the light-mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) also known as the grey-mantled albatross or the light-mantled sooty albatross , is a small albatross in the genus phoebetria , which it shares with the sooty albatross .

the light-mantled albatross was first described as phoebetria palpebrata by johann reinhold forster , in 1785 , based on a specimen from south of the cape of good hope .

light - mantled albatross

a light mantled albatross , or light mantled sooty albatross , phoebetria palpebrata , on south georgia , on nesting cliffs at grytviken , calling to its mate .
light - mantled sooty albatross , south georgia . [ photo caoimhe g © ]
information on the light - mantled albatross is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
light - mantled albatross young and eggs are prey to rats , feral cats , and giant petrels .
' light - mantled albatross feeding chick , campbell island , new . . . by wayfair | havenly
there are no captive populations of the light - mantled sooty albatross ( international species information system 2008 ) .
light - mantled albatrosses can live for longer than 40 years in the wild .
there are about 87 , 000 light - mantled albatrosses in the world today .
light - mantled albatrosses are not known to have any negative effects on humans .
species assessments : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata ( agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels , 2010b ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross breeds at three locations within australian jurisdiction : heard island , macdonald islands and macquarie island .
light - mantled sooty albatross are the most abundant breeding albatrosses on macquarie island , where approximately 1000 pairs nest every year .
the breeding cycle of light - mantled sooty albatross is the same as that of wandering albatross , i . e . once every two years . however , the fledging period of light - mantled sooty albatrosses is only five months , while the fledging period of wandering albatross is almost one year .
the light - mantled sooty albatross does not undergo extreme natural fluctuations in population size , extent of occurrence or area of occupancy .
the diet of light - mantled sooty albatross is primarily composed of cephalopods and euphausiids , but they also take fish and carrion .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses have a dark grey head and a light grey body with a distinctive white crescent surrounding most of the eye .
caption : light - mantled sooty albatross at nest site , pair bonding behaviour , ( phoebetria palpebrata ) ; elsehul , south georgia .
thomas g ( 1982 ) the food and feeding ecology of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia . emu 82 : 92–100
light - mantled sooty albatross . adult in flight showing light blue mandible stripe and eye crescent . enderby island , auckland islands , january 2016 . image © tony whitehead by tony whitehead urltoken
range : the light - mantled albatross has circumpolar range in southern ocean . it breeds from south georgia e to campbell and antipodes islands .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses regularly dive in order to feed and can dive to below 12 m .
agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( 2010b ) . species assessments : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata . available from : urltoken .
in the 19 th century , light - mantled sooty albatrosses were named ' blue bird ' by sealers because their plumage looked blue in strong antarctic light .
agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels 2012 . acap species assessment : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata . downloaded from urltoken 1 october 2012 .
thomas , g . , j . croxall , p . prince . 1983 . breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia .
weimerskirch , h . , g . robertson . 1994 . satellite tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses .
croxall , j . 2008 .
oldest light - mantled sooty albatross
( on - line ) . accessed april 04 , 2008 at email correspondence .
unlike the other species of albatross breeding at south georgia , breeding light - mantled albatross are dispersed in low numbers around the entire coastline making it very difficult to monitor their population trends . nevertheless , south georgia is known to host the largest population of light - mantled albatross in the world . considered to be the most southerly of all the albatross species , these birds often forage close to the antarctic .
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4 . the light - mantled albatross’ method of soaring is so energy - efficient that it actually uses up less energy than when they’re sitting in a nest .
waugh , s . m . 2013 . light - mantled sooty albatross . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken
the light - mantled sooty albatross is only likely to be confused with the closely - related sooty albatross ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . adults of the two species can generally be distinguished by the colour of the upperparts ( grey or light - grey in light - mantled sooty albatross and greyish - brown to blackish in sooty albatross ) and the colour of the sulcus ( pale blue or violet in light - mantled sooty albatross and creamy to creamy - yellow or orange in sooty albatross ) . however , adult sooty albatrosses in worn plumage and immature sooty albatrosses can also have pale upperparts , making separation more difficult or , in some instances , impossible ( harrison 1983 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ) .
the light - mantled albatross does not need to run for taking - off . it propels itself outwards from the steep slope where it is nesting . its agile flight allows elaborated aerial courtship displays . this albatross is a graceful glider .
3 . light - mantled albatrosses are masters of gliding , able to travel thousands of kilometres on wind currents without flapping their wings .
five species of chewing lice have been identified from light - mantled albatrosses . they are also hosts of a new species of flea (
phoebetria palpebrata ( light - mantled sooty albatross ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014vo ) [ state action plan ] .
morlan , j . ( 1994 ) . light - mantled sooty albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) over cordell banks , marin county , california . australasian seabird group newsletter . 27 : 5 - 8 .
a national recovery plan for albatrosses and giant - petrels has been developed and implemented ( environment australia 2001f ) . this recovery plan identifies the following objectives to aid the conservation of the light - mantled sooty albatross , and other albatross and giant - petrels :
the light - mantled sooty is suffering heavily from long line fishing . they are seen to follow ships regularly . they feed mainly on squid .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is highly territorial . pairs defend their nest sites against conspecifics ( for example , other pairs of light - mantled sooty albatross ) and sooty albatrosses ( phoebetria fusca ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . the defended area can be quite small with nests in colonies often separated by distances of less than 3 m ( berruti 1979 ; sorensen 1950 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 ) .
this paper is one of the few documented records of light - mantled albatross in brazil , noting that more records should be published in scientific journals to understand more the distribution and dispersion pattern of this species .
kerry , k . r . and colback , g . c . ( 1972 ) . follow that band ! light - mantled sooty albatross on macquarie island . australian bird bander . 10 : 61 - 62 .
) . light - mantled albatrosses can deliver meals up to 1 . 5 kg to their young , up to one half of this mass is liquid .
the generation length of the light - mantled sooty albatross is estimated to be 40 years . this estimate is based on documented life - history data for related taxa with similar ecological requirements ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .
kerry , k . r . & b . r . garland ( 1984 ) . the breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross phoebetria palpebrata on macquarie island . tasmanian naturalist . 79 : 21 - 23 .
sorensen , j . h . ( 1950 ) . the light - mantled sooty albatross at campbell island . n . z . department of science and industrial research . cape expedition series . , bulletin no . 8 .
arguably the most beautiful albatross , the light–mantled sooty in new zealand waters breeds on the antidopes , auckland and campbell islands . the largest breeding colonies are to be found on south georgia , the kerguelen and auckland islands .
the breeding distribution of the light - mantled sooty albatross is naturally fragmented with individuals nesting on widely - separated islands across the southern reaches of the atlantic and indian oceans ( brooke 2004 ; gales 1998 ; tickell 2000 ) .
nests of light - mantled sooty albatross are made from mud with some plant material , and is usually lined with grasses . it is a low mound , 15 - 30 cm high and 45 - 55 cm at base .
light - mantled albatrosses tend to be solitary while at sea , and only form loosely - associated breeding colonies , if at all , during the mating season .
light - mantled albatrosses mature sexually starting at 8 years old . they will continue to mate until they are around 30 years old , mating every second year .
weimerskirch , h . & g . robertson ( 1994 ) . satellite tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses . polar biology . 14 : 123 - 129 .
light - mantled sooty albatross are solitary nesters , although occasionally they will nest in small colonies of up to 15 nests . little is known of their behaviour during the non - breeding period , which is spent entirely at sea .
at sea , light - mantled sooty albatrosses sometimes forage in association with wandering albatrosses ( diomedea exulans ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . the wandering albatross is listed as a threatened , marine and migratory species under the epbc act .
the light - mantled sooty albatross feeds on fish , cephalopods ( for example squid and octopus ) , crustaceans and carrion ( for example penguins , prions and seals ) ( cherel & klages 1998 ; green et al . 1998 ) .
light - mantled sooty albatross diet has been studied at south georgia , crozet and prince edward islands . it feeds mainly on squid ( 33 - 56 % of diet by fresh mass ) , followed by fish ( 10 - 45 % ) and crustaceans ( 4 - 40 % ) , with large variation in the importance of these last two groups by breeding site . analyses of squid species present in the diet show that light - mantled sooty albatrosses feed closer to the antarctic than other albatross species .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is one of a pair of sooty albatross species that have extremely pointed wings , wedge - shaped tails , and chocolate - brown colouration . their flight is effortless , and courting birds at breeding grounds are often seen in pairs in a synchronised aerodynamic display . the light - mantled sooty albatross is brown all over , except the greyish - brown mantle and back , which give it its name . a white crescent of feathers around the eye , and a pale blue stripe along the lower mandible contrasts with otherwise black bill and dark - brown head .
the light - mantled sooty albatross usually occurs solitarily or in small groups when at sea ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . it breeds solitarily or in small colonies of up to 15 nests ( tickell 2000 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 , 1989 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is a pelagic marine species that occurs over continental shelf / slope and deeper waters in the sub - tropical , sub - antarctic and antarctic zones . the species breeds on sub - antarctic islands and rocky islets where pairs nest on cliffs and steep slopes ( downes et al . 1959 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; reid et al . 2002 ; tickell 2000 ) . the light - mantled sooty albatross does not occur in any of the threatened ecological communities listed under the epbc act .
protection / threats / status : the light - mantled albatross is always threatened by interactions with long line fishing operations . the bird can be injured or killed by ingestion of baited hooks when following the fish boats . in the same way , they can be killed by drowning when they are dragged underwater by the heavy fishing gear . introduced cats and rats , and natural avian predators kill the chicks at nest . adults are vulnerable to marine pollution and disturbances . the light - mantled albatross is currently classified as near threatened .
while at sea , light - mantled albatrosses have a range of thousands of miles . in their nesting habitat , however , their home territory is a small rocky outcropping on a cliffside .
thomas , g . , j . p . croxall & p . a . prince ( 1983 ) . breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) at south georgia . journal of zoology ( london ) . 199 : 123 - 135 .
1 . like some other sea birds light - mantled albatrosses have a gland above their nasal passages that produces a saline solution to help expel excess salt taken in from sea water while feeding .
sky - pointing is one of the stereotyped actions of laysan albatross breeding dances .
chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study .
the light - mantled albatross can start breeding at 6 years old , but usually mostly at 12 years old . this species is long - lived with a lifespan of about 30 - 32 years . mates pair for life . they perform long sequences of stereotyped postures during displays , accompanied by various sounds and calls . these displays are performed while the birds are facing each other . the light - mantled albatross has low breeding productivity throughout the range . it has biennial breeding rate and one pair produces on average one young every 3 - 4 years .
light - mantled albatrosses are generally surface - fishers , diving only about 5 metres on average . they will sometimes follow dolphins and whales and use the mammals’ herding of fish to their own benefit .
the “albatross with light eyebrows” taken during cook’s first voyage in the south indian ocean , was an example of this species , and formed the basis of forster’s description of diomedea palpebrata published in 1785 .
the closely related sooty albatross lacks the pale mantle .
there are two key australian management documents for the light - mantled sooty albatross : national recovery plan for albatrosses and giant - petrels ( environment australia 2001f ) and a threat abatement plan for the incidental catch or bycatch of seabirds during longline fishing operations ( australian antarctic division 2006 ) .
terauds , a . & r . gales ( 2006 ) . provisioning strategies and growth patterns of light - mantled sooty albatrosses phoebetria palpebrata on macquarie island . polar biology . 29 : 917 - 926 .
the features of the light - mantled albatross are very different from the adult of the sooty albatross , although it can be confused with the plumage in the first year of this species ( see harrison , 1983 ) . however the immature sooty albatross has a clearer pale head , gray or black sulcus and the tail lacks pale shafts , while the adult of the light - mantled albatross has bluish sulcus and white shafts ( figures 1c and d ) ( harrison , 1983 ; onley and scofield , 2007 ) . the bird found was quite weak , possibly dehydrated , and unable to take flight . it later died , and there was no time to transport it to some environmental agency or research institution ; so , the bird was buried .
the agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( acap 2007 ) , of which australia is a signatory , has established a working group on the taxonomy of albatrosses and petrels . the light - mantled sooty albatross is considered to be a conventionally accepted species by this taxonomic working group .
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the light - mantled albatross , like other albatrosses , produces the typical rattling sound by quick bill - clattering . cries , grunts and moans are heard too during displays . it is silent at sea but it gives eerie calls in flight .
albatrosses ( procellariiformes : diomedeidae ) are large birds that mostly occur in the southern hemisphere ( sick , 1997 ) . this family is represented by ten species in brazil , two belonging to the genus phoebetria : the light - mantled albatross p . palpebrata ( foster , 1785 ) and the sooty albatross p . fusca ( hilsenberg , 1822 ) ( cbro , 2014 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is a small dark albatross , with a body form honed for rapid flight . it has a dark sooty - brown body and head , with greyish - brown neck and back feathers , which distinguishes it from the similar - looking sooty albatross . the bill is dark with a pale blue stripe along the lower mandible , and there is a crescent of white feathers around the eye , giving the bird a slightly comical aspect .
a northern royal albatross in flight at the colony in taiaroa head , new zealand .
phylogenetic relationships of the four albatross genera . based on nunn et al . 1996 .
light - mantled albatrosses , along with other albatross species ( diomedeidae ) , are long - lived and slow to reproduce . they are increasingly being threatened by long - line fishing and by ingestion of plastic trash in the ocean . they are currently considered near threatened by the iucn and populations are declining .
phillips , r . a . , j . r . d . silk & j . p . croxall ( 2005 ) . foraging and provisioning strategies of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia : competition and co - existence with sympatric pelagic predators . marine ecology progress series . 285 : 259 - 270 .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses follow longline fishing vessels to feed on cast baits and discarded scraps . this behaviour exposes them to incidental mortality through interactions with fishing vessels ( baker et al . 2002 ; gales 1993 , 1998 ) .
voice : light - mantled sooty albatrosses are generally silent at sea . at colonies they give the characteristic ‘sky call’ pee - aahh , and a braying threat call used to challenge other albatrosses and humans . bill snapping is also common .
) are thought to be predators that are capable of preying on young albatrosses . feral cats are also potential predators on breeding islands . however , the size and isolated nesting habitat of light - mantled albatrosses make them unlikely candidates for predation .
( a ) individual of light - mantled albatross found at vilatur beach , municipality of saquarema , rio de janeiro ; ( b ) side view ; ( c ) dorsal view showing features of the plumage and the white shafts of the tail ; ( d ) head showing the black bill with bluish sulcus ( photo by gustavo corrêa ) .
unlike most procellariiformes , albatrosses , like this black - footed albatross , can walk well on land .
chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study . - pubmed - ncbi
by using a combination of wind currents and gravity ( referred to as “dynamic soaring” ) light - mantled albatrosses can fly 110 metres with a drop of only 5 metres as the cost . they can fly at speeds of over 110 km per hour .
iucn . 2004 . red list : albatross species . world conservation union . retrieved september 13 , 2005 .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses are found around the southern ocean , with a circumpolar breeding distribution . they are thought to frequent less productive areas of the ocean , and are not commonly found on shelf - breaks or frontal zones . due to their lack of tolerance of handling , few satellite tracking studies have been undertaken . they forage in southern ocean waters from 40° s to the antarctic ice edge , and are perhaps the most southerly foraging of all albatross species . light - mantled sooty albatrosses tend to be solitary at sea , and don’t follow vessels or scavenge on fisheries waste to the same extent as most other small albatrosses .
2 . light - mantled albatrosses are one of the species of birds that produce foul - smelling oil in their stomachs that can be used to feed their young , feed themselves during long flights , or can be sprayed out of their mouths to deter predators .
green , k . , k . r . kerry , t . disney & m . r . clarke ( 1998 ) . dietary studies of light - mantled sooty albatrosses phoebetria palpebrata from macquarie and heard islands . marine ornithology . 26 : 19 - 26 .
the key breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction , based purely on the number of breeding pairs , is the population on macquarie island . however , as the total breeding population within australia is estimated at only 1600 or more pairs , all three breeding populations are likely to be important for the long - term persistence of the species within australia .
while in flight , light - mantled albatrosses spend about 77 % of the time gliding , 23 % of the time flap gliding , and 0 % of the time flapping . their small flight muscles rely on wind and ocean updrafts to support their long soaring times .
the total breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction is estimated at 1600 or more pairs . this figure is based on estimates of 500 pairs ( minimum ) at heard island ( woehler 2006 ) and 1110 pairs at macquarie island ( terauds 2000 ) and the presence of a small but non - quantified population at the mcdonald islands ( johnstone 1980 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross exhibits low breeding productivity throughout its range . pairs that breed successfully do not breed again for another two or three seasons . this behaviour , combined with low fecundity and modest rates of breeding success , means that pairs produce on average one fledging every three to four years ( brooke 2004 ; jouventin & weimerskirch 1988 ; kerry & garland 1984 ) .
reproduction of this species : the breeding season occurs between september / october and may / june . the light - mantled albatross often breeds solitary , but it can sometimes form very loose colonies . the nest - site is established on cliff ledges and steep slopes , usually backed by rock or earth . both adults build a low truncated cone - shaped nest with mud and plant materials .
in the new zealand region light - mantled sooty albatross nest on the antipodes ( 250 pairs ) , auckland ( 5000 pairs ) and campbell ( 1600 pairs ) islands and on nearby macquarie island . the new zealand populations account for around 30 % of the global population , with a world total of around 20 , 000 breeding pairs . population trend information is lacking for new zealand sites .
the breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction appears to be stable based on the few surveys conducted ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . historically , numbers may have declined during the 19th century when whalers frequented both heard and macquarie islands and probably exploited the species for food , but no anecdotal or quantitative evidence is available to confirm this ( environment australia 2001f ) .
light - mantled albatrosses invest heavily in their offspring . males and females incubate the egg for 70 days , sharing incubation in seven to nine shifts that last from 1 to 29 days in length , but average 2 to 3 days . this is the longest average incubation for any
5 . the soaring however is at the mercy of the winds . if winds drop below speeds of about 18 km per hour the light - mantled albatross will not have enough lift to stay afloat . if winds get too heavy they will be blown off - course . if they have to flap much their big wings meet too much air resistance and they tire out at a rapid pace .
light - mantled albatrosses take about seven months to complete a breeding cycle . once the fledgling flies , parents have only three to four months before the next summer . this is not enough time to prepare to breed again , so they stay at sea for an entire summer and winter , this gives them at least 14 to 15 months between breeding seasons . on average , birds do not start breeding until 12 years of age , after that they fledge a chick every five years . light - mantled albatrosses are also capable of breeding until at least age 32 .
habitat : the light - mantled albatross is pelagic and marine . it usually occurs in colder waters than p . fusca , over the continental shelf but also in deeper waters in southern ocean . it breeds on remote sub - antarctic islands and rocky islets . the nest - site is established on cliff ledges and steep slopes . however , it may also nest inland , among tussock grass and ferns .
the remains of this laysan albatross chick show the plastic ingested prior to death , including a bottle cap and lighter .
the light - mantled sooty albatross forages entirely at sea . it obtains most of its food by floating on the surface of the ocean and plucking prey items from the water with its bill ( termed ' surface seizing ' ) . it occasionally forages by diving under water while floating on the surface ( ' surface diving ' ) or by plunging into the water from in flight and partially submerging or submerging to just below the surface ( ' surface plunging ' and ' shallow plunging ' ) ( harper et al . 1985 ) . individuals fitted with depth gauges have recorded dives to 12 m below the surface . the depths of these dives , combined with the streamlined body of the light - mantled sooty albatross , suggests that individuals probably employ some form of active swimming to attain such depths ( prince et al . 1994b ) .
they are one of the smaller albatross in the antarctic and subantarctic , with a wingspan of approximately 2 . 2 metres .
bbc news . 2005 . albatross chicks attacked by mice . jonathan amos , science writer . retrieved march 6 , 2006 .
the adult plumage of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper - wing and back , white undersides , often compared to that of a gull . of these , the species range from the southern royal albatross which is almost completely white except for the ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males , to the amsterdam albatross which has an almost juvenile - like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown , particularly a strong brown band around the chest . several species of mollymawks and north pacific albatrosses have face markings like eye patches , or have gray or yellow on the head and nape . three albatross species , the black - footed albatross and the two sooty albatrosses , vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark brown ( or dark gray in places in the case of the light - mantled sooty albatross ) . albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage .
an adult light - mantled albatross was found in 29 april 2014 at 08 : 45 min , at vilatur beach ( 22° 56’ s ; 42° 26’ o ) , municipality of saquarema , rio de janeiro . its plumage was sooty , with light gray back , vinaceous dark brown head , and darker wings and tail ( figures 1a and b ) . the bird was identified through the plates and photos of seabird guides and books , the contrasting light gray back , sharply contrasting the white crescent framing the upper half of the eye and the black bill with narrow pale bluish sulcus ( central line along ramicorn ) clinching the identification ( harrison , 1983 , 1987 ; enticott and tipling , 1997 ; onley and scofield , 2007 ) .
light - mantled albatrosses form committed pair bonds . one pair on macquarie island is known to have been together for 21 years . when light - mantled albatrosses are establishing a pair bond , males and females can be seen flying side by side silently in close formation . landing and taking off are also important in courtship because mating must be done on the cliffs . a large proportion of females do the landing while the males stay put at nest sites . displays can consist of sky calls and side - preens , among other movements and vocalizations . displays conclude by the female taking off and the male following .
the impact of invasive species on islands suitable for breeding for the light - mantled sooty albatross and other seabirds is also being addressed . introduced cats have been eradicated from macquarie island ( parks & wildlife service 2006 ; carmichael 2007 ) , and a plan to eradicate introduced european rabbits , black rats ( rattus rattus ) and house mice ( mus musculus ) from macquarie island has also been developed and implemented ( tas pws 2007a ) .
after the breeding season , the light - mantled albatross disperses widely over the southern ocean . they travel northwards and can reach subtropical waters , depending on the pack ice expansion . they return to the colonies in september / october . throughout the breeding season , the adults perform long - distance foraging trips , between 1500 and 2200 km from the breeding site . short and longer foraging trips are performed alternately when they are feeding the chick .
light - mantled sooty albatross pairs sometimes breed in mixed colonies with cape petrels ( daption capense ) , grey - headed albatrosses ( thalassarche chrysostoma ) and sooty albatrosses ( phoebetria fusca ) on islands outside of australian jurisdiction ( berruti 1979 ; mougin 1970 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 ) , or near black - browed albatrosses ( thalassarche melanophris ) on heard island ( e . j . woehler 2007a , pers . comm . ) . each of these species is listed as a marine species , and the sooty albatross is also listed as a migratory species , under the epbc act .
( 2009 ) albatross foraging behaviour : no evidence for dual foraging , and limited support for anticipatory regulation of provisioning at south georgia .
6 . a light - mantled albatross’ take - off is an ungainly affair . they must find a spot where they can face into a fast - enough wind ( usually about at least 20 km per hour ) to take off without excessive flapping . if they have to flap to take off they have to skim across the surface of the water for a long distance ( sometimes more than a kilometre ) before they can attain enough speed to lift off .
carboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . light - mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
since then , further studies have in some instances supported or disproved the splits . a 2004 paper analysing the mitochondrial dna and microsatellites agreed with the conclusion that the antipodean albatross and the tristan albatross were distinct from the wandering albatross , per robertson and nunn , but found that the suggested gibson ' s albatross , diomedea gibsoni , was not distinct from the antipodean albatross ( burg and croxall 2004 ) . for the most part , an interim taxonomy of 21 species is accepted by the world conservation union ( iucn ) and many other researchers , though by no means all—in 2004 , penhallurick and wink called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 ( including the lumping of the amsterdam albatross with the wandering albatross ) ( penhallurick and wink 2004 ) , although this paper was itself controversial ( double and chambers 2004 , rheindt and austin 2005 ) . on all sides , there is the widespread agreement on the need for further research to clarify the issue .
brothers n ( 1991 ) albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean . biol conserv 55 : 255–268
albatrosses have been described as
the most legendary of all birds
( carboneras 1992 ) . an albatross is a central emblem in the rime of the ancient mariner by samuel taylor coleridge ; a captive albatross is also a metaphor for the poète maudit in a poem of charles baudelaire . it is from the former poem that the usage of albatross as a metaphor is derived ; someone with a burden or obstacle is said to have ' an albatross around their neck ' , the punishment given in the poem to the mariner who killed the albatross . in part due to the poem , there is a widespread myth that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross ; in truth , however , sailors regularly killed and ate them ( cocker and mabey 2005 ) , but they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors .
the light - mantled albatross has a circumpolar distribution in the southern ocean , mostly south of the subantarctic convergence between 40° and 60° s ( carboneras , 1992 ; brooke , 2004 ) . it is the most abundant albatross in antarctic waters ( ainley et al . , 1984 ) , with strongly pelagic habits ( carboneras , 1992 ) . in brazil there are very few records of this species , concentrated in the south of the country ( roos and piacentini , 2003 ) ; there is also a record in são paulo , corrected afterward to sooty albatross , and one still unresolved from bahia ( see roos and piacentini , 2003 ) . the cbro ( 2014 ) consider the species as a seasonal south visitor , with presumed status , but not yet confirmed .
gales , r . ( 1998 ) . albatross populations : status and threats . in : robertson , g . & r . gales , eds . the albatross : biology and conservation . page ( s ) 20 - 45 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty and sons .
unlike the true albatrosses and mollymawks , the light - mantled sooty does not breed in large colonies but nests singly on the ledges and slopes of sea cliffs , usually with a cliff above and below so as to be quite inaccessible . any site will suit so long as it has steeply falling ground below to give room for take off . the birds take off by propelling themselves outward ; no run is taken , unlike the true albatrosses . the birds return to their breeding localities during the first week of october . the young leave the nest during the 20th week , that is the third week in may .
light - mantled sooty albatross pairs conduct courtship flights in sweeping synchronised loops , frequently swapping the lead as they bank to one side , then the other . they also give an eery call in flight .
light - mantled albatrosses spend most of their lives in flight . a juvenile may spend many years at sea before returning to breed . they return to a few isolated breeding islands : prince edward islands , iles crozet , iles kerguelen , heard island , macdonald islands , macquarie island , auckland islands , campbell islands , antipodes islands , and south georgia . nesting sites are located on the faces of steep , rocky cliffs on island coasts and some inland cliffs on these islands . nest sites on cliffs can be between 15 to 2000 m from sea level . light - mantled albatrosses are the deepest diving of the albatrosses , often diving to 5 m and once being recorded as deep as 12 m .
recent tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses breeding at macquarie island with miniaturised satellite transmitters , indicate that birds spent several days foraging before returning to their nests . these flights were at an average distance of 1516 km from macquarie island and located in antarctic waters , mostly along the antarctic continent . the maximum foraging range was in average 1721 km and the total distance covered by two birds for which there were complete tracks was 6463 and 6975 km . this study confirms previous suggestions that light - mantled sooty albatrosses are able to forage in the waters of the high antarctic while breeding in the sub - antarctic . the extreme separation of feeding zones from nesting grounds has implications in terms of conservation and life - history .
anderson , d . j . , and f . cruz . 1998 .
biology and management of the waved albatross at the galapagos islands .
g . roberston and r . gales , eds . , albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton : surrey beatty and & sons . isbn 0949324825 .
safina , c . 2002 . eye of the albatross : visions of hope and survival . new york : henry holt & company . isbn 0805062297 .
this article is part of project diomedeidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each albatross , including made - up species .
each stamp features a species of albatross which breeds on south georgia and highlights an important conservation issue . artwork was done by leigh - anne wolfaardt .
until recently , it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders , swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents , predators , or death . the deployment of capillary depth recorders , which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird ( between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land ) , has shown that while some species , like the wandering albatross , do not dive deeper than a meter , some species , like the light - mantled sooty albatross , have a mean diving depth of almost 5 m and can dive as deep as 12 . 5 m ( prince et al . 1994 ) . in addition to surface feeding and diving , they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey ( cobley 1996 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross breeds from october - november to may - june ( downes et al . 1959 ; kerry & garland 1984 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; tickell 2000 ) . pairs construct a truncated cone - shaped or pedestal - like nest of peat and / or plant material ( downes et al . 1959 ; tickell 2000 ) . nests are situated on ledges or terraces of cliffs or on steep slopes and are usually backed by a wall of rock or earth ( berruti 1979 ; tickell 2000 ) .
, are widespread near the edge of the antarctic pack ice and circumpolar throughout the high southern latitudes , between around 40° and 60° latitude . in november , the northernmost latitude at which light - mantled albatrosses are found is 42° south , in february it is 46° south . young birds tend to stay towards polar , antarctic waters , while adults are distributed throughout the range .
the main documented threat for light - mantled sooty albatrosses is mortality in longline fisheries , especially on the high seas , where the main overlap of the species’ range and the fisheries occurs . however , specific information is lacking as there is very little scientific observer deployment in these fisheries . occasional captures in monitored fisheries indicates that the species has very low capture rates in longline fisheries .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is a medium - sized albatross ( length 7890 cm ; wingspan 1 . 82 . 2 m ; weight 2 . 53 . 7 kg ) . its plumage is sooty - brown except for a white crescent around each eye ; a grey or light - grey mantle , back and rump ; and a pale brownish - grey breast and belly . it has brown irides , a black bill with a pale blue or violet sulcus , and mauve or greyish - flesh legs and feet ( brooke 2004 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; tickell 2000 ) . juveniles are similar to adults but have a grey ( rather than white ) crescent around each eye ; dark ( rather than whitish ) shafts to the primaries and rectrices ; a grey , brownish or pale yellow sulcus ; and , in older immatures , mottled plumage ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .
behaviour in the wild : the light - mantled albatross feeds mainly on cephalopods such as squid and octopus , caught at night . it also consumes fish , krill , crustaceans and floating carrion . it forages at sea . the preys are caught by surface - seizing , while floating on the water . it plucks the food items with the bill . it may occasionally perform surface - diving by diving underwater while floating , and also surface - plunging by plunging into the water while flying . the bird is partially submerged or just below the surface . it usually forages alone , but it may sometimes feed with the wandering albatross ( d . exulans ) and with cetaceans . it follows the fish boats too .
carboneras , c . 1992 . family diomedeidae ( albatross ) . in handbook of birds of the world vol 1 . barcelona : lynx edicions . isbn 8487334105 .
all breeding populations of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction are located on protected land . heard island and the mcdonald islands are listed together as a world heritage property , and the islands and selected areas of the surrounding waters form heard island and mcdonald islands marine reserve . macquarie island is also listed as a world heritage property . the island , the nearby bishop and clerk islets and the surrounding inshore waters form macquarie island nature reserve ; and a selected area of the surrounding waters beyond the boundary of the nature reserve forms macquarie island marine park .
they will also follow fishing trawlers to steal fish and pick up the ship’s offal and refuse , although they tend to do this less than other forms of albatross .
the light - mantled sooty albatross breeds on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island ( downes et al . 1959 ; gales 1998 ; johnstone 1980 ) . the species occurs over waters of the australian economic exclusion and australian fishing zones around heard , mcdonald and macquarie islands and off the coasts of western australia , south australia , victoria , tasmania and nsw ( alexander 1917 ; barrett et al . 2003 ; clarke & schulz 2005 ; reid et al . 2002 ; tickell 1995 ) . two dead individuals were recovered from north stradbroke island , south - eastern queensland , in 1959 ( hines 1962 ) .
other potential threats to albatrosses and petrels within australian jurisdiction include interactions with trawl and gillnet fisheries , dependence on fishery discards , over - extraction of prey species by fisheries , marine pollution ( chemicals and solids ) , introduced rats and rabbits and avian parasites and disease ( baker et al . 2002 ) . it is not known what impacts , if any , these threats are having on light - mantled sooty albatrosses within australian jurisdiction .
of the 21 albatross species recognised by the world conservation union ( iucn ) on their iucn red list , 19 are threatened , and the other two are near threatened ( iucn 2004 ) . two species ( as recognized by the iucn ) are considered critically endangered : the amsterdam albatross and the chatham albatross . one of the main threats is commercial long - line fishing ( brothers 1991 ) , as the albatrosses and other seabirds , which will readily feed on offal ( internal organs used as bait ) , are attracted to the set bait , become hooked on the lines , and drown . an estimated 100 , 000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion . unregulated pirate ( illegal ) fisheries exacerbate the problem .
weimerskirch , h . & j . jouventin ( 1998 ) . changes in population size and demographic parameters of six albatross species in french sub - antarctic islands . in : robertson , g . & r . gales , eds . the albatross : biology and conservation . page ( s ) 84 - 91 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty and sons .
many albatross and petrel seabird species are killed in longline fisheries . longlining is one of the main methods used to catch fish and occurs in most oceans and seas in the world .
åkesson , s . , and h . weimerskirch . 2005 .
albatross long - distance navigation : comparing adults and juveniles .
journal of navigation 58 : 365 - 373 .
brothers , n . p . 1991 .
albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean .
biological conservation 55 : 255 - 268 .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses breed as monogamous pairs in the austral summer , over an extended period . like the great albatrosses , but unlike mollymawks , they breed once every two years . the single large ( 102 x 65 mm ) white egg is laid in october or november ; incubation is shared and takes about 67 days , with most hatching in december . the chick is fed by regurgitation by both parents , and fledges in may - june .
the government of south georgia & the south sandwich islands ( gsgssi ) is delighted to announce the launch of its latest stamp issue ‘albatross conservation’ . the stamps have been developed in conjunction with the royal society for the protection of birds ( rspb ) to raise awareness about the conservation status of south georgia albatross and the joint work being undertaken to better understand and protect these iconic birds .
cobley , n . d . 1996 . an observation of live prey capture by a black - browed albatross diomedea melanophrys . marine ornithology 24 : 45 - 46 . retrieved november 5 , 2007 .
auman , h . j . , j . p . ludwig , j . p . giesy , and t . colborn . 1997 .
plastic ingestion by laysan albatross chicks on sand island , midway atoll , in 1994 and 1995 .
in g . roberston and r . gales , eds . , albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton : surrey beatty and & sons . isbn 0949324825 .
weimerskirch , h . , p . jouventin & j . c . stahl ( 1986 ) . comparative ecology of six albatross species breeding on the crozet islands . ibis . 128 : 195 - 213 .
phillips , r . , j . green , b . phalan , j . croxall , p . butler . 2003 . chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study .
burg , t . m . , and j . p . croxall . 2004 .
global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex .
molecular ecology 13 : 2345 - 2355 .
the breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction is estimated at 1600 or more pairs or approximately 7 % of the estimated global breeding population . individuals that breed on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island regularly occur outside of australian jurisdiction ( parks & wildlife service 2006 ; weimerskirch & robertson 1994 ; woehler 2006 ) . for example , five satellite - tracked individuals breeding on macquarie island foraged south of the antarctic polar front at an average distance of 1516 km , and up to 2200 km , from their breeding sites ( weimerskirch & robertson 1994 ) . individuals that breed on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island could therefore be affected by threats operating outside of australian jurisdiction .
robertson , c . j . r . 1993 .
survival and longevity of the northern royal albatross .
diomedea epomophora sanfordi at taiaroa head , 1937 - 93 . emu 93 : 269 - 276 .
light mantled sooty albatrosses look very different from mollymawks , as they are brown and grey all over . they are palest on the upper side of the body and nape ( mantle ) , with a contrasting dark head . their eyes have a white crescent at the upper back edge . chicks have grey down and a striking white face mask . unlike the mollymawks that nest in dense colonies , their nests are scattered along cliff sites , usually against a rock wall for protection . breeding adults weigh about 3 kilograms .
the light - mantled sooty albatross has a widespread circumpolar distribution . the species is mostly recorded between 40º s and 60º s , but individuals have been observed as far north as 20º s , and as far south as the limit of the antarctic pack - ice to 77º50´ s ( brooke 2004 ; harrison 1983 ; tickell 2000 ) , with a single record from the northern hemisphere of a solitary individual at cordell bank off the coast of california in the united states ( morlan 1994 ) . pairs breed on prince edward islands , crozet islands ( iles crozet ) , kerguelen islands ( iles kerguelen ) , heard island , mcdonald islands , macquarie island , auckland islands , campbell island , antipodes islands and south georgia ( gales 1998 ; tickell 2000 ) .
weimerskirch , h . , clobert , j . and jouventin , p . ( 1987 ) . survival in five southern albatross species and its relationship with their life history . journal of animal ecology . 56 : 1043 - 1055 .
mougin , j . l . ( 1970 ) . les albatross fuligineux phoebetria palpebrata et p . fusca de l ' île de la possession ( archipel crozet ) . oiseau revue francais d ' ornithologie . 40 : 37 - 61 .
maintain existing population monitoring programs for albatrosses and giant - petrels breeding on macquarie island , albatross island , pedra branca , the mewstone , and within the australian antarctic territory , and develop population monitoring programs for other representative breeding populations under australian jurisdiction .
pickering , s . p . c . , and s . d . berrow . 2001 . courtship behaviour of the wandering albatross diomedea exulans at bird island , south georgia . marine ornithology 29 : 29 - 37 . retrieved november 5 , 2007 .
weimerskirch h , salamolard m , jouventin p ( 1992 ) satellite telemetry of foraging movements in the wandering albatross . in : friede ig , swift sm ( eds ) wildlife telemetry - remote monitoring and tracking of animals . ellis horwood , chichester , pp 185–198
proceeds from the sale of the stamps will be used to fund albatross conservation initiatives . the stamps can be purchased online through falklands post service ltd ( urltoken ) or through the rspb via ebay ( use the advanced search function on ebay to search for rspb ) .
in spite of often being accorded legendary status , albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans . early encounters with albatrosses by polynesians and aleut indians resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands ( such as easter island ) . as europeans began sailing the world , they too began to hunt albatross ,
fishing
for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport ( safina 2002 ) . this sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for australia , and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from , and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons . in the nineteenth century , albatross colonies , particularly those in the north pacific , were harvested for the feather trade , leading to the near extinction of the short - tailed albatross .


the pseudogarypidae are a small family of pseudoscorpions .

most recent species are found in north america , while one species is endemic to tasmania .

pseudogarypidae

the family pseudogarypidae includes two genera , pseudogarypus with several extant species in north america and several baltic amber ( eocene ) species from europe , and neopseudogarypus from tasmania .
muchmore , w . b . 1981 . cavernicolous species of larca , archeolarca , and pseudogarypus with notes on the genera , ( pseudoscorpionida , garypidae and pseudogarypidae ) . journal of arachnology 9 : 47 - 60 .
muchmore , w . b . ( 1981 ) . cavernicolous species of larca , archeolarca and pseudogarypus with notes on the genera , ( pseudoscorpionida , garypidae and pseudogarypidae ) . journal of arachnology 9 : 47 - 60 .
benedict , e . m . and malcolm , d . r . 1978 . the family pseudogarypidae ( pseudoscorpionida ) in north america with comments on the genus neopseudogarypus morris from tasmania . journal of arachnology , 6 : 81 - 104 .
benedict , e . m . and malcolm , d . r . ( 1978 ) . the family pseudogarypidae ( pseudoscorpionida ) in north america with comments on the genus neopseudogarypus morris from tasmania . journal of arachnology 6 : 81 - 104 .
henderickx , hans , veerle cnudde , bert masschaele , et al . “description of a new fossil pseudogarypus ( pseudoscorpiones : pseudogarypidae ) with the use of x - ray micro - ct to penetrate opaque amber . ” zootaxa 1305 ( 2006 ) : 41–50 . print .
henderickx h , cnudde v , masschaele b , dierick m , vlassenbroeck j , van hoorebeke l . description of a new fossil pseudogarypus ( pseudoscorpiones : pseudogarypidae ) with the use of x - ray micro - ct to penetrate opaque amber . zootaxa . 2006 ; ( 1305 ) : 41–50 .
henderickx , hans , veerle cnudde , bert masschaele , manuel dierick , jelle vlassenbroeck , and luc van hoorebeke . 2006 . “description of a new fossil pseudogarypus ( pseudoscorpiones : pseudogarypidae ) with the use of x - ray micro - ct to penetrate opaque amber . ” zootaxa ( 1305 ) : 41–50 .
henderickx , h . , cnudde , v . , masschaele , b . , dierick , m . , vlassebroeck , j . , and van hoorebeke , l . 2006 . description of a new fossil pseudogarypus ( pseudoscorpiones : pseudogarypidae ) with the use of x - ray micro - ct to penetrate opaque amber . zootaxa , 1305 : 41 - 50 .
henderickx , h . , cnudde , v . , masschaele , b . , dierick , m . , vlassenbroeck , j . , & van hoorebeke , l . ( 2006 ) . description of a new fossil pseudogarypus ( pseudoscorpiones : pseudogarypidae ) with the use of x - ray micro - ct to penetrate opaque amber . zootaxa , ( 1305 ) , 41–50 .
pseudogarypidae chamberlin : kishida , 1929 : 124 ; chamberlin , 1931a : 230 ; beier , 1932a : 239 ; beier , 1932g : 185 ; roewer , 1937 : 271 ; petrunkevitch , 1955 : 82 ; dubinin , 1962 : 442 ; benedict and malcolm , 1978b : 82 - 85 ; muchmore , 1982a : 99 ; harvey , 1985b : 150 ; harvey , 1991a : 232 ; harvey , 1992c : 1405 - 1406 .
the pseudogarypinae were first recognized by chamberlin ( 1923 ) who removed the genus pseudogarypus from the family garypidae , where it had previously been placed . chamberlin ( 1923 ) proposed a close relationship with the feaellinae , which he later recognized as a distinct family ( chamberlin 1929 ) . these two taxa have generally been considered each other’s closest relatives , although muchmore ( 1982 ) suggested that the pseudogarypidae were more similar to garypidae and its relatives , whilst the feaellidae were retained in the feaelloidea which was placed within the monosphyronida . harvey ( 1992 ) demonstrated that pseudogarypids and feaellids were sister taxa , which were referred to the feaelloidea .
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pseudogarypus synchrotron sp . n . , a new eocene fossil pseudoscorpion from baltic amber is described , propagation phase - contrast x - ray synchrotron microtomography and surface crack restoration with epoxy are used to visualize the morphology , and notes on the other fossil members of the genus are given .
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europe ( benedict and malcolm , 1978 ; harvey , 1996 , 1998 ) . four fossil species have been described from baltic amber ( harvey , 2011 ; henderickx et al . , 2006 ) . the fossil inclusions are often only partially preserved or only partially visible (
examined here are two pieces of eocene baltic amber , obtained from a dealer in lithuania ( holotype ) and in the united states ( paratype ) .
the holotype is an inclusion embedded near the surface in a dark yellow ovoid amber stone , 3 . 1 gram , 24 x 16 x 15 mm ( figure 2 . 1 ) .
the dorsal side and one chela are obscured , due to distortions in the amber . the ventral side is turned towards the surface of the amber piece , however , the specimen holds an air bubble , which obscures the larger part of the coxa ( figure 2 . 2 ) .
in order to solve some details of the anatomy of the holotype more clearly , the specimen was observed at the european synchrotron radiation facility in grenoble ( france ) , using a propagation phase contrast protocol at different resolutions . the first scan was performed in id19 beamline at 2 . 14 μm of voxel size and consisted of 1999 projections , acquired through 360 degrees rotation , with pink beam at 19 . 1 kev , 0 . 3 seconds of exposure time and 120 mm of propagation between the sample and the detector ( figure 4 ) .
optically visible details of both specimens were observed and measured using reflected and translucent illumination on a leitz microscope and a canon mp - e objective in combination with zerene stacker image processing software . all measurements are in mm ; ( length = l x width = w ) , the ratio is the length / width index of an article .
male holotype ( figure 5 ) in baltic amber , matrix dimensions 24 x 16 x 15 mm . the holotype is deposited in the mrac , royal museum for central africa , tervuren , belgium ( sample nr 236 934 ) . male paratype in baltic amber , matrix dimensions 26 x 18 x 10 mm , in coll . henderickx .
the word
synchrotron
is used here as a noun in opposition . the species epithet refers to the equipment that allowed detailed visualization of the optically hidden parts of the fossil .
a medium - large sized pseudogarypus with slender pedipalps . the posterolateral protuberances anterior of the pleural alae are extending very wide . femur length is more than 1 . 0 mm with pedipalpal fingers with moderately spaced regular teeth .
adult male . habitus figure 5 . opisthosoma ventrally covered with areas of thin , white emulsion , cuticular structure visible . colour overall orange - yellowish due to the amber matrix . ventral side turned towards amber surface , right chela partially missing , distal tip of fixed finger of left chela missing , left leg i and ii holding an air bubble which obscures the coxa and genital region , pleural folds visible , tergites and carapace invisible .
carapace wider than long ( 0 . 87x as long as width , medial measurement ) , irregular in outline , widened by two large posterolateral protuberances anterior of pleural alae . anterior margin with relatively deep notch between anterolateral and median protuberances , the latter slightly longer than the anterolateral . posterior margin elevated into a ridge . first and second pair of eyes about the diameter of one eye spaced , posterior eyes covered with cuticle , anterior eyes facing forward . cucullar furrow weak , a broad , shallow central depression , which becomes obsolete anteriorly , extending forward from an elevated median disk . carapace , sclerites , chela and leg cuticle reticulated with an irregular cellular structure . chaetotaxy of carapace and opisthosoma not visible , chelicerae not observable .
abdomen longer than wide , ovate ( l / w = 1 . 21 ) . pleural membranes raised into three folds ( figure 4 . 1 and figure 2 ) , no pleural plates , plaques or sclerite chaetotaxy observable .
the ventral side was only partially observable in visible light , but reconstructed with ppc - srµct ( figure 2 . 4 ) . figure 6 . 1 shows the coxa and sternites .
pedipalp ( figure 3 . 1 ) with reticulated cuticle , the distal part of the fingers ( trichobothrial zone ) is smooth . palpal articles cylindrical in cross - section . maxilla 2 . 45 x , trochanter 1 . 00 x , femur 6 . 88 x , patella 3 . 52 x , chela ( with pedicel ) 5 x , hand ( with pedicel ) 2 . 19 x longer than broad . femur 1 . 82 x as long as carapace . movable finger with 4 trichobothria , 4 trichobothria could be observed on the antiaxal side of the fixed chelal finger , position illustrated on figure 6 . 5 . fixed finger with 34 , movable fingers with 24 pointed teeth . the teeth in the distal part of the fingers are pointed , moderately spaced , and the most proximal teeth are reduced to small projections ( figure 1 . 1 , 1 . 4 ) . the teeth on the movable finger are triangular , pointed and on the fixed finger slightly curved proximally . the movable finger is 1 . 28 x as long as the hand . each finger has a large terminal or apical tooth ( not visible on figure 1 ) .
leg i ( figure 6 . 2 ) with trochanter 1 . 15 , femur 1 . 00 , patella 2 . 33 , tibia 3 . 25 , and tarsus 5 . 42 x longer than broad . leg iv ( figure 6 . 3 ) with trochanter 1 . 86 , femur 1 . 90 , patella 2 , 52 , tibia 5 . 37 and tarsus 10 . 5 x longer than broad . arolium shorter than claws .
measurements ( mm ) . body length 2 . 52 . pedipalp : trochanter 0 . 26 / 0 . 26 ; femur 1 . 17 / 0 . 17 ; patella 0 . 60 / 0 . 17 ; chela ( with pedicel ) 1 . 30 / 0 . 26 ; hand ( with pedicel ) 0 . 57 / 0 . 26 ; movable finger l = 0 . 73 .
carapace 0 . 64 / 0 . 74 ; cucullus l = 0 . 19 ; anterior ocular diameter 0 . 06 , posterior eyes covered , diameter with cuticle 0 . 07 . leg i : trochanter 0 . 15 / 0 . 13 ; femur 0 . 12 / 0 . 12 ; patella 0 . 28 / 0 . 12 ; tibia 0 . 26 / 0 . 08 ; tarsus 0 . 38 / 0 . 07 .
the shape of the pedipalpal teeth was interpreted from optical microscopy . on the ppc - srµct reconstruction there are artefacts at the teeth apex , giving them a longer appearance , especially on the fixed finger . this appearance is probably caused by turbulence in the amber caused by movements of the freshly trapped specimen .
opisthosoma ventrally covered with a thick white emulsion , dorsally partially obscured with white opaque amber . carapace wider than long ( 0 . 55 x 0 . 72 , 0 . 76 x ) , irregular in outline as in holotype , the posterolateral protuberances anterior of the pleural alae typically extending wide ( w = 0 . 72 , 0 . 74 in holotype ) .
dimensions . total length 2 . 53 , dimensions of chela ( figure 3 . 3 , figure 6 . 5 ) femur 1 . 19 / 0 . 19 ( 6 . 2 x ) ; patella 0 . 56 / 0 . 17 ( 3 . 29 x ) ; chela ( with pedicel ) 1 . 30 / 0 . 26 ( 5 x )
we are grateful to the esrf , id19 and bm05 beamlines that provided the beamtime necessary for these investigations .
thanks are due to m . harvey ( perth ) , v . mahnert ( genève ) , j . bosselaers ( beerse ) and the anonymous referees for correcting the manuscript ; to m . veta ( lithuania ) for the cooperation in the search for new amber inclusions .
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beier , m . 1947 . pseudoscorpione im baltischen bernstein und die untersuchung von bernstein - einschlüssen . mikroscopie , 1 : 188 - 199 .
chamberlin , j . c . 1923 . the genus pseudogarypus ellingsen ( pseudoscorpionida – feaellidae ) . entomological news , 34 : 146 - 149 , 161 - 166 .
harvey , m . s . 1996 . the biogeography of gondwanan pseudoscorpions ( arachnida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , vol . hors série : 255 - 264 .
harvey , m . s . 1998 . pseudoscorpion groups with bipolar distributions : a new genus from tasmania related to the holarctic syarinus ( arachnida , pseudoscorpiones , syarinidae ) . the journal of arachnology , 26 : 429 - 441 .
harvey , m . s . 2011 . pseudoscorpions of the world , version 2 . 0 . western australian museum , perth . urltoken
henderickx , h . 2005 . a new geogarypus from baltic amber ( pseudoscorpiones : geogarypidae ) . phegea , 33 ( 3 ) : 87 - 92 .
koch , c . l . and berendt , g . c . 1854 . die im bernstein befindlichen myriapoden , arachniden und apteren der vorwelt . in berendt , g . c . ( ed . ) die im bernstein befindlichen organischen reste der vorwelt gesammelt in verbindung mit mehreren bearbeitet und herausgegeben 1 ( 2 ) . nicolai , berlin .
lak , m . , neraudeau , d . , nel , a . , cloetens , p . , perrichot , v . , and tafforeau , p . 2008 . phase contrast x - ray synchrotron imaging : opening access to fossil inclusions in opaque amber . microscopy and microanalysis , 14 : 251 - 259 .
langenheim , j . 2003 . plant resins : chemistry , evolution , ecology and ethnobotany . timber press , portland , cambridge .
lyckgaard , a . , johnson , g . , and tafforeau , p . 2011 . correction of ring artifacts in x - ray tomographic images . international journal of tomography & statistics , 18 ( f11 ) : 1 - 9 .
perreau , m . and tafforeau , p . 2011 . three new species of leiodidae ( coleptera ) from baltic amber : pushing further the paleoentomological descriptions by virtual dissection of fossils using phase - contrast x - ray synchrotron microtomography . systematic entomology , 36 : 573 - 580 .
soriano , c . , archer , m . , azar , d . , creaser , p . , delclos , x . , godthelp , h . , hand , s . , jones , a . , neraudeau , d . , ortega - blanco , j . , perez - de la fuente , r . , perrichot , v . , saupe , e . , solorzano - kraemer , m . , and tafforeau , p . 2010 . synchrotron x - ray imaging of inclusions in amber . comptes rendus palevol , 9 : 361 - 368 .
tafforeau , p . , boistel , r . , boller , e . , bravin , a . , brunet , m . , chaimanee , y . , cloetens , p . , feist , m . , hoszowska , j . , jaeger , j . j . , kay , r . f . , lazzari , v . , mariva , l . , nel , a . , nemoz , c . , thibault , x . , vignaud , p . , and zabler , s . 2006 . applications of x - ray synchrotron microtomography for non - destructive 3d studies of paleontological specimens . applied physics a : materials , science and processing , 83 : 195 - 202 .
morris , j . c . h . ( 1948 ) . a new genus of pseudogarypin pseudoscorpions possessing pleural plates . papers and proceedings of the royal society of tasmania 1947 : 43 - 47 .
data and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .
† pseudogarypus hemprichii ( c . l . koch & berendt , 1854 ) — fossil ; baltic amber
pseudogarypus pangaea henderickx n . sp . , a new fossil pseudoscorpion from baltic amber , is described . epoxy embedding and x - ray micro - ct are used to visualize the morphology of the single available specimen .
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romanogobio uranoscopus , alternatively known as the danubian longbarbel gudgeon , danubian gudgeon , danube gudgeon or the steingressling , is a european species of freshwater cyprinid fish .

it can be found in austria , bulgaria , croatia , czech republic , germany , hungary , italy , romania , serbia and montenegro , slovakia , slovenia and ukraine .

romanogobio uranoscopus

romanogobio frici ( species ) , gobio frici ( synonym ) , romanogobio frici ( vladykov , 1925 ) ( synonym ) , romanogobio uranoscopus frici ( synonym ) .
romanogobio uranoscopus sampling stations location ; gis support danci o . | download scientific diagram
romanogobio uranoscopus ( agassiz , 1828 ) . isis ( oken ) v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn valida .
gobio uranoscopus uranoscopus ( agassiz , 1828 ) . isis ( oken ) v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn non valida .
the condition of aquatic habitats typically occupied by romanogobio uranoscopus within the maramureş mountains natural park fluctuates , in the best cases , between reduced to average . good or excellent conservation status is now absent for populations of this species in the researched area . the identified human impact types ( poaching , minor riverbeds morphodynamic changes , solid and liquid natural flow changes , destruction of the riparian vegetation and bush vegetation , habitat fragmentation / isolation of population , organic and mining pollution and displaced fish that are washed away during the periodic flooding in the lotic sectors uniformized by humans ) are contributing to the diminished ecological state of romanogobio uranoscopus habitats and for that reason populations . romanogobio uranoscopus is now considered a rare species in the studied basin but where this species was specified as missing , it has been registered with a restorative potential .
gobio frici vladykov , 1925 . über einige neue fische aus der tschechoslowakei ( karpathorussland . ) . zool . anz . 248 - 252 ; v . 64 , 249 . sinonimo junior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida . opinioni - sinonimo di gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , ma discutibile come valida sottospecie , secondo lelek 1987 : 197 , banarescu et al . 1999 : 183 , 189 . sinonimo di gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , per berg 1949 : 651 , kottelat 1997 : 62 . sinonimo di romanogobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) . località tipo : fiume teresovka , affluente del fiume tisza , nei pressi del villaggio di podplesa , ucraina . tipo : nessuno . sintipi : ( 3 ) collocazione attuale ignota .
gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz , 1828 ) . isis ( oken ) v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn non valida .
gobio uranoscopus frici vladykov , 1925 . zool . anz . v . 64 , 249 . nuova nomenclatura per
gobio frici
vladykov , 1925 . sinonimo junior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida .
naseka , a . m . and j . freyhof , 2004 romanogobio parvus , a new gudgeon from river kuban , southern russia ( cyprinidae , gobioninae ) . ichthyol . explor . freshwat . 15 ( 1 ) : 17 - 23 .
cyprinus uranoscopus agassiz , 1828 . beschreibung einer neuen species aus dem genus
cyprinus
linn . isis ( oken ) 1046 - 1049 ; v . 21 1048 pl . 12 ( fig . 1a - d ) . sinonimo senior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida . opinioni - nomenclatura valida come gobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , secondo berg 1949 : 651 , lelek 1987 : 197 , naseka 1996 : 159 , kottelat 1997 : 62 , banarescu et al . 1999 : 183 , naseka 2001 : 1380 , vassilev & pehlivanov 2005 : 169 . nomenclatura valida come romanogobio uranoscopus ( agassiz 1828 ) , per naseka & freyhof 2004 : 21 . catalogo : kottelat 1984 : 148 . lectotipo designato da banarescu 1970 : 165 . località tipo : fiume isar vicino a munich , germania . tipo : mnhn 5825 . paralectotipi : mhnn 0955 ( 5 ) ; zmb 3305 ( 4 ) .
id 425706 taxonomy ; de romanogobio frici ( species ) . pa 327682 ( parent id ) cc synonym = gobio frici cc synonym = romanogobio frici ( vladykov , 1925 ) cc synonym = romanogobio uranoscopus frici cc - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - cc this entry is a placeholder for the corresponding entry in the ncbi cc taxonomy urltoken cc - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - / /
1 . bănăduc d . , 2007 – gobio uranoscopus , in combroux i . , thieri e . and toia t . ( eds ) caiet de habitate şi specii – fişe pilot , edit . balcanic , timişoara , românia , isbn 978 - 3 - 85742 - 6 - 7 . ( in romanian )
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justification : the species is widespread and still frequent in suitable habitats ( fast flowing rivers ) in the danube drainage . however the species is particularly sensitive to pollution and damming and is locally threatened . it is suspected that the population has been declining and will continue to do so as more dams , particularly on small rivers , are built within the danube basin , but not at a rate that will qualify the species for a threatened or near threatened category .
danube drainage ( absent from danube main river except upper course and stretches with fast current ) .
still frequent in suitable habitats in the danube drainage . though the population has declined , it is extirpated from the upper danube ( 1830s ) .
habitat : riffles of small , fast - flowing rivers and bottom of large rivers with water velocities of 0 . 7 m / s and more , stone bottom , in submontane zone . young individuals prefer slow currents and shallow shoreline habitats with sand bottom . spawns in shallow habitats with very high current ( about 1 m / s ) . biology : in laboratory , spawns several times between late may and mid - september , at temperatures above 11°c . males wait for females at spawning sites . to spawn , both sexes move to surface or open water . eggs drift with current , sink to bottom and then stick to substrate . adults are nocturnal and solitary , juveniles are active at day . no data on food in the wild .
the species is sensitive to pollution and damming and is locally threatened . the population is expected to continue to decline with on - going economic development .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
nomi comuni esteri - portoghese - góbio - do - danúbio . inglese - danube gudgeon , danubian gudgeon , danubian longbarbel gudgeon . tedesco - gräßling , steingressling , steinkresse , steinkreßling , wapper . danese - donaugrundling . svedese - stenkrypare . finnico - kivitörö . russo - dunaiskii dinnousyi peskar ' , dunaiskii dlinnousyi peskar , peskar ' - verkhoglyad , pichkur dunaiskyi dovgousyi , pichkur dunaiskyi dovgousyi . polacco - kielb dlugowasy . repubblica ceca - hrouzek dlouhoploutvý . hrouzek dlouhovousý . slovacchia - hrúz fúzatý . ungherese - felpillantó külló . rumeno - porcusor de vad , chetrar , petroc . estonia - pikapoiseline roomarünt . cinese - 望天鮈 wàng tiān jū .
- kottelat , m . , 1997 . european freshwater fishes . . biologia 52 , suppl . 5 : 1 - 271 . pagina 62 .
la specie è diffusa nelle aree collinari e montane del bacino danubio , dall ' austria alla moldavia e dalla slovacchia alla bulgaria fino all ' ucraina meridionale .
anon . , 1999 fish collection database of the natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) . natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) .
anon . , 2000 the icthyological collection of the zoological museum hamburg ( zmh ) . division of icthyology and herpetology , zoological museum hamburg ( zmh ) .
anon . , 2001 fish collection database of the national museum of natural history ( smithsonian institution ) .
anon . , 2001 fish collection database of the zoological museum , university of copenhagen . zoological museum , university of copenhagen .
anon . , 2002 fish collection database of the american museum of natural history . american museum of natural history , central park west , ny 10024 - 5192 , usa .
anon . , 2003 fish collection of the royal ontario museum . royal ontario museum .
arkhipchuk , v . v . , 1999 chromosome database . database of dr . victor arkhipchuk .
baillie , j . and b . groombridge ( eds . ) , 1996 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals . iucn , gland , switzerland . 378 p .
banarescu , p . , 1964 fauna republicii populare romîne . volumul xiii . pisces - osteichthyes ( pesti ganoizi si osisi ) . editura academiei republicii populare romîne , bucuresti . 962 p .
baruš , v . and o . oliva ( eds . ) , 1995 mihulovci a ryby .
fauna r a sr . ( cyclostomata and fishes . fauna of czech republic and slovakia ) . sv . 28 academia praha .
berg , l . s . , 1964 freshwater fishes of the u . s . s . r . and adjacent countries . volume 2 , 4th edition . israel program for scientific translations ltd , jerusalem .
carausu , s . , 1952 tratat de ihtiologie . edit . acad . r . p . r . , bucurest . 802 p .
eschmeyer , w . n . , 1996 pisces . eschmeyer ' s pisces database , published on the internet in november 1996 , url : urltoken .
eschmeyer , w . n . , editor , 2005 catalog of fishes . updated database version of may 2005 .
fish . vol . 4 , life of animals . v . e . sokolov ( ed . ) , moscow : prosveschenie . 575p .
gerstmeier , r . and t . romig , 1998 die süßwasserfische europas : für naturfreunde und angler . franckh - kosmos verlag , stuttgart , germany . 368 p .
grabda , e . and t . heese , 1991 polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces . wyzsza szkola inzynierska w koszalinie . koszalin , poland . 171 p .
hanel , l . and j . novák , 2002 ceské názvy zivocichu v . ryby a ryboviti obratlovci ( pisces ) 3 . , maloústí ( gonorhynchiformes ) - máloostní ( cypriniformes ) . národní muzeum ( zoologické oddelení ) , praha .
hilton - taylor , c . , 2000 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . xviii + 61 p .
hureau , j . - c . , 1991 la base de données gicim : gestion informatisée des collections ichthyologiques du muséum . p . 225 - 227 .
in atlas preliminaire des poissons d ' eaux douce de france . conseil supérieur de la pêche , ministère de l ' environment , cemagref et muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris .
iacob , l . and i . dima , 2006 regnul animalia . eukarya . enciclopedia florei si faunei din romania .
keresztessy , k . , 1993 a magyar halfjok védettségének új szabályosása . halászat 86 ( 3 ) : 114 - 116 .
klinkhardt , m , m . tesche and h . greven , 1995 database of fish chromosomes . westarp wissenschaften .
kottelat , m . , 1997 european freshwater fishes . biologia 52 , suppl . 5 : 1 - 271 .
monnerjahn , u . , 1999 freshwater fishes of germany . a checklist compiled from german fischkataster of the bundesländer and from the german ' rote liste ' .
movchan yu . v . and a . i . smirnov , 1981 fauna of ukraine . fishes . cyprinid fishes ( roach , dace , minnow , rudd , grass carp , asp , verchovka , tench , undermouth , gudgeon , barbel ) . ( fauna ukrainy . ryby . koropovi ( plitka , yalets , golijan , krasnopirka , amur , bilyzna , verkhova , lyn , chebachok amurskyi ) . kiev , naukova dumka publishing house , 8 ( 2 ) part 1 .
muus , b . j . and p . dahlstrøm , 1990 europas ferskvandsfisk . gec gads forlag , københavn . 224p .
raicu , p . e . taisescu , and a . gristian , 1972 diploid chromosome complement of the carp . cytologia 37 : 355 - 358 .
raicu , p . e . taisescu , and p . banarescu , 1973 a comparative study of the karyotype in the genus gobio ( pisces , cyprinidae ) . cytologia 38 : 731 - 736 .
ricker , w . e . , 1973 russian - english dictionary for students of fisheries and aquatic biology . fisheries research board of canada , ottawa .
robins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott , 1991 world fishes important to north americans . exclusive of species from the continental waters of the united states and canada . am . fish . soc . spec . publ . ( 21 ) : 243 p .
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sokolov , l . i . and l . s . berdicheskii , 1989 acipenseridae . p . 150 - 153 . in j . holcík ( ed . ) the freshwater fishes of europe . vol . 1 , part ii . general introduction to fishes acipenseriformes . aula - verlag wiesbaden . 469 p .
swedish museum of natural history , 1999 nrm ichthyology collection database . ichthyology section , department of vertebrate zoology , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden .
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vilcinskas , a . , 1993 einheimische süsswasserfische : alle arten : merkmale , verbreitung , lebensweise . naturbuch verlag , augsburg , germany , 207 p .
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1 “lucian blaga” university of sibiu , applied ecology research centre , dr . ion raţiu street 5 - 7 , sibiu , sibiu county , romania , ro - 550012 , ad . banaduc @ urltoken
2 “lucian blaga” university of sibiu , faculty of sciences , dr . ion raţiu street 5 - 7 , sibiu , sibiu county , romania , ro - 550012
2 . bănăduc d . , prots b . and curtean - bănăduc a . ( eds ) , 2011 – the upper tisa river basin ,
3 . bănărescu p . m . , 1964 − fauna r . p . române , pisces - osteichthyes , xiii , edit . academiei române , 959 . ( in romanian )
5 . curtean - bănăduc a . and bănăduc d . , 2012 ‒ aspecte privind impactul deversării apelor uzate asupra sistemelor ecologice lotice receptoare , în apa resursă fundamentală a dezvoltării durabile . metode şi tehnici neconvenţionale de epurare şi tratare a apei , ii , edit . universităţii „lucian blaga” din sibiu , isbn 978 - 973 - 739 - 569 , 121 - 157 . ( in romanian )
8 . romanescu g . , miftode d . , pintilie mihu a . , stoleriu c . c . and sandu i . , 2016 – water quality analysis in mountain freshwater : poiana uzului reservoir in the eastern carpathians ,
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barcode of life data systems ( bolds ) stats public records : 0 specimens . . .
danube drainage ( absent from danube main river except upper course and . . .
habitat : riffles of small , fast - flowing rivers and bottom . . .
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conservation status assesses every six years and for each biogeographical region the condition of habitats and species compared to the favourable status as described in the habitats directive . the map shows the 2007 - 2012 assessments as reported by eu member state . assessments are further detailed in the summary document available behind the link below .
: the species is viable and maintaining itself on a long - term basis , its natural range is not reduced , and it has a sufficient large habitat .
: the species is not as critical as being unfavourable - bad , but still requires significant conservation and restoration measure to make it viable in the long - term , or to enlarged its current range , or to improve the quality and availability of its habitat .
: the species is either not maintaining itself on a long - term basis and is not viable , or its natural range as been or is being drastically reduced , or its habitat is largely insufficient ; the species requires major conservation and restoration measures .
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annex ii : animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation .
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you selected góbio - do - danúbio ( portuguese ) . this is a common name for :
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c42d7 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3257953e - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 32579fd6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3617988d - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
europe : danube drainage ( absent from danube main river except upper course and stretches with fast current ) . in appendix iii of the bern convention ( protected fauna ) .
froese r . & pauly d . ( eds ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase ( version feb 2018 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 631f4fcd - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
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transylvanian review of systematical and ecological research ; sibiu vol . 19 , iss . 1 , ( 2017 ) : 71 - 84 .
the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2018 - 1 . < urltoken > . downloaded on 09 july 2018 .
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