bothrops ammodytoides is a venomous pit viper species endemic to argentina .

no subspecies are currently recognized .

common names : patagonian lancehead , yararanata , patagonian pit viper .

bothrops ammodytoides

bothrops ammodytoides leybold 1873 : 80 rhinocerophis nasus garman 1881 bothrops patagonicus müller 1885 bothrops burmeisteri koslowsky 1895 : 369 lachesis ammodytoides — boulenger 1896 bothrops ammodytoides — amaral 1929 bothrops ammodytoides — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 bothrops ammodytoides — cei 1993 bothrops ammodytoides — welch 1994 : 31 bothrops ammodytoides — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 253 rhinocerophis ammodytoides — fenwick et al . 2009 bothrops ammodytoides — carrasco et al . 2012 rhinocerophis ammodytoides — wallach et al . 2014 : 648
bothrops ammodytoides by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow
bothrops ammodytoides , a venomous pit viper species endemic to argentina ; common name yarará ñata .
some toxic and enzymatic activities of bothrops ammodytoides ( yarará ñata ) venom . - pubmed - ncbi
registros de yarará ñata ( bothrops ammodytoides ) en catamarca . nótulas faunísticas ( segunda serie ) , 190 .
rhinocerophis nasus ( garman , 1881 ) , a junior synonym of bothrops ammodytoides ( leybold , 1873 ) .
rhinocerophis alternatus , r . ammodytoides , r . cotiara , r . fonsecai , r . itapetiningae , and r . jonathani .
bothrops microphthalmus cope 1876 : 182 bothrops microphthalmus — cope 1879 : 277 lachesis microphthalmus boulenger 1896 lachesis pleuroxanthus boulenger 1912 : 423 bothrops microphtalmus [ sic ] — pérez - santos & moreno 1988 porthidium microphthalmum — schätti & kramer 1993 bothrops microphthalmus — welch 1994 : 33 bothrops microphthalmus — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 267 bothrocophias microphthalmus — gutberlet & campbell 2001 bothrops microphthalmus — lehr et al . 2002 bothrocophias microphthalmus — carrasco et al . 2012 bothrocophias microphthalmus — wallach et al . 2014 : 113
the lancehead pit viper group of 39 species of south american pit vipers were formerly all grouped into the genus bothrops . recent changes in taxonomy of the bothrops genus has resulted in the bothrops genus being split into three genera : bothropoides , rhinocerophis and bothrops . however , some experts have argued in favor odfretaining the one gneus , bothrops ( 1 ) . the current taxonmy of three genera is used by the reptile database ( 2 ) .
nomenclatural instability in the venomous snakes of the bothrops complex : implications in toxinology . . .
diet generalists including a high proportion of mammal prey ( 42 . 8–60 % in b . ammodytoides and b . itapetiningae ) or mammal speciesalists .
scrocchi , g . 1997 . acerca de la localidad tipo de bothrops ammodytoides leybold ( serpentes : viperidae ) y pseudotomodon trigonatus ( leybold ) ( serpentes : colubridae ) . cuadernos de herpetología 11 ( 1 - 2 ) : 69 - 70 .
carrasco , paola a . ; leynaud , gerardo c . ; scrocchi , gustavo j 2010 . redescription of the southernmost snake species , bothrops ammodytoides ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) . amphibia - reptilia 31 : 323 - 338 - get paper here
scrocchi , g . j . 1997 . acerca de la localidad tipo de bothrops ammodytoides leybold ( serpentes , viperidae ) y pseudotomodon trigonatus ( leybold ) ( serpentes : colubridae ) . cuadernos de herpetologia 11 ( 1 - 2 ) : 69 - 70 - get paper here
systematics of the bolivian and peruvian species of the genus bothrops ( serpentes : viperidae : crotal . . .
we did not examine individuals of bothrops lutzi , but based on priorir work that elevated this species out of the bothrops neuwiedi complex ( silva , 2000 , 2004 ) , we include it in the genus bothropoides .
certain species were recovered in different positions in different analyses . bothrops pictus was the only species not recovered in a species group in analysis 11 : it was sister to the remainder of the bothrops + bothriopsis clade ( p . = 97 ) . in parsimony analysis 10 , however , a sister relationship between b . pictus and the b . alternatus clade was supported by a bootstrap value of 56 ; this relationship was not recovered in the majority - rule consensus of the shortest trees . in all other cases of alternative placements , the species relationships were supported with posterior probability and bootstrap values of less than 65 . species with alternative placements were bothrops andianus , bothrops barnetti parker , 1938 , bothrops mattogrossensis amaral , 1925 , bothrops sanctaecrucis hoge , 1966 , and bothrops venezuelensis sandner - montilla , 1952 .
the generic name is derived from the latin rhinocer , meaning ‘nose - horn’ , referring to the strongly upturned snout of r . ammodytoides , and ophis , meaning ‘snake’ . names ending in this suffix are masculine .
bothrops insularis is known only from queimada grande island , off the coast of são paulo , southeastern brazil ( campbell and lamar 1989 ) .
a further motivation for synonymizing bothriopsis with bothrops is that because the arboreal species bothrops punctatus and bothrops osborneiei are more closely related to the terrestrial or semiarboreal bothrops atrox group than to the arboreal genus bothriopsis ( table 1 ) , there is little reason to recognize bothriopsis as a separate genus ( wüster et al , 2002 ) . arboreality has evolved several times within the crotalinae ( gutberlet & harvey , 2004 ; malhotra & thorpe , 2004 ; castoe & parkinson , 2006 ) , and it can be argued that the continued recognition of bothriopsis serves to cast taxonomic light on an additional instance of this phenomenon .
etymology ( genus ) : the generic name rhinocerophis is derived from the latin rhinoceros , meaning ‘nose - horn’ , referring to the strongly upturned snout of r . ammodytoides , and ophis , meaning ‘snake’ . names ending in this suffix are masculine .
the knowledge that bothrops is paraphyletic has led to taxonomic arguments about how to revise the content of this genus . some suggest synonymizing bothriopsis with bothrops , and also mention the possibility of synonymizing the small , cohesive sister genus bothrocophias with bothrops ( salomão et al , 1997 ; wüster et al , 2002 ) . others propose dividing bothrops into smaller monophyletic genera ( parkinson , 1999 ; gutberlet & campbell , 2001 ; harvey , aparicio & gonzales , 2005 ; castoe & parkinson , 2006 ) . there is no completely objective criterion for distinguishing between these options , but a comprehensive phylogeny provides the best information for evaluating taxonomic alternatives .
. . . another interesting aspect revealed by this study is the potential area of expansion of bothrops ammodytoides . this species is the southernmost venomous snake in the world ( campbell and lamar 2004 ; carrasco et al . 2010 ) and its southern expansion would imply that ophidism could reach human populations never affected by it and thus without the appropriate infrastructure and / or adequate personnel to cope these accidents . . . .
bothrops alternatus , a venomous pit viper species found in brazil , paraguay , uruguay and argentina ; common names yarará grande ( argentina ) , urutu ( brazil ) .
cross neutralization of bothrops jararacussu venom by heterologous antivenoms . we have studied the immunochemical cross - reactivity and cross - neutralization of the lethal potency , hemorrhagic , necrotizing , procoagulant and ( indirect ) hemolytic activities of bothrops jararacussu venom by the standard antivenoms produced in argentina . these antivenoms are horse immunoglobulin f ( ab ` ) 2 fragments . . . [ show full abstract ]
wüster et al ( 2002 ) also suggest that although bothrops + bothriopsis contains greater morphological and natural history diversity than other genera , it appears to be no older based on cyt b divergence levels . our cyt b genetic distance results suggest that although the major lineages certainly contain less genetic divergence than bothrops + bothriopsis , their divergence levels are similar to those of other recognized genera .
venomous ! synonymy : lachesis pleuroxanthus has been synonymized with bothrocophias microphthalmus by most recent authors ( e . g . campbell & lamar 2004 , wallach et al . 2014 ) . however , the ncbi taxonomy still has an entry for bothrops pleuroxanthus ( taxid 157557 ) , based on an unpublished study by w . wüster ( submitted in aug 2000 . taxonomy : schätti & kramer 1993 didn’t justify their allocation of microphthalmus to porthidium , hence it has been assigned to bothrops by some authors ( w . wüster , pers . comm . ) . subspecies : bothrops microphthalmus colombianus has been elevated to species status .
schätti b ; kramer e 1993 . ecuadorianische grubenottern der gattungen bothriechis , bothrops und porthidium ( serpentes : viperidae ) . revue suisse de zoologie 100 ( 2 ) : 235 - 278 - get paper here
bayesian markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) 50 % majority - rule consensus phylogram , excluding taxa with morphological data only ( analysis 11 ) . the phylogram is derived from an analysis of 2343 bp of mitochondrial dna and 85 gap - weighted or majority - coded morphological characters . the posterior probabilities are shown above nodes ; bootstrap values from parsimony analysis of the same data set alre shown below nodes ( analysis 10 ) . the parsimony analysis shows minor topological differences from bayesian analysis ; refer to figure s1 for parsimony cladogram . grey circles indicate posterior probabilities of 95 or greater and bootstrap values of 70 or greater . letters correspond to major lineages : a , bothrocophias clade ; b , bothrops alternatus clade ; c , bothrops neuwiedi + bothrops jararaca clade ; d , bothriopsis clade ; e , bothrops atrox clade .
. . . pitvipers within the genus group bothrops sensu lato have been widely studied , with results published by carrasco et . al . ( 2010 ) , jansen ( 2008 ) and others . . . .
bayesian markov chain monte carlo ( mcmc ) 50 % majority - rule consensus phylogram , including taxa with morphological data only ( analysis 8 ) . the phylogram is derived from an analysis of 2343 bp mitochondrial and 85 gap - weighted or majority - coded morphological characters . the posterior probabilities are shown above nodes ; bootstrap values from parsimony analysis of the same data set alre shown below nodes ( analysis 7 ) . the parsimony analysis shows minor topological differences from the bayesian analysis ; refer to figure s3 for the parsimony cladogram . grey circles indicate posterior probabilities of 95 or greater , and bootstrap values of 70 or greater . dashes indicate support values of less than 50 . letters correspond to the major lineages : a , bothrocophias clade ; b , bothrops alternatus clade ; c , bothrops neuwiedi + bothrops jararaca clade ; d , bothriopsis clade ; e , bothrops atrox clade .
twelve species ( bothriopsis bilineata , b . oligolepis , b . taeniata , bothrocophias microphthalmus , bothrops andianus , b . atrox , b . jonathani , b . moojeni , b . neuwiedi , b . sanctaecrucis , crotalus durissus , lachesis muta ) and five genera of pitvipers are known from bolivia . known ranges of several species are expanded to accommodate recently collected material and bothrops andianus is reported from . . . [ show full abstract ]
isolation , amino acid sequence and biological characterization of an ' aspartic - 49 ' phospholipase a ( 2 ) from bothrops ( rhinocerophis ) ammodytoides venom .
clement h . , costa de oliveira v . , zamudio f . z . , lago n . r . , valdez - cruz n . a . , bernard valle m . , hajos s . e . , alagon a . , possani l . d . , de roodt a . r . toxicon 60 : 1314 - 1323 ( 2012 ) [ pubmed ] [ europe pmc ] [ abstract ]
kuch , u . & freire , a . 1995 . notes on morphology , reproduction and medical importance of the poorly known small - eyed lancehead , bothrops microphthalmus cope , 1876 in ecuador . herpetozoa 8 - get paper here
bothrops ammodytoides , the smallest representative of this genus , is found only in argentina . venom was extracted from thirty adult specimens ( 35 - 70 cm in length , 90 - 300 g in weight ) captured in the province of buenos aires and kept in captivity . venom yield was 3 - 30 mg . sds - page showed strong bands at 14 . 0 ; 23 - 25 ; 45 ; 54 and 63 kda and weak bands at 17 . 0 ; 30 . 0 ; 40 . 0 and 85 . 0 kda . toxic . . . [ show full abstract ]
yarara or ' ' ' yarará ' ' ' is the common name of the venomous pit viper species bothrops jararaca endemic to southern brazil , paraguay , and northern argentina . also known as yarará perezosa ( argentina ) , jararaca ( brazil )
bothrops mattogrossensis and b . pubescens were elevated from subspecies of b . neuwiedi by silva ( 2000 , 2004 ) . bothrops pubescens was not included in the final analyses because of the lack of speciesmens , but preliminary analyses recovered it in a clade with b . neuwiedi and b . diporus . based on this and on its membership in the b . neuwiedi complex , we suggest that it belongs to the b . neuwiedi lineage . bothrops mattogrossensis was recovered in the b . alternatus and b . jararaca + b . neuwiedi + b . alternatus clades in alternative analyses ( figs 2 , s3 , s4 , s7–s9 ) , but the morphology that originally classified this species as b . neuwiedi suggests that it also belongs in the b . neuwiedi clade .
prelacunal and second supralabial fused . species sympatroxic with b . jararaca either have fewer supralabials or fewer ventrals , or both . in all species , subcaudal scales divided , 7 or 8 supralabial scales , 153–227 ventral scales , mesial spines on hemipenes absent or present bothrops
. . . la yarará ñata ( bothrops ammodytoides ) es una serpiente solenoglifa de la familia viperidae endémica del centro y sur de la argentina , habitando sus zonas áridas y semiáridas siendo la serpiente de distribución más austral y típica de las provincias fitogeográficas del monte y patagónica ( cabrera , 2001 ; giraudo y scrocchi , 2002 ; carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . se distribuye en las provincias de buenos aires , catamarca , chubut , córdoba , jujuy , la pampa , la rioja , mendoza , neuquén , río negro , salta , san juan , san luis , santa cruz y tucumán ( carrasco et al . , 2010 ; giraudo et al . , 2012 ) . . . .
venomous ! this species might be the southernmost snake species worldwide ( to 47° ) . type species : rhinocerophis nasus garman 1881 is the type species of the genus rhinocerophis garman 1881 . note , however , that rhinocerophis has been synonymized with bothrops by carrasco et al . 2012 .
. . . it comprises at least 50 species , some of them described recently ( campbell and lamar 2004 ; da silva and trefaut rodrigues , 2008 ; barbo et al . , 2012barbo et al . , , 2016 ) . the group is present in different ecoregions of the continent , from tropical and subtropical forests to arid and semiarid regions , and from sea level to altitudes of more than 3000 m ( campbell and lamar , 2004 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 ) . the bothrops complex ( bothrops sensu lato ) is extremely diverse in its morphological and ecological traits . . . .
most species are found in south america east of the andes , exclusive of uruguay , southern paraguay , and central to southern argentina ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) . bothrops caribbaeus and b . lanceolatus are found on the caribbean islands of saint lucia and martinique . bothrops osbornei , b . punctatus , and b . asper range through peru , ecuador , and portions of colombia west of the andes , and b . asper ranges northwards in middle america through the countries of panama , costa rica , nicaragua , honduras , guatemala , belize , and mexico . see campbell & lamar ( 2004 ) for range maps of individual species .
. . . it comprises at least 50 species , some of them described recently ( campbell and lamar 2004 ; da silva and trefaut rodrigues , 2008 ; barbo et al . , 2012 barbo et al . , , 2016 ) . the group is present in different ecoregions of the continent , from tropical and subtropical forests to arid and semiarid regions , and from sea level to altitudes of more than 3000 m ( campbell and lamar , 2004 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 ) . the bothrops complex ( bothrops sensu lato ) is extremely diverse in its morphological and ecological traits . . . .
the generic name is derived from the greek bothros , referring to the facial pit , and also referring to the currently named genus bothrops . the term oides means ‘similar to’ or ‘having the nature of’ , thereby recognizing the affinity of these species with other terrestrial south american pitvipers . names ending in this suffix are masculine .
justification : bothrops insularis is known only from one location : a small island off southeastern brazil ( total area 43 ha ) . the species ' highly restricted range and continuing decline in habitat quality , as a result of removal of vegetation by people from the brazilian navy who keep the lighthouse , qualify it for the critically endangered category .
. . . those authors also resurrected the genus rhinocerophis garman 1881 to allocate the species of b . alternatus group , diagnosed by 27 mitochondrial characters and one–two palatine teeth as unique morphological synapomorphy . based on new data , carrasco et al . ( 2010 ) pointed out that the morphological analysis by fenwick et al . ( 2009 ) was incomplete and rejected the use of rhinocerophis , which made the bothrops complex paraphyletic with respect to bothriopsis and bothropoides ( carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . the lack of an exclusive morphological character in rhinocerophis and bothropoides , and a diagnosis based only on molecular data , indicates that splitting of the genus bothrops into two or more genera is still premature . . . .
fenwick , allyson m . ; ronald l . gutberlet jr , jennafer a . evans , christopher l . parkinson 2009 . morphological and molecular evidence for phylogeny and classification of south american pitvipers , genera bothrops , bothriopsis , and bothrocophias ( serpentes : viperidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society 156 ( 3 ) : 617 - 640 - get paper here
allyson m . fenwick , ronald l . gutberlet , jennafer a . evans , christopher l . parkinson ; morphological and molecular evidence for phylogeny and classification of south american pitvipers , genera bothrops , bothriopsis , and bothrocophias ( serpentes : viperidae ) , zoological journal of the linnean society , volume 156 , issue 3 , 1 july 2009 , pages 617–640 , urltoken
bothrops andianus , b . asper , b . atrox , b . brazili , b . caribbaeus , b . isabelae , b . jararacussu , b . lanceolatus , b . leucurus , b . marajoensis , b . moojeni , b . muriciencis , b . osbornei , b . pirajai , b . punctatus , b . sanctaecrucis , and b . venezuelensis .
we have studied the immunochemical cross - reactivity and cross - neutralization of the lethal potency , hemorrhagic , necrotizing , procoagulant and ( indirect ) hemolytic activities of bothrops jararacussu venom by the standard antivenoms produced in argentina . these antivenoms are horse immunoglobulin f ( ab ' ) 2 fragments from animals immunized with 1 ) crotalus durissus terrificus venom ( monovalent . . . [ show full abstract ]
members are short to elongate , of moderate girth to stout , and are terrestrial , lacking a prehensile tail . dorsal colour brown to black , with spade - shaped dorsal markings , generally with spots between spades ( r . alternatus , r . fonsecai ; no spots between spades in r . jonathani , and sometimes missing in r . cotiara ) , or trapezoidal dorsal markings , with spots between trapezoids ( r . itapetiningae ) , or with chequered pattern ( r . ammodytoides ) . spade - shaped dorsal markings and a postorbital stripe on head , with distinctive black bars on the gulars of r . alternatus , r . cotiarara , r . fonsecai , and r . jonathani .
carrasco , p . a . , mattoni , c . i . , leynaud , g . c . & scrocchi , g . j . ( 2012 ) . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . —zoologica scripta , 41 , 109–124 . south american bothropoids comprise a monophyletic and greatly diverse group of pitvipers that were initially included in the genus bothrops and later assigned to five genera . until recently , . . . [ show full abstract ]
we examined the scalation of 42 species , hemipenes of 21 species , and skulls or skeletons of 13 species ( appendix 2 and appendix s1 ) . when possible , speciesmens were acquired from throughout the range of each species . scale and hemipenial data for bothrops alcatroz marques , martins & sazima , 2002 were taken from the description of the holotype . observations of colour pattern were taken from colour plates in campbell & lamar ( 2004 ) . males and females were treated together . some juveniles were coded for scale characters , as scalation does not change with ontogeny , but skeletal data were only collected from presumed adults .
bothriopsis oligolepis and b . medusa could not be included in the final analyses because too few speciesmens were available ( appendix 1 ) . preliminary analyses placed b . oligolepis within bothriopsis , and its green coloration , prehensile tail , and arboreal lifestyle suggest that the current designation is correct . the semi - arboreal lifestyle of b . medusa in addition to its venezuelan distribution ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) places it with either bothriopsis or with the bothrops atrox group ( table 4 ) . the tan , brown , grey or olive coloration is unlike most bothriopsis species , but the pattern of transverse bands on the dorsum is similar to bothriopsis species and is unlike the spade - shaped dorsal markings on most of the b . atrox group speciesmens . we suggest retaining the current designation until more data are available .
the alpha2beta1 integrin is a major collagen receptor that plays an essential role in the adhesion of normal and tumor cells to the extracellular matrix . here we describe the isolation of a novel metalloproteinase / disintegrin , which is a potent inhibitor of the collagen binding to alpha2beta1 integrin . this 55 - kda protein ( alternagin ) and its disintegrin domain ( alternagin - c ) were isolated from bothrops alternatus snake venom . amino acid sequencing of alternagin - c revealed the disintegrin structure . alternagin and alternagin - c inhibit collagen i - mediated adhesion of k562 - alpha2beta1 - transfected cells . the ic50 was 134 and 100 nm for alternagin and alternagin - c , respectively . neither protein interfered with the adhesion of cells expressing alphaiibeta3 , alpha1beta1 , alpha5beta1 , alpha4beta1 alphavbeta3 , and alpha9beta1 integrins to other ligands such as fibrinogen , fibronectin , and collagen iv . alternagin and alternagin - c also mediated the adhesion of the k562 - alpha2beta1 - transfected cells . our results show that the disintegrin - like domain of alternagin is responsible for its ability to inhibit collagen binding to alpha2beta1 integrin .
we have previously demonstrated that alternagin - c ( alt - c ) , a disintegrin - like protein from the venom of the brazilian snake bothrops alternatus , induces human vascular endothelial cell ( huvec ) proliferation by up - regulating the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) . here , we show that alt - c is also able to induce in vivo angiogenesis using the model of matrigel plug in nude mice . fibroblast growth factor ( fgf ) alone or supplemented with alt - c was mixed with melted matrigel and subcutaneously injected in nude mice . after two weeks , the matrigel plugs were removed and analyzed to verify endothelial cell migration and new vessel formation . alt - c ( 1 and 10 ng ) strongly induced endothelial cell migration as well as the formation of new vessels . however , in higher concentrations , alt - c strongly inhibited angiogenesis . in low concentrations ( 1 and 10nm ) , alt - c also up - regulates the expression of vegf receptor 2 ( vegfr2 , kdr ) mostly after 48 hr , but it did not affect vegfr1 ( ftl - 1 ) in huvec cells as demonstrated by real - time pcr analysis . however , in higher concentrations ( 100 nm ) the expression of both receptors is down - regulated . a peptide derived from alt - c primary structure also affects huvec proliferation in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo . in conclusion , the present study shows for the first time the in vivo angiogenesis induced by a disintegrin - like molecule and the modulation of vegfrs as well .
alternagin - c ( alt - c ) , a disintegrin - like protein purified from the venom of the brazilian snake bothrops alternatus , interacts with the major collagen i receptor , the alpha ( 2 ) beta ( 1 ) integrin , inhibiting collagen binding . here we show that alt - c also inhibits the adhesion of a mouse fibroblast cell line ( nih - 3t3 ) to collagen i ( ic ( 50 ) 2 . 2 microm ) . in addition , when immobilized on plate wells , alt - c supports the adhesion of this cell line as well as of human vein endothelial cell ( huvec ) . alt - c ( 3 microm ) does not detach cells that were previously bound to collagen i . alt - c ( 5 nm ) induces huvec proliferation in vitro , and it inhibits the positive effect of vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) or fgf - 2 on the proliferation of these cells , thus suggesting a common mechanism for these proteins . gene expression analysis of human fibroblasts growing on alt - c - or collagen - coated plates showed that alt - c and collagen i induce a very similar pattern of gene expression . when compared with cells growing on plastic only , alt - c up - regulates the expression of 45 genes including the vegf gene and down - regulates the expression of 30 genes . fibroblast vegf expression was confirmed by rt - pcr and elisa assay . up - regulation of the vegf gene and other growth factors could explain the positive effect on huvec proliferation . alt - c also strongly activates akt / pkb phosphorylation , a signaling event involved in endothelial survival and angiogenesis . in conclusion , alt - c acts as a survival factor , promoting adhesion and endothelial cell proliferation .
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uetz , p . & jirí hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )
mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
argentina ( tucuman to chubut and patagonia , neuquén , rio negro , mendoza , la pampa , buenos aires , san juan , san luis , la rioja , córdoba , catamarca ) . type locality : norte de argentina
holotype : mcz r - 2063 , but unlocated fide mcdiarmid et al . 1999 .
campbell , j . a . & lamar , w . w . 1989 . the venomous reptiles of latin america . comstock publishing / cornell university press , ithaca
carrasco , p . a . , c . i . mattoni , g . c . leynaud , and g . j . scrocchi . 2012 . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zoologica scripta 41 : 109 - 124 - get paper here
carrasco , p . a . ; harvey , m . b . & muñoz saravia , a . 2009 . the rare andean pitviper rhinocerophis jonathani ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) : redescription with comments on its systematics and biogeography . zootaxa 2283 : 1–15 - get paper here
koslowsky , j . 1895 . batracios y reptiles de rioja y catamarca . rev . mus . la plata 6 : 359 - 370 - get paper here
leybold , f . 1873 . excursión a las pampas argentinas , hojas de mi diario santiago , 108 pp . - get paper here
mcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & touré , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists’ league , 511 pp .
minoli i , morando m , avila lj 2015 . reptiles of chubut province , argentina : richness , diversity , conservation status and geographic distribution maps . zookeys 498 : 103 - 126 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 498 . 7476 - get paper here
scrocchi , g . j . ; moreta , j . c . & kretzschmar , s . 2006 . serpientes del noroeste argento [ jujuy , salta , tucumán , catamarca , la rioja , santiago del estero ] . fundación miguel lillo , tucumán , 178 pp .
scrocchi , gustavo j . ; cristian s . abdala , javier nori , hussam zaher 2010 . reptiles de la provincia de río negro , argentina fondo ed . rionegrino , 249 pp .
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
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. . . patterns of coloration ) and ecology ( e . g . macromicrohabitat , feeding habits ) ( martins et al . , 2002 ; carrasco et al . , 2010 carrasco et al . , , 2012 ) may be attributed to ancestor - descendant relationship . on the other hand , the phylogeny of fig . 1would imply that morpho - ecological similarities among
neuwiedi
and
jararaca
with other groups of species respectively , might be attributed to convergent evolution because of inhabiting similar habitats . . . .
. . . habita preferentemente roquedales , zonas de suelos arenosos o salitrosos . su distribución altitudinal va desde el nivel del mar hasta más de los 3 . 000 m s . n . m . , siendo la altura máxima a la que nótulas faunísticas - segunda serie , 190 ( 2016 ) : 1 - 5 fue encontrada los 3 . 700 m s . n . m . , en tres cruces , provincia de jujuy ( moreta en carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . su alimentación incluye lagartijas y roedores ( cei , 1993 ; gómez ales et al . , 2013 ) . . . .
. . . literature and museum records with acronyms or specific localities were quoted literally . we include these records from revisionary literature : abdala ( 2005 ) , abdala ( 2007 ) , avila et al . ( 2001avila et al . ( , 2003avila et al . ( , 2006aavila et al . ( , 2007aavila et al . ( , 2007bavila et al . ( , 2012 ) , abdala et al . ( 2012b ) , breitman et al . ( 2011b ) , carrasco et al . ( 2010 ) , avila ( 2008a , 2008b ) , cei ( 1973acei ( , 1974cei ( , 1986cei ( , 1993cei ( , 2003 , cei and castro ( 1973 ) , cei et al . ( 2001cei et al . ( , 2003 , cei and scolaro ( 1980 ) , cei and scolaro ( 1999 ) , cruz et al . ( 1999 ) , daciuk and miranda ( 1980 ) , etheridge and christie ( 2003 ) , gallardo ( 1960 ) , giambelluca ( 1999 ) , giraudo et al . ( 2012 ) , giraudo and scrocchi ( 2002 ) , ibargüengoytía and schulte ii ( 2001 ) , kluge ( 1964 ) , koslowsky ( 1898 ) , lobo ( 2005 ) , lobo andquinteros ( 2005a , 2005b ) , lobo et al . ( 2010 ) , montero ( 1996 ) , nenda et al . ( 2007 ) , schulte ii et al . ( 2004 ) , scolaro ( 1976ascolaro ( , 1976bscolaro ( , 1990scolaro ( , 1993scolaro ( , 2005scolaro ( , 2006 ) , scolaro and cei ( 1979 , 1997 , 2006 ) , scolaro et al . ( 2005scolaro et al . ( , 2013 , scolaro and ibargüengoytía ( 2007 ) we constructed a hexagonal cell grid ( white et al . 1992 , white 2000 ) with each en - tire perimeter cell having an area of 2 , 787 km 2 , covering the entire territory of chubut province . the resulting grid contained 106 hexagons . . . .
. . . this lineage occupies a wide range of environments and vegetation types , from lowland central american and amazonian rain forests to open areas in the andes and patagonia ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) . even with extensive accumulated knowledge on natural history , taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of pitvipers ( hoge & romano– hoge , 1981 ; martins et al . , 2001 ; marques et al . , 2002 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; cisneros - heredia et al . , 2006 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 , among others ) , patterns of endemism , geographical distribution , and phylogenetic diversity in this group have never been assessed , hampering effective conservation action . here , we provide a conservation assessment based on evolutionary distinctiveness ( isaac et al . , 2007 ) and phylogenetic diversity ( faith , 1992 ) indexes for neotropical pitvipers . . . .
. . . all records were georeferenced and mapped in arcview 9 . 0 ( esri , 2009 ) , according to usual geographical information system techniques . distribution records were obtained mainly from the literature ( e . g . gutberlet & campbell , 2001 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; silva & rodrigues , 2008 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 ) , with additional data obtained by revision of voucher specimens in large brazilian herpetological collections ( instituto butantan , mzusp , mpeg and chunb ) , after checking for accurate taxonomy and the most precise locality information . . . .
. . . this lineage occupies a wide range of environments and vegetation types , from lowland central american and amazonian rain forests to open areas in the andes and patagonia ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) . even with extensive accumulated knowledge on natural history , taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of pitvipers ( hoge & romanohoge , 1981 ; martins et al . , 2001 ; marques et al . , 2002 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; cisneros - heredia et al . , 2006 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 , among others ) , patterns of endemism , geographical distribution , and phylogenetic diversity in this group have never been assessed , hampering effective conservation action . . . .
. . . distribution records were obtained mainly from the literature ( e . g . gutberlet & campbell , 2001 ; campbell & lamar , 2004 ; harvey et al . , 2005 ; silva & rodrigues , 2008 ; carrasco et al . , 2009 carrasco et al . , , 2010 , with additional data obtained by revision of voucher specimens in large brazilian herpetological collections ( instituto butantan , mzusp , mpeg and chunb ) , after checking for accurate taxonomy and the most precise locality information . . . .
. . . data records ( see suppl . fig . 1 carrasco et al . 2009 carrasco et al . , 2010 ) . . . .
. . . the specimens examined and their origins are detailed in appendix s1 . morphological techniques and terminology used followed carrasco et al . ( 2009 carrasco et al . ( , 2010 ) . with few exceptions ( see appendix s1 ) , we examined the external morphology , cranial osteology and hemipenial morphology of most taxa . . . .
bothropoids are a highly diverse group of pitvipers whose phylogeny is not yet sufficiently clear given the uncertain , unclear or conflicting position of many species . our goal is to assess the con…
[ more ]
analyzing distributional patterns of amphibians and reptiles to inform conservation decisions , with special focus on argentina .
to generate useful spatial information for decision makers analyzing biogeographical and ecological patterns of amphibians and reptiles considering the most important human pressures .
the rare andean pitviper rhinocerophis jonathani ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) : redescription w . . .
rhinocerophis jonathani is one of the few species of the neotropical pitvipers that inhabit xeric areas at elevations above 2000 m in the andes . we redescribe the species based on new specimens found in southern bolivia and northwestern argentina and provide new data on lepidosis , coloration , hemipenial morphology and the first description of cranial osteology . rhinocerophis jonathani exhibits . . . [ show full abstract ]
revision of the venomous snakes of bolivia . ii : the pitvipers ( serpentes : viperidae )
since nomenclature is intended to reflect the evolutionary history of organisms , advances in our understanding of historical relationships may lead to changes in classification , and thus potentially in taxonomic instability . an unstable nomenclature for medically important animals like venomous snakes is of concern , and its implications in venom / antivenom research and snakebite treatment have . . . [ show full abstract ]
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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de roodt ar 1 , dolab ja , hajos se , gould e , dinápoli h , troiano jc , gould j , dokmetjian jc , carfagnini jc , fernández t , amoroso m , segre l , vidal jc .
instituto nacional de producción de biológicos , anlis dr . carlos g . malbrán , buenos aires , argentina .
< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the ‘correct annotation’ for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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snake venom phospholipase a2 ( pla2 ) that displays low systemic toxicity and causes severe symptoms only at very high concentrations ( 15 mg / kg ) . has neither coagulant nor anticoagulant activity . pla2 catalyzes the calcium - dependent hydrolysis of the 2 - acyl groups in 3 - sn - phosphoglycerides .
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> more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> function < / a > section describes the catalytic activity of an enzyme , i . e . the chemical reaction it catalyzes . this information usually correlates with the presence of an ec ( enzyme commission ) number in the < a href =
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/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000255
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
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/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000250
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
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urltoken
> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> go evidence code guide < / a > < / p >
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> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the ‘taxonomic identifier’ or ‘taxid’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> ' pathology and biotech ' < / a > section describes the lethal dose ( ld ) , paralytic dose ( pd ) , effect dose ( ed ) or lethal concentration ( lc ) of a protein toxin . < p > < a href = ' / help / toxic _ dose ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> ptm / processing < / a > section describes post - translational modifications ( ptms ) . this subsection < strong > complements < / strong > the information provided at the sequence level or describes modifications for which < strong > position - specific data is not yet available < / strong > . < p > < a href = ' / help / post - translational _ modification ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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urltoken
> p92958 < / a > , < a href =
urltoken
> q8tdn4 < / a > , < a href =
urltoken
> o14734 < / a > < p > < a href = ' / help / tissue _ specificity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =
publication
> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =
urltoken
> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘sequence’ section reports information derived from mass spectrometry experiments done on the entire protein or on biologically active derived peptide ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / mass _ spectrometry ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =
urltoken
> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
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carrasco , p . a . , mattoni , c . i . , leynaud , g . c . and scrocchi , g . j . 2012 . morphology , phylogeny and taxonomy of south american bothropoid pitvipers ( serpentes , viperidae ) . zoologica scripta 41 : 1 - 15 .
critically endangered b1ab ( iii ) + 2ab ( iii ) ver 3 . 1
hilton - taylor , c . & pollock , c . m . ( red list programme office )
the main threat to the species is the destruction of habitat . large areas of the island have been destroyed through repeated burning . the continuation of such activities threaten the survival of the species .
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bernarde , p . s . , albuquerque , s . , barros , t . o . & turci , l . c . b . 2012 . snakes of rondônia state , brazil . biota neotrop . 12 ( 3 ) : - get paper here
bernarde , p . s . , albuquerque , s . , barros , t . o . & turci , l . c . b . 2012 . serpentes do estado de rondônia , brasil . biota neotrop . 12 ( 3 ) : 1 - 29 - get paper here
boulenger , george a . 1912 . descriptions of new reptiles from the andes of south america , preserved in the british museum . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 8 ) 10 : 420 - 424 - get paper here
catenazzi , a . , lehr , e . & von may , r . 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of manu national park and its buffer zone , amazon basin and eastern slopes of the andes , peru . biota neotrop . 13 ( 4 ) : 269 - 283


cerithiopsis pulvis is a species of sea snail , a gastropod in the family cerithiopsidae , which is known from european waters , including the mediterranean sea .

it was described by issel , in 1869 .

cerithiopsis pulvis

( of cerithium pulvis issel , 1869 ) issel , a . ( 1869 ) . malacologia del mar rosso . ricerche zoologiche e paleontologiche . biblioteca malacologica , pisa . xi + 387 pp . , pls 1 - 5 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 150 [ details ]
nomenclature the generic name nanopsis cecalupo & robba , 2010 is invalid because preoccupied by nanopsis freytag , 1974 [ an insect of order homoptera ] . anyway the taxonomic validity of the genus has been questioned ( oliver et al . , 2012 : 66 ) so that this and other species of cerithiopsidae which have been assigned to nanopsis are here accepted under cerithiopsis . [ details ]
( of nanopsis pulvis ( issel , 1869 ) ) cecalupo a . & robba e . ( 2010 ) the identity of murex tubercularis montagu , 1803 and description of one new genus and two new species of the cerithiopsidae ( gastropoda : triphoroidea ) . bollettino malacologico 46 : 45 - 64 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
galil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
nomenclature the generic name nanopsis cecalupo & robba , 2010 is invalid because preoccupied by nanopsis freytag , 1974 [ an insect of . . .
cecalupo a . & robba e . ( 2010 ) the identity of murex tubercularis montagu , 1803 and description of one new genus and two new species of the cerithiopsidae ( gastropoda : triphoroidea ) . bollettino malacologico 46 : 45 - 64 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 180 - 213
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453
( issel , 1869 ) . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at
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cephalotes fiebrigi is a species of arboreal ant of the genus cephalotes , characterized by an odd shaped head and the ability to " parachute " by steering their fall if they drop off of the tree they 're on .

giving their name also as gliding ants .

cephalotes fiebrigi

the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see cephalotes fiebrigi for further details
a member of the fiebrigi clade differing from its sister species , cephalotes guayaki , in the worker , soldier and gyne by the denser , erect , truncate body hairs .
raised to species and senior synonym of cephalotes guttifer : kempf , 1958a : 28 .
description of cephalotes specularis n . sp . ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) —the mirror turtle ant
description of cephalotes specularis n . sp . ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) - the mirror turtle ant .
description of cephalotes specularis n . sp . ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) —the mirror turtle ant | brandão | zootaxa
more research examining all aspects of the biology of cephalotes is needed . our present understanding of these ants is largely based on species that live in locations other than the forest canopy , which is where cephalotes are most common and diverse .
description of cephalotes specularis n . sp . ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) - the mirror turtle ant . - pubmed - ncbi
de andrade , m . l . ; baroni urbani , c . 1999 . diversity and adaptation in the ant genus cephalotes , past and present . stuttgarter beitrage zur naturkunde series b ( geolgie and palaontologie ) . 271 : 1 - 889 . ( page 672 , male described , page 667 , combination in cephalotes )
worker and soldier . type locality : san bernardino ( paraguay ) . type material : 1 worker ( only mesosoma ) , lectotype designated by kempf ( 1958 a : 32 ) , labelled “san bernardino , paraguay , in dry wood , cr . pilosus fiebrigi , lectotype , w . w . kempf det . ” ; 2 workers and 1 soldier ( syntypes ) labeled “san bernardino , paraguay , in spalten trockenen holzes ( fiebrig ) , c . pilosus em . r . fiebrigi forel , type” , in musee d ' histoire naturelle genève , examined .
guttifer . cryptocerus ( paracryptocerus ) guttifer santschi , 1919f : 45 ( s . q . ) argentina . santschi , 1922d : 253 ( w . m . ) . [ misspelled as guttatus by santschi , 1929d : 301 . ] junior synonym of fiebrigi : kempf , 1958a : 28 .
combination in cryptocerus ( paracryptocerus ) : santschi , 1919f pdf : 45 ; in paracryptocerus ( harnedia ) : kempf , 1958a : 28 ; in zacryptocerus : brandão , 1991 pdf : 386 ; in cephalotes : de andrade & baroni urbani , 1999 : 667 .
de andrade , m . l . & baroni - urbani , c . ( 1999 ) diversity and adaptation in the ant genus cephalotes , past and present ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . stuttgarter beitrage zur naturkunde serie b ( geologie und palaontologie ) , 271 , 1–889 .
the proventriculus of the cephalotes is peculiar relative to other ants . the morphology of the structure suggests it serves as a powerful pump and filter . this does not appear to lead these ants to have a highly specialized diet as most species appear to be general scavengers . foragers have been observed feeding on carrion , bird feces , extrafloral nectaries and even tending membracids . pollen feeding has been observed in some species , and this is somewhat specialized for ants , but it is not evident that any species restricts its diet to this resource in any significant way . evidence for pollen feeding in cephalotes has accumulated , in part , via finding digested pollen grains seen in infrabucal pellets . it has been suggested that the morphology of the proventriculus is a specialization for processing pollen .
the behavioral repertoire of cephalotes varians has been examined in great detail ( ethograms from wilson 1976 , cole 1980 and cole 1983 ) . soldiers do little else besides defend the nest . this specialized soldier behavior is presumed to be the norm for most species . an especially interesting behavior occurs when workers are dislodged from trees : they
fly
towards the tree , often grabbing the trunk well above the ground ( video ) .
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worker castes typically include two forms , a worker and soldier , but there are a few species that are monomorphic . the larger soldier caste typically has an enlarged head disk . in some species the head of the soldier is very different from the worker while in others these differences are less pronounced . queens and soldiers tend to share similar head morphology . soldiers use their heads to plug the nest entrance . this can be very effective in excluding potential intruders . other morphological differences between the worker castes are present but these differences have not been studied as well as head moprhology .
mature nest size varies , by species , from less than a hundred to many thousands of workers . available evidence suggests most species are monogynous . queens may mate with multiple males .
the following information is derived from barry bolton ' s new general catalogue , a catalogue of the world ' s ants .
forel , 1906d : 235 ( s . w . ) paraguay . de andrade & baroni urbani , 1999 : 672 ( m . ) . combination in
: de andrade & baroni urbani , 1999 : 667 . raised to species and senior synonym of
unless otherwise noted the text for the remainder of this section is reported from the publication that includes the original description .
kempf ( 1958 ) - total length 3 . 9 - 4 . 9 mm . black ; frontal carinae pale testaceous or pale ferruginous ; articulations of legs , tarsi , tips of scapes and basal segments of funiculus , more or less fuscous - ferruginous .
head subopaque , subrectangular , distinctly longer than broad , its upper face rather convex in the middle , the frontal carinae flat to excavated , the entire surface finely reticulate - punctate , sparsely and rather shallowly foveolate without conspicuous rugosities . sides of head subparallel , often distinctly concave above eyes . frontal carinae , in part , translucid , in lateral view considerably thickened just in front of the eyes .
thorax , in profile , - also transversely across the pronotum , - noticeably convex . promesonotum less expanded laterad , its sides tridentate , the posterior tooth more or less rectangular . mesonotum laterally tuberculate or subdentate . sides of basal face of epinotum bidentate , the posterior tooth being largest . declivous face sharply marginate at the sides . sculpture of dorsum of thorax as on head , finely reticulate - punctate and sparsely foveolate . sides of thorax with finely reticulate - punctate with fine , more or less longitudinal rugosities on the laterotergite of the pronotum . sides of fore coxae not transversely striate .
peduncular segments with a triangular anterior face , separated from the dorsal face by a more or less marked edge , the vertex of the anterior face forming middorsally a projecting tooth , facing caudad . this tooth is rather feeble on the petiole , but strongly marked on the postpetiole . lateral spines of the petiole long , rather delicate , gently and evenly recurved , and acute at apex . spines of postpetiole similar , but much more strongly recurved . body of petiole comparatively narrower than in pilosus .
gaster oval , similar to that of pilosus , slightly more shining , the first tergite being very finely and rather superficially reticulate - punctate . general pattern of pilosity as in pilosus , but the appressed scalelike hair is shorter and finer , and the standing hair is abundant , more scattered , much shorter ( shorter than the diameter of tibiae ) , straight , not visibly flexuous .
de andrade and baroni urbani ( 1999 ) - measurements ( in mm ) and indices : tl 3 . 64 - 4 . 84 ; hl 0 . 86 - 1 . 06 ; hw 0 . 88 - 1 . 08 ; el 0 . 25 - 0 . 29 ; pw 0 . 81 - 1 . 00 ; pew 0 . 44 - 0 . 56 ; ppw 0 . 48 - 0 . 59 ; hbal 0 . 40 - 0 . 41 ; hbaw 0 . 09 - 0 . 11 ; ci 101 . 9 - 102 . 3 ; pi 108 . 0 - 108 . 6 ; ppei 178 . 6 - 184 . 1 ; pppi 168 . 7 - 169 . 5 ; hbai 18 . 9 - 22 . 5 .
kempf ( 1958 ) - total length 5 . 8 - 6 . 5 mm ; maximum length of head 1 . 68 - 1 . 78 mm ; of thorax 1 . 57 - 1 . 72 mm . black ; the following yellowish - ferruginous : anterolateral portion of head disc , a triangular area on each shoulder , and usually four larger spots on the first gastral tergite , one close to each corner , the pair of the same side often being confluent ; ferruginous : tip of scape , first funicular segment , knees , extensor face of tibiae , the four apical tarsites of each leg .
head disc more elongate , its rim less distinctly crenulate , its sides distinctly converging caudad , with a feeble constriction at the level of the eyes . anterolateral portion of head disc more or less excavated , the clypeal area marked off by a raised ridge . sculpture of disc coarsely reticulate - rugose , as in pilosus , but the meshes are larger , and the foveolae more deeply impressed . about twelve foveolae may be counted in a transverse row , across the head , at the level of the eyes ( fifteen or more in pilosus and liogaster ) .
thorax dorsally mostly foveolate , scarcely reticulate - rugose . transverse pronotal carina feeble , usually broadly interrupted in the middle , nor forming a raised crest . laterotergite of pronotum finely and more or less longitudinally rugose . sides of thorax never with strong rugosities . sides of fore coxae only reticulate - punctate .
peduncular segments in general as in worker , broader than in pilosus , with strong lateral spines . only the postpetiole possesses a sharply edged triangular anterior face , the vertex of which terminates middorsally in a tooth . sides of gaster gently convex . the first tergite finely but superficially reticulate - punctate , with a few longitudinal rugosities on the antero - median portion .
pilosity , in general , as in worker . in addition the following highly distinctive feature : from each foveola of the head disc and the sides of head emerges a thick , curved scalelike hair , the free end of which projects well beyond the rim of the foveola . a somewhat similar condition holds occasionally for the foveolae of the thorax .
de andrade and baroni urbani ( 1999 ) - measurements ( in mm ) and indices : tl 5 . 92 - 6 . 60 ; hl 1 . 48 - 1 . 52 ; hw 1 . 44 - 1 . 48 ; el 0 . 33 - 0 . 35 ; pw 1 . 40 ; pew 0 . 68 - 0 . 69 ; ppw 0 . 69 - 0 . 77 ; hbal 0 . 39 - 0 . 41 ; hbaw 0 . 11 ; ci 94 . 7 - 100 . 0 ; pi 102 . 8 - 105 . 7 ; ppei 202 . 9 - 205 . 9 ; pppi 181 . 8 - 202 . 9 ; hbai 26 . 8 - 28 . 2 .
kempf ( 1958 ) - length 7 . 5 - 7 . 9 mm ; maximum length of head 1 . 67 - 1 . 71 mm ; of thorax 2 . 14 - 2 . 25 mm . color , sculpture and general features as in soldier . the head disc is still more elongate , indistinctly marginate postero - laterally behind the eyes . it differs from pilosus and liogaster by the shape of the peduncular segments , the nearly parallel - sided gaster , the short wings . the fore wing , measuring 5 . 1 - 5 . 2 mm , projects very little beyond the tip of the gaster , when folded over the back . the wings are infuscated , the venation of the fore wing is quite similar to that of liogaster .
de andrade and baroni urbani ( 1999 ) - measurements ( in mm ) and indices : tl 7 . 88 - 7 . 92 ; hl 1 . 48 - 1 . 52 ; hw 1 . 40 - 1 . 48 ; el 0 . 36 ; pw 1 . 36 - 1 . 40 ; pew 0 . 59 - 0 . 60 ; ppw 0 . 68 - 0 . 73 ; hbal 0 . 49 - 0 . 51 ; hbaw 0 . 12 - 0 . 13 ; ci 94 . 6 - 97 . 4 ; pi 102 . 0 - 102 . 1 ; ppei 226 . 7 - 237 . 3 ; pppi 191 . 8 - 200 . 0 ; hbai 24 . 5 - 25 . 5 .
de andrade and baroni urbani ( 1999 ) - very similar to the male of pilosus and lanuginosus but differing from both in the following details : head more convex dorsally . eyes as broad as in pilosus and smaller than in lanuginosus . anterior face of the petiole concave as in lanuginosus . hind basitarsi longer and narrower than in pilosus and lanuginosus .
sculpture . first gastral tergite as shining as in lanuginosus . rugosities on the propodeal dorsum irregular on the sides and slightly transversal on the middle , those on the pedicel regular and very superficial .
colour . black , gaster slightly lighter . coxae and two proximal thirds of the femora light brown . distal third of femora , tibiae and tarsi dark yellow .
measurements ( in mm ) and indices : tl 5 . 60 - 5 . 76 ; hl 0 . 84 - 0 . 94 ; hw 0 . 98 - 1 . 04 ; el 0 . 43 - 0 . 46 ; pw 0 . 96 - 1 . 02 ; pew 0 . 50 - 0 . 56 ; ppw 0 . 55 - 0 . 63 ; hbal 0 . 48 - 0 . 51 ; hbaw 0 . 09 ; ci 110 . 6 - 116 . 7 ; pi 101 . 9 - 104 . 0 ; ppei 178 . 6 - 192 . 0 ; pppi 161 . 9 - 174 . 5 ; hbai 17 . 6 - 18 . 7 .
cryptocerus guttifer . soldier and gyne . type locality : alta gracia ( cordoba , argentina ) . type material : 1 gyne ( syntype ) labelled “cordoba , ar . alta gracia , bruch , cr . guttifer santo type” , in naturhistorisches museum basel , examined .
cryptocerus guttifer . worker , soldier , gyne , male . type material : 8 workers , 2 soldiers , 2 gynes , 2 males ( all syntypes ) labelled “cordoba , ar . alta gracia , bruch , cr . guttifer , sant . type , z 1” , in nhmb ; 1 worker and 1 soldier ( syntypes ) in museum of comparative zoology ; 1 worker , 1 soldier , 2 gynes labelled only “syntypes” , in zoologische staatssammlung , munich , all examined .
brandão , c . r . f . 1991 . adendos ao catálogo abreviado das formigas da região neotropical ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . rev . bras . entomol . 35 : 319 - 412 ( page 386 , combination in zacryptocerus )
forel , a . 1906d . fourmis néotropiques nouvelles ou peu connues . ann . soc . entomol . belg . 50 : 225 - 249 ( page 235 , soldier , worker described )
kempf , w . w . 1958a . new studies of the ant tribe cephalotini ( hym . formicidae ) . stud . entomol . ( n . s . ) 1 : 1 - 168 ( page 28 , combination in paracryptocerus ( harnedia ) , raised to species , and senior synonym of guttifer )
santschi , f . 1919f . nouveaux formicides de la république argentine . an . soc . cient . argent . 87 : 37 - 57 ( page 45 , combination in cryptocerus ( paracryptocerus ) )
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paraguay : boquerón , caaguazú , central , cordillera , ñeembucú , pte . hayes , san pedro
wild , a . l . , 2007 , a catalogue of the ants of paraguay ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . , zootaxa 1622 , pp . 1 - 55
boquerón , central , cordillera , ñeembucú , pte . hayes , san pedro ( alwc , inbp , ifml , mhng ) . literature records : caaguazú , cordillera ( de andrade & baroni - urbani 1999 , forel 1906 ) .
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brandão cr 1 , feitosa rm 2 , powell s 3 , del - claro k 4 .
museu de zoologia da universidade de são paulo , são paulo , sp , brazil . ; email : crfbrand @ usp . br .
departamento de zoologia , universidade federal do paraná , curitiba , pr , brazil . ; email : rsmfeitosa @ gmail . com .
department of biological sciences , george washington university , washington , dc , u . s . a . ; email : scottpowell @ gwu . edu .
instituto de biologia , universidade federal de uberlândia , uberlândia minas gerais , brazil . ; email : delclaro @ ufu . br .
research support , u . s . gov ' t , non - p . h . s .
carlos roberto f . brandão museu de zoologia da universidade de são paulo , são paulo , sp , brazil .
rodrigo m . feitosa departamento de zoologia , universidade federal do paraná , curitiba , pr , brazil .
scott powell department of biological sciences , george washington university , washington , dc , u . s . a .
kleber del - claro instituto de biologia , universidade federal de uberlândia , uberlândia minas gerais , brazil .
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yoshimura , m . & fisher , b . l . ( 2011 ) a revision of male ants of the malagasy region ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) : key to genera of the subfamily dolichoderinae , zootaxa , 2794 , 1–34 .