parazacco spilurus also known as the predaceous chub , is a species of fish in the family cyprinidae distributes in the pearl river system , the hainan island and northern vietnam .

parazacco spilurus

( of parazacco spilurus spilurus ( günther , 1868 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the genus parazacco comprises two species viz . p . spilurus and p . fasciatus . the division of the genus into two distinct species that was maybe not warranted caused by the lack of clarity and incomplete data in previous descriptions of syntypes of p . spilurus . therefore , we re - examined , redescribed , and illustrated the external morphology of syntypes of p . spilurus , type species of the genus . the syntypes were found to be smaller in body size than that of specimens observed in the original description of p . fasciatus , the conclusions are that the two species are not distinct and recommend that they be put under one species name , p . spilurus , although further study is recommended .
( of aspius spilurus günther , 1868 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of zacco spilurus ( günther , 1868 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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arai r . , kato k . 2003 . gross morphology and evolution of the lateral line system and infraorbital bones in bitterlings ( cyprinidae , acheilognathinae ) , with an overview of the lateral line system in the family cyprinidae . the university museum , the university of tokyo , bulletin 40 : 1 - 42 .
bănărescu p . m . 1968 . revision of the genera zacco and opsariichthys ( pisces , cyprinidae ) . vĕstník československé společnosti zoologické 32 : 305 - 311 .
bookstein f . l . , chernoff b . , elder r . l . , humphries j . m . , smith g . r . , strauss r . e . 1985 . morphometrics in evolutionary biology . the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia . philadelphia . 277 p .
chen y . y . 1982 . a revision of opsariichthine cyprinid fishes . oceanologia et limnologia sinica 13 : 293 - 299 .
chen y . y . , chu x . l . 1998 . danioninae . in : y . y . chen ( ed . ) . fauna sinica . osteichthyes . cypriniformes ii . beijing , science press . pp : 19–61 .
fujita t . , hosoya k . 2005 . cephalic lateral line systems in the far eastern species of the genus phoxinus ( cyprinidae ) . ichthyological research 52 : 336 - 342 .
günther a . 1868 . catalogue of the fishes in the british museum . catalogue of the physostomi , containing the families heteropygii , cyprinidae , gonorhynchidae , hyodontidae , osteoglossidae , clupeidae , hirocentridae , alepocephalidae , notopteridae , halosauridae , in the collection of the british museum . volume seventh . order of the trustees . london , 512 p .
hubbs c . l . , lagler k . f . 2004 . fishes of the great lakes region . revised edition . university of michigan press . michigan . 276 p .
hosoya k . 1983 . geographic variation of number of vertebrae in squalidus . the freshwater fishes 9 : 43 - 48 .
koller o . 1927 . fische von der insel hainan . annalen des naturhistorischen museums in wien 41 : 25 - 49 .
kottelat m . 2001 . freshwater fishes of northern vietnam . a preliminary checklist of the fishes known or expected to occur in northern vietnam with comments on systematics and nomenclature . environment and social development unit , east asia and pacific region , the world bank . washington dc . 123 p .
kottelat m . 2013 . the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries . raffles bulletin of zoology 27 : 1 - 663 .
mai d . y . 1978 . identification of the fresh - water fishes of north vietnam . scientific & technology , publisher . ha noi . 340 p .
yue p . q . , chen y . y . 1998 . china red data book of endangered animals . pisces . science press , beijing , hong kong , new york . 247 p .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35840 )
pale brown on back of the body ; white on belly ; tinged with red brown and irregular zones on sides of body ; red on belly of the head and a dark round spot in base of caudal fin . ( ref . 45563 ) . a row of pelvic scutes from the base of pelvic fin to the anus ; snout pointed sharply . lateral line curves downward on trunk and upward back the central axis after expanding the caudal peduncle ; dorsal fin short , without hard spine and its origin opposite behind the origin of the pelvic fin ; anal fin well developed ( ref . 45563 ) .
ye , f . and p . song , 1991 . danioninae . p . 67 - 79 . in j . - h . pan , l . zhong , c . - y . zheng , h . - l . wu and j . - h . liu ( eds ) . 1991 . the freshwater fishes of guangdong province . guangdong science and technology press , guangzhou . 589 pp . ( ref . 33345 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 7500 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00617 ( 0 . 00349 - 0 . 01089 ) , b = 3 . 20 ( 3 . 03 - 3 . 37 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .
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has been assessed as data deficient . it has a relatively wide range , but in the second half of the last century , stocks of
in china declined continually ( wang 1998 ) , due to overfishing and river regulations ( e . g . dams ) , however its current trend ( over the past 10 years ) is unknown . more research is needed on the species population trends to identify if this species qualifies as threatened .
has an east asia distribution . it is known from the pacific coastal drainages in southeastern china ( e . g . jiulongjiang , zhangjiang , hangjiang and the pearl river ) , some rivers in hainan island and the red river system in northern viet nam ( ye and song 1991 , wang 1998 , kottelat 2001 ) .
in china have declined continually ( wang 1998 ) . the population trend in the last 10 years are unknown .
inhabits small tributaries of rivers and little brooks with clear water and strong current velocities ( wang 1998 ) .
are destructive fishing practices and river modification ( e . g . dam construction ) ( wang 1998 ) .
it is not known if there are any conservation measures in place . more research and monitoring is recommended .
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predaceous chub is one the commonest freshwater fishes found in local unpolluted streams . it has a long , streamlined and laterally compressed body and a protrusible lower jaw . its mouth is terminal without barbel . the body is generally pale pink with a distinct black mid - lateral band running from operculum to caudal peduncle and ends with a black spot on caudal fin base . the black band becomes less prominent in adult .
a widespread species occurring in most unpolluted hill streams in both upper and lower courses .
lam , k . s . ( 2002 ) . freshwater fish in hong kong . agriculture , fisheries and conservation department , friends of the country parks and cosmos books ltd . , hong kong .
lee , v . l . f . , lam , s . k . s . , ng , f . k . y . , chan , t . k . t . and young , m . l . c . ( 2004 ) . field guide to the freshwater fish of hong kong . agriculture , fisheries and conservation department , friends of the country parks and cosmos books ltd . , hong kong .
man , s . h . and hodgkiss , i . j . ( 1981 ) . hong kong freshwater fishes . the urban council , hong kong .
wang , s . , yue , p . q . and chen , y . y . ( 1998 ) . china red data book of endangered animals – pisces ( in chinese ) . science press , beijing .
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special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of zacco asperus nichols & pope , 1927 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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edentulina usambarensis a species of air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family streptaxidae .

this species is endemic to tanzania .

edentulina usambarensis

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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
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lycodon alcalai , also known as alcala ’s wolf snake , is a species of colubrid snake found on the islands of batan and sabtang in the philippines .

lycodon alcalai

lycodon alcalai ota & ross 1994 lycodon alcalai — wallach et al . 2014 : 391
lycodon alcalai and l . chrysoprateros differ from all other philippine species of lycodon in lacking transverse light bands on all of the body and tail . lycodon alcalai differs from l . chrysoprateros in having more than 200 ventral scales ( less than 195 in l . chrysoprateros ) .
lycodon lineatus reinhardt 1843 : 241 cyclocorus lineatus — duméril , 1853 cyclocorus lineatus — duméril , bibron & duméril 1854 : 386 cyclocorus lineatus — boulenger 1893 : 327 cyclocorus lineatus — leviton 1967 cyclocorus lineatus lineatus — mcleod et al . 2011 cyclocorus lineatus — wallach et al . 2014 : 202 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai leviton 1967 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai — gaulke 2011 : 268 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai — gaulke 2013 cyclocorus lineatus alcalai — supsup et al . 2016
lycodon alcalai is a member of the genus lycodon , a genus of snakes commonly known as wolf snakes . [ 4 ] the genus belongs to the snake family colubridae , the largest snake family , with member species being found on every continent except antarctica . [ 5 ]
lycodon
. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .
lycodon zawi
. the reptile database . www . reptile - database . org .
the species name alcalai was chosen to honor the naturalist a . c . alcala , who made significant contributions to herpetology in the philippines . [ 3 ]
the international union for conservation of nature considers lycodon alcalai to be a species of least concern , based on a survey in 2007 . the islands that it inhabits are well protected , have very few inhabitants , and do not experience anthropogenic environmental disturbances such as hunting or logging . [ 1 ]
nota bene : a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than lycodon .
philippines ( lubang , luzon , mindoro , polillo ) alcalai : negros , cebu , panay ; type locality : ridge on the north side of the maite river , 5 km west of valencia .
siler et al . ( 2013 ) concluded that dinodon species are nested within the lycodon tree and noted that dinodon ( the more recently described genus ) should therefore be treated as a junior synonym of lycodon . based on their own molecular phylogenetic studies , guo et al . ( 2013 ) also suggested that dinodon should be synonymized with lycodon . lei et al . ( 2014 ) also found that dinodon species are nested within lycodon . based on molecular phylogenetic and morphological analyses , lei et al . further concluded that oligodon multizonatum ( an endemic species known from sichuan and possibly gansu provinces in china ) actually falls within lycodon as well .
pili , arman n . ; yñigo luis c . del prado 2018 . alcala’s triangle - spotted snake cyclocorus lineatus alcalai on sibuyan island , romblon province , philippines seavr 2018 : 16 - 17 - get paper here
paratype for lycodon alcalai catalog number : usnm 266604 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of amphibians & reptiles sex / stage : male ; preparation : ethanol year collected : 1985 locality : batan island , 3 km ene of basco , on w slope of mt . iraya , batanes province , batan island group , philippines elevation ( m ) : 320 to 320
gaulke , m . 2002 . a new species of lycodon from panay island , philippines ( reptilia , serpentes , colubridae ) . spixiana , 25 , 85–92 .
paratype for lycodon alcalai catalog number : usnm 266603 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of amphibians & reptiles sex / stage : female ; preparation : ethanol year collected : 1985 locality : batan island , ca . 2 . 5 km ene of basco , west slope of mt . iraya , batanes province , batan island group , philippines elevation ( m ) : 150 to 150
lanza , b . 1999 . a new species of lycodon from the philippines , with a key to the genus ( reptilia serpentes colubridae ) . tropical zoology , 12 , 89–104 .
gaulke , m . 2002 . a new species of lycodon from panay island , philippines ( reptilia , serpentes , colubridae ) . spixiana 25 ( 1 ) : 85 - 92 - get paper here
ota h . ross c a . 1994 . four new species of lycodon ( serpentes : colubridae ) from the northern philippines . copeia 1994 ( 1 ) : 159 - 174 . - get paper here
lanza , b . 1999 . a new species of lycodon from the philippines , with a key to the genus ( reptilia : serpentes : colubridae ) . tropical zoology 12 : 89 - 104 - get paper here
lei , j . , x . sun , k . jiang , et al . 2014 . multilocus phylogeny of lycodon and the taxonomic revision of oligodon multizonatum . asian herpetological research 5 ( 1 ) : 26–37 .
guo , p . , l . zhang , q . liu , et al . 2013 . lycodon and dinodon : one genus or two ? evidence from molecular phylogenetics and morphological comparisons . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 68 : 144–149 .
lycodon is among the most species - rich genera of asiatic colubrids , with more than three dozen described species , including numerous small - island endemics ( phylogenetic analyses by siler et al . [ 2013 ] suggest . that some of these island endemics in the phillipines may not warrant recognition as full speciies , but also suggest the presence of substantial cryptic diversity , indicating that the true number of lycodon species may be greater than currently recognized ) . lycodon species occur throughout central to southeast asia , from regions east of the caspian sea , eastern iran and india to southern china , the indo - australian archipelago , the ryukyu islands of japan and the philippines ( lanza 1999 ; siler et al . 2013 ) .
siler , c . d . , c . h . oliveros , a . santanen , and r . m . brown . 2013 . multilocus phylogeny reveals unexpected diversification patterns in asian wolf snakes ( genus lycodon ) . zoologica scripta , 42 : 262–277 .
siler , c . d . , c . h . oliveros , a . santanen , and r . m . brown . 2013 . multilocus phylogeny reveals unexpected diversification patterns in asian wolf snakes ( genus lycodon ) . zoologica scripta 42 ( 3 ) : 262 - 277 .
regarding inferences about the historical biogeography of lycodon , siler et al . ( 2013 ) note that with few exceptions , the results observed in their study are consistent with many of the biogeographic expectations for vertebrates in asia and the philippines ( see siler et al . 2013 for details and discussion ) .
fitzinger li . 1826 . neue classification der reptilien nach ihren natürlichen verwandtschaften . nebst einer verwandtschafts - tafel und einem verzeichnisse der reptilien - sammlung des k . k . zoologischen museums zu wien . vienna : j . g . heubner , five unnumbered + 67 pp . + one plate . ( lycodon , new genus , p . 57 ) . ( in german and latin ) .
boulenger ga . 1893 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( natural history ) , volume i . , containing the families . . . colubridæ aglyphæ , part . . london : trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . ( taylor and francis , printers ) . xiii + 448 pp . + plates i - xxviii . ( genus lycodon , p . 348 , figure 23 ) .
type species : lycodon lineatus reinhardt 1843 is the type species of the genus cyclocorus duméril et al . 1854 . type genus : cyclocorus duméril 1853 : 460 is the type genus of the subfamily cyclocorinae weinell & brown 2017 . phylogenetic definition ( cyclocorinae ) : cyclocorinae refers to the clade originating in the last common ancestor of oxyrhabdium leporinum ( günther , 1858 ) , cyclocorus lineatus ( reinhardt , 1843 ) , the unnamed lineage represented by ku 337269 , and all species that descend from that ancestor . it can also be conceived of as the largest crown - clade containing members of the genera cyclocorus , hologerrhum , myersophis , and oxyrhabdium , and members of the unnamed lineage represented by ku 337269 . distribution : see map in leviton 1967 .
type locality : batan island ( 20 ' 25 ' n , 121° 58’ e ) , batan island group , approximately 2 . 5 km ene of basco on the w slope of mt . iraya , elevation 150 m .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
holotype : - pnm 990 , an adult male ; captured 30 may 1985 , by r . s . kennedy and party . paratypes . usnm 266603 , an adult female , same data as holotype . usnm 266604 and usnm 319282 , adult males from approximately 3 km ene of basco on the w slope of mt . iraya , alt . 320 m ; captured 9 june 1985 , by c . a . ross and party . usnm 291412 , an adult male from same locality as holotype ; captured 7 march 1988 by c . a . ross and a . fidel . usnm 291413 , an adult male from approximately 1 km ne of basco , alt . 130 m ; captured 12 march 1988 by a . fidel .
named after dr . angel chua alcala ( b . 1929 ) , biologist and herpetologist who has studied the reptiles and amphibians of the philippines for 50 years , mostly in collaboration with walter c . brown .
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
, named for large teeth in both jaws . asian wolf snakes are placed in the genera
, is a small , drab species with a metallic sheen and lives chiefly on lizards . it can grow to lengths of about 50 cm ( 20 inches ) . the
snake , ( suborder serpentes ) , any of more than 3 , 400 species of reptiles distinguished by their limbless condition and greatly elongated body and tail . classified with lizards in the order squamata , snakes represent a lizard that , over the course of evolution , has undergone structural reduction , …
reptile , any member of the class reptilia , the group of air - breathing vertebrates that have internal fertilization , amniotic development , and epidermal scales covering part or all of their body . the major groups of living reptiles—the turtles ( order testudines ) , tuatara ( order rhynchocephalia…
vertebrate , any animal of the subphylum vertebrata , the predominant subphylum of the phylum chordata . they have backbones , from which they derive their name . the vertebrates are also characterized by a muscular system consisting pimarily of bilaterally paired masses and a central nervous system…
chordate , any member of the phylum chordata , which includes the vertebrates , the most highly evolved animals , as well as two other subphyla—the tunicates and cephalochordates . some classifications also include the phylum hemichordata with the chordates . as the name implies , at some time in the life…
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justification : listed as least concern because , although its extent of occurrence is 86 km² , it is common , somewhat adaptable , and does not appear to be in decline .
this species is endemic to the philippines , where it is known from batan island ( 70 km² ) ( ota and ross 1994 ) , the neighboring sabtang island ( 16 km² ) , with recent reports of the species from calayan island ( oliveros et al . 2004 ) . it may be found on other smaller neighboring islands . it is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl .
animals have been recorded from the forest floor and from bushes ( ota and ross 1994 ) , and may be found at forest edges , and in adjacent agricultural areas . it may feed on reptilian eggs ( ota and ross 1994 ) .
there currently seem to be no major threats to this species . it is found in areas that are well protected , with a low human population density , no logging , hunting , or other potential threats .
the area that it is found in is generally well protected . further studies are needed into the distribution of this species .
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. 2004 ) . it may be found on other smaller neighboring islands . it is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
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this species is endemic to the philippines , where it is known from batan island ( 70 km ) ( ota and ross 1994 ) , the neighboring sabtang island ( 16 km ) , with recent reports of the species from calayan island ( oliveros et al . 2004 ) . it may be found on other smaller neighboring islands . it is a lowland species found up to 320 m asl .
paratype : ota , h . & ross , c . a . 1994 . copeia . 1994 ( 1 ) : 159 , figures 2 - 5 .
listed as least concern because , although its extent of occurrence is 86 km , it is common , somewhat adaptable , and does not appear to be in decline .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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binaday , j . w . b . 2017 . cyclocorus lineatus ( reinhardt’s lined snake ) diet . herpetological review 48 ( 3 ) : 671 .
boulenger , g . a . 1893 . catalogue of the snakes in the british museum ( nat . hist . ) i . london ( taylor & francis ) , 448 pp . - get paper here
brown , rafe m . ; ferner , john w . ; sison , rogelio v . ; gonzales , pedro c . ; kennedy , robert s . 1996 . amphibians and reptiles of the zambales mountains of luzon island , republic of the philippines . herpetological natural history 4 ( 1 ) : 1 - 22
brown ; rafe ; cameron siler , carl oliveros , luke welton , ashley rock , john swab , merlijn van weerd , jonah van beijnen , dominic rodriguez , edmund jose , arvin diesmos 2013 . the amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , philippines , viii : the herpetofauna of cagayan and isabela provinces , northern sierra madre mountain range . zookeys 266 ( 2013 ) special issue : 1 - 120 < br / > doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 266 . 3982 - get paper here
devan - song , anne and rafe m . brown 2012 . amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , philippines , vi : the herpetofauna of the subic bay area . asian herpetological research 3 ( 1 ) : 1–20 - get paper here
duméril , a . m . c . , g . bibron & a . h . a . duméril 1854 . erpétologie générale ou histoire naturelle complète des reptiles . vol . 7 ( partie 1 ) . paris , xvi + 780 s . - get paper here
duméril , andré marie constant 1853 . prodrome de la classifcation des reptiles ophidiens . mém . acad . sci . , paris , 23 : 399 - 536 - get paper here
gaulke , m . 2011 . the herpetofauna of panay island , philippines . edition chimaira , 390 pp .
gaulke , m . 2013 . abenteuerurlaub auf den philippinen . reptilia ( münster ) 18 ( 100 ) : 114 - 125 - get paper here
leviton , a . e . 1967 . contributions to a review of philippine snakes , ix . the snakes of the genus cyclocorus . philippine j . sci . 94 ( 4 ) : 519 - 533 [ 1965 ] - get paper here
mcleod , david s . ; cameron d . siler , arvin c . diesmos , mae l . diesmos , vhon s . garcia , angela o . arkonceo , kelvin l . balaquit , charlene c . uy , mariden m . villaseran , earle c . yarra , rafe m . brown 2011 . amphibians and reptiles of luzon island , v : the herpetofauna of angat dam watershed , bulacan province , luzon island , philippines . asian herpetological research 2 ( 4 ) : 177–198 - get paper here
rasmussen , j . b . & b . hughes 1996 . description of some new snake species . i . [ english translation of the original danish text of t . reinhardt 1843 ] . steenstrupia 22 : 13 - 39
reinhardt , j . t . 1843 . beskrivelse af nogle nye slangearter . danske vidensk . selsk . afhandl . 10 : 233 - 279 . - get paper here
siler , c . d . ; l . j . welton ; j . m . siler ; j . brown ; a . bucol ; a . c . diesmos ; r . brown . 2011 . amphibians and reptiles , luzon island , aurora province and aurora memorial national park , northern philippines : new island distribution records . check list 7 ( 2 ) : 182 - 195 - get paper here
thompson , j . c . 1913 . contributions to the anatomy of the ophidia . proc . zool . soc . london 1913 : 414 - 426 - get paper here
toledo - bruno , angela grace ; daryl g . macas , dave p . buenavista , michael arieh p . medina , ronald regan c . forten 2017 . amphibian and reptile diversity in mt . kalatungan range natural park , philippines environmental and experimental biology 15 : 127–135 , doi : 10 . 22364 / eeb . 15 . 11 - get paper here
weinell , j . l . , & brown , r . m . 2017 . discovery of an old , archipelago - wide , endemic radiation of philippine snakes . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 119 : 144–150 [ 2018 ] - get paper here
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the species prefers lowland habitats , not being found more than 320 meters above sea level . [ 1 ] it is frequently found in shrubs or on the forest floor , as well as at the edge of the forest , and occasionally in adjacent agricultural fields . it is thought to feed on the eggs of other reptiles , by slitting them open with its blade - like teeth . [ 3 ]
ota , hidetoshi ; ross , charles a . ( 1 february 1994 ) .
four new species of
bauer , aaron m . ( 1998 ) . cogger , h . g . ; zweifel , r . g . , eds .
this page was last edited on 8 march 2018 , at 12 : 38 .
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the phylogenetic results of siler et al . ( 2013 ) provide evidence of deeply divergent lineages within some taxa ( l . effraensis , l . subcinctus ) that may represent cryptic species . some of the lineage diversity revealed appears to correspond to taxonomic entities previously identified ( currently recognized as subspecies or synonyms ) and some does not . on the other hand , as noted above , genetic results suggest that species diversity within several clades may be overestimated , rather than underestimated , by current taxonomic treatments . between these two extremes lie species with moderate genetic structure observed among populations ( l . muelleri , l . aulicus complex ) .
( guo et al . 2013 and references therein ; siler et al . 2013 and references therein )
pyron , r . a . , h . k . dushantha kandambi , c . r . hendry , et al . 2013 . genus - level phylogeny of snakes reveals the origins of species richness in sri lanka . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 66 : 969–978 .
mish fc ( editor in chief ) . 2004 . merriam - webster ' s collegiate dictionary , eleventh edition . springfield , massachusetts : merriam - webster , incorporated . 40a + 1 , 623 pp . isbn 0 - 87779 - 809 - 5 . (
lycopodium
, p . 742 ;
odonate
p . 860 ) .
the species is known only from the single juvenile type specimen collected at gyobyu , taikkyi township , pegu ( = bago ) district , myanmar ( smith 1943 ) . this area has been intensively surveyed recently but the species has not been recovered ( g . wogan pers . comm . 2011 ) .


muricopsis ( muricopsis ) marcusi is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family muricidae , the murex snails or rock snails .

muricopsis marcusi

muricopsis marcusi muricopsis muricoides muricopsis necocheana muricopsis necocheana cf . muricopsis necocheanus muricopsis necocheanus albis ( f ) muricopsis nothokieneri muricopsis omanensis muricopsis planilirata muricopsis roseus muricopsis schrammi muricopsis species tunesia ( from ) muricopsis tokubeii muricopsis withrowi naquetia barclayi naquetia cumingii cumingii naquetia jickelii naquetia triqueter nassa francolina nassa serta nassa situla nassa tuamotensis neorapana muricata neorapana tuberculata neothais harpa neothais marginatra cf . nipponotrophon gorgon nucella canaliculata nucella canaliculata analoga ( f ) nucella crassilabra nucella dubia nucella emarginata nucella freycineti freycineti nucella freycinetii alabaster nucella heyseana nucella lamellosa lamellosa nucella lamellosa nucella lamellosa crispata ( f ) nucella lamellosa franciscana ( f ) nucella lamellosa hormica ( f ) nucella lamellosa neptunea ( f ) nucella lapillus
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version 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .
- note : several protected species are illustrated here only for identification purposes . they are not for sale . - the photos in our gallery are in most cases just a sample from our stock , except when only one specimen is offered . we try to match the original color but it can vary if your screen is not correctly adjusted ( gamma correction ) .
cenozoic muricidae of the western atlantic region . part x - the subfamily muricopsinae tulane studies in geology and paleontology 26 49 - 160 . [ stated date : 25 may 1994 ; true date : pre 31 may . ]


starksia atlantica , the smooth-eye blenny , is a species of labrisomid blenny native to the western central atlantic ocean and the caribbean sea where it inhabits coral reefs at depths of around 8 metres ( 26 ft ) .

starksia atlantica

distribution of species in the starksia atlantica , starksia lepicoelia , and starksia sluiteri complexes . only locations for genetically analyzed specimens plotted . additional locations for some species discussed in text .
distribution of species in the starksia atlantica , starksia lepicoelia , and starksia sluiteri complexes . only locations for genetically analyzed specimens plotted . additional locations for some species discussed in text .
trunk pigment in the images and preserved specimen is similar to that of starksia atlantica from the bahamas and starksia springeri from curacao ( i . e . , mottled vs . barred as in starksia sangreyae ) , but the saba specimens lack the horseshoe - shaped blotch of pigment on the cheek characteristic of starksia atlantica and the distinctive dark and pale markings on the cheek of starksia springeri . the blotches of trunk pigment in the saba bank specimens are neither conspicuously block - like nor clearly organized in horizontal tiers as they are in starksia atlantica . specimens from saba bank presumably represent another new species within starksia atlantica , but additional specimens are needed for comparative purposes and description .
range kimura two - parameter distance summary for the starksia atlantica , starksia lepicoelia , and starksia sluiteri species complexes based on cytochrome c oxidase l ( col ) sequences of individuals represented in the neighbor - joining tree in figure 1 . within - complex ranges are shown in bold .
starksia langi is easily distinguished from starksia greenfieldi and starksia sluiteri based on pigmentation of the trunk , head ( females ) , and first dorsal fin ( males ) . the trunk pigment of starksia langi comprises both larger and more prominent markings than that of starksia greenfieldi and starksia sluiteri , and only in starksia langi are the markings in the second row vertically elongate ( generally round in the other species and sometimes considerably more diffuse in starksia greenfieldi ) . starksia greenfieldi lacks dark markings on the head in both sexes , and starksia sluiteri lacks them in females ; starksia langi males have a prominent dark blotch on the cheek , and females have numerous small , discrete , dark spots . males of starksia langi lack a dark blotch on the anterior portion of the dorsal fin , whereas this blotch is present in starksia greenfieldi and starksia sluiteri .
starksia atlantica , greenfield and johnson ( 1981 ) , fieldiana zoology 8 : fig . 3a–b ( black and white drawings of male and female specimens from belize )
seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species
seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species
seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species .
seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence . . . - pubmed - ncbi
article : seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species
modal differences in some counts also help separate other species : starksia lepicoelia modally has 28 total dorsal - fin elements , 33 vertebrae , and 78 total dorsal elements + anal soft rays + vertebrae ( vs . 32 , 27 , and 75 , respectively , in starksia williamsi and starksia weigti ) . starksia williamsi modally has xix dorsal - fin spines , whereas starksia lepicoelia and starksia weigti modally have xx .
details - seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species - biodiversity heritage library
starksia lepicoelia and starksia starcki are the only previously described western atlantic starksia with the combination of an orbital cirrus , two externally obvious pelvic - fin rays , and a scaled belly ( williams and mounts 2003 ) . starksia starcki is easily distinguished from the species of the starksia lepicoelia complex by the presence of eight or nine irregular dark bars on the body and usually 19 segmented anal - fin rays .
descriptions of six new caribbean fish species in the genus starksia ( labrisomidae ) .
starksia sluiteri ( metzelaar ) is most easily distinguished from starksia langi by having the second row of trunk blotches almost perfectly round ( vs . vertically elongate ) , in lacking conspicuous dark spots on the head ( females ) , and in having a dark marking on the anterior portion of the dorsal fin ( males ) . from starksia greenfieldi , starksia sluiteri differs in lacking pale round spots on the head . although starksia sluiteri and starksia langi have very similar chromatophore patterns , starksia sluiteri appears to have more orange pigment on the second dorsal , caudal , and anal fins .
the purpose of this paper is to describe the systematic results of our recent genetic and morphological investigations of western atlantic starksia , work that was prompted by our discovery of incongruences between preliminary genetic data and the current species classification . we describe seven new species within starksia atlantica , starksia lepicoelia , and starksia sluiteri and provide keys to the species of each of those species complexes . we provide photographs of living and preserved pigment patterns to help in future identifications of the included species and in distinguishing them from western atlantic starksia species likely to be discovered in the future . finally , we discuss geographical distributions of starksia species and comment on congruence between dna barcoding data and morphologically recognizable species .
all material that we examined is from belize . the range of the species also apparently includes honduras , as greenfield and johnson ( 1981 ) noted that a specimen of starksia atlantica from honduras has regular vertical bars of pigment on the body .
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starksia atlantica
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in life , starksia weigti is easily distinguished from starksia lepicoelia , starksia williamsi , and starksia robertsoni by the conspicuous pale round spots on the lips . in preservative , starksia lepicoelia males are distinctive in having at least some very dark spots , streaks , or bars on the lips and lower jaw , and starksia robertsoni males have at least one ( up to three ) dark spots or bars on the ventral portion of the lower jaw ( but not on the lips ) . although the differences are subtle , preserved males of starksia williamsi typically can be separated from preserved males of starksia weigti in having the lips uniformly covered with melanophores except for the pale anterior tips . in starksia weigti males , lip pigment is variable , but there are usually one or two thin , faint , poorly formed bars of pigment following the pale anterior portions of the lips ; posteriorly , the lips may be uniformly covered with melanophores as in starksia williamsi or be quite pale .
starksia y - lineata , a new clinid fish from grand cayman island , british west indies .
neighbor - joining tree derived from cytochrome c oxidase i sequences showing genetically distinct lineages of western atlantic starksia .
neighbor - joining tree derived from cytochrome c oxidase i sequences showing genetically distinct lineages of western atlantic starksia .
starksia greenfieldi can be distinguished from starksia langi and starksia sluiteri by the white ( or pale ) , mostly round spots ( absence of melanophores against a darker background ) on at least portions of cheek , opercle , and gular region . this pattern is present in both sexes but is often much more prominent in males . williams and mounts ( 2003 ) noted that starksia sella , another species of starksia known only from tobago , has small pale spots on the head , but that species lacks dark blotches along the trunk , lacks a dark blotch in the anterior dorsal fin of males , and may be larger ( williams and mounts specimens of starksia sella are 13 . 7–27 . 7 mm sl , our specimens of starksia greenfieldi are 11 . 0–23 . 0 mm sl ) .
because we do not know how much more investigation is required to obtain a reasonably complete picture of starksia biodiversity and biogeography , the words of winston churchill included as an epigraph in this paper seem particularly appropriate . the study of starksia must continue .
starksia sluiteri williams and mounts 2003 , aqua 6 ( 4 ) : fig . 9 ( male and female specimens from tobago )
for starksia , future investigation must include more taxonomic and geographic coverage . increased sampling will assuredly result in the recognition of new species and likely of new species complexes . the faunal breaks that separate members of the species complexes are unknown . in starksia atlantica and starksia lepicoelia , our specimens from bahamas and turks and caicos represent the same species , and in starksia sluiteri , specimens from belize , honduras , and panama appear to be the same . specimens in close proximity geographically thus tend to cluster into recognizable species . as better coverage is attained , it will be interesting to see if the same geographical boundaries characterize more than one of the species complexes or if the boundaries are different for each . likewise it will be interesting to compare geographic boundaries of starksia species with faunal breaks in other reef fishes such as elacatinus . future phylogenetic studies in which relationships among species and species complexes of starksia and other groups are hypothesized should help shed light on patterns of speciation in small reef fishes of the western atlantic .
comparisons among species of the starksia atlantica complex . left to right for each row - - starksia atlantica : amnh 241247 ; usnm 399621 , bah 8176 , 15 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 386971 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 386242 , 17 . 0 mm sl . starksia sangreyae : ( note : top and bottom images in first two columns represent starksia sangreyae a and starksia sangreyae b genetic sublineages , respectively . ) males – usnm 398936 ( top ) , paratype , blz 8028 , 17 . 0 mm sl and usnm 398937 ( bottom ) , paratype , blz 8029 , 17 mm sl ; females – usnm 398934 ( top ) , paratype , blz 5161 , 17 . 0 mm sl and usnm 398940 ( bottom ) , paratype , blz 8353 , 16 . 0 mm sl ; preserved – usnm 276147 , paratype , 15 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 321073 , paratype , 18 . 0 mm sl . starksia springeri : usnm 399658 , paratype , cur 8148 , 15 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398945 , holotype , cur 08 - 10 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; starksia sp . ( saba ) : saba - 06 - 01 , 15 . 0 mm sl ( no voucher ) . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , julie mounts , ross robertson , james van tassell , and jeffrey williams .
comparisons among species of the starksia atlantica complex . left to right for each row - - starksia atlantica : amnh 241247 ; usnm 399621 , bah 8176 , 15 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 386971 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 386242 , 17 . 0 mm sl . starksia sangreyae : ( note : top and bottom images in first two columns represent starksia sangreyae a and starksia sangreyae b genetic sublineages , respectively . ) males – usnm 398936 ( top ) , paratype , blz 8028 , 17 . 0 mm sl and usnm 398937 ( bottom ) , paratype , blz 8029 , 17 mm sl ; females – usnm 398934 ( top ) , paratype , blz 5161 , 17 . 0 mm sl and usnm 398940 ( bottom ) , paratype , blz 8353 , 16 . 0 mm sl ; preserved – usnm 276147 , paratype , 15 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 321073 , paratype , 18 . 0 mm sl . starksia springeri : usnm 399658 , paratype , cur 8148 , 15 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398945 , holotype , cur 08 - 10 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; starksia sp . ( saba ) : saba - 06 - 01 , 15 . 0 mm sl ( no voucher ) . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , julie mounts , ross robertson , james van tassell , and jeffrey williams .
comparisons among species of the starksia sluiteri complex and starksia fasciata . starksia greenfieldi , left to right : usnm 398921 , paratype , tob 9275 , 17 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398922 , paratype , tob 9282 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm , 320832 , holotype , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 320829 , paratype , 22 . 0 mm sl . starksia langi : usnm 398931 , blz 8266 , 18 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398928 , blz 8062 , 17 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 349080 , paratype , 18 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398927 , holotype , 17 . 0 mm sl . starksia sluiteri : usnm 399626 , cur8271 , 16 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399624 , cur8226 , 18 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 195750 , 16 . 9 mm sl . starksia fasciata : usnm 399681 , tci 9204 , 14 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399683 , tci 9349 , 18 . 0 mm sl . juveniles / small adults : starksia greenfieldi , usnm 398925 , tob 9213 ; starksia langi , usnm 398930 , paratype , blz 8216 ; starksia sluiteri , usnm 399625 , cur 8227 . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , and jeffrey williams .
comparisons among species of the starksia sluiteri complex and starksia fasciata . starksia greenfieldi , left to right : usnm 398921 , paratype , tob 9275 , 17 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398922 , paratype , tob 9282 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm , 320832 , holotype , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 320829 , paratype , 22 . 0 mm sl . starksia langi : usnm 398931 , blz 8266 , 18 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398928 , blz 8062 , 17 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 349080 , paratype , 18 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 398927 , holotype , 17 . 0 mm sl . starksia sluiteri : usnm 399626 , cur8271 , 16 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399624 , cur8226 , 18 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 195750 , 16 . 9 mm sl . starksia fasciata : usnm 399681 , tci 9204 , 14 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399683 , tci 9349 , 18 . 0 mm sl . juveniles / small adults : starksia greenfieldi , usnm 398925 , tob 9213 ; starksia langi , usnm 398930 , paratype , blz 8216 ; starksia sluiteri , usnm 399625 , cur 8227 . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , and jeffrey williams .
baldwin , carole c . , cristina i . castillo , lee a . weigt & benjamin c . victor . 2011 . seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species . zookeys 79 : 21–72 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
s . atlantica occurs in the bahamas . s . springeri is found in the netherlands antilles and s . sangreyae is the species in the bay of honduras . other deeply - divergent dna lineages have been identified elsewhere in the caribbean .
average ( and range ) kimura two - parameter distance summary for the starksia atlantica species complex based on cytochrome c oxidase l ( col ) sequences of individuals represented in the neighbor - joining tree in figure 1 . intraspecific averages are shown in bold . n / a = no average ( one specimen ) . bar – barbados , sab – saba bank , pan – panama .
a review of the western atlantic starksia ocellata - complex ( pisces : clinidae ) with the description of two new species and proposal of superspecies status .
diagnostic features in preserved a starksia atlantica , usnm 386242 , 17 . 0 mm sl , male—note irregular horseshoe - shaped blotch of pigment on cheek and wavy margins of pale gap on pectoral - fin base ; and b starksia springeri , usnm 398945 , holotype , 19 . 0 mm sl , female—note pale regions at anteroventral and posterior margins of dark cheek blotch , thin dark anteroventral - to - posterodorsal streak of pigment along distal edge of preopercle , and relatively straight margins of pale gap on pectoral - fin base . photographs by cristina castillo and donald griswold .
diagnostic features in preserved a starksia atlantica , usnm 386242 , 17 . 0 mm sl , male—note irregular horseshoe - shaped blotch of pigment on cheek and wavy margins of pale gap on pectoral - fin base ; and b starksia springeri , usnm 398945 , holotype , 19 . 0 mm sl , female—note pale regions at anteroventral and posterior margins of dark cheek blotch , thin dark anteroventral - to - posterodorsal streak of pigment along distal edge of preopercle , and relatively straight margins of pale gap on pectoral - fin base . photographs by cristina castillo and donald griswold .
ty - jour ti - seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species t2 - zookeys vl - 79 ur - urltoken pb - pensoft publishers py - 2011 sp - 21 ep - 72 do - 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 79 . 1045 au - baldwin , carole au - castillo , cristina au - weigt , lee au - victor , benjamin kw - biogeography kw - dna barcoding kw - new species kw - species complex kw - starksia er -
the species name is in honor of david w . greenfield , in recognition of his work on blennioid fishes , particularly his work on the starksia ocellata complex .
a comparisons of head pigment of preserved males and females among species of the starksia lepicoelia complex . starksia lepicoelia : a usnm 399921 , bah 9103 , 26 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 399617 , bah 8079 , 19 . 0 mm sl , female ; starksia weigti : c usnm 399648 , blz 5010 , holotype , 20 . 5 mm sl , male d usnm 399651 , blz 8024 , paratype , 19 . 0 mm sl , female ; starksia williamsi : e usnm 387675 , holotype , 21 . 0 mm sl , male f usnm 387869 , paratype , 19 . 5 mm sl , female ; starksia robertsoni : g usnm 399913 , paratype , 18 . 0 mm sl , male h amnh 249667 , holotype , 22 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
a comparisons of head pigment of preserved males and females among species of the starksia lepicoelia complex . starksia lepicoelia : a usnm 399921 , bah 9103 , 26 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 399617 , bah 8079 , 19 . 0 mm sl , female ; starksia weigti : c usnm 399648 , blz 5010 , holotype , 20 . 5 mm sl , male d usnm 399651 , blz 8024 , paratype , 19 . 0 mm sl , female ; starksia williamsi : e usnm 387675 , holotype , 21 . 0 mm sl , male f usnm 387869 , paratype , 19 . 5 mm sl , female ; starksia robertsoni : g usnm 399913 , paratype , 18 . 0 mm sl , male h amnh 249667 , holotype , 22 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
@ article { bhlpart99078 , title = { seven new species within western atlantic starksia atlantica , s . lepicoelia , and s . sluiteri ( teleostei , labrisomidae ) , with comments on congruence of dna barcodes and species } , journal = { zookeys } , volume = { 79 } , url = urltoken publisher = { pensoft publishers 2011 } , author = { baldwin , carole and castillo , cristina and weigt , lee and victor , benjamin } , year = { 2011 } , pages = { 21 - 72 } , keywords = { biogeography | dna barcoding | new species | species complex | starksia | } , }
a color pattern of starksia springeri , usnm 399658 , cur 8148 , paratype , 15 . 0 mm sl , male ( ? ) b diagnostic pigment pattern on cheek and pectoral - fin base in preserved starksia springeri , usnm 398945 , holotype , 19 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
a color pattern of starksia springeri , usnm 399658 , cur 8148 , paratype , 15 . 0 mm sl , male ( ? ) b diagnostic pigment pattern on cheek and pectoral - fin base in preserved starksia springeri , usnm 398945 , holotype , 19 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
most information is from bohlke and springer ' s 1961 monograph
a review of the atlantic species of the clinid fish genus starksia
, greenfield ' s
. . starksia ocellata - complex . .
( 1979 ) , greenfield & johnson ' s 1985 large survey paper on
the blennioid fishes of belize and honduras . . .
, jeff williams ' 2003 review
descriptions of six new caribbean fish species in the genus starksia ( labrisomidae )
by williams and mounts ( note that there are many post - publication corrections by jeff ) , and our recent 2011 review paper .
böhlke and springer ( 1961 ) noted that counts of dorsal - and anal - fin elements in specimens of starksia sluiteri they examined from off colombia and venezuela ( xix dorsal spines and 15–16 anal rays ) differ from those given by metzelaar ( xx and 17 ) . based on pigment , their colombian and venezuelan specimens appear to be starksia sluiteri . our specimens from curacao , as well as böhlke and springer’s two venezuelan specimens ( usnm 195750 ) , have xix dorsal spines and 15–16 anal rays . there is thus a discrepancy between counts in our material and those reported by metzelaar for the holotype . we examined a photograph of the holotype , and there appear to be xx dorsal - fin spines as noted by mezelaar ; xx is likely a non - modal count for starksia sluiteri . we note that there is more variation in dorsal - and anal - fin counts in some starksia species than suggested by metzelaar’s description ; for example , starksia greenfieldi has xviii–xx dorsal spines , 7–9 dorsal rays , and 14–16 anal rays .
metzelaar ( 1919 ) described brannerella sluiteri from two specimens from bonaire , netherland antilles . longley ( 1934 ) synonymized brannerella with starksia jordan and evermann ( type species labrisomus cremnobates gilbert , from the eastern pacific ) . böhlke and springer ( 1961 ) concurred with longley’s synonymy , noting that brannerella is distinctive in a single character , and generic recognition of one - character differences would require the erection of several new genera within caribbean starksia .
note : some starksia species can barely overlap the lower range of fin - ray counts for those few malacoctenus species that can have 8 or 9 dorsal - fin soft rays and 14 or fewer pectoral - fin rays .
male and female color patterns of starksia williamsi : a usnm 387869 , 19 . 5 mm sl , male , paratype b usnm 387767 , 20 . 2 mm sl , female , paratype . photographs by jeffrey williams .
male and female color patterns of starksia williamsi : a usnm 387869 , 19 . 5 mm sl , male , paratype b usnm 387767 , 20 . 2 mm sl , female , paratype . photographs by jeffrey williams .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : no orbital cirrus , regular vertical brown bars on trunk separated by narrow white interspaces , and a well defined horseshoe - shaped blotch of dark pigment on cheek .
paraclinus larvae superficially look much like starksia larvae , but can be distinguished by their distinctive all or all - but - one spinous dorsal fin . they also have no preopercular spines and more melanophores , including the deep nuchal and deep pelvic and often the cheek and otic melanophores , as well as a regular anal row with more than 18 total pvm . the starksia species that share deep nuchal ( rarely ) and pelvic melanophores can be distinguished from paraclinus by having diagnostic irregular large or deep anal - row melanophores and shorter anal rows ) . starksia typically have 5 or 6 procurrent caudal - fin rays , one or two more than paraclinus larvae , and one to several fewer than the malacoctenus and labrisomus .
there are no taxognomonic characters uniquely identifying all starksia larvae , but the absence of a set of common markings is typical of most starksia larvae . typically , the only anterior larval melanophore is at the isthmus . notably , most larvae are missing the cranial , deep nuchal , cheek , internal otic , and pelvic melanophores ( there are exceptions for all but the cheek melanophore among the s . atlantica and s . ocellata complexes ) . on all species , the anal row spares one or more of the last rays and usually there are no ventral caudal - peduncle melanophores ( at most one on some individuals of some species ) . the absence of some of the usually consistent melanophores on a labrisomid larva should prompt a closer examination . chaenopsidae larvae share the light marking patterns but have more total pvm ( 19 or more ) and more dorsal and anal - fin soft rays .
comparative material . starksia atlantica . bahamas : usnm 386971 , 1 specimen ( not a dna voucher ) ; usnm 386580 , 1 ( not a dna voucher ) ; usnm 386242 , 6 ( not dna vouchers ) ; usnm 399619 , 3 ( not dna vouchers ) ; usnm 399620 , bah 8175 ; usnm 399621 , bah 8176 ; usnm 399622 , bah 8177 . turks and caicos islands : usnm 399643 , tci 9044 ; usnm 399644 , tci 9106 ; usnm 399645 , tci 9107 ; usnm 399647 , tci 9205 . navassa island : usnm 360422 , 3 ; usnm 360194 , 2 ; usnm 359543 , 2 ; usnm 360210 , 3 .
comparisons among species of the starksia lepicoelia complex . left to right : starksia lepicoelia ( bah ) : usnm 399928 , bah 10050 , 25 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399617 , bah 8079 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399921 , bah 9103 , 26 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 386972 , 14 . 0 mm sl ; starksia lepicoelia ( tci ) : usnm 399638 , tci 9291 , 23 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399641 , tci 9294 , 25 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399642 , 23 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399641 , tci 9294 , 25 . 5 mm sl ; starksia weigti : blz 6120 , 24 . 0 mm sl ( no voucher ) ; usnm 399650 , blz 5193 , 24 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399648 , blz 5010 , holotype , 20 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 274922 , paratype , 20 . 0 m sl ; starksia williamsi : usnm 387767 , 19 . 8 mm sl ; usnm 387767 , 20 . 2 mm sl ; usnm 387675 , holotype , 21 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 387869 , paratype , 19 . 5 mm sl ; starksia robertsoni : amnh 249642 , paratype , 21 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399909 , pan 1419 , paratype , 21 . 0 mm sl ; amnh 249667 , holotype , 22 . 0 mm sl . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , ross robertson , james van tassell , and jeffrey williams .
comparisons among species of the starksia lepicoelia complex . left to right : starksia lepicoelia ( bah ) : usnm 399928 , bah 10050 , 25 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399617 , bah 8079 , 19 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399921 , bah 9103 , 26 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 386972 , 14 . 0 mm sl ; starksia lepicoelia ( tci ) : usnm 399638 , tci 9291 , 23 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399641 , tci 9294 , 25 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399642 , 23 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399641 , tci 9294 , 25 . 5 mm sl ; starksia weigti : blz 6120 , 24 . 0 mm sl ( no voucher ) ; usnm 399650 , blz 5193 , 24 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 399648 , blz 5010 , holotype , 20 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 274922 , paratype , 20 . 0 m sl ; starksia williamsi : usnm 387767 , 19 . 8 mm sl ; usnm 387767 , 20 . 2 mm sl ; usnm 387675 , holotype , 21 . 0 mm sl ; usnm 387869 , paratype , 19 . 5 mm sl ; starksia robertsoni : amnh 249642 , paratype , 21 . 5 mm sl ; usnm 399909 , pan 1419 , paratype , 21 . 0 mm sl ; amnh 249667 , holotype , 22 . 0 mm sl . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , ross robertson , james van tassell , and jeffrey williams .
museum specimens examined from the lesser antilles ( dominica ) and puerto rico appear to be starksia sluiteri based on trunk pigment ( round vs . elongate blotches in the second row of markings ) and no conspicuous round pale spots on the cheek . the pigment is somewhat faded in those specimens , however , and more material , including tissue samples for genetic analysis , is needed . two female specimens from navassa ( usnm 361059 ) are not starksia sluiteri , as the markings in the second row of trunk blotches are elongate , not round . however , those markings are rectangular in the navassa specimens , and the markings in the upper row are square—much more so than in our material of starksia langi from the western caribbean . the larger of the two females has some dark spots on the head as in starksia langi . more material is needed . other museum material examined ( e . g . , the uf specimens from antigua and mexico ) are too faded to identify to species .
named in honor of victor g . springer , senior scientist emeritus , smithsonian national museum of natural history , for his contributions to the systematics of blennioid fishes , including starksia , and for advice and friendship he has bestowed upon the first author .
average ( and range ) kimura two - parameter distance summary for the starksia sluiteri species complex based on cytochrome c oxidase l ( col ) sequences of individuals represented in the neighbor - joining tree in figure 1 . intraspecific averages are shown in bold .
an additional character quickly separating paraclinus larvae from the far more abundant larvae of malacoctenus and labrisomus is the absence of cranial melanophores . paraclinus larvae also have no obvious preopercular spines , while many immature malacoctenus and labrisomus ( and starksia ) larvae have preopercular spines at the size of overlap with paraclinus larvae . a useful character , even on poorly preserved larvae , is the number of procurrent caudal - fin rays : paraclinus larvae have only 3 or 4 vs . 6 to 10 in malacoctenus and labrisomus ( and 5 to 6 in starksia ) .
comparison of starksia lepicoelia specimens from bahamas from genetically distinct lineages ( see fig . 1 ) : a usnm 399615 , bah 8077 , 25 . 0 mm sl , female b usnm 399617 , bah 8079 , 19 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin .
named in honor of jeffrey t . williams , smithsonian’s national museum of natural history , in recognition of his work on blennioid fishes , including starksia . jeff’s field - collecting efforts at saba bank , tobago , and turks and caicos resulted in numerous specimens utilized in this study .
comparative material . starksia sluiteri . curacao ( all dna vouchers ) : usnm 399623 , cur 8162 ; usnm 399624 , cur 8226 ; usnm 399625 , cur 8227 ; usnm 399626 , cur 8271 . los roques , venezuela ( not dna vouchers ) : usnm 195750 , 2 specimens . dominica ( not dna vouchers ) : usnm 198263 , 15 . puerto rico ( not a dna voucher ) : usnm 219143 , 1 . antigua ( not a dna voucher ) : uf 11344 , 1 . mexico ( not dna vouchers ) : uf 209342 , 2 . starksia fasciata , turks & caicos islands ( all dna vouchers ) : usnm 399681 , tci9204 ; usnm 399683 , tci 9349 ; usnm 399684 , tci 9350 ; usnm 399685 , tci 9714 . starksia sp . navassa island ( not dna vouchers ) : usnm 361059 , 2 .
other than the diagnostic dorsal - fin spine complement , paraclinus larvae can be distinguished from the similar starksia larvae by the consistent presence of the deep nuchal and deep pelvic melanophores and often the cheek melanophore . deep melanophores , however , are not always visible on well - developed larvae . interestingly , transitional paraclinus larvae collected at night over the reef do not have the metamorphic melanophore patterns over the head typical for transitional starksia larvae and frequent on larvae of malacoctenus and labrisomus . nevertheless , by the morning ( in collections made by unattended crest nets ) , metamorphic melanophores have developed .
color and preserved pigment patterns in starksia robertsoni : a amnh 249667 , 22 . 0 mm sl , female , holotype ( photograph by james van tassell and ross robertson ) b usnm 399911 , pan 1418 , 20 . 0 mm sl , male , paratype ( photograph by carole baldwin ) .
color and preserved pigment patterns in starksia robertsoni : a amnh 249667 , 22 . 0 mm sl , female , holotype ( photograph by james van tassell and ross robertson ) b usnm 399911 , pan 1418 , 20 . 0 mm sl , male , paratype ( photograph by carole baldwin ) .
average ( and range ) kimura two - parameter distance summary for the starksia lepicoelia species complex based on cytochrome c oxidase l ( col ) sequences of individuals represented in the neighbor - joining tree in figure 1 . intraspecific averages are shown in bold ; n / a = no average ( one specimen ) .
male and female color patterns of starksia langi : a usnm 398931 , paratype , blz 8266 , 18 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 398929 , paratype , blz 8131 , 16 . 0 mm sl , female c–e diagnostic features of preserved starksia langi – ( c and d ) usnm 398931 , paratype , blz 8266 , male , 18 . 0 mm sl , note dark marking on cheek and absence of dark blotch in anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin e usnm 398928 , paratype , blz 8062 , female , 17 . 0 mm sl , note small dark spots on head . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
male and female color patterns of starksia langi : a usnm 398931 , paratype , blz 8266 , 18 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 398929 , paratype , blz 8131 , 16 . 0 mm sl , female c–e diagnostic features of preserved starksia langi – ( c and d ) usnm 398931 , paratype , blz 8266 , male , 18 . 0 mm sl , note dark marking on cheek and absence of dark blotch in anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin e usnm 398928 , paratype , blz 8062 , female , 17 . 0 mm sl , note small dark spots on head . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
male and female color patterns of starksia greenfieldi : a usnm 398920 , tob 9212 , 15 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 398922 , tob 9282 , 19 . 0 mm sl , female c–e diagnostic features of preserved starksia greenfieldi - c usnm usnm 398919 , paratype , male , 22 . 0 m sl , note pale spots on head d usnm 320832 , holotype , male , 19 . 0 mm sl , note pale spots on head and dark blotch in anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin e usnm 320829 , female , 22 . 0 mm sl , note pale spots on head . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
male and female color patterns of starksia greenfieldi : a usnm 398920 , tob 9212 , 15 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 398922 , tob 9282 , 19 . 0 mm sl , female c–e diagnostic features of preserved starksia greenfieldi - c usnm usnm 398919 , paratype , male , 22 . 0 m sl , note pale spots on head d usnm 320832 , holotype , male , 19 . 0 mm sl , note pale spots on head and dark blotch in anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin e usnm 320829 , female , 22 . 0 mm sl , note pale spots on head . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , and donald griswold .
starksia langi . a male from honduras , usnm 399917 , hon 050 , paratype , 16 . 3 mm sl ( right side , reversed ) b femalefrom panama ( atlantic ) , usnm 399918 , pan 018 , 14 . 5 mm sl c male from isla providencia , colombia , mzusp 107860 , 16 mm sl . photographs by carole baldwin .
starksia langi . a male from honduras , usnm 399917 , hon 050 , paratype , 16 . 3 mm sl ( right side , reversed ) b femalefrom panama ( atlantic ) , usnm 399918 , pan 018 , 14 . 5 mm sl c male from isla providencia , colombia , mzusp 107860 , 16 mm sl . photographs by carole baldwin .
unfortunately , fin - ray counts for the entire genus are similar and broadly overlapping . furthermore , adult markings on starksia are both highly variable and patterns are often shared among species , making identifications particularly challenging . it certainly does not help that males and females often have different sets of markings . much of the variation in appearance occurs in live coloration only and the dearth of live specimens or underwater photographs makes identifications quite difficult .
nemaclinus atelestos , a rare labrisomid found only on deep dropoffs , looks much like the starksia species . it has higher median - fin ray counts , but fewer pectoral - fin rays : d - xxi - xxiii , 7 - 9 a - ii , 18 - 19 and only 11 - 12 pectoral - fin rays . it also has notably long pelvic - fin rays , extending well beyond the origin of the anal fin .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : orbital cirrus present ; belly scaled ; trunk pale to tan ( dark orange / tan to bright orange in life ) , without distinct bars or other markings ; lips without conspicuous white spotting , distinct banding , or dark bars—usually with lightly scattered melanophores in preserved specimens ; total dorsal elements 27 ; total vertebrae usually 32 ; dorsal spines + anal soft rays + vertebrae modally 75 .
male and female color patterns of starksia sangreyae : a usnm 398932 , holotype , blz 5111 , 16 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 398933 , blz 5033 , 16 . 5 mm sl , female . c–d diagnostic patterns of cheek pigment of preserved female and male – c usnm 276147 , 15 . 0 mm sl , male d usnm 321073 , 18 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , and julie mounts .
male and female color patterns of starksia sangreyae : a usnm 398932 , holotype , blz 5111 , 16 . 0 mm sl , male b usnm 398933 , blz 5033 , 16 . 5 mm sl , female . c–d diagnostic patterns of cheek pigment of preserved female and male – c usnm 276147 , 15 . 0 mm sl , male d usnm 321073 , 18 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin , cristina castillo , donald griswold , and julie mounts .
male and female color patterns of starksia weigti : a usnm 399648 , holotype , blz 5010 , 25 . 0 mm sl , male b blz 6121 ( no voucher ) , 18 . 0 mm sl , female c–d close - up views of diagnostic spotting on lips in life – c blz 6120 , 24 . 0 mm sl ( no voucher ) , male d usnm 399650 , blz 5193 , 24 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin and julie mounts .
male and female color patterns of starksia weigti : a usnm 399648 , holotype , blz 5010 , 25 . 0 mm sl , male b blz 6121 ( no voucher ) , 18 . 0 mm sl , female c–d close - up views of diagnostic spotting on lips in life – c blz 6120 , 24 . 0 mm sl ( no voucher ) , male d usnm 399650 , blz 5193 , 24 . 0 mm sl , female . photographs by carole baldwin and julie mounts .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : no orbital cirrus ; trunk with irregular dark blotches on pale background ; pectoral - fin base with relatively straight margins defining pale gap that separates two dark blotches ; cheek with distinctive dark and pale markings : anterior portion of cheek with prominent dark blotch , anteroventral and posterior margins of blotch well defined by pale regions ; posterior pale area on cheek bordered posteriorly by thin , dark , anteroventral - to - posterodorsal streak of pigment along distal edge of preopercle .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : orbital cirrus present ; belly scaled ; trunk pale ( pale red in life ) , without distinct bars or other markings ; lips peppered with white spots in life ; lacrimal region with single row of small white spots in life ; jaws usually with lightly scattered melanophores in preserved specimens , without distinct banding or dark bars ; entire gular region usually covered with scattered melanophores ; total dorsal elements usually 27 ; total vertebrae usually 32 ; dorsal spines + anal soft rays + vertebrae modally 75 .
specimens used in this study were collected from barbados , belize , bahamas , curacao ( netherland antilles ) , florida , honduras , panama ( atlantic ) , saba bank ( netherland antilles ) , st . thomas ( u . s . virgin islands ) , tobago ( trinidad and tobago ) , and turks and caicos . that material and additional museum specimens examined are listed in the appropriate species and comparisons sections . starksia specimens included in the genetic analysis but not in the species accounts are tabulated in appendix 1 . institutional abbreviations for collections follow sabaj pérez ( 2010 ) .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : orbital cirrus present ; belly scaled ; trunk pale to dark tan ( dark orange / tan to bright orange in life ) , without distinct bars or other markings ; lips without conspicuous white spotting in life ; ventral surface of lower jaw of males with one to three dark blotches or bars in preserved specimens , lips without distinct banding or dark bars ; dorsal - fin elements usually xx , 7 – 27 total ; vertebrae usually 10 + 22 = 32 ; dorsal spines + anal soft rays + vertebrae modally 75 .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : orbital cirrus present ; two rows of prominent , very dark blotches on side of body , at least some of those in lower row vertically elongate to oval , rarely round ; males with dark , fat , crescent - shaped marking on cheek and without dark blotch on anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin ; females with scattered dark spots on lower half of head and on pectoral - fin base ; first anal - fin spine in males two - thirds to three - quarters length of male genital papilla ; belly naked .
a species of starksia distinguished by the following combination of characters : orbital cirrus present ; two to three rows of dark blotches on side of body , blotches in middle row ( or ventral row if only two rows ) mostly circular , never vertically elongate or oval ; white ( or pale ) , mostly round spots ( absence of melanophores against a darker background ) on at least portions of cheek , opercle , and gular region , this spotting pattern more prominent in males ; males with dark blotch of pigment on anterior portion of spinous dorsal fin ; first anal - fin spine one - half to three - quarters length of male genital papilla ; belly naked .
there is a quite consistent count of 13 caudal - fin segmented rays in the blennioids , 7 dorsal and 6 ventral , with a variable number of procurrent rays . procurrent - ray counts usually vary within species by one , and usually there is one additional procurrent ray in the dorsal series than in the ventral series . among the labrisomids , paraclinus have the fewest , with only 4 or 5 , while starksia typically have 5 or 6 , and malacoctenus and labrisomus have 6 to 10 . although the numerical differences can be slight , the procurrent rays look distinctly more crowded in the latter genera . other blennioid families can also be distinguished : chaenopsids have few , from 3 to 5 , while the tripterygiid enneanectes have 6 to 8 .
specimens examined ranging from 12 . 0 to 19 . 0mm sl ; hl 25–32 % sl ( 32 % in holotype ) ; genital - papilla length in 15 . 0 - mm sl paratype 0 . 3 mm , one - fourth length of first anal spine ( broken ) ; papilla adhered to spine proximally . note : the presence of a small but measurable genital papilla on 15 . 0 - mm sl paratype suggests that it is a male : although female starksia sometimes have a small genital papilla , the 19 mm female holotype does not . as noted below , the 15 mm paratype has a pupil - size dark spot at posterior base of anal fin , which usually characterizes females . we tentatively recognize this paratype as a male .
comparative material . starksia lepicoelia . bahamas ( dna vouchers ) : usnm 399615 , bah 8077 ; usnm 399616 , bah 8078 ; usnm 399617 , bah 8079 . bahamas ( not dna vouchers ) : usnm 399923 , 1 specimen ; usnm 399924 , 1 ; usnm 399925 , 1 ; usnm 399926 , 1 ; usnm 399927 , 9 ; usnm 399928 , 1 ; usnm 399929 , 1 ; usnm 399930 , 1 ; usnm 399931 , 1 ; usnm 399932 , 1 ; usnm 399933 , 1 ; usnm 399934 , 1 ; usnm 399921 , 1 ; usnm 399922 , 1 ; usnm 386919 , 3 specimens ; usnm 386972 , 15 ; usnm 386383 , 1 ; usnm 386402 , 8 ; usnm 386651 , 2 ; usnm 386581 , 3 ; usnm 386500 , 4 ; usnm 387026 , 3 ; usnm 386244 , 13 ; usnm 387069 , 6 ; usnm 399618 , 1 ; usnm 399614 , 2 ; turks and caicos islands ( dna vouchers ) : usnm 399638 , tci 9291 ; usnm 399639 , tci 9292 ; usnm 399640 , tci 9293 ; usnm 399641 , tci 9294 ; usnm 399636 , tci 9112 ; turks and caicos islands ( not dna vouchers ) : usnm 399637 , 7 ; usnm 399642 , 1 . navassa island ( not dna vouchers ) : usnm 359448 , 5 ; usnm 359699 , 19 . u . s . virgin islands , st . croix ( not dna vouchers ) : uf 149809 , 11 ; uf 149815 , 33 ; uf 149814 , 10 .
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the unusual genus stathmonotus is still considered chaenopsid even though their dorsal fin is made up of all spines and they can have scales . some labrisomids of paraclinus also have a dorsal fin made up of all spines ; fortunately the larvae of the two genera are easily distinguished by morphology .
labrisomid larvae generally resemble those of the other blennioid families of reef fishes - they can be distinguished easily from larvae of the combtooth blennies ( family blenniidae ) , which have fewer dorsal - fin spines than soft rays and blunt snouts at all stages ( labrisomids have twice as many dorsal - fin spines as rays ( or more ) and pointed snouts as larvae ) . larvae of the blennioid triplefins ( family tripterygiidae ) have three separate dorsal fins and distinctive markings and the stargazers ( family dactyloscopidae ) have relatively foreshortened anterior bodies and curled - up pelvic fins .
larval labrisomids are superficially similar to the larvae of gobies and scarids , which also often have a similar anal - fin row of melanophores and are very common in collections and are about the same size as labrisomid larvae . however , those larvae notably have many fewer dorsal - fin spines , short and / or fused pelvic fins , and narrowed or oddly - shaped eyes , while later - stage labrisomids have long thread - like pelvic fins and large round eyes . larval gerreids ( mojarras ) are also common and can be mistaken for labrisomid larvae , however they have silvery abdominal linings . larval grunts ( haemulidae ) often have an anal - fin row of melanophores and can resemble earlier - stage labrisomids , but they develop a notably short anal fin and characteristic tail spots .
there is sufficient divergence in appearance among labrisomid larvae in the region to identify most later - stage larvae to species and all to the genus level . the exceptions are those species recently shown by dna sequencing to be made up of sets of closely - related species that can be hard to distinguish , even as adults ( i . e . cryptic species ) . some labrisomids , unlike most other reef fishes , have benthic eggs and short larval lives which promote reproductive isolation and genetic divergence within the region . as a result , there can be a proliferation of cryptic species and lineages and quite complex phylogeography . the larvae and juveniles of cryptic species would be expected to be almost identical and are thus pooled into a type for that species complex in the descriptions below .
the diagnosis paragraph under each species listed in the following sections describes the criteria that confirm the species designation for a larval type , usually the fin - ray counts , narrowing the possibilities to one or a few species and sometimes a morphological feature to distinguish among the remainder . of course , a dna - sequence match is the ultimate confirmation . a sequence match has been used for many of the taxa described below , indicated by the notation ( dna ) .
the analogues section briefly describes how to distinguish larvae at particular stages from other similar - appearing species , highlighting which of the characters - fin - ray counts , melanophore patterns , morphology , or various combinations thereof - are most useful for each comparison . in most cases , especially for late - stage larvae , these features can rapidly narrow down an id to the species level .
some diagnostic characters are more easily visible on larvae than on larger fishes . one of the more obscure characters that is useful for distinguishing among the numerous blennioid families and genera is the number of procurrent rays in the caudal fin . these accessory rays are defined as the non - segmented rays anterior to the large segmented caudal - fin rays . the transparency of fish larvae allows for an easy assessment of the number of procurrent caudal - fin rays . adjustment of the transmitted - light angle highlights bony tissues well . fortunately , the caudal - fin rays are usually preserved in otherwise - damaged larvae and they can provide diagnostic information for identifications when little else is available .
labrisomid larvae share , to varying degrees , a basic set of melanophores that develop progressively after hatching and are very useful for identifying larvae at least to genus and often to species . the timing of the development of each marking can be somewhat variable within a species , resulting in a variety of patterns on earlier - stage larvae that preclude a simple key to species identification . late and pre - transitional larvae typically have their full complement of larval melanophores , making identifications at these larger sizes somewhat easier . during transition , however , larval melanophores begin to disappear and metamorphic melanophore patterns develop . metamorphic melanophores consist primarily of intricate patterns of small surface melanophores , usually starting on the head and spreading over the body to form the juvenile markings . this transitional sequence is also variably timed , promoting a proliferation of intermediate melanophore complements that can easily lead to the impression of a greater number of species than are actually present .
note : a number of other melanophores are present at specific , and often diagnostic , locations on the larvae of particular species ( or groups of species ) and are discussed under the genus or species descriptions in the next sections .
these dorsal melanophores shield the brain and are near the surface , usually on the meningeal membrane or over the skull . they can best be labeled by the quadrant of the brain they overlie , i . e . the forebrain , the smaller lobes forming a triangle between the eyes , and the large midbrain ( optic ) lobes , behind the eyes (