on innocent mothers and babies for profit . in the decade leading up to guatemala’s foreign adoption ban , more nearly 30 , 000 guatemalan children were adopted . it became a lucrative industry for a poor country — costs for families looking to adopt guatemalan babies often ran as high as $ 40 , 000 , an amount which is considered standard in us adoption cases but high for foreign adoptions .
the u . s . embassy cables : adoption fraud in guatemala , 1987 - 2010 ,
erin siegal mcintyre , february 1 , 2012 , cathexis press . read excerpts >
t he numbers . guatemala is widely considered to have had the worst international adoption improprieties over the longest period of time . in 2006 and 2007 , guatemala sent almost as many children to the united states for adoption as china , despite a hundred - fold difference in size : in 2007 , china sent 5 , 453 out of its population of 1 . 3 billion . in the same year , guatemala sent 4 , 728 out of its 13 million . in that year , and several years before , an astonishing one out of every 110 guatemalan children born was adopted in the united states .
reports of questionable adoption practices continued , as can be read on our page news reports of guatemalan adoption irregularities . in response , in august 2007 , the u . s . embassy in guatemala began requiring a second dna test , to ensure the child being adopted was the same child who had been relinquished—and hadn’t been replaced with another child in the meantime .
in fact , as mr zune discovered with the help of government investigators , he was probably born in a mexican border town and given to a criminal network in guatemala . he plans to file cases against traffickers in guatemala and the belgian adoption agency he accuses of having been complicit in the fraud . “adoption is not just paperwork and an aeroplane ticket , ” he says . “when a child grows up , you need to be able to tell him where he came from . ”
ba vi , vietnam adoption : happy and healthy child living with hiv in the u . s .
gibbons jl , wilson sl , schnell am . foster parents as a critical link and resource in international adoptions from guatemala .
they say many judges and child welfare officials in guatemala have delayed approving cases out of fear of increased government scrutiny and prosecution , not because the children should not be approved for adoption .
[ 2 ] cia fact book , guatemala , , updated august 7 , 2008 .
we are a family living in guatemala , that for a long while thought we would need to do a domestic adoption in order to bring our son home . however , we were considered a transition case , and are now finishing an international adoption under new law . we were grandfathered in on the us side for his visa .
in addition , items adapted from the evan b . donaldson ( 1997 ) survey were used to assess general attitudes about adoption and specifically about international adoption , inter - ethnic adoption by ladinos , and inter - ethnic adoption by indigenous . the basic item was “in general do you have a very favorable opinion of adoption , a somewhat favorable opinion , a somewhat unfavorable opinion , or a very unfavorable opinion of adoption ? ” responses were “ very favorable , ” “ somewhat favorable , ” “ somewhat unfavorable ” , and “ very unfavorable . ” in addition , similar questions that specified the type of adoption–adoption of guatemalan children by foreigners ( intercountry adoption ) , adoption of indigenous children by ladinos , and adoption of ladino children by indigenous , were specified . participants were also queried about their experience with adoption , using the evan b . donaldson question , “has anyone in your family , or among your close friends , ever been adopted or adopted a child or placed a child for adoption ? ” .
nightlight is currently not working in guatemala . our organization helped complete adoptions for several years in the country , but the united states has blocked adoptions at this time .
the carrs are among the 4 , 000 americans who found themselves stuck in limbo when guatemala shut down its international adoption program in january 2008 amid mounting evidence of corruption and child trafficking . officials here and in washington promised at the time to process the remaining cases expeditiously .
but the problem of delayed adoptions is particularly acute in guatemala , a country of about 14 million people , which in 2007 ranked second only to china in the number of children sent to the united states .
revealed in these cables is the evolution of systemic corruption in international adoption between guatemala and the united states . it becomes clear in these documents that some u . s . government officials knew about illegal practices in obtaining and processing “orphans” before guatemalan adoption grew to become a multi - million dollar industry . furthermore , american families in the process of adopting these children , were not informed about the depth and scope of the problem .
how sizable was that fee ? by the time guatemala closed to u . s . adoption , these notarios were charging $ 35 , 000 or more per adopted
ashdown bk , gibbons jl , hackathorn j , harvey rd . the influence of social and individual variables on ethnic attitudes in guatemala .
for the first time , the public is given access to revealing information written in cables about international adoption that traveled between the u . s . embassy in guatemala and u . s . department of state from 1987 until 2010 . these cables document the ambiguous moral and legal terrain that u . s . officials navigated amid their awareness of rising levels of fraud , corruption , and criminality practiced by those involved at many levels with adoption in guatemala .
adopting a child from guatemala used to be really popular among americans . in 2006 alone , more than 4 , 000 guatemalan kids were adopted by families here in the us .
guatemala was at the center of the controversy surrounding intercountry adoption ( ica ) . in 2007 at the peak of guatemala’s role as a sending country , one percent of the babies born in guatemala were being relinquished for adoption by foreigners , mostly from the united states ( selman 2012 ) . reports of child theft , sale , and trafficking roused international consternation ( bunkers and groza 2012 ; comisión internacional contra la impunidad en guatemala , cicig 2010 ; goicoechea and degeling 2007 ; rotabi 2012 ; rotabi et al . 2008 ) and subsequently , one case of child abduction for ica was proven with dna testing ( “bebé robada” 2008 ; bunkers et al . 2009 ) . in 2008 , guatemala implemented the hague convention on the protection of children and co - operation in respect of intercountry adoption , known as the hague convention ( hague conference on private international law 1993 ) . this international agreement is designed to protect children’s well - being and to prevent abuses such as those reported in guatemala .
in conclusion , the present study has identified a possible attitudinal barrier to promoting domestic adoption in guatemala—ethnic prejudice against indigenous people . efforts to reduce the structural barriers that impede domestic adoption might well be augmented by addressing attitudinal barriers , such as machismo and ethnic prejudice , in order to improve the lives of guatemalan children who are in need of a family . as other countries implement the subsidiarity clause of the hague convention , their central adoption authorities would also benefit from examining and countering local prejudices that could stand in the way of finding homes for children in need of families .
in several interview studies respondents identified racism in guatemala as a potential attitudinal barrier to adoption . “here [ in guatemala ] many people are prejudiced , ” was a comment by a guatemalan interviewee ( gibbons et al . 2009 p . 69 ) . similar views were expressed in a second study , in which a respondent said , “the mentality is a race issue…they [ guatemalans ] won’t adopt because of race or looks of a child” ( wilson and gibbons 2005 p . 749 ) .
the department of state remains unable to issue hague adoption certificates or hague custody declarations for new intercountry adoptions from guatemala , because as of april 1 , 2008 , when the united states joined the convention , guatemala did not and still today does not have a hague process in place . the department , however , continues its efforts to work with the government of guatemala on establishing procedures to resume intercountry adoptions .
the results of the present study demonstrated that attitudes about adoption , including inter - ethnic adoption , were linked to attitudes toward indigenous persons . specifically , participants who held more positive attitudes toward indigenous people reported more favorable attitudes toward adoption . those results imply that ethnic attitudes are linked to attitudes about adoption within guatemala , as they were among usa college students ( katz and doyle 2013 ) .
the cables outline a history of conflict and struggle between the u . s . embassy in guatemala and state department officials in washington , d . c . state department officials sometimes failed to respond to serious concerns and , at times , stonewalled efforts meant to provide greater safeguards against child trafficking in adoption .
mcintyre says the us justice department responded negatively , saying there wasn’t enough evidence to take that step . but she says prosecutors in guatemala continue to ask for american help in this case .
the carrs , who have three biological children , adopted their first child — a little girl named samantha — from guatemala without a hitch . they agreed to adopt geovany in december 2007 , just weeks before guatemala closed its program . he was abandoned , their adoption agency told them . a clear - cut case .
at the moment , there are no registration requirements imposed by guatemala , but families are asked to send in two agency - conducted post - placement reports , at 6 months and 12 months after the adoption is completed .
evan b . donaldson adoption institute ( 2002 ) national adoption attitudes survey : research report . available from harris interactive . urltoken . accessed 06 jul 2015
“in guatemala it was so so easy to manufacture paperwork , identity , pay off a judge , pay off a lawyer , ” said investigative reporter erin siegal mcintyre who wrote a book , “finding fernanda , ” on illegal adoptions in guatemala . “this industry was certainly corrupt to the core . ”
do you have questions about which adoption program is right for you ? we have answers . complete this brief inquiry form . it’s the first step in getting started with your adoption today ! get started
at the end of march 2008 our adoption was approved in guatemala . six weeks later , once we had received josé’s entry paperwork to the uk , we flew out to bring him home and on 14 th may 2008 we arrived back in england , our little boy in our arms . a family at last !
mlj adoptions is a hague accredited international adoption agency based in indianapolis , indiana . we provide ethical , compassionate and attentive adoption services to loving and committed families from across the united states and around the world . we’ve successfully placed over two hundred and fifty children through our international adoption programs in bulgaria , burkin . . .
gibbons jl , rufener ca , wilson sl . sex differences in adoption attitudes : the mediating effect of gender role attitudes .
after guatemala’s long civil war ended with a peace treaty and new laws in 1996 , adoptions to other countries began to increase each year . the government of guatemala’s pgn ( the attorney general’s office ) recorded this number of foreign adoptions per year : 6
[ 6 ] this chart is taken from
adoptions in guatemala : protection or business ? ” by casa alianza foundation and myrna mack survivors foundation .
selman p . the rise and fall of intercountry adoption in the 21st century : global trends from 2001 to 2010 . in : gibbons jl , rotabi ks , editors .
goicoechea i , degeling j ( 2007 ) report of a fact - finding mission to guatemala in relation to international adoption . available from the hague , netherlands : hague conference on private international law . urltoken . accessed 06 jul 2015
guatemala is a warm and hospitable latin american country , rich in history and mayan culture . nevertheless , we call guatemala
a developing country
to describe its weak economy and overwhelming poverty , especially in the country - side . extreme poverty , coupled with ostracism towards unwed mothers , leads many women no choice but to give up their children for adoption . guatemala is one of the few countries that allows private adoptions to be facilitated by attorneys between birth mothers and foreign adoptive families .
[ 4 ] “situation faced by institutionalized children and adolescents in shelters in guatemala , ” conducted by the president’s office for social welfare together with the support of holt international services and unicef , may 2008 .
in general , the easiest way to understand the type of child / children that become available for adoption in guatemala is to realize that the child / children become available by way of two different processes . the first is called
abandonment
and the second is
relinquishment
.
the adoption underworld ,
the washington post , jan . 11 , 2009
preventing adoption disasters ,
the boston globe , april 17 , 2010 .
both boys and girls are available for adoption from guatemala with ages ranging from a few months old to teenagers . the children are generally available because of abandonment or relinquishment by the birth parents
as for the effort by guatemalan authorities to return karen to guatemala , genser says he’s confused by it .
seijo l ( 2008 ) mejor padres de guatemala [ better guatemalan parents . ] prensa libre , pp 2–3
guatemala was once one of the world ' s most popular adoption destinations , but stopped the practice after mass corruption was exposed . an american woman is set to stand trial over related charges .
the u . s . embassy cables : adoption fraud in guatemala , 1987 - 2010
by schuster fellow erin siegal is a three - volume compilation of diplomatic cables that reveals disturbing information about how international adoptions between guatemala and the united states were handled between 1987 and 2010 . paperback | ebook volume one | ebook volume two | ebook volume three
guatemala allows both single individuals and couples over the age of 25 to adopt . persons with previous divorces are permitted and welcome to adopt as are persons who already have a child or children in their home . there are also no upper age restrictions to adopt from guatemala .
she first visited guatemala in the early 1990s — she was in her late 30s , was raising two sons as a single mom , and had a career in employee relations . she began volunteering at a catholic orphanage in the western highlands , but her involvement grew quickly when she started a school inside the orphanage .
congreso de la república de guatemala ( 2007 ) decreto número 77 - 2007 . urltoken . accessed 06 jul 2015
there is no national or international adoption registry in guatemala , and children typically become available for adoption / referral once they are released to the attorney ( often , at birth ) and may be as young as 4 - 5 months at the time adoption is finalized . most children are of spanish or mayan descent , with olive skin and dark hair . siblings and unrelated children can be adopted at the same time .
overall , the participants in the present study expressed favorable attitudes toward adoption in general and toward inter - ethnic adoption . adoption in general was most favorably viewed , followed by international adoption , with adoption of ladinos by indigenous viewed least favorably . but even in this last category , there was broad approval , with 76 % of the respondents expressing approval rather than disapproval . this overwhelming support for inter - ethnic or interracial adoption among university students may be widespread ( at least when based on self - report ) as evidenced in studies from the usa ( whatley et al . 2003 ) and south africa ( moos and mwaba 2007 ) . in a study from the usa , university students reported low levels of modern racism ; however , when they viewed a photograph of a transracial adoptive family , they endorsed more negative views of adoption than when they viewed a same - race adoptive family ( katz and doyle 2013 ) .
it got so bad that guatemala halted all new international adoptions in 2007 . the country ' s been trying to reform its broken system ever since . but there are still a lot of questions about what went on in the past , and about one case in particular .
a decade ago guatemala’s hotels were full of light - skinned foreigners with dark - skinned babies . the country was sending nearly as many children to america for adoption as was china , despite a hundredfold difference in population . between 1996 and 2008 more than 30 , 000 guatemalan children were adopted abroad—in 2007 nearly one out of every 100 babies . hotels in guatemala city , the capital , had entire floors for child care and notaries’ offices . “some countries export bananas , ” says fernando linares beltranena , who worked as an adoption lawyer . “we exported babies . ”
nancy bailey : we had children left at our doorstep in a basket . we had birth mothers who came to us while they were pregnant asking if they could place their child in adoption .
after 2002 , the united states remained the lone developed country allowing adoptions from guatemala , despite its record of questionable practices . that’s in part because the united states had signed but not yet ratified the hague convention , and therefore did not use reported violations of the hague convention to halt adoptions from guatemala . for several years 97 percent or more of all children adopted from guatemala went to american parents .
in 2013 , the mexican government took many positive strides towards improving the climate for international adoption . mexico is now a very strong option for families looking to adopt from latin america . as adoption from guatemala has been closed for some time with no end in sight , we have found that many families are seeking to bring home a sibling to their guatemalan - adopted child . others still are seeking out the limited latin american options to find that adopting from mexico is one of the most stable adoption options . here are five reasons to consider mexico for your international adoption .
it took us nine further months to complete the re - adoption process in the uk – more social worker visits , forms to be filled in and court visits to be endured – to ensure that josé was our son in british law , as well as guatemalan law , and in march 2009 we finally received josé’s adoption certificate and were able to apply for a british passport for him .
it involves a girl named karen abigail , who was adopted years ago from guatemala by an american couple from missouri .
the present study carries with it implications for child welfare practice in guatemala . as the cna continues to promote domestic adoptions as part of a child welfare initiative , it would behoove the agency to coordinate their efforts with other systematic efforts to reduce racism in guatemala . examples of potential collaborators include the presidential commission , — comisión presidencial contra la discriminación y el racismo [ presidential commission against discrimination and racism ] ( codisra ; presidencia de la república 2002 ) that was charged with investigating and developing plans to eliminate discrimination and racism in guatemala . another potential collaborator is the prominent non - profit foundation el centro de investigaciones regionales de mesoamérica ( cirma ) that sponsored an exhibit and a book series titled por qué estamos como estamos [ why we are like we are ] in which ethnicity in guatemala was highlighted . finally , educational programs aimed at training prospective adoptive parents in guatemala might include segments on promoting cultural diversity as well .
for transracial and / or multicultural families to discuss this unique aspect of adoption—domestic or international .
guatemala’s adoption business took off in the 1970s , when a civil war displaced hundreds of thousands , including many children . a 1977 law allowing notaries to facilitate adoptions helped shape an industry where anything went . after the war ended in 1996 the number of overseas adoptions rocketed . americans and europeans swooped in to adopt supposed orphans , unaware that many had been stolen from their families .
the money & the attorneys . money was the key to international adoption in guatemala . the country closed to international adoption on january 1 , 2008 , so that its system could be reformed . until then , during the early years of the millennium , roughly 98 percent of international adoptions from guatemala went through private “notarios , ” attorneys who had the legal power to oversee both sides in the adoption . a single notario could witness the birthmother signing away her parenthood and could legally assign the child to foreign parents , for a sizable fee—all without any oversight , intervention , review , or questions from a judge or social service agency .
[ 1 ] from “intercountry adoption guatemala , ” from the u . s . state department’s online guide for prospective adoptive parents , september 2007 ( accessed 10 / 21 / 2008 ) . the relevant paragraph reads :
this is sort of off - topic but i have been thinking a lot about what i want to do with my life once i graduate from college and all of my plans seem to have something to do with guatemala but i ' m not really sure what . i would love to adopt from there but obviously , that is not an option . i have also thought about trying to become a teacher there once i graduate but i am quite the homebody and i ' m not sure if that would be possible . i remember reading on here about a family that moved to guatemala to foster the child they were adopting and while they were there , they completed a domestic adoption but i can ' t seem to find their name or the post about them . does anyone know how long a person must live in gautemala before they can file for domestic adoption or how long a domestic adoption would take in guatemala ? if i could ever bring myself to live there ( depending on the length of time i would have to ) , i would consider trying to adopt there as well as teaching while i would be in the country . sorry that this is so long , i was just wondering if anyone had any information on domestic adoption in guatemala or if anyone knows of anyone else who has completed a domestic adoption in guatemala and how long it took them . thanks in advance for any information !
few development types have noticed . they pay little attention to international adoption , arguing that most vulnerable children in poor countries need not a new family but support in their current one . they point to how guatemala , for example , devotes less than 3 . 4 % of its gdp to public spending that directly helps children and adolescents , the lowest rate in central america . “adoption is a symptom of a society that can’t care for its children , ” adds ms briggs .
at the heart of the case is the claim that karen is really anyelí , a girl who was allegedly abducted in november 2006 from her family in guatemala . a guatemalan woman named loyda rodríguez claims to be the girl’s birth mother .
by the time guatemala closed to u . s . adoption , these notarios were charging $ 35 , 000 or more per adopted child , 1 plus monthly “foster care” fees while the children were housed in private “hogars” or foster homes between families—foster homes managed by the attorney .
erin siegal mcintyre : in guatemala , it was so , so easy to manufacture paperwork , manufacture an identity , pay off a judge , pay off a lawyer . the vast majority of adoption cases did have irregularities . this industry was pretty much corrupt to the core .
after international adoption stopped , there were raids and investigations of some of the adoption centers , including the one founded by nancy bailey . she was charged with human trafficking in 2012 in absentia and arrested when she returned to the country for a visit in 2014 . her son , 42 - year - old joel peters , says bailey had fought hard to keep the kids in her project out of government custody .
[ 8 ] in addition to the specifically cited sources , more information about this sequence of events can be found at the websites of two organizations concerned with international adoption : the joint council on international children’s services ( jcics ) ’s guatemala page and at ethica , inc . , ’s guatemala page . other information comes from the news articles pointed to later in this section . additional information comes from interviews on file with the schuster institute for investigative journalism .
various schemes used by adoption facilitators and lawyers to separate guatemalan children from their birthparents ; then , as
orphans
these children were made available for adoption to unknowing american prospective families .
he says the judge in guatemala concluded , based on available dna evidence , that this is the same child , yet authorities are also demanding that a new dna test be conducted .
in november , the carrs packed a green suitcase full of socks , underwear , legos and coloring books for geovany and flew back for four full days here , determined to make some headway on their ninth trip to guatemala in five years .
neither attitudes toward ladino persons , nor social distance from either of the ethnic groups was associated with attitudes toward adoption . adoption attitudes were also not associated with participants’ own ethnic identification , although this sample was highly identified with ladino ethnicity . as in most other studies of gender and adoption attitudes ( evan b . donaldson institute 2002 ; gibbons et al . 2006a , b ) , women held more favorable attitudes toward adoption than did men , and female gender was associated with more positive attitudes toward adoption as the analysis of covariance revealed .
the mexican government has shown commitment and a positive outlook towards international adoption . over the past year , mexico authorized nine new adoption service providers , from the originally approved three agencies . this is a huge increase and a showing that mexico is open to doing more than just a few adoptions per year . in addition , the government in mexico has conducted training session on adoptions under the hague convention and trainings for in the mexican attorneys processing adoptions in the country . for the government to go out of their way to provide such training indicates not only a commitment to safeguarding adoption , but also to further international adoption as a permanent option for children without families in mexico .
alex and dominic ' s touching story of their guatemalan adoption journey to find their son jose .
there were significant gender differences with respect to three measures . women showed more positive attitudes toward indigenous on the aig . they also reported more favorable attitudes toward adoption on both the modified abs and on the single question about adoption in general . see table
potential disaster struck in the autumn ( 2007 ) . the president of guatemala announced that as of 1 st january 2008 he was suspending inter - country adoptions from guatemala , and the british government followed suit with a statement saying that they in turn were suspending all adoptions from guatemala into the uk , with immediate effect . we were desperately concerned that we would not be able to bring josé home , and the latter part of 2007 was largely spent fighting battles with both the guatemalan and the british authorities .
based on the guidelines of the convention on the rights of the child ( office of the united nations high commissioner for human rights 1989 ) , and the conviction that every child deserves a family , the hague convention requires a stepwise process known as the subsidiarity principle . local options , including placement within the child’s extended family , as well as domestic adoption , must be exhausted before turning to ica placement . the guatemalan law reads : “international adoption can only proceed after appropriate consideration of possibilities for national ( domestic ) adoption” ( congreso de la república de guatemala 2007 ; equipo de investigación 2008 ) . because formal adoption among guatemalans has been extremely rare in the past ( bunkers et al . 2009 ) additional ways of promoting and facilitating domestic adoption must be pursued . a step towards this goal is identifying the barriers , both procedural and attitudinal , to domestic adoption of children . the cna might then address those barriers to find adoptive placements for the over 4000 children currently living in institutions in guatemala ( groza and bunkers 2014 ) .
american to stand trial over guatemalan adoptions guatemala was once one of the world ' s most popular adoption destinations , but stopped the practice after mass corruption was exposed . an american woman is set to stand trial over related charges .
while in the u . s . , prospective families are required to prepare an adoption dossier ( a set of documents required for adoption processing by local authorities abroad ) . for guatemala , dossier includes uscis ( former ins ) permission to adopt internationally , homestudy prepared by a licensed agency and a number of documents verifying family marital status , income , health condition , criminal history , etc .
there are several limitations to the present study , including the use of university students as participants . in guatemala university students represent a highly privileged sample , as only 4 % of the population has the opportunity to receive a university education ( pnud 2005 ) . nevertheless , the educational elite of guatemala represents the population that is mostly likely to have the resources to adopt children , and thus their attitudes have implications for adoption policy .
[ 5 ]
adoptions in guatemala : protection or business ? ” by casa alianza foundation and myrna mack survivors foundation , with the support of the social movement for the rights of children and adolescents ; human rights office of the archbishop of guatemala ( odhag ) ; and guatemalan social welfare secretariat ( sbs ) , november 2007 .
and we ' ll get them answered for you . you want to get the adoption process started ?
whatley m , jahangardi jn , ross r , knox d . college student attitudes toward transracial adoption .
reports of serious irregularities continued to mount . in 2000 , unicef commissioned the latin american institute for education and communication ( ilpec ) to conduct a study of adoption and the rights of the child in guatemala . the ilpec report concluded that these direct and private adoptions were what they called a “labor market” conducted for financial gain , not for the child’s best interests .
cutting a very long story short , following a lengthy campaign , we were one of only a handful of lucky families that were allowed to bring our children home in spite of the fact that inter - country adoptions had ceased to take place from guatemala to the uk . we were incredibly lucky but the future remains bleak for many babies and children in guatemala – it is a real humanitarian crisis .
note : this page from the schuster institute for investigative journalism website offers documentation of and background about serious irregularities in international adoption . for the systemic analysis of corruption in international adoption , please read “the lie we love , ” foreign policy magazine , nov . / dec . 2008 , and visit our webpages dedicated to international adoption . for ideas about fairer policy solutions , please read “the baby business , ” democracy journal , summer 2010 .
“zero tolerance for adoption abuses may sound good but it will hurt children , ” says elizabeth bartholet , a professor at harvard school of law , who wrote a 2010 report titled international adoption : the human rights position . “the evils involved in such abuses must be weighed against the far more significant evils involved in denying children homes . ”
but attitudinal barriers may also play a role . for example , in a number of studies women have been shown to hold more positive attitudes toward adoption than do men ( e . g . , evan b . donaldson 2002 ) . both in guatemala and the united states the gender difference in attitudes was mediated by machismo , the endorsement of an extreme masculinity along with sexist beliefs about women ( gibbons et al . 2006a , b ) . persons who held more egalitarian gender role attitudes and endorsed machismo less were more positive about adoption .
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orphaned or stolen ? the u . s . state dept . investigates adoption from nepal , 2006 - 2008
moos a , mwaba k . beliefs and attitudes about transracial adoption among a sample of south african students .
guatemala has long become a popular choice for adoptions , especially for families who want younger children or can afford to make only one short trip . in private adoptions , children can be referred at birth and if the adoption process moves quickly , arrive home in 5 - 6 months . private foster care and good healthcare system ensure most children are healthy and well - nourished . special - needs and older children often end up in orphanages , or
hogars
, and although their adoption is sometimes more difficult , it is always rewarding despite its challenges .
in response to the favorability of the different kinds of adoption , there were also significant differences . a repeated measures anova demonstrated a significant main effect for type of adoption , f ( 3 , 167 ) = 32 . 02 , p < 0 . 001 , partial η 2 = 0 . 16 , with the most favorable attitudes expressed toward adoption in general ( m = 3 . 61 ± 0 . 52 ) , followed by international adoption ( m = 3 . 53 ± 0 . 69 ) , adoption of indigenous by ladinos ( m = 3 . 40 ± 0 . 64 ) , and adoption of ladinos by indigenous ( m = 3 . 08 ± 0 . 77 ) ; t - tests were conducted as post - hocs using the bonferroni procedure to correct for multiple tests . interethnic adoption of indigenous by ladinos was viewed significantly less favorably than adoption in general , t ( 169 ) = 3 . 86 , p < 0 . 001 , 95 % ci δ = [ 0 . 09 , 0 . 29 ] , and adoption of ladinos by indigenous was viewed less favorably than all other kinds of adoption , including adoption in general , t ( 169 ) = 8 . 37 , p < 0 . 001 , ci δ [ 0 . 40 , 0 . 65 ] , intercountry adoption , t ( 172 ) = 6 . 72 , p < 0 . 001 , 95 % ci δ [ 0 . 31 , 0 . 58 ] , and adoption of indigenous by ladinos , t ( 172 ) = 5 . 96 , p < 0 . 001 , 95 % ci δ [ 0 . 22 , 0 . 43 ] .
“my view is that the government of guatemala shouldn’t be able to have it both ways . that’s not really very fair , ” genser says .
it was hard to make a decision as to which country to approach . so many children out there were in need of a home and we received no guidance from our local authority or other government bodies . eventually we narrowed our search to guatemala , one of the poorest countries in the americas , which has a large number of babies and young children who are relinquished by their birth mothers , largely due to poverty . guatemala seemed to be a “tried and tested” route with a number of other uk families having adopted children from the country – there was even a support group in england for families who had adopted from guatemala .
the alg ( attitudes toward ladinos of guatemala ) is a 14 - item scale designed to measure attitudes toward the ladino ethnic group in guatemala . items such as “ladinos deserve a good economic situation because of their effort” are rated on a 4 - point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree . higher scores represent more positive attitudes . cronbach’s alpha in the development of the scale was 0 . 79 ( gibbons and ashdown 2010 ) and in the present study it was 0 . 68 .
some of the barriers to domestic adoption in guatemala are societal and structural—widespread poverty , a high birth rate , and lack of knowledge or publicity about the legal requirements and procedures for adopting ( bunkers et al . 2009 ; gibbons et al . 2009 ; wilson and gibbons 2005 ) . the lack of information about the adoption process is currently being addressed by the cna ; this entity has initiated efforts to promote domestic adoption and to educate the public through a website , facebook page , and free seminars and workshops aimed at prospective adoptive parents .
m . martin : if she is found guilty , nancy bailey could spend six to 12 more years in prison , sharing a cell - like she does now - with as many as five other women . for npr news , i ' m maria martin in antigua , guatemala .
one consequence is that couples in the rich world find it harder to adopt a baby from a poor country . another is a debate about the place of cross - border adoption in broader attempts to help children in poor countries . advocates see it as the only way to save “hard - to - place” children—older , with severe health problems or in sibling groups—from life in an institution . critics note that some children adopted into a different culture later feel unhappy about having been uprooted . some also dismiss overseas adoption as a distraction from other ways of reducing poverty .
the seamier side of international adoption ,
the new york times opinion blog , may 10 , 2009 .
urltoken is not a licensed adoption agency or facilitator and it does not provide professional , legal or medical advice . it does not place children for adoption or match birth parents and adoptive parents . users of urltoken agree to the


the falx cerebelli is a small sickle shaped fold of dura mater , projecting forwards into the posterior cerebellar notch as well as projecting into the vallecula of the cerebellum between the two cerebellar hemispheres .

the name comes from the latin word falx meaning " curved blade or scythe " and cerebellum meaning " brain " .

its base is attached , above , to the under and back part of the tentorium cerebelli ; its posterior margin , to the lower division of the vertical crest on the inner surface of the occipital bone .

the falx cerebelli generally lies somewhere between 2.8 and 4.5 cm in length and is approximately 1 – 2 mm thick .

falx cerebelli

dissection of cranial cavity showing the infra - tentorial space . note three distinct folds of falx cerebelli ( f1 : middle falx , f2 : right falx , f3 : left falx , tc : tentorium cerebelli )
falx cerebelli is between 2 . 8 and 4 . 5 cm in length and
triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the infra - tentorial compartment of posterior cranial fossa .
a complex dural - venous variation in the posterior cranial fossa : a triplicate falx cerebelli and an . . .
duplicated , fenestrated , small and complete absence are the reported variations of the falx cerebelli . occurrence of triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the floor of the posterior cranial fossa is seldom reported in the literature .
browder j , kaplan ha , krieger aj . venous lakes in the suboccipital dura mater and falx cerebelli of infants : surgical significance .
what made you want to look up falx cerebelli ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
milwaukee , wisconsin : 2006 . a triple dural - venous variation in the posterior cranial fossa : a duplicated plus accessory falx cerebelli and an aberrant venous sinus .
a third , the falx cerebelli , projects downward from the tentorium cerebelli between the two cerebellar hemispheres . the outer portion of the dura mater over the brain serves as a covering , or periosteum , of the inner surfaces of the skull bones .
the falx cerebelli is a small sickle - shaped fold of dura mater situated below the tentorium cerebelli . it projects forward into the posterior cerebellar notch . occipital sinus is situated along its posterior attachment to the internal occipital crest . 1 variations in the morphology of the falx cerebelli are very rare . duplicated , triplicated , fenestrated , small and complete absence are some of the reported variations of the falx cerebelli . 2 - 7 the formations of dural venous sinuses are concurrent with the development of dural folds . hence the duplicated falx cerebelli are usually associated with duplicated occipital sinus and occurrence of such cases has already been reported . 3 the occurrence of triplicated falx cerebelli associated with an aberrant venous sinus in the floor of the posterior cranial fossa has been reported . 3 herein , we report a case of triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the infra - tentorial compartment of posterior cranial fossa . knowledge of incidence of such rare complex dural - venous variation is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists to avoid iatrogenic injuries during suboccipital approaches and erroneous interpretation during diagnostic and operative procedures in the posterior cranial fossa . 3
the falx cerebelli is a small infolding of the dura in the sagittal plane over the floor of the posterior cranial fossa . it partially separates the two cerebellar hemispheres 1 .
tubbs rs , dockery se , salter g , elton s , blount jp , grabb pa , oakes wj . absence of the falx cerebelli in a chiari ii malformation .
shoja mm , tubbs rs , khaki aa , shokouhi g . a rare variation of the posterior cranial fossa : duplicated falx cerebelli , occipital venous sinus , and internal occipital crest .
folds of the meningeal layer of the dura mater , the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli , traverse the vertebrate intracranial cavity and thus compartmentalise the brain . the falx cerebelli , another dural fold , is found in the posterior cranial fossa and attaches to the inferior aspect of the tentorium cerebelli and to the internal occipital crest . we present a case of a duplicated falx cerebelli , occipital venous sinus and internal occipital crest that was detected upon routine dissection of a male cadaver . since haemorrhage of a dural venous sinus can be a fatal complication of posterior cranial fossa surgery , knowledge of venous sinus variations in this region may prevent unpredictable complications during intracranial procedures .
closer view of dissection of cranial cavity showing the infra - tentorial space . note three distinct folds of falx cerebelli ( f1 , f2 & f3 ) . the right aberrant venous sinus ( ras ) connected the right sigmoid sinus ( ss ) with the ipsilateral transverse sinus . the left aberrant venous sinus ( las ) connected the left sigmoid sinus ( ss ) with the ipsilateral transverse sinus . ( f1 : middle falx , f2 : right falx , f3 : left falx , tc : tentorium cerebelli , pt : petrous part of the temporal bone )
the main ( middle ) falx divided into two parts near the foramen magnum and there was only one occipital venous sinus in its posterior attachment . it terminated at the confluence of sinuses bilaterally . on each side of the middle falx cerebelli , at the floor of the posterior cranial fossa two aberrant dural venous sinuses were observed . the right aberrant venous sinus connected the right sigmoid sinus to ipsilateral transverse sinus . it travelled along the posterior margin of the right falx cerebelli to enter the ipsilateral transverse sinus . the left aberrant venous sinus connected the left sigmoid sinus to ipsilateral transverse sinus . it travelled along the left side of the left falx cerebelli (
3 . mavridis in , lontos k , anagnostopoulou s . absent falx cerebelli : report of a rare case . anat sci int . 2013 ; 88 ( 3 ) : 181 - 2 .
shoja mm , tubbs rs , loukas m , shokouhi g , oakes wj . a complex dural - venous variation in the posterior cranial fossa : a triplicate falx cerebelli and an aberrant venous sinus .
4 . tubbs rs , dockery se , salter g et - al . absence of the falx cerebelli in a chiari ii malformation . clin anat . 2002 ; 15 ( 3 ) : 193 - 5 .
. . . the variations of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 4 , 5 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 6 ] duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 7 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 4 , 5 , 9101112 . hassan m and das ac , 1969 [ 13 ] found that the falx cerebelli was double in 76 of 100 cadavers . . . .
the incidence of variations of falx cerebelli was studied in 52 adult cadavers of south indian origin , at kasturba medical college mangalore , after removal of calvaria . in eight ( 15 . 4 % ) cases , we observed duplicated falx cerebelli along with duplicated occipital sinus and internal occipital crest . the length and the distance between each of the falces were measured . the mean length of the . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . the falx cerebelli , which may be divided inferiorly to create a v - shaped space , the so - called vermian fossa [ 3 ] . the variations of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 4 , 5 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 6 ] duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 7 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 4 , 5 , 9101112 . . . .
the iss runs parallel to the sss in correspondence to the free margin of the cerebral falx , receiving blood from the middle regions of the brain that drains into the sss through the venous vessels of the cerebral falx .
during regular dissection classes , we came across tripled falx cerebelli in a male cadaver . the main ( middle ) falx cerebelli was large and was attached to the internal occipital crest . it contained the occipital sinus . there were two smaller folds ( right and left ) , one on either side of the falx cerebelli . there were two aberrant venous sinuses ; each one connecting the ipsilateral sigmoid and transverse sinuses with each other . the complex dural - venous variation reported here is seldom reported in the literature . knowledge of such variation is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists as these aberrant folds could cause haemorrhage during suboccipital approaches or may lead to erroneous interpretation during imaging of the posterior cranial fossa .
the dura mater , arachnoid , pia mater , falx and tentorium cerebelli receive their sensitivity from the cranial nerves : essentially — as we shall see — from the trigeminal nerve . others , like the trochlear , make their rather unexpected contributions .
during a regular dissection class for medical undergraduates , we came across a tripled falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses , in the floor of posterior cranial fossa . it was noted in a 55 - year - old male cadaver of south indian origin , which was donated to manipal university , for the purpose of anatomical examination , medical education and research . while exposing the cranial cavity , the calvaria and brain were removed carefully . the tentorium cerebelli was reflected by cutting along its lateral border to expose the infra - tentorial compartment . the falx cerebelli was found to be triplicated ( right , middle and left falces ) (
lies inferior to the tentorium cerebelli . it superior border is attached to the lower aspect of the tentorium . the posterior border contains the
d ' costa s , krishnamurthy a , nayak sr , madhyasta s , prabhu lv , jiji p , ranade av , pai mm , vadgaonkar r , ganesh kumar c , rai r . duplication of falx cerebelli , occipital sinus , and internal occipital crest .
. . . of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 21 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 20 ] , duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 11 ] , absence or ossification of the falx cerebri [ 4 , 24 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , incompetent sellar diaphragm [ 3 ] and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 6 , 7 , 13 , 14 , 21 , 23 ] . . . .
osteopathy in the cranial field was first described by sutherland in the early part of the twentieth century . sutherland’s model has several key components : the fluctuation of the cerebral spinal fluid ; the motility of the neural tube ; the movement of the falx cerebri , tentorium cerebelli , and
. . . of the dura mater and its folds are seldom reported in the literature [ 21 ] . among these are duplication of the hemispheric convexity dura [ 20 ] , duplication of the spinal dural sheath [ 11 ] , absence or ossification of the falx cerebri [ 4 , 24 ] , presence of an accessory falx cerebri [ 8 ] , incompetent sellar diaphragm [ 3 ] and duplicated , fenestrated or small falx cerebelli [ 6 , 7 , 13 , 14 , 21 , 23 ] . these variations are often asymptomatic and only incidentally found during human dissection . . . .
the falx cerebelli is attached posteriorly in the midline to the internal occipital crest of the occipital bone where it contains the occipital sinus 2 . its anterior edge exists freely between the partially separated cerebellar hemispheres in the posterior cerebellar notch . superiorly it is attached to the tentorium cerebelli 1 . inferiorly , it extends to the posterior edge of the foramen magnum . at this point it sometimes divides into two separate parts which extend anteriorly either side of the foramen magnum 2 - 3 .
, black arrows ) is introduced through the ring and middle fingers and directed into the deep connective tissues of the cerebellar falx . the index fingers monitor c2 .
please cite this paper as : satheesha nayak b , srinivasa rao sirasanagandla , deepthinath r , kumar n . triple falx cerebelli associated with two aberrant venous sinuses in the floor of posterior cranial fossa . amj 2013 , 6 , 8 , 397 - 400 . http / / dx . doi . org / 10 . 4066 / amj . 2013 . 1740
variations of the dural folds and the dural venous sinuses are seldom reported in the extant medical literature . such variations in the posterior cranial fossa may be problematic in various diagnostic and operative procedures of this region . we report our observation of an extremely rare variation of the falx cerebelli and posterior cranial fossa venous sinuses encountered upon dissection of a . . . [ show full abstract ]
the physician places her fingers so that she is contacting the midline of the occiput just inferior to the inion along the sagittal plane of the occiput . this approximates the location of the cerebellar falx (
the falx cerebri is the largest of the folds of dura mater . it attaches anteriorly to the crista galli , and runs posteriorly to fuse with the tentorium cerebelli . in its upper edge , it divides to form the superior sagittal sinus , and its lower edge is where it divides to form the inferior sagittal sinus . the upper edge is attached onto the frontal , parietal and occipital bones in an anterior to posterior direction , respectively . the lower edge of the falx cerebri passes down to separate the left and right cerebral hemispheres from one and other . it typically follows the corpus callosum , linking the two cerebral hemispheres .
as the tissue texture under the ring and middle fingers begins to change , the index fingers can control c2 to establish balanced membranous tension through the cerebellar falx and its dural connections to the upper cervical complex .
membrane that influences the mechanics of the cranial bones ; and the movement of the sacrum . although there continues to be controversy regarding the physiological accuracy of sutherland’s model , it continues to be used throughout most of the world to discuss evaluation , diagnosis and treatment using this approach . sutherland described the cranium as a balanced membranous mechanism because of the relationship of the cranial bones to the intra - articular ligaments , the tentorium cerebelli , the falx cerebri , and the
sands sf , farmer p , alvarez o , et al . fat within the falx : mr demonstration of falcine bony metaplasia with marrow formation . j comput assist tomogr 1987 ; 11 ( 4 ) : 602 - 605 .
develops first as two portions that become a single continuous structure later . it reflects downward between the hemispheres , attaching anteriorly and laterally to points on the skull and posteriorly to another partition , the tentorium cerebelli ( also known simply as the tentorium ) . the
this technique uses a similar approach to a venous sinus spread technique but the intention is directed at the membranous structure , the cerebellar falx . studies have show that fibers from the cerebellar falx are continuous with dural ligaments extending into the upper cervical complex as low as c3 . this technique is used to balance membranous strains in the cranial base that involve these connections . this may need to be performed prior to condylar decompression or base spread . this approach can also be used in older children with cervicogenic cephalgia .
) . it ascends posterosuperiorly , nearly parallel to the internal occipital crest , to reach the attachment of the cerebellar falx . around the level of the external occipital protuberance , the artery bifurcates and anastomoses with the meningeal branches of the occipital and middle meningeal arteries
is located below the tentorium cerebelli on the middle of the occipital bone . this small dural infolding extends into the space between the cerebellar hemispheres , attaching to the occipital crest of the skull and the posterior portion of the tentorium . part of it encloses the occipital venous sinuses . the
is the second largest of the dural folds . it attaches to bony walls of the skull in the temporal , occipital , and parietal regions . the tentorium cerebelli is the infolding found between the cerebral hemispheres above and the cerebellar hemispheres below . it is only found in mammals and birds , being absent in fish , amphibians , and reptiles .
) . the meninges protect the cns , and consist of three layers : the outermost dura mater , the middle arachnoid layer , and the inner pia mater . the dura layer is thick , tough , and composed of hypocellular fibrous tissue that adheres to the skull except where it invaginates into the cranial cavity to form septa ( falx cerebri ,
the dural sinuses are situated between the leaves of the falx and the tentorium and are triangular in section . they drain blood from the cortex , the meninges , and the scalp ( through the calvarian veins ) and deliver it to the internal jugular veins . they are connected with the extracranial veins in the scalp by the emissary veins . this may explain dural involvement after cutaneous contusions or infections (
the tentorium cerebelli supports the occipital lobes above , and separates them from the cerebellum below . the internal concave surface is free and along with the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid bone , forms the boundary of the tentorial notch , occupied primarily by the midbrain . the outer convex border encloses the transverse sinus posteriorly and is attached to the inner aspect of the skull . more anterior , this margin encloses the superior petrosal sinus and is attached to the upper portion of the petrous temporal bone . toward the apex of the petrous temporal bone , the two borders of the tentorium cerebelli cross each other . the free border passes above and is anchored to the anterior clinoid process on either side . the attached border passes below and is then attached onto the posterior clinoid process . when the two borders have crossed each other , the triangular area of dura between them forms the roof of the cavernous sinus . the roof is continuous with the diaphragma sellae .
the lateral sinus connects the torcular herophili with the internal jugular veins on both sides and is formed by two components : the transverse sinus , which lies in the peripheral margin of the tentorium cerebelli , and the sigmoid sinus . the transverse sinuses are frequently of unequal size ; the left one , which receives blood from the sss , is usually larger . atresia or agenesis of the transverse sinus is related to alternative filling of the sigmoid sinus by the vein of labbé . the sigmoid sinus starts at the end of the transverse sinus and reaches the jugular vein ; agenesis and atresia of this sinus are very uncommon .
a long midline incision is used , extending approximately from the spinous process of the third vertebral body up into the occipital region , so that the pericranium and muscle attachments can be elevated on each side without disrupting their continuity . freeing up the muscle layer facilitates closure later . a wide craniotomy is performed to include the lateral sinuses and torcula but without extending to the foramen magnum . generally , using a high - speed air drill to perform a suboccipital craniotomy is preferred so that the bone flap may be replaced at the end of the procedure . a craniotome is used to turn the flap after first exposing each of the dural sinuses to avoid tears . brain relaxation and cerebellar retraction can be facilitated by mannitol , ventricular drainage , or removal of cerebrospinal from the cisterna magna . it is preferable to open the dura on either side of the midline so that the cerebellar falx and accompanying cerebellar sinus can be ligated and divided . the dural opening should extend bilaterally up to the lateral sinus (
atlas and textbook of human anatomy / by johannes . . . v . 3 . - full view | hathitrust digital library | hathitrust digital library
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1 . singh i . textbook of anatomy : head and neck central nervous system . jaypee brothers medical pub . isbn : 9350253836 .
2 . last ' s anatomy : regional and applied , 12e ( mrcs study guides ) . churchill livingstone . isbn : 0702033952 .
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the cranial nerves supply the sensitivity of the diploë , which is the spongy part of the cranial bones .
curiously , medical literature is very discreet on the subject of the innervation of sutures .
, who is our reference , provides just one piece of information on the topic : the innervation of the lambdoid sutures . he describes this as being due to a nerve filament from the supra - orbital nerve , a branch of the frontal nerve , which itself issues from the trigeminal nerve .
for us , the most important nerve relating to the cranial sutures is certainly the trigeminal because it sends filaments to the coronal suture : the queen of sutures and first in line for absorbing shocks .
the mucosa of the sinuses is very sensitive and reactive . it is the cranial nerves that provide its sensitivity . and here too , without prejudice , we detect the hand of the trigeminal nerve . with its three branches , it innervates the frontal , sphenoidal , ethmoidal and maxillary sinuses .
the sensitivity of the skin of the face and skull is furnished in large measure , though not exclusively , by the cranial nerves . to give an example , the skin on the skull also receives nerve fibers from the suboccipital nerve of arnold .
it is partly for this reason that we describe its manipulation in this book , even though it does not belong to the cranial nerves .
cranial nerve fibers , combined with those arising from the sympathetic ganglions , deliver arterial sensitivity . some migraine headaches are attributable to the vasodilatation of the arteries of the skull .
the brain is not sensitive in and of itself . intracranial sensitivity is due to the meninges and the vascular system .
the infant is supine or held in the parent’s arms . the physician sits at the infant’s head with her forearms supported . the physician places her hands beneath the infant’s head with a contact very low ( inferior to inion ) on the occiput (
, circle ) . the middle fingers approximate each other and lie just inferior to the ring fingers ( asterisks ) . the index fingers contact the second cervical vertebra medial and posterior to its transverse processes .
once balanced membranous tension is established the position is maintained until there is a softening , a change in tissue texture or a correction of the strain .
the occipital sinus , which is the smallest dural venous sinus , runs along the inner surface of the occipital bone . the occipital sinus is attached to the posterior margin of the
and receives tributaries from the margins of the foramen magnum . it may anastomosis with the sigmoid sinuses and posterior internal vertebral plexus that drain into the torcular herophili . the occipital sinus is an important vascular structure during posterior fossa surgery . variations in the occipital sinus , such as double or oblique occipital sinuses or the absence of the occipital sinus , are observed in rare cases
) . this becomes apparent when examining newborns , especially premature infants . the mobility and deformability of the cranium are remarkable , yet in the majority of cases it will resume a normocephalic appearance within the first 48 hours of life . the ability of the newborn cranium to make such drastic changes is evidence of its responsiveness to the subtle forces acting within the body . if a premature neonate is left in one position and not turned periodically , the infant will develop a flat spot over that area . the ability of the body to self - correct the deformity correlates with the length of time it has been present , and whether or not any external force , however subtle , has acted on the area . another example of the deformability of the living skull is the molding that is often present in newborns . this molding occurs in response to the forces acting on the cranium during birth . although the majority of these adaptations resolve , often a slight asymmetry remains . cadaveric specimens can be examined for evidence of asymmetries in the cranial fossa . these asymmetries develop in response to the position of fluid - filled vessels and the custard - like substance we call the brain . the asymmetries that occur in response to the intrauterine pressures applied to the emerging cranium may also leave an impression . the shape of any given head is the product of genetics and mechanics . the difference in shape between individuals is readily appreciable through palpation .
the mechanics in the cranium , albeit subtle , can be used to ascertain areas of compression and stress within the membranous articular mechanism . this requires a good
understanding of anatomy and a well - developed level of palpatory skill . the motions felt in the cranium are much more subtle than those palpated in the ligamentous mechanism of the spine or sacroiliac joint . whereas in the majority of individuals the sutures remain cartilaginous with adjoining connective tissue ( pritchard ) , the articular surfaces in the cranium are generally serrated or beveled . this means that articular surfaces can only marginally glide or expand and contract in relation to each other . these movements are quite minimal , but they do allow for pliancy of the cranium .
finally , the outermost layer is the dura mater and surrounds the brain . it is comprised of two layers , though it is difficult to differentiate these with the naked eye . it is comprised of two fused layers – and internal meningeal layer and an outer endosteal layer . at points along its course , the dural venous sinuses separate it . the inner meningeal layer is limited internally by flattened cells . the external endosteal layer is also referred to as the endocranium . this endosteal layer is adherent to the skull , especially at the point of the sutures and also at the base of the skull . at the foramina of the skull and the sutures , the endosteal layer is continuous with the pericranium . where the endosteal layer is continuous with the foramina , it provides a sheath for the cranial nerves .
the meningeal layer sends four main areas of folds deeper into the cranial cavity . these are the
and is attached to the occipital bone . the anterior border is free and projects between the hemispheres of the cerebellum .
the diaphragma sellae forms a dural roof for the sella turcica . it covers the hypophysis , and has an opening for the infundibulum . the optic chiasma lies partly or completely above the diaphragma sellae .
) . its origin is usually closer to the dural entrance than to the transverse foramen of the atlas . its initial course is along the upper posterior aspect of the extradural vertebral artery toward the posterolateral edge of foramen magnum , where it enters the intracranial dura ( see
the posterior meningeal artery can be divided into an extracranial and an intracranial portion . the extracranial portion is tortuous , probably as a response to the motility of the neck
and extends from origin to the atlanto - occipital space . the intracranial portion shows a relatively straight configuration
) . this pattern , on angiography , facilitates differentiation of the posterior meningeal artery from the branches of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery . the posterior meningeal artery , seen on 30 % to 40 % of angiograms , is easier to identify on lateral films .
the sss begins at the foramen cecum , before the crista galli , and runs along the curve of the inner table of the skull to reach the torcular herophili , where it converges with the straight sinus . their combined flows drain into the transverse sinus . the sss receives blood from frontal , parietal , and occipital superior regions of the cortex . the sss , and other sinuses , contains the arachnoid villi and granulations in which the absorption of cerebrospinal fluid takes place . there is a direct dependency of cerebrospinal fluid pressure on the intracranial venous pressure , which explains the frequent increase in intracranial pressure in cvst . the dura mater adjacent to the sinus contains important venous plexuses , which represent a potential alternative drainage route when a sinus is occluded ; this explains the “empty - delta” sign , which is visible on computed tomographic ( ct ) scan in occlusion of the sss .
and receives blood from the vein of galen and from the iss . it ends in the torcular herophili or in the left transverse sinus .
are situated on the sphenoid bone , laterally to the sella turcica . their walls contain the cranial nerves iii , iv , v
, the intracavernous tract of the internal carotid artery , and the pericarotid sympathetic plexus are contained in their lumen . they drain the ophthalmic veins , the anterior and middle cranial fossa , and the sphenoparietal sinus ( the medial extension of the superficial sylvian vein ) . blood drains posterolaterally along petrosal sinuses to the lateral sinus and the jugular vein through the inferior petrosal sinus . the two cavernous sinuses are connected by the intracavernous sinus , which lies on the clivus behind the sella turcica : this strict anatomical connection explains their frequent simultaneous involvement (
are four in number , two for each side ( superior and inferior ) . the first one is the anterior continuation of the transverse sinus and corresponds to the oblique insertion of the tentorium on the rocca petrosa , ending in the cavernous sinuses . the second begins at the
inferior part of the intercavernous sinus to end , together with the sigmoid sinus , in the jugular vein .
on the occipital bone , and it drains blood from the dorsal regions of the cerebellum vermis .
the spinal cord and brain are the major coordinating and integrating structures for all physical and mental activities of the body and fortunately are well protected . the brain and spinal cord are covered by layers of tissue called the meninges . within certain layers of these meninges is a cushioning layer of fluid called cerebrospinal fluid . the meninges are composed of three membranes ; moving from the outermost to the innermost covering , they are known as the dura mater ( “tough mother” in latin ) , the arachnoid mater , and the pia mater .
magnum . it consists of two layers that are closely united except where , in certain spots , they separate . in some parts of the dura mater of the brain they separate to form the
) . in other parts of the brain , the inner layer also separates from the outer layer to reflect inward and form partitions , described as complex folds that divide the contents of the cranial cavity into different cerebral subdivisions . these infoldings or
, which forms the roof of the sella turcica , the structure that encloses the pituitary gland . there is a tiny hole in the center of it , allowing the stalk ( or infundibulum ) of the pituitary to pass through . the anterior and posterior intercavernous sinuses are found in their respective edges of the diaphragma sella . these infoldings are illustrated in
when you consider the placement of these sturdy partitions being under and between the cerebral hemispheres as well as over and between the cerebellar hemispheres , it is fairly easy to understand how the dural infoldings brace the brain against rotary displacement .
there is no subdural space between the dura mater and the next layer of the meninges . when there is subdural space identified , it means that tissue damage has occurred to the deepest layer , creating a space .
because there is no normal subdural space , the next meningeal layer can be found immediately below the dura . this second layer is the arachnoid mater . this membrane bridges over the sulci or folds of the brain . in some areas it projects into the venous sinuses to form arachnoid villi . the arachnoid villi aggregate to form the arachnoid granulations . the arachnoid granulations are from where the cerebrospinal fluid diffuses into the bloodstream .
, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid . all cerebral arteries and veins , as well as the cranial nerves , pass through this space . this is why you often hear of subarachnoid hemorrhage or bleed because damage to the brain has resulted in artery or vein tears and blood is released into this subarachnoid space .
closely adheres to the surface of the brain , covering the gyri ( ridges ) and going down into the sulci . the pia mater also fuses with the ependyma ( a cellular membrane lining the ventricles ) to form the choroid plexus of the ventricles .
) . the middle arachnoid layer is very thin and avascular , and closely adheres to the dura mater by specialized fibroblasts . the inner pia mater is a vascular and delicate membrane , continuous with the brain and spinal cord , but is separated from the neural tissue by the subpial space . it is the pia mater which projects into the ventricles as villi and loose connective tissue stroma to form the choroid plexus , which in turn is responsible for the formation of csf .
between the arachnoid layer and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space , which contains csf . the arachnoid gives off projections of filaments into the subarachnoid space . this gives the space a spider - like appearance , consisting of a trabecular meshwork crossed by nerves , small arteries known as rete mirable , and bridging veins which connect the meningeal veins with the deeper intracranial venous system (
) . the subarachnoid space is dilated in certain locations due to the variation in the contour of the brain and skull , forming pockets of csf called cisterns . the largest and most important of the cisterns is the cisterna magna , which surrounds the brainstem and cerebellum at the base of the skull . the cistern magna may be used to obtain csf (
. csf flows from the lateral ventricles into the third ventricle via the foramina of monroe , and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle . the csf circulates through apertures in the fourth ventricle , the lateral foramina of luschka and the medial foramen of magendie , to the subarachnoid space . once the csf enters the subarachnoid space it flows both cephalad toward the cerebral hemispheres and caudally toward the spinal cord , ultimately being absorbed by the arachnoid villi in the dural sinuses located along the superior sagittal sinus and intracranial venous sinuses and returned to the venous circulation (
) . leakage of csf manifesting as csf rhinorrhea or otorrhea may occur after a basilar skull fracture and indicates that the dura has been torn .
) . the bars are then arranged in a rectangular configuration framing the operative field , facilitating placement of a retractor in the inferior position to depress the cerebellum . a cottonoid tray is fixed to the self - retaining retractor system and held by one of the retractor’s arms .
once the dura is opened , all bridging veins over the dorsal surface of the cerebellum , including the hemispheres and vermis , can be sacrificed to free the cerebellum from the tentorium . the weight of cottonoids and a copper retractor , along with gravitational forces that are exerted in the sitting position , allow sufficient depression of the cerebellum
to establish an unobstructed corridor to the pineal region under the tentorium . at this point , the operating microscope should be brought to the operating table . a microscope capable of varying the objective length from 275 to 400 mm is desirable because the operating distance for the surgeon changes throughout the operation , going from the dorsal surface of the cerebellum to the center of the third ventricle . the use of a freestanding armrest is also helpful in minimizing fatigue .
the arachnoid in the quadrigeminal region and around the incisura is usually thickened and opaque in the presence of tumors and must be opened by microdissection techniques to expose the surface of the tumor . the precentral cerebellar vein , which can be seen extending from the edge of the vermis to galen’s vein , should be cauterized and divided (
) . galen’s great vein and the internal cerebral veins are well above the tumor and are not encountered in these initial maneuvers . laterally , the medial aspect of the temporal lobe and rosenthal’s veins can be seen as they course upward toward the confluence of veins in these regions . in general terms , the trajectory of the operation is toward the velum interpositum . this must be considered when attempting to remove segments of the tumor in the inferior portion of the third ventricle or directly over the quadrigeminal plate in relation to the anterior lobe of the cerebellum . the thickened arachnoid should be opened widely to appreciate the underlying anatomy . using sharp dissection , the arachnoidal opening must be kept close to the anterior surface of the vermis and cerebellar hemisphere to avoid injuring the deep venous system , keeping in mind that the initial trajectory is toward galen’s vein . the anterior portion of the cerebellum is retracted by the inferior self - retaining retractor to expose the posterior surface of the tumor .
because many of these tumors extend well into the third ventricle , even to the region of monro’s foramen , long instruments are required to reach the anterior margins of the tumor . with tumors of firm consistency , a cavitron with a long , curved tip can be helpful for debulking . a long focal length is desirable to accommodate the large instrument and maneuver into the operative field . the most difficult dissection involves the inferior portion of the tumor , where it is adherent to the collicular region of the dorsal midbrain . small dental mirrors and angled instruments may be required to remove this portion of the tumor . similarly , these techniques may be helpful for supratentorial tumor extensions . further exposure can be gained by incising the tentorium if necessary . tumors that are benign or encapsulated can usually be removed completely (
) . with tumors that are incompletely resected , particularly vascular ones such as pineal cell tumors , meticulous hemostasis is crucial . surgicel is the preferred hemostatic agent , and it should be placed carefully so that it does not float and obstruct the aqueduct when the third ventricle fills with cerebrospinal fluid .
at the conclusion of the operation , after decompression of the tumor and the ventricular system , the dura can be closed to support the cerebellum . when a craniotomy has been performed , the bone flap is secured back in place with wires or miniplates . a greater degree of dural and bony closure seems to lower the incidence of postoperative aseptic meningitis .
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a short process of dura mater projecting forward from the internal occipital crest below the tentorium ; it occupies the posterior cerebellar notch and the vallecula , and bifurcates below into two diverging limbs passing to either side of the foramen magnum .
a short process of dura mater projecting forward from the internal occipital crest below the tentorium ; it occupies the posterior cerebellar notch and the vallecula , and bifurcates below into two diverging limbs passing to either side of the foramen magnum . synonym ( s ) : falcula .
a sickle - shaped fold of dura mater in the longitudinal fissure , which separates the two cerebral hemispheres .
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srinivasa rao sirasanagandla department of anatomy , melaka manipal medical college ( manipal campus ) , manipal university , madav nagar , manipal , karnataka state , india . 567104 email : moc . liamg @ tana . hianees
knowledge of incidence of a rare complex dural - venous variation , reported here is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists to avoid iatrogenic injuries during suboccipital approaches and erroneous interpretation during diagnostic and operative procedures in the posterior cranial fossa .
) . the length and width of all the three folds ( right , middle and left falces ) were measured . the distances between the two adjacent falces were also measured at the proximal , middle , and distal thirds . the length of the right , middle and left falces were 38mm , 44mm , and 36mm respectively . the width of the right , middle , and left falces were 3mm , 5mm , and 3mm , respectively . the distances between the right and middle falces were 3 , 5 , and 8mm at the proximal , middle , and distal thirds . the distances between the middle and left falces were 3 , 4 , and 8mm at the proximal , middle , and distal thirds .
schematic picture showing the right and left aberrant venous sinuses , in the floor of the posterior cranial fossa . the right aberrant venous sinus ( ras ) connected the right sigmoid sinus ( rss ) with the right transverse sinus ( rts ) . the left aberrant venous sinus ( las ) connected the left sigmoid sinus ( lss ) with the left transverse sinus ( lts ) . ( os : occipital sinus )
to conclude , the complex dural - venous variation reported in the present case is seldom reported in the literature . awareness of such variation is important for neurosurgeons and neuroradiologists as these could be a potential source of haemorrhage during suboccipital approaches , or may lead to erroneous interpretation during imaging of the posterior cranial fossa .
the authors , satheesha nayak b , srinivasa rao sirasanagandla , deepthinath r , naveen kumar , declare that : this submission is compliant with the requirements of local research ethics committees .
williams pl . 38th international edition . edinburgh : churchill livingstone : 1999 . gray’s anatomy .
naidich tp , pudlowski rm , naidich jb , gornish m , rodriguez fj . computed tomographic signs of the chiari ii malformation . part i : skull and dural partitions .
michaud j , mizrahi em , urich h . agenesis of the vermis with fusion of the cerebellar hemispheres , septooptic dysplasia and associated anomalies . report of a case .
shoja mm , tubbs rs , shokouhi gh , ashrafian a , oakes wj .
abstract presented at the 23rd annual meeting of the american association of clinical anatomists .
lang j . thieme : new york : 1991 . clinical anatomy of the posterior cranial fossa and its foramina ; p . p . 6 .
rollins n , ison c , booth t , chia j . mr venography in the pediatric patient .
okudera t , huang yp , ohta t , yokota a , nakamura y , maehara f , utsunomiya h , uemura k , fukasawa h . development of posterior fossa dural sinuses , emissary veins , and jugular bulb : morphological and radiologic study .
reddy at , hedlund gl , percy ak . enlarged parietal foramina : association with cerebral venous and cortical anomalies .
this chapter will cover several normal anatomic findings and variations of normal cranial computed tomography ( ct ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) , which occasionally are misdiagnosed as abnormalities , particularly by the more junior radiology resident struggling in the trenches during after - hours call . some of these normal variants have at one time or another also confused more senior radiologists , the author included , and it is hoped that this chapter contains useful tidbits for professionals at all levels of training , from the neophyte to the veteran .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
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