the jamaican ibis , jamaican flightless ibis or clubbed-wing ibis ( xenicibis xympithecus ) is an extinct bird species of the ibis subfamily uniquely characterized by its club-like wings .

it is the only species in the genus xenicibis , and one of only two flightless ibis genera , the other being the genus apteribis endemic to hawaii .

jamaican ibis

the jamaican flightless ibis ( xenicibis xympithecus ) , a bird that became extinct approximately 10 , 000 years ago , possessed clublike wings .
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drawing of the wing bones of an american white ibis ( left ) and jamaican ibis ( right ) . bones are scaled such that the humeri are the same size to enable easier comparison of morphological changes .
nicholas r . longrich , and storrs l . olson ( 2010 ) . the bizarre wing of the jamaican flightless ibis xenicibis xympithecus : a unique vertebrate adaptation
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ibis young stay in the nest for a relatively long time ,
he said .
the wing of xenicibis ( top ) compared with that of a typical ibis eudocimus ( middle ) and the extinct , flightless ibis apteribis ( bottom ) . from longrich and olson , 2010 .
xenicibis xympithecus is an extinct flightless ibis from jamaica that had an incredibly rare adaptation — it used its wings as clubs .
a member of the ibis family , it was probably about the size of a chicken , but with an infinitely more robust armoury .
xenicibis is a large , extinct , flightless ibis . it was discovered by storrs olson storrs olson storrs olson from the smithsonian institution , who found some partial remains in a jamaican cave in 1977 . when olson eventually saw the bird’s wing bones , he was baffled . they were so “utterly strange” that he thought the animal must have been suffering from some inexplicable disease .
unlike most flightless birds whose wings turned to vestigial and useless stumps , the jamaican flightless ibis retained extremely long wing bones , but they adapted into use for attack . the wing had a long , curved , banana like structure , with a narrow base and heavy tip . it also had a special joint , which allowed it to be smashed downwards at high speed like a club .
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the jamaican ibis was endemic to jamaica . bones have been excavated from several caves , including the long mile cave , the swansea cave , the jackson ' s bay cave and the red hills fissure . bones from cuba claimed to be of this genus were later identified as those of a limpkin . jamaica and cuba have always been separated by the sea , so it is improbable that a flightless species could reach the other islands .
. . . a roughened area on the carpometacarpal extensor process of phorusrhacos led andrews ( 1901 ) to suggest the presence of a spur or knob used in intraspecific combat . the club - like , thick - walled carpometacarpi of the jamaican ibis xenicibis were interpreted by longrich & olson ( 2011 ) as weapons used in combat . such a role is supported by the presence of healed carpometacarpal and humeral injuries in two specimens . . . .
the initial description of xenicibis was followed two years later by the discovery of a humerus ( upper arm bone ) found in jamacia’s swansea cave . the unusual , robust nature of this bone led olson and steadman to believe that xenicibis was flightless that had evolved on jamacia . along with another fossil flightless ibis – apteribis glenos – described by olson and colleague a . wetmore in 1976 , xenicibis was one of the first flightless ibis to be recognized by science .
while doubtless used for defense , as the ibis evolved its flightlessness on an island filled with predators , it ' s thought the club wing was used against other members of the same species , as evidenced by the high number of fractured bones found in the skeletal remains .
chichester art i did not do any wildlife today , but jean and i had an interesting day of art in chichester . first , we went to see the john minton centenary exhibition at the pallant gallery . minton was a rather sad and tortured artist who committed suicide aged 39 . his art was not great , but he was a fine illustrator and did a large number of books and other things . his paintings included a huge mural called ' jamaican village ' .
. . . birds , however , have been largely ignored until now . hitherto , only about ten fossil bird species were known from the pleistocene of jamaica ( morgan , 1993 ; mcfarlane et al . , 2002 ) , one of which is xenicibis xympithecus , a now - extinct , flightless ibis ( olson and steadman , 1977 ; longrich and olson , 2011 ) . . . .
a very well written and presented article , tying in aspects of larmarckism whilst relating the importance of this new work on the genus xenicibis . the lack of native predators , ( excepting the presence of one or two birds of prey ) , leads me to suspect that the wings evolved for intraspecific combats , perhaps over nesting sites . after all , a number of extant ibis are extremely territorial .
the skeleton of the sacred ibis of the ancient egyptians , as found in mummified form in egyptian tombs , from a paper cuvier had published in 1804 . cuvier identified this bird to be comparable to modern species . however since it was distinctly different from the living bird commonly identified as the same species , it had been used ( by other naturalists ) as evidence for the gradual
transformation or evolution of animals over long periods of time ( from rudwick 1997 ) .
xenicibis might have used its wings to clobber enemies in defence . unlike its living cousins , this ibis couldn’t fly . many island birds lose the ability to fly because they aren’t threatened by any land predators . as a result , their wings become small and stunted , as in the kiwi or the flightless cormorant of the galapagos . but prehistoric jamaica had no shortage of predators , including a boa , an extinct monkey , and several birds of prey . defence would have been important .
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fortunately , there are a few indications that xenicibis truly was a fightin’ ibis . other than the fact that some modern birds fight with their wings , longrich and olson cite two broken arm bones which show signs of healing . one , a humerus , began to heal after being split in two , and the other , a carpometacarpus , has a large callus of bone which probably grew in response to a fracture . these findings are consistent with the idea that these birds were using their wings to strike each other .
what remains unknown is what individual xenicibis were fighting and why . the most plausible answer is “other xenicibis . ” since there is no indication that the anatomy of the weapon differed between males and females , longrich and olson propose that xenicibis fought each other over territory , particularly for good nesting spots . the wing clubs could have also been used to fight off predators , too , and this brings up an important point . we can generate ideas about the function of the bird’s wings by looking at their anatomy and come up with multiple possible uses , but identifying those uses does not tell us why those particular traits evolved in the first place . the clubs of xenicibis may have evolved as a result of ibis - on - ibis combat and could also be used to fight predators once they had already evolved , or perhaps the clubs are some sort of exaptation – a structure used for one function which became co - opted for something else . given the state of the evidence , it is likely that xenicibis used its clubs in combat with each other , but we should not be so careless as to say that the clubs evolved for that function .
while no living ibis shows adaptation of the wing for combat , ibises are highly territorial during nesting and feeding [ 6 , 18 ] , and disputes frequently escalate to fights . of particular note is the fact that plegadis has been seen to grasp its opponent with the bill and then strike with the wings [ 19 ] . in many species , intraspecific combat involves access to mates , but ibises are monogamous [ 5 ] , and there is no evidence that the club is dimorphic . it is therefore likely that intraspecific combat would have focused on securing territory , rather than mates .
it took nearly a century to recognize the strange character of this bird . sometime between 1910 and 1920 the zoologist harold elmer anthony collected a few bird bones from long mile cave in trelawny parish , jamaica . they sat , virtually unnoticed , in the american museum of natural history collections for decades , but in 1977 the ornithologists storrs olson and d . w . steadman used anthony’s fossils to describe the bird as a previously unknown fossil ibis . they named it xenicibis xympithecus . about the size of a chicken , this bird only recently became extinct ( around 2 , 200 years ago according to a table included in the new book holocene extinctions . )
dixon’s restorations are so delightful because they take creatures native to our own sliver of time and transform them into alien shapes . probable or not , they are wonderful because they are both recognizable and alien . the same can be said of actual creatures which existed just yesterday in geological terms . we live in the wake of the earth’s last great extinction . ( in fact , we are arguably still in the midst of it . ) the giant sloths , saber - toothed cats , glyptodonts , mammoths , giant hyenas , and other impressive pleistocene beasts only became extinct within the past 15 , 000 years or so . nor were all the strange creatures charismatic , mammalian megafauna . one odd ibis , first described over thirty years ago , was unlike any other bird to have ever evolved .
the main object of interest is the bird’s bizarre hand . the carpometacarpus – part of the bird’s “hand” you tear the meat off of while having chicken wings – is wider in diameter than the bird’s thigh bone ( femur ) and has extraordinarily - thickened walls . behind this bone , the radius – a lower arm bone in line with the carpometacarpus – was unusually thick compared to the relatively slender companion bone , the ulna . additionally , there was a modified groove – properly called the carpal trochlea – on the end of the carpometacarpus closest to the rest of the body which allowed the wrist to be quickly swung forward in a way different from other avians . this was not the arm of flying bird , but it also differed from the wings of many ground - dwelling birds . rather than becoming reduced or vestigial , the wings of xenicibis actually became heavier and more robust . ( see the comparison of ibis wing skeletons below . )
warblington shore birds peter milinets - raby was out this morning for a couple of hours visiting the shore at warblington ( 6am to 8 : 11am - tide coming in ) . main observations . warblington cemetery extension : 2 green woodpecker . ibis field : 2 chiffchaff , 1 jay , 1 swallow . hedgerow behind conigar point : 1 chiffchaff , 1 sedge warbler , 1 stock dove . conigar point : 1 grey plover , 2 common tern , 2 little egret , 1 whimbrel , 1 snipe flushed by kestrel , 9 dunlin , 7 ringed plover , 1 greenshank . off pook lane : 7 grey plover , 8 dunlin , 14 greenshank ( 5 with colour rings rg / / - + yy / / - & g / / r + yn / / - & g / / r + ll / / - & b / / r + lo / / - & gr / / - + yy / / - ) , 3 common tern . great spotted woodpecker flew over heading across the water to hayling , 7 swallow , 2 yellow wagtail - yellow adult over , then a dull , light brown juvenile landed on the shore for a couple of minutes before flying on - autumn has truly arrived now ! 1 sandwich tern , 9 black - tailed godwit .
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a few million years ago , jamaica was home to one of the strangest boxers in the animal kingdom – a flightless bird called xenicibis xympithecus that could batter its enemies with club - shaped wings .
since then , olson has found more remains including an almost complete skeleton . now , he and his partner nicholas longrich from yale university , have a very different view of the wing . they think it was a club . weapons like clubs and bats have large weighted ends to deliver heavy impacts , and long handles to increase the speed of the swing . that’s exactly what you see in xenicibis ’s wing .
its hand bone ( the metacarpal ) was massive , curved and inflated – perfect for inflicting strong blows . it sat at the end of a long ‘handle’ , made up of the wrist and the forearm – perfect for creating a fast swing . the metacarpal is also hollow , just like many baseball bats are , allowing it to produce a stronger blow without adding too much weight . and its joints allowed it to swing its wing out very quickly , and extend it as far as possible , giving it speed and reach .
the bones are telling , but did xenicibis really punch with its wing ? it’s hard to be sure , especially because there are few modern birds with similar bones to compare against . however , longrich and olson have found some compelling evidence that the bird struck heavy blows with its wings at least two specimens of xenicibis had arm bones that had broken and healed . the first had broken its upper arm ( humerus ) in two and the bones hadn’t knitted together properly . the second had fractured its hand , and a massive callus had grown over the front edge . these birds struck something with enough force to injure themselves .
alternatively , the bird could have boxed with its rivals . longrich and olson note that a couple of flightless birds have similar ( but far less extreme ) forearms , including the steamer duck and the extinct rodriguez island solitaire . and both of these species occasionally use ( or used ) their wings in to beat other individuals in fights .
in fact , many birds use their wings as weapons ( including some ibises ) . some even have special adaptations for combat . waterfowl in particular , such as geese , ducks and swans , have a wide variety of spurs , spikes and bony knobs on their wrists . they use these weapons in battle and conflicts can be very violent ( although there’s some debate about whether swans can actually break a person’s arm ) . xenicibis just expanded on a theme that’s common in the bird world and took it to an evolutionary extreme .
birds have repeatedly evolved flightlessness to exploit insular environments where mammalian predators and competitors are absent , and flightlessness is typically associated with reduction of the forelimbs and pectoral girdle [ 1 , 2 ] . flightlessness has evolved dozens of times in island habitats , and in many taxa , including waterfowl , megapodes , rails , pigeons , parrots [ 2 ] and ibises [ 3 , 4 ] .
later , a partial skeleton prepared from a block of cave breccia ( usnm 460349 ) included the radius , ulna and a carpometacarpus so utterly strange in morphology that it appeared to represent some inexplicable pathology . however , subsequent discoveries of additional material from numerous additional individuals , including almost all of the skeleton ( figure 1 ) , show that the bizarre morphology of the wing represents an adaptation unprecedented among the vertebrates , which we here describe and attempt to interpret .
skeletal reconstruction of xenicibis xympithecus based on usnm 460349 and fossils from the red hills fissure cave deposits , saint andrews parish , jamaica .
the highly modified manus is unlike that of any other bird , flightless or volant ( figure 2 a – d ) . the major metacarpal is massive , inflated , strongly bowed and expanded distally . its diameter is up to 12 . 8 mm dorsoventrally and 9 . 9 mm anteroposteriorly , exceeding the diameter of the femur . the bone is hollow , but the anterior wall is broad and thickened ( figure 2 e ) , being up to 3 mm thick in this area , whereas the cortex of the femur is under 2 mm thick .
wing skeleton of x . xympithecus compared with eudocimus albus and apteribis glenos . ( a ) left carpometacarpus ( usnm 543067 ) in cranial view , ( b ) dorsal view , ( c ) ventral view and ( d ) caudal view . ( e ) major metacarpal ( usnm 543074 ) sectioned at midlength ( note the greatly thickened anterior wall ) . ( f ) radiograph of carpometacarpus of eudocimus compared with ( g ) xenicibis ( usnm 543067 ) . ( h ) composite left wing of xenicibis ( usnm 543067 - 543073 ) compared with ( i ) eudocimus ( usnm 266467 ) and ( j ) apteribis .
the alular metacarpal has a reduced extensor process . the shaft of the minor metacarpal has a thick cortex and a subtriangular section , unlike the strap - like form seen in other birds , and is unusual in being shifted dorsally to lie directly behind the major metacarpal .
the carpal trochlea has a reduced ventral ridge and the articulation for the radiale is symmetrical , pulley - shaped and extended anteriorly . this joint allowed the wrist to swing forward in the plane of the antebrachium , without the complex pronation and supination that occurs in the wing of volant birds [ 10 ] , while the anterior extension of the carpal trochlea permitted hyperextension of the manus .
the proximal phalanx of the major digit is a stubby and block - like element ( figure 2 h ) . it has a subtriangular section and weakly developed articular surfaces .
the radius ( figure 2 h ) is expanded distally to give it a club shape , and it is unlike typical birds in that its diameter exceeds that of the ulna . unusually , the ulna is slender and nearly straight ( figure 2 h ) . its proximal articular surface is on the proximal end of the bone such that the elbow can be fully extended , placing the ulna ' s long axis in line with the humerus . distally , the shaft is dorsoventrally flattened and the articulation for the ulnare is reduced .
the humerus ( figure 2 h ) is typical of flightless birds [ 9 ] except that the shaft is elongate and bowed dorsally . the shaft is slender proximally but expanded distally . the distal end is twisted by approximately 30° such that the articular facets are directed ventrally .
unlike other flightless birds , particularly apteribis , the pectoral girdle is relatively well developed . the coracoids ( figure 3 e ) and furcula ( figure 3 f ) are large and robust . the sternal carina ( figure 3 g ) , while reduced compared with volant ibises , is large when compared with that of apteribis or other flightless birds .
selected skeletal elements of x . xympithecus from the red hills fissure cave deposits , representing multiple individuals . skull elements : ( a ) rostrum ( usnm 543075 ) and mandible ( usnm 543076 ) in lateral view and ( b ) dorsal view ; ( c ) cranial cap ( usnm 543077 ) in left lateral view and ( d ) dorsal view . pectoral girdle : ( e ) coracoid ( usnm 543078 ) , ( f ) clavicle ( usnm 543079 ) and ( g ) two fragments of sternal carina ( usnm 543081 and 54080 ) . hindlimb : ( h ) tibiotarsus ( usnm 543084 ) , ( i ) femur ( usnm 543083 ) and ( j ) tarsometatarsus ( usnm 543085 ) . pelvis ( usnm 543082 ) : ( k ) dorsal view and ( l ) lateral view .
other skeletal elements show modification , albeit less extreme . as in other ibises , the beak is long and decurved ( figure 3 a , b ) , but the tip is knob - like , as in apteribis , rather than spatulate . the parietals and frontals ( figure 3 d ) are thickened by a honeycomb of cancellous bone . the vertebrae and notarium are robust , but otherwise unremarkable . the hindlimb ( figure 3 h – j ) resembles that of apteribis in being massive , with a shortened tibia and tarsometatarsus . the anterior portion of the ilium is dorsally expanded to form a tall crest and the synsacrum is robust ( figure 3 k , l ) , again resembling apteribis .
adaptation for a terrestrial , flightless lifestyle is correlated with hypertrophy of the hindlimbs and pelvis , and reduction of the forelimbs and pectoral girdle [ 1 , 2 ] . in this context , the long forelimbs and well - developed pectoral girdle of xenicibis suggest that the wings were not functionless vestiges . the twisted humerus , short antebrachium and massive , bowed metacarpus make it extremely unlikely that its wing could have functioned in flight ; but the extreme modification of the forelimb argues that the wings had been adapted to function in some capacity .
attempts to identify avian analogues are complicated by the unique morphology of xenicibis . the distally expanded radius does find parallels among steamer ducks ( tachyeres spp . ; n . r . longrich 2010 , personal observation ) and the extinct rodriguez island solitaire ( pezophaps solitaria , columbidae [ 11 ] ) . in those species , the wings are ( or were ) used to deliver hammering blows to conspecifics [ 11 , 12 ] , suggesting that the wing of xenicibis may have functioned as a weapon . perhaps a better analogue is to be found among some of the mantis shrimps ( stomatopoda : gonodactyloidea ) ; these have a club - like , distally inflated dactyl that is used to strike prey and conspecifics [ 13 ] , again hinting that xenicibis may have used the club - shaped hands to deliver blows .
we therefore propose that the wing of xenicibis functioned as a club or flail . several features of the limb would have facilitated this function . kinetic energy is the product of mass and velocity squared ; accordingly , weapons such as clubs and flails have a long handle to increase the angular velocity of the club , and are heavily weighted to increase the mass accelerated by the swing , and the centre of mass is near the end of the club , where the angular velocity is highest . precisely this design is seen in the hand of xenicibis , where the end of the wing is massive , and the proximal metacarpus and long forelimb could act as a handle . the comparatively weak wrist joint does not preclude such a function , because during impact a club acts as a free body [ 14 ] ; the hollow metacarpal also allows the hand to achieve greater strength for a given amount of material , much like an aluminium baseball bat [ 14 ] .
several morphological adaptations would have further increased the wing ' s effectiveness as a weapon . reduction of the extensor process and elongation of the manus would decrease the mechanical advantage of the wing extensors , producing a more rapid wing extension . the retention of long wing bones allows the forelimb to be swung rapidly , while the ability to hyperextend at the elbow and wrist increase the wing ' s effective length , and therefore its angular velocity when swung .
this hypothesis can be tested by looking for direct evidence of agonistic behaviour in the form of traumatic injuries sustained from delivering or receiving blows . fractures are common in pugnacious birds such as the steamer ducks and solitaire [ 11 , 12 ] , and are therefore predicted to occur in xenicibis . two bones of xenicibis show evidence of healed fractures . the first is a humerus that was broken in two ( figure 4 a ) ; a fracture callus indicates healing although the bones failed to knit . the second specimen ( usnm 460349 ) is a carpometacarpus ( figure 4 b ) with a massive callus overgrowing the anterior surface of the major metacarpal and extending inside the bone as well ; the hand apparently suffered an impact that fractured the anterior wall of the metacarpal .
fossils of xenicibis showing evidence of trauma . ( a ) fractured left humerus ( usnm 543086 and 543087 ) showing fracture callus ( fc ) : ( i ) photograph ; ( ii ) radiograph . ( b ) carpometacarpus of xenicibis ( usnm 460349 ) with rugose fracture callus on anterior , dorsal and ventral surfaces of the major metacarpal : ( i ) photograph ; ( ii ) radiograph showing development of callus inside the medullary cavity .
we thank ross macphee for the opportunity to study the red hills fossils . discussions with helen f . james and richard l . zusi and guidance from b . rosemary grant were helpful in developing this project . n . r . l . received support from an nsf graduate research fellowship , an alberta ingenuity graduate studentship and the yale institute for biospheric studies . finally , we thank the reviewers for their helpful reviews of this paper . fossil specimens are deposited in the department of paleobiology , national museum of natural history ( usnm ) , smithsonian institution , washington , dc .
descriptions of thirty - two new species of birds from the hawaiian islands . part i . non - passeriformes
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this is the only known example of a vertebrate adapting a limb into club .
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ornithologists speculate that the wings were used as weapons , in the manner of a club or flail , similar to the adaptations found in some mantis shrimps ( stomatopoda : gonodactyloidea ) that possess a club - like distally inflated dactyl used to strike prey and other shrimps . however , among birds , this adaption appears to be unique . adaptations of the wing to fight in birds is an example of contingency in which various bird species find different solutions to the same problem based in chance .
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what comes next for evolution ? this seems like a simple question . every day we are learning more about the history of life on earth , and we would expect that , over 150 years since charles darwin published on the origin of species , the life of the past could be used to extrapolate the trajectory of evolution’s arrow . regarding our own species , especially , there is a pervasive desire to know what our distant descendants might be like .
but this question is flawed . even though there are evolutionary constraints – not everything we can imagine is possible – life is not following a tightly - restricted road of progress towards a pre - determined goal . natural selection , the primary engine of evolutionary change , generates both diversity and disparity – charles darwin’s “endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful” – as organisms are constantly subjected to changing conditions . there is no way to create an evolutionary law or take everything into account so that we can predict what will exist one thousand , one million , one billion years in the future . that is part of the wonder of evolutionary science . we can’t know how the vast array of lineages we see around us today are going to change in years to come , but we still feel compelled to ask what the future holds .
this isn’t to say that we can’t have a little fun with speculation . in 1981 the scottish geologist dougal dixon published one of the lasting cult favorites of paleontologists – after man : a zoology of the future . imagining the world 50 million years after our extinction – which , one takes it , is probably not all that far off in geological terms – dixon takes the reader on a tour of the world’s ecosystems . there is an odd familiarity to all of it , seeing the prospective descendants of modern creatures twisted into new and bizarre forms . in the seas , fully aquatic descendants of penguins ( the vortex and the porpin ) have replaced the long - extinct whales , the long - legged rabbucks stride across the grasslands , and my personal favorite , a terrestrial bat dixon calls the night stalker , “roams screeching and screaming” in search of prey under the cover of darkness .
( dixon also wrote two similar books : the new dinosaurs [ 1988 ] , chronicling the evolutionary history of still - living non - avian dinosaurs , and man after man [ 1991 ] , a grotesque gallery of future humans modified through bioengineering . after man was arguably his most successful outing , however ; it was turned into a documentary and cartoon in japan . )
the complete skeleton of xenicibis , based upon multiple individuals , as reconstructed by nicholas longrich . from longrich and olson , 2010 .
there must be a reason why xenicibis had such strange wings . the trouble is that no other bird had wings quite like it . spurs , spikes , and other wing weapons are seen among birds like steamer ducks – which use them in combat with members of their own species – but nothing as extreme as the banana wings of xenicibis . ( the closest thing , storrs and longrich suggest , might be the formidable claws of mantis shrimp , though this analogy breaks down in terms of anatomy and function – imagine xenicibis using its wings to trap and consume prey ! ) being that many birds do have a modified carpometacarpus used for combat , however , it is a reasonable hypothesis that the odd wings of xenicibis were used as some kind of club or flail . the bird could have swung its arms so that the wide , thick parts of the carpometacarpus near the tip of the wing struck its opponent .
the actual manner in which xenicibis fought is not discussed in the paper – i assume that will be the focus of further research – but longrich and olson propose that the unique weaponry of this bird underscores a grander theme of evolutionary change . of all the birds which have spurs , spikes , and clubs on their wings , none was quite like xenicibis . despite similar evolutionary pressures – fighting one another for territory , mates , or some other resource – multiple species of birds from various lineages have been adapted to have very different weaponry , with xenicibis having the oddest of all . even when selective pressures are the same , evolutionary quirks and contingencies can generate quite different outcomes .
as strange as it may sound , prehistoric creatures like xenicibis make dixon’s speculative beasts seem almost conservative in their anatomy . many of the creatures featured in after man are products of convergent evolution , testaments to the power of natural selection to funnel organisms down similar channels from disparate starting points . convergence is a real and significant part of life’s pattern , but chance and contingency can open up unique evolutionary possibilities that cannot be predicted or foreseen . the more we learn about the fossil record , the stranger life becomes , and though i am a little saddened by the fact that i will never know what life is going to be like 50 million years from now , i am left in awe by the fantastic creatures which inhabited this planet in ages past .
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an extinct flightless bird from jamaica fought rivals and predators using wings evolved into clubs , scientists suggest .
the boney bludgeons carried by xenicibis xympithecus are unlike anything else known in the bird world - or in mammals , reptiles or amphibians .
writing in the royal society journal proceedings b , the scientists report finding bones that had apparently been broken by another bird ' s club .
fossils show that the metacarpus - one of the
hand
bones - was elongated and much bigger than in related species , with very thick walls .
this allowed the wings to function
in combat as a jointed club or flail
, the researchers write .
we don ' t really know how they would have used these clubs , but we do know that modern ibises grab each other by the beak and pound away with their wings ,
said nicholas longrich , from yale university in the us .
and we analysed two bones that had been broken during fighting , including a humerus ( upper arm bone ) that had been snapped in half - it had started to re - heal , although the two ends hadn ' t knitted together ,
he told bbc news .
dr longrich ' s colleague in this research , storrs olson from the smithsonian institution , was one of the scientists who first identified xenicibis xympithecus back in the 1970s .
a number of other birds are known to fight by whacking each other with their wings - including swans , who will also protect their young this way .
some , including screamers , lapwings and and spur - winged goose , have evolved spurs to increase the damage they can wreak .
the extinct solitaire from the indian ocean island of rodrigues - a cousin of the dodo - had bony growths colloquially known as
musketballs
on their wings , which appear to have served the same purpose .
but among vertebrates - there ' s no animal of any sort that has anything like a limb modified as a club ,
noted dr longrich .
julian hume , an avian palaeontologist with london ' s natural history museum who was not involved in the research , noted that unlike most flightless birds , xenicibis retained long wings , possibly making its flailing more powerful .
so if they retained that feature , that suggests they needed it for defence against predators - and there were quite a few on jamaica .
however , ibises also tend to be intensely territorial , so the flailing clubs may also - or alternatively - have found employment in disputes between individuals , probably with both sexes involved .
the foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may
needless self - doubt
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semi - brexit
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. . . and todus todus . of these , x . xympithecus was previously known from the late pleistocene of jamaica and from the rhrc ' s sediment ( longrich and olson , 2011 ) , but t . todus , and corvus ? sp . . . .
. . . then , what function did dakotaraptor co - opt them for ? aside from brooding , examination of certain extant flightless birds suggests that they could have played a role in hunting strategy , mating display , aggressive territorial behavior , and / or shielding the young ( sensu cooper & harrison , 1994 ; hopp & orsen , 2004 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . implementing feathers in aggressive territorial behavior , as has been observed for extant avian taxa ( cooper & harrison , 1994 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) , is a behavior that could easily have augmented the pack - hunting strategies already proposed for deinonychus , utahraptor , and other dromaeosaurs ( kirkland , burge , & gaston , 1993 ; maxwell & ostrom , 1995 ) . . . .
. . . aside from brooding , examination of certain extant flightless birds suggests that they could have played a role in hunting strategy , mating display , aggressive territorial behavior , and / or shielding the young ( sensu cooper & harrison , 1994 ; hopp & orsen , 2004 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . implementing feathers in aggressive territorial behavior , as has been observed for extant avian taxa ( cooper & harrison , 1994 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) , is a behavior that could easily have augmented the pack - hunting strategies already proposed for deinonychus , utahraptor , and other dromaeosaurs ( kirkland , burge , & gaston , 1993 ; maxwell & ostrom , 1995 ) . dakotaraptor ' s remiges would have lengthened the outstretched arms , providing long and robust outstretched wings that would have been useful when implemented in such strategies . . . .
. . . scale bar = 10 mm . olson & steadman , 1977 ( threskiornithidae ) is unique in having a thick - walled elongate , inflated metacarpus ( longrich & olson , 2011 ) . within columbidae ( pigeons and doves ) , the extinct flightless natunaornis gigoura and the extant goura ground pigeons both have a small bony outgrowth on the processus extensorius of the carpometacarpus ( goodwin , 1983 ; worthy , 2001 ) ( fig . 8b ) , which closely resembles that of a female solitaire . . . .
. . . within columbidae ( pigeons and doves ) , the extinct flightless natunaornis gigoura and the extant goura ground pigeons both have a small bony outgrowth on the processus extensorius of the carpometacarpus ( goodwin , 1983 ; worthy , 2001 ) ( fig . 8b ) , which closely resembles that of a female solitaire . in our examination of carpal spurs and knobs , we note that the literature does not accurately reflect the number of taxa that exhibit some form of carpal growth , but without exception all of these structures are or were used as weapons ( jefferies , 1881 ; sclater , 1886 ; rand , 1954 ; goodwin , 1983 ; livezey & humphrey , 1985 ; worthy , 2001 ; longrich & olson , 2011 ) . our study confirms that the solitaire ' s carpal knob was also a weapon . . . .
fósiles del holoceno tardío provenientes de un depósito subterráneo en la península de portland ridge al sur de jamaica extienden el rango de buteogallus aequinoctialis hasta la cuenca del caribe , a más de 1700 km al oeste - noroeste de la distribución actual más occidental de esta especie . los fósiles se localizaron cerca de las áreas más extensas de manglares , el cual es el hábitat requerido . . . [ show full abstract ]
in the present paper we briefly reviewed and commented the terminology for bird topography , especially wing and tail . we named here newly required japanese terms , such as alula coverts and carpal covert , and also illustra - ted some of them . terms for bird topography are given , which including new japanese ones indicated by asterisk ( * ) in table 1 .
a new genus and species of unusual tern ( aves : laridae : anoinae ) from the middle miocene calvert for . . .
feducciavis loftini , new genus and species , is described from a single partial associated skeleton from the middle miocene calvert formation of virginia . this bird was evidently most closely related to the noddy terns ( anoinae , anous , procelsterna ) . compared with those genera , the tibiotarsus was much shorter and the ulna much longer in relation to the size of the humerus . the absolute size of . . . [ show full abstract ]
history , morphology , and fossil record of the extinct puerto rican parakeet psittacara maugei souanc . . .
the extinct puerto rican parakeet ( psittacara maugei ) has been known with certainty only from mona island and is usually regarded as a poorly defined subspecies of p . chloroptera of hispaniola . examination of skin specimens and comparison of skeletons with fossil and archeological material from puerto rico , show that psitticara maugei is a fully distinct species from p . chloroptera , differing . . . [ show full abstract ]
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this charming hotel enjoys a convenient location in a quiet part of amsterdam city centre , just a few steps from rembrandtplein , a major square in the centre of this city . amsterdam central station and the waterlooplein metro are just around the corner , providing easy access to amsterdam schiphol airport , the world trade centre amsterdam and rai . guests will find themselves near some of the most important tourist attractions in the area including anne frank house , madame tussaud & apos ; s , dam square , and the van gogh museum , all easily reach by metro . the rooms boast functional furniture and have been decorated in soothing tones to create a relaxing atmosphere in which to completely unwind . this pet - friendly establishment includes parking as well as wi - fi internet connection .
located in the centre of amsterdam , close to the waterlooplein and a short walk from central station .
20 kms to the nearest airport ( schiphol airport ) 2 minute walk to the nearest metro station ( waterloo plein ) 3 km to the nearest station ( amsterdam central railway stat ) 2 minute walk to the nearest bus stop 8 km to the nearest fair site ( rai exhibition and congress ce ) .
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make use of convenient amenities , which include complimentary wireless internet access and tour / ticket assistance .
our modern and cozy rooms are the perfect place to relax , with comfortable beds and well - appointed bathrooms - everything you need to enjoy a pleasant stay . there are 77 rooms .
public transport by taxi or train can take you from schiphol airport to your hotel in 30 minutes . the hotel is then a mere 3 minutes walk from amsterdam central station .
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excellent food , would definitely recommend ! ! ! visited restaurant on carnival . good hearty caribbean food available and for a good price .
rates of extinction vary widely . for example , during the last 100 , 000 years of the pleistocene epoch ( about 2 . 6 million to 11 , 700 years ago ) , some 40 percent of the existing genera of large mammals in africa and more than 70 percent in north america , south america , and australia went extinct . ecologists estimate that the present - day extinction rate is 1 , 000 to 10 , 000 times the background extinction rate ( between one and five species per year ) because of deforestation , habitat loss , overhunting , pollution , climate change , and other human activities—the sum total of which will likely result in the loss of between 30 and 50 percent of extant species by the middle of the 21st century .
according to the best estimates of the world’s environmental experts , human activities have driven species to extinction at rates perhaps 1 , 000 times the natural , or background , rate , and future rates of extinction will likely be higher . to…
although extinction is an ongoing feature of earth’s flora and fauna ( the vast majority of species ever to have lived are extinct ) , the fossil record reveals five unusually large extinctions , each involving the demise of vast numbers of species . these conspicuous declines in diversity are referred to as mass extinctions ; they are distinguished from the majority of extinctions , which occur continually and are referred to as background extinction . ranked in descending order of severity , they are :
the impact of a near - earth object 66 million years ago in what is today the caribbean region , as depicted in an artist ' s conception . many scientists believe that the collision of a large asteroid or comet nucleus with earth triggered the mass extinction of the dinosaurs and many other species near the end of the cretaceous period .
and many species of plants . although many scientists contend that this event was caused by one or more large
( 407 million to about 359 million years ago ) , which included 15–20 percent of marine families and 70–80 percent of all animal species . roughly 86 percent of marine brachiopod species perished , along with many corals , conodonts , and trilobites .
in essence , mass extinctions are unusual because of the large numbers of taxa that die out , the concentrated time frame , the widespread geographic area affected , and the many different kinds of animals and plants eliminated . in addition , the mechanisms of mass extinction are different from those of background extinctions .
the trilobite modocia typicalis lived during the middle cambrian period . as a group , trilobites were among the longest - lasting organisms , first evolving at the beginning of the cambrian period ( about 541 million years ago ) and dying out some 289 million years later during the permian extinction , which occurred near the end of the permian period ( roughly 252 million years ago ) .
many species have become extinct because of hunting and overharvesting , the conversion of wetlands and forests to croplands and urban areas , pollution , the introduction of invasive species , and other forms of human - caused destruction of their natural environments . indeed , current rates of human - induced extinctions are estimated to be about 1 , 000 times greater than past natural ( background ) rates of extinction , leading some scientists to call modern times the sixth mass extinction . this high extinction rate is largely due to the exponential growth in human numbers : from about 1 billion in 1850 , the world’s population reached 2 billion in 1930 and more than 6 billion in 2000 , and it is expected to reach about 10 billion by 2050 . as a result of increasing human populations , habitat loss is the greatest factor in current levels of extinction . for example , less than one - sixth of the land area of europe has remained unmodified by human activity , and more than half of all wildlife habitat has been eliminated in more than four - fifths of countries in the paleotropics ( the old world tropics that span africa , asia , and indonesia ) .


the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , also known as the haitian solenodon , or agouta , is a solenodon found only on hispaniola , the island shared by haiti and the dominican republic .

it was first described by brandt in 1833 .

a similar but smaller species , marcano 's solenodon ( s. marcanoi ) , once lived on the island , but became extinct after european colonization .

hispaniolan solenodon

the two living solenodon species are the cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubansus ) and the larger hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) .
hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , arkive . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken
venom system of solenodons . hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus ( . . . | download scientific diagram
the hispaniolan solenodon belongs to an ancient group of mammals and is one of only two solenodon species alive today .
the hispaniolan solenodon is relatively long - lived , potentially reaching 11 years of age .
the hispaniolan solenodon ( s . paradoxus ) lives in haiti and the dominican republic .
dana campbell set
file : hispaniolan solenodon . jpg
as an exemplar on
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
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dana campbell marked
file : hispaniolan solenodon . jpg
as trusted on the
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
page .
yan wong set
file : hispaniolan solenodon crop . jpg
as an exemplar on
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
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the hispaniolan solenodon is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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arkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )
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the cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubanus ) , known as the ‘almiqui’ in cuba , is a soricomorph endemic to cuba . the cuban solenodon belongs to the family solenodontidae along with a similar species , the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) . the cuban solenodon is unusual among mammals because it has a venomous saliva .
a female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the only mammals in the world that can inject prey with a venomous bite .
a female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs
a hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua
a hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua
conservationists are in the dominican republic to save one of the world ' s strangest and most ancient mammals - the hispaniolan solenodon .
hispaniolan solenodons are only a handful of mammals that are venomous . the second lower
featured photo : the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . photograph : miguel landestoy source : the guardian
solenodon are relatively long lived animals . a cuban solenodon lived more than 5 years in captivity . they may be able to live longer as a hispaniolan solenodon lived to 11 years in captivity ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of only a few mammal species capable of producing toxic saliva , which it uses to immobilise its invertebrate prey .
this may explain why the hispaniolan solenodon , which is found on an island shared by haiti and the dominican republic , is so unusual .
the distinctive long snout of the hispaniolan solenodon is attached to the skull with a unique ball - and - socket joint , giving it great flexibility .
center : the hispaniolan hutia ( plagiodontia aedium ) is the only surviving native rodent on hispaniola . right : iucn red list range of the solenodon .
diet : the hispaniolan solenodon ' s diet includes insects and other invertebrates , small reptiles , some fruit and vegetables , and possibly an occasional young chicken .
after sequencing the mitochondrial genome of the hispaniolan solenodon , scientists confirmed that the endangered venomous mammal diverged from all other living mammals some 78 million years ago .
large , and with a long , thin snout , the hispaniolan solenodon resembles an overgrown shrew ; it can inject passing prey with a venom - loaded bite .
even as scientists try and find out basic data on the cuban solenodon , researchers are discovering surprises regarding the better - known hispaniolan species . surveying the species’ various populations , samuel turvey and his team recently discovered that the hispaniolan species is actually three distinct subspecies .
habitat : hispaniolan solenodons typically live in forests , but sometimes make their homes in plantations or gardens .
ottenwalder , j . a . 1999 . observations on the habitat and ecology of the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) in the dominican republic . monografies de la societat d ' historia natural de les balears 6 : 123 - 167 .
hispaniolan solenodons are found in forests and brush country on the island of hispaniola in the caribbean . they are
figure 3 . venom system of solenodons . hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus ( a ) ; with deeply grooved lower canines ( as indicated by the arrow ) that aid in flow and injection of venom ( b ) . illustrations : kathleen reinhardt .
it is the middle of the night , and local research assistants nicolas corona and lleyo espinal have been trawling the dense forest vegetation , attempting to track down the elusive hispaniolan solenodon .
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . notice the small eyes , hairless tail , rusty - orange coloured fur and crazy claws . photograph : miguel landestoy
turvey , s . t . , meredith , h . m . r . , and scofield , r . p . ( 2008 ) . continued survival of hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus in haiti . oryx 42 ( 4 ) : 611–614 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605308001324 .
top left : jose with a solenodon caught in the field . top right : the last survivors team working in the field at night , to maximise chances of catching these nocturnal mammals . bottom left : hispaniolan solenodon , ( solenodon paradoxus ) , stuffed specimen in the natural history museum , vienna . bottom right : overlooking a disappearing landscape in the dominican republic .
the haitian solenodon weighs 700 - 1000 g ( 25 - 35 oz ) .
the hispaniolan solenodon spent most of the last 78 million years without any natural predators , but is now endangered as a result of habitat loss and predation from cats and dogs brought to the islands by human settlers .
hispaniolan solenodons and people : other than an occasional runin in a farm field or garden , solenodons and humans rarely see one another .
“ [ the programme ] drew a lot of international attention to the hispaniolan solenodon , ” rupp said . “some of this attention actually spilled over into the dominican press which published a few articles on the species . ”
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the creatures highlighted by the zoological society of london ' s ( zsl ) edge of existence programme , which focuses its efforts on conservation plans for animals that are both endangered and evolutionarily distinctive .
natural history museum geneticist , selina brace , who recently co - authored a paper on the hispaniolan solenodon with turvey , called solenodons a “fabulously quirky creature” and said she was “instantly hooked” after seeing a picture of this oddity .
with a long snout and short brown - red fur , the hispaniolan solenodon looks like a large shrew . its hairless feet , nose and tail recall those of a possum . the species , sometimes called the dominican solenodon , is found only on hispaniola , the island shared by haiti and the dominican republic .
the hispaniolan solenodon is considered endangered . dogs and cats prey on the animal , and humans have cleared many of the forests where it lives . ( © n . smythe / photo researchers , inc . reproduced by permission . )
hispaniolan solenodons are slow clumsy animals and they have an ungainly gait . instead of running in a straight line they tend to take a zigzag course .
the haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .
the hispaniolan solenodon mainly feeds on insects , worms and lizards . they may also occasionally feed on fruit , roots and other vegetation . they probe the earth with their snout and dig or rip open rotten logs with their claws in order to locate their prey .
the hispaniolan solenodon ( stock image ) is one of the only mammals in the world and can inject prey with a venomous bite . now experts have come one step closer to revealing how it got its potentially deadly weapon by sequencing the creature ' s mitochondrial genome
the haitian solenodon .
dominican fauna . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
haitinalmikki
to
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
.
scientists discovered that the hispaniolan solenodon , a venomous mammal that lives in the dominican republic and haiti , diverged from all other mammals 78 million years ago , long before earth ' s largest dinosaurs died off , according to new research published monday in the journal of mitochondrial dna .
a female hispaniola solenodon with a radio collar attached so researchers could track its movements . photograph : tiffany roufs
the cuban solenodon was discovered in 1861 by the german naturalist wilhelm peters . only 36 cuban solenodons had ever been caught . by 1970 , it was thought that the cuban solenodon had become extinct , since no specimens had been found since 1890 . on june 2 , 1970 , the cuban solenodon was classified as endangered .
the cuban solenodon is found in dense , humid forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .
yan wong added a link to
the last survivors
on
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
.
the solenodon is an ancient creature ; it survived the meteorite that wiped out the dinosaurs . turvey noted :
rebecca morelle science reporter with bbc news recently joined the durrell team in the dominican republic , attempting to track down one of the most strange and ancient mammals in the world - the hispaniolan solenodon . read the full reports below and log on again tomorrow to find out what the search revealed .
the hispaniolan solenodon is also an opportunistic scavenger and may prey on amphibians , reptiles and small birds if or when the opportunity arises . indeed , local people believe it to eat snakes and chickens ( 5 ) , and such remains have been found in solenodon faeces , although this may be the result of scavenging dead animals ( 2 ) . it lunges at its chosen prey , pinning it down with its strong forelimbs , and then scoops up the prey with its lower jaw . a bite from the solenodon injects the victim with toxic saliva from its lower incisors and renders the prey immobile ( 2 ) . potential animal predators of the hispaniolan solenondon include boas and birds of prey ( namely owls ) ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .
as the bag is opened , a pungent , musty smell - the solenodon ' s signature scent - seeps out .
massicot , p .
haitian solenodon .
animal info . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
the plight of the solenodon in haiti may be the most dire of all . haiti’s forests have been decimated over centuries and the solenodon survives only in the massif de la hotte region , the impoverished nation’s last significant stand of cloud forest .
now the why . why would the solenodon evolve venomousness while pretty much every mammal on earth gets along fine without it ? well , it may not be the case of the solenodon evolving venomousness , as much as other mammals losing it .
s . paradoxus has acquired several adaptations which allow it to remain as one of the very few hispaniolan land mammals left . it has a magnificent sense of smell and is able to hear very well ; but in return , its eyesight is not near as developed . its snout contains sensory whiskers along its length . the hispaniolan solenodon has a fast - paced life in the sense that it is always on the move . however , it is on the move at a rather slow speed . it could easily beat a
international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .
solenodon
( on - line ) . accessed october 3 , 2001 at urltoken .
and then , once they know that , says dr young , the conservation of the solenodon can really begin in earnest .
eatroff , a .
solenodon paradoxus .
animal diversity web . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
norvis hernandez , a cuban biologist , is one of the few people on planet earth who has seen a living , wild cuban solenodon . smaller than its hispaniola cousin , the cuban solenodon is easily distinguished by its black - and - white hair .
the cuban solenodon measures 16 – 22 inches ( 40 – 55 centimetres ) long from nose to tail with an extremely elongated snout and a long , naked , scaly tail . the cuban solenodon weighs around 1 kilogram ( 2 . 2 pounds ) .
“the solenodon lineage diverged from other placental mammals circa 78 million years ago . that means [ it ] has existed since the cretaceous period , ” said adam brandt , lead author of a recent study that took the first look at the solenodon’s mitochondrial dna .
the solenodon has been placed in a bag , which is the best way to keep it calm while it is temporarily captured .
the international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .
solenodon
( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .
the cuban solenodon is an insectivore and emerges from rocks and hollow logs at night to prey on insects , spiders and lizards .
hispaniolan solenodons breed up to twice per year . females will give birth to 1 - 3 young and at birth they weigh 40 - 55 g ( 1 . 4 - 1 . 9 oz ) . the young are
eatroff , a . ( 2002 ) . “ solenodon paradoxus , ” animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .
theusch , m . ( 2002 ) . “ solenodon cubanus , ” animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .
solenodon lives in family groups in caves , natural hollows , and burrows in dense , wet mountain forests ( nowak , 1999 ) .
is incapable of causing any significant detriment to the human economy . when it was present in higher numbers , farmers reported destruction of crops as a result of solenodon activity . however , this crop destruction was incidental to the solenodon ' s predation on insects beneath the soil .
the two living species in this family are the cuban solenodon ( suh - len - uh - dun ) , which is also known as the almiqui ( ahl - mee - kee ) , and the hispaniolan solenodon , which is sometimes called the haitian solenodon . both have extremely long snouts that extend beyond the end of their lower jaw . their four relatively tall legs , clawed feet , and long tails are nearly hairless . most are brown on the back , or sometimes black in the cuban solenodon , and have lighter - colored fur on their undersides . cuban solenodons have longer , coarser , back hair , giving it a shaggier appearance . they are also slightly smaller than hispaniolan solenodons . overall , adult solenodons range from about 10 to 15 inches ( 25 to 38 centimeters ) in length , and their tail adds another 6 to 10 inches ( 15 to 25 centimeters ) . adults weigh 1 . 3 to 2 . 4 pounds ( 0 . 6 to 1 . 1 kilograms ) .
ottenwalder , j . a . ( 1991 ) the systematics , biology , and conservation of solenodon . phd thesis , university of florida .
it took hernandez and her colleagues 12 days of searching in the field to finally catch a cuban solenodon , known locally as the almiqui .
massicot , p . 2001 .
animal info - cuban solenodon
( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .
baillie , j .
solenodon cubanus .
2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
baillie , j .
solenodon marcanoi .
2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
baillie , j .
solenodon paradoxus .
2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
while venom can land solenodon a meal and protect it from its natural enemies , it won’t do a lick of good against humans . habitat destruction on cuba and hispaniola has hit the solenodon hard . add to that the invasive species that humans have brought along and you’ve got a massacre .
the most important adaptation of the hispaniolan solenodon is its ability to secrete venomous saliva . the venom is secreted from enlarged submaxillary salivary glands which are located in a groove in the second lower incisor . the term solenodon actually means ‘grooved tooth’ in greek . this venom is used as a means of defense to stun its prey . this is the only documented venom delivery system in any recent mammal . however , discoveries have been made to support the hypothesis that salivary venoms and venom delivery systems have indeed evolved independently in early mammal lineages .
the hispaniolan solenodon is a high priority for global conservation due to its endangered threat status and its evolutionary distinctiveness , and is ranked in the top 10 mammals to conserve by edge urltoken effectively nothing is known about the species’ landscape - level distribution , surviving population size , habitat requirements or specific anthropogenic threats , which make it impossible to identify appropriate in situ or ex situ conservation management strategies .
the team i am with , made up of scientists from jersey ' s durrell wildlife conservation trust , the zoological society of london ( zsl ) , the hispaniolan ornithological society ( soh ) , have embarked on a project called the last survivors .
woods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .
if there was any justice in the animal kingdom – any at all – the solenodon would be as famous as the tiger . the solenodon is a rabbit - sized , shrew - like mammal that is only found on two caribbean islands : cuba and hispaniola ( the dominican republic and haiti ) .
an asteroid strikes earth as flying reptiles look on . somehow the solenodon survived this . illustration : mark garlick / getty images / science photo library rm
motion - sensitive camera traps that the team have been setting outside solenodon burrows are beginning to shed light on how much of an issue this might be .
* * * as in most nocturnal terrestrial insectivores , the haitian solenodon ' s sense of touch is highly developed , while smell and hearing are also important .
4 . woods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .
' it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonisation and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives . '
the solenodon is endangered and experts may redouble their efforts to save the animal seeing as it ' s the only remnant of an incredibly old group of animals .
all laughing at the expense of the solenodon aside , please no touchy this animal if you happen to find one . not just because solenodon is endangered , but because it has a venomous bite , an extreme rarity for a mammal . ( shrews have a venomous bite too , and male platypuses have venomous spurs on their hind legs , though the males only use these to fight each other . ) sitting underneath the solenodon’s lower incisors are salivary glands that send venom along grooves in its teeth . all the solenodon has to do is break the victim’s skin—or cuticle , in the case of insects—for the venom to get in there and work its magic .
there is thought to be little hope for this species in haiti ( 2 ) , but in the dominican republic , the hispaniolan solenodon is known to occur in several areas ( 6 ) . these areas still face threats from logging , agriculture and cattle ranching ; however , both international conservation organisations ( for example , the nature conservancy and durrell wildlife conservation trust ) and national conservation organisations ( for example , sociedad ornitologica de la hispaniola and grupo jaragua ) are working to address these threats and implement management plans for protected areas ( 6 ) . the focus of efforts should be to conserve this species in protected forest reserves ; however , the enormous pressure from increasing human populations on hispaniola may mean that the survival of the hispaniolan solenodon ultimately depends on zoos ( 2 ) , although , as yet , captive breeding of this unique mammal has not been successful ( 7 ) .
the master escapist then survived subsequent ice ages and other natural disasters that have shaped earth’s history . and they are still around today–perhaps most impressive of all is that the solenodon has not yet been driven to extinction by human impacts…yet . today , the solenodon is threatened by the presence of invasive predators and by deforestation . turvey commented :
1 . solenodons have unusually flexible snouts . the hispaniolan solendon has a ball - and - socket joint at the base of its snout , similar to a human shoulder joint . this increases its mobility and allows it to use its snout to explore narrow crevices for potential prey .
to cite this page : eatroff , a . 2002 .
solenodon paradoxus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
to cite this page : theusch , m . 2002 .
solenodon cubanus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
8 . solenodon nipples are located near their rumps . the female solenodon gives birth to one to three young at a time , but only two will survive . she only has two nipples , and they’re located toward her back , almost on her buttocks . young solenodons stay with their mothers for several months , which is long compared with other insectivores .
turvey said the fact that the solenodon survived so many upheavals “makes it even more tragic that these ‘living fossil’ survivors are now in danger of extinction due to human activities . ”
thick gloves are donned , essential for protection against the solenodon ' s most ancient feature - it is the only mammal in the world that can inject venom through its teeth .
eisenburg , j . f . , and n . gonzalez gotera . 1985 . observations on the natural history of solenodon cubanus . acta zoologica fennica 173 : 275 - 277 .
for whatever reason , though , solenodon held onto it . indeed , solenodon is a truly ancient mammal , having diverged some 76 million years ago—not long ( in evolutionary time , that is ) before the dinos met their match in the form of an asteroid punching earth right in the face . ( braun notes , though , that debate still swirls around the evolution of venom in mammals . it may be that venomousness was rare in early mammals , as it is today , and solenodon has just always been an oddity . )
he says :
we are really laying the groundwork for the survival of the solenodon - what we want to do is ensure the long term survival of this unique animal .
the hispaniolan solenodon is nocturnal , secretive and rare , and so , unsurprisingly , is rarely seen and has not been widely studied ( 2 ) . it is capable of climbing near - vertical surfaces but spends most of its time searching for food on the ground . it uses its flexible snout to explore cracks and crevices , and its massive claws to dig under rocks , bark and soil , for invertebrates such as beetles , crickets , insect larvae , earthworms and termites ( 2 ) .
the most significant threats to the haitian solenodon appear to be the continuing loss of its forest habitat and predation by introduced cats and dogs , especially by dogs in the vicinity of settlements .
perhaps the solenodon’s elusive nature has helped it to survive up until this point ; however , the anthropocene is characterized by unprecedented changes to the course of evolution and the requirements for persistence of species . the solenodon’s problem is that it has been too successful in staying off the radar–it has failed to capture the attention of humans . without recognition from people , this threatened species may not be able to garner the conservation support it needs . will the anthropocene be the last epoch the solenodon ever sees ? or will it survive yet another phase of hardship on earth ?
what you don’t have , though , is a venomous bite . . . unless you are in fact a lizard person from outer space . or , better yet , a mysterious mammal called the solenodon . they ' re one of just a handful of mammals with venom glands that deliver a powerful toxin . but wait , there’s more : the solenodon’s nose has a ball - and - socket joint like the human hip , making it crazy flexible . and a lady solenodon’s teats are . . . oddly placed . let ' s just leave it at that for now .
eisenberg , john f . , and edwin gould .
the behavior of solenodon paradoxus in captivity with comments on the behavior of other insectivora .
zoologica 51 ( 1966 ) : 49–57 .
even if you do get a dose of solenodon venom , you’re getting off easy . the venom incapacitates other victims like lizards , and in laboratory tests , scientists dosed mice with the venom and recorded breathing problems , convulsions , and paralysis . and the solenodon doesn ' t stop at prey smaller than it . “there ' s one report of a solenodon kept in captivity in london that ate an entire chicken , ” says molecular biologist rodrigo ligabue braun of brazil’s federal university of rio grande do sul . “he bit a chicken and then ate all the parts he wanted . ”
dogs in particular are a problem on hispaniola , “although we ' ve also recorded or heard of cases where the solenodon has bitten a dog and the dog has died from presumably the venom , ” nunez - mino says . feral cats , too , aren’t just a potential executioner , but competition : the felines target the lizards and large insects and such that the solenodon relies on to survive .
3 . they’re venomous . solendons are one of only a few venomous mammals . other venomous mammals , like the duck - billed platypus , are only capable of passively conveying venom ; the solenodon actually injects its venom like a snake through specially modified teeth . the second lower incisors have special grooves through which venom flows . in fact , the name “solenodon” is derived from the greek for “grooved tooth . ”
varona , l . s . 1983 . remarks on the biology and zoogeography of solenodon ( atopogale ) cubanus peters , 1861 ( mammalia , insectivora ) . contributions to zoology 53 : 93 - 98 .
chances are you’re not far behind the aromatic wonder that is the solenodon . foraging typically at night , it jams its long , highly mobile ball - and - socket schnoz into the soil to root around for invertebrates , things like worms and insects . its many sensitive whiskers help it feel around the dirt , which is just as well because the solenodon ain’t got much going on in the eyesight department .
if you have never heard of the solenodon until now , you’re not alone . the solenodon ( pronounced so - leen - o - don ) lives only on two islands in the world–cuba and hispaniola . the nocturnal , insect - eating solenodon is elusive and eccentric . it’s one of the only mammals in the world that is venomous . it is suspected to have the ability to echolocate . another strange trait it boasts is having a joint in its snout . the nasal ball and socket setup allows it to deftly take in the olfactory environment . this small critter has long claws that curve outward from furless feet .
eisenberg , j . e . , and e . gould . 1966 . the behaviour of solenodon paradoxus in captivity , with some comments on the behaviour of other insectivores . zoologica 51 : 49 - 58 .
currently the hispaniola solenodon is considered endangered by the iucn red list – though two of its subspecies may be close to extinction . the cuban solenodon is in an even more precarious position . also considered endangered , the species has been feared extinct more than once . the zsl’s edge programme , which categorizes animals based on their threatened status and evolutionary distinctness , lists the pair of solenodons as number seven in the top 100 mammals .
as our close encounter with the solenodon nears its end , the team record the gps location where it has been found , measure the animal , and take some dna samples by pulling out a tuft of hairs .
there are a whole slew of reasons why the solenodon’s star should rise , including the facts that it’s one of the only venomous mammals and david attenborough really likes it . but , most of all , the solenodon should be famous because it somehow survived the asteroid collision that killed off the dinosaurs , not to mention the next 66 million years of other catastrophes , from ice ages to the rise of bipedal destroyers named homo sapiens .
although the cuban solenodon is not yet extinct , it is still an endangered species because it only breeds a single litter of one to three in a year and because of predation by species that were introduced by humans .
solenodons are some of the most unique and rare mammals in the world . solenodon - like animals lived all over north america 30 million years ago , but today they are only found on the islands of cuba and hispaniola .
research shows the solenodon evolved more than 70 million years ago – in time to hang out with dinosaurs . but today these unique mammals face a barrage of threats including stray dogs , feral cats , invasive mongoose and deforestation .
they say that this scheme , which is funded by the uk government ' s darwin initiative , and is supported by the dominican republic ' s national zoo and environment ministry , could be our last chance to save the solenodon .
the haitian solenodon is one of the species that live in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) and the greater antillean moist forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )
the cuban solenodon has small eyes and dark brown to black hair . it is sometimes compared to a shrew , although it most closely resembles members of the family tenrecidae including hedgehogs , shrews , opossums , mice and even otters .
but turvey said the last survivors programme made considerable progress on the hispaniolan species , including surveys across the dominican republic that found the species has a larger range than expected . as a result , the species will likely be downlisted by the iucn red list in the future . the programme’s work has also led to a new focus – and concern – for the nearly extinct subspecies in haiti .
both the hispaniola and cuban solenodon species are listed as endangered by the international union for the conservation of nature . their keen senses of smell and hearing help them to avoid human contact , though some local people have become skilled in tracking it down .
behavior and reproduction : during the day , hispaniolan solenodons rest in various hiding places , including hollow trees or logs , tight places in caves or slender cracks in rocks , or in the burrows they make . several solenodons may rest together in a burrow . when they become active at night , they scout around on the surface looking for food . adults are loners during this period , even fighting with one another .
in 2009 , a number of conservation groups – dwct , zsl’s the edge programme , la sociedad ornitológica de la hispaniola ( soh ) and the dominican republic’s ministry for environment and natural resources – kick - started a three - year research and conservation programme on the hispaniola solenodon called the last survivors ( the program also included the hispaniola hutia , a tree - dwelling rodent ) . while it resulted in researchers learning more about the solenodon than ever before , the conservation impacts have been negligible , according to rupp .
the haitian solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws .
conservationists , though , are working to protect this incredible and ancient mammal . groups like the durrell wildlife trust are working with local organizations and the dominican republic ministry of environment to better understand the solenodon , from its populations to the makeup of its venom .
she said that the cuban solenodon’s keen senses of smell and hearing make it almost impossible to capture with conventional methods . the species not only avoids human contact but , according to hernandez , is never tricked by the mechanical traps scientists commonly use to catch small mammals .
from the few reports of human envenomations , it sounds like the experience is no picnic . symptoms are similar to a snake bite , including localized swelling and severe pain , perhaps lasting several days . ( ask your doctor if solenodon venom is right for you ! )
the cuban solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . the cuban solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their fore claws .
solenodons and people usually do not see one another , unless the solenodon makes its home in a plantation or garden . homeowners and farmers sometimes view them as pests because they occasionally damage crops while rooting around in the dirt for insects and other prey that live near plants .
if the also - venomous shrews are any indication , the solenodon may not always be killing and consuming its prey outright . shrews will often bite and incapacitate their victims , then drag them to their dens and come back later and gnaw on the comatose things . the solenodon may well do the same . ( oh relax—it’s not that bad in the grand scheme of things . the tarantula hawk is a wasp that stings , well , tarantulas , then drags them back to a den for its larva to devour it alive over the course of several weeks . )
researchers aren’t entirely sure where the various solenodon populations were located when the asteroid hit – whether they were already on the landmasses that would become modern - day cuba and hispaniola or on the mainland – but they think the populations were close to ground zero of the asteroid’s impact in chicxulub , mexico .
the forelimbs of the hispaniolan solenodon are much more developed that the hindlegs but all of the limbs have claws with five digits which are used for digging . this creature shows a mix of primitive and derived traits . the primitive characteristics consist of a poisonous bite and the ability to echolocate . echolocation is the ability to send calls out into the environment and hear the echo from different objects close by . this helps them with feeding and navigation . also , s . paradoxus has a prootic canal for the lateral head vein . this canal is broadly distributed in mesozoic mammals but is essentially unknown to placental mammals . among the more derived characteristics are low birth frequency , low number of young per litter , and its os proboscis bone . this bone is located at the tip of the cartilaginous snout for support .
first described in 1861 , scientist lost track of the cuban solenodon near the end of the 19th century . no one had saw it for almost a hundred years – and many assumed it was extinct – until researchers spotted a few in the mid - 1970s . and then no one saw it again until 2003 .
it ' s just impressive it ' s survived this long ,
adam brandt , a postdoctoral researcher at the university of illinois , said in a press release .
it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonization and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives .
it ' s just impressive it ' s survived this long ,
adam brandt , a postdoctoral researcher at the university of illinois , said in a news release .
it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonization and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives .
three cuban solenodons were captured in 1974 and 1975 and research revealed that it still existed in many places at the eastern end of cuba . however , the cuban solenodon is still very rare . prior to 2003 , the most recent sighting was in 1999 mainly because it is a nocturnal burrower , living underground and it is very rarely seen .
“this experience of watching this ancient species [ was ] wonderful , it was for a short time because i do not like to feel that this species [ was ] stressed , ” said hernandez who caught a female solenodon in alejandro humboldt national park for brief study before releasing it again . “i cannot explain what i felt the first time i touched it . ”
researchers at the university of illinois and the university of puerto rico used two different methods to sequence the nucleotides that make up solenodon mitochondrial dna - - the kind passed unchanged from mother to offspring - - to determine the history of the species ' lineage . both methods produced the same conclusion , the species diverged from the mammalian tree of life some 78 million years ago .
like other mammals , solenodon mothers nurse their babies with milk delivered through their nipples . a mother may have up to three babies in each litter , but she has only two nipples . all three of her young cannot feed at once . as a result , one of the three babies typically gets less of the nourishing milk than the other two , becomes weaker and weaker , and eventually dies .
the main threats are habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment , charcoal production , and urban development . the impact of exotic predators , such as dogs , cats and mongooses has not been quanitified , although feral dogs are known to have severe localised impacts on solenodon populations . since the species had no natural predators before european colonisation of hispaniola , and is a slow clumsy mover , it does not possess many defences against introduced animals .
according to the world conservation union ( iucn ) both species are endangered , facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild . the u . s . fish and wildlife service also list these two species as endangered . the causes for their decline include hunting by dogs and cats , and the removal of the forests where the solenodons live . the iucn lists a third species , marcano ' s solenodon , as extinct .
the species’ ecology is becoming better understood thanks to recent research efforts . it is nocturnal and finds shelter during the day by burrowing or hiding in hollow logs or crevices . classed as an insectivore , the solenodon feeds mostly on spiders and insects found in the soil , although the diet may be supplemented with worms , snails and occasional plant material . the solenodon is one of the few species of mammal that can produce toxic saliva ( along with some species of shrew ) . a special groove in the second incisor carries the venom to its prey . the reproductive rate of this species is low , with females producing two litters containing 1 - 3 offspring per year . the young stay with their parents for several months , while other offspring are born and raised . the lifespan of wild solenodons is thought to be relatively long , as one individual survived for more than eleven years in captivity .
cuban solenodons are nocturnal ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) . during the day , they stay in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows ( massicot , 2001 ) . only the toes of solenodon come into contact with the ground . however , they can run surprisingly fast and can also climb ( nowak , 1999 ) . although cuban solenodons are often found near vertical surfaces , they spend much of their time on the ground ( massicot , 2001 ) .
there is really nothing on the planet like the solenodon . there are just two surviving species today , one found on cuba and the other , more well known , on hispaniola . but these two species alone are so distinct from any other mammal that they represent an entire biological family : solenodontidae . to put that in perspective every single species of mice and rat – from the african pygmy mouse to the northern luzon giant cloud rat – also represent a single family of 700 - plus species .
like most other insectivores , solenodons rest during the day and become active at night . they usually spend their days in small groups within burrows or shallow hollows in the ground , but may also rest in small hiding places . they spread out at night to look for food alone , and will attack fellow solenodons that get too close , often inflicting nasty bites . if a predator approaches , the solenodon has the option of charging and biting , or running off . unless it is startled or has nowhere to flee , it will usually choose running over fighting .
endemic to the island of hispaniola ( haiti and the dominican republic ) . s . paradoxus paradoxus occurs in northern hispaniola . s . p . woodi occurs in the south of the island , in the sierra de baoruco - jaragua region of the southwest dominican republic , and also as an isolated population in the massif de la hotte region of haiti . the species’ range has substantially decreased with following centuries of deforestation , particularly in haiti , but the solenodon remains relatively widely distributed in the forests of the dominican republic today . classified as endangered ( en b2ab ( iii , v ) ) on the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species .
but should you be lucky enough to bump into a solenodon in the wild , you’re in for a treat . mildly put , this is a singular mammal . it’s about as big as a large rat with a tail to match . ( looks kind of like a rodent of unusual size , don ' t it ? ) it’s got long , sharp nails and ambles with a wobbly , i’m - just - coming - off - anesthesia gait . females with their young are particularly awkward . “the teats are sort of in the armpit of the rear legs , and sometimes the females will kind of run around dragging the babies , ” nunez - mino says .
the haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country , as well as around plantations . it is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . its diet includes insects and spiders found in soil and leaf litter . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws . this species is relatively social , and up to eight individuals may inhabit the same burrow . litter size is 1 or 2 young . the young are born in a nesting burrow . young solenodons remain with their mother for several months , which is exceptionally long for insectivores .
, are all that is left of a once rich and unique land mammal fauna ( not including bats ) which was made up of at least 25 species . both species are currently listed as endangered by the iucn . glover m . allen wrote about these species 100 years ago in the “memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard college” . of the solenodon he said ”of the habits of this species in the wild very little is definitely known” while he wrote the following about the hutia : “of this interesting animal , nothing further seems to have been discovered since it was first described nearly seventy - five years ago” . the situation has unfortunately not moved on much in the last one hundred years .
the project will take place in the key biodiversity area ( kba ) of massif de la hotte , a mountainous area in the far south - west of haiti , home to one of the few remnants of forest . this region has been highlighted by the alliance for zero extinction ( aze ) as the highest global priority for urgent conservation action and is likely to represent the only part of the country where solenodons still persist . whilst the macaya national park encompasses the majority of the massif de la hotte , there is huge pressure on the remaining forest patches for charcoal production and clearing to provide areas for pasture and for crops which will result in the forest habitat becoming smaller and increasingly fragmented ; this leads both to destruction of solenodon habitat and potential escalation of human - animal conflict .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
the haitian population and the southern dominican republic population may represent a distinct species and is already differentiated as a different subspecies ( s . turvey pers . comm . ) .
amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & chanson , j . ( global mammal assessment team )
justification : listed as endangered because its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km² , its range is severely fragmented , it is restricted to forest habitats , and there has been an observed shrinkage in its distribution and anecdotal information on habitat destruction and degradation within its range , and a decline in the number of individuals due to invasive species and persecution .
this species occurs in the massif de la hotte ( haiti ) and the dominican republic .
this species is rare . in haiti the species could be considered critically endangered because there is an isolated population with a range less than 100 km² , threatened by habitat loss and persecution ( s . turvey and l . davalos pers . comm . ) .
the most significant threat to this species appears to be the continuing demise of its forest habitat and predation by introduced rats , mongoose , cats and dogs , especially in the vicinity of settlements . in haiti persecution and hunting for food ( samuel turvey pers . comm . ) is a threat , and there is devastating habitat destruction also occurring .
it is protected by law in the dominican republic ( general environmental law 64 - 00 ) . there is a recovery plan published in 1992 which suggested comprehensive surveys , and management in the national park pic macaya , and education , and the control of exotic mammals , and breeding programmes . at the moment it is not being implemented ( samuel turvey pers . comm . ) . it is found in most protected areas in the dominican republic ( sixto inchaustegui pers . comm . ) . it is one of the species that lives in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot and the greater antillean moist forests ecoregion ( olson and dinerstein , 1998 ) .
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rare footage of one of the world ' s most strange and elusive mammals has been captured by scientists .