this species had long been considered to be a subspecies of the black-necked spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) , but morphological and genetic differences have led to its recognition as a separate species .

naja nigricincta

naja nigricincta is in the family elapidae and the genus naja . it has two subspecies , naja nigricincta woodi and naja nigricincta nigricincta . both naja nigricincta nigricincta and naja nigricincta woodi were thought to be subspecies of naja nigricollis . wüster et al . ( 2007 ) revealed that naja nigricollis is polyphyletic , so naja nigricincta was recognized as its own species , with two subspecies . naja nigricincta is most closely related to naja ashei and naja mossambica .
naja nigricollis belongs to the cobra genus naja under the family elapidae . it previously included two subspecies that have been moved to the species naja nigricincta - the zebra spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta nigricincta ) and the black spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta woodi ) .
naja nigricollis nigricincta bogert 1940 naja nigricollis var . fasciata bocage 1895 : 136 ( fide broadley 1974 ) naja nigricollis nigricinctus bogert 1940 naja mossambica nirgicincta — broadley 1968 naja nigricollis nigricincta — welch 1994 : 93 naja nigricollis nigricincta — auerbach 1987 : 199 naja nigricollis nigricincta — bauer et al . 1993 naja nigricincta — cimatti 2007 naja nigricincta — wüster et al . 2007 naja ( afronaja ) nigricincta — wallach et al . 2009 afronaja nigricincta — wallach et al . 2014 : 10 naja nigricincta — schleicher 2015 : 209 naja nigricincta woodi pringle 1955 naja nigra smith 1838 : 92 ( fide branch & bauer 2005 ) naja nigricollis woodi pringle 1955 naja mossambica woodi — broadley 1968 naja nigricollis woodi — broadley 1974 : 158 naja nigricollis woodi — welch 1994 : 93 naja nigricollis woodi — auerbach 1987 : 198 naja woodi — bauer & branch 2003 naja nigricincta woodi — wüster et al . 2007 naja nigricincta woodi — bates et al . 2014 : 405 naja nigricincta woodi — schleicher 2015 : 207
naja nigricincta is a species of spitting cobra in the genus naja belonging to the family elapidae .
the black - necked spitting cobra ' belongs to the cobra genus naja under the family elapidae . it previously included two subspecies that have been moved to the species naja nigricincta - the zebra spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta nigricincta ) and the black spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta woodi ) .
naja nigricollis previously included two subspecies - naja nigricollis nigricincta and naja nigricollis woodi . but genetic studies in 2007 by wolfgang wüster et al . have concluded that these subspecies should be treated under a separate species , naja nigricincta . [ 4 ]
cunningham , p . & van der waal , c . 2010 . naja nigricincta nigricincta ( bogert , 1940 ) diet . african herp news ( 51 ) : 9 - 11
naja nigricollis reinhardt 1843 : 369 naja nigricollis var . crawshayi günther 1893 naja nigricillis var . occidentalis bocage 1895 naja nigricollis — schmidt 1923 : 128 ( fide broadley 1968 ) naja nigricollis atriceps laurent 1955 : 135 naja nigricollis crawshayi — laurent 1956 : 298 naja nigricollis occidentalis — laurent 1973 naja nigricollis nigricollis — broadley & howell 1991 : 24 naja nigricollis nigricollis — welch 1994 : 93 naja crawshayi — broadley & cotterill 2004 naja nigricollis — chirio & ineich 2006 naja crawshayi — branch 2008 naja nigricollis — wallach et al . 2009 afronaja nigricollis — wallach et al . 2014 : 10 afronaja crawshayi — wallach et al . 2014 : 9 naja ( afronaja ) nigricollis — conradie et al . 2016 naja nigricollis — spawls et al . 2018 : 555
barts , mirko . 2014 . naja nigricincta nigricincta bogert , 1940 zebraschlange , namibia speikobra , western barred cobra , zebra cobra . sauria 36 ( 1 ) : 1 - 2 - get paper here
one easy way to distinguish the two species is by their geographic ranges . naja nigricollis has a much larger and slightly more northern range than that of naja nigricincta . naja nigricollis can be found all the way from southern mauritania across to somalia , down to mozambique and across to northern namibia . naja nigricincta is only found in namibia , angola , and south africa .
common names ( subsp . nigricincta ) western barred spitting cobra , zebra spitting cobra
venomous ! boycott & haacke ( 1979 ) noted intergradation between nigricincta and woodi in southern namibia .
naja nigricincta can grow to lengths of up to 1 . 5 meters ( 4 . 9 feet ) . they are short compared to many other species of cobra .
naja nigricollis reinhardt , 1843 at the reptile database . accessed 10 may 2012 .
naja nigricincta is an african species , found in the southwestern tip of the continent . it is known to exist in namibia , south africa , and angola , especially in northern namibia and southwestern angola .
naja nigricincta is a venomous spitting cobra found in southwestern africa . it was originally thought to be a subspecies of naja nigricollis , but recent morphological data has shown that it is a separate species . for this reason , not a lot of information is known that is specific to this particular species .
naja nigricincta will raise the anterior portion of its body and flatten its head and neck to form a hood when threatened . if further provoked it will
spit
or squirt venom into the eyes of its attacker .
naja nigricollis ( tsn 700633 ) at integrated taxonomic information system . accessed 10 may 2012 .
naja nigricincta feeds primarily on rodents . it will defend itself if threatened by spitting venom in its enemy ' s eyes . there are accounts each year of humans being bitten by this snake , but with only about a 5 - 10 % fatality rate .
n . ashei , n . katiensis , n . mossambica , n . nigricincta , n . nigricollis , n . nubiae and n . pallida : spitting cobras , speikobras
abraham , g . 1981 . interessante jugendfärbung bei naja nigricollis . sauria 3 ( 2 ) : 21 - 21 - get paper here
naja nigricincta has an unusual venom compared to other elapids . while it retains the neurotoxic properties found in most elapid venom , it is made up primarily of cytotoxins ( fry et al . 2003 ) . the combination of these toxins can cause massive hemorrhaging , necrosis around the bite wound , and paralysis of the diaphragm in bite victims .
naja nigricincta is a member of the family elapidae . it is a venomous cobra . like other elapids , it injects venom into its prey with short front fangs . it is a spitting cobra , and can spit venom at its enemies . it uses a venom that is primarily cytotoxic , but still retains neurotoxic properties found in most elapid venoms .
naja nigricincta is an oviparous venomous spitting cobra with dark brown to black body and zebra - like vertical whitish or light yellow stripes along the dorsal side . these stripes are generally evenly spaced and can be complete or fragmented . the ventral scales range from white to orange in color . in juvenile snakes the overall coloration is lighter than in the adults ,
kraits cobras sea snakes and relatives : elapidae - black - necked spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) : species accounts . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
abriol , sabrina . spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) . herpetology - dr . dever . university of san francisco , california . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
broadley , d . g . 1958 . the races of naja nigricollis occurring in rhodesia . j . herp . assoc . rhodesia 2 : 5–6 - get paper here
pringle , ja . 1955 . a new species of the spitting cobra naja nigricollis reinhardt from the cape province . ann . natal mus . 13 : 253 - 254 .
solid black , or grey body with black hood and head , in some cases it is outwardly identical to naja nigricollis and can only be distinguished by size and range .
hughes , d . f . , et al . 2017 . geographic distribution : naja nigricollis ( black - necked spitting cobra ) . herpetological review 48 ( 2 ) : 392
pringle , j ( 1955 ) .
a new subspecies of the spitting cobra naja nigricollis from the cape province
13 ( 2 ) . natal museum . pp . 253–254 .
naja nigricincta can also spit or squirt this venom at enemies . it has specialized hollow fangs that allow it to spit its venom perpendicular to the axis of the fang . the snakes are able to determine where the face and eyes of its attacker are , and can hit their targets with surprising accuracy , making it very dangerous . venom in the eyes can cause temporary or permanent blindness . venom on the skin can cause mild to severe irritation .
naja nigricollis - general details , taxonomy and biology , venom , clinical effects , treatment , first aid , antivenoms . wch clinical toxinology resource . university of adelaide . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
broadley , d . g . 1968 . a review of the african cobras of the genus naja ( serpentes : elapinae ) . arnoldia ( rhodesia ) ( ser . 3 ) 29 : 1 - 14
broadley , d . g . 1974 . a review of the cobras of the naja nigricollis complex in southwestern africa ( serpentes : elapidae ) . cimbebasia ( ser . a ) 2 : 155 - 162 .
hoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the true cobras ; species formerly referred to the genera naja , boulengerina and paranaja . australasian j . herpetol . 7 : 1 - 15 - get paper here
haagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . 1993 . geographical distribution - naja nigricollis woodi . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 42 ) : 43 - 43 - get paper here
wallach , v . ; wüster , w . & broadley , d . g . 2009 . in praise of subgenera : taxonomic status of cobras of the genus naja laurenti ( serpentes : elapidae ) . zootaxa 2236 : 26–36 - get paper here
wüster , w . & broadley , d . g . 2007 . get an eyeful of this : a new species of giant spitting cobra from eastern and north - eastern africa ( squamata : serpentes : elapidae : naja ) . zootaxa 1532 : 51–68 - get paper here
fryklund , linda ; eaker , david ( july 1975 ) .
complete covalent structure of a cardiotoxin from the venom of naja nigricollis ( african black - necked spitting cobra )
. biochemistry 14 ( 13 ) : 2865–2871 . pmid 1148181 . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
all animals pictured on this page are in our collection , and owned by us . the photos were taken by us , unless otherwise labeled . we are still looking specimens of naja philippinensis , and extra specimens of species we already have . if you have something for sale , please contact us , at the link above .
boycott , r . c . , and w . d . haacke 1979 . note on the type - locality , distribution and juvenile coloration of naja nigricollis woodi ( serpentes : elapidae ) and an account of the colour - pattern variation in intergrade populations . annals of the cape provincial museum ( nat . hist . ) 13 : 31 - 36
wüster , wolfgang ; steven crookes , ivan ineich , youssouph mané , catharine e . pook , jean - francois trape , donald g . broadley 2007 . the phylogeny of cobras inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences : evolution of venom spitting and the phylogeography of the african spitting cobras ( serpentes : elapidae : naja nigricollis complex ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 45 : 437–453 - get paper here
n . ashei , n . nigricollis , n . nigricincta , n . mossambica , n . katiensis , n . nubiae and n . pallida can
spit
venom a distance of over 2 m . through pressure on the venom glands , the venom is ejected through the fangs . unlike the fangs of ordinary cobras , these snakes have fangs in which the venom channel is forward - facing in the final section leading to the orifice through which the venom is released . the ejected venom spreads out as a fine spray , and thus has a fairly good chance of reaching the sensitive eyes of the victim .
wüster , w . , s . crookes , i . ineich , y . mane , c . e . pook , j . - f . trape & d . g . broadley ( 2007 )
the phylogeny of cobras inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences : evolution of venom spitting and the phylogeography of the african spitting cobras ( serpentes : elapidae : naja nigricollis complex )
. molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 45 : 437 - 453 .
unlike other snakes , naja nigricollis can be either nocturnal or diurnal depending on the time of year , geographic location , and average daytime temperature . this adaptability allows the snake to better regulate its body temperature and to gain access to the most abundant food sources of a particular area . it feeds primarily on small rodents , such as small rats and mice , birds , and fishes , but will also eat lizards , eggs , and other snakes . [ 13 ]
the range of naja nigricollis is currently expanding from the southeastern regions of nigeria to the more desert and arid conditions in the central part of the nation . [ 9 ] they also live in coastal scrubs and dry grasslands . like other cobra species , they may find abandoned termite mounds or rodent holes to hide or cool off . however , tree trunks seem to be their favourite hiding places . they are excellent tree climbers , thus can be arboreal at times . because they are so common across africa , they are encountered in villages or small towns where they may come in direct contact with people . [ 9 ]
n namibia , sw angola ; type locality : munhino , s . w . angola .
woodi : republic of south africa , w lesotho , s namibia , s botswana ; type locality : citrusdal , cape province .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
auerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .
bates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .
bauer , aaron m . ; branch , william r . & haacke , wulf d . 1993 . the herpetofauna of the kamanjab area and adjacent damaraland , namibia . madoqua ( windhoek ) 18 ( 2 ) : 117 - 145 .
bogert , c . m . 1940 . herpetological results of the vernay angola expedition . i . snakes , including an arrangement of the african colubridae . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 77 : 1 - 107
branch , william r . 1993 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . cape town : struik publishers , 144 s .
branch , william r . & bauer , aaron m . 2005 . the herpetological contributions of sir andrew smith . ssar , 80 pp .
cimatti , e . 2007 . namibia - introduction to a vast territory . reptilia ( gb ) ( 50 ) : 58 - 67 - get paper here
dobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here
herrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94–115 - get paper here
schleicher , alfred 2015 . reptilien namibias . namibia scientific society , 276 pp .
smith , a . 1838 . contributions to the natural history of southern africa . art . viii . mag . nat . hist . , london , 2 ( 14 ) : 92 - 94
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
in juvenile snakes , the overall coloration of the snake is lighter than that of the adult morph . juveniles are predominantly white , gray , or yellow with light gray to black bars . as they age , the darker coloration fills in . the hoods and heads of juveniles are distinctly different from those of adults . the heads and hoods of juveniles are not uniform in color like their adult morphs . juveniles have a patch of very dark coloration on their throats , similar to that of the hoods of adults , but this coloration only exists on the ventral side of the neck and hood . this dark patch is separated from the head by a region of white , yellow , or gray scales . while the heads of juveniles are still darker in coloration compared to the rest of their body , they are still only light brown or gray in color . the head does , however , maintain a distinctly darker color than the rest of the body , aside from the very dark throat patch . as the snakes age , the gray , white or yellow region that separates the throat patch from the head will become darker , and the head and throat patch will become more uniform in color to produce the very dark hoods seen in adults .
continent : africa distribution : n namibia , sw angola ; type locality : munhino , s . w . angola . woodi : republic of south africa , w lesotho , s namibia , s botswana ; type locality : citrusdal , cape province .
) , but morphological and genetic differences have led to its recognition as a separate species .
, is given its name because of the dark crossbars that run the length of the snake ' s body . the subspecies
, is solid black and is found only in the desert areas of southern africa . both subspecies are smaller than
; with average adult lengths of less than 1 . 5 metres ( 4 . 9 ft ) .
these snakes can flatten head and neck into a hood , similarly to many species of cobra . the heads and hoods are uniformly dark brown or black .
can cause massive hemorrhaging , necrosis and paralysis in bite victims . these snakes can also spit its venom , hitting their enemies with great accuracy and causing temporary or permanent blindness .
this species is native to parts of southern africa ( namibia , southern angola and south africa ) .
bogert , cm ( 1940 ) .
herptologie d ' angola et du congo
. lisbon : impromerie nationale .
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the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
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physical characteristics : the black - necked spitting cobra may be solid black or brown , or it may be striped with black and white . it has two sharp , thin fangs that it uses to spray its venom . these snakes can reach a length of 79 inches ( 2 meters ) .
geographic range : this snake lives in western , central , and southern africa .
habitat : the black - necked spitting cobra usually lives in grasslands , but it sometimes enters villages and cities , where it can cause quite an uproar among human residents , who worry about being poisoned with its venom .
although it spends much of its time on the ground , the black - necked spitting cobra can easily climb into bushes and trees . ( illustration by dan erickson . reproduced by permission . )
diet : the black - necked spitting cobra eats almost anything it finds , including frogs and toads , birds and their eggs , and other reptiles .
behavior and reproduction : although it spends much of its time on the ground , this cobra can easily climb into bushes and trees . it is most active at night , but it sometimes moves about during the day . females lay eight to twenty eggs at a time .
black - necked spitting cobras and people : local people fear this snake , which can spray venom almost 10 feet ( 3 meters ) . the snake aims for the eyes , and the venom can be very painful and can even cause blindness if the person is not treated immediately . a bite from the snake can kill a person .
conservation status : the black - necked spitting cobra is not endangered or threatened . ∎
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general shape medium to large , slightly depressed , tapered and moderately slender bodied snake with a medium length tail . body compressed dorsoventrally and sub - cylindrical posteriorly . has long cervical ribs capable of expansion to form a hood when threatened . can grow to a maximum of about 1 . 5 metres . head broad , flattened and slightly distinct from neck . canthus is distinct . snout is rounded . dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique . eyes medium in size with round pupils . dorsal scale count often 23 - 21 - 15 .
habits spitting cobra . nocturnal , although juveniles often forage during the day . if confronted , it will raise its forebody , spread its hood and readily spit ( squirts ) venom at the eyes of an intruder or aggressor . seldom bites .
prey feeds on a wide variety of small vertebrates , with lizards and rodents being the most common prey .
general : other these snakes can spit their venom , causing venom spit ophthalmia .
description : first aid for bites by elapid snakes which are likely to cause significant local damage at the bite site as their major clinical effect ( see listing in comments section ) . this includes venom spat into eyes by spitting cobras .
treatment summary potentially severe bites , with both local tissue damage and paralysis . admit all cases . support impaired respiration . good wound care essential . avoid unnecessary surgery . for cases with paralytic features or major local effects , iv antivenom is appropriate .
general approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .
antivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .
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light or dark brown to black , with vertical white or light yellow bars . the bars have flecks of brown or black and are generally evenly spaced along the length of the snake . the bars can either be straight and complete across the entire dorsal side of the snake , or they can be broken up into fragments , sometimes ending in an upside - down
y
formation . this barred pattern can sometimes carry over to the ventral side of the snake . the ventral scales range from white to orange in color , and are often colored with patches of brown .
juveniles are predominantly white , gray , or yellow with light gray to black bars .
. most easily distinguished by virtue of having lower ventral and sub caudal scale counts , particular when sex is taken into account .
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the bite of most elapids is not painful . you can be bitten and envenomated without noticing it .
? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )
. they are moderately sized snakes that can grow to a length of 1 . 2 to 2 . 2 m ( 3 . 9 to 7 . 2 ft ) in length . their coloration and markings can vary considerably . they prey primarily on small
5–10 % , in endemic regions under 1 % ) . like other spitting cobras , they can eject venom from their fangs when threatened ( one drop over 7 metres ( 23 ft ) and more in perfect accuracy ) . the
venom irritates the skin , causing blisters and inflammation , and can cause permanent blindness if the venom makes contact with the eyes and is not washed off .
. it is absent from the rainforests of the congo basin . it has been recorded from
, niger , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , gambia , mauritania , sudan , tanzania , somalia , togo , uganda , zambia .
in moist savanna and cleared former forest regions , particularly near rivers and streams .
occurs in southeastern nigeria where their habitat has been transformed from rainforest to man - made farmlands , plantations , suburban areas , and a few fragmented forests . this species of cobra has found advantages in the drastic changes which have taken place in nigeria ' s rainforests . a study by herpetologist luca luiselli suggests this snake now forages in much drier microhabitats .
like other snakes , it may fall prey to raptors , especially different species of snake eagles that migrate to africa when it is winter in the northern hemisphere . the short - toed snake eagle ( circaetus gallicus ) may be a particular threat , as it is almost strictly an ophiophagus raptor . [ 14 ] other snakes also prey on this species . [ 15 ]
at a potential threat . the venom is an irritant to the skin and eyes . if it enters the eyes , symptoms include extreme burning pain , loss of coordination , partial loss of vision , and permanent blindness .
is known for its tendency to liberally spit venom and bite with only the slightest provocation .
this species is sometimes found in captivity , and wild - caught individuals are generally nervous and prone to spitting . captive - bred animals tend to be much more docile and calm when compared to their wild - caught counterparts . [ 7 ]
like other cobra species , this snake is oviparous . [ 16 ] the mating season of this species can vary from the end of winter ( september ) to the beginning of summer ( december ) . usually , the mating season is the same whether in captivity or in the wild . females will commonly lay 10 to 15 eggs but can lay anywhere between eight and 22 eggs at a time . [ 15 ] the gestation period lasts about 90–100 days , but once the eggs are laid , they hatch in 60–70 days , and need to be in a temperature of 28–30 °c ( 82–86 °f ) . at birth , the young are about 20 to 25 centimeters ( 7 . 9 to 9 . 8 in ) in length and are completely independent .
around the bite area and difficulty breathing . although the mortality rate in untreated cases is low ( ~
. the average venom yield per bite of this species is 200 to 350 mg ( dry weight ) according to minton ( 1974 ) .
; andreas johann wagner ; franz hermann troschel ; wilhelm ferdinand erichson ; carl ernst siebold ( 1847 ) .
herpetology
. in george busk , alfred tulk , alexander henry haliday .
luiselli , luca ( 2001 ) .
the ghost of a recent invasion in the reduced feeding rates of spitting cobras during the dry season in a rainforest region of tropical africa
.
. new york , usa : sterling ; illustrated edition . p . 176 .
. leipzig ; english version ny , usa : leipzig publishing ; english version published by exeter books ( 1982 ) . p . 71 .
chaim - matyas , adina ; ovadia , michael ( 20 april 1987 ) .
cytotoxic activity of various snake venoms on melanoma , b16f10 and chondrosarcoma
.
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the species is very common and is widespread throughout sub - saharan africa and is found in western , eastern , central , and southern africa . it can be found all along eastern africa south of the sahara desert in kenya , uganda , tanzania , rwanda , and southern somalia . it is found in nigeria , liberia , senegal , and benin in western africa . it is common in zambia , central african republic , angola , and cameroon in central africa . in southern africa , it is found in the northern parts of zimbabwe , botswana , namibia and mozambique . [ 5 ]
unlike other snakes , the black - necked spitting cobra can be either nocturnal or diurnal depending on the time of year , geographic location , and average daytime temperature . this adaptability allows the snake to better regulate its body temperature and to gain access to the most abundant food sources of a particular area . it feeds primarily on small rodents , such as small rats and mice , but will eat lizards , eggs and other snakes . [ 10 ]
like other snakes , it may fall prey to different birds of prey , especially different species of snake eagles which migrate to africa when it is winter in the northern hemisphere . the short - toed snake eagle ( circaetus gallicus ) may be a particular threat , as it is almost strictly an ophiophagus raptor . [ 11 ] other snakes also prey on this species . [ 12 ]
like other spitting cobras , this species is known for its ability to project venom at a potential threat . the venom is an irritant to the skin and eyes . if it enters the eyes , symptoms include extreme burning pain , loss of coordination , partial loss of vision and permanent blindness . this species is known for its tendency to liberally spit venom with only the slightest provocation . however , this aggressiveness is counterbalanced by it being less prone to bite than other related species . [ 8 ] [ 10 ]
this species is sometimes found in captivity , and wild - caught individuals are generally nervous and prone to spitting . captive - bred animals tend to be much more docile and calm when compared to their wild - caught counterparts . [ 5 ]
like other cobra species , this snake is oviparous . [ 13 ] the mating season of this species can vary from the end of winter ( september ) to the beginning of summer ( december ) . usually , the mating season is the same whether in captivity or in the wild . females will usually lay 10 to 15 eggs , but they can lay anywhere between eight and 22 eggs at a time . [ 12 ] the gestation period lasts about 90–100 days , but once the eggs are laid , they hatch in 60–70 days , and need to be in a temperature of 28 - 30°c ( 82 . 4 - 86°f ) . at birth , the young are about 20 to 25 cm ( 7 . 9 to 9 . 8 in ) in length and are completely independent .
; andreas johann wagner , franz hermann troschel , wilhelm ferdinand erichson , carl ernst siebold ( 1847 ) . “herpetology” ,
mastenbroek , richard . black - neck spitting cobra . devenomized . www . devenomized . com . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
luiselli , luca ( 2001 ) .
the ghost of a recent invasion in the reduced feeding rates of spitting cobras during the dry season in a rainforest region of tropical africa
. acta oecologica 22 ( 5 ) : 311–314 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s1146 - 609x ( 01 ) 01113 - 4 . research blogging .
. leipzig ; english version ny , usa : leipzig publishing ; english version published by exeter books ( 1982 ) , 71 .
chaim - matyas , adina ; ovadia , michael ( 20 ) .
cytotoxic activity of various snake venoms on melanoma , b16f10 and chondrosarcoma
. life sciences 40 ( 16 ) : 1601–1607 . pmid 3561167 .
warrell , david a . . snake bite . seminar . lancet 2010 ( volume 375 , issue 1 ) . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
fry , dr . bryan grieg . ld50 for various snakes . australian venom and toxin database . venom doc . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .
cz is free . all written content is available under the creative commons - attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license or any later . written content that originated in part from wikipedia is also available under gnu free documentation license 1 . 2 . dedicated server hosting generously provided by steadfast networks help • financial report • statistics • blog follow citizendium on twitter • facebook • google +
nigricollis : savannas from senegal east to kenya and south to angola , zambia , and tanzania ; type locality : guinea = coast of ghana .
barnett , linda k . 2001 . the herpetofauna of abuko nature reserve , the gambia . herpetological bulletin ( 77 ) : 5 - 1 - get paper here
barnett , linda k . & emms , craig 2005 . common reptiles of the gambia . rare repro , hailsham , east sussex , 24 pp .
bauer , a . m . , and branch , w . r . 2003 . the herpetofauna of the richtersveld national park , northern cape province , republic of south africa . herpetological natural history 8 : 111 - 160 [ 2001 ]
bocage , j . v . du b . 1866 . lista dos reptis das possessões portuguezas d ' africa occidental que existem no museu lisboa . jorn . sci . math . phys . nat . lisboa 1 : 37 - 56
böhme , wolfgang , mark - oliver rödel , christian brede & philipp wagner 2011 . the reptiles ( testudines , squamata , crocodylia ) of the forested southeast of the republic guinea ( guinée forestière ) , with a country - wide checklist . bonn zoological bulletin 60 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 - get paper here
boulenger , g . a . 1895 . on the reptiles and batrachians obtained by mr . e . lort - phillips in somaliland . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 16 : 165 - 169 - get paper here
branch , w . r . 2008 . proposed kalukundi mine ( democratic republic of the congo ) - terrestrial fauna . environmental impact assessment report ( final report ) . a specialist report for envirolution consulting ( pty ) ltd . , 83 pp .
broadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1—70
broadley , d . g . 1991 . the herpetofauna of northern mwinilunga distr . , northw . zambia . arnoldia zimbabwe 9 ( 37 ) : 519 - 538
broadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]
broadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here
chifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .
chirio , l . 2009 . inventaire des reptiles de la région de la réserve de biosphère transfrontalière du w ( niger / bénin / burkina faso : afrique de l’ouest ) . [ herpetological survey of the w transfrontier biosphere reserve area ( niger / benin / burkina faso : west africa ] . bull . soc . herp . france ( 132 ) : 13 - 41 - get paper here
chirio , l . & lebreton , m . 2007 . atlas des reptiles du cameroun . mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .
chirio , laurent and ivan ineich 2006 . biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 . - get paper here
conradie w , bills r , and branch wr . 2016 . the herpetofauna of the cubango , cuito , and lower cuando river catchments of south - eastern angola . amphibian & reptile conservation 10 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 6–36 - get paper here
haagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 – 25
herrmann , hans - werner ; schmitz , andreas ; herrmann , patricia a . & böhme , wolfgang 2007 . amphibians and reptiles of the tchabal mbabo mountains , adamaoua plateau , cameroon . bonner zoologische beiträge 55 ( 1 / 2 ) : 27 - 35 - get paper here
hoser , r . t . 2013 . case 3601 spracklandus hoser , 2009 ( reptilia , serpentes , elapidae ) : request for confirmation of the availability of the generic name and for the nomenclatural validation of the journal in which it was published . bull . zool . nomenclature 70 ( 4 ) : 234 - 237 - get paper here
hughes , b . 2013 . snakes of bénin , west africa . bull . soc . herp . france 144 : 101 - 159
kaiser , h . ; crother , b . i . ; kelly , c . m . r . ; luiselli , l . ; o’shea , m . ; ota , h . ; passos , p . ; schleip , w . d . & wüster , w . 2013 . best practices : in the 21st century , taxonomic decisions in herpetology are acceptable only when supported by a body of evidence and published via peer - review . herpetological review 44 ( 1 ) : 8 - 23
lanza , b . 1990 . amphibians and reptiles of the somali democratic republic : check list and biogeography . biogeographia , 14 : 407 - 465 [ 1988 ]
lanza , b . 1983 . a list of the somali amphibians and reptiles . monitore zoologico italiano , new ser . , suppl . 18 ( 8 ) : 193 - 247
largen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2010 . amphibians and reptiles of ethiopia and eritrea . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 694 pp .
largen , m . j . & rasmussen , j . b . 1993 . catalogue of the snakes of ethiopia ( reptilia serpentes ) , including identification keys . tropical zoology 6 : 313 - 434 - get paper here
laurent , r . f . 1955 . diagnoses preliminaires des quelques serpents venimeux . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 51 : 127 - 139
loveridge , a . 1936 . african reptiles and amphibians in the field museum of natural history . zool . ser . field mus . nat . hist . , chicago , 22 ( 1 ) : 1 - 122 - get paper here
loveridge , a . 1956 . on snakes collected in the anglo - egyptian sudan by j . s . owen , esq . sudan notes rec . 36 : 37 - 56 [ 1955 ]
loveridge , arthur 1929 . east african reptiles and amphibians in the united states national museum . bull . us natl . mus . ( 151 ) : 1 - 135 - get paper here
loveridge , a . 1957 . on a third collection of reptiles taken in tanganyika by c . j . p . ionides , esq . tanganyika notes and records 43 : 1 - 19
menzies , j . i . 1966 . the snakes of sierra leone . copeia 1966 ( 2 ) : 169 - 179 . - get paper here
mitchell , b . l . 1950 . some reptiles and amphibians of nyasaland . the nyasaland journal 3 ( 2 ) : 46 - 57 - get paper here
monasterio , camila 2016 . the herpetofauna of the dindefelo natural community reserve , senegal . herpetology notes 9 : 1 - 6 - get paper here
padial , j . m . 2006 . commented distributional list of the reptiles of mauritania ( west africa ) . graellsia , 62 ( 2 ) : 159 - 178
pauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . 2008 . les reptiles du gabon . smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp . - get paper here
pietersen dw , pietersen ew , conradie w . 2017 . preliminary herpetological survey of ngonye falls and surrounding regions in south - western zambia . amphibian & reptile conservation 11 ( 1 ) [ special section ] : 24–43 ( e148 - get paper here
pitman , c . r . s . 1974 . a guide to the snakes of uganda . codicote , wheldon & wesley , l . , 290 pp .
rasmussen , j . b . & b . hughes 1996 . description of some new snake species . i . [ english translation of the original danish text of t . reinhardt 1843 ] . steenstrupia 22 : 13 - 39
reinhardt , j . t . 1843 . beskrivelse af nogle nye slangearter . danske vidensk . selsk . afhandl . 10 : 233 - 279 . - get paper here
rhodin , a . g . j . , h . kaiser , p . p . van dijk , w . wüster , m . o’shea , m . archer , m . auliya , l . boitani , r . bour , v . clausnitzer , t . contreras - macbeath , b . i . crother , j . m . daza , c . a . driscoll , o . flores - villela , j . frazier , u . fritz , a . gardner , c . gascon , 2015 . comment on spracklandus hoser , 2009 ( reptilia , serpentes , elapidae ) : request for confirmation of the availability of the generic name and for the nomenclatural validation of the journal in which it was published ( case 3601 ; see bzn 70 : 234–237 ; 71 : 3 bull . zool . nomenclature 72 ( 1 ) : 65 - 78
robertson , i . a . d . , b . m . chapman and n . f . chapman 1963 . notes on some reptiles collected in the rukwa valley , s . w . tanganyika . ann . mag . nat . hist . ser . 13 , 5 ( 55 ) : 421‑432 - get paper here
rödel , m . o . ; kouadio , k , & mahsberg , d . 1999 . die schlangenfauna des comoé - nationalparks , elfenbeinküste : ergänzungen und ausblick . salamandra 35 ( 3 ) : 165 - 180 - get paper here
schmidt , k . p . 1923 . contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition , 1909 - 1915 . part ii . snakes , with field notes by herbert lang and james p . chapin . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 49 ( 1 ) : 1 - 146
segniagbeto glazcano . h . , trape j . f . , david p . , ohler a . , dubois a . & glitho i . a . 2011 . the snake fauna of togo : systematics , distribution and biogeography , with remarks on selected taxonomic problems . zoosystema 33 ( 3 ) : 325 - 360 . doi : 10 . 5252 / z2011n3a4 - get paper here
sow , andack saad ; duarte vasconcelos gonçalves , fábio vieira sousa , fernando martínez - freiría , frederico santarém , guillermo velo - antón , hamidou dieng , joão carlos campos , saer khayar diagne , zbyszek boratyński , josé carlos brito 2017 . atlas of the distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the diawling national park , mauritania basic and applied herpetology - get paper here
spawls , s . , branch , b . 1995 . the dangerous snakes of africa . blandford , london , 192 pp .
spawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here
spawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here
sternfeld , r . 1910 . zur schlangenfauna deutsch - südwestafrikas . mehrere fälle von mimikry bei afrikanischen schlangen . mitt . zool . mus . berlin , 5 : 51 - 60 - get paper here
trape j - f and mané y . 2015 . the snakes of niger . amphibian & reptile conservation 9 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 39–55 ( e110 ) - get paper here
trape , j . - f . & mané , y . 2004 . les serpents des environs de bandafassi ( sénégal oriental ) . bull . soc . herp . france 109 : 5 - 34 - get paper here
trape , j . - f . & mané , y . 2006 . guide des serpents d’afrique occidentale . savane et désert . [ senegal , gambia , mauritania , mali , burkina faso , niger ] . ird editions , paris , 226 pp . - get paper here
trape , j . f . & r . roux - estève 1995 . les serpents du congo : liste commentée et clé de détermination . journal of african zoology 109 ( 1 ) : 31 - 50
trape , jean - françois & cellou baldé 2014 . a checklist of the snake fauna of guinea , with taxonomic changes in the genera philothamnus and dipsadoboa ( colubridae ) and a comparison with the snake fauna of some other west african countries . zootaxa 3900 ( 3 ) : 301–338
trape , jean - françois ; mané , youssouph 2000 . les serpents des environs de dielmo ( sine - saloum , sénégal ) . bull . soc . herp . france 95 : 19 - 35 - get paper here
ullenbruch , k . ; grell , o . ; böhme , w . 2010 . reptiles from southern benin , west africa , with the description of a new hemidactylus ( gekkonidae ) , and a country - wide checklist . bonn zool . bull . 57 ( 1 ) : 31 - 54 - get paper here
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africa and the arabian peninsula . see link
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the most distinctive characteristic of the cobras is the flat hood ( fig . 4 . 57 ) that is erected by the extension of ribs in the neck while the snake ' s upper body is raised . this peculiarity is only observed during warning behaviour ; at other times cobras resemble ordinary snakes . several other african elapids also demonstrate this defensive behaviour ( boulengerina sp . , pseudohaje sp . , hemachatus haemachatus ) .
widely distributed , except for sandy desert areas , where they are rarely seen ; also found at altitudes of up to 2 , 500 m above sea level . particularly prevalent in open habitats such as grasslands and scrub , but also found in plantations and forested areas . n . melanoleuca lives in forested areas . n . nigricollis , n . nivea and n . mossambica often seen close to human settlements or on the outskirts of cities , where they sometimes enter houses in search of water or prey .
predominantly nocturnal . very agile snakes that show typical defensive behaviour when threatened ( see above ) , while producing hissing sounds . however , a strike is not always preceded by a threat display ! when cobras bite , they usually do not release immediately , but rather use chewing motions for several seconds to inject the venom .
if venom from spitting cobras enters the eyes , there is a risk of blindness if the eyes are not treated promptly and appropriately ( warrell and oremond 1976 ) . over half of the 40 spitting cobra ( n . nigricollis ) victims cited by pugh et al . ( 1980 ) in the malumfashi area of northern nigeria were injuredt in or near houses . the authors number an incidence of venom ophthalmia of 6 - 8 / 100 , 000 population per year . in their review on ophtalmia caused by spitting cobras and rinkhals ( hemachatus haemachatus ) chu et al . ( 2010 ) give an overview on the epidemiology in africa and asia .
broadley 1983 , broadley and cock 1989 , broadley and wüster 2004 , freyvogel and honegger 1965 , golay 1985 , pitman 1974 , roman 1980 , sweeny 1971 , villiers 1975 , visser and chapman 1978 , o ' shea 2005 , wüster and broadley 2003 and 2007 , wüster et al . 2007 , trape et al . 2009 , wallach et al . 2009


the new guinean long-nosed bandicoots ( genus peroryctes ) are members of the order peramelemorphia .

they are small to medium-sized marsupial omnivores native to new guinea .

fossil members of this genus have been found in australia , including p. tedfordi and an unnamed species .

new guinean long - nosed bandicoot

the new guinean long - nosed bandicoots ( genus peroryctes ) are members of the order peramelemorphia . they are small to medium - sized marsupial omnivores native to new guinea .
the new guinean long - nosed bandicoots ( genus peroryctes ) are members of the order peramelemorphia . they are small to medium - sized marsupial omnivores native to new guinea .
the long - nosed bandicoot ( perameles , or thylacis , nasuta ) , a vaguely ratlike brown animal whose rump may be black - barred , is the common form in eastern australia . the three species of short - nosed bandicoots , isoodon ( incorrectly thylacis ) , are found in new guinea , australia , and tasmania . rabbit - eared bandicoots , or bilbies , are…
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bulletin of the american museum of natural history . / american museum of natural history . ; ; new york [ american museum of natural history ] 1881 -
i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : bulletin of the american museum of natural history . publisher : new york [ american museum of natural history ] 1881 - isbn / issn : 0003 - 0090 oclc : 1287364
kenny j . travouillon ; julien louys ; gilbert j . price ; michael archer ; suzanne j . hand ; jeanette muirhead ( 2017 ) .
a review of the pliocene bandicoots of australia , and descriptions of new genus and species
. journal of vertebrate paleontology . 37 ( 5 ) : e1360894 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2017 . 1360894 .
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]
i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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carnivorous bilbies . in recent years , however , it has become clear that the situation is more complex . first , the bandicoots of the
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walker ' s mammals of the world , vol . 1 , 5th ed .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
fossil members of this genus have been found in australia , including p . tedfordi and an unnamed species .
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horse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , …
animal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from…
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two fossil taxa from australia , peroryctes tedfordi and then - unnamed silvicultor hamiltonensis , were originally assigned to this genus , [ 2 ] but they were subsequently transferred to the separate genus silvicultor . [ 3 ]
groves , c . p . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . , eds . mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p . 40 . isbn 0 - 801 - 88221 - 4 . oclc 62265494 .
turnbull , w . d . ; et al . ( 2003 ) .
dasyurids , perameloids , phalangeroids and vomabatoids from the early pliocene hamilton fauna , victoria , australia
. bulletin of the american museum of natural history . 279 : 513–540 . doi : 10 . 1206 / 0003 - 0090 ( 2003 ) 279 < 0513 : c > 2 . 0 . co ; 2 . issn 0003 - 0090 .
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metarminoidea is a provisional taxonomic superfamily of colourful sea slugs , aeolid nudibranchs , marine opisthobranch gastropod molluscs in the clade nudibranchia .

this name is unfortunately not available as a superfamily name , because it is not based on a genus .

it is used here because , as of february 2015 , no replacement name has yet been proposed .

metarminoidea

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franc a . ( 1968 ) sous - classe des opisthobranches . in : p . grasse ( ed ) . traite de zoologie 5 ( 3 ) : 608 - 893 . page ( s ) : 878 [ details ]
nomenclature introduced as
new
in the traité de zoologie but actually dating back to metarminacea odhner , 1944 and spelled so . . .
nomenclature introduced as
new
in the traité de zoologie but actually dating back to metarminacea odhner , 1944 and spelled so elsewhere in the text ( pp . 629 , 665 ) . contains families madrellidae , dironidae , and zephyrinidae . treated as a superfamily and not available as such a family - group name ( not based on a genus ) . [ details ]
vaught , k . c . ; tucker abbott , r . ; boss , k . j . ( 1989 ) . a classification of the living mollusca . american malacologists : melbourne . isbn 0 - 915826 - 22 - 4 . xii , 195 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]
classification for the gastropods , from listings in urltoken and ponder and lindberg , 1997 , modified to take into account the work of bouchet and rocroi , 2005 and strong and kohler , 2009 . the suffix for the superfamilies used here , - oidea , may be more technically correct than the
- acea
suffix used elsewhere on this site . - acea is used in botany for plant families , and elsewhere in zoology occasionally , for example the mammalian order
cetacea
.
calyptraeoidea capuloidea carinarioidea cingulopsoidea cypraeoidea ficoidea laubierinoidea littorinoidea naticoidea rissooidea ( includes hydrobiidae , etc . ) stromboidea tonnoidea trivioidea vanikoroidea velutinoidea vermetoidea xenophoroidea
ponder , w . f . and lindberg , d . r . 1997 . towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs : an analysis using morphological characters . zoological journal of the linnean society . 119 : 83 - 265 .
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goniaeolis typica is a species of sea slug , a nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family goniaeolididae . goniaeolis typica is the only species in the genus goniaeolis and it is the only genus within the family goniaeolididae .
gonieolis is the original spelling , but incorrect subsequent spelling goniaeolis is conserved under art . 33 . 3 . 1 of the code . the synonymy with goniaeolis lobata was discussed in detail by odhner in 1922 .
it is endemic to scandinavian waters . this species was described from kristiansund , norway . it has subsequently been reported from the skagerrak , the hardangerfjord , and at the mouth of the trondheimsfjord . the species is known from 30 to 666 m .
external and internal anatomy was described by nils hjalmar odhner in detail in 1922 .
olive snail ( olividae spp . ) leave marks in sand 1 / 2
to 2
long phylum : mollusca class : gastropoda / univalvia
pacific blue mussel ( mytilus spp . ) also called
bay
or
foolish
mussel phylum mollusca class bivalvia family mytilidae
giant pacific octopus ( gpo ) ( enteroctopus dofleini ) bigger than a basketball = gpo when small , look at eyes . no lashes = gpo largest and longest lived of all octopeds usually 100lbs phylum mollusca class cephalopoda
red octopus ( octopus rubescens ) small . has lashes . phylum mollusca class cephalopoda
some images used in this set are licensed under the creative commons through urltoken . click to see the original works with their full license .
the dexiarchia are a clade of nudibranchs characterised by a right - laterally located anus and usually a more or less branched digestive gland . the basal genus
[ bd86 ] barash , a . , & z . danin . 1986 . further additions to the knowledge of indo - pacific mollusca in the mediterranean sea ( lessepsian migrants ) .
[ br05 ] bouchet , p . , & j . - p . rocroi . 2005 . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families .
[ bw09 ] bryce , c . , & c . whisson . 2009 . the macromolluscs of mermaid ( rowley shoals ) , scott and seringapatam reefs , western australia .
[ f27 ] finlay , h . j . 1927 . a further commentary on new zealand molluscan systematics .
[ h01 ] huys , r . 2001 . splanchnotrophid systematics : a case of polyphyly and taxonomic myopia .
[ kc11 ] kocot , k . m . , j . t . cannon , c . todt , m . r . citarella , a . b . kohn , a . meyer , s . r . santos , c . schander , l . l . moroz , b . lieb & k . m . halanych . 2011 . phylogenomics reveals deep molluscan relationships .
[ mg - h11 ] mcennulty , f . r . , k . l . gowlett - holmes , a . williams , f . althaus , j . fromont , g . c . b . poore , t . d . o’hara , l . marsh , p . kott , s . slack - smith , p . alderslade & m . v . kitahara . 2011 . the deepwater megabenthic invertebrates on the western continental margin of australia ( 100–1100 m depths ) : composition , distribution and novelty .
vol . ii pt i . stanford university press : stanford university ( california ) .
[ pp78 ] poorman , f . l . , & l . h . poorman . 1978 . additional molluscan records from bahía de los angeles , baja california norte .
is a genus of relatively large bubble snails with a well - developed shell into which the animal is able to withdraw completely .
[ c60 ] cox , l . r . 1960 . gastropoda : general characteristics of gastropoda .
pp . i84–i169 . geological society of america , and university of kansas press .
[ f27a ] finlay , h . j . 1927a . a further commentary on new zealand molluscan systematics .
[ f27b ] finlay , h . j . 1927b . new specific names for austral mollusca .
[ j49 ] johnson , r . i . 1949 . jesse wedgwood mighels with a bibliography and a catalogue of his species .
[ m54 ] macpherson , j . h . 1954 . molluscs ( sea shells and snails ) .
malaquias , m . a . e . , & d . g . reid . 2008 . systematic revision of the living species of bullidae ( mollusca : gastropoda : cephalaspidea ) , with a molecular phylogenetic analysis .
the diaphanidae are a group of thin - shelled bubble snails lacking mantle parapodia , jaws or gizzard plates .
( from ohnheiser & malaquias 2014 ) : umbilicate thin , fragile , voluminous shell present into which the animal is capable of retreating completely ; jaws and gizzard plates absent , radula usually with single lateral tooth on each side and rachidian present . foot usually forked posteriorly , parapodia absent . penis armed .
[ a27 ] allan , r . s . 1927 . the geology and palaeontology of the lower waihao basin , south canterbury , new zealand .
[ ph90 ] petit , r . e . & m . g . harasewych . 1990 . catalogue of the superfamily cancellarioidea forbes and hanley , 1851 ( gastropoda : prosobranchia ) .
the retusidae , canoe shells , are a family of cephalaspid gastropods characterised by the lack of a radula .
[ gas03 ] gulbin , v . v . , i . s . arzamastsev & v . m . shulkin . 2003 . ecological monitoring of the water area of port vostochnyi ( wrangel bay ) in the sea of japan ( 1995–2002 ) .
[ hs01 ] hayward , b . w . , a . b . stephenson , m . s . morley , w . m . blom , h . r . grenfell , f . j . brook , j . l . riley , f . thompson & j . j . hayward . 2001 . marine biota of parengarenga harbour , northland , new zealand .
the haminoeidae are a group of bubble snails that primarily graze on algal tissue and / or diatoms ; the shell may be partially or entirely covered by lateral outgrowths of the mantle . the shell may be thin and fragile as in the genus
2014 ) : shell usually thin , translucent , fragile , occasionally solid and thick ; varying from bulloid to cylindrical - elongate ; spiral grooves may be present at ends or covering entire shell . mantle and other body parts usually dull and cryptically coloured , occasionally colourful or capable of changing colour to suit environment . muscular buccal bulb present containing chitinous jaws and radula formed by variably - shaped central tooth plus hook - shaped lateral teeth . fizzard present with three plates containing pointed rods .
[ f27 ] finlay , h . j . 1927 . new specific names for austral mollusca .
the thecosomata , sea butterflies , are a group of pelagic marine gastropods that have the foot modified into a pair of wing - like parapodia used in swimming . most thecosomata retain a calcareous shell , though the shell is demineralised or lost in some subgroups .
[ b26 ] bigelow , h . b . 1926 . plankton of the offshore waters of the gulf of maine .
the philinidae are a group of headshield slugs with a delicate internal shell and a dorsal aspect divided between the four regions of head , visceral mass and lateral parapodial lobes .
[ aps - p86 ] arnaud , p . m . , cl . poizat & l . v . salvini - plawen . 1986 . marine - interstitial gastropoda ( including one freshwater interstitial species ) .
the gymnosomata , sea angels , are a group of shell - less , pelagic marine gastropods in which the foot has been modified into a pair of large parapodia used for swimming .
[ h01 ] huys , r . 2001 . splanchnotrophid systematics : a case of polyphyly and taxonomic myopia .
the cavoliniidae are a group of sea butterflies with an uncoiled shell present at maturity .
the aplysiomorpha , sea hares and related taxa , are a group of soft - bodied marine gastropods with a reduced shell ( external in akeridae , internal in aplysiidae ) . they are characterised by the presence of the defensive opaline and purple glands in the mantle cavity , and an oesophageal gizzard containing an anterior chamber with large chitinous plates and a posterior chamber with numerous fine spines (
[ cg99 ] carlton , j . t . , j . b . geller , m . l . reaka - kudla & e . a . norse . 1999 . historical extinctions in the sea .
, pp . i84–i169 . geological society of america , and university of kansas press .
[ s11 ] simone , l . r . l . 2011 . phylogeny of the caenogastropoda ( mollusca ) , based on comparative morphology .
[ tn03 ] thollesson , m . , & j . l . norenburg . 2003 . ribbon worm relationships : a phylogeny of the phylum nemertea .
the systellommatophora are a group of slug - like gastropods , including the marine onchidiidae and the terrestrial veronicelloidea . members of this group have two pairs of contractile tentacles on the head , with the eyes at the tip of the upper pair , and have the anus and renal opening at the posterior end of the body ( burch & pearce 1990 ) .
vol . ii , pt i . stanford university press : stanford university ( california ) .
[ tc89 ] tapparone canefri , t . 1889 . viaggio di leonardo fea in birmania e regioni vicine . xviii . —molluschi terrestri e d’acqua dolce .
the scaphopoda , tusk shells , are a group of benthic molluscs with a tubular shell that live buried in the sediment , feeding on micro - organisms . in members of the dentalioida , the shell generally tapers evenly , whereas gadilida commonly have the shell constricted toward the mouth . the two lineages also differ in foot morphology : dentalioida have the foot with an encircling sheath that is expanded laterally and interrupted dorsally ; gadilida have the foot simple and vermiform , or distally expanded into a symmetrical disc ( ludbrook 1960 ) .
[ dk08 ] darragh , t . a . , & g . w . kendrick . 2008 . silicified eocene molluscs from the lower murchison district , southern carnarvon basin , western australia .
[ go06 ] giribet , g . , a . okusu , a . r . lindgren , s . w . huff , m . schrödl & m . k . nishiguchi . 2006 . evidence for a clade composed of molluscs with serially repeated structures : monoplacophorans are related to chitons .
[ gr98 ] giribet , g . , & c . ribera . 1998 . the position of arthropods in the animal kingdom : a search for a reliable outgroup for internal arthropod phylogeny .
pp . i37–i41 . geological society of america , and university of kansas press .
, a new genus and new species of ordovician scaphopod , and the early history of scaphopod mollusks .
[ sw11 ] smith , s . a . , n . g . wilson , f . e . goetz , c . feehery , s . c . s . andrade , g . w . rouse , g . giribet & c . w . dunn . 2011 . resolving the evolutionary relationships of molluscs with phylogenomic tools .
[ s98 ] stilwell , j . d . 1998 . late cretaceous mollusca from the chatham islands , new zealand .
i ' m an entomologist and taxonomist , currently based in perth , western australia . if you ' d like to comment ( or offer work ) , i can be e - mailed at gerarus at westnet . com . au .
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a nudibranch is any of the soft - bodied , shell - less marine gastropods comprising the mollusk taxon ( order or suborder ) nudibranchia . found on the bottom of oceans throughout the world , from reefs and sandy shallows to seabeds a mile deep , there are more than 3 , 000 known species of nudibranchs ( holland 2008 ) . the word
nudibranch ,
which comes from the latin nudus for
naked ,
and the greek brankhia for gills , describes their feathery gills and horns that many have on their dorsal sides ( ngs 2008 ) . nudibranchs sometimes are called sea slugs , although this term technically applies to a more inclusive taxon of marine gastropod mollusks , heterobranchia ( which includes , but is not exclusive to , the nudibranchs ) .
nudibranchs are known for their often extraordinary colors , striking forms , and intricate patterns . such brilliant hues and fascinating shapes have added greatly to the wonder of nature . however , nudibranchs also provide important ecological functions , playing an important role in marine food chains , both as predator ( corals , sponges , anemones , barnacles , fish ) and prey ( fish , sea spiders , turtles , sea stars ) —the latter role despite protective mechanisms ranging from poisons , to camouflage , to stinging cells .
nudibranchs are members of the gastropod class ( gastropoda ) of mollusks . as gastropods , their body plan involves a torsion or twisting during larval development whereby the visceral mass twists 180 degrees in relation to the head . gastropoda ( meaning
stomach - foot
) is typified by a large , ventral , muscular foot for locomotion , and a distinct head that has eyes and sensory tentacles .
the taxon that nudibranchs comprise , nudibranchia , generally is placed either at the suborder level , under the order opisthobranchia of the superorder heterobranchia and subclass orthogastropoda , or at the order level under the subclass opisthobranchia ( itis 2004 ) . while often casually called
sea slugs ,
there are numerous other kinds of sea slugs belonging to several taxonomic groups that are not very closely related to nudibranchs . a fair number of these other sea slugs are colorful and thus are even more easily confused with nudibranchs .
the body forms of nudibranchs vary enormously , but because they are opisthobranchs , unlike most other gastropods they are bilaterally symmetrical because they have undergone secondary detorsion . the adult form is without a shell or operculum ( a bony or horny plate covering the opening of the shell , when the body is withdrawn ) . often oblong in shape , some are thick and other flattened , and some are short and others long ( ngs 2008 ) . they vary in adult size from six millimeters ( 0 . 25 inches ) to 31 centimeters ( 12 inches ) in length ( ngs 2008 ) . nudibranchs have cephalic ( head ) tentacles and oral tentacles , which are sensitive to touch , taste , and smell . two club - shaped rhinophores ( highly sensitive head - mounted sensory appendages or tentacles ) detect odors .
the name nudibranch is appropriate , since the dorids ( infraclass anthobranchia ) breathe through a branchial plume of bushy extremities on their back , rather than using gills . by contrast , on the back of the aeolids in infraclass cladobranchia , there are brightly colored sets of tentacles called cerata .
nudibranchs occur in marine environments worldwide , in all the world ' s oceans , and can be found depths nearly a mile down , but are most abundant , and reach their greatest size and variation , in shallow , tropical waters ( ngs 2008 ) .
while they lack shells , nudibranchs have developed other defense mechanisms : poisons , stinging cells , and camouflage .
some nudibranchs have toxic secretions , mostly derived from the poisons of their prey but some have poisons of their own making ( holland 2008 ) . for example , some species consume toxic sponges and alter and store the poisonous compounds and secrete them from skin cells or glands as needed ( holland 2008 ) .
some utilize stinging cells , ingested from anemones , fire corals , and hydroids , and employ these along their own extremities ( holland 2008 ) . nudibranchs that feed on hydroids can store the hydroid ' s nematocysts ( stinging cells ) in the dorsal body wall , the cerata ( frick 2003 ) . the nematocysts can move through the alimentary tract without harming the nudibranch . once further into the organism , the cells are brought to specific placements on the creature ' s hind body via intestinal protuberances . it is not yet clear how the nudibranches can protect themselves from the hydroids and their nematocysts , but special cells with large vacuoles probably play an important role .
the vivid color of various nudibranchs helps to warn predators of such defenses . among the nudibranchs can be found the most colorful creatures on earth . the intense and bright coloring , such as especially seen on chromodorids , warns that they are distasteful or poisonous ( aposematic coloration ) .
camouflage also is used . the anatomy and color of nudibranchs may resemble the texture and color of the surrounding plants , sponges , and substrate , allowing them to be difficult to discern . some may mimic toxic nudibranches .
the tough - skin and abrasive quality of nudibranchs also may be a detriment ( holland 2008 ) . another way of protection is the release of a sour liquid from the skin . once the specimen is physically irritated or touched by another creature , it will release the slime automatically .
nudibranchs are carnivorous , feeding on sponges , hydroids , bryozoans , coral , barnacles , eggs , tunicates , anemones , or small fish . some eat other nudibranches , including members of their own species . some graze on algae . some nudibranchs derive nutrition from ingested photosynthetic algae ( holland 2008 ) .
despite their protective mechanisms , nudibranchs have a number of predators , including certain species of fish , sea spiders , turtles , crabs , and sea stars , as well as some people ( such as chileans and islanders from off alaska and russia ) who consume them after removing the toxic organs ( holland 2008 ) .
nudibranchs are simultaneous hermaphroditic , and thus have a set of reproductive organs for both genders . they can rarely fertilize themselves , but can mate with any other mature members of their species ( ngs 2008 ) .
nudibranchs typically deposit their eggs within a gelatinous spiral ( klussmann - kolb 2001 ) . some masses ( coils , ribbons , or tangled clumbs ) may reach up to two million at a time ( holland 2008 ) .
the taxonomy of the nudibranchia is still under investigation and is subject to frequent revision . many taxonomists in the past treated the nudibranchia as an order , based on the authoritative work of johannes thiele ( 1931 ) , who built on the concepts of henri milne - edwards ( 1848 ) . newer insights derived from morphological data and gene - sequence research have supported the basic taxonomic divisions . on the basis of investigation of 18s rdna sequence data , there is strong evidence for support of the monophyly of the nudibranchia and its two major groups , the anthobranchia / doridoidea and cladobranchia .
competing taxonomies remain , with nudibranchia variously considered an order or a suborder , and diverse classes and subclasses recognized ; for example , opisthobranchia may variously be considered an order or a subclass . ponder and lindberg ( 1997 ) recognize two subclasses within gastropoda ( orthogastropoda and eogastropoda ) , with nudibranchia placed within the subclass orthogastropoda . the integrated taxonomic information system recognizes nudibranchia as an order in the subclass opisthobranchia ( itis 2004 ) .
the dorids ( infraorder anthobranchia ) have the following characteristics : the branchial plume forms a cluster on the posterior part of the neck , around the eyes . fringes on the mantle do not contain any intestines .
the aeolids ( infraorder cladobranchia ) have the following characteristics : instead of the branchial plume , they have cerata . they lack a mantle . only species of the cladobranchia are reported to house zooxanthellae .
schrödl et al . ( 2001 ) have offered other revisions in the taxonomy of the nudibranchia . here they are divided into two major clades :
dexiarchia nom . nov . ( = doridoxoidea + dendronotoidea + aeolidoidea + “arminoidea” ) .
frick , k . 2003 . predator suites and flabellinid nudibranch nematocyst complements in the gulf of maine proceedings of the 22nd annual scientific diving symposium , american academy of underwater sciences . greenville , north carolina . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .
holland , j . s . 2008 . living color : toxic nudibranchs—soft , seagoing slugs—produce a brilliant defense national geographic , june 2008 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .
integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . 2004 . nudibranchia blainville , 1814 itis taxonomic serial no . : 78156 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .
klussmann - kolb , a . 2001 . the reproductive systems of the nudibranchia ( gastropoda , opisthobranchia ) : comparative histology and ultrastructure of the nidamental glands with aspects of functional morphology zoologischer anzeiger 240 ( 2 ) : 119–136 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .
national geographic society . 2008 . nudibranch ( nudibranchia ) national geographic society . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .
ponder , w . f . , and d . r . lindberg . 1997 . “towards a phylogeny of gastropod molluscs : an analysis using morphological characters . ” zoological journal of the linnean society 119 : 83 - 2651 .
schrödl , m . , h . wägele , and r . c . willan . 2001 . taxonomic redescription of the doridoxidae ( gastropoda : opisthobranchia ) , an enigmatic family of deep water nudibranchs , with discussion of basal nudibranch phylogeny zoologischer anzeiger 240 ( 1 ) : 83 - 97 . retrieved july 23 , 2008 .
wägele , h . , and r . c . willan . 2000 . phylogeny of the nudibranchia . zoological journal of the linnean society 1 ( 1 ) : 83–181 .
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kento furui added the japanese common name
カルコティア科
to
charcotiidae
.
kento furui added the japanese common name
ヘロ科
to
heroidae
.
jennifer hammock split the classifications by marlin resource from janolus cristatus ( delle chiaje , 1841 ) to their own page .
sarah miller marked
description
as hidden on the
hero formosa loven , 1841
page . reasons to hide : duplicate
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helix pomatia sealed in its shell with a calcareous epiphragm snail is a common name loosely applied to shelled gastropods . the name is most often applied to land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs . however , the common name snail is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class gastropoda that have a coiled shell that is large enough for the animal to retract completely into . when the word “snail” is used in this most general sense , it includes not just land snails but also numerous species of sea snails and freshwater snails . gastropods that naturally lack a shell , or have only an internal shell , are mostly called slugs , and land snails that have only a very small shell ( that they cannot retract into ) are often called semi - slugs . snails have considerable human relevance , including as food items , as pests , as vectors of disease , and their shells are used as decorative objects and are incorporated into jewelry . the snail has also had some cultural significance , and has been used as a metaphor .
popular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more
original file name : haeckel _ nudibranchia . jpg resolution : 1139x1617 file size : 926900 bytes date : 2007 : 09 : 01 22 : 38 : 05 upload time : 2007 : 09 : 01 22 : 41 : 10
, the largest suborder of the order opisthobranchia . there are more than 3 , 000 described species .
comes from latin nudus meaning
naked
, and greek brankhia meaning
gills
. the name is appropriate since the dorids ( infraclass anthobranchia ) breathe through a branchial plume of bushy extremities on their back , rather than using gills . by contrast , on the back of the aeolids in infraclass cladobranchia there are brightly colored sets of tentacles called cerata .
s have cephalic ( head ) tentacles , which are sensitive to touch , taste , and smell . club - shaped rhinophores detect the odors .
s , or , on some occasions , members of their own species . there is also a group that feeds on tunicates and
body forms can vary wildly . they lack a mantle cavity . their size varies from 40 to 600 mm .
they occur worldwide at all depths , but they reach their greatest size and variation in warm , shallow waters .
, they have had to evolve another means of defense : camouflage , through color patterns that make them invisible ( cryptic behavior ) or warn off predators as being distasteful or poisonous ( aposematic behavior ) . champions in their colorful display are the chromodorids . the
s that feed on hydroids store the hydroid ' s nematocysts ( stinging cells ) in the dorsal body wall . this enables the
( 1848 ) . but new insights through morphological data and gene - sequence research , cause some confidence in the congruence of the data sets of the new and the old . on the basis of investigation of 18s rdna sequence data , there has been found strong evidence for support of the monophyly of the
the dorids ( infraorder anthobranchia ) have the following characteristics : the branchial plume forms a cluster on the posterior part of the neck , around the eyes . fringes on the mantle do not contain any intestines .
the aeolids ( infraorder cladobranchia ) have the following characteristics : instead of the branchial plume , they have cerata . they lack a mantle . only species of the cladobranchia are reported to home . zooxanthellae .
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