turbinaria is a genus of colonial stony corals in the family dendrophylliidae .

common names for this genus include disc coral , scroll coral , cup coral , vase coral , pagoda coral and ruffled ridge coral .

these corals are native to the red sea , indian ocean , japan and the south central pacific ocean .

turbinaria ( coral )

yellow turbinaria ? ? ? ? yellow turbinaria help with turbinaria peltata ! doomed turbinaria turbinaria coral question . turbinaria peltata
turbinaria coral is also commonly known as pagoda cup coral , cup coral , bowl coral , scroll coral , octopus coral , vase coral and lettuce coral .
bowl coral , cup coral , folded lettuce coral , scroll coral , vase coral .
genus are known for are turban coral , cup coral , scroll coral , yellow scroll coral , yellow cup coral , pagoda coral , vase coral , and chalice coral .
shapes are reflected in the turban coral ' s other common names including cup coral , pagoda cup coral , green cup coral , chalice coral , column coral , bowl coral , octopus coral , plate coral , vase coral , disk coral , platter coral , and saucer coral .
was described by bernard in 1896 . other common names they are known for are vase coral , scrolling turbinaria coral , turban coral , yellow scroll coral , yellow lettuce coral , yellow turbinaria , and bowl coral .
turbinaria coral belongs to the kingdom animalia , phylum cnidaria , class anthozoa , family dendrophylliidae and genus turbinaria .
shapes are reflected in some of the scroll coral ' s other common names like vase coral , turban coral , scrolling turbinaria coral , and yellow lettuce coral .
was described by dana in 1846 . other common names they are known for are cup coral , pagoda cup coral , green cup coral , chalice coral , column coral , bowl coral , octopus coral , plate coral , vase coral , disk coral , platter coral , and saucer coral .
the turbinaria peltata ( commonly known as a pagoda cup coral ) is yet another aptly nicknamed coral .
turbinaria mesenterina and turbinaria peltata on the iucn red list of threatened species website : technical fact sheet .
the base of turbinaria coral is generally yellow with short and round yellow polyps .
place turbinaria coral anywhere between the bottom and the middle of your marine aquarium .
flowery disk coral turbinaria peltata colony flat plate often ruffled so it resembles a cabbage .
the turbinaria species is easy to maintain however , the variety of turbinaria coral with thin plates on its body is the most difficult to maintain .
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the turbinaria species may have detritus and mucus deposited on the coralís body which may adversely affect it . therefore , regularly clean the surface of turbinaria coral .
turbinaria mesenterina and turbinaria peltata on corals of the world online on the australian institute of marine science website : technical fact sheet .
the main source of nutrition in turbinaria coral is photosynthesis which is performed by zooxanthellae , a photosynthetic alga living symbiotically within the coral .
water flow in the aquarium : turbinaria coral needs medium water flow in the marine aquarium hosting it .
the coloration of the turbinaria species may vary with the intensity of light the coral is exposed to .
turbinaria coral has a hard skeleton shaped like a cup , a plate , a vase or a cone .
the hard skeleton of the turbinaria species is covered with a thin velvety skin .
information on turbinaria stellulata is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
information on turbinaria heronensis is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the turbinaria species requires moderate to high intensity lighting in the reef aquarium it inhabits .
give ample space to the turbinaria species to grow and spread itself fully without obstruction .
is a popular coral among all the levels of aquarists . owing to its hardy nature , varied colors and patterns , turbinaria coral is an attractive proposition for a marine aquarium .
spawning of female ( a ) and male ( b ) turbinaria reniformis colonies observed at the eilat coral nature reserve in july 2016 .
turbinaria coral feeds upon acellualr marine invertebrates , the meaty bits of raw shrimp , silver side and mysis shrimp , phytoplankton and zooplankton .
the nemenzophyllia turbida ( commonly known as a fox coral ) is a spectacular display coral .
sex ratio of turbinaria mesenterina populations in eilat ( iui ) and aqaba ( mss ) .
species can be grouped as small polyp stony ( sps ) corals or as large polyp stony ( lps ) corals . the scrolling turbinaria coral
the fungia repanda ( commonly known as a short tentacle plate coral ) is an unusual coral .
temporal changes in oocyte and spermary development in turbinaria reniformis from eilat ( gulf of aqaba ) .
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shows how coral - macroalgal frequency of contact varied across sites as a function of coral - macroalga identity .
turbinaria coral originates from the indo - pacific region including the islands of fiji , tonga , solomon and the great barrier reef , the red sea and polynesia .
the turbinaria species occurs in brown , tan , purple , green , yellow , grey and cream colors .
the turbinaria species is carnivorous in feeding habit and filter feeds a few times per week , when open .
photos of representative coral fragments from ( a ) acropora millepora , ( b ) pocillopora damicornis , ( c ) montipora monasteriata , and ( d ) turbinaria reniformis .
turbinaria on reef corals of the indo - malayan seas , the marine species identification portal : technical fact sheet .
figure 3 : temporal changes in oocyte and spermary development in turbinaria reniformis from eilat ( gulf of aqaba ) .
, but did not differ significantly for the other 5 coral species . pooling across coral species to evaluate each macrophyte ' s association with corals in general , coral associations with
the turbinaria species forms large , laminar colonies which develop convoluted shape in shallow waters to straight or upright in depth .
great if you can keep the turbinaria species in an aquarium populated more with small polyp stony ( sps ) corals .
the turban coral is a great beginner ' s coral that delivers a high satisfaction rating . it is one of the easiest
a large , well - developed colony of turbinaria bifrons pictured here from the great barrier reef . photo by len zell .
turbinaria mesenterina is similar in appearance to turbinaria reniformis , but can be recognised by its slightly different colour , more horizontal than vertical fronds , and smoother appearance ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . turbinaria peltata also occurs in similar conditions to this species , but can be distinguished by its thicker plates and larger polyps , whose tentacles are often extended during the day ( 5 ) .
turbinaria stellulata , commonly known as disc coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family dendrophylliidae . it is native to the indo - pacific region . the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being
vulnerable
.
turbinaria bifrons is one of only two species in the genus to display this clear - cut distinction of having corallites on both sides of its upright plates . the other species being turbinaria conspicua , which was once synonymized with t . bifrons , making it all the more confusing in terms of taxonomy , but you don’t need to be a coral taxonomist to appreciate this coral’s incredibly unique growing shape .
like all coral species , turbinaria bifrons is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that all international trade is strictly controlled by the use of permits and annual quotas ( 2 ) . in addition , turbinaria bifrons falls within several marine protected areas across its range ( 1 ) .
the larger the polyps on the coral are , the easier it is for the coral to feed appropriately . this is because the polyps on the coral contain the incredibly tiny organism known as zooxanthellae , within their tissue .
the plerogyra sp ( commonly known as a bubble coral ) is a very unique coral . it looks like a pink cluster of grapes upon first inspection .
closer inspection of the unusual coral revealed that the corallites were recognizable as being those of a turbinaria and seeing them on both sides confirmed that this was indeed a colony of the t . bifrons we sought after for so many years . luckily since the coral was devoid of color and its true potential was unknown to coral collectors besides ourselves and julian sprung , carolina aquatics put a fair price on this colony so that the coral could go to a good home .
turbinaria bifrons is quite simply unlike any coral anyone has ever seen , and it is perhaps one of the rarest stony coral species in the aquarium hobby . when we say t . bifrons is rare we don’t mean rare as in a strain of a particular highly desired echniophyllia , a genus that is practically overrepresented in aquaria .
a study of the sea most curious creature , this stunning sculpture recreates the nuanced beauty of ocean coral . this resin replica is molded from real pieces of coral and set on a clear crystal pedestal . coral cast from resin clear . . .
a study of the seas most curious creature , this stunning sculpture recreates the nuanced beauty of ocean coral . the resin replica is molded from real pieces of coral and set on a clear crystal pedestal . coral cast from resin . . . .
marshall at , clode p ( 2004 ) calcification rate and the effect of temperature in a zooxanthellate and an azooxanthellate scleractinian reef coral . coral reefs 23 : 218–224 .
hoegh - guldberg o ( 1999 ) climate change , coral bleaching and the future of the world ' s coral reefs . marine and freshwater research 50 : 839–866 .
percent coral and macroalgal cover ( mean + se ) in marine protected areas ( mpas ) and adjacent non - mpas associated with three sites along the coral coast .
turbinaria bifrons is found in the indo - west pacific , from southern japan , through the south china sea and indonesia , south to tropical australia ( 1 ) .
this coral is common in shallow , turbid reef habitats , where it may be a dominant species ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . turbinaria mesenterina has been recorded at depths of up to 20 metres ( 1 ) .
turbinaria is one of just four hermatypic ( reef - building ) coral genera within the dendrophylliidae family ( 3 ) . like other hermatypic corals , turbinaria mesenterina obtains most of its nutrients from microscopic algae , known as zooxanthellae , which live within its tissues and produce energy - rich nutrients through photosynthesis . the diet may also be supplemented with zooplankton , caught using stinging cells on the tentacles ( 3 ) ( 9 ) .
from upwelling and non - upwelling environments in panama . coral reefs 23 : 473–483 .
our experience with the easy bleaching potential of turbinaria heronensis imparted on us a very cautious approach to lighting up this coral and we took several weeks to move it into more or less direct lighting . now more than three months since acquiring the coral , it has settled into captive aquarium life and its relative beauty is much easier to appreciate .
like many coral species , turbinaria bifrons is zooxanthellate , which means that its tissues contain large numbers of single - celled algae called zooxanthellae . the coral and the algae have a symbiotic relationship , in which the algae gain a stable environment within the coral ' s tissues , while the coral receives nutrients produced by the algae through photosynthesis . by harnessing the sun ' s energy in this way , corals are able to grow rapidly and form vast reef structures , but are constrained to live near the water surface ( 3 ) .
turbinaria mesenterina is a species of hard coral of the family dendrophylliidae . this specimen was found at poruma island reef in the torres strait as part of a biodiversity survey in january 2014 . the taxonomic classification for this photo was performed by paul muir from the museum of tropical queensland . for more information see the aims coral fact sheet for this species .
turbinaria radicalis is a species of hard coral of the family dendrophylliidae . this specimen was found at aureed island reef in the torres strait as part of a biodiversity survey in january 2014 . the taxonomic classification for this photo was performed by paul muir from the museum of tropical queensland . for more information see the aims coral fact sheet for this species .
how to cite this article : rapuano , h . et al . reproductive strategies of the coral turbinaria reniformis in the northern gulf of aqaba ( red sea ) . sci . rep . 7 , 42670 ; doi : 10 . 1038 / srep42670 ( 2017 ) .
frequencies of coral - macroalgal contacts were assessed with 30 additional 30 m transects per study area , in which each coral colony was visually examined to verify the presence or absence of contact with upright macroalgae . all coral - macroalgal contacts within 2 m of each transect were recorded , interacting corals and macroalgae were identified , frequencies of each coral - macroalgal contact were computed , and each contacted coral was examined for bleaching or death in the area of contact .
it is a small , round coral with variegating shades of red , purple and blue .
sofonia , j . j . and anthony , k . r . n . ( 2008 ) high - sediment tolerance in the reef coral turbinaria mesenterina from the inner great barrier reef lagoon ( australia ) . estuarine , coastal and shelf science , 78 : 748 - 752 .
attached is a pretty recent picture of my tank before i picked up the new coral . i got another birdsnest frag , the cup coral , cactus coral and an orange digi frag . maybe the bottom left where there ' s a frag plug with a single zoa on it ? i can move the zoa somewhere else and leave that space open for the cup coral .
fitt wk , brown be , warner me , dunne rp ( 2001 ) coral bleaching : interpretation of thermal tolerance limits and thermal thresholds in tropical corals . coral reefs 20 : 51–65 .
glm with repeated measures for damage size of coral colonies upon contact with macroalga in two experiments : ( 1 ) experimental addition of chlorodesmis fastigiata and galaxaura filamentosa to five coral species , with two between - subject fixed factors ( coral species , algal species ) and ( 2 ) removal of macroalgal contacts with two between - subject fixed factors ( coral species , treatment ) .
the main defining differences between an lps coral and an sps coral are ( obviously ) the difference in the size of their polyps , and the difference in their light and food requirements .
encrusting disk coral colony plate - like thick ( 1cm ) encrusting , edges against the surface .
effects of eutrophication on reef - building corals . iii : reproduction of the reef - building coral
partial pressure controls the calcification rate of a coral community . global change biology 6 : 329–334 .
wilkinson , c . ( 2008 ) status of coral reefs of the world : 2008 . global coral reef monitoring network and reef and rainforest research center , townsville , australia . available at : urltoken
marubini f , ferrier - pages c , furla p , allemand d ( 2008 ) coral calcification responds to seawater acidification : a working hypothesis towards a physiological mechanism . coral reefs 27 : 491–499 .
veal cj , carmi m , fine m , hoegh - guldberg o ( 2010 ) increasing the accuracy of surface area estimation using single wax dipping of coral fragments . coral reefs 29 : 893–897 .
did not vary with coral colony size . correlations of colony size versus extent of final damage were non - significant ( p≥0 . 31 ) for each of the 10 coral - algal species pairings (
turbinaria bifrons occurs in shallow reefs in tropical waters between depths of 2 and 25 metres , as well as in rocky areas within the intertidal zone in subtropical locations ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .
average lipid , protein , carbohydrate concentrations , and tissue biomass of ( a–d ) acropora millepora , ( e–h ) pocillopora damicornis , ( i–l ) montipora monasteriata , and ( m–p ) turbinaria reniformis .
ruffled disk coral colony plate - like thin ( 0 . 5cm ) edges often folded into ruffles .
never caused visible damage ( bleaching or mortality ) to any of the 6 coral species they contacted .
they are far more likely to breed or successfully fragment in captivity than small polyp stony coral are .
turbinaria mesenterina occurs across the indian ocean , red sea , gulf of aden , arabian gulf , and the western and central pacific ocean ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) .
morphological variation in the reef corals turbinaria mesenterina and pavona cactus : synthesis of transplant , histocompatibility , electrophoresis , growth , and reproduction studies phd thesis , james cook university of north queensland ( 1987 ) .
frequency of corals with macroalgal contact causing no damage , bleaching , mortality , or mortality with algal overgrowth in three study sites along coral coast , fiji ( n≥15 for each coral - macroalga species pair ) .
having once acquired a piece of t . bifrons so long ago , this species is one that has been on our rare - coral radar for years but in an interesting turn of events , it was the coral that found us ! while perusing the many coral tanks at macna earlier this year in denver , orlando salazar of aqua medic live brought us over to the display of carolina aquatics to test our coral knowledge .
this species occurs in shallow reefs and rocky foreshores of subtropical locations . the maximum size is approximately 1 m . this species is found from 2 - 25 m . turbinaria is the only reef - building ( hermatypic ) coral in the family dendrophylliidae and sometimes contributes significantly toward coral cover . it is especially common on reef slopes , and colonies may be large and come in a variety of forms ( wood 1983 ) .
effects of eutrophication on reef - building corals . iii : reproduction of the reef - building coral porites porites
the reproduction of the red sea coral stylophora pistillata . ii . synchronization in breeding and seasonality of planulae shedding
partial pressure and temperature on photosynthesis and calcification in a scleractinian coral . global change biology 9 : 1660–1668 .
jokiel pl , maragos je , franzisket l ( 1978 ) coral growth : buoyant weight technique . in : stoddart dr , johannes re , editors . coral reefs : resesarch methods . paris : unesco . 529–541 .
biomass of herbivorous fishes in mpas and non - mpas at three sites along the coral coast , fiji .
the trachyphyllia sp . ( commonly known as a brain coral ) is a bright , relatively small species .
no we mean this coral is rare as in we’ve only seen it twice , the first time being more than seven years ago and only one other time more recently at macna . furthermore there exists scantly no more images of the unusual “two - face” turbinaria than what is included in the veron’s corals of the world .
) . these contrasts were not confounded by coral colony size ; colony size did not differ among any of the five treatments used for each coral - algal pairing ( p > 0 . 05 for all species ) .
average chlorophyll a concentrations and symbiont density for ( a , b ) acropora millepora , ( c , d ) pocillopora damicornis , ( e , f ) montipora monasteriata , and ( g , h ) turbinaria reniformis .
our colony of turbinaria bifrons has settled into a nice but not flashy forest green color with pinkish polyps that have a whitish oral disc . the edges of the bifacial plates are light brown bordering on pink and where the edges face the predominant flow , you can easily see two rows of corallites where the coral is growing fastest .
scroll corals do well in a mixed reef , a small polyp stony ( sps ) coral tank , or a large polyp stony ( lps ) coral tank . they do need to be kept away from contact with polyps of
yellow cup corals do well in a mixed reef , a small polyp stony ( sps ) coral tank , or a large polyp stony ( lps ) coral tank . they do need to be kept away from contact with polyps of
willis b . l . morphological variation in the reef corals turbinaria mesenterina and pavona cactus : synthesis of transplant , histocompatibility , electrophoresis , growth , and reproduction studies phd thesis , james cook university of north queensland ( 1987 ) .
it may form conspicuous dome - shaped colonies on upper reef slopes . unlike other turbinaria , this species is seldom found in turbid waters . the maximum size is 50 cm . this species is found from 2 - 15 m .
the present study highlights growing evidence for the potential importance of detrimental interactions between macroalgae and corals to reef dynamics . greater susceptibility of some coral species to macroalgal contacts may result in a cascading effect throughout the community and could reduce coral resilience in areas dominated by macroalgae . as macroalgae increase on tropical reefs , macroalgal competition and allelopathy could produce feedbacks that suppress coral resilience , prevent coral recovery , and promote the stability of algal beds in habitats previously available to corals .
. ft . lauderdale , florida , 7–11 july 2008 : proceedings of the 11th international coral reef symposium . 57–61p .
fine m , tchernov d ( 2007 ) scleractinian coral species survive and recover from decalcification . science 315 : 1811 .
the caulastrea curvata ( commonly known as a trumpet coral ) is aptly named ; shaped like a small yellow trumpet .
fong p , paul v ( 2011 ) coral reef algae . in : dubinsky z , noga s , editors . coral reefs : an ecosystem in transition . netherlands : springer science + business media b . v . pp . 241–272 .
in general , the greatest threat to coral species is believed to be global climate change , which is likely to lead to an increase in severe storms , and to increased ocean acidification , which can reduce the ability of a coral to produce its hard skeleton . rising sea temperatures can also lead to coral bleaching , in which the coral expels it zooxanthellae , often resulting in death . in addition , coral reefs are under pressure from a range of localised threats including human development , destructive fishing practices , pollution , sedimentation , disease and invasive species ( 1 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) ( 11 ) .
reef coral reproduction in the eastern pacific : costa rica , panamá , and galápagos islands ( ecuador ) . ii . poritidae
the cynarina sp ( commonly known as a button coral ) species is known to be peaceful towards other invertebrates and fish .
is fairly easy through fragmenting . coral farmers may use sexual reproduction to propagate in the future , as it has been successful .
erez j , reynaud s , silverman j , schneider k , allemand d ( 2011 ) coral calcification under ocean acidification and global change . in : stambler n , dubinsky z , editors . coral reefs : an ecosystem in transition : springer . 552p .
study sites at votua , vatu - o - lailai , and namada villages along the coral coast of viti levu , fiji .
average daily calcification rate during the first and the second half of the experiment for ( a , b ) acropora millepora , ( c , d ) pocillopora damicornis , ( e , f ) montipora monasteriata , and ( g , h ) turbinaria reniformis .
385 to 425 ppm . if a large poly stony ( lps ) coral does not have enough calcium , it will not grow .
thin disk coral colony plate - like thin ( 0 . 2 - 0 . 5cm ) shaped into a cup or inverted cone .
this zooxanthellae ; or photosynthetic algae ; provides the coral with food ; but only if there is enough light absorbed through the polyps .
like other colony - forming corals , turbinaria bifrons colonies are composed of numerous small polyps , which are soft - bodied animals , related to anemones . each polyp bears numerous tentacles that direct food into a central mouth , where it is digested in a sac - like body cavity . one of the most remarkable and ecologically important features of corals is that the polyps secrete a hard skeleton , called a “corallite” , which over successive generations contributes to the formation of a coral reef . the coral skeleton forms the bulk of the colony , with the living polyp tissue comprising a thin , often colourful , veneer . in turbinaria bifrons , colonies initially form flat , solid plates , but as the coral develops , many sheet - like , wavy fronds grow upwards from this foundation . the polyps , which are found on both sides of these fronds , form small conical projections , which may be coloured grey , green or brown ( 3 ) .
( a ) percentage of individual corals in contact with macroalgae ( letters indicate significant groupings ) and ( b ) the proportion of coral colony perimeter ( for 5 common coral species pooled ) in contact with macroalgae . numbers provide sample sizes for pooled samples at each location ( data by coral type available in fig . s1 ) . letters indicate significant groupings ( p < 0 . 001 for all contrasts ) .
chou , l . m . , 1998 . a guide to the coral reef life of singapore . singapore science centre . 128 pages .
johannes re , wiebe wj ( 1970 ) a method for determination of coral tissue biomass and composition . limnology and oceanography 21 : 540–547 .
donner sd ( 2009 ) coping with commitment : projected thermal stress on coral reefs under different future scenarios . plos one 4 : e5712 .
frequency of coral - macroalgal contacts were 5–15 times greater in non - mpas versus mpas ( p < 0 . 001 for all comparisons ,
the favities spp ( another species that is commonly known as a brain coral ) is one of the few aggressive species recommended for beginners .
the proportion of the perimeter of coral colonies in contact with macroalgae inside and outside mpas was compared for each of the three sites with two - way anova ( with site and protection status as fixed factors ) . for each site , two comparisons were done : 1 ) considering each coral species separately , and 2 ) pooling all coral species within the same study site . data were arcsine transformed to meet normality assumptions .
number of contacts ( % ) of 7 scleractinian coral species with 5 macroalgal species inside ( mpa ) and outside ( non - mpa ) marine protected areas in three study sites in fiji . n = number of colonies surveyed in each study location as a function of coral species .
sexual reproduction of the solitary sunset cup coral leptopsammia pruvoti ( scleractinia : dendrophylliidae ) in the mediterranean . 1 . morphological aspects of gametogenesis and ontogenesis
marubini f , atkinson mj ( 1999 ) effects of lowered ph and elevated nitrate on coral calcification . marine ecology progress series 188 : 117–121 .
rodrigues lj , grottoli ag ( 2007 ) energy reserves and metabolism as indicators of coral recovery from bleaching . limnology and oceanography 52 : 1874–1882 .
one of many from the turbinaria genus , the peltata species is also known as the pagoda cup coral . they are big eaters ! this video shows a well fed specimen as shown by it ' s many polyps . the better fed , the more polyps appear . fragging is best done with a band or electric saw for an even cut . this is one of the best beginner corals , yet it is cherished by intermediate and advanced aquarists alike .
the pagoda coral is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .
colonies were observed spawning , no other scleractinian coral species were seen spawning at the same time . only two species were observed spawning on the same nights as
has not been monitored but as a shallow water coral it is affected by these factors . it has a wide range but is an uncommon species and the
coral calcification has been predicted to decrease dramatically by the end of this century , thus threatening the existence of coral reefs in the future . although the response of coral calcification is not uniform across species , most studies have found that calcification decreases with increasing seawater p co 2 [ 75 ] – [ 77 ] . here , we show that only one of the four pacific coral species studied here decreased calcification in response to average ocean acidification levels expected by the second half of this century ( 741 µatm ) , even when combined with elevated temperature ( + 2 . 5°c ) . further , we investigated for the first time the effects of oa on coral energy reserves and show that they were largely not metabolized in order to sustain calcification under elevated p co 2 and temperature .
while , on average , zooxanthellate coral can obtain around 70 percent of its nutrient requirements from zooxanthellae photosynthesis , the coral may also feed on zooplankton ( 4 ) . the polyps ' tentacles , which in this species are mostly extended at night , contain stinging cells called “nematocysts” that trap the drifting zooplankton , directing it into the central mouth , which also acts as an anus to excrete waste products after digestion ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . neighbouring polyps within a turbinaria bifrons colony are linked by small tubes that distribute water and nutrients evenly , creating a similar rate of growth , and preventing competition for space ( 3 ) .
corals also have variations in their polyps . one side of any plate or column generally has polyps or at least tissue coverage . the color of the scrolling coral
pandolfi jm , connolly sr , marshall dj , cohen al ( 2011 ) projecting coral reef futures under global warming and ocean acidification . science 333 : 418–422 .
the lobophyllia sp ( another species that is commonly known as a brain coral ) is a magnificent , bright orange species that is semi - aggressive as well .
muscatine l , mccloskey lr , marian re ( 1981 ) estimating the daily contribution of carbon from zooxanthellae to coral animal respiration . limnology and oceanography 26 : 601–611 .
dove s , ortiz j - c , enriquez s , fine m , fisher p , et al . ( 2006 ) response of holosymbiont pigments from the scleractinian coral
lesser mp ( 2013 ) using energetic budgets to assess the effects of environmental stress on corals : are we measuring the right things ? coral reefs 32 : 25–33 .
trotter j , montagna p , mcculloch mt , silenzi s , reynaud s , et al . ( 2011 ) quantifying the ph ‘vital effect’ in the temperate zooxanthellate coral
specific conservation measures recommended for this species include carrying out extensive studies of its population , biology , and ecology , along with more research into existing and potential threats . in response to the threat of climate change , artificial propagation and preservation of sperm and eggs may become necessary to safeguard turbinaria bifrons against complete extinction ( 1 ) .
has calices ( opening of the corallite ) that are 3 to 5 mm in diameter , so they are most often grouped as an lps coral . others , such as the
we thank e . zebrowski , m . berzelis , m . ringwald , s . levas , and the staff at reef systems coral farm for their field and laboratory support .
cantin ne , cohen al , karnauskas kb , tarrant am , mccorkle dc ( 2010 ) ocean warming slows coral growth in the central red sea . science 329 : 322–325 .
turbinaria bifrons is capable of both asexual reproduction , whereby the polyps proliferate through the production of clones , and by sexual reproduction , in which the polyps spawn large numbers of sperm and eggs . the fertilised eggs develop into planktonic larvae , which travel through the water column , before settling and metamorphosing into a sessile polyp ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
the second experiment assessed coral recovery after removal of allelopathic macroalgae . thirty colonies of pocillopora damicornis and 30 of porites lobata showing damage due to contact with galaxaura filamentosa were located , and 15 of each species assigned to : ( 1 ) macroalgal removal or ( 2 ) macroalgal retention ( control ) . each coral was photographed periodically over 42 days to determine coral condition . change in area damaged was assessed using image j . living corals in contact with c hlorodesmis fastigiata were rare at this site , preventing an experiment with this species .
a live rock / reef environment with a sandy substrate is what is needed for your scroll coral , along with some fish for organic matter production . a mature tank is recommended .
a live rock / reef environment with a sandy substrate is what is needed for your turban coral , along with some fish for organic matter production . a mature tank is recommended .
chan ncs , connolly sr ( 2012 ) sensitivity of coral calcification to ocean acidification : a meta - analysis . global change biology : doi : 10 . 1111 / gcb . 12011
we used a range of coral colony sizes in our experiments . to assess whether we might be confounding treatments with colony size effects , we ran a one way anova for each of the five coral species using treatments ( chlorodesmis fastigiata , galaxaura filamentosa , control alga 1 , control alga 2 , no alga ) as fixed factors and colony size as the variable .
coral cay conservation l ( 2005 ) fisheries resource assessment report for the korolevu - i - wai - qoliqoli , viti levu . suva : university of south pacific . 68 p .
miththapala , s . ( 2008 ) coral reefs . coastal ecosystems series ( volume 1 ) . ecosystems and livelihoods group asia , iucn , colombo , sri lanka . available at : urltoken
nakamura m , ohki s , suzuki a , sakai k ( 2011 ) coral larvae under ocean acidification : survival , metabolism , and metamorphosis . public library of science one 6 : e14521
there are a few sps corals ( small polyp stony corals ) that are also recommended for beginning enthusiasts , but these require a lot more care than their large polyp stony coral relatives .
caulastrea furcata is a pretty peace - loving coral ; i haven’t seen it battle with other species for nutrients and space , but it does need to be fed frequently to grow well .
six parent colonies of acropora millepora , pocillopora damicornis , montipora monasteriata , and turbinaria reniformis were purchased from reef systems coral farm ( new albany , ohio , usa ) which is a cites permit holder . the parent colonies were specifically collected for this experiment from 3–10 m in northwest fiji ( 17°29′19″s , 177°23′39″e ) in april 2011 . colonies of the same species were collected at least 10 m apart to increase the probability that different genotypes of the same species were selected . all colonies were shipped to reef systems coral farm and maintained in recirculating indoor aquaria with natural light ( greenhouse , 700–1000 µmol quanta m −2 s −1 ) and commercially available artificial seawater ( instant ocean reef crystals ) for 2 . 5 months until the start of the experiment .
however , maintaining energy reserves and tissue biomass under ocean acidification does have crucial implications for other aspects of coral health and resistance to stressors such as coral bleaching . for example , maintenance of lipid concentrations may enable corals to maintain their reproductive output [ 98 ] , even under future oa and warming . this may be critical considering that many other processes involved in coral reproduction such as fertilization , settlement success , and metamorphosis are compromised under oa [ 99 ] , [ 100 ] . furthermore , maintenance of energy reserves has been shown to be associated with higher resistance to coral bleaching and to promote recovery from bleaching [ 46 ] , [ 49 ] , which could prove critical as bleaching events will increase in frequency over the coming decades [ 101 ] .
loya y , sakai k , yamazato k , nakan y , sambali h , et al . ( 2001 ) coral bleaching : the winners and the losers . ecology letters 4 : 122–131 .
the polyps of the turban coral are big and frilly , covering the underlying skeleton so well that the coral almost looks furry . they use their polyps to capture and eat larger foods . a coral you may see at the stores may not have as many polyps , due to lack of feeding , yet they are still quite large as far as the polyp is concerned and easy to identify . the polyps also use mucus secretions to both capture food and get rid of waste . their colors can be brown , yellow , gray , and greenish gray blue with some cream . .
are found in the indo - pacific ocean , indian ocean , eastern africa and around australia in the great barrier reef , coral sea , lord howe island , solitary islands , and cape naturaliste .
nr indicates the eilat coral nature reserve , iui the interuniversity institute of marine sciences in eilat , and mss the marine science station in aqaba . the map was drawn using adobe illustrator cs 6 .
huge thanks to carolina aquatics for parting with this coral for a reasonable price , and as an intact colony showing all the species’ characteristics . the two - face t . bifrons is not likely to win any beauty contests against “designer corals” but we will do our best to ensure that this strain lives on in the aquarium hobby so that the diehard stony coral junkies can partake of it in the future .
hoegh - guldberg o , mumby pj , hooten aj , steneck r , greenfield p , et al . ( 2007 ) coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification . science 318 : 1737–1742 .
jokiel pl , rodgers ks , kuffner ib , andersson aj , cox ef , et al . ( 2008 ) ocean acidification and calcifying reef organisms : a mesocosm investigation . coral reefs 27 : 473–483 .
relationship between colony size , as projected surface area ( cm 2 ) , vs . damage size ( cm 2 ) of five coral species after 49 days of contact with chlorodesmis fastigiata or galaxaura filamentosa .
the caulastrea furcata ( commonly known as a candy cane coral ) is a little less flashy than some of the other corals , ranging from tan to pale orange in color , and being rather small .
mini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !
kleypas j , buddemeier rw , archer d , gattuso j - p , langdon c , et al . ( 1999 ) geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs . science 284 : 118–120 .
mcculloch mt , falter j , trotter j , montagna p ( 2012 ) coral resilience to ocean acidification and global warming through ph up - regulation . nature climate change : doi : 10 . 1038 / nclimate1473
godinot c , houlbreque f , grover r , ferrier - pages c ( 2011 ) coral uptake of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen negatively affected by simultaneous changes in temperature and ph . plos one 6 : e25024 .
fitt wk , mcfarland fk , warner me , chilcoat gc ( 2000 ) seasonal patterns of tissue biomass and densities of symbiotic dinoflagellates in reef corals and relation to coral bleaching . limnology and oceanography 45 : 677–685 .
anthony krn , hoogenboom mo , maynard jf , grottoli ag , middlebrook r ( 2009 ) energetics approach to predicting mortality risk from environmental stress : a case study of coral bleaching . functional ecology 23 : 539–550 .
although still widespread and common throughout its range ( 1 ) , turbinaria mesenterina is likely to face similar threats to other reef - building corals , around a third of which are now threatened with extinction ( 10 ) . in addition , this species is collected for the aquarium trade ( 1 ) , and has recently been affected by an infectious disease known as australian subtropical white syndrome in waters around australia ( 12 ) . however , it has been shown to be relatively tolerant of sedimentation , suggesting that increased sedimentation , associated with erosion and increased storm activity , is less likely to pose a threat than in many other coral species ( 13 ) .
madsen a . , madin j . s . , tan c . - h . & baird a . h . the reproductive biology of the scleractinian coral plesiastrea versipora in sydney harbour , australia . ( 2014 ) .
humann , p . , 1993 . reef coral identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .
fabricius ke , langdon c , uthicke s , humphrey c , noonan s , et al . ( 2011 ) losers and winners on coral reefs acclimatized to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations . nature climate change 1 : 165–169 .
this is the first comprehensive study of the reproductive biology of turbinaria reniformis , a gonochoric ( dioecious ) broadcast spawner in the northern red sea . data collected throughout the study ( 2003–2009 and 2014–2015 ) indicate a clear periodic pattern of annual reproduction , with a cycle lasting 11–12 months . however , evidence of the first recognizable stages as early as may and june of 2014 ( although negligible in numbers ) may suggest an even longer cycle .
rodolfo - metalpa r , houlbreque f , tambutte e , boisson f , baggini c , et al . ( 2011 ) coral and mollusc resistance to ocean acidification adversely affected by warming . nature climate change 1 : 308–312 .
turbinaria reniformis reproduces annually with spermatogenesis succeeding oogenesis . the earliest conspicuously discernible female gametes ( stage i ) appeared in september 2014 ( fig . 3a ) , indicating the onset of gametogenesis , and in 2015 were first seen in august . thus , the oogenic cycle is presumed to last between 11–12 months . however , stage i was also observed as early as may and june 2014 and may 2015 in negligible numbers ( only one or two oocytes ) .
effects of transplanting algae against corals were evaluated with repeated measures anova , with two between - subject fixed factors ( coral species , algal species ) . because all control colonies exhibited no damage , controls were excluded from this analysis . data were square root transformed to meet assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity . to evaluate relationships between coral colony size and size of damage from algal contact , we used spearman ' s rank correlation because data did not meet normality assumptions .
langdon c , takahashi t , sweeney c , chipman d , goddard j , et al . ( 2000 ) effect of calcium carbonate saturation state on the calcification rate of an experimental coral reef . global biogeochemical cycles 14 : 639–654 .
although parts of this species’ range fall within marine protected areas ( 1 ) , including the great barrier reef , off the coast of australia ( 14 ) , many of these areas do not receive adequate enforcement ( 9 ) , and currently less than half a percent of all marine habitats are protected ( 15 ) . international trade in turbinaria mesenterina should be regulated by its listing on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 2 ) .
there is a lot of research involved in putting together a well balanced , healthy salt water coral aquarium . this list is just a helpful starting point for those who have enough knowledge that they’re prepared to just jump right in and get started .
common reproductive traits often span genera and even families 1 , 14 , with the dendrophylliidae family being predominately gonochoric 23 , 36 . all available reports within the genera show turbinaria to be uniform in both reproductive mode and sexuality : t . frondens , t . mesenterina , t . stellulata and t . reniformis are gonochoric spawners and t . bifrons , t . peltata , and t . radicalis are broadcast spawners , with sexuality ( hermaphroditism or gonochorism ) unknown 5 , 10 , 14 , 30 .
anthony krn , kline di , diaz - pulido g , dove s , hoegh - guldberg o ( 2008 ) ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the usa 105 : 17442–17446 .
by some second nature we instinctively knew we were looking at a nice spread of corals hailing from darwin in west australia – this ecoregion is home to such coral hits as wild acropora solitaryensis , tricolor micromussa and the jaw - dropping branching favites complanata . even the chalice corals from darwin look really distinctive and carolina aquatics had a boat load of them , but the real treasure in the bunch was a dark brown semi - erect growing stony coral that at first glanced resembled a medium branched species of pavona .
anthony , k . r . n . , hoogenboom , m . o . and connolly , s . r . ( 2005 ) adaptive variation in coral geometry and the optimization of internal colony light climates . functional ecology , 19 : 17 - 26 .
although tissue biomass and energy reserves are important indicators of coral health [ 46 ] , [ 47 ] and play a significant role in promoting resilience to bleaching [ 49 ] , no studies to date have measured all three energy reserve pools ( i . e . , lipid , protein , and carbohydrate ) under oa conditions at elevated temperature . while protein concentrations were either unaffected [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] or increased in response to elevated p co 2 alone [ 13 ] , [ 50 ] , the effects of oa , or oa plus elevated temperature , on coral lipids and carbohydrates are unknown . studies specifically addressing all three energy reserve pools are needed to get a better understanding of how oa affects coral energetics and their overall resistance to future climate change .
in contrast , calcification rates of turbinaria reniformis during both first and second half of the experiment ( fig . 2g–h , table s1 ) did not respond to changes in seawater temperature ( p = 0 . 45 and 0 . 17 ) or p co 2 ( p = 0 . 36 and 0 . 09 ) . notably , the two plating species ( m . monasteriata and t . reniformis ) calcified more than twice as fast as the two branching species ( a . millepora and p . damicornis ) .
has smaller polyps with calices ( opening of the corallite ) that are only 1 . 5 to 2 mm diameter . yet they are most often grouped as an lps corals , though you can find it occasionally listed as an sps coral . either way , the
conservation measures recommended for corals include further research , expansion of marine protected areas , disease and parasite management , artificial propagation techniques , and fisheries management ( 1 ) ( 9 ) ( 11 ) . it will also be important to monitor the effect of collection of turbinaria mesenterina for the aquarium trade , particularly in indonesia , the largest exporter ( 1 ) , while mechanical removal of diseased colony margins may provide a method for minimising the effects of disease on the species , albeit on a fairly local scale ( 12 ) .
genus . the corallites of its skeletal structure are knobby as opposed to an ' ant hill ' tubular type , and they are close together . its polyps are big and frilly , covering the underlying skeleton so well that the coral almost looks furry . a coral you may see at the stores may not have as many polyps , due to lack of feeding , yet they are still quite large making it easy to identify . after feeding as needed , the polyp numbers will exploded , making it one of your favorite corals .
willis b . , babcock r . , harrison p . , oliver j . & wallace c . patterns in the mass spawning of corals on the great barrier reef from 1981 to 1984 in proc . 5th int . coral reef symp . 343–348 ( 1985 ) .


goniobranchus loringi is a species of colourful sea slug , a dorid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family chromodorididae .

this species was transferred from chromodoris to goniobranchus in 2012 .

goniobranchus loringi

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : goniobranchus loringi ( g . f . angas , 1864 ) - id : 5496000051
to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org ) ( from synonym chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) )
species chromodoris galactos rudman & s . johnson , 1985 accepted as goniobranchus galactos ( rudman & s . johnson , 1985 ) ( original combination )
chromodoris loringi from port stephens , nsw from : l . & d . atkinson , october 27 , 2005
( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) debelius , h . & kuiter , r . h . ( 2007 ) nudibranchs of the world . conchbooks , frankfurt , 360 pp . isbn : 978 - 3 - 939767 - 06 - 0 page ( s ) : 159 [ details ]
( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 1984 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : a review of the genera . zoological journal of the linnean society . 81 ( 2 ) : 115 - 273 . page ( s ) : 135 [ details ]
( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 1983 ) . the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris splendida , c . aspersa and hypselodoris placida colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 78 : 105 - 173 . page ( s ) : 133 [ details ]
( of chromodoris loringi ( angas , 1864 ) ) rudman , w . b . ( 1987 ) . the chromodorididae ( ophistobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris epicura , c . aureopurpurea , c . annulata , c . coi and risbecia tryoni colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society . 90 ( 3 ) : 305 - 407 . page ( s ) : 341 [ details ]
( of goniodoris loringi angas , 1864 ) angas , g . f . ( 1864 ) description d´espèces nouvelles appartenant à plusiurs genres de mollusques nudibranches des environs de port - jackson ( nouvelle - galles du sud ) , accompagnée de dessins faits d´après nature . journal de conchyliologie , series 3 , 12 : 43 - 70 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 52 - 53 , plate 4 , figure 11 [ details ]
t . 12 = ser . 3 : t . 4 ( 1864 ) - journal de conchyliologie . - biodiversity heritage library
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upper : solitary is . , northern new south wales , april 1987 . lower : close - up of left side of head showing yellow dendritic mantle glands . photos : bill rudman .
there are many red and orange - spotted species of chromodorid in new south wales and southeastern australia . i have discussed this example of mimicry on a separate page .
references : • rudman , w . b . ( 1983a ) the chromodorididae ( opisthobranchia : mollusca ) of the indo - west pacific : chromodoris splendida , c . aspersa and hypselodoris placida colour groups . zoological journal of the linnean society 78 : 105 - 173 . • rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) purpose in pattern : the evolution of colour in chromodorid nudibranchs . journal of molluscan studies , 57 , ( t . e . thompson memorial issue ) : 5 - 21 .
discover a faster , simpler path to publishing in a high - quality journal . plos one promises fair , rigorous peer review , broad scope , and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time .
citation : johnson rf , gosliner tm ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . urltoken
editor : jonathan h . badger , j . craig venter institute , united states of america
copyright : © 2012 johnson , gosliner . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : this work was supported by the california academy of sciences , the university of california santa cruz - department of ecology and evolutionary biology , the national science foundation deb 9978155 and deb 0329054 to tg , and an encyclopedia of life rubenstein fellowship to rj . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
a . ‘phylogenetic scenario’ for the chromodorid genera modified from [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . b . morphological phylogeny of generic representatives for the chromodorididae [ 13 ] . c . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae from [ 27 ] . d . combined 16s and coi phylogram of the chromodorididae and cadlinidae from [ 28 ] . rudman ' s ‘ chromodoris group’ in red , ‘ hypselodoris group’ in blue , cadlinella in yellow , diversidoris ( not included in [ 5 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 26 ] ) , cadlina in grey and other dorids in black .
new collections ( from this contribution and [ 28 ] in blue . genbank specimens in red . size of circle represents number of specimens collected in each region . specimen details in supplementary table s1 ) .
the goals of this contribution are : ( 1 ) generate a phylogeny that tests the species level relationships of the chromodorid nudibranchs and confirms the monophyly of the chromodorididae , ( 2 ) assess the phylogenetic validity of the chromodorid genera , and ( 3 ) propose a new classification for the chromodorid nudibranchs that reflects their relationships .
in this study and a companion study [ 28 ] , thanks to targeted collecting trips , dedicated collectors and dna extracted from museum collections , we were able to include specimens from throughout the indo - pacific ( ip ) , the eastern pacific ( ep ) and west atlantic ( wa ) ( figure 2 and table s1 ) . we use the term indo - pacific to define the biogeographic region including the tropical and subtropical regions of the indian ocean ( from the red sea to the east coast of south africa ) and both the western and central pacific , but not the tropical eastern pacific [ 40 ] . museum collections are an invaluable resource for biodiversity studies [ 41 ] . we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from [ 28 ] and genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family ( table s1 ) .
the majority of the specimens used in this study are part of the california academy of sciences invertebrate zoology ( casiz ) collection . we had the permission of casiz to take tissue samples from specimens for dna analysis . as stated in the casiz collections policy : ‘no specimens will be accessioned without adequate labeling , collection notes , field notes , or other locality information , nor without appropriate legal documentation ( collecting permits , export permits from country of origin , etc . ) when applicable . ’ we also included dna extracted for five specimens currently deposited in the museum national d ' histoire naturelle ( paris museum ) and the western australian museum . these tissues samples were collected during joint field trips under the agreement that the tissue could be sequenced at the california academy of sciences , while the specimens would remain at the respective museum . all other data used is from genbank or the moorea biocode database .
most of our samples were collected especially for molecular work and were preserved accordingly , either in 95 % etoh , sed buffer ( saturated nacl solution with edta and dmso ) or frozen . in addition to the specimens collected specifically for molecular study , we were also able to use museum material that was , either preserved in 70–75 % etoh or the original fixation method is unknown .
the cleaned , pcr products were copied and labeled with fluorescently dye - terminators ( big dye 3 . 1 abi ) in 10 µl reactions . each reaction contained 0 . 5–2 µl of cleaned pcr product , 1 . 63 µl of 5× reaction buffer , . 5 µl of primer ( 10 mm stock ) , 0 . 5 µl–0 . 75 µl of big dye and water to 10 µl . these reactions were run on a perkin elmer 9600 - geneamp pcr system or a biorad mycycler™ thermocycler ( software version 1 . 065 , bio - rad laboratories ) . the resulting labeled , single stranded dna was precipitated by addition of 2 . 5 µl of edta and sequential washing and pelleting in ( centrifuge details ) with 100 % and then 70 % etoh . the pelleted dna was denautured for two minutes at 94°c in 13–15 µl of hidi formamide ( applied biosystems ) . the denatured , labeled dna fragments were sequenced in both directions on the abi 3100 and 3130 genetic analyzer in the center for comparative genomics ( formerly the osher laboratory for molecular systematics ) at the california academy of sciences .
we assembled , edited and removed primer strands from forward and reverse strands for each gene fragment sequenced using sequencher ( ver . 4 . 7 . genecodes corporation ) and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) . we aligned the coi sequences by eye and translated the base pair data into amino acids to using macclade 4 . 08 [ 46 ] to confirm alignment accuracy . we aligned 16s sequences with muscle [ 47 ] . we then further optimized the alignments by eye using both macclade [ 46 ] and genious 3 . 0 - 5 . 3 . 3 ( biomatters ) .
we tested for saturation or multiple substitutions at the same site by plotting the absolute number of transitions and transversions at each codon position ( 1 st , 2 nd , 3 rd ) for coi and at each base pair for 16s against both uncorrected p distance and log det using paup [ 48 ] and excel ( plots not shown ) .
sequence data for both genes was not obtained for every specimen we studied . we worked with two main data sets , because we wanted to test the effect of missing data on the resulting phylogeny : the two data sets were : 1 ) combined 16s and coi for specimens with sequence data for both genes , 2 ) all 16s and coi data for all specimens ( table s1 . ) both of these data sets were analyzed both including and excluding variable characters in the 16s alignment . for all of these analyses we used doris kerguelensis as the outgroup .
the figured trees are the resulting consensus phylograms from the bayesian analyses ( figures s1 , s2 ) . all posterior probabilities are shown above the branches on the bayesian phylograms . tree topology was not altered with the inclusion or exclusion or the 16s fragment ' s variable regions ( see figure s2 for comparison of trees with and without variable regions ) . the resulting phylogenetic hypotheses for each dataset are summarized below . we will discuss relationships in terms of posterior probabilities .
coi and 16s combined analysis : including only specimens with data for both genes ( figure s1 ) .
this data set included 244 individual chromodorids , representing 157 species , four species of actinocyclidae , four other dorids . the outgroup was doris kerguelensis .
tree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included .
tree is the same bayesian phylogram as figured in s3a . all specimens , both genes and all characters included . blue = indo - pacific , red = atlantic and caribbean , gold = eastern pacific , green = sister group , black = outgroups . dark grey = solely eastern pacific and atlantic clades . light grey = primarily indo - pacific clades with eastern pacific members .
the two species of cadlinella included here , cadlinella ornatissima and cadlinellla subornatissima form a clade and are sister to the rest of the chromodorid species ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . these findings support previous results [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] and rudman ' s evolutionary scenario [ 5 ] , [ 26 ] . the widespread indo - pacific genus , cadlinella is an enigmatic taxon . it has at different times been considered it own separate family [ 64 ] , a part of the cadlininae [ 65 ] and a member of the chromodoridinae / chromodorididae [ 26 ] , [ 66 ] .
cadlina burnayi ortea , 1988 [ 68 ] = t . nobilis [ 69 ]
the only two species of tyrinna : t . evelinae and t . nobilis are included here . tyrinna is always monophyletic ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . after the split from cadlinella , this clade is poorly - supported as the sister group to the main group of chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . rudman [ 26 ] suggested that tyrinna , cadlinella and cadlina form a basal grade of primitive chromodorids . cadlina had been shown not to be a chromodorid [ 28 ] , but our results support rudman ' s suggestion that tyrinna and cadlinella are basal to the rest of the chromodorids . muniain et al [ 70 ] and schrödl and millen [ 71 ] extensively reviewed the morphology of the two species in this clade .
verconia verconis is well supported as part of a clade that includes n . haliclona , n . laboutei , n . romeri and n . simplex ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . noumea varians , n . purpurea and n . norba form a well - supported clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) that is not part of a name bearing clade , but is one branch of the polytomy that includes the ‘noumea sensu stricto’ and the branch leading to the rest of the family ( pp = 0 . 88 ) . the monotypic genus verconia is nested within the noumea clade as suggested by rudman [ 75 ] and weakly supported as the sister species to another south australian species , n . haliclona , as found in the preliminary results shown by turner & wilson [ 27 ] .
type species : doris xantholeuca ehrenberg , 1831 [ 76 ] = g . pallida ( by subsequent designation )
the glossodoris clade ( pp = 1 . 00 ) includes species g . pallida and g . rufomargninata . in an important , but often overlooked detailed examination of the relationships of the species classified in the genus glossodoris , rudman identified five subgroups of this genus based on morphology [ 77 ] . the species in this glossodoris clade were considered by rudman [ 77 ] to be members of the ‘ glossodoris pallida subgroup’ . this clade also includes two species he did not include in any subgroup , g . cincta and g . hikuerenesis .
lissodoris odhner , 1934 [ 80 ] . type species : l . mollis odhner , 1934 ( = c . aureomarginata cheeseman , 1881 [ 86 ] ( by monotypy )
casella h . & a . adams , 1858 : 57 [ 84 ] . type species : c . gouldii h . & a . adams , 1858 [ 84 ] ( by monotypy )
species included in the glossodoris atromarginata subgroup [ 77 ] are recovered in this clade , with the addition of g . sedna and digidentis kulonba ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .
this name will be used for all eastern pacific and atlantic species of chromodoris and glossodoris ( except glossodoris sedna ) . these species form a polytomy including glossodoris baumanni and three clades of atlantic and eastern pacific chromodorids .
chromodoris clenchi , c . norrisi and c . sphoni ( pp = 1 . 00 )
chromodoris krohni , c . luteorosea and c . purpurea ( pp = 0 . 78 )
these exclusively eastern pacific and atlantic clades do not form a monophyletic group , but we will provisionally name all of these species ‘felimida’ . this is the most conservative choice , the choice that requires the fewest name changes and is the least disruptive pending further information and broader taxon sampling .
the ardeadoris clade includes both species of ardeadoris : a . egretta and a . scottjohnsoni , five species of glossodoris ( g . averni , g . pullata , g . rubroannulata , g . tomsmithi and glossodoris undaurum ) and noumea angustolutea ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . . based on their analysis , turner and wilson [ 27 ] suggested that with more sampling it would be come clear if ardeadoris should be synonmized with glossodoris . by sampling more broadly within the family , we found the converse . four species of glossodoris and noumea angustolutea need to be included within ardeardoris because they are strongly supported as part of the clade including ardeadoris egretta and not the type species of glossodoris . three of the species , g . averni , g . undaurum and g . rubroannulata , found in this clade were part of rudman ' s glossodoris sedna subgroup [ 77 ]
this clade includes all of the black - lined species of chromodoris and chromodoris aspersa ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . this clade was identified by , both wilson & lee [ 17 ] and turner & wilson [ 27 ] , as the planar spawning or black - lined chromodoris clade . all of the members of this clade lay flat egg masses .
type species : diversidoris aurantionodulosa rudman , 1987 [ 89 ] ( by original designation ) .
the diversidoris includes , diversidoris aurantionodulosa , two yellow species of noumea , n . crocea and n . flava , and a new species from moorea , french polynesia - chromodoridae biocode 2937 ( pp = 0 . 95 ) .
the miamirinae clade includes all of the species currently classified as ceratosoma , durvilledoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , pectenodoris , risbecia , thorunna and two species of digidentis ( pp = 1 . 00 )
this clade was first predicted by rudman [ 26 ] based on morphological similarities and then confirmed by rudman & berquist ' s [ 5 ] finding that all of the species in this clade feed exclusively on sponges of the family dysideaidae , although they assumed all of the genera to be monophyletic . miamirinae bergh 1891 is the oldest appropriate and available subfamily or family name for this clade . the remaining six genera ; miamira , ceratosoma , felimare , mexichromis , thorunna and hypselodoris make up the miamirinae .
the miamira clade includes the following species ( as currently classified ) ceratosoma alleni , ceratosoma magnificum , ceratosoma miamiranum , ceratosoma sinuatum . miamira is part of a grade with ceratosoma . the morphological phylogeny of species of ceratosoma and classified as miamira and orodoris , that was used as justification for their synonomy , predicted a sister group relationship between species of miamira and ceratosoma alleni [ 93 ] . our results confirm that c . alleni is more closely related to species of miamira , but do not find support for synonymy of miamira and ceratosoma . although , it is possible this relationship will be recovered with further sampling and by including molecular markers that will help resolve basal branches on the phylogeny .
the ceratosoma clade includes c . amoenum , c . gracillimum , c . ingozi , c . tenue , c . trilobatum and a new species . ( pp = 1 . 00 )
the felimare clade includes all eastern pacific , atlantic and mediterranean species of hypselodoris and two species of mexichromis , m . porterae and m . kempfi from the eastern pacific and caribbean respectively ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . both gosliner and johnson [ 13 ] and alejandrino and valdés [ 31 ] hypothesized a sister group relationship between the indo - pacific and eastern pacific / atlantic species of hypselodoris . turner and wilson [ 27 ] did not recover that relationship , but instead found the same relationships shown here .
the thorunna clade includes all species of thorunna and two species of digidentis , d . arbutus and d . perplexa . all of species currently classified as thorunna are found in the indo - pacific and the species of digidentis are limited to southern australia . as suggested by rudman [ 26 ] , the only species within thorunna with mantle glands , t . australis and the species of digidentis ( all of which have mantle glands ) form a clade .
this clade includes all of the indo - pacific species of hypeslodoris and risbecia ( pp = 1 . 00 ) .
species of risbecia s . s forms a well - supported clade nested within hypselodoris and can be referred to as the risbecia clade of hypselodoris . risbecia aplogema is not part of this risbecia clade and was previously considered a species of hypselodoris . including all of the members of the risbecia and hypselodoris bullocki clade in risbecia is not an option because this would render hypsleodoris paraphyletic . the second clade includes , h . bennetti , h , maritima , h . bertschi , h . paulinae , h . kaname , h . bollandi , h . obscura , h . infucata , h . zephrya and one or two new species . the third clade includes h . reidi , h . krakatoa , h . jacksoni and one new species . this clade was also recovered in gosliner & johnson ' s [ 13 ] morphological phylogeny of hypselodoris .
in future contribtuions , we will work out synapomorphies for the clades identified here , but because of the amount of homoplasy and number of incomplete descriptions , this is a huge undertaking and not appropriate here .
in summary , with the most comprehensive sampling of chromodorid species to date , we confirmed that the chromodorids are monophyletic and are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids . we also found that the majority , 12 / 14 non - monotypic traditional genera , were not monophyletic or make another clade paraphyletc . seven traditional genera , ceratosoma , chromodoris , digidentis , glossodoris , hypselodoris , mexichromis , noumea are non - monophyletic and three ( durvilledoris , pectenodoris , risbecia ) are monophyletic but render another genus paraphyletic . both ardeadoris and thorunna are made paraphyletic by nested members of other genera ( noumea , glossodoris and digidentis ) . the two monotypic genera , diversidoris and verconia are nested within clades . only tyrinna and cadlinella are monophyletic and without disruption to any other clades ( figure 3 , s1 , s2 ) . the classification proposed here and discussed at length above renames clades and is more consisitent with evolutionary history ( figure s3 ) .
this new classification clarifies our view of biogeographic patterns in the chromodorid nudibranchs . instead of taxonomy obscuring patterns of diversification in this group , this taxonomy reflects and reinforces evolutionary history . it gives us a much better framework for exploring evolutionary questions .
the electronic version of this document does not represent a published work according to the international code of zoological nomenclature ( iczn ) , and hence the nomenclatural acts contained in the electronic version are not available under that code from the electronic edition . therefore , a separate edition of this document was produced by a method that assures numerous identical and durable copies , and those copies were simultaneously obtainable ( from the publication date noted on the first page of this article ) for the purpose of providing a public and permanent scientific record , in accordance with article 8 . 1 of the code . the separate print - only edition is available on request from plos by sending a request to plos one , public library of science , 1160 battery street , suite 100 , san francisco , ca 94111 , usa along with a check for $ 10 ( to cover printing and postage ) payable to “public library of science” .
table of specimens used in this study . specimens used in this study listed by family . the names in this table reflect current classification not proposed classification ( new names are listed in the text ) . abbreviations are as follows : casiz = california academy of sciences , sam = south australian museum , wam = western australian museum , am = australian museum , zsm = zoologische staatssammlung münchen , sio - bic = scripps institute of oceanography , biocode = moorea biocode project .
new classification of the chromodorididae with synonyms . generic names and type species in bold and the most recent genus membership follows . listing order follows phylogeny .
bayesian consensus phylogram including all specimens with data for both genes . posterior probabilities are listed above branches . doris kerguelensis is the outgroup . this phylogram is the consensus of 50 , 000 , 000 generations with trees sampled every 1000 generations with a burnin of 25 % . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position .
bayesian consensus phylograms including all specimens . a . phylogram resulting from the inclusion of all characters b . phylogram resulting from excluding hard to align characters . doris kerguelensis is the outgroup . these phylograms are the consensuses of 50 , 000 , 000 generations with trees sampled every 1000 generations with a burnin of 25 % . data was partitioned by gene and by codon position . dotted lined indicate areas of disagreement .
conceived and designed the experiments : rfj tmg . performed the experiments : rfj . analyzed the data : rfj . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : tmg . wrote the paper : rfj . conceptualized and wrote the new classification : tmg rfj .
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johnson r . f . & gosliner t . m . ( 2012 ) traditional taxonomic groupings mask evolutionary history : a molecular phylogeny and new classification of the chromodorid nudibranchs . plos one 7 ( 4 ) : e33479 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
angas , g . f . ( 1864 ) description d´espèces nouvelles appartenant à plusiurs genres de mollusques nudibranches des environs de port - jackson ( nouvelle - galles du sud ) , accompagnée de dessins faits d´après nature . journal de conchyliologie , series 3 , 12 : 43 - 70 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 52 - 53 , plate 4 , figure 11 [ details ]
pale pink body with red / orange spots and yellow margin to mantle . rhinophores have yellow tips
occurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed
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angas , g . f . 1864 ,
description d ' espèces nouvelles appartenant à plusieurs genres de mollusques nudibranches des environs de port jackson , ( nouvelles - galles du sud ) , accompagnée de dessins faits d ' après nature
, journal de conchyliologie , vol . 12 , pp . 43–70
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 3cfc9490 - ecfe - 4fc6 - a2a6 - 5bc2655281e1
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ea5ea0fc - d5d2 - 47a7 - 8e23 - f566b7234d91
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 258dc67a - e6da - 4416 - ac59 - d735f56583bd
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 493866
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this species was described from port jackson , australia . it is endemic to south - eastern australia .
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, who used molecular data . additionally , most phylogenetic hypotheses of relationships in the chromodorid nudibranchs either focused on only one genus , or used genera , or one representative of a genus as terminal taxa . rudman
used published data on the type species of each chromodorid genus in their preliminary phylogeny of the family . they did not include any other species to test the monophyly of any of the genera . valdés
presented the first molecular phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs . their study included fifty - six chromodorid species , the majority of which were from the eastern atlantic ( ea ) and eastern and southern australia , and for the first time , at least one species of each of the chromodorid genera . see
for all details on all specimen data used . they were the first to explicitly test the monophyly of most chromodorid genera . although , they were the first to find evidence for non - monophyly in
, they found little support for major clades and did not propose any changes to current classifications . johnson
) . we expand on this preliminary research and include more than one species from each genus ( except monotypic genera ) , and include for the first time , the type species of every chromodorid genus . the indo - pacific ( ip ) is home to the greatest diversity of chromodorid nudibranchs
) . one of the main objectives of this work is to advance chromodorid systematics and to provide a phylogenetic framework with which our traditional use of morphological data can be examined .
. we have found existing natural history collections can reduce the need for additional collecting . our study , combined with data from
and genbank , is unique in its wide taxonomic and geographic sampling . because we have included both the type species of every genus and additional species of all 14 of the non - monotypic genera , we can test the monophyly every genus in the family (
we directly sequenced 142 specimens representing 106 species . we combined these new data with all available sequences on genbank (
, but are not treated as new in the numbers of specimens sequenced for this study . in total , we analyzed data from 244 chromodorid specimens , four actinocyclid species and four additional dorid nudibranch species for a total of 165 species and 252 individual specimens . we used
. the chromodorid species include at least one species from all of the genera currently classified in the family chromodorididae . the number of species included in this analysis compared to the number of described species per genus is as follows :
( 1 / 1 ) ( s1 ) . all sequences taken from genbank are listed with gb following the species name . we also included coi sequence from two specimens from the moorea biocode project in our analyses (
) . we have examined all of the new specimens included here and they are deposited in natural history museums , as indicated by catalog numbers . we never combined sequences from different individuals into chimeras representing one species ; specimens included in these analyses are treated as individuals .
the sequenced coi fragment is 658 base pairs ( bp ) long . the edited 16s sequences are 531 bp long . the combined data sets with gaps introduced for alignment are 1189 base pairs long . all sequences are available from genbank coi (
) and aligned data matrices are available upon request from the corresponding author . excluded variable 16s regions are identified as character sets in all nexus files . saturation was not found in the 16s fragment or the first or second positions of the coi fragment . there is slight saturation in the third position transitions in the coi data set ( not shown ) . the third positions were included in the bayesian analysis as the partitioning allows the parameters of this position to be estimated separately and the inclusion of the third positions did not change the resulting trees . the recommended model of evolution ( aic form mr . model test ) was used to set parameters in mr . bayes for each partition . the resulting best - fit model of evolution for each partition using the aic selection from mr . modeltest ver . 2
: gtr + i + g and 16s : gtr + i + g . these models correspond to the following settings in mr . bayes ; all partitions set to nst = 6 and rates = invgamma except for the coi second codon position partition which was set rates = gamma .
the complete data set included 1189 bases . the chromodorids are monophyletic ( pp = 0 . 94 ) . they are sister to the monophyletic actinocyclids ( pp = 0 . 98 ) . a clade including both species of
is sister to the rest of the chromodorids ( pp = 1 . 00 ) . the monophyletic
( pp = 1 . 00 ) is poorly supported as sister to the main clade ( pp = 0 . 83 ) . there are two clades containing species of
( pp = 1 . 00 and pp = 1 . 00 ) that form a polytomy with the clade of all of the remaining chromodorids ( pp = 0 . 85 ) . within the main clade of chromodorids , there is one very well supported clade , which includes all species of
) . more detailed results found within each clade will be discussed below . there are three individual species and five clades of eastern pacific or atlantic species (
) . the data set without variable regions included 1108 bases . there are only slight changes to the tree topology , including slight losses of support and changes to branching pattern in the species relationships within four clades containing species of
. even though it is older than the name in current usage , chromodorididae , it had not been used in over fifty years . in the phylogeny of the chromodorid nudibranchs , there are five basal clades :
, and grade of clades . we will briefly introduce each clade and its member species in the context of a new classification for chromodorid nudibranchs (
hypotheses of relationship . genera should only be used in this way if they are known to be monophyletic through phylogenetic analysis . there have been two classes of ‘naming problems’ in the nomenclatural history of the chromodorid nudibranchs . the first can be described as the novelty problem ( as described above ) , when unique or ‘unclassifiable’ species were discovered new genera we created to contain them
. considering these genera as evolutionary units at the broad scale may not lead to mistakes , but at a finer scale , we may be missing the true origins of novelty or by grouping things that are superficially similar together we may miss repeated origins of diversity ( convergence ) . turner & wilson
for previous phylogenetic hypotheses ) . they found evidence for the non - monophyly of most chromodorid genera . the only genera they found to be monophyletic were