osedax roseus is a species of bathypelagic polychaete worm that lives at abyssal depths and is able to sustain itself on the bones of dead whales .

the species is found in the north east pacific .

osedax roseus

figure 3a from rouse et al . 2008 , whale vertebrae covered in osedax roseus ( arrows ) .
acquisition of dwarf male “harems” by recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida )
“… . receive your own plush , 100 % cotton dwarf male osedax roseus , complete with hooked chaetae… . ”
acquisition of dwarf male
harems
by recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) .
figure 3 . mature female osedax roseus colonizing a whale bone . a larvae that lands on her will differniate into a male .
figure 4 . anatomy and size comparison of male and female osedax roseus . not the stark difference in size and morphology between the two sexes .
acquisition of dwarf male
harems
by recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) . - pubmed - ncbi
both bonellia viridis and osedax roseus have similar biological mechanisms designs to facilitate environmental sex determination . a sexually undifferentiated larvae becomes male after contact with an adult female . if the larvae don’t interact with a female , then they differentiate into a female themselves . there are different environmental conditions that trigger sexual differentiation .
fish bone ( gzg . v . 20407 ) with osedax borings from the presumably late oligocene part of the makah formation , washington state , usa
um die evolutionsgeschichte des marinen , knochenfressenden wurms osedax zu verstehen , ist es wichtig zu wissen , zu welchen tiergruppen die knochen gehören , die er fressen kann . ursprünglich wurde osedax als wal - spezialist angesehen , weitere untersuchungen zeigten jedoch , dass er ein breites spektrum an wirbeltierresten , inklusive weichteile von walen und knochen von vögeln und fischen , konsumiert . hier werden zum ersten mal bohrspuren in walzähnen und fischknochen aus oligozänen tiefwasserablagerungen der makah , pysht und lincoln creek formationen im westen des us - bundesstaates washington dokumentiert , die solchen des rezenten osedax stark ähneln . die fossilien wurden mittels verdünnter säure aus kalkigen konkretionen herausgelöst und die bohrspuren wurden computer - tomographisch untersucht . diese und bereits bekannte bohrspuren von osedax aus dem westlichen washington zeigen , dass osedax schon im oligozän die gleiche bandbreite von wirbeltierresten besiedelt hat wie heute und auch die gleiche vielfalt an weichkörpermorphologien . diese ergebnisse stützen die these , dass ein breites nahrungsspektrum ein ursprüngliches merkmal von osedax ist .
osedax has a known depth range of 30–3000 m ( 7 ) and can be found in dense colonies that are able to consume an entire whale skeleton within a few years ( 19 ) . molecular clock estimates and the early oligocene boreholes presented here show that osedax has been destroying bones for most of the evolutionary history of whales . osedax has an impact on the taphonomy of whale skeletons that has significantly affected the quantity and especially the quality of fossil whales , as documented here . this previously unrecognized “ osedax effect” is especially well - illustrated in whale fossils that are preserved in deep - water strata where sedimentation rates are low , such as the bioeroded fossils from washington state .
rouse , g . w . ; worsaae , k . ; johnson , s . b . ; jones , w . j . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . 2008 . acquisition of dwarf male
harems
by recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) . biol bull 214 ( 1 ) : 67 - 82 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
rouse , g . w . ; worsaae , k . ; johnson , s . b . ; jones , w . j . ; vrijenhoek , r . c . 2008 . acquisition of dwarf male
harems
by recently settled females of osedax roseus n . sp . ( siboglinidae ; annelida ) . biol bull 214 ( 1 ) : 67 - 82 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 71 [ details ]
teeth of two mysticete whales with osedax borings , oligocene , washington state , usa . a , b two teeth ( gzg . v . 20408 ) from the latest oligocene part of the lincoln creek formation . these were used for micro - ct ; renderings in fig . 3 are from specimen a . c – e three teeth ( usnm 539938 ) from the late early oligocene part of the pysht formation . note that osedax borings are restricted to the upper ( presumably exposed ) part of the teeth in c and d and that the broken edges in specimen e are angular and do not go through obvious osedax borings
zombie worms ( osedax roseus ) eat away at the bones of a dead whale that has fallen to the seafloor in sagami bay , japan . these bizarre worms rely on whale bones for energy and are what scientists call “sexually dimorphic”—the male and female forms are markedly different . in this case , the males are microscopic and live inside the bodies of the female worms ! this allows females to produce many , many eggs to disperse across the seafloor . few of these will land close enough to sunken bones to survive .
heck , i’ll pay $ 20 to the first knitter to put up the design for an anatomically correct osedax with a dwarf male ! plus i’ll pay for the shipping to have it . any takers ? i can email you the article .
a significant part of osedax’s diet is digesting the bones of whales . however , whale bones are difficult to find in the ocean . sexually undifferentiated larvae float in the ocean searching for whale bones , and conserving energy until they find their next meal . some people have called this their “zombie state” . once a bone is found , contact with a whale bone triggers the larvae to differentiate into a female ( rouse , 2008 ) . this process is accompanied by an increase in the body mass and anchoring their body into the bone by boring holes to start building a colony on the bone . sexual differentiation takes energy , so this processes does not occur until the osedax has found a food source .
we thank eva vinx ( universität hamburg ) for aid with photography , bob vrijenhoek ( monterey bay aquarium and research institute ) for inviting g . w . r . on cruises to collect live osedax , and gerardo gonzález - barba ( universidad autónoma de baja california sur ) for identifying fossil shark teeth . we also thank bob vrijenhoek and two anonymous reviewers for their efforts to improve the manuscript .
after the osedax have built a colony and females are extracting nutrients from the bone , sexually undifferentiated larvae that land on a female will differentiate to become a male . the larvae enters the female’s tube lumen . researchers are unclear about how the males find the tube lumen , the molecular triggers that facilitate the development of male sexual characteristics , and the role that hormones released by females may play in this process . that researcher still don’t understand . there is a preference for larger females , and increased size of a female is correlated with more dwarf males in their tube lume . ( rouse , 2008 ) .
as it is an annelid , i am fond of osedax . but i am disappointed . and i ' m calling it : this is the first definively - not - a - parasite - of - the - day in a long unbroken record of parasites of the day . you can ' t be a parasite of a dead thing , lest we include hagfish , cookie sleeper sharks , and osteopelta limpets from whale - fall ; or even the myriad and sundry critters that feed on other dead animal carcases . as foul as all of this may be , still i cry
foul
on parasite of the day .
osedax borings in a tooth of a mysticete whale from the latest oligocene part of the lincoln creek formation , washington state , usa ( gzg . v . 20408 ; same specimen as in fig . 2a ) . a–d micro - ct scan images showing cross sections with cavities and their entry holes ; arrow indicating the entry hole to the boring visualized in figs . e and f . e , f micro - ct - based rendering of the trace fossils indicated in fig . d , bone material in gray , and borehole in yellow . e the complete trace fossil seen from the top ( nearly the same orientation as in a–d ) . f longitudinal cross section through the trace fossil
osedax borings in a fish bone from the presumably late oligocene part of the makah formation , washington state , usa ( gzg . v . 20407 ; same specimen as in fig . 4 ) . a–c micro - ct - based rendering of a trace fossil , bone material in transparent blue , flower - like borehole in yellow , showing a vertical cross section including the entry hole ( a ) , the jagged underside ( b ) and a top view with the circular entry hole on the bone’s surface ( c ) . d , e micro - ct images showing the same cross section as in a ( d ) and a cross section with two borings including their entry holes ( e )
the x - ray microcomputed tomography scans of the whale bone that contains the traces of osedax was done using the skyskan1172 system ( skyscan ) at the institut für geowissenschaften , christian - albrechts - universität , kiel , germany . the fossilized bone was scanned with a beam energy of 100 kv , a flux of 100 μa , and a 0 . 5 - mm - thick aluminum filter at a detector resolution of 8 . 7 μm / pixel using a 180° rotation with a step size of 0 . 6° . to study cavity morphology details , a second scan under identical beam conditions was performed , using a 360° rotation with a step size of 0 . 45° at a detector resolution of 8 . 0 μm .
cavity morphology in early oligocene rib fragment ( usnm 539939 ) . ( a ) reconstructed image of a ct scan through holes 1 and 3 in fig . 1 a and e . note destroyed trabecular bone just below the left borehole . ( b ) micro - ct–based rendering of a cavity in solid bone ; only a single borehole leads into it , and it is assumed to have been excavated by a single individual of osedax . note the difference between the long and thin vascular canals and the thicker and more irregularly shaped root lobes . ( c ) reconstructed image of a ct scan of the same cavity as in b ; the three small , elliptical holes in the upper half are vascular canals . ( d ) micro - ct–based rendering of another cavity in solid bone . b , borehole on bone ' s surface ; rl , root lobe ; sb , solid bone ; tb , trabecular bone ; vc , vascular canal of the bone .
read , g . ; fauchald , k . ( ed . ) ( 2018 ) . world polychaeta database .
rouse , worsaae , johnson , jones & vrijenhoek , 2008 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 588636 on 2018 - 07 - 09
is commonly known as the
bone worms
, although some endearingly call them
zombie worms
as well . these marine polychaete worms were discovered only in 2002 in the deepest parts of monterey bay , california . what were they doing ? if you guessed
parasitizing zombies
, you ' d be sadly wrong . you should put down your comic book and pick up
. if you guessed eating bones from dead whales , you ' d be correct ( you should continue reading also in case there are more gratifying questions to come ) . the animals were
rooted
( like tiny trees ) into the bones and a large
trunk
of the animal above the bone waving in the current .
so at this point you ' ve figured out that they ' re not a whale parasite because the whale is seriously ' belly - up ' at this point . so
is in fact a decomposer . but when rouse took a close look at these worms , he found that they appeared to have no guts whatsoever . so where were they getting their nutrients ? being an expert on marine polychaetes he knew that some deep sea worms had the ability to garner bacteria that derive nutrients from geochemical vents or seeps . as it turns out
was doing something very similar . inside the
roots
of the animal , which are inside the whale bone , the bacteria are helping to digest the yummy fats left by the whale .
you ' d need to turn off the television and pick up a book . if you guessed ,
living as a harem inside the body of the female
you ' d be correct ! rouse initially thought these microscopic
bags of sperm
were parasitic ( yeah ! ) inside the females , surviving on the nutrients she and her endosymbiont bacteria were producing . however , at closer examination they appear to actually be larvae that never develop feeding structures at all , just living off the yolk for the egg sac . never the less , they are able to provide sperm to fertilize the female ' s eggs !
ok , i know what you ' re thinking ,
its icky and it not even a parasite , why am i still reading ? ” because it ' s fascinating ! survival in a vast ocean where there are relatively few dead whales on which to live is a tricky thing ; reproduction is even trickier . the
dwarf males
can disperse over large distances , because the only part of the life cycle that isn ' t attached to a whale bone is the larva . rouse thinks that the sex is environmentally determined : if larvae land on a bone , they become a female , if they land on a female , they become male . if this species only relied on a male settling next to a female to breed , it would seriously diminish the gene pool .
is icky and but it ' s not a whale parasite , though the males are sort of parasites of the females . . . so it is completely fascinating !
has evolved surprising and strange means to eke out an existence at the bottom of the sea where few organisms ( even zombies ) fear to tread .
see also : rouse et al , 2008 . acquisition of dwarf male
harems
by recently settled females of
one more thing , the
males are sort - of parasites of the females
no more than are gestating offspring .
i ' m standing by this . not only is it a cool invert , but i think that these little males , living solely within and living off their mate ' s nutrients and protective body constitutes a parasite enough ( more sexual parasites are coming ) . and , besides , it ' s all about celebrating diversity , especially the fact that we ' re still discovering really wacky and interesting critters every day .
i don ' t check this blog for a few days and what do we have here ? there ' s certainly no shortage of whale parasites to warrant throwing in the famous
bone - eater
here . while i am somewhat disappointed by this , i suppose if one is to look for legal loopholes , you can always say it ' s about the symbionts that live in that worm ' s rootlets . . . even then they are technically mutualists . . . perhaps we can make a bonus double - parasite day in the future to make up for this - there is absolutely no shortage of fascinating * parasites * . . .
i still like this . it ' s not as though
parasite
is a monophyletic group , after all . and yes , tommy - many of the entries pack enough parasite in their punches ( how ' bout them p ' s ? ) to warrant highlighting a cool worm that can drill into bones and suck out the fat !
i just came across this site . great blog . parasites interest me . don ' t know why but either gross - out or evolution factor . another evolution - related interest is the deep sea so i thought i ' d point out on some female anglerfish what was thought to be a parasite was actually a male anglerfish . urltoken urltoken
no they don ' t - to be honest this was the only time on this blog when we featured a creature that wasn ' t actually a parasite ( see the debate above ) . these worms only colonise the bones of carcasses - and carcasses in the deep sea for that matter - so no , they won ' t be present in a human bones .
no tiago . please refer to the discussion above your comment - it ' s not even really a parasite - see the comment by mark siddall .
hint : you ' re just looking at the tip of the iceberg . . .
if you think you or your pets have a parasite , please seek the appropriate care you need from your own doctor or veterinarian .
why parasite of the day ? ( if it ' s not every day . . . )
the united nations declared 2010 the international year of biodiversity . in celebration of the enormous diversity of parasites and to highlight their importance , we created this blog , which showcased a species of parasite every day . now that 2010 is over , we will continue to add more parasites from time to time , and write about any newly published research on parasite species that we have posted about yet .
see this post from the start of 2011 where we discuss the sheer scale of parasite biodiversity , and this post from the end of 2011 pretty much summarizes the mission of this blog .
got parasites ? the american society of parasitologists is interested . we invite you to share with us your observations , ideas and questions about parasites . our members and the journal of parasitology represent a wide range of research interests including ecology , evolution , systematics , immunology , biochemistry and molecular biology . please post any aspect of parasitology you wish to share with us on our facebook group page . please go to our home page at
bush , albert , gerald esch and jacqueline fernandez . parasitism : the diversity and ecology of animal parasites . cambridge university press .
combes , claude . the art of being a parasite . university of chicago press .
desowitz , robert . new guinea tapeworms and jewish grandmothers . norton & company .
desowitz , robert . the malaria capers : tales of parasites and people . norton and compay .
moore , janice . parasites and the behavior of animals . oxford university press .
zuk , marlene . riddled with life : friendly worms , ladybug sex , and the parasites that make us who we are . mariner books
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an adult bonellia viridis female excretes the signaling hormone bonellin ( figure 1 ) to attract larvae ( malard , 2013 ) . bonellin is found only in females , and is also a biocide that kills prey that the worm eats . it’s most important role is to signal that a female is ready to mate . being in the presence of bonellin attracts the undifferentiated larvae to enter a hole in the female’s proboscis .
figure 1 . the chemical structure of bonellin , the signaling horomone that regulates the feeding and reproductive habits of bonellin .
once inside the proboscis , the larvae travels toward a tube filament in female’s uterus , which has been affectionately called the “little man room” . ( gauthier , 1983 )
the larvae experiences physiological changes to differentiates into a male like developing gonads that allow him to start producing sperm to fertilize the female’s eggs . more research is needed to understand the specific genes that are activated to allow the larvae to transition from an undifferentiated sex to a male . in exchange for fertilizing the female’s eggs , the male receives protection from predators and a steady food source by living inside the female .
figure 2 . the male bonellia viridis lives inside the tube lumen of the mature female .
edited by robert c . vrijenhoek , monterey bay aquarium research institute , moss landing , ca , and accepted by the editorial board march 19 , 2010 ( received for review february 22 , 2010 )
) , depending on the rate used , but these estimates have not yet been corroborated by fossil evidence .
) . the symbionts are housed mainly in tissue that forms a “root system” extending into the bone . the action of the roots and associated bacteria results in the destruction of the bone interior . the roots are connected to the main body of the worm that emerges from the bone via a circular hole on the bone surface (
in the geologic past . here we report oligocene whale bones that show such traces .
the scan to survey the rib fragment ( 326 transmission images ) was reconstructed in a 1 , 832 × 900 matrix of 2 , 029 slices with a resolution of 8 . 7 μm / voxel using the skyscan software nrecon running on a cluster of three networked pcs . the program uses a modified feldkamp algorithm . the segmentation of bone and boreholes was done with the skyscan software ct analyzer . before the subsequent generation of the 3d models by adaptive rendering , the data sets were downsized to one - third with an isotropic voxel resolution of 26 . 0 μm in a 610 × 300 matrix of 677 slices . visualization of the 3d models was done by the skyscan software ctvol . for the study of cavity morphology details , 800 transmission images were reconstructed in a 2 , 088 × 1 , 136 matrix of 1 , 998 slices . segmentation and rendering were done on volumes of interest with a resolution of 8 . 0 μm / voxel .
author contributions : s . k . designed research ; s . k . and j . l . g . performed research ; w . - a . k . and g . w . r . analyzed data ; and s . k . , j . l . g . , w . - a . k . , and g . w . r . wrote the paper .
this article is a pnas direct submission . r . c . v . is a guest editor invited by the editorial board .
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researchers used field data from 2012 to 2015 to study mortality and allele frequency changes in the sea star pisaster ochraceus during a mass mortality event in northcentral california , and found that surviving adult and juvenile sea stars experienced 81 % mortality and allele shifts , according to the authors .
a survey of more than 4 , 600 american adults conducted in 1995 - 1996 and in 2011 - 2014 suggests that among individuals of low socioeconomic status , negative affect increased significantly between the two survey waves , whereas life satisfaction and psychological well - being decreased .
a study of cognitive ability in norwegian males born from 1962 to 1991 suggests that environmental factors rather than changing genetic composition of families likely account for most of the change in norwegian population iq .
the mathematical tools behind recent gerrymandering cases have brought a modicum of precision into the political arena—but this rigor hasn’t always been enough to spur policy changes .
these chicas are freaky . but if you lived on a whale vertebrae and eat through bone , perhaps you’d be a little on the kinky side too , right ?
, the “bone - devouring” worm is weird . now , i know long time deep sea news readers will be a little used to us talking about odd critters in the ocean , maybe you’ve come to expect it and are no longer shocked . we have even
. but this is one critter that would infuse the pope with fear and disgust .
, complete with hooked chaetae ( see photo below ) while supplies last . what is really cool is that all whale bone - eating worms appear to have dwarf males .
“mature sperm gather anteriorly in the body of the male and a sperm duct runs into the head ( fig . 7c ) , where sperm presumably exit the body” .
yep , the dwarf males of the bone - eating worms jizz out of their heads . disgusting . its like puking up your sperm or impregnating your wife by spitting on her ovaries .
fig . 7b : “differential interference contrast micrograph of male , 172 μm showing three of the posterior hooks and an anterior ( putative ) prototroch . early spermatids or spermatogonia are visible anterior to later spermatids . ”
) males fruiting around inside of a female in what is akin to an internal bukkake - fest with the female enthralled in her detestable orgy , covered in the love ooze of her harem . in fact , rouse
. followed the worms through time and found that the larger , older ladies had a larger harem size . i wonder what the relationship between male size and female age is . are males smaller in younger , smaller females or is there no detectable difference in male size ( or sperm output / spermatozoa size ) across all size ranges / ages of females ?
“many … males fruiting around inside of a female in what is akin to an internal bukkake - fest with the female enthralled in her detestable orgy , covered in the love ooze of her harem . ”
“its like puking up your sperm or impregnating your wife by spitting on her ovaries . ”
oh my goodness ! i certainly was not expecting to run across that when i checked the scienceblogs this morning .
so the males live inside the female on top of everything else ? what is it with deep sea living and parasitic males ? so polyandrous , dead whale bone eating , parasitic males… . kinkiest species ever !
er…looking at the micrographs in the paper and roughing the dimensions , this one would be hard for a knitter to pull off keeping them roughly to scale with each other . since he’s such a tiny wimp comparatively… 1 / 60 to 1 / 80th of her size . either the female would be 6m long for a 2cm male or the male would be only a few knots for a 20cm female .
i can’t help with the knitting but i’d certainly add my $ 20 to kevin’s . please note kevin said “anatomically correct” which doesn’t necessarily mean to scale !
the views , opinions , and language of kevin zelnio do not reflect the views , opinions , and language of deep - sea news , its sponsors , … .
i throw in some money if somebody wants to make me one too . in reality i have always wanted a crouchet giant isopod . any takers ? where is ellie ( urltoken ) at ?
yes i’m serious . i’ll write you a check or via paypal , $ 20 to put the designs up on the web for anyone to use . we can put it up here at deep sea news if you don’t have a website or blog of your own . i want a female bone - devouring worm with dwarf male . dwarf male must have hooked chaetae and females must have all typical zombie worm appearances . i can envision maybe a flap you can turn that reveals the dwarf male attached to the female’s oviduct ? lol
not quite what you’re asking for . . . but here are a couple of marine animal knitters :
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are marine annelids with the ability to exploit bones on the seafloor for nutrition , presumably by living in symbiosis with collagenolytic bacteria ( rouse et al .
is able to exploit has been the matter of a controversial debate ( glover et al .
) because it has an important implications for its origin , diversification and dispersal . most
pointed to an eocene origin , coincident with the rise of whales ( rouse et al .
can colonize other substrates as well , including spermaceti , soft tissue and blubber of whales ( fujikura et al .
had to have the ability to consume substrates other than whale bones , at least early in its evolutionary history . here we document traces of
in fossil whale teeth and fish bones from oligocene deep - water sediments in western washington state , usa ( fig .
traces in oligocene whale and bird bones from this area ( kiel et al .
fossil locality map . a sekiu river ( uwbm loc . c1660 ) . b murdock creek ( lacmvp loc . 5412 ) . c knappton ( lacmvp loc . 4510 )
gzg : geoscience museum , university of göttingen , germany . lacm : natural history museum of los angeles county , invertebrate ( ip ) and vertebrate ( vp ) paleontology sections , los angeles , ca , usa . usnm : smithsonian natural history museum , washington , d . c . , usa . uwbm : university of washington , burke museum , seattle , wa , usa .
a jaw fragment including several teeth ( gzg . v . 20408 ) , possibly from a small , toothed mysticete whale , was collected in a concretion on the north shore of the columbia river , pacific county , washington state , usa , in the northern part of the bay between grays point and knappton , in the latest oligocene ( prothero et al .
) part of the lincoln creek formation . the locality is in section 9 , t9 n , r9 w , knappton quadrangle ( usgs ) , 7 . 5 min series , 1949 ( photo revised 1984 ) , pacific county , washington ; this is lacmvp locality 4510 . the sediments in this area were deposited in water depths between 300 and 900 m based on benthic foraminifera ; estimates based on mollusk and fish assemblages give slightly shallower depths ( moore
) . bones and teeth were etched from the concretion using dilute ( 5–10 % ) formic acid ; two teeth were used for micro - ct analysis .
further whale teeth are from a small , toothed mysticete ( usnm 539938 ) from the late early oligocene part of the pysht formation . we have previously reported
borings from a rib fragment and other bones of this specimen ( kiel et al .
) . it was collected on the beach terrace east of murdock creek in clallam county , washington state , usa ( lacmvp loc . 5412 and lacmip loc . 6295 ) , from deep - water sediments that are well - known for their vertebrate fossils , mostly whales ( goedert et al .
) , citing local and regional problems with the biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy , have shown it simply as oligocene .
another cetacean specimen ( uwbm 95841 ) in which the teeth show boreholes is from the late oligocene part of the makah formation , from the same area as the fish bones described herein ( uwbm loc . c1660 ) . it consists of a fragment of a nodule with a skull fragment and either a fragment of dentary or maxilla , or both , and at least six teeth . it is possibly part of a toothed mysticete , and the roots of two of the teeth show the same curve and posterior extension as the tooth from usnm 539938 in fig .
the x - ray micro - computed tomography scans of the fish bone fragment ( gzg . v . 20407 ) and the two whale teeth ( gzg . v . 20408 ) were done using the skyskan1172 system ( skyscan , belgium ) . the fossil fragments were scanned with a beam energy of 100 kv , a flux of 100 μa , and a copper–aluminum filter at a detector resolution of 7 . 45 μm per pixel using a 360 - degree rotation with a step size of 0 . 6 degrees . the scan to survey the specimen ( 600 transmission images ) was reconstructed in a 3 , 124 × 3 , 600 matrix of 3 , 408 slices with a resolution of 7 . 45 μm per voxel using the skyscan software nrecon running on an intel - based macintosh computer employing the multi - boot utility boot camp . the program nrecon uses a modified feldkamp algorithm . the segmentation of bone / tooth and boreholes was done with the skyscan software ct analyzer . for the study of cavity morphology details of the fish bone , a volume of interest in a 1 , 471 × 1 , 609 matrix of 1 , 851 slices was chosen . cavities inside the whale tooth were studied in a volume of interest in a 1 , 524 × 1 , 998 matrix of 2 , 801 slices . visualization of the 3d models was done by the skyscan software ctvol .
the jaw fragment from lacmvp loc . 4510 near knappton was heavily corroded before being fossilized ; the associated teeth have their crowns corroded away , and also the roots show strong traces of corrosion ( fig .
a , b ) . boreholes are mostly circular with sharp edges , have diameters up to 0 . 5 mm , although most are smaller , and are concentrated on the upper half of the teeth but are also present on the lower half . micro - ct scans show that the boreholes penetrate the teeth to a depth of about 0 . 5 mm or more before they start to broaden or to branch in various directions ; the maximum length of individual cavities is around 3 mm ( fig .
) . similar boreholes were seen on the surfaces of three teeth and two tooth roots from a toothed mysticete ( usnm 539938 ) from lacmvp loc . 5412 at murdock creek ( fig .
c , d ) . as in the sample from knappton , the borings are restricted to the upper half of the teeth , have sharp edges , two reach 0 . 5 mm in diameter , but most are smaller than 0 . 3 mm . a few such boreholes are also seen on the crown , typically in areas that also show traces of physical abrasion ( or wear ) , for example , at tips of the cusps of the teeth . bones , possibly part of a toothed mysticete ( uwbm 95841 ) from the late oligocene part of the makah formation ( uwbm loc . c1660 ) , were strongly corroded before being fossilized , and the teeth that are well exposed because of weathering ( additional preparation has not been done ) all show some borings . in two teeth that are exposed in cross section , the entire crown has been destroyed , with borings down into the root as well .
the preserved surface of the micro - ct scanned fish bone fragment shows 28 holes with a diameter > 0 . 1 mm and at least another 15 holes with an often considerably smaller diameter ( fig .
) . most holes are nearly circular and have sharp edges , and the micro - ct scans show that these boreholes lead through a short tunnel into cavities within the bone ( fig .
) . the cavities are of various shapes including shallow - radiating ( fig .
) , branching , or like clusters of grapes , and they are frequently , but not always , interconnected . the figured single cavity reaches a width of 6 . 5 mm and a depth of 2 mm .
in modern and fossil bones typically show a short tunnel leading from a circular hole in the surface of the bone into a cavity in the interior of the bone ( fujikura et al .
) ; this characteristic can also be seen in the traces documented here . while
often colonizes bones in such dense aggregations that their root systems form large cavities inhabited by many individuals , cavities with only a single borehole leading into them ( single cavities ) are thought to reflect the shape of the root system of an individual animal and are thus of particular diagnostic value ( kiel et al .
, bottom of their fig . 6b ) and to cavities documented from a pliocene whale in italy ( higgs et al .
borings . however , the shape of the root system can vary significantly within species and appears to be controlled mainly by differences in bone structure ( kiel et al .
) , makes rock - boring sponges the more likely candidate for these borings . although we did indeed find only interconnected cavities with multiple boreholes leading into them in the bird bones , this does not exclude
) . such high borehole densities are thus an invalid argument for reinterpretation of the borings seen in the oligocene bird bones as sponge borings . furthermore , mollusk shells collected at the same locality as the bored bird bones ( e . g . , squires and goedert
’ - type borings . it seems unlikely to us that rock - boring sponges would colonize bird bones but not the co - occurring mollusk shells .
, however , would certainly show such a behavior . therefore , we maintain our view that the boreholes in the oligocene bird bones were made by
species found at 1 , 000 m depth in monterey canyon colonized a turkey carcass deployed roughly 10 m from an existing whale - fall ( r . c . vrijenhoek , pers . comm . 2012 ) .
many of the whale teeth have their crowns corroded away . this may seem strange considering that they are made of hard enamel ( calcium phosphate with little organic matrix ) , whereas the root is covered by a thin layer of softer cementum ( maas
) and should therefore be easier to attack . however , the enamel is very thin on these teeth , and a specimen where the crown is corroded but not totally destroyed shows that the broken edges are straight or angular , but do not go through any of the few boreholes ( fig .
) . a similar scenario seems possible for the corroded teeth : boreholes are concentrated just underneath the crown , indicating that the teeth were attacked while still in situ . thus , if some predator had attacked the
specimens that had colonized the enclosing jaw bone , the thin crown could have been broken as ‘collateral damage . ’ the common scratch marks in this area ( fig .
was reported from the teeth of sperm whales ( suborder odontoceti ) that were sunk off the coast of japan ( fujiwara et al .
) after a mass stranding event . interestingly , in the vertebrate remains from the oligocene strata in western washington , we have so far not observed
borings in bones or teeth positively identified as being from odontoceti ( e . g . , barnes and goedert
, as well as those in bones from oligocene deep - water sediments in western washington previously reported by us ( kiel et al .
) , exhibit a wide variety of shapes , including radiating and flower - like , grape - like and irregular - branching , and they frequently merge to form large cavities with multiple entry holes . this diversity of shapes does not necessarily imply species diversity , but shows that the morphological diversity seen in the root systems of extant
) was already developed by the oligocene time . similarly diverse as the shape of the root system of
is the range of substrates that it was able to colonize by the oligocene : whale bones and teeth , and fish and bird bones . to summarize , fossil
, and from three different rock units with a stratigraphic age spanning most of the oligocene . this shows that
was well established in the northeastern pacific ocean by the oligocene time and supports the view of rouse et al . (
we thank gerhard hundertmark and thomas dinter ( göttingen ) for photography , bettina reichenbacher ( munich ) , giorgio carnevale ( torino ) and norbert micklich ( darmstadt ) for help identifying the fish remains , and shannon johnson and bob vrijenhoek ( moss landing ) for access to whale bones in their collection and for stimulating discussions . nick higgs ( london ) and andrzej kaim ( warsaw ) are thanked for their constructive reviews that helped to improve the manuscript . financial support was provided by the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft through grant ki802 / 6 - 1 to sk .
this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license which permits any use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author ( s ) and the source are credited .
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fujiwara , y . , m . kawato , t . yamamoto , t . yamanaka , w . sato - okoshi , c . noda , s . tsuchida , t . komai , s . s . cubelio , t . sasaki , k . jacobsen , k . kubokawa , k . fujikura , t . maruyama , y . furushima , k . okoshi , h . miyake , m . miyazaki , y . nogi , a . yatabe , and t . okutani . 2007 . three - year investigations into sperm whale - fall ecosystems in japan .
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protostrioconus is a synonym of conus ( gastridium ) modeer , 1793 represented as conus linnaeus , 1758 .

these are sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family conidae , the cone snails and their allies .

protostrioconus

this is the place for protostrioconus definition . you find here protostrioconus meaning , synonyms of protostrioconus and images for protostrioconus copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word protostrioconus . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word protostrioconus and , of course , protostrioconus synonyms and on the right images related to the word protostrioconus .
worms - world register of marine species - protostrioconus obscurus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 )
protostrioconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : protostrioconus obscurus
humphrey , g . ms
sowerby , g . b . i in sowerby , g . b . ii , 1833
( of protostrioconus obscurus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ) severns , m . ( 2011 ) . shells of the hawaiian islands - the sea shells . conchbooks , hackenheim . 564 pp . [ details ]
( of protostrioconus obscurus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ) tucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp . [ details ]
[ synonyms : rollus montfort , 1810 ; type species : conus geographus linnaeus , 1758 ; od . utriculus schumacher , 1817 ; type species : conus geographus linnaeus , 1758 ; m . tuliparia swainson , 1840 ; type species : coronaxis nebulosa swainson , 1840 [ synonym of conus tulipa ] ; m . protostrioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus obscurus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . ]
after more than 2 years of preparations , the diatombase portal is now officially launched . . . .
last week - on may 30 and 31st – 8 thematic experts on talitridae came together for the first time during a lifewatch - worms sponsored workshop . the workshop took place at the hellenic centre for marine research in crete , where it was organized back - to - back with the 8th international sandy beaches symposium ( isbs ) . the group focused on identifying relevant traits for the talitridae , and adding this data through the amphipoda species database . . . .
on 23 april 2018 , a number of editors of the world register of introduced species ( wrims ) started a three day workshop in the flanders marine institute ( vliz ) . these three days were used to evaluate , complete and improve the content of this worms thematic register ( tsd ) . . . .
the 2nd worms early career researchers and 3rd worms achievement award were granted respectively to françois le coze and geoff read . congratulations ! . . .
in 2018 , to celebrate a decade of worms ' existence , it was decided to compile a list of our top marine species , both for 2017 and for the previous decade . . . .
the scleractinian corals are now accessible though their own list portal . this world list contains over 1 500 accepted names of extant species and is one of the most complete existing resources for scleractinian taxa . . .
tucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp . [ details ]
severns , m . ( 2011 ) . shells of the hawaiian islands - the sea shells . conchbooks , hackenheim . 564 pp . [ details ]
worms - world register of marine species - conus obscurus g . b . sowerby i , 1833
conus ( gastridium ) obscurus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 · accepted , alternate representation
petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1–218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
filmer r . m . ( 2001 ) . a catalogue of nomenclature and taxonomy in the living conidae 1758 - 1998 . backhuys publishers , leiden . 388pp . [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of conus halitropus bartsch & rehder , 1943 ) filmer r . m . ( 2001 ) . a catalogue of nomenclature and taxonomy in the living conidae 1758 - 1998 . backhuys publishers , leiden . 388pp . [ details ]
( of conus halitropus bartsch & rehder , 1943 ) tucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2013 ) illustrated catalog of the living cone shells . 517 pp . wellington , florida : mdm publishing . [ details ]
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conus linnaeus , c . , 1758 type species : conus marmoreus linnaeus , c . , 1758
conus ( fusiconus ) motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : fusiconus longurionis kiener , l . c . , 1845
graphiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : graphiconus inscriptus inscriptus reeve , l . a . , 1843
magelliconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : magelliconus magellanicus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
cylinder montfort , p . d . de , 1810 type species : cylinder textile textile linnaeus , c . , 1758
gastridium modeer , 1793 type species : gastridium geographus linnaeus , c . , 1758
splinoconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : splinoconus biliosus röding , p . f . , 1798
leptoconus swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : leptoconus amadis amadis gmelin , j . f . , 1791
darioconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : darioconus omaria hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
nataliconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : nataliconus natalis sowerby , g . b . ii , 1858
calibanus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : calibanus furvus reeve , l . a . , 1843
phasmoconus mörch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : phasmoconus radiatus gmelin , j . f . , 1791
fulgiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : fulgiconus moluccensis moluccensis küster , h . c . , 1838
eugeniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : eugeniconus nobilis nobilis linnaeus , c . , 1758
pseudolilliconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : pseudolilliconus boschorum moolenbeek , r . g . & h . e . coomans , 1993
endemoconus iredale , t . , 1931 type species : endemoconus howelli iredale , t . , 1929
textilia swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : textilia bullata linnaeus , c . , 1758
pionoconus mörch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : pionoconus magus linnaeus , c . , 1758
chelyconus mörch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : chelyconus ermineus born , i . von , 1778
afonsoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2013 type species : afonsoconus kinoshitai kuroda , t . , 1956
malagasyconus monnier , e . & m . j . tenório , 2015 type species : malagasyconus lozeti richard , g . , 1980
puncticulis swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : conus arenatus röding , p . f . , 1798
asprella schaufuss , l . w . , 1869 type species : asprella sulcata hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
dauciconus cotton , b . c . , 1945 type species : dauciconus daucus daucus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
sandericonus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : sandericonus sanderi carioca ( var . ) petuch , e . j . , 1986
attenuiconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : attenuiconus attenuatus reeve , l . a . , 1844
lividoconus wils , e . , 1970 type species : lividoconus lividus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
harmoniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : harmoniconus musicus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
kioconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : kioconus recluzianus bernardi , m . , 1853
lithoconus mörch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : lithoconus leopardus röding , p . f . , 1798
miliariconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : virroconus miliaris miliaris hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
rhizoconus mörch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : rhizoconus miles linnaeus , c . , 1758
rhombiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : rhombiconus imperialis imperialis linnaeus , c . , 1758
stellaconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : stellaconus malacanus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
stephanoconus mörch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : stephanoconus regius gmelin , j . f . , 1791
strategoconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : strategoconus generalis linnaeus , c . , 1767
virgiconus cotton , b . c . , 1945 type species : virgiconus virgo linnaeus , c . , 1758
virroconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : virroconus ebraeus linnaeus , c . , 1758
vituliconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : vituliconus planorbis born , i . von , 1778
conasprelloides tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : conasprelloides cancellatus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
arubaconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : arubaconus hieroglyphus duclos , p . l . , 1833
bermudaconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : bermudaconus lightbourni petuch , e . j . , 1986
gladioconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : gladioconus gladiator broderip , w . j . , 1833
kellyconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : kellyconus patae abbott , r . t . , 1971
poremskiconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : poremskiconus archetypus archetypus crosse , h . , 1865
atlanticonus petuch , e . j . & d . m . sargent , 2012 type species : atlanticonus granulatus linnaeus , c . , 1758
floraconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : floraconus anemone anemone lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1810
gradiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : gradiconus gradatus wood , w . , 1828
lamniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : lamniconus clerii reeve , l . a . , 1844
seminoleconus petuch , e . j . , 2004 type species : seminoleconus violetae petuch , e . j . , 1988
brasiliconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : brasiliconus scopulorum mol , j . g . van , b . tursch & m . kempf , 1971
tenorioconus petuch , e . j . & m . drolshagen , 2011 type species : tenorioconus cedonulli cedonulli linnaeus , c . , 1767
ductoconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : ductoconus princeps linnaeus , c . , 1758
genuanoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : genuanoconus genuanus linnaeus , c . , 1758
calamiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : calamiconus lischkeanus lischkeanus weinkauff , h . c . , 1875
leporiconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : leporiconus glans hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
hermes montfort , p . d . de , 1810 type species : hermes nussatellus linnaeus , c . , 1758
turriconus shikama , t . & t . habe , 1968 type species : turriconus excelsus sowerby , g . b . iii , 1908
kurodaconus shikama , t . & t . habe , 1968 type species : kurodaconus stupa kuroda , t . , 1956
austroconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : austroconus cyanostoma adams , a . in adams , h . g . & a . adams , 1853
rolaniconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : rolaniconus varius linnaeus , c . , 1758
pseudonoduloconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : pseudonoduloconus carnalis sowerby , g . b . iii , 1879
monteiroconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : monteiroconus ambiguus reeve , l . a . , 1844
purpuriconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : purpuriconus cardinalis hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
dendroconus swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : dendroconus betulinus linnaeus , c . , 1758
africonus petuch , e . j . , 1975 type species : africonus cuneolus reeve , l . a . , 1843
trovaoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : trovaoconus venulatus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792
kalloconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : kalloconus pulcher pulcher [ lightfoot , j . ] , 1786
varioconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : varioconus bulbus reeve , l . a . , 1843
lautoconus monterosato , t . a . de m . di , 1923 type species : lautoconus ventricosus gmelin , j . f . , 1791
plicaustraconus moolenbeek , r . g . , 2008 type species : plicaustraconus advertex garrard , t . a . , 1961
sciteconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : sciteconus algoensis algoensis sowerby , g . b . i , 1834
eremiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : eremiconus minnamurra garrard , t . a . , 1961
lindaconus petuch , e . j . , 2002 type species : lindaconus lindae petuch , e . j . , 1987
pyruconus olsson , a . a . , 1967 type species : pyruconus patricius hinds , r . b . , 1843
tesselliconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : tesselliconus tessulatus tessulatus born , i . von , 1778
ximeniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : ximeniconus ximenes gray , j . e . , 1839
perplexiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : perplexiconus perplexus sowerby , g . b . ii , 1857
quasiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : quasiconus melvilli sowerby , g . b . iii , 1879
jaspidiconus petuch , e . j . , 2003 type species : jaspidiconus jaspideus gmelin , j . f . , 1791
globiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : globiconus tornatus
broderip , w . j .
sowerby , g . b . i in sowerby , g . b . ii , 1833
kohniconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : kohniconus emarginatus reeve , l . a . , 1844
profundiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : profundiconus profundorum kuroda , t . , 1956
yeddoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : yeddoconus sieboldii reeve , l . a . , 1848
dalliconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : dalliconus mcgintyi pilsbry , h . a . , 1955
lilliconus raybaudi massilia , g . , 1994 type species : lilliconus biraghii biraghii raybaudi massilia , g . , 1993
parviconus cotton , b . c . & f . k . godfrey , 1932 type species : parviconus rutilus menke , k . t . , 1843
pseudoconorbis tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : pseudoconorbis coromandelicus smith , e . a . , 1894
bathyconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : bathyconus orbignyi audouin , j . - v . , 1831
viminiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : viminiconus vimineus reeve , l . a . , 1849
fusiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : fusiconus longurionis kiener , l . c . , 1845
conasprella thiele , j . , 1929 type species : conasprella pagoda
chenu , j . c .
kiener , l . c . , 1847
californiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . tenório , 2009 type species : californiconus californicus
hinds , r . b .
reeve , l . a . , 1844
taranteconus azuma , m . , 1972 type species : taranteconus chiangi azuma , m . , 1972
kenyonia brazier , j . , 1896 type species : conus pulcherrimus brazier , j . , 1894
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n . puillandre , 1 t . f . duda , 2 c . meyer , 3 b . m . olivera , 4 and p . bouchet 5
correspondence : n . puillandre ; e - mail : rf . nhnm @ erdnalliup
copyright © the author 2014 . published by oxford university press on behalf of the malacological society of london , all rights reserved
after more than two centuries of naming and overnaming , the species - level systematics of cones is undergoing a reappraisal based , among others , on molecular characters , and this is leading to a more stable taxonomy . conversely , the supraspecific classification of the cone snails has in the last 20 years become more unstable than ever . a plethora of nominal ( sub ) genera reflect subtle differences in shell form and radular morphology , but these are obscuring phylogenetic relationships between terminal taxa . while toxinologists are longing for a predictive classification that can be used as a roadmap for bioprospecting ( olivera , 2006 ; puillandre & holford , 2010 ) , the two genus - level classifications of cones proposed in the last 25 years ( da motta , 1991 ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 , 2013 ) have remained ignored outside the world of cone - shell collectors .
recently published a phylogeny of the cone snails based on 330 species and sequences of three mitochondrial gene regions . in the present paper we utilized this molecular phylogeny as a foundation to establish a new genus - and subgenus - level classification of the conidae , with four genera (
) . we also tentatively allocate all cone snail species currently considered as valid in worms , but not represented in the molecular phylogeny , to genera and subgenera based on their morphological characters .
simplified version of the bayesian tree based on the concatenation of sequences of three mitochondrial gene regions ( coi , 16s , 12s ) and published by puillandre et al . ( 2014 : fig . 2 ) showing the proposed classification . genera and subgenera with multiple species are reduced to triangles , whose lengths are proportional to the branch lenghts . posterior probabilities ( > 0 . 95 ) are shown for each node . only ( sub ) genera with at least one sequenced representative are figured .
proposing a classification based on a phylogeny mainly consists of ( 1 ) identifying the groups that will be named ; ( 2 ) attributing available names and , if necessary , establishing new ones , for the groups identified in ( 1 ) ; and ( 3 ) ranking these names .
as far as possible , only well supported ( bootstrap probability > 90 % ; bayesian posterior probability > 0 . 95 ) clades ( and single - species lineages ) were linked to names . when several alternatives were possible ( e . g . one supported clade that includes two supported clades , both with available names attributable to them ) , other characters and properties , such as shell morphology , type of prey , bathymetric and / or geographical distribution , were considered in order to identify the most appropriate grouping to minimize within - group variability . overall , a conservative approach was adopted , to minimize the number of supraspecific taxa , both named and unnamed . in two cases ( pyruconus and cylinder ) we attributed a name to a group we recognized to be non - monophyletic ( although this non - monophyly is not supported ) , in order to avoid having to establish new names for many small clades . such polyphyletic , but morphologically consistent , genera may correspond to grades and in future each of the included clades may be shown to deserve its own name .
as far as possible , a genus - group name ( i . e . a genus or subgenus ) was applied based on the position of its type species in the tree . if the type species of a nominal genus or subgenus had not been sequenced , application of the name was determined by reference to the morphologically most similar species used in the molecular analysis . if more than one name was applicable for a clade , the valid name was determined by the rule of priority . in the classification below , od refers to the fixation of type species by original designation , sd by subsequent designation and m by monotypy ( as defined by iczn , 1999 : art . 68 , 69 , respectively ) .
all the 803 species of conidae listed as valid in worms ( 2014 ) were allocated to genera and subgenera , with two levels of confidence . those printed in bold font were placed in the classification based on the dna sequences of puillandre et al . ( 2014 ) . the others were classified based on their shell and / or radula characters , following tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) and , for species not included or considered as synonyms by tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) , following petuch ( 2013 ) or the advice of m . tenorio ( personal communication ) .
species sometimes referred to as ‘cone snails’ but allocated to artemidiconus ( conorbidae ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; bouchet et al . , 2011 ) , benthofascis ( conorbidae ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; bouchet et al . , 2011 ) , genota ( cryptoconidae in tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; or borsoniidae in bouchet et al . , 2011 ) and genotina ( cryptoconidae in tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; or mangeliidae in bouchet et al . , 2011 ) were excluded . within conorbidae , only benthofascis lozoueti has been sequenced and molecular analysis indicates that the family is separate from conidae ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) . however , b . lozoueti is the only conorbid species that does not resorb the inner shell walls ( tucker , tenorio & stahlschmidt , 2011 ) . it thus cannot be excluded that the other conorbidae species—which resorb them—may in fact not be confamilial . likewise , as indicated above , molecular data place genota in the borsoniidae ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) and this clade is not further discussed here . fossil taxa ( hemiconus cossmann , 1889 ; cryptoconus koenen , 1867 ; conorbis swainson , 1840 ; conilithes swainson , 1840 ; eoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 and plagioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) are not discussed either . consequently , only the conidae , conilithidae and taranteconidae ( sensu tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) are discussed below , i . e . the cone snails as defined by bouchet et al . ( 2011 ) .
[ synonyms : conilithidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . taranteconidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . puncticuliinae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . ]
remarks : conus californicus has always been considered a unique species within cone snails , because of its molecular ( including toxicological : biggs et al . , 2010 ; elliger et al . , 2011 ) and morphological singularities and also because of its diet , since it is able to prey indifferently on fish , molluscs and worms ( kohn , 1966 ) .
remarks : puillandre et al . ( 2014 ) did not sequence the type species of profundiconus ; their sequenced material was identified as p . aff . profundorum . however , tucker & tenorio ( 2009 , 2013 ) found profundiconus to be a morphologically well supported group and we are thus confident in applying this name to the clade containing p . aff . profundorum .
type species : conus pagoda kiener , 1847 ; sd , tucker & tenorio ( 2009 : 140 ) ( under iczn , 1999 : art . 70 . 3 . 2 ) .
[ synonym : duodenticonus tucker & tenorio 2013 ; type species : asprella memiae habe & kosuge , 1970 ; od ; n . syn . ]
remarks : the species c . kimioi was placed in the subgenus boucheticonus ( following tucker & tenorio 2013 ) , even if the corresponding clade was not highly supported .
henriquei ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : kermasprella powell , 1958 ; type species : conus raoulensis powell , 1958 ; od . yeddoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus sieboldii reeve , 1848 ; od ]
[ synonyms : bathyconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus orbignyi audouin , 1831 ; od ; n . syn . fumiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus traversianus e . a . smith , 1875 , od ; n . syn . viminiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus vimineus reeve , 1849 ; od ; n . syn . ]
elegans ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1895 ) n . comb .
arcuata ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) n . comb .
remarks : tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) included both conasprella delesserti and conasprella arcuata in kohniconus . in our analysis , the two species do not cluster together . the name kohniconus could have been applied to the lineage that includes the species c . delessertii , but because of the closer morphological resemblance of conus emarginatus with c . arcuata , we have applied kohniconus to the lineage that includes c . arcuata .
sagei ( korn & g . raybaudi massilia , 1993 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : globiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus tornatus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . jaspidiconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : conus jaspideus gmelin , 1791 ; od ; n . syn . perplexiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus perplexus g . b . sowerby ii , 1857 ; od ; n . syn . ]
arawak ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
baccata ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1877 ) n . comb .
berschaueri ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
ericmonnieri ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
herndli ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
ogum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
perplexa ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1857 ) n . comb .
poremskii ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
simonei ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
tornata ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : cucullus röding , 1798 ; type species : conus marmoreus linnaeus , 1758 ; sd , winckworth ( 1945 : 139 ) . coronaxis swainson , 1840 ; type species : conus bandanus hwass , 1792 ; m ]
type species : conus asper lamarck , 1810 , by typification of replaced name . asprella was established as a substitute name for cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( see below ) . conus asper was not among the 11 species included in asprella by schaufuss ( 1869 : 43–44 ) , and wenz ( 1940 ) cited conus sulcatus bruguière , 1792 ( a species originally included by schaufuss ) as the type species ; conus sulcatus and c . asper are subjective synonyms .
[ synonyms : cylindrella swainson , 1840 ; type species : conus asper lamarck , 1810 ; subjective synonym of conus sulcatus hwass , 1792 ; m . cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( conidae ) , is a homonym of cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( urocoptidae ) and has been placed on the official index of rejected and invalid names by iczn , 1999 : opinion 1030 . sulciconus bielz , 1869 ; type species ( here designated ) : conus sulcatus hwass in bruguière , 1792 , n . syn . the names asprella and sulciconus were both published in 1869 and their exact dates of publication are not known in order to establish priority . under iczn ( 1999 ) : art . 24 . 2 , we act here as first revisers and give precedence to the name asprella over sulciconus . ]
[ possible senior synonym : mamiconus cotton & godfrey , 1932 ; type species : conus superstes hedley , 1911 ; od . the identity of c . superstes is uncertain ; it is listed as a nomen dubium by tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) ]
[ synonym : thalassiconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus thalassiarchus g . b . sowerby i , 1834 , n . syn . ; od ]
type species : conus textile linnaeus , 1758 ; od . dubois & bour ( 2010 ) revived the name cylindrus as from batsch , 1789 and designated conus textile as its type species . this has the consequence of destabilizing the pulmonate genus name cylindrus fitzinger , 1833 , which is in current use . the iczn will be petitioned to maintain usage of cylinder montfort , 1810 , and cylindrus fitzinger , 1833 , in their accustomed sense . ]
remarks : tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) described two ‘body plans’ in their genus cylinder , citing conus textile and c . gloriamaris as examples of each group ; they may correspond to the two groups found in the molecular phylogeny . tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) relied on their similar radulae and diets to maintain them in a single genus : we have followed them and place all the species in a single subgenus . among the sequenced species , c . ammiralis , c . canonicus and c . dalli cluster with the type species c . textile ; the other species constitute a separate clade .
[ synonyms : regiconus iredale , 1930 ; type species : conus aulicus linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; the simultaneously published darioconus was given precedence over regiconus by first reviser kira ( 1954 : 75 ) . erythroconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus crocatus lamarck , 1810 ; od ]
remarks : the species c . thomae was placed in the subgenus darioconus ( following tucker & tenorio 2013 ) , even though the corresponding clade was not highly supported .
[ synonyms : gradiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus gradatus w . wood , 1828 ; od ; n . syn . ; magelliconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus magellanicus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ; purpuriconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus cardinalis hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ; cariboconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : conus amphiurgus dall , 1889 ; od ; conasprelloides tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus cancellatus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ; poremskiconus petuch , 2013 ; type species : conus ziczac mühlfeld , 1816 ; od ; n . syn . ; tuckericonus petuch 2013 ; type species : conus flavescens g . b . sowerby i , 1834 ; od ; n . syn . ]
honkerorum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
coltrorum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
remarks : the species c . medoci was placed in the subgenus dendroconus ( following tucker and tenorio 2013 ) , even if the corresponding clade was not highly supported
[ synonym : arubaconus petuch , 2013 ; type species : conus hieroglyphus duclos , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonym : ketyconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus tinianus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonyms : genuanoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus genuanus linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; n . syn . trovaoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus venulatus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonym : continuconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus plinthis richard & moolenbeek , 1988 ; od ; n . syn . ]
patriceae ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : africonus petuch , 1975 ; type species : conus cuneolus reeve , 1843 ; od ; n . syn . varioconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus variegatus kiener , 1848 od ; n . syn . ]
fiadeiroi ( tenorio , afonso , cunha & rolán , 2014 ) n . comb .
swinneni ( tenorio , afonso , cunha & rolán , 2014 ) n . comb .
[ synonym : nataliconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus natalis g . b . sowerby ii , 1858 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonym : calamiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus lischkeanus weinkauff , 1875 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonym : gladioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus gladiator broderip , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonyms : fulgiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus moluccensis küster , 1838 ; od ; n . syn . ; graphiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus inscriptus reeve , 1843 ; od ; n . syn . ; thoraconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus exiguus lamarck , 1810 ; od ; n . syn . nimboconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus nimbosus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonyms : heroconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus poehlianus g . b . sowerby iii , 1887 [ synonym of conus consors g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ] ; od . strioconus thiele , 1929 ; type species : conus striatus linnaeus , 1758 ; od . socioconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus consors g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ]
type species : conus carnalis g . b . sowerby iii , 1879 ; od
remarks : even though the two species are not in the same group in the molecular phylogeny , and to avoid the creation of a new subgeneric name , we have followed tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) , who placed c . fergusoni and c . patricius in the same genus , pyruconus ( here ranked as subgenus ) , based on radula and shell characters .
type species : conus melvilli g . b . sowerby iii , 1879 ; od
type species : conus algoensis g . b . sowerby i , 1834 ; od
[ synonyms : kioconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus recluzianus bernardi , 1853 ; od ; n . syn . ongoconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus voluminalis reeve , 1843 ; od ; precedence of splinoconus ( established at the rank of genus ) over simultaneously established kioconus and ongoconus ( established at the rank of subgenus ) determined by iczn ( 1999 ) art . 24 . 1 . stellaconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus malacanus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . isoconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus corallinus kiener , 1847 ; od ; n . syn . nitidoconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus boeticus reeve , 1844 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonyms : rhombus montfort , 1810 ( invalid ; junior homonym of rhombus walbaum , 1792 ) ; type species : conus imperialis linnaeus , 1758 ; od . cornutoconus suzuki , 1972 ; type species : cornutoconus lamellatus suzuki , 1972 ( = conus chiangi ( azuma , 1972 ) ) ; od . taranteconus azuma , 1972 ; type species : conus chiangi ( azuma , 1972 ) ; od ; n . syn . protoconus da motta , 1991 ( invalid ; junior homonym of protoconus yu , 1979 and protoconus stinchcomb , 1986 ) ; type species : conus cedonulli linnaeus , 1767 ; od . seminoleconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : † conus violetae petuch 1988 ( pliocene ) ; od . rhombiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus imperialis linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; n . syn . tenorioconus petuch & drohlshagen , 2011 ; type species : conus cedonulli linnaeus , 1767 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonyms : vituliconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus vitulinus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ( = conus planorbis born , 1778 ) ; od ; n . syn . rolaniconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus varius linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; n . syn . ]
type species : turriconus nakayasui shikama & habe , 1968 [ synonym of conus excelsus g . b . sowerby iii , 1908 ] ; od
[ synonyms : kurodaconus shikama & habe , 1968 ; type species : embrikena stupa kuroda , 1956 ; od ; n . syn . mitraconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus mitratus hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonym : pseudohermes tucker & tenorio 2013 ; type species : conus austroviola röckel & korn , 1992 ; od ; n . syn . ]
[ synonyms : dyraspis iredale , 1949 ; type species : conus dorreensis péron , 1807 ; od , n . syn . miliariconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus miliaris hwass in bruguière , 1792 ; od , n . syn . ]
the authors thank manuel j . tenorio for helpful comments . some of the specimens analysed by bmo for this work were obtained using grant support provided by the national institutes of health (
) . this work was partly supported by the conotax project , funded by the french ‘agence nationale de la recherche’ ( grant number anr - 13 - jsv7 - 0013 - 01 ) .
nominal genus - group names of recent conidae and their current status in the present classification .
avise j . c . , liu j . - x . on the temporal inconsistencies of linnean taxonomic ranks .
biggs j . s . , watkins m . , puillandre n . , ownby j . p . , lopez - vera e . , christensen s . , moreno k . j . , bernaldez j . , licea - navarro a . , showers corneli p . , olivera b . m . evolution of
castelin m . , lorion j . , brisset j . , cruaud c . , maestrati p . , utge j . , samadi s . speciation patterns in gastropods with long - lived larvae from deep - sea seamounts .
claremont m . , vermeij g . j . , williams s . t . , reid d . g . global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores .
cotton b . c . a catalogue of the cone snails ( conidae ) in the south australian museum .
de queiroz k . the general lineage concept of species , species criteria , and the process of speciation : a conceptual unification and terminological recommendations . in : howard d . j . , berlocher s . h . , editors .
dubois a . , bour r . the distinction between family - series and class - series nomina in zoological nomenclature , with emphasis on the nomina created by batsch ( 1788 , 1789 ) and on the higher nomenclature of turtles .
espiritu d . j . d . , watkins m . , dia - monje v . , cartier g . e . , cruz l . e . , olivera b . m . venomous cone snails : molecular phylogeny and the generation of toxin diversity .
jimenez e . c . , olivera b . m . , teichert r . w . αc - conotoxin prxa : a new family of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists .
kantor y . i . , puillandre n . evolution of the radular apparatus in conoidea ( gastropoda : neogastropoda ) as inferred from a molecular phylogeny .
kraus n . j . , showers corneli p . , watkins m . , bandyopadhyay p . k . , seger j . , olivera b . m . against expectation : a short sequence with high signal elucidates cone snail phylogeny .
kraus n . j . , watkins m . , bandyopadhyay p . k . , seger j . , olivera b . m . , showers corneli p . a very short , functionally constrained sequence diagnoses cone snails in several
puillandre n . , holford m . the terebridae and teretoxins : combining phylogeny and anatomy for concerted discovery of bioactive compounds .
samadi s . , barberousse a . the tree , the network , and the species .
wenz w . teil 1 : allgemeiner teil und prosobranchia . in : schindewolf o . h . , editor .
conus vidua
cuyoensis
( linnaeus , 1758 )
nice pattern
( 52 . 0mm )
a beautiful
variant
of conus marmoreus . grade : f3 / gem .
lindaconus spurius atlanticus clench , w . j . , 1942 . off key biscayne , florida . rick californiashells . • images are for condition of shell only – colors may vary depending on your monitor – i will describe any unusual color forms above .
darioconus leviteni elisae tucker , j . k . , m . j . tenorio & h . w . chaney , 2011 . kekaha , kauai , hi . rick californiashells .
textilia stercusmuscarum linnaeus , c . , 1758 . marau sound , guadalcanal , solomons . rick californiashells .
very nice double banded pattern , one dark and one light . neat shell . collected in the 90 ' s . location : mozombique , africa . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !
off moorea , french polynesia . rick californiashells . cylinder textile linnaeus , c . , 1758 . 61 . 30mm f .
the cypraea and conus collections are nearly complete ! i will include what data i have on each shell . i literally have 1000 ' s of shells .
darioconus episcopatus motta , a . j . da , 1982 . rick californiashells .
conus janus hwass , 1792
bright - orange
( 63 . 1mm )
conus litoglyphus : unusual hawaiian cone w / no mid banding @ 31 . 64mm !
this item is from my personal hawaiiana collection of exceptional hawaiian shells ! notes : lacking most of the mid body white pattern . from the mcdowall collection of kauai . good luck !
conus leviteni ( tucker , tenorio & chaney , 2011
swollen - variant !
( 38 . 3mm )
conus miles linnaeus , 1758
nice colors !
( 78 . 3mm )
rust , brown , white and black
colors . grade : f3 ( f ) .
conus muriculatus f . sugillatus ( reeve , 1844 )
variant
( 38 . 5mm )
a color variant
. grade : f3 ( f ) . size : 38 . 5mm .
the lipped is naturally filed by the sand from dredging and the tip is worn . shell has a naturally healed reef break / growth line on one side and one on the bottom . still a nice shell . this is the typical condition of this species .
conus ratus : mated pair from the e . r . cross coll @ 37 & 39mm !
notes : from the er cross collection of hawaii . found in 1970 ' s . mated pair from cross collection . this item is from my personal hawaiiana collection ( shells from the ellis r cross collection ) ! good luck !
notes : self - collected endemic . the one on the right is free .
conus lividus : hawaiian form @ 63 . 08mm - huge size rarely seen !
this item is from my personal hawaiiana collection of exceptional hawaiian shells ! notes : from 1974 off honolulu . huge size . good luck ! grade : fine / fine .
good luck ! grade : gem . notes : from my last asian trip . great pattern & size .
conus pohlianus : very rare white albino form @ 41 . 7mm - currently only one on ebay !
notes : from my last asian trip . has a few worn areas . good luck ! grade : fine .
conus thalassiarchus depriesteri ( wils , 1972 )
variant
( 37 . 5mm )
dark - coffee
tones . grade : f3 . size : 37 . 5mm .
good luck ! notes : from my last asian trip . lip was lightly smoothed . great size & pattern .
is a venomous species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the conidae family . like all species within the genus conus , these snails are predatory & venomous . they are capable of stinging humans , therefore , live ones should be handled carefully or not at all .
conus ferrugineus ( hwass , 1792 )
an exceptional representative !
( 44 . 4mm )
an exceptional representative !
. grade : f3 / gem . size : 44 . 4mm .
lindaconus spurius atlanticus clench , w . j . , 1942 . off marathon , florida keys . rick californiashells .
sciteconus algoensis simplex sowerby , g . b . ii , 1858 . rick californiashells . south africa .
very nice pink coloring and pattern . collected in the 80 ' s . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !
conus textile linnaeus , 1758
a classic collectable !
( 62 . 4mm )
a classic collectable !
. size : 62 . 4mm . grade : good .
jaspidiconus mindanus hwass , c . h . in bruguière , j . g . , 1792 . off pompano bech , florida . rick californiashells . dredged at 10 fathoms .
conus varius ( linnaeus , 1758 )
a classic collectable !
( 37 . 0mm )
gradiconus garciai motta , a . j . da , 1982 . north coast of honduras 1999 . rick californiashells . • images are for condition of shell only – colors may vary depending on your monitor – i will describe any unusual color forms above .
very nice dark orange coloring and pattern . shell is from my personal collection . collected in the 70 ' s . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !
golden cone conus betulinus shell seashell 3 . 25
82 mm see what you will get ! # 3
conus betulinus . 1 natural seashell for your collection . we do our best to pick out the best shells to send to you . each seashell and starfish is unique ! 1 golden cone . ©the shell hut 2018 . any duplication of the shell hut designs without written permission is prohibited .
conus pulicarius hwass , 1792
a hawaiian waters representative !
( 25 . 9mm )
grade : freak . ( from my personal collection ) . notes : from my last asian trip . good luck !
presented above
variant
from mozambique . grade : f3 ( f ) . size : 67 . 4mm .
species : c . inscriptus . conus inscriptus . dredged at 30 fathoms . kingdom : animalia . superfamily : conoidea . reeve , 1843 . clade : caenogastropoda .
nice color and pattern . what a cutie ! collected in the 80 ' s . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !
conus betulinus ( linne , 1758 ) : 68mm no specific collection information east africa . any major delays will be communicated . gem = perfect . no grading : poor quality as described ( beach worn , large holes , spire missing ) .
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conus is a genus of predatory sea snails , or cone snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family conidae . [ 1 ] prior to 2009 , cone snail species had all traditionally been grouped into the single genus conus . however , conus is now more precisely defined , and there are several other accepted genera of cone snails . for a list of the currently accepted genera , see conidae .
for a list of the currently accepted species within the genus conus , based on the information in the world register of marine species ( worms ) list , see : list of conus species .
species in the genus conus sensu stricto can be found in the tropical and subtropical seas of the world , at depths ranging from the sublittoral to 1 , 000 m . they are very variable in some of their characters , such as the tuberculation of the spire and body whorl , striae , colors and the pattern of coloring . many fossil species have been described ; they are extensively distributed , and first appear in cretaceous strata .
the thick shell of species in the genus conus sensu stricto , is obconic , with the whorls enrolled upon themselves . the spire is short , smooth or tuberculated . the narrow aperture is elongated with parallel margins parallel and is truncated at the base . the operculum is very small relative to the size of the shell . it is corneous , narrowly elongated , with an apical nucleus , and the impression of the muscular attachment varies from one - half to two - thirds of the inner surface . the outer lip shows a slight sutural sinus . [ 2 ]
as this list shows , many genera that were formerly recognized within the family conidae , have become subgenera of conus , and they can also be represented by that subgeneric name as an
alternate representation
.
g . w . tryon ( 1884 ) manual of conchology , structural and systematic , with illustrations of the species , vol . vi ; philadelphia , academy of natural sciences
röckel , d . , korn , w . & kohn , a . j . 1995 . manual of the living conidae . volume 1 : indo - pacific region . wiesbaden : hemmen 517 pp .
filmer r . m . ( 2001 ) . a catalogue of nomenclature and taxonomy in the living conidae 1758 - 1998 . backhuys publishers , leiden . 388pp .
tucker j . k . ( 2009 ) . recent cone species database . september 4 , 2009 edition
tucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp
puillandre n . , duda t . f . , meyer c . , olivera b . m . & bouchet p . ( 2015 ) . one , four or 100 genera ? a new classification of the cone snails . journal of molluscan studies . 81 : 1 - 23
kohn a . a . ( 1992 ) . chronological taxonomy of conus , 1758 - 1840 . smithsonian institution press , washington and london .
this page was last modified on 4 may 2016 , at 12 : 10 .
this article ' s content derived from wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ( see original source ) .