amphibalanus is a genus of barnacle of the family balanidae that includes species formerly assigned to balanus .

it contains the following species : amphibalanus amphitrite ( darwin , 1854 ) † amphibalanus caboblanquensis ( weisbord , 1966 ) ( extinct ) † amphibalanus caribensis ( weisbord , 1966 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus cirratus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus eburneus ( gould , 1841 ) † amphibalanus halosydne ( zullo & katuna , 1992 ) ( extinct ) † amphibalanus hopkinsi ( zullo , 1968 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus improvisus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus inexpectatus ( pilsbry , 1916 ) amphibalanus peruvianus ( pilsbry , 1909 ) † amphibalanus playagrandensis ( weisbord , 1966 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus poecilotheca ( kruger , 1911 ) † amphibalanus reflexus ( zullo , 1984 ) ( extinct ) amphibalanus reticulatus ( utinomi , 1967 ) amphibalanus rhizophorae ( ren & liu , 1989 ) amphibalanus salaami ( nilsson-cantell , 1932 ) amphibalanus subalbidus ( henry , 1973 ) amphibalanus thailandicus ( puspasari , yamaguchi & angsupanich , 2001 ) amphibalanus variegatus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus venustus ( darwin , 1854 ) amphibalanus zhujiangensis ( ren , 1989 )

amphibalanus

balanus amphitrite or amphibalanus amphitrite ? a note on barnacle nomenclature . - pubmed - ncbi
reply to clare and høeg 2008 . balanus amphitrite or amphibalanus amphitrite ? a note on barnacle nomenclature .
amphibalanus improvisus on a mytilus galloprovincialis shell . collected in 2001 , black sea , balaklava bay , preserved in alcohol
amphibalanus improvisus on a mytilus galloprovincialis shell . collected in 2001 , black sea , balaklava bay , preserved in alcohol
introduced species remark in japan ( nation ) : amphibalanus amphitrite is reported to foul ' sluice systems ' in japan ( chavanich et al . 2010 ) . [ details ]
variety amphibalanus amphitrite var . stutsburi darwin , 1854 accepted as fistulobalanus pallidus ( darwin , 1854 ) ( harding 1962 considered balanus amphitrite var stutburi is synonym to balanus pallidus ( = fistulobalanus pallidus ) )
a recent revision of balanomorph barnacles ( pitombo , 2004 ) has transferred balanus improvisus to the genus amphibalanus . the name change is now widely accepted , but some literature sources and internet databases have used the genus name balanus .
the shell of balanus crenatus appears not notched on the top , calcareous base lacks the star - like pattern and its operculum is centred . the carina of amphibalanus eburneus is not lower than the rostrum , the scuta are cross - striated , cuticle is more resilient on plates rather than on the radii . the main band in the middle of the tergoscutal flap of amphibalanus amphitrite is above the micropylar opening . more morphological detail on differences in the balanus amphitrite complex are given in henry and mclaughlin ( 1975 ) .
amphibalanus eburneus , known as the ivory barnacle , is native to the western atlantic from the southern gulf of maine to venezuela . it is widely introduced around the world and has invaded the northeast atlantic , the indian ocean , northwestern pacific and the northeastern pacific . in 2000 , an established population was reported for the first time in us pacific waters , in the colorado lagoon , long beach , california . based on its broad tolerances , this species has the potential to expand its range on the pacific coast . amphibalanus eburneus fouls cultured oysters and may compete with other benthic invertebrates for space .
in a recent revision of the balanidae based on morphological systematics , the much studied fouling species balanus amphitrite was renamed amphibalanus amphitrite . here , the case is made for retaining the former nomenclature . taxonomists are urged to exercise caution before introducing new formal taxonomies , which should ideally be based on several independent lines of evidence .
the reticulated barnacle , amphibalanus reticulatus , was first described from southern japan and is native to the indo - pacific region . it has been introduced by shipping to tropical and subtropical waters of the eastern pacific , both sides of the atlantic , and the eastern mediterranean . it prefers saline ( 30 - 40 psu ) , subtidal habitats in warm seas and can be found on a wide range of hard surfaces , including ships ' hulls , docks , pilings , mangroves , rocks , oysters , and other shellfish . amphibalanus reticulatus can have economic impacts through the frequent fouling of ships ' hulls and marine structures and is thought to compete with other barnacle species for settlement space .
introduced species remark in swedish exclusive economic zone ( eez ) : amphibalanus improvisus is a frequent fouler of power plants in its native and introduced range ( nauman and cory 1969 ; vuorinen et al . 1986 ; zvyagintsev et al . 2003 ) . in sweden , estimated costs of power plant fouling by a . improvisus were 1 . 5 - 5 . 5 million dollars per year ( gren et al . 2009 ) . [ details ]
alien species the origin of the bay barnacle amphibalanus improvisus is unclear , and therefore referred to by many scientists as cryptogenic . it is a typical fouling species that distributes itself by clinging to ship hulls . in belgium , living bay barnacles were first reported in 1895 . there were even specimens found in archaeological materials dating back to the 17th century . this barnacle can compete with local species for food and space , but it can also influence the occurrence of algae , as seen in the baltic sea . [ details ]
the bay barnacle , amphibalanus improvisus , is native to the atlantic and gulf coasts of north america ranging south through the caribbean and south america . it has been introduced to the west coast of north america , the sea of japan , europe and the mediterranean , black and caspian seas . it is characteristic of brackish estuarine habitats and is tolerant of varying salinities , being found in water ranging from 0 - 40 psu . economic and ecological impacts have not been reported for a . improvisus on the west coast ; however , it is a dominant fouling organism and is known to grow on a variety of surfaces including ships , boats , harbor structures , and fishing gear .
alien species the striped barnacle amphibalanus amphitrite is a cosmopolitan barnacle that naturally occurs in almost every tropical and subtropical sea . it is a typical fouling species that can reach different places by attaching itself to ship’s hulls . the first specimen in belgium was found in 1952 in farmed oysters in the port of ostend . it took till february 1995 till the striped barnacle was commonly found along the belgian coast . it was thought that the cold winter temperatures would kill off the species in the belgian regions , but this did not happen . the barnacle today ( 2011 ) is a common inhabitant in the port of ostend . the species thrives well in areas with a certain degree of physical stress or pollution . [ details ]
pitombo , f . b . ( 2004 ) . phylogenetic analysis of the balanidae ( cirripedia , balanomorpha ) . zoologica scripta 33 ( 3 ) : 261–276 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
darwin , c . ( 1854 ) . a monograph on the sub - class cirripedia with figures of all the species . the balanidae , ( or sessile cirripedia ) ; the verricidae , etc . , etc . , etc . the ray society , london . i - viii + 1 - 684 , pls . 1 - 30 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
lutaenko , k . a . ; furota , t . ; nakayama ; s . ; shin , k . ; xu , j . ( 2013 ) . atlas of marine invasive species in the nowpap region . beijing : nowpap dinrac ( northwest pacific action plan , data and information network regional center ) . 189 pp . [ details ]
webber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; lörz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) webber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; lörz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) pitombo , f . b . ( 2004 ) . phylogenetic analysis of the balanidae ( cirripedia , balanomorpha ) . zoologica scripta 33 ( 3 ) : 261–276 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus amphitrite darwin , 1854 ) henry , d . p . ; mclaughlin , p . a . ( 1975 ) . the barnacles of the balanus amphitrite complex ( cirripedia , thoracica ) . zoologische verhandelingen . 141 : 1 - 254 . 22 plates . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
blackmore , g . ; rainbow , p . s . ( 2000 ) . barnacles as biomonitors of trace metal availabilities in hong kong coastal waters 1998 update . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the tenth international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china v . hong kong university press , hong kong . 385 - 409 . [ details ]
introduced species abundance in trinidad and tobago ( nation ) : southward ( 1975 ) and bacon ( 1976 ) found it largely confined to ships and man - made structures in bonaire and trinidad . [ details ]
introduced species abundance in gulf of mexico ( iho sea area ) : this could represent an isolated specimen collected from a ship . [ details ]
introduced species abundance in jamaican part of the caribbean sea : southward ( 1975 ) and bacon ( 1976 ) found it rare and local in jamaica . [ details ]
introduced species remark in united states part of the north atlantic ocean ( marine region ) : a . amphitrite is one of the most abundant fouling barnacles in warmer harbors of the u . s . ( moore and frue 1959 ; carlton 1979 ) , and worldwide ( zevina 1988 ; jones 1992 ; shkedy et al . 1995 ) [ details ]
gittings , s . r . 2009 . cirripedia ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 827–836 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
marchini , a . ; ferrario , j . ; sfriso , a . ; occhipinti - ambrogi , a . ( 2015 ) . current status and trends of biological invasions in the lagoon of venice , a hotspot of marine nis introductions in the mediterranean sea . biological invasions . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) meinkoth , n . a . 1981 . field guide to north american seashore creatures . the audubon society . alfred a . knopf . new york . 799 p . [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus eburneus gould , 1841 ) pitombo , f . b . ( 2004 ) . phylogenetic analysis of the balanidae ( cirripedia , balanomorpha ) . zoologica scripta 33 ( 3 ) : 261–276 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
leung ty . & jones ds . ( 2000 ) . barnacles ( cirripedia : thoracica ) from epibenthic substrata in the shallow offshore waters of hong kong . in : morton b , editor . proceedings of the tenth international marine biological workshop : the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china . the marine flora and fauna of hong kong and southern china v . hong kong university press , hong kong . pp 105 - 127 . [ details ]
introduced species population trend in dutch part of the north sea : in dutch waters it seems to sporadically appear and disappear and does not seem to be established there ( wolff 2005 ) . [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) southward , a . j . ( 2001 ) . cirripedia - non - parasitic thoracica , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 280 - 283 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) pollock , l . w . ( 1998 ) . a practical guide to the marine animals of northeastern north america . rutgers university press . new brunswick , new jersey & london . 367 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of balanus improvisus darwin , 1854 ) zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
introduced species abundance in sea of japan ( iho sea area ) : this barnacle is now abundant in the region , especially in brackish waters . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of finland ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of finland , a . improvisus was classified as having some habitat impacts ( zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in sea of japan ( iho sea area ) : in the caspian sea and in russian harbors on the sea of japan , a . improvisus was an important component of fouling on harbor structures ( kashin et al . 2000 ; zaitsev and ozturk 2001 ; zvyagintsev 2003 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of bothnia ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of bothnia , a . improvisus was classified as having some habitat impacts , by fouling eelgrass and algae ( bostrom and bonsdorff 1997 and raberg and kautsky 2007 , cited by zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in swedish exclusive economic zone ( eez ) : in skagerrak , sweden , it was the dominant organism fouling the hulls of recreational boats , probably because it was more tolerant of hydrodynamic stress than the native blue mussel , mytilus edulis , which dominated static fouling plates ( berntsson and jonsson 2003 ) . in sweden , estimated costs of hull fouling by a . improvisus are 23 - 56 million dollars per year ( gren et al . 2009 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in baltic sea ( iho sea area ) : in the baltic sea , where it is the only barnacle species present , filter - feeding by a . improvisus is thought to affect food webs by diverting planktonic production to the benthic biomass ( olenin and leppakoski 2000 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in baltic sea ( iho sea area ) : in the baltic sea , a . improvisus is reported to affect the recreational quality of shorelines by fouling rocks and littering beaches with its sharp shells . on the other hand , its large filter - feeding biomass increases the clarity of the water ( olenin and leppakoski 2000 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of finland ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of finland , a . improvisus was classified as having moderate ecosystem impacts ( zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in gulf of riga ( iho sea area ) : in the gulf of riga , a . improvisus was classified as having some habitat impacts ( zaiko et al . 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species vector dispersal in gulf of california ( iho sea area ) : ships : general early shipping could also explain a 1889 collection from the gulf of california , mexico ( henry and mclaughlin 1975 ) . [ details ]
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a . improvisus is a small sessile crustacean , typical for the shallow fringe of sea ( less than 10 m deep ) , occurring in marine and brackish environments . a . improvisus has been dispersed by shipment out . . .
a . improvisus is a small sessile crustacean , typical for the shallow fringe of sea ( less than 10 m deep ) , occurring in marine and brackish environments . a . improvisus has been dispersed by shipment outside its natural distribution area , which is considered to be the western atlantic . it was first recorded as invasive in europe and california in the middle of the nineteenth century , with further distribution records to the pacific and australasia ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) . its success worldwide has been attributed to the fact that it is euryhaline and eurythermal , able to self - fertilize , establish and mature rapidly , has a high reproductive capacity and long settlement period , and utilizes a wide range of food . the species damages man - made constructions and ships , causing substantial economic expense , and threatens biological diversity , competing with local species for food as well as space . a . improvisus is included in alert lists in the baltic and pacific ( australia ) . the potential of becoming established from warm temperate to tropical and polar regions has been indicated .
in some germanic languages the species common name means “brackish water barnacle” , reflecting the ability of the barnacle to live in water with lower salinity , such as estuaries . the english common name “bay barnacle” indicates the ability of the species to live in inlets and enclosed bodies of water .
has a low , cone - shaped or semi - globe shape . it may be cylinder - shaped in crowded populations , but according to
the calcareous shell is made up of white to greyish plates . walls never ribbed or folded longitudinally . uneroded calcareous shells have a smooth surface and may be covered by a thin yellowish epidermis , which is often more resilient on the radii . the radii are narrow and oblique and do not completely cover the alae that is nearly horizontal . the carina is lower than the rostrum . the operculum situated off centre , so that terga are close to the carina . the operculum is rounded at the rostral end . in water the opening is narrow and diamond shaped with partly - erect tergoscutal flaps . in juveniles ' opening (
) a white ground is crossed by five black bands of speckles , whereas adults display the same dark bands , but the ground colour is white speckled with purple .
base of the shell calcareous , flat and thin . canals inside run radially to the place ( approximately centre of the basal plate ) where cyprid antennas were attached ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; leppäkoski , 1999 ) forming a star - like pattern .
a . improvisus normally grows to around 10 mm in diameter , the largest specimens reaching 23 mm ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) .
the shells can remain in place long after the animal that constructed and inhabited it is dead .
noted that some of the records in the tropics may relate to the variety “assimilis” , which is a distinct , tropically distributed species of the “amphitrite” group . unlike
a . improvisus is considered to be native on the east coast of north america . in its native range it is distributed from the gulf of st . lawrence in quebec province , canada ( brunel et al . , 1998 ) southward to florida ( pollock , 1998 ) .
further south , the species is found in the gulf of mexico and caribbean region ( henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ) , and on the brazilian coast ( in estuarine areas in northeast brazil ; farrapeira , 2010 ) . in the southwest atlantic a . improvisus was found in uruguay and argentina by darwin ( 1854 ) .
reviewed the species from uruguay and argentina as cryptogenic . it was also listed as cryptogenic in brazil by neves and da
is generally considered as non - native in the east pacific . on the west coast of america its range is from british columbia down to central california (
) with occasional records of sporadic occurrence in southern california as far south as san diego bay . presently it is found in california , oregon and the state of washington (
data on distribution on the west coast of mexico , western colombia , peru and ecuador is based on old collection records ( darwin , 1854 ; henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ) and needs to be reviewed ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) .
from a few places in england and one locality in scotland . at the present time its distribution in the uk remains restricted to estuaries (
) including the thames , severn , daugleddau , conwy , ribble , forth , dart and tamar .
) and dundalk , dublin and cork harbours ( crisp and southward , unpublished survey ) .
noted that populations in the uk estuaries are fluctuating ; e . g . in the thames
in continental europe , a . improvisus is known from estuarine and brackish waters in the baltic and north sea . in the baltic weidema ( 2000 ) states the northernmost limit of distribution as the northern quark , 63°n and the easternmost point at about 25°e in the gulf of finland . in norway the species is found in several localities between oslo fjord and stavanger , but not north of this ( sneli , 1972 ) . along the southern coastline of the north sea , it is common in brackish waters of the netherlands ( gittenberger et al . , 2010 ) .
a . improvisus is found in the caspian , black and aral sea from many littoral locations and is considered as a non - native , well established species there , being very widespread .
didn ' t find it in the aegean sea , but included the species in the checklist of cirripedia for all parts of the mediterranean sea .
early findings of a . improvisus from african coasts ( broch , 1927 ; gruvel , 1912 ; nilsson - cantell , 1938 ) need to be reviewed . henry and mclaughlin ( 1975 ) suggested that specimens found by stubbings ( 1967 ) from west coast of africa are a . improvisus rather than balanus amphitrite as the author had described . bishop ( 1951 ) recorded a . improvisus from three localities in west africa . some authors such as jones et al . ( 2000 ) included the west coast of africa to the cape of good hope in current habitat of the species , but recent reports from south africa don ' t list the species ( griffiths et al . , 2009 ; 2011 ) .
in western pacific the species is considered established in the russian part of the sea of japan .
a . improvisus is a fouling agent in japanese ports , from where there are detailed records . there are records from malaysia and the east china sea , but data on distribution and spread in the region are still limited . several occurrences have been noted from australian ports , but the claims were not confirmed ( wiltshire et al . , 2010 ) . in new zealand this species seems to be established .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
kotta et al . , 2006a ; darwin , 1854 ; hoek , 1876 ; broch , 1924 ; gislen , 1950 ; barnes and barnes , 1962 ; bassindale , 1964 ; polk , 1976 ; hayward et al . , 1990 ; sandrock et al . , 1991 ; jansson , 1994 ; brattegard et al . , 1997 ; olszewska , 1999 ; reise et al . , 1999 ; goulletquer et al . , 2002 ; leppakoski et al . , 2002 ; müller , 2004 ; gollasch and nehring , 2006 ; reise et al . , 2006 ; daisie , 2009 ; dziubinska and szaniawska , 2010 ; jazdewski and grabowski , 2011 ; noel , 2011
bousfield , 1954 ; branscomb , 1976 ; brunel et al . , 1998 ; pollock , 1998 ; carlton et al . , 2011
buchinsky , 1885 ; neu , 1935 ; derzhavin , 1956 ; sayenkova , 1956 ; tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ; brayko , 1982 ; brayko , 1985 ; zevina and poltarukha , 1999 ; aladin et al . , 2002 ; gomoiu et al . , 2002 ; grigorovich et al . , 2003 ; zenetos , 2005 ; daisie , 2009
tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; kawahara , 1963 ; utinomi , 1966 ; utinomi , 1968 ; utinomi , 1970 ; huang , 1994 ; iwasaki and kinoshita , 2004 ; otani , 2004 ; iwasaki , 2006 ; liu , 2008 ; seo and lee , 2009 ; doi et al . , 2011
foster and willan , 1979 ; cranfield et al . , 1998 ; ahyong and wilkens , 2011
bishop , 1951 ; jones et al . , 2000 ; ahyong and wilkens , 2011
kawahara , 1963 ; utinomi , 1966 ; utinomi , 1968 ; utinomi , 1970 ; iwasaki and kinoshita , 2004 ; otani , 2004 ; iwasaki , 2006 ; doi et al . , 2011
henry and mclaughlin , 1975 ; kaplan , 1988 ; davidson et al . , 2008
polk , 1976 ; kerckhof and cattrijsse , 2001 ; vandendriessche et al . , 2003 ; müller , 2004
järvekülg , 1979 ; leppakoski , 2002 ; põllumäe et al . , 2006 ; simm and põllumäe , 2006
gruet et al . , 1976 ; goulletquer et al . , 2002 ; müller , 2004
relini et al . , 1976 ; relini et al . , 1998 ; galil , 2011
järvekülg , 1979 ; leppäkoski , 1999 ; barien , 2002 ; zaiko et al . , 2007
waardenburg , 1827 ; hoek , 1876 ; bishop , 1947 ; wolff , 2005 ; gittenberger et al . , 2010
broch , 1924 ; sneli , 1972 ; brattegard et al . , 1997 ; reise et al . , 1999 ; hopkins , 2002
panov et al . , 1999 ; panov et al . , 2002 ; orlova et al . , 2006
derzhavin , 1956 ; sayenkova , 1956 ; tarasov and zevina , 1957 ; turpaeva and simkina , 1963 ; birshtain et al . , 1968 ; brayko , 1982 ; brayko , 1985 ; zevina and poltarukha , 1999 ; aladin et al . , 2002 ; gomoiu et al . , 2002 ; grigorovich et al . , 2003 ; daisie , 2009
reise et al . , 1999 ; southward , 2008 ; macho et al . , 2010 ; noel , 2011
gislen , 1950 ; barnes and barnes , 1962 ; jansson , 1994 ; leppäkoski and olenin , 2000 ; gren et al . , 2009
most sources suggest ( newman and ross , 1976 ; zullo and miller , 1986 ) that a . improvisus originates on the north atlantic coast of america . paleontological records support this theory ( carlton and zullo , 1969 ) . the species is known in fossil records from florida ( newman , 1979 ) , whereas examination of late cenozoic barnacle faunas from numerous pacific coast localities has failed to uncover a . improvisus . newman ( 1954 ) also noted the absence of this species in indian mound material at brooks island , san francisco bay , although balanus glandula was common on mollusc shells now frequented by a . improvisus . some fossil records may indicate ( tavora et al . , 2005 ) that south america is the source area , but they need to be reviewed ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) .
in the americas , according to a recent review on barnacle invasions ( carlton et al . , 2011 ) , a . improvisus and a . amphitrite constituted the majority of invasion events in the first 100 years after 1853 . in 1853 a . improvisus was first found in san francisco bay ( carlton and zullo , 1969 ) , where it is supposed to have arrived on ship hulls during the gold rush . the ships were often abandoned , providing a good opportunity for colonisation by fouling organisms from the atlantic . a . improvisus spread along the coast from california ( carlton , 1979 ) and reached british columbia in 1955 ( rivera et al . , 2011 ) .
may have been introduced to south american coasts on spanish ships as early as the sixteenth century . the suggestion is supported by
) consider it to be a non - indigenous species and noted the lack of verified fossils in the eastern atlantic and mediterranean . they suppose that
reached europe with trading vessels from america and started colonisation of the baltic in the middle of the nineteenth century , spreading through human activities . now it is regarded as a pest and is given as one of the 100 worst alien species in europe (
, becoming extinct in northeast atlantic waters during the last glaciation and then being re - introduced by human activities as the earliest transatlantic voyages took place between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries .
considered the species as an emigrant from america . in ireland it is only estimated to have arrived before 1950 (
was found in oslofjord , and until 1969 it was only found in this fjord .
a . improvisus has invaded the black and caspian seas . the first record from the black sea dates back to 1844 ( gomoiu et al . , 2002 ) , but the species may inhabited the basin much earlier : derzhavin ( 1956 ) indicates than it could have been transported on ships from ancient greece and phoenicia . the start of invasion and spread in the caspian sea is well - recorded ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) . it arrived in the caspian sea in 1955 ( sayenkova , 1956 ; grigorovich et al . , 2003 ) , presumably through the volga - don canal from the asov and the black sea . in summer 1956 the species could be found everywhere in the basin ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) and now it is a dominant fouling organism ( aladin , et al . , 2002 ) .
there are few recent records from the mediterranean , and it is unknown whether a . improvisus is established here ( zenetos et al . , 2005 ) . the first record may be from 1972 ( streftaris et al . , 2005 ) or 1976 from off - shore platforms in the adriatic sea ( relini et al . , 1976 ) . in a recent review by galil ( 2011 ) the species is not mentioned in the list of alien crustaceans of the mediterranean sea .
in the russian part of the sea of japan a . improvisus is now considered established ( zvyagintsev , 2003 ; ovsyannikova , 2008 ) . the first record as an exotic species was in 1969 when it was found on man - made installations ( zevina and gorin , 1971 ) in the peter the great bay . however , the species might have inhabited the waters well before detailed scientific research was started here in the 1960s .
colonised the western pacific , probably through human introduction . in japan it was first recorded in 1952 (
the species is recorded from several locations in north and central western pacific ( jones et al . , 2000 ) , but little is known about the pattern of its spread and invasiveness in the region .
in the southwest pacific the species was first reported in western australia by bishop in 1951 , who suggested that a . improvisus had become established in one of the australian ports during the 1940s . however , later allen ( 1953 ) could not substantiate this claim when investigating fouling of submerged surfaces on the eastern australian coast . in a review , jones ( 1992 ) didn ' t include this species as present in australian waters , but australia appeared as a location in a later review ( jones et al . , 2000 ) . recently the species has been reported from ships ' hulls in australian ports , but there are no records of its having become established ( wiltshire et al . , 2010 ; ahyong and wilkens , 2011 ) in these waters .
in new zealand , a . improvisus was initially observed on an oil platform which had been transported from japan to new zealand ( foster and willan , 1979 ) in 1975 , and the species is now reported as established .
rivera et al ( 2011 ) modelled the potential for high - latitude marine invasions of a . improvisus along western north america . according the author ' s calculations , there is a potential of habitat extension from the modern frontier in british columbia ( port alberni ) to the prince william sound and aleutian islands reaching 61 - 61 . 5º n . if global warming is considered , the north habitat border may shift as far as 68 . 5 - 69 . 0º in america , creating a possibility of invasion of the species on much of the southeast coast of alaska . in europe ( norway ) the northern border may shift to 65 . 5 or in case of potential effect of global warming to 71 - 71 . 5º n .
findings of the species in australian ports indicates a possibility of a wider invasion in the region .
rivera et al . ( 2007 ) noted that uniform warming of 2°c may nudge northward some of the northern hemisphere limits of a . improvisus but would decrease its tropical coverage and lead to a global decrease in suitable habitat .
) . vertical distribution can vary , generally reflecting the difference in tidal range at each location , usually 0 - 80 cm .
the species can often be found on ship hulls , sluices and oil platforms . on ships it tolerates places with strong water flow ( tarasov and zevina , 1957 ) .
within the habitat range the species tends to colonize all available substratum suitable for a cyprid larva settlement . many authors noted an ability of a . improvisus to live on a wide range of hosts .
a . improvisus is often found attached to bivalve shells and dead molluscs . on sandy beaches of the northwestern black sea it colonised almost all bivalve shells at 2 - 10 m depth ( vinogradov , 1956 ) . in the baltic it has been found on mytilus edulis ( laihonen and furman , 1986 ) and mya arenaria ( olszewska , 2000 ) . in the southern baltic a . improvisus is the only representative of the cirripedia which grows on the mussel mytilus trossulus , which is the dominant element of the bottom fauna in this area . the sporadic occurrence of this barnacle on another baltic bivalve species , the cockle cerastoderma glaucum , has also been noted ( olszewska , 1999 ) .
in september 1999 the species was found on shells of the soft - shell clam mya arenaria on the beach near brzezno ( gulf of gdansk ) . the presence of a . improvisus on m . arenaria could be further evidence of the tendency of barnacles to colonise all available habitats , even if they are not always optimal ( olszewska , 2000 ) .
in the caspian sea it uses an endemic bivalve didacna sp . ( riedel et al . , 2006 ) . in brazil it attaches directly to living oysters and mussels , as well as on stones and empty shells on the muddy sediment ( farrapeira , 2010 ) . in the sea of japan it settles on the native bivalve corbicula japonica , which may live in freshwater , and on the oyster crassostrea gigas , but also on seagrass and macroalgae ( ovsyannikova , 2008 ) .
) . in south america farraepeira ( 2009 ; 2010 ) has reported it on numerous organisms .
in british populations of a . improvisus , furman et al . ( 1989 ) noted high levels of polymorphism and heterozygosity in most estuarine populations except for a small isolated conwy population , where self - fertilisation and inbreeding is possible . factors determining the genetic differentiation in british populations are water currents and water traffic , but not salinity .
analyses of isozyme patterns by furman ( 1990 ) revealed a high degree of genetic similarity amongst populations in the british isles and the baltic , the west coast of sweden , and north america . the results indicate that populations of a . improvisus cluster by geographical and salinity patterns . less heterozygote deficiency was observed in the baltic , showing higher stability and outcrossing here . johannesson and andre ( 2006 ) analysed genetic data from 29 species inhabiting the low saline baltic sea and found that essentially only a . improvisus seemed to be panmictic over the baltic sea–north sea salinity gradient due to high dispersive capacity .
gamfeldt et al . ( 2005 ) hypothesised that increasing genetic diversity within species enhances ecosystem processes such as success of larval settlement of a . improvisus . possible mechanisms that explain this pattern may be facilitation of gregarious response through the presence of founder genotypes , ensuring genetic complementarity to increase future reproductive potential . the study of settlement pattern of the species indicates that changing intraspecific genetic diversity could have community - scale consequences for larval recruitment and space occupancy .
barien ( 2002 ) assessed cytogenetic damage in a . improvisus ( aneugenic effects ) inhabiting the baltic sea at butinge oil terminal , showing the high genotoxicity level in the zone of sewage effluent from palanga town and mazeikiai oil refinery . extensive cytogenetic injuries in gonadal cells of a . improvisus indicated the potential long - term hazards of pollutants to ecological health and integrity of this aquatic species .
although hermaphroditism is universal in sessile barnacles , only a few species are known to be facultative self - fertilisers . furman and yule ( 1990 ) tested the ability of a . improvisus to self - fertilise . individuals were observed to carry well - developed ovaries and well - developed testes at the same time . fertilisation took place and the eggs developed to larvae in both isolated and communal individuals . self - fertilisation appears to take place somewhat later than cross - fertilisation . these laboratory results on self - fertilisation are supported by field observations , in which isolated individuals were found with fertilised egg masses . a . improvisus can thus be added to the list of facultatively self - fertilising cirripedes . the ability to self - fertilise is especially advantageous for individuals of a species such as a . improvisus , which often has sparse and isolated populations ( weidema , 2000 ) .
) . eggs form in the mantle cavity . egg size is about 180 µm , and contrary to other species , there is little geographic variation in this size (
) and gives several generations in a year . embryos are brooded in an ovisac inside the mantle cavity . development to hatching takes about 21 days at 18°c (
larvae hatch as nauplii , and a new brood can be released every 5 - 6 days ( gamfeldt et al . , 2005 ) . there are six nauplius stages of which the first may be non - feeding , the others feeding in plankton , and a non - feeding cypris stage ( barnes and barnes , 1965 ) . nauplius larvae show strongly positive phototaxis , which decreases in the last nauplius stage ( lang et al . , 1979 ) . both eggs and nauplii of a . improvisus are smaller than those of most other barnacle species ( barnes and barnes , 1965 ; ross et al . , 2003 ) . development through the six nauplius stages takes about one week in the laboratory ( o ' connor and richardson , 1996 ; dahlstrom et al . , 2000 ) , but this depends on temperature .
the last naupliar stage moults into the cyprid larvae , which settle on hard substrate and transform into barnacles . cyprid larvae are most prone to settling when they are 3 - 4 days old ( sjogren et al . , 2008 ) . settlement increases in the presence of extract from adult conspecifics , and significantly more cyprids settled at 5 and 10 ppt than at other salinities between 2 and 35 ppt ( dineen and hines , 1992 ) . the same authors noted that surface effects were less obvious as age of cyprids increased .
settlement may also be influenced by light ( larvae are positively phototrophic ) , quality of the substratum and flow velocity ( smyth , 1946 ) . de wolf ( 1973 ) noted that number of cyprids increases soon after low water and decreases during the period of high water . intensity of the flow also influences the settlement : cyprids can attach when velocity of the flow is 0 . 25 m / sec , but not more than 0 . 56 m / sec . the ability of the cyprids to prefer rough surfaces over smooth ones to settle in depressions is well known ( shalaeva , 1997 ; rainbow , 1984 ) . dahlstrom et al . ( 2004 ) noted that surface wettability may act as a determinant in the settlement of a . improvisus that prefer hydrophobic surfaces in the laboratory conditions .
chemical hormonal substances may influence the settlement of a . improvisus larvae . thus , dahlstrom et al . ( 2000 ) observed that settlement of cyprid larvae may be affected by surface active adrenoceptor compounds . zega et al . ( 2007 ) found that , neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin can regulate the settlement process of cyprid larva of a . improvisus . dopamine significantly stimulated settlement of 2 - and 4 - day - old cyprids , while serotonin exerted an inhibitory effect , regardless of cyprid age .
described a reproductive peak in north carolina in winter ( water temperature 5 . 5 - 11°c ) with a maximum in january , when temperature was about 7°c . in the uk , nauplii are released from may to late september and settlement is recorded from may to september (
) larva release was noted in the first half of summer . in the black sea (
) in may ( water temperature 16°c ) and august - september ( water temperature 20°c ) . in these periods , larvae of
constituted nearly half of all meroplankton . larvae disappeared from plankton when water temperature reached 25°c .
in the sea of japan ( korn , 1991 ) the larvae of a . improvisus are found in plankton from june with 2 - 3 abundance peaks from august to october . at a depth of 1 m the number of the larvae reaches 800 / m 3 considerably exceeding that of other species and indicating a successful acclimatisation of the barnacle in the new region .
nasrolahi et al . ( 2006 ) studied effects of salinity on larval stage survival . with increasing salinity , larval size decreases and development time to cyprid larva increased ( 8 - 25ppt takes 7 days , above 36ppt – 9 days ) . larval survival was highest at 12ppt ( 60 % ) , against 14 % at 36 ppt .
) the species has three settlement and three survival peaks . similarly , along the swedish west coast the species may have three generations in one summer season (
generally , the species has a longevity of one year , but occasionally individuals can live for just over two years .
a . improvisus reaches maximum size in 2 - 3 weeks ( elfimov et al . , 1995 ) . tarasov and zevina ( 1957 ) observed that on natural substrata biomass does not exceed 1 . 5 kg / m 2 and density 10 , 000 - 11 , 000 / m 2 . on ships , the biomass can reach 5 - 8 kg / m 2 and on stationary constructions up to 15 , 000 kg / m 2 with density 50 , 000 / m 2 ( brayko , 1982 ) . tarasov and zevina ( 1957 ) showed that density changes depending on depth . thus , on metallic constructions in the caspian sea , at 0 - 0 . 5 m depth the density was 55 , 000 - 57 , 000 / m 2 , whereas it was just 24 , 000 - 28 , 000 / m 2 at 1 - 5 m depth .
other factors affecting size and density of subtidal a . improvisus populations were investigated in chesapeake bay , usa ( branscomb , 1976 ) . populations were affected by both biotic and physical factors . the flatworm stylochus ellipticus , the predominant predator on barnacles , and the bryozoan , victorella pavida , the major spatial competitor , were major factors in summer . in winter a combination of high winds ( 25 knots ) and low air temperature ( - 9°c ) were the major eliminating factors .


macrosiphum euphorbiae , the potato aphid , is a sap-sucking pest insect in the family aphididae .

it infests potatoes and a number of other commercially important crops .

macrosiphum euphorbiae

macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( coutin r . / opie ) adults and nymphs
macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( coutin r . / opie ) damage on potato
a novel virus from macrosiphum euphorbiae with similarities to members of the family flaviviridae .
a proteomic analysis of the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae under heat and radiation stress . - pubmed - ncbi
potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae performance is determined by aphid genotype and not mycorrhizal fungi or water availability .
a novel virus from macrosiphum euphorbiae with similarities to members of the family flaviviridae . - pubmed - ncbi
this project aims to improve the control of potatio aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ) in the spring on strawberry .
tomato yellow top virus : its distribution , characteristics and transmission by the aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thom . )
potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae performance is determined by aphid genotype and not mycorrhizal fungi or water availability . - pubmed - ncbi
potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , in tomatoes : plant canopy distribution and binomial sampling on processing tomatoes in california .
macrosiphum euphorbiae is only known to use rosa species a primary host ( specifically , for sexual reproduction ) in north - eastern usa . in addition ( there and elsewhere ) macrosiphum euphorbiae reproduces parthenogenetically on rosa species , including cultivated roses . for an aphid species list see our rose aphids page .
potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , in tomatoes : plant canopy distribution and binomial sampling on processing tomatoes in california . - pubmed - ncbi
miner , a . and e . wason 2013 .
macrosiphum euphorbiae
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
( macrosiphum euphorbiae thomas ) : the role of anatomy , epidermal hairs , and foliage composition . j . am . hort . soc . 102 ( 2 ) : 166 - 171 .
to cite this page : miner , a . and e . wason 2013 .
macrosiphum euphorbiae
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
this aphid fits all the requirements of macrosiphum euphorbiae : antennal tubercules high smooth and divergent , femora rather pale with the apices not dark , siph pale with the tips darker and the cauda rather pointed and not constricted . ( e . g . see our macrosiphum page ) it is recorded on gossypium herbaceum by blackman .
reinink , k and f . l . dieleman . 1989 . resistance in lettuce to the leaf aphids macrosiphum euphorbiae and uroleucon sonchi . ann . appl . biol . 115 ( 3 ) : 489 - 498 .
barlow c . a . 1962 . development , survival , and fecundity of the potato aphid macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , at constant temperatures . the canadian entomologist 94 ( 6 ) : 667 - 672 ( in russian ) .
walker , g . p . 1982 . the dispersion and abundance of the potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae [ thomas ] ) on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum mill . ) . ph . d . dissertation , ohio state university , wooster .
of those aphid species , baker ( 2015 ) lists 18 as occurring in britain : aphis craccivora , aphis fabae , aphis gossypii , aphis nasturtii , aphis sambuci , aphis solanella , aulacorthum solani , brachycaudus helichrysi , brevicoryne brassicae , hayhurstia atriplicis , macrosiphum euphorbiae , macrosiphum stellariae , myzus ascalonicus , myzus persicae , pemphigus fuscicornis , rhopalosiphoninus latysiphon , rhopalosiphoninus staphyleae ssp . tulipaellus and smynthurodes betae .
class insecta , order homoptera , suborder aphidinea , superfamily aphidoidea , family aphididae , subfamily aphidinae , tribe macrosiphini , subtribe macrosiphina , genus macrosiphum .
walker , g . p . , l . r . nault , and d . e . simonet . 1984 . natural mortality factors acting on potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ) populations in processing - tomato fields in ohio . environ . entomol . 13 ( 3 ) : 724 - 732 .
walker , g . p . 1982 . the dispersion and abundance of the potato aphid ( macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) ) on tomato ( lycopersicon esculentum mill . ) . ph . d . dissertation , ohio state university , wooster . ix + 123 pp . ( link to full text )
macrosiphum euphorbiae used in these experiments came from a laboratory colony established from potato fields near quebec city . the aphids were maintained on potato seedlings , solanum tuberosum c . v . norland , at 21 ± 1 °c , 60 % ± 10 % rh under a 16l : 8d photoperiodic regime .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 1984 . macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) . pp . 296 . aphids on the world ' s crops : an identification and information guide . john wiley & sons : chichester , new york , brisbane , toronto , singapore . 466 pages .
the effectiveness of the potato aphid , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , to transmit potato virus y ( pvy ) to potato has generally been overestimated because tobacco has been used as the indicator host . our results demonstrate that , although apterous m . euphorbiae can acquire pvy from potato and tobacco plants and transmit it to tobacco plants , it does not readily transmit it to potato plants . alatae only transmitted the virus to 4 . 5 % of potato plants . this relative inability to transmit the virus to potato seems independent of potato cultivar . results suggest that the role of the potato aphid in the spread of pvy in potatoes may be negligible .
maelzer , d . a . 1977 . the biology and main causes of changes in numbers of the rose aphid , macrosiphum rosae ( l . ) on cultivated roses in south australia . austral . j . zool . 25 : 269 - 284 .
barlow , c . a . 1962 . the influence of temperature on the growth of experimental populations of myzus persicae ( sulzer ) and macrosiphium euphorbiae ( thomas ) ( aphididae ) . can . j . zool . 40 : 146 - 156 .
la efectividad del áfido , macrosiphum euphorbiae ( thomas ) , para transmitir el virus y de la papa ( pvy ) a la misma , ha sido generalmente sobreestimada debido a que se ha utilizado tabaco como el huesped indicador . nuestros resultados demuestran que a pesar de que las formas ápteras de m . euphorbiae pueden adquirir el pvy de las plantas de papa y tabaco , no lo transmiten fácilmente a las plantas de papa . los individuos alados solo transmiten el virus al 4 , 5 % de las plantas de papa . esta inhabilidad para transmitir el virus a la papa parece ser independiente del cultivar de dicho cultivo . los resultados sugieren que el rol del áfido de la papa en la diseminación del virus y en el cultivo , puede ser insignificante .
macgillivray , m . e . and g . b . anderson . 1964 . the effect of photoperiod and temperature on the production of gamic and agamic forms in macrosiphium euphorbiae ( thomas ) . can . j . zool . 42 : 491 - 510 .
mean time ( x ± sem ) taken by m . euphorbiae gynoparae to reach different odour sources in wind tunnel assays ( n = number of responding males ) . columns with different letters are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
mean time ( x ± sem ) taken by m . euphorbiae males to reach different odour sources in wind tunnel assays ( n = number of responding males ) . columns with different letters are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
zimmermann , e . c . 1948 . macrosiphum solanifoli ( ashmead ) . pp . 113 . in insects of hawaii . a manual of the insects of the hawaiian islands , including enumeration of the species and notes on their origin , distribution , hosts , parasites , etc . volume 5 . homoptera : sternorhyncha . 464 pages .
proportion ( x ± sem ) of m . euphorbiae gynoparae ( n = 48 in each treatment ) that oriented towards ( dotted bars ) or reached ( striped bars ) the different odour sources in wind tunnel assays . columns with different letters , either for orienting to or reaching the source , are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
proportion ( x ± sem ) of m . euphorbiae males ( n = 48 in each treatment ) that oriented towards ( dotted bars ) or reached ( striped bars ) the different odour sources in wind tunnel assays . columns with different letters , either for orienting to or reaching the source , are significantly different ( tukey’s hsd , p < 0 . 05 ) .
the potato aphid attacks over 200 plants including vegetable and ornamental crops as well as weeds . cultivated food hosts include apple , bean , broccoli , burdock ( gobo ) , cabbage , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , corn , eggplant , ground cherry , lettuce , mustard cabbage , papaya , pea , pepper , potato , strawberry , sunflower , sweetpotato , tomato , turnip , white mustard cabbage and zucchini . ornamental hosts are aster , easter lily , gladiolus , iris and rose . weed hosts , such as lamb ' s quarters , pig weed , ragweed , and shepherd ' s - purse serve as important reservoir hosts for the species .
of north american origin , this aphid has a world wide distribution except for the indian subcontinent . it was first reported in hawaii in 1910 , and is now present on hawaii , kauai , maui and oahu .
aphids feed by sucking sap from their hosts . when aphid populations are large , feeding can cause plants to become deformed and the leaves curled and shriveled ( metcalf , 1962 ) . extensive damage can occur when aphid populations are large throughout the crop . this rarely happens in hawaii because of natural enemies and the use of insecticides .
on lettuce , aphids are a problem for three reasons : they vector virus diseases , they can cause reduced or abnormal growth ( reinink and dieleman , 1989 ) .
on strawberries the presence of honeydew , cast skins or sooty mold makes them unmarketable since the fruit can ' t be washed because this would increase the incidence of disease and decrease shelf life ( trumble et . al . , 1983 ) .
on broccoli , this pest is usually present on the youngest and oldest leaves that have higher concentrations of nitrogen containing compounds .
aphids vector plant viruses , and this activity potentially can result in greater losses than direct feeding damage . the potato aphid vectors over 40 non - persistent viruses and 5 persistent viruses . it is able to vector both p ( prsv - p ) and w ( prsv - w ) strains of papaya ringspot virus . prsv - p manifests on papaya . prsv - w does not infect papaya , but does infect cucurbits and watermelon . prsv - w is also called watermelon mosaic virus 1 ( wmv - 1 ) . this aphid also transmits watermelon mosaic virus 2 ( wmv - 2 ) .
reproduction in hawaii does not involve mating and egg laying . females give birth to live female nymphs . as a consequence of this type of reproduction , populations are composed solely of females and there are no males present .
in temperate regions , these aphids overwinter during the egg stage . these eggs are pale green when first laid and turn shiny black in a few hours . in hawaii , eggs are not produced by aphid females .
immatures are elongated and paler than adults with a light covering of white - gray wax and a dark stripe running down their back .
when full grown , the potato aphid is nearly 1 / 8 inch long . eyes are distinctly red and they have long slender cornicles extending from the abdomen . there are two color types , the pink form and the green form . although the majority of the progeny from a green form parent is green and likewise for the pink form , both color forms are able to parent either color form , ( shull , 1925 ) . adults are usually without wings . winged adults are developed in response to high population densities , decline of the host plant , and changes in environmental conditions . winged individuals may be of either color form .
each unmated female may give birth to 50 or more active nymphs within 2 weeks . a generation develops on potato every 2 or 3 weeks .
aphids cluster in shaded areas on the leaves , stems , and blossoms of plants . the wingless aphids tend to fall to the ground when the plant is disturbed . winged individuals disperse readily between crops .
when population densities are high , winged individuals are produced . these individuals emigrate to new hosts . the production of winged versus wingless individuals is dependent on the day length , parent type ,
generation
and temperature ( macgillivary and anderson , 1964 ) . winged , or alate , aphids are more common when the photoperiod is between 11 - 13 hours a day , the parent aphids are unwinged and the first
generation
of aphids under like environmental conditions , and the temperature ranges from 50û - 70 _ f ( macgillivary and anderson , 1964 ) .
barlow ( 1962 ) reported that potato aphid populations have the capacity to increase in temperatures between 41û and 77û f . the optimum temperature for population increase for the potato aphid is 68û f ( barlow , 1962 ) .
there are several factors that naturally control aphid populations . many aphids are naturally controlled by predators , parasites and pathogens ( hagen and van den bosch , 1968 ) . high temperatures increase mortality ( walker , 1982 ) . heavy rainfall washes aphids off plants ( hughes , 1963 ; maelzer , 1977 ) , however , this mortality factor is small because aphids usually gather on the protected under surface of leaves where they are less likely to be washed off ( walker et . al . , 1984 ) .
research on the characteristics of resistant tomato plants to the pink form of the potato aphid show that plants with long and dense hairs are less desirable under field conditions ( quiros et . al , 1977 ) . the same study showed that susceptible tomato plants had higher sucrose , lower quinic acid , and higher alanine and tyrosine contents and a trend toward higher total free amino - acid concentration , they also were a unique source of 0 - phosphoethanol amine ( quiros et . al , 1977 ) .
butterhead lettuce varieties are usually moderately to highly resistant to the potato aphid ( reinink and dieleman , 1989 ) . they feel this resistance may be passed on through selective breeding to the modern crisphead variety marbello which is a cross of crisphead and butterhead lettuces .
insecticidal soaps offer some control against aphids . applications should be applied at regular intervals for maximum efficacy ( koehler et . al . , 1983 ) . users should carefully consider the use of soaps . excessive use can cause a drop in yield of the crop .
a chemical management program for strawberries was tested by trumble et al . ( 1983 ) . they found that a regular sampling plan of counting the number of aphids per plant may be used to determine when the potential damage levels reach a threshold . if aphid numbers per plant are low ( less than 10 ) , no chemicals are necessary and monitoring should continue ; if they are above the threshold level ( 30 aphids per plant on 30 % of plants in field ) , chemicals should be applied . upon determining their thresholds , they found treatments could be based either on a regular sequential sampling plan or a check for presence / absence .
higa , s . y . and r . namba . 1971 . vectors of the papaya mosaic virus in hawaii . proc . hawaiian entomol . soc . 21 ( 1 ) : 93 - 96 .
hughes , r . d . 1963 . population dynamics of the cabbage aphid , brevicoryne brassicae . j . anim . ecol . 32 : 393 - 424 .
koehler , c . s . , l . w . barclay and t . m . kretchun . 1983 . pests in the home garden . california agriculture . 37 ( 9 / 10 ) : 11 - 12 .
metcalf , c . l . , and w . p . flint . 1962 . destructive and useful insects their habits and control , fourth edition . revised by : r . l . metcalf . mcgraw - hill book company , inc . new york , san francisco , toronto , london . pp . 646 - 647 .
purcifull , d . , e . hiebert and j . edwardson . 1984a . watermelon mosaic virus 2 . cmi / aab descriptions of plant viruses no . 293 ( no . 63 revised ) .
purcifull , d . , j . edwardson , e . hiebert , d . gonsalves . 1984b . papaya ringspot virus . cmi / aab descriptions of plant viruses , no . 292 ( no . 84 revised ) .
shull , a . f . 1925 . the life cycle of macrosiphium solanifolii with special reference to the genetics of color . american naturalist . 59 ( 663 ) : 289 - 310 .
trumble , j . t . , e . r . oatman , and v . voth . 1983 . thresholds and sampling for aphids in strawberries . california agric . 37 ( 11 / 12 ) : 20 - 21 .
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the species is spread in europe , anterior and middle asia , north america . within the territory of the former soviet union , it occurs widely where its hosts - plants grow . the northern border of its area goes along the northern border of main potato - growing zone . in closed ground , the pest is observed in more northern regions . its high harming activity is marked in some of southern regions of russia , in moldova , the south and southwest of ukraine .
potato aphid damages potato , tomato , aubergine , cucumber , lettuce , cabbage , pepper , melons and gourds , and others cultures . it feeds on potato in august - september , on aubergine in july , on tomato july - september . different plant species have characteristic symptoms of damage ; injured leaves of cucumber have yellow net ; tomato leaves have round yellow spots at places of aphid feeding . damaged leaves dry up . fecal masses pollute the leaves . control measures include eradication of weeds , insecticide treatments . duly forecast of pest appearance and number is rather important .
adashkevich b . , stary p . , popov n . 1972 . aphididae ( hymenoptera ) - parasites of aphids on vegetables , melons and gourds , potato . in : zhuchenko a . a . , ed . protection of vegetables ( proc . of moldova institute of water agriculture and vegetables growing ) . kishinev : moldovenyaske . 28 - 35 p . ( in russian ) .
bobryshev f . i . , chmulev v . m . , udovitskii a . s . , zakharov a . i . 1972 . dynamics of aphid migration to potato . in : lisunov v . i . , ed . plant protection against pests and diseases ( proc . stavropol ' skhi ) . stavropol ' : stavropol ' skhi . 102 - 105 p . ( in russian ) .
bozhko m . p . 1976 . aphids of food plants . khar ' kov : vishcha shkola . 134 p . ( in russian ) .
chechuev n . 1973 . aphids on potato in kazakhstan . kartofel ' i ovoshchi 6 : 41 ( in russian ) /
damroze i . p . 1970 . the species composition of aphids on potato in latvian ssr . in : materials vii conference on plant protection . part i . elgava : 75 - 77 ( in russian ) .
d ' yakonov k . p . , romanova s . a . , ledneva v . a . 1994 . new interest to potato aphid . zashchita rastenii 5 : 40 - 42 ( in russian ) .
ivanovskaya o . i . 1973 . ecological - faunistic complexes in west siberia . in : cherepanov a . i . , ed . results of investigations the living nature of siberia . novosibirsk : nauka : 97 - 104 ( in russian ) .
ivanovskaya o . i . 1976 . fauna of aphids on the territory of west siberia . in : zolotorenko g . s . , ed . fauna of helminthes and arthropods of siberia . novosibirsk : nauka . p . 175 - 189 ( in russian ) .
khandybarenko t . t . 1981 . basis of agrobiological measures on seed potato protection against aphids - virus - carrying agents . phd thesis . kiev : ukrainian plant protection institute , 41 p . ( in russian ) .
lytaeva g . k , nemchin f . i . 1972 . dynamics of winged aphids on potato in moldova . in : zhuchenko a . a . , ed . protection of vegetables ( proc . of moldova institute of water agriculture and vegetables growing ) . kishinev : moldovenyaske . 96 - 98 p . ( in russian ) .
nevskii v . p . 1929 . aphids of middle asia . proceedings of uzbekistan experimental plant protection station 16 . tashkent . 58 - 73 p . ( in russian ) .
shaposhnikov g . kh . 1964 . suborder aphidinea . aphids . in : bei - bienko g . ya . , ed . keys to insects of the european part of the ussr . v . 1 . moscow & leningrad : nauka . 612 p . ( in russian ) .
shaposhnikov g . kh . 1972 . order homoptera - homopterous . in : kryzhanovskii o . l . , ed . insects and mites - pests of agricultural crops . v . 1 . leningrad : nauka . 183 p . ( in russian ) .
vasil . ev v . p . , ed . 1973 . pests of agricultural crops and forest plantations . 1 . kiev : urozhai , 303 p . ( in russian ) .
zalene g . 1965 . aphids on potato in lithuanian ssr . in : materials of 5th conference on plant protection . vilnius : newspaper - magazine publishing house , 96 - 98 p . ( in russian ) .
zhukova m . i . 2000 . aphids on potato in byelorussia and control measures . in : sorochinskii l . v . , ed . akhova raslin 4 . minsk : an byelorussia . 16 - 18 p . ( in russian ) .
© 2003 - 2009 project «interactive agricultural ecological atlas of russia and neighboring countries . economic plants and their diseases , pests and weeds»
( see pictures below ) , and often rather shiny . their eyes are reddish , and the antennae are darker towards their tips . their
( see first picture below ) has pale greenish to yellow - brown thoracic lobes , with only the antennae and siphunculi noticeably darker than in the apterae . the second picture below shows a small colony of
micrographs of clarified mounts by permission of roger blackman , copyright awp all rights reserved .
is a vector of about one hundred plant viruses . the species originates from the north - eastern usa where it produces sexual forms and
spread infestations to other plants . it is an especial problem in unheated greenhouses .
we have made provisional identifications from high resolution photos of living specimens , along with host plant identity . in the great majority of cases , identifications have been confirmed by microscopic examination of preserved specimens . we have used the keys and species accounts of blackman & eastop ( 1994 ) and blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) supplemented with blackman ( 1974 ) , stroyan ( 1977 ) , stroyan ( 1984 ) , blackman & eastop ( 1984 ) , heie ( 1980 - 1995 ) , dixon & thieme ( 2007 ) and blackman ( 2010 ) . we fully acknowledge these authors as the source for the ( summarized ) taxonomic information we have presented . any errors in identification or information are ours alone , and we would be very grateful for any corrections . for assistance on the terms used for aphid morphology we suggest the figure provided by blackman & eastop ( 2006 ) .
just sorting out pics , and have happened upon these little lovelies from november , which i ' ve been unable to which i ' ve been unable to put a name . they were on cotton growing in the mediterranean biome at the eden project .
the adult appears to have been killed by an entomophthora fungus giving it the bright orange / red colour .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
grayish green to pink ; antennae longer than body and brown on the apical half ; cornicles cylindrical and very long ; cauda finger - shaped . ( from hypp zoology )
primary ( winter ) host is rose ; secondary ( summer ) hosts include potato and tomato .
the potato aphid attacks over 200 plants including vegetable and ornamental crops as well as weeds . cultivated food hosts include apple , bean , broccoli , burdock ( gobo ) , cabbage , celery , chinese broccoli , chinese cabbage , corn , eggplant , ground cherry , lettuce , mustard cabbage , papaya , pea , pepper , potato , strawberry , sunflower , sweetpotato , tomato , turnip , white mustard cabbage and zucchini . ornamental hosts are aster , easter lily , gladiolus , iris and rose . weed hosts , such as lamb ' s quarters , pig weed , ragweed , and shepherd ' s - purse serve as important reservoir hosts for the species . - univ . hawaii
garden insects of north america : the ultimate guide to backyard bugs ( princeton field guides ) whitney cranshaw . 2004 . princeton university press .
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, the potato aphid , is native to north america . it is widespread across the united states and canada , and the species has spread from the nearctic region to the palearctic , ethiopian , and neotropical regions . its range has increased to an almost worldwide distribution , and
is a significant crop pest . populations can be found throughout europe , asia , africa , south america , and australia .
( finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 ; stary , et al . , 1993 ; valenzuela , et al . , 2009 )
colonizes over 200 species of host plants throughout temperate and tropical regions . its host plants , such as
and many other crop species can be found mainly in agricultural fields , but also in grasslands and suburban areas such as greenhouses , gardens , and parks .
( le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
is considered to be a medium - sized aphid . the species has winged and wingless forms . apterous ( wingless ) forms typically are 1 . 7 to 3 . 6 mm long , and alate ( winged ) forms are 1 . 7 to 3 . 4 mm long .
is spindle or pear - shaped . it has a soft body ; long , dark antennae ; and a pair of cornicles at the end of its abdomen . its color can vary among shades of green , pink , or magenta , while its eyes are reddish . nymphs resemble smaller adults and often are covered in a grayish - white wax . apterous adults usually appear shinier than nymphs .
( boquel , et al . , 2011 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; stoetzel , 1994 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
grows through four nymphal instars , each lasting from 1 . 5 to 3 days , though development time varies with temperature . total development time from birth to reproductive maturity ranges from about 6 to 12 days . development times in sexually reproductive and parthenogenetic populations are similar .
( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; de conti , et al . , 2011 ; macgillivray and anderson , 1964 )
( where the aphid life cycle includes both parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction ) occur only in north america . anholocyclic populations ( in which female aphids reproduce only by parthenogenesis ) occur throughout the rest of its global range . egg - laying females ( oviparae ) produce a pheromone to attract male mates . the pheromone is produced by a gland on the hind tibia , and the female lifts her legs to release it .
( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; goldansaz and mcneil , 2006 )
( in which individuals undergo both parthenogenesis and sexual reproduction ) are present in north america . in these holocyclic populations , eggs that have overwintered on primary hosts ( usually
produces several wingless , parthenogenetic generations while colonizing its primary host . later , winged females are produced ; the winged offspring colonize secondary host plants in june and july .
. parthenogenesis continues on the secondary host until the fall , at which time males and sexually reproductive females are produced . males and sexually reproductive females return to the primary host plant species , mate , and lay eggs that overwinter . anholocyclic populations ( in which individuals reproduce only by parthenogenesis ) account for the
populations that are distributed throughout the rest of the world . the life cycle in anholocyclic
populations is similar , except for the absence of the sexually reproductive stage . apterous ( wingless ) females of
likely overwinter on primary host plants in warmer regions and later produce alate ( winged ) females that in turn colonize secondary hosts later in the season . one female can give birth to anywhere from a few to 50 offspring in a single day .
( de conti , et al . , 2011 ; lamb , et al . , 2009 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 )
breeding season sexually reproducing populations breed between the end of summer and early fall .
, eggs are laid on a primary host plant to overwinter , which provides a food source for the offspring when they hatch in the spring . adults also provision the eggs . live birth by parthenogenesis is a significant energy investment by the female parent . because these clones join the colony at birth , interaction with the parent may occur ; however , adults provide no parental care .
lives in large colonies . these colonies can grow to large sizes quickly due to live birth by parthenogenesis ( which eliminates the need and time to find a mate ) and the relatively quick maturation time of the offspring . colonies can be established when alate ( winged ) aphids fly from primary to secondary host plants . however , because aphids are notoriously weak fliers , they often move on air currents and thus have little control over the direction of flight . flight and any resulting colonization is largely random . small - scale dispersal can occur when apterous ( wingless ) aphids walk from one plant to another .
( boquel , et al . , 2011 ; narayandas and alyokhin , 2006 ; pompon , et al . , 2010a )
has not been reported , but its range is limited significantly by its poor flight ability . colonization by alate ( winged ) forms is determined mainly by air currents . small - scale dispersal range is determined by the distance that
the main sensory organ in aphids is their antennae . the antennae are used for tactile and chemical detection . to determine whether a plant is a suitable host ,
uses its antennae to feel along the leaves and detect host - specific odors and other chemical cues .
also uses its stylet mouthparts to probe into plants beneath the epidermis . color cues can play a role in host plant selection , and
can detect uv light . in other insects , uv light likely plays a role in flight patterns ; however , the detection of uv light by
likely serves a different purpose , as aphids are weak fliers and instead rely on air currents . changes in uv light have been shown to alter orientation and colonization in
. aphids that are captured or harassed produce an alarm pheromone that alerts other aphids of danger . the alarm pheromone typically elicits evasive behaviors in aphids , such as dropping off the host plant or walking away . in
, alarm pheromones also cause an increase in the parthenogenetic production of winged individuals , while sexually reproductive females produce a pheromone that attracts male mates .
( goldansaz and mcneil , 2006 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; pompon , et al . , 2010a )
feeds on plant phloem . it uses its stylet mouthparts to pierce the plant tissue and access the phloem . this aphid species is highly polyphagous and has been documented as feeding on over 200 species in 20 different plant families , many of them crop species . its most notable host plants include plants in the
individuals ( usually dehydrated alate females ) also have been observed consuming xylem sap for rehydration .
( atamian , et al . , 2013 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; pompon , et al . , 2010b )
are avid predators of aphids . many lady beetle species have been documented preying on
releases an alarm pheromone , as do most aphid species . the alarm pheromone alerts others in the colony of a predation threat and typically elicits evasive behavior such as dropping off the host plant or walking away . additionally , the european red ant ,
. the ants protect the aphids from predators and parasitoids in exchange for honeydew produced by the aphids .
( alvarez , et al . , 2013 ; alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; kaplan and thaler , 2012 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
is a significant crop pest with an almost worldwide distribution . it colonizes over 200 host plant species . its primary host often is cited to be
. these bacteria live within the bodies of aphids and synthesize amino acids that the aphids cannot get from their nutrient - poor phloem diet . the european red ant ,
in a mutualistic relationship . the ants eat the honeydew produced by the aphids ; in return , the ants protect , clean , and transport the aphids .
. many species of wasp parasitoids lay eggs inside aphids , which causes aphid death when the wasp offspring hatch . these wasp species can be used to control aphid populations .
( alyokhin , et al . , 2011 ; atamian , et al . , 2013 ; boquel , et al . , 2011 ; finlayson , et al . , 2009 ; francis , et al . , 2010 ; le guigo , et al . , 2012 ; legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; lins , et al . , 2013 ; petrovic - obradovic , 2010 ; thi , et al . , 2013 )
, the potato aphid , is described as one of the most harmful aphid species in the world . it feeds on many plant species and causes significant crop damage in
. the aphid also is a vector of many plant diseases , including 40 non - persistent viruses and several persistent viruses ( e . g . , yellow net virus , pea leaf roll virus , and potato leaf roll virus ) . to prevent as much crop damage as possible , substantial research has been and continues to be conducted to find the most effective insecticides , biological control methods , and resistant plants .
( legarrea , et al . , 2012 ; raboudi , et al . , 2011 ; van emden and harrington , 2007 )
angela miner ( author ) , animal diversity web staff , elizabeth wason ( author , editor ) , animal diversity web staff , leila siciliano martina ( editor ) , animal diversity web staff .
living in australia , new zealand , tasmania , new guinea and associated islands .
living in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
living in the northern part of the old world . in otherwords , europe and asia and northern africa .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .
a large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows . in insects ,
incomplete metamorphosis
is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form , and
complete metamorphosis
is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms . butterflies have complete metamorphosis , grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
that region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
( illiger ) , in potato ecosystems of idaho and its predatory potential on the colorado potato beetle and aphids .
alyokhin , a . , f . drummond , g . sewell , r . storch . 2011 . differential effects of weather and natural enemies on coexisting aphid populations .
atamian , h . , r . chaudhary , v . dal cin , e . bao , t . girke , i . kaloshian . 2013 . in planta expression or delivery of potato aphid
boquel , s . , p . giodanengo , a . ameline . 2011 . probing behavior of apterous and alate morphs of two potato—colonizing aphids .
de conti , b . , v . bueno , m . sampaio , j . lenteren . 2011 . development and survival of
francis , f . , f . guillonneau , p . leprince , e . de pauw , e . haubruge , l . jia , f . goggin . 2010 . tritrophic interactions among
lamb , r . , p . mackay , s . migui . 2009 . measuring the performance of aphids : fecundity versus biomass .
le guigo , p . , a . rolier , j . le corff . 2012 . plant neighborhood influences colonization of
) of potential importance on citrus in the united states with illustrated keys to species .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
hummel na 1 , zalom fg , miyao gm , underwood nc , villalobos a .
department of entomology , university of california , davis , davis , ca 95616 , usa . nahummel @ urltoken
insect biochem mol biol . 2009 jan ; 39 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ibmb . 2008 . 09 . 014 . epub 2008 nov 1 .
département de biologie , pavillon vachon , université laval , québec , québec , canada .
adult : large - sized ( 2 . 4 - 3 . 6 mm long ) ; greyish - green to pink ; spindle - shaped with antennae longer than body and brown on the apical half ;
cylindrical and very long ; cauda finger - shaped with 8 - 11 setae .
aphid feeding slow down the growth of seedlings and lead to a decrease in yield .
however , the most dangerous activity of this aphid is the transmission of phytopathogenic viruses , especially the potato virus y ( pyv ) and the beet yellows virus ( byv ) .
winged individuals , apterous individuals and nymphs on the underside of a leaf of potato .
distribution . this aphid is globally distributed , located in all but the coldest terrestrial habitats .
host associations . it has a broad host range , having been recorded from at least 90 families .
economic importance . it is particularly important on solaneous plant species , especially potato , but also attacks many rosaceous plant species . it has been implicated in the transmission of nearly 70 plant viruses .
see also . taxonomy at aphid species file . aphids on the world ' s plants . literature references .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 1994 . aphids on the world’s trees . cab international with the natural history museum , london . viii + 987 pages , 135 figures , 16 plates .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2000 . aphids on the world’s crops , second edition . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . x + 466 pages , 58 figures , 51 plates .
blackman , r . l . and v . f . eastop . 2006 . aphids on the world’s herbaceous plants and shrubs . volume 2 the aphids . john wiley & sons with the natural history museum , london . viii + pages 1025 - 1439 .
chan , c . k . , a . r . forbes , and d . a . raworth . 1991 . aphid - transmitted viruses and their vectors of the world . agriculture canada technical bulletin 1991 - 3e . 1 - 216 pp .
holman , j . 2009 . host plant catalog of aphids , palaearctic region . springer science and business media b . v . 1216 pp .
voegtlin , d . , w . villalobos , m . v . sanchez , g . saborio , and c . rivera . a guide to the winged aphids of costa rica . 2003 . international journal of tropical biology and conservation 51 ( suppl . 2 ) : xi + 228 pp .
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: potato aphids infest a wide range of host plants . some important cultivated hosts include potato , tomato , eggplant , sunflower , peppers , peas , beans , apple , turnip , corn , sweet potato , asparagus , clover , and roses . weeds such as ragweed , lambsquarter , jimsonweed , pigweed , shepherdspurse , and wild lettuce are also common food plants .
: potato aphid infestations are sporadic in occurrence and rarely severe enough to kill plants . damage is caused by both nymphs and adults sucking sap from foliage , especially from the terminal growth . new growth may become stunted and curled . the transmission of tomato and potato diseases , such as mosaics , leaf roll , and spindle tuber , causes more injury to the plants than sucking the sap .
: this soft - bodied , pear - shaped insect varies in color from solid pink to green and pink mottled to light green . it is a rather large aphid , almost 1 / 8 inch long , and has a pair of long , slender
tailpipe - like
appendages known as cornicles . immature aphids are smaller than adults but similar in color and shape . all stages have piercing - sucking mouthparts and feed by sucking sap from plant tissues .
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the green peach aphid and the potato aphid are commonly found on lettuce ; of the two , green peach aphid is the most important . green peach aphids are dark green to yellow and have no waxy covering . the tubercles at the base of the antennae grow toward each other . infestations start on the lower leaves and as aphid numbers grow they move up and over the entire plant .
potato aphids can be found in both pink and green forms . this aphid is larger than the green peach aphid , and the adult has longer cornicles and cauda . potato aphid colonies are composed of both adults and offspring closely clustered together , usually on the youngest leaves . the potato aphid may occur alone , or in colonies with green peach aphid .
large numbers of aphids can stunt seedlings or transplants and can contaminate heads bound for market . green peach aphids can vector several viruses that affect lettuce including alfalfa mosaic , beet western yellows , beet yellow stunt , and turnip mosaic .
the same general predators that attack other aphids also prey on green peach aphids . epidemics of a disease caused by the fungus entomophthora aphidis may kill portions of the green peach aphid population when their numbers are high and relative humidity is high . parasites , including lysiphlebus testaceipes , aphidius matricariae , and aphelinus semiflavus , attack this pest . natural enemies rarely provide adequate control of large numbers of aphids in spring or fall crops .
use biological control and sprays of azadirachtin , insecticidal soaps , or selected entomopathogenic fungi in an organically certified crop .
check all areas of the field twice a week , but especially along the edges , which are usually the first area to become infested . since green peach aphid infestations are clumped , you will need to sample 25 plants per quadrant of a 40 - to 80 - acre field .
if high numbers develop on seedlings , apply insecticide as soon as plants appear stressed . on more mature plants , before heading , do not apply insecticide unless numbers exceed 20 aphids per plant . if a significant percentage of plants are infested just prior to heading , apply insecticide to keep aphids from spreading into the center of the head where they are difficult to control . continue monitoring to see whether another treatment is needed . some populations of green peach aphid may be resistant to certain insecticides in your area ; check with your farm advisor for more information .
the following are ranked with the pesticides having the greatest ipm value listed first & —the most effective and least harmful to natural enemies , honey bees , and the environment are at the top of the table . when choosing a pesticide , consider information relating to air and water quality , resistance management , and the pesticide ' s properties and application timing . not all registered pesticides are listed . always read the label of the product being used .
comments : soil application . placement is critical ; see label for information . do not apply more than 0 . 38 lb a . i . of admire pro / acre per year .
comments : foliar application . allow 7 days between applications with a maximum of 5 applications per season .
restricted entry interval ( rei ) is the number of hours ( unless otherwise noted ) from treatment until the treated area can be safely entered without protective clothing . preharvest interval ( phi ) is the number of days from treatment to harvest . in some cases the rei exceeds the phi . the longer of two intervals is the minimum time that must elapse before harvest .
rotate chemicals with a different mode - of - action group number , and do not use products with the same mode - of - action group number more than twice per season to help prevent the development of resistance . for example , the organophosphates have a group number of 1b ; chemicals with a 1b group number should be alternated with chemicals that have a group number other than 1b . mode - of - action group numbers are assigned by