sapphirinidae is a family of parasitic copepods , containing the following genera : copilia dana , 1849 saphirinella claus , 1863 sapphirina j. thompson , 1830 terebellicola m. sars , 1861 vettoria c. b. wilson , 1924

sapphirinidae

citation : baar y , rosen j , shashar n ( 2014 ) circular polarization of transmitted light by sapphirinidae copepods . plos one 9 ( 1 ) : e86131 . urltoken
chae j , nishida s ( 1994 ) integumental ultrastructure and color patterns in the iridescent copepods of the family sapphirinidae ( copepoda : poecilostomatoida ) . mar biol 119 : 205–210 .
chae j , nishida s ( 1995 ) vertical distribution and diel migration in the iridescent copepods of the family sapphirinidae : a unique example of reverse migration ? mar ecol prog ser 119 : 111–124 .
planktonic sapphirinidae copepods were found to circularly polarize the light passing through them . circular polarization may be created by unique , multilayered features of the membrane structure found under their cuticle or by organized muscle fibers .
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database . sapphirinidae thorell , 1859 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 128595 on 2018 - 07 - 09
further research is needed to understand the role , if any , of the circularly polarized light transmitted through the body of sapphirinidae copepods . the role of cp light transmission and their sensitivity to cp polarization should be examined both interspecifically , within the sapphirinidae copepods including to examine for sexual dimorphism in the cp domain , and extraspecifically , for example , they may use cp light to avoid detection by predators sensitive to linear polarization . from the perspective of potential predators , it should be noted that stomatopod larvae are active planktonic predators .
the sapphirinidae are well defined by their dorsoventrally flattened bodies and by the presence of elaborate cuticular lenses at least in the female . the caudal rami are also flattened and have 6 small setae distributed around the margin . the form of the caudal ramus is useful as a species - level discriminating character .
the structural mechanism responsible for circular polarization in mantis shrimp and scarabaeidae beetles is well understood [ 9 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 16 ] . in our case , since the strongest cp was obtained at specific input light polarization angles and in a cycle of 90° , it is clear that a part or parts of the sapphirinidae copepod function as λ / 4 retarder plates . at this point , however , we do not fully understand the underlying structural mechanism . two mechanisms are possible : retardance by muscle fibers and / or by the multilayer membrane structure , the latter of which is also involved in sapphirinidae body coloration . these mechanisms may be operating independently , or interacting and augmenting each other .
among the most striking features of the s . metallina male is its iridescence , which is caused by a multilayered - membrane structure in epidermal cells of the dorsal integument [ 17 ] – [ 19 ] . iridescence constitutes one characteristic of the species ' sexual dimorphism , which also includes differences in body size , shape , color , and more . however vassiere [ 20 ] did not find sexual dimorphism in sapphirinidae eye structure although follow - up studies are still required .
muscles are known to be birefringent . the myosin - containing a bands of the sarcomere ( the contractile unit ) are birefringent [ 21 ] , and indeed , light transmitted through vertebrate muscle tissues was demonstrated to undergo phase retardance [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] . sabhah and shashar [ 24 ] demonstrated that muscle tissue changes the transmission of partially linearly polarized light passing through zooplankton . we propose here that the sapphirinidae copepod circularly polarizes part of the linearly polarized light , thus contributing to its circularly polarized appearance .
circularly polarized light , rare in the animal kingdom , has thus far been documented in only a handful of animals . using a rotating circular polarization ( cp ) analyzer we detected cp in linearly polarized light transmitted through epipelagic free living sapphirina metallina copepods . both left and right handedness of cp was detected , generated from specific organs of the animal ' s body , especially on the dorsal cephalosome and prosome . such cp transmittance may be generated by phase retardance either in the muscle fibers or in the multilayer membrane structure found underneath the cuticle . although the role , if any , played by circularly polarized light in sapphirinidae has yet to be clarified , in other animals it was suggested to take part in mate choice , species recognition , and other forms of communication .
genus corina giesbrecht , 1891 accepted as vettoria wilson c . b . , 1924 ( synonym )
genus corissa farran , 1936 accepted as vettoria wilson c . b . , 1924 ( synonym )
genus edwardsia costa o . g . , 1838 accepted as sapphirina thompson j . , 1829 ( synonym )
genus lanowia oliveira , 1945 accepted as saphirella scott t . , 1894 accepted as clausidiidae embleton , 1901 ( synonym )
genus pyromma haeckel , 1864 accepted as sapphirina thompson j . , 1829 ( synonym )
genus sapphirella bjornberg , 1963 accepted as saphirella scott t . , 1894 accepted as clausidiidae embleton , 1901 ( mis spell of original name )
genus sapphiridina haeckel , 1864 accepted as sapphirina thompson j . , 1829 ( synonym )
boxshall , g . ( 2001 ) . copepoda ( excl . harpacticoida ) , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 252 - 268 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
martin , j . w . , & davis , g . e . ( 2001 ) . an updated classification of the recent crustacea . science series , 39 . natural history museum of los angeles county . los angeles , ca ( usa ) . 124 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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copyright : © 2014 baar et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
funding : israeli science foundation grant # 1081 / 10 to ns and by the halperin and shechter foundations . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
ambient light underwater is partially polarized linearly to varying degrees at different depths [ 1 ] , [ 2 ] , but circular polarization ( cp ) has been observed occurring naturally only near the water surface [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] . among animals , the production of circularly polarized light is rare , yet was documented in the bioluminescence of photuris lucicrescens and p . versicolor firefly larvae , in reflections from beetles of the scarabaeidae family , in panulirus argus lobsters , and in stomatopods ( mantis shrimp ) [ 5 ] – [ 14 ] .
circularly polarized light reflected by helical microfibril layers in the exocuticle of beetles belonging to the scarabaeidae family is usually left handed [ 5 ] – [ 7 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] . the multilayer structure that is responsible for the circularly polarized light in the scarab beetle plusiotis resplendens can be treated as a three - dimensional diffraction grating . in that sense , while its effect on the polarization state of the light differs , the exocuticle diffracts light much as a multilayer dielectric grating does . indeed , three - dimensional gratings can reflect light that is circularly or elliptically polarized [ 15 ] . in mantis shrimps , cp reflection has been observed in the keel of the male odontodactylus cultrifer and is generated by two optical components . the first , a linear polarizer , is based on the ordered arrangement of dichroic carotenoid astaxanthin molecules . the second component is a quarter - wave retarder , laid at a 45 degree angle to the linear component , which is assumed to comprise oriented calcite crystals [ 9 ] , [ 16 ] . mantis shrimps are also unique in that not only do they present a cp reflection , they can also see cp light [ 8 ] .
sapphirina copepods , which appear transparent to polarization - insensitive eyes , affected the linear polarization of light that passed through them , in the process partially circularly polarizing it . due to the relative abundance of s . metallina , detailed analyses of cp focused on that species ( fig . 1 ) . figs . 1 . b and 1 . c demonstrate qualitatively that s . metallina has polarization activity with the linearly polarized transmitted light . the animal was rotated between two linear polarizers at 45° to each other ( fig . 1 . b ) , and between crossed linear polarizers ( fig . 1 . c ) , until an intensity change was detected . the brightness level at certain locations is about the same in both figs 1 . b and 1 . c and this outcome is a clue that some level of cp exists herein . fig . 1 . d shows the result of the cp detector for depolarized illumination . the circular polarization effect was observed when the incoming light was either linearly polarized ( fig . 2 ) or depolarized ( fig . 1 . d ) .
: the animal between crossed linear polarizers showing only linearly polarization - active structures . such linear polarization activity can arise from change in orientation of polarization , depolarization , or the creation of cp .
: circularly polarized light passing through a copepod , according to its left or right handedness . incoming light was depolarized . arrows indicate areas of relatively strong cp , though not more than 30 % ; dark and bright areas indicate right and left cp , respectively . note that most of these areas , such as eye tubes or posterior parts of carapace , do not show up when placed between crossed linear polarizers ( insert c ) suggesting that the process causing the cp under depolarized illumination , is not mere retardance such as by muscle fibers .
copepod , when incoming light is linearly polarized , as detected by a cp detector .
a modulation depth of 1 . 0 indicates that all measured light is cp , whereas 0 signifies no cp .
: each image is for a different orientation of the entrance polarizer , and therefore , of the illuminating beam , in 20° steps . the orientation for 0° was arbitrarily set . note that cp handedness is not recorded . locations of cp activity correspond with both muscles fibers as illuminated in
: the modulation depth as a function of the input polarization orientation at six locations on the animal is indicated in the figure inset .
when the light striking the copepods was linearly polarized , the orientation of the polarization strongly affected cp . fig . 2 . a shows maps of the modulation depth of the signals as detected by the cp detector . each image is for a different orientation of incoming light polarization in 20° steps . a modulation depth of 1 . 0 indicates that the all measured light was cp , whereas a depth of 0 signifies no cp . the modulation depth as a function of the input polarization angle at six locations on the animal , as indicated on the inset , is depicted in fig . 2 . b . cp levels , which were 30–60 % , were maximal from the cephalosome , from the metasome , and in both lateral sides of the copepod ' s soma . the prominent regions are not identical in figs . 1 . d and 2 . a because the effect of cp of the depolarized light is much weaker ( maximum cp value of 30 % ) than the cp created under linearly polarized illumination ( maximum cp value of 60 % ) .
tem images revealed the structure of the multilayer epidermal membrane ( fig . 3 ) , showing structures that could serve as light retarders . although we are not aware of any direct evidence of birefringence in these layered structures , we do not know of any mechanism other than retardation by birefringence to convert transmitted linear polarization to cp light .
: frontal section of dorsal integument showing the multilayer membrane structure , a honeycomb arrangement , in which the first stack layer is parallel and some of the other layers are rotated on their sides showing a layered pattern .
in addition , in many cases the cp was transmitted from locations where muscle fibers affected the linear polarization ( fig . 1 b–d ) , suggesting retardance activity by these muscles .
circularly polarized light in nature is currently known to be reflected from the cuticle tissues of marine crustaceans [ 9 ] , [ 11 ] and of terrestrial arthropods [ 6 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] , [ 16 ] .
in this work we present a case in which the light transmitted through an animals ' body is circularly polarized . the effect was observed , to varying degrees , when the incoming illumination was either linearly polarized or depolarized .
based on evidence from the optically active system in the copepods [ 17 ] , which is responsible for their iridescent coloration , we suggest a model for how circular polarization is produced in these copepods . their dorsal integument comprises a multilayered membrane made of 10–14 membrane pairs laid parallel to each other and to the cuticular plate . viewed as a single structure , their dorsal integument has a regular hexagonal structure , and the gaps between the membrane layers contain a series of hexagonal platelets . platelet thickness varies from 61–83 nm , and its estimated refractive index is 1 . 8 [ 17 ] .
we hypothesize that the crystals in each layer of the multilayer hexagonal platelets are birefringent . if the optical path difference between the fast and the slow axes of the crystal is an odd number of quarter - wave lengths , then the multilayer hexagonal platelets are functioning as a quarter - wave retarder . formally , the plate structure should follow the equation 2π·δ n · z / λ = ( 2 n + 1 ) ·π / 2 , where δ n is the refractive index difference between the fast and the slow axes of the platelets , z is the overall thickness of the multilayer structure , λ is the average wavelength of the light , and n is an arbitrary positive whole number . hence linearly polarized light ( at a 45° angle to the fast and slow axes ) transmitted through the copepods is circularly polarized . note that the graph of the modulation depth of the cp detector signal as a function of the input polarization shows a cycle of π / 2 as is expected from a quarter - wave retarder . also note that most of cyclic signals changed together with almost no phase difference between them , an indication that all the crystals of the hexagonal platelets over the entire body of the copepod are oriented in approximately the same direction . however , we also found that the handedness of the circular polarization along the sides of the dorsal view ( points a–d in fig . 2b , inset ) was opposite that in the central regions ( points e–f in fig . 2b , inset ) . this observation may indicate that the cp mechanism in each of these two regions is different . further experimentation is needed to elucidate the retardance properties of the copepods .
in addition to the current partial understanding of the copepod phase retardance mechanism , the question remains of how non polarized light becomes circularly polarized , even if to a low extent , when passing through the animal ' s body . one possibility is that the incoming light is partially linearly polarized as it is refracted into or within the copepod ( such as by eye tubes ) , especially when the light is arriving from directions that are not orthogonal to the curved body carapace . this partially linearly polarized light can then interact with the platelets to produce cp .
the role of circularly polarized light in the scarab beetle is not known [ 5 ] . stomatopods use polarization in species - specific signals related to mating and defense [ 9 ] . it should be emphasized that some species of mantis shrimp , such as odontodactylus cultrifer , can perceive and respond to cp signals , making them the only organisms with a known ability to sense circularly polarized light [ 8 ] , [ 9 ] .
for cp light detection , we built a system ( fig . 4 ) based on a cokin® circular polarizing filter , half of which was covered from the direction of the incoming light by a λ / 2 retarder ( i . e . , circular polarization handedness switching filter ) with an optical path difference of 280 nm . a step motor rotated this apparatus sequentially to four positions at 90° intervals . at each position , the specimen was photographed via a zeiss stemi 2000 - c polarization insensitive dissecting scope and a nikon single ccd digital camera . to match the retarder filter ( best fit for wavelengths around 560 nm ) , only the green channel of each image was used in further analysis . this approach resulted in four different pictures ( orientations of the λ / 2 retarder at 90° intervals ) of the copepod .
illuminating light passed first through a depolarizer , and then , if needed , it was linearly polarized . after passing through the specimen , depending on handedness , the light was or was not filtered through a rotating 1 / 2 λ retarder that covered half of the field of view . the circularly polarized light was then linearized by a 1 / 4 λ retarder and an analyzer was used to examine it .
circular polarization images were analyzed using a matlab™ code to produce a numerical and visual representation of the differences in the light transmitted through the copepods as the analyzer was rotated . this was done by analyzing the modulation depth of the light signal detected along the rotation of the λ / 2 plate . note that our device is built to detect circularly polarized light , and to verify its reliability , it was tested under laser light ( λ = 543 nm ) in various known polarization states . in addition , the device was tested with a scarab beetle specimen , and a considerable , circularly polarized light signal was detected in the form of a periodic signal , as expected . the modulation depth was defined as ( max−min ) / ( max + min ) , where max and min are the maximum and minimum intensities , respectively .
the pictures of the transmitted circularly polarized light include one for each of the four positions of the input λ / 2 plate . captured for the four different positions of the rotating λ / 2 plate , the pictures represent four sampling points along a single cycle of the output signal . for every image pixel in each of the four pictures , the two values with the maximum intensity difference value ( max−min ) were chosen , and the difference between them was calculated . each result was then divided by the sum of all the difference values ( max + min ) to give a value from 0–1 . defined as the modulation depth of the output cyclic signal , this value represents the percentage of the transmitted light that was circularly polarized from the total transmitted light .
copepods were collected by towing a 200 µm plankton net , just under the sea surface to depths up to 2 m , in the open waters of the gulf of aqaba , eilat , israel ( following [ 25 ] ) . over 20 sapphirina copepods were collected for cp examination . more than half of them were s . metallina ( dana , 1849 ) , and therefore , all further analysis focused exclusively on them .
specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy followed [ 26 ] in detail . freshly collected specimens were fixated in a 2 . 5 % glutaraldehyde solution in a cacodylate buffer at ph 7 . 4 .
fixation and dehydration : samples were fixed in the above for 3–24 h in the cold . then they were rinsed 3 times for 10 minutes each in the same buffer , post - fixed in 1 % osmium tetroxide in the same buffer for 1 h and dehydrated in a graded ethanol series . during dehydration they were stained en bloc in uranyl acetate in 70 % ethanol .
embedding : samples were embedded in araldite resin . embedding was gradual , using two 5 - min rinses in epoxy propane ( propylene oxide ) and then an hour each in increasing amounts of araldite in epoxy propane ( 33 % , 50 % , 100 % ) . blocks were polymerized at 60° in an oven for 24 h .
sectioning : sections of various thicknesses ( 50–80 nm ) were cut using a leica ultracut uct ultra microtome ( leica microsystems , nussloch , germany ) and picked up on 75 - or 100 - mesh copper or nickel grids coated with formvar and carbon . the sections were contrasted with uranyl acetate and lead citrate .
transmission electron microscopy : sections were observed in a jeol jem - 1230 tem ( jeol ltd , tokyo , japan ) operated at 120 kv . digital images were collected with a gatan model 830 orius sc200 ccd camera using gatan ' s digital micrograph ( dm ) software .
we thank steven maccusker for technical support , rina jeger for assistance with tem analysis , viviana ( bracha ) farstey and dvir gur for assistance in species identification and animal related consultation , nishida shuhei for his advice and insights , and the comments of michael land and 2 anonymous reviewers that greatly improved this manuscript .
conceived and designed the experiments : yb jr ns . performed the experiments : yb jr ns . analyzed the data : yb jr ns . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : yb jr ns . wrote the paper : yb jr ns .
sabbah s , lerner a , erlick c , shashar n ( 2005 ) under water polarization vision - a physical examination . in : recent res . devel . experimental & theoretical biol . pandalai sg , editor . 1 : 123–176 .
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shapiro db , hunt aj , quinby - hunt ms , hull pg ( 1991 ) circular polarization effects in the light scattering from single and suspension of dinoflagellates . underwater imaging , photography , and visibility . proc of spie 1537 : 30–41 .
blaho m , egri a , hegedues r , josvai j , toth m , et al . ( 2012 ) no evidence for behavioral responses to circularly polarized light in four scarab beetle species with circularly polarizing exocuticle . physiol & behav 105 : 1067–1075 .
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the nauplius eye is elaborate , with large paired cuticular lenses on the frontal margin of the cephalosome ; these lenses are secondarily lost in male copilia . the antennule is typically 5 - segmented and is non - geniculate in the male . the antenna is uniramous and 4 - segmented , terminating in a small claw . the mandible consists of a broad segment drawn out into a tapering , dentate blade . the maxillule is a single lobe with 4 setae . the maxilliped is 3 - segmented in females , 3 or 4 - segmented in the male , and terminates in a claw .
swimming legs 1 to 4 are biramous with 3 - segmented rami , except for the endopod of leg 4 which is often reduced to 2 or just 1 segments . the fifth leg lacks a free segment and is represented by small papilla armed with 2 setae and 1 spine . egg sacs paired , multiseriate .
and copilia species are large members of the epipelagic planktonic community , primarily in tropical and subtropical oceans . their bodies are flattened to slow the rate of sinking and they have adopted transparency as a cryptic strategy . some sapphirina are iridescent and contain reflective platelets of guanine in their integument ( chae , kita - tsukamoto , nishida & ohwada , 1996 ) . sapphirina feeds on salps ( heron , 1973 ) and possibly other gelatinous zooplankton . the males of copilia have reduced mouthparts , have lost their cuticular lenses and probably do not feed as adults . marked reverse diel migrations have been reported in some species of sapphirina from the upper epipelagic zone .
with 1 large terminal toothed element usually with 1 - 2 small setae at its base .
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mclaughlin et al . 2005 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : crustaceans . american fisheries society special publication 31
bradford - grieve , j . m . , e . l . markhaseva , carlos rocha , and bernardo abiahy / d . boltovskoy , ed .
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copepods , which appear transparent to polarization - insensitive eyes , affected the linear polarization of light that passed through them , in the process partially circularly polarizing it . due to the relative abundance of
has polarization activity with the linearly polarized transmitted light . the animal was rotated between two linear polarizers at 45° to each other (
) , until an intensity change was detected . the brightness level at certain locations is about the same in both
shows the result of the cp detector for depolarized illumination . the circular polarization effect was observed when the incoming light was either linearly polarized (
when the light striking the copepods was linearly polarized , the orientation of the polarization strongly affected cp .
shows maps of the modulation depth of the signals as detected by the cp detector . each image is for a different orientation of incoming light polarization in 20° steps . a modulation depth of 1 . 0 indicates that the all measured light was cp , whereas a depth of 0 signifies no cp . the modulation depth as a function of the input polarization angle at six locations on the animal , as indicated on the inset , is depicted in
. cp levels , which were 30–60 % , were maximal from the cephalosome , from the metasome , and in both lateral sides of the copepod ' s soma . the prominent regions are not identical in
because the effect of cp of the depolarized light is much weaker ( maximum cp value of 30 % ) than the cp created under linearly polarized illumination ( maximum cp value of 60 % ) .
) , showing structures that could serve as light retarders . although we are not aware of any direct evidence of birefringence in these layered structures , we do not know of any mechanism other than retardation by birefringence to convert transmitted linear polarization to cp light .
we hypothesize that the crystals in each layer of the multilayer hexagonal platelets are birefringent . if the optical path difference between the fast and the slow axes of the crystal is an odd number of quarter - wave lengths , then the multilayer hexagonal platelets are functioning as a quarter - wave retarder . formally , the plate structure should follow the equation 2π·δ
is an arbitrary positive whole number . hence linearly polarized light ( at a 45° angle to the fast and slow axes ) transmitted through the copepods is circularly polarized . note that the graph of the modulation depth of the cp detector signal as a function of the input polarization shows a cycle of π / 2 as is expected from a quarter - wave retarder . also note that most of cyclic signals changed together with almost no phase difference between them , an indication that all the crystals of the hexagonal platelets over the entire body of the copepod are oriented in approximately the same direction . however , we also found that the handedness of the circular polarization along the sides of the dorsal view ( points a–d in
, inset ) . this observation may indicate that the cp mechanism in each of these two regions is different . further experimentation is needed to elucidate the retardance properties of the copepods .
) based on a cokin® circular polarizing filter , half of which was covered from the direction of the incoming light by a λ / 2 retarder ( i . e . , circular polarization handedness switching filter ) with an optical path difference of 280 nm . a step motor rotated this apparatus sequentially to four positions at 90° intervals . at each position , the specimen was photographed via a zeiss stemi 2000 - c polarization insensitive dissecting scope and a nikon single ccd digital camera . to match the retarder filter ( best fit for wavelengths around 560 nm ) , only the green channel of each image was used in further analysis . this approach resulted in four different pictures ( orientations of the λ / 2 retarder at 90° intervals ) of the copepod .
israeli science foundation grant # 1081 / 10 to ns and by the halperin and shechter foundations . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
shashar n , johnsen s , lerner a , sabbah s , chiao cc , et al . ( 2011 )
circular polarization effects in the light scattering from single and suspension of dinoflagellates . underwater imaging , photography , and visibility
blaho m , egri a , hegedues r , josvai j , toth m , et al . ( 2012 )
chiou th , kleinlogel s , cronin t , caldwell r , loeffler b , et al . ( 2008 )
wynberg h , meijer ew , hummelen jc , dekkers hpjm , schippers ph , et al . ( 1980 )


the eastern cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata ( loew ) , is a species of tephritid or fruit flies in the genus rhagoletis of the family tephritidae .

rhagoletis cingulata

the western cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis indifferens curran , once considered a subspecies of rhagoletis cingulata , occurs in the western united states from idaho and washington southward into california .
figure 2 . adult female cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata ( loew ) . graphic by division of plant industry .
cherry fruit fly , mouche des cerises , prunus spp . , quarantine pest , regulated non - quarantine pest , rhagoletis cingulata complex
rhagoletis cingulata attacks both sweet and sour cherries while rhagoletis fausta primarily attacks the sour cherries . because both species are native to the united states , their original food must have been the wild species of cherry .
rhagoletis cingulata also has been reared from plum ( prunus spp . ) , fringe tree ( chionanthus virginica l . ) and wild olive ( osmanthus americanus ( l . ) gray ) .
figure 1 . reported distribution of the cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata ( loew ) , in florida . figure by g . j . steck and b . d . sutton , division of plant industry .
lyon mw . larvae of the cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis cingulata , as a pseudoparasite . jama . 1925 ; 84 ( 14 ) : 1041 . doi : 10 . 1001 / jama . 1925 . 26620400004013d
pelz - stelinski ks , gut lj , stelinski ll , liburd oe , isaccs r . 2005 . captures of rhagoletis mendax and r . cingulata ( diptera : tephritidae ) on sticky traps are influenced by adjacent host fruit and fruit juice concentrates . environmental entomology 34 : 1013 - 1018 .
these two species closely resemble a third pest species , the apple maggot , rhagoletis pomonella ( walsh ) . the adults of all three species have banded wings .
r . cingulata is an important pest of cherries in eastern north america . in europe , where it is found in cherry growing regions , it attacks late cherry varities , often tart cherries .
the black cherry fruit fly , rhagoletis fausta ( osten sacken ) , the third species in this complex , occurs across southern canada southward to new york in the east and to california along the west coast .
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these flies are 4–5 mm long , just a little smaller than a house fly , and generally black with yellow margins on the thorax . the scutellum is white , the tibiae and tarsi are yellowish , and there are transverse and oblique blackish markings on the wings . the eastern cherry fruit fly has four white crossbands on the abdomen , which are not found on the black cherry fruit fly . the blackish bands on the wings of the black cherry fruit fly are more pronounced .
the maggots found in the fruit are yellowish white , up to 1 / 4 inch long and—typical of fly larvae—are pointed at the head end . key characters for the separation of the larval stage from related species are given by phillips ( 1946 ) .
a weevil , the plum curculio , conotrachelus nenuphar ( herbst ) is the most serious pest of cherries and plums , and its larvae may be mistaken for those of the fruit flies . however , plum curculio larvae have heavy chewing mandibles and a bluntly rounded head which readily distinguish them from fruit fly larvae which have sharp - pointed , downward - curved mouth hooks and a sharply pointed head .
adults emerge from the ground during the spring when cherries are about half grown and feed for a few days on materials on the surface of the leaves and fruit before laying eggs . this is the most vulnerable stage in the fruit fly life cycle and the best time for control . each female may deposit 300 to 400 eggs . only one larva matures in a fruit , although more than one egg may be deposited in a single fruit . after oviposition the eggs hatch in five to eight days , and the young larvae tunnel directly to the surface of the cherry seed . they pass through three instars at an average of 11 days at 77°f .
by the time the cherries are ripe , the larvae mature , drop to the ground , and burrow into the soil to a depth of one to three inches where they pupate and eventually overwinter . at first , infested cherries do not fall from the tree and may develop sunken areas . by harvest time as many as 75 % of the cherries may be infested . larvae are likely to be in the fruits of early varieties when harvested , and may pass undetected and be distributed around the country . a few flies emerge in august and september as a second generation , but about 99 % require a year to complete a life cycle .
davidson rh , peairs lm . 1966 . insect pests of farm , garden , and orchard . john wiley & sons , inc . , new york . 675 pp .
phillips vt . 1946 . the biology and identification of trypetid larvae ( diptera : trypetidae ) . memoirs of the american entomological society 12 : 161 .
garman p , et al . 1956 . plant pest handbook . connecticut agricultural experiment station bulletin 600 : 1 - 194 .
glasgow h . 1933 . the host relations of our cherry fruit flies . journal of economic entomology 26 : 431 - 438 .
metcalf cl , flint wp , metcalf rl . 1962 . destructive and useful insects , their habits and control . mcgraw - hill book co . , inc . , new york . 1087 pp .
pelz - stelinski ks , gut lj , isaccs r . 2006 . vertical position of traps influences captures of eastern cherry fruit fly ( diptera : tephritidae ) . florida entomologist 89 : 80 - 82 .
quayle hj . 1941 . insects of citrus and other subtropical fruits . comstock publishing co . , inc . , ithaca , new york . 583 pp .
stone alan , et al . 1965 . a catalogue of the diptera of america north of mexico . usda agricultural handbook no . 276 . 1696 pp .
white im , elson - harris mm . 1994 . fruit flies of economic significance : their identification and bionomics . cab international . oxon , uk . 601 pp .
author : h . v . weems , jr . ( retired ) , florida department of agriculture and consumer services , division of plant industry .
publication date : march 2001 . latest revision : january 2012 . reviewed april 2018 .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
from michigan to new hampshire , southward to florida , over the entire middle and eastern region of the united states and in southeastern and south central canada .
the fruits of rosaceae ( prunus serotina ( primary native host ) and 6 other spp . )
adults emerge from the ground when cherries are half grown , feed on moisture on leaves and fruits at first . lay eggs , up to 400 eggs . larvae hatch in five to eight days and tunnel directly to the surface of the cherry seed . they pass through three instars at an average of 11 days at 77°f .
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attacked fruit will be pitted by oviposition punctures , around which some discoloration usually occurs . infested fruits appear normal until the maggot is nearly full - grown , at which time sunken spots appear . maggots and their frass inside the cherry render the fruit unsalable . infested fruits are more susceptible to fungi . the third larval instar forms one to three holes ( about 1 mm in diameter ) through the skin of the cherry , before it leaves it for pupation in the soil ( frick et al . , 1954 ) .
upon detection , fallen and infected fruit should be removed and destroyed . this aspect is very important , but normally rarely executed as it costs time and money .
as a new and environmentally friendly measure , progress has been made with bait sprays ( food bait mixed with low quantities of insecticides ) containing spinosad as an insecticide ( e . g . yee and chapmann , 2005 ; pelz - stelinski et al . , 2006b ; yee and alston , 2006 ; köppler et al . , 2008 ) . bait sprays can be applied as spot treatments on the trees . in comparison with cover sprays , the amount of insecticide used is drastically reduced with bait sprays . constraints in their effectiveness are high population densities and rainfall , because bait sprays up to now are not rainfast . furthermore , infestation sources , i . e . untreated host trees , should not be in the vicinity in order to avoid immigration of fertile females .
richard baker , claude bragard , thierry candresse , gianni gilioli , jean - claude grégoire , imre holb , michael john jeger , olia evtimova karadjova , christer magnusson , david makowski , charles manceau , maria navajas , trond rafoss , vittorio rossi , jan schans , gritta schrader , gregor urek , irene vloutoglou , wopke van der werf and stephan winter .
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bosik , joseph j . , chairman , et al . ( committee on common names of insects )
norrbom , a . l . , l . e . carroll , f . c . thompson , i . m . white and a . freidberg / f . c . thompson , ed .
fruit fly expert identification system and systematic information database . myia , vol . 9
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
this article is only available in the pdf format . download the pdf to view the article , as well as its associated figures and tables .
the case of pseudoparasitism here recorded occurred in a boy , aged 22 months . the child is normal in every way . his mother is intelligent , very attentive to him , and carefully supervises his eating ; at least , that is her intention . about aug . 1 , 1924 , she noticed worms in the child ' s stool and consulted dr . milo k . miller of this city . the rather scant stool in which the worms were found was submitted to me for examination . i removed from it six fly larvae , one cherry pip , and a small red bead . three of the larvae were well preserved , but appeared dead . the other three showed the effects of their passage through the human alimentary canal . the larvae were submitted to the bureau of entomology of the united states department of agriculture for identification . mr . f . c . bishop of that bureau reported that they had been identified by mr . c . t . green
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caught near the village lahonci , desnjak and savci ( eastern part of slovenia ) and radmozanci , close to the slovene - hungarian border .


the hoplias aimara , also known as anjumara , manjuma , anjoemara and wolf fish , is a species of freshwater fish found in the rivers of south america .

hoplias aimara

the hoplias aimara taxonomy paper pdf download site is found right above the video .
the most formidable hoplias exported is the king of wolffish : the aimara , or trairão ( hoplias aimara and / or h . macrophthalmus ) . juveniles and young adults sport a small black spot behind the gill cover .
first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) .
total weight ( wt ) , standard length ( lp ) and sex of the specimens of hoplias aimara shown in figure 1 .
specimens of hoplias aimara examined fresh with their anal fins ( lines indicating the format ) and gonads ( indicated by arrows ) .
the newest member of hoplias is also the second most imported species . it was known as hoplias sp . black for many years and described as hoplias curupira in 2009 .
hoplias aimara is a species of large size and low population density , characteristics that difficult their collection , transportation and storage of specimens in collections .
first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . - pubmed - ncbi
video of my aimara eating a 10
mackerel and the armatus eating a 7
one .
additional info : although originally described in 1847 by valenciennes , a further description was carried out in 1907 by pellegrin and named hoplias macrophthalmus . further studies were carried out and proved this to be the same species . as hoplias aimara was used first that name takes precedence and the name hoplias macrophthalmus is now defunct .
mala and aimara are night and day . from what i have seen , aimara needs to be w / lots of mid / upper level swimmers to coexist . its a huge risk as aimara are known to attack nets ( just an example of aggression ) . . . but its getting it to work is where the prize lays
i can ' t truly say with aimara but i have a curupira with my bass and it works out .
the wolffish family has something for everyone : hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus , the smallest , will reach just over 20cm / 8” , while the largest ( hoplias aimara ) will reach 130cm / 51” and more than 30kg / 66lb .
mattox , g . m . t . , m . toledo - piza & o . t . oyakawa . 2006 . taxonomic study of hoplias aimara ( valenciennes , 1846 ) and hoplias macrophthalmus ( pellegrin , 1907 ) ( ostariophysi , characiformes , erythrinidae ) . copeia , 2006 : 516 - 528 . [ links ]
the knowledge of the sex of individuals is important to conserve exploited fish species , as is the case of hoplias aimara , once , knowing their reproductive period , females can be avoided by fishing for the maintenance of fish stocks .
moreira j , scholz t , luque jl . first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . acta parasitol . 2015 ; 60 : 254 - 60
hoplias microlepis , usnm 293250 , 176 . 2 mm sl , pirre river , tuira , panama .
the sub - family consists of three genera , totalling 16 species . the largest group is the genus hoplias with 11 species and we assume that h . aimara and macrophthalmus are separate species , although h . macrophthalmus may be a synonym .
karyotypes of hoplias lacerdae and hoplias aimara arranged from giemsa - stained ( a , f ) and c - banded ( b , g ) chromosomes . sequentially dapi - ( c , h ) and cma3 - ( d , i ) stained metaphase chromosomes of both species documenting the gc - rich positive heterochromatic blocks ( arrowed ) . images from h . lacerdae and h . aimara are represented in ( e ) and ( j ) , respectively . bar = 5 μm bar = 5 μm
piranhas are pussycats ! the hoplias of south america are the predators to really fear , says oliver lucanus .
hoplias aimara shows sexual dimorphism in the morphology of the anal fin in both fresh and fixed specimens . this information adds important data about this species , since this characteristic is visible even in fixed fishes and this process does not cause stiffening of the fins .
my point of view like fisher and keeping fish for 9 years is that an aimara smaller or same size of the p . bass will happen nothing .
durrieu , g . , maury - brachet , r . and boudou , a . ( 2005 ) goldmining and mercury contamination of the piscivorous fish hoplias aimara in french guiana ( amazon basin ) . ecotoxicology and environmental safety 60 ( 3 ) : 315 - 323 . urltoken
aimara have large and fearsome mouths and will attempt to swallow any other fish in the aquarium , including large loricariids , which their powerful jaws can break apart .
moreira j , scholz t , luque jl . first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . acta parasitol 2015 ; 60 ( 2 ) : 254 - 60 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
mattox , g . m . t . , m . toledo - piza and o . t . oyakawa ( 2006 ) taxonomic study of < i > hoplias aimara < / i > ( valenciennes , 1846 ) and < i > hoplias macrophthalmus < / i > ( pellegrin , 1907 ) ( ostariophysi , characiformes , erythrinidae ) . : copeia 2006 ( 3 ) : 516 - 528 .
moreira j & scholz t & luque jl . ( 2015 ) . first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) . acta parasitologica , 60 , pp . 254 - 60 . doi : 10 . 1515 / ap - 2015 - 0036
preferred diet : aimara are not fussy eaters and will except most meaty foods , shrimps , crabs , crayfish , and fish meats are all accepted and variety will help ensure good health .
no problem once they don ' t fit in each other mouth . . . here in brazil aimara and p . bass live in the same river , lake or dam ! ; d
moreira j , scholz t , luque jl :
first data on the parasites of hoplias aimara ( characiformes ) : description of two new species of gill monogeneans ( dactylogyridae ) .
acta parasitologica , vol . 60 , no . 2 , 2015 , pp . 254 - 60 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
new and previously described species of urocleidoides ( monogenoidea : dactylogyridae ) infecting the gills and nasal cavities of hoplias malabaricus ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) from brazil .
molecular characterization of urocleidoides cuiabai and u . malabaricusi ( monogenea : dactylogyridae ) from the trahira fish hoplias aff . malabaricus in the paraná river , brazil .
hoplias microlepis ( lectotype of macrodon microlepis ) , bmnh 1864 . 1 . 26 . 221 , 269 . 7 mm sl , chagres river , panama .
hoplias aimara chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair , and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . most conspicuous ( caa ) 10 sites in the long arms of a submetacentric chromosome pair are indicated by arrows . bar = 5 μm
therefore , this study aimed to complete cytogenetic data for another rather neglected hoplias species using conventional and molecular cytogenetic methods . it was aimed to ( 1 ) enhance the knowledge of the karyotype structure of these species ( 2 ) investigate the chromosomal relationships among them and ( 3 ) highlight the contrasting evolutionary pathways inside hoplias genus .
known common or trade names : giant trahiras , giant wolf fish , usually called ‘aimara’ it is important to understand that common names can be applied to many individual species and does not guarantee the correct identification of the fish in question .
unlike erythrinus and hoplias these wolffish hunt in roving packs , cornering groups of smaller fish , especially characins , or chasing crustaceans and insects in the substrate or along the surface .
distribution and environment : across most of the northern parts of south america , brazil , columbia , venezuala , guyana , french guiana and suriname . including rio tocantins , rio xingu , rio tapajos , rio jar , and rio trombetas , in coastal drainages of the guyanas , suriname , and state of amapa , brazil . hoplias aimara live in differing habitats including large rivers , rapids , waterfalls and flooded forest floor environments .
gill , t . 1903 . a new name ( hoplias ) for the genus macrodon . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 16 : 49 - 52 . [ links ]
hoplias aimara ( valenciennes , 1847 ) : le bail et al . ( 2012 ) [ statut pour la guyane française ] le bail , p . - y . , covain , r . , jegu , m . , fisch - muller , s . , vigouroux , r . & keith , p . 2012 . updated checklist of the freshwater and estuarine fishes of french guiana . cybium , 36 ( 1 ) : 293 - 319 .
size : the largest hoplias species with the largest captured record at 120cm . the largest rod and reel record being 101cm . they will easily reach 50cm + in aquaria and often much more .
most interesting are hoplias . usually only three species are exported for the hobby and most common is h . malabaricus , being widespread in both the amazon and orinoco lowlands and exported frequently from peru .
hoplias malabaricus are lazy , moving only when food is added to their environment . juveniles will eat virtually any frozen or live food , but do well with frozen mysis , smelt or cocktail shrimp .
minor injuries sustained in territorial fights usually heal quickly . large wild hoplias are often caught with severe injuries , missing eyes , deformed jaws and amputated pectoral or ventral fins , but seem otherwise normal .
gill ( 1903 ) proposed a new name , hoplias , to include all erythrinids previously classified in macrodon , since the latter genus was preoccupied in the sciaenidae . starks ( 1906 ) was the first author to use the new combination for hoplias microlepis , an act followed by subsequent auhors ( e . g . , regan , 1908 , meek & hildebrand , 1916 , eigenmann , 1921 ) .
therefore , a general chromosomal conservatism found in the four hoplias species analyzed contrasts with the extensive karyotype diversity that has been observed in other erythrinidae species , notably in the congeneric species h . malabaricus .
blanco , d . r . , r . l . lui , m . r . vicari , l . a . c . bertollo & o . moreira - filho . 2011 . comparative cytogenetics of giant trahiras hoplias aimara and h . intermedius ( characiformes , erythrinidae ) : chromosomal characteristics of minor and major ribosomal dna and cross - species repetitive centromeric sequences mapping differ among morphologically identical karyotypes . cytogenetic and genome research , 132 : 71 - 78 . [ links ]
however , south america is home to another group of fish that are far more voracious and much more aggressive . this is the family of the amazon wolffishes and they have many names , including trairão ( sp . ’trai - ron’ ) , aimara , guabina and fasaco .
nevertheless this species is best kept by experts who can handle the long - term requirements of these big fish . unlike other wolffish h . aimara prefers fast moving water and can be more sensitive in bad water conditions . in low oxygen environment they become very intolerant of each other .
hoplias curupira are more aggressive , both to each other and towards the keeper . it’s is not unusual to find one approaching the front glass with flaring gills or viciously attacking any object used to trap them .
morphometric data of hoplias microlepis . standard length in mm ; values 1 - 14 are percentages of the standard length and values 15 - 22 are percentages of head length . n = number of examined specimens , sd = standard deviation .
roberts , t . 1969 . osteology and relationships of characoid fishes , particularly the genera hepsetus , salminus , hoplias , ctenolucius , and acestrorhynchus . proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 35 : 391 - 500 . [ links ]
karyotypes of hoplias intermedius and hoplias brasiliensis arranged from giemsa - stained ( a , f ) and c - banded ( b , g ) chromosomes . sequentially dapi - ( c , h ) and cma3 - ( d , i ) stained metaphase chromosomes of both species documenting the gc - rich positive heterochromatic blocks ( arrowed ) . images from h . intermedius and h . brasiliensis are represented in ( e ) and ( j ) , respectively . bar = 5 μm
os peixes podem exibir dimorfismo sexual conforme suas estratégias reprodutivas . em algumas espécies essa diferenciação já é bem conhecida , no entanto , novos estudos têm aumentado o número de espécies que não precisam de dissecção dos indivíduos para o reconhecimento do seu sexo . a espécie hoplias aimara , apesar de muito bem estudada ainda não apresentava registro da presença de caracteres sexuais secundários externos . o conhecimento tradicional de ribeirinhos indicou a possibilidade da existência de dimorfismo sexual para esta espécie que foi estudada em duas unidades de conservação no estado do amapá , a reserva de desenvolvimento sustentável do rio iratapuru e o parque nacional montanhas do tumucumaque . os indivíduos capturados , ainda frescos , tiveram sua nadadeira anal examinada e seu sexo confirmado através de sua dissecção . indivíduos fixados também passaram pelo mesmo procedimento . através do formato da nadadeira anal , seja em indivíduos frescos ou fixados , foi possível inferir o sexo de cada indivíduo , que foi confirmado através de sua dissecção . a espécie hoplias aimara apresenta dimorfismo sexual manifestado na morfologia de sua nadadeira anal . indivíduos depositados em coleções podem ter seu sexo observado sem sua dissecção , acrescentado informações importantes à biologia dos espécimes .
o grupo de espécies hoplias malabaricus representa um dos problemas taxonômicos mais complexos na sistemática de peixes neotropicais , com ampla distribuição em quase todas as bacias da américa do sul e parte da américa central e grande variação ou sobreposição de prováveis caracteres diagnósticos . o grande número de espécies nominais , muitas delas sem material - tipo conhecido , é um fator complicador nessa questão . atualmente , pelo menos três espécies nominais podem ser incluídas no grupo de espécies hoplias malabaricus , com base no formato das margens mediais dos dentários e presença de dentes na língua : hoplias malabaricus , h . teres e h . microlepis , a última sendo a única espécie exclusivamente trans - andina do gênero conhecida até o momento . apresentamos aqui um estudo taxonômico de hoplias microlepis , com exame dos síntipos e exemplares coletados mais recentemente , incluindo uma redescrição da espécie . hoplias microlepis distribui - se nas bacias da costa pacífica do panamá e sudoeste da costa rica , além da bacia do río guayas no equador e região próxima à sua foz ( río tumbes , noroeste do peru ) . registros da espécie na costa atlântica do panamá são restritos à zona do canal , sugerindo dispersão através do canal do panamá . são designados também lectótipo e paralectótipos .
born , g . g . & l . a . c . bertollo . 2001 . comparative cytogenetics among allopatric populations of the fish hoplias malabaricus . cytotypes with 2n = 42 chromosomes . genetica , 110 : 1 - 9 . [ links ]
born , g . g . & l . a . c . bertollo . 2006 . a new sympatric region for distinct karyotypic forms of hoplias malabaricus ( pisces , erythrinidae ) . brazilian journal of biology , 66 : 205 - 210 . [ links ]
azevedo , p . , gomes , al . , 1943 . contribuição ao estudo da biologia da traíra hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1974 ) . boletim da indústria animal , vol . 5 , no . 4 , p . 15 - 64 . [ links ]
hoplias lacerdae chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . bar = 5 μm
in the aquarium h . aimara is prized , but not easy to keep . particularly large specimens will even hit the glass when the aquarium is approached , breaking their jaws , teeth , or glass itself . at over 30cm / 12” they are difficult to keep — at over 100cm / 40” they are best kept in acrylic tanks and left to experts .
cioffi , m . b . & l . a . c . bertollo . 2010 . initial steps in xy chromosome differentiation in hoplias malabaricus and the origin of an x1x2y sex chromosome system in this fish group . heredity , 105 : 554 - 561 . [ links ]
cioffi , m . b . , c . martins & l . a . c . bertollo . 2009a . comparative chromosome mapping of repetitive sequences . implications for genomic evolution in the fish , hoplias malabaricus . bmc genetics , 10 : 34 - 45 . [ links ]
dergam , j . a . & l . a . c . bertollo . 1990 . karyotypic diversification in hoplias malabaricus ( osteichthyes , erythrinidae ) of são francisco and alto paraná basins , brazil . brazilian journal of genetics , 13 : 755 - 766 . [ links ]
oyakawa , o . t . 1990 . revisão sistemática das espécies do gênero hoplias ( grupo lacerdae ) da amazônia brasileira e região leste do brasil ( teleostei : erythrinidae ) . unpublished ms . c . dissertation , universidade de são paulo , são paulo , 114p . [ links ]
h . curupira will try to swallow fish almost up to their own size and may attack larger fish . when keeping them in a community aquarium choose only robust tank mates of considerably larger size . breeding behaviour is not known in the aquarium , but likely similar to other hoplias species .
map of northwestern south america and part of central america showing geographic distribution of hoplias microlepis based on material examined herein ( star and dots ) and records from literature ( squares ) . star indicates type - locality at chagres river , panama . some symbols may represent more than one lot .
oyakawa , o . t . & g . m . t mattox . 2009 . revision of the neotropical trahiras of the hoplias lacerdae species - group ( ostariophysi : characiformes : erythrinidae ) with descriptions of two new species . neotropical ichthyology , 7 : 117 - 140 . [ links ]
conservative karyotype characteristics ( i ) shared by different hoplias species contrasted with highly divergent karyotypes ( ii ) displayed by representatives of h . malabaricus group , with seven major karyomorphs ( a - g ) . in ( ii ) , boxed karyomorphs share morphological chromosomal characteristics which differ between the two boxed sets
cioffi , m . b . , e . kejnovsky & l . a . c . bertollo . 2011a . the chromosomal distribution of microsatellite repeats in the genome of the wolf fish hoplias malabaricus , focusing on the sex chromosomes . cytogenetic and genome research , 132 : 289 - 296 . [ links ]
aguirre , w . e . , v . r . shervette , r . navarrete , p . calle & s . agorastos . 2013 . morphological and genetic divergence of hoplias microlepis ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) in rivers and artificial impoundments of western ecuador . copeia , 2013 : 312 - 323 . [ links ]
rosa , r . , m . caetano - filho , o . a . shibatta & l . giuliano - caetano . 2009 . cytotaxonomy in distinct populations of hoplias aff . malabaricus ( characiformes , erythrinidae ) from lower paranapanema river basin . journal of fish biology , 75 : 2682 - 2694 . [ links ]
oyakawa , ot . and mattox , gmt . , 2009 . revision of the neotropical trahiras of the hoplias lacerdae species - group ( ostariophysi : characiformes : erythrinidae ) with descriptions of two new species . neotropical ichthyology , vol . 7 , no . 2 , p . 117 - 140 . urltoken . [ links ]
the erythrinidae is a neotropical characiform family comprising three extant genera , erythrinus scopoli , hoplerythrinus gill , and hoplias gill , the latter constituting the most speciose of the three ( oyakawa , 2003 ) . oyakawa ( 1990 ) and oyakawa & mattox ( 2009 ) defined three groups within hoplias : the h . macrophthalmus group which comprises a single valid species , h . aimara ( valenciennes ) ( see mattox et al . , 2006 ) , the h . lacerdae group currently including five valid species ( h . australis oyakawa & mattox , h . brasiliensis ( spix ) , h . curupira oyakawa & mattox , h . intermedius ( günther ) and h . lacerdae miranda - ribeiro , see oyakawa & mattox , 2009 ) and the h . malabaricus group , still lacking a proper taxonomic approach . contrary to what was mentioned by blanco et al . ( 2010 ) , h . aimara is not included in the h . lacerdae group , but rather assigned to the h . macrophthalmus group ( see mattox et al . , 2006 ; oyakawa & mattox , 2009 ) . this error has been repeated by subsequent authors ( e . g . , blanco et al . , 2011 ; cioffi et al . , 2012 ; marques et al . , 2013 ) . similarly , h . microlepis ( günther ) and h . teres ( valenciennes ) were not included in the h . lacerdae group as stated by marques et al . ( 2013 ) , but rather belong to the h . malabaricus group ( see below ) .
bertollo , l . a . c . , m . s . fontes , a . s . fenocchio & j . cano . 1997 . the x1x2y sex chromosome system in the fish hoplias malabaricus . i . g - , c - and chromosome replication banding . chromosome research , 5 : 493 - 499 . [ links ]
bifi , a . g . 2013 . revisão taxonômica das espécies do grupo hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1794 ) ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) da bacia do rio da prata . unpublished ph . d . dissertation , universidade estadual de maringá , paraná , 51p . avaliable from : urltoken ( 28 aug 2013 ) . [ links ]
cioffi , m . b . , c . martins , l . centofante , u . jacobina & l . a . c . bertollo . 2009b . chromosomal variability among allopatric populations of erythrinidae fish hoplias malabaricus : mapping of three classes of repetitive dnas . cytogenetic and genome research , 125 : 132 - 141 . [ links ]
bertollo , l . a . c . , g . g . born , j . a . dergam , a . s . fenocchio & o . moreira - filho . 2000 . a biodiversity approach in the neotropical fish hoplias malabaricus . karyotypic survey , geographic distribution of cytotypes and cytotaxonomic considerations . chromosome research , 8 : 603 - 613 . [ links ]
blanco , d . r . , r . l . lui , l . a . c . bertollo , v . p . margarido & o . moreira - filho . 2010 . karyotypic diversity between allopatric populations of the group hoplias malabaricus ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) : evolutionary and biogeographic considerations . neotropical ichthyology , 8 : 361 - 368 . [ links ]
marques , d . f . , f . a . santos , s . s . silva , i . sampaio & l . r . r . rodrigues . 2013 . cytogenetic and dna barcoding reveals high divergence within the trahira , hoplias malabaricus ( characiformes : erythrinidae ) from the lower amazon river . neotropical ichthyology , 11 : 459 - 466 . [ links ]
hoplias brasiliensis chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair , and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . most conspicuous ( caa ) 10 sites in the proximal region of a metacentric chromosome pair are indicated by arrows . bar = 5 μm
excluding h . malabaricus , little cytogenetic information is available for other hoplias species . some previous data points towards one similar karyotype , with an invariable 2n = 50 and the absence of differentiated sex chromosomes [ 8 – 10 ] . thus , such conserved karyotypes contrast with the extensive chromosome diversity that has been observed in other erythrinidae species , and particularly among the representatives of the h . malabaricus group .
santos , u . , c . m . völcker , f . a . belei , m . b . cioffi , l . a . c . bertollo , s . r . paiva & j . a . dergam . 2009 . molecular and karyotypic phylogeography in the neotropical hoplias malabaricus ( erythrinidae ) fish in eastern brazil . journal of fish biology , 75 : 2326 - 2343 . [ links ]
such conserved karyotypes contrasts with the extensive karyotype diversity that has been observed in other erythrinidae species , particularly in the congeneric species h . malabaricus . nevertheless , what forces drive such particularly different modes of karyotype evolution among closely related species ? different life styles , population structure and inner chromosomal characteristics related to similar cases in other vertebrate groups can also account for the contrasting modes of karyotype evolution in hoplias genus .
hoplias intermedius chromosomes showing the 18s rdna ( red ) and 5s rdna ( green ) sites , the ag - nor bearing chromosome pair , and the distribution of ( caa ) 10 , ( ga ) 15 and ( ca ) 15 microsatellites . note the general distribution pattern of microsatellites and a more conspicuous ( caa ) 10 site in the short arms of a submetacentric chromosome ( arrows ) . bar = 5 μm
erythrinidae is a small family of freshwater fishes composed by three genera , hoplias gill 1903 , erythrinus scopoli 1777 and hoplerythrinus gill 1895 [ 1 ] . its species are characterized by a remarkable karyotype diversity with 2n ranging from 39 to 54 chromosomes and the occurrence of single and multiple sex chromosome systems in some species . thus , they represent an interesting and suitable model to investigate the process of chromosomal evolution among fishes [ 2 – 5 ] .
querol , mvm . , querol , e . , pessano , e . , azevedo , clo . , tomassoni , d . , brasil , l . and lopes , p . , 2003 . reprodução natural e induzida de hoplias malabaricus ( bloch , 1794 ) , em tanques experimentais , na região de uruguaiana , pampa brasileiro . uruguaiana , pucrs . biodiversidade pampeana , vol . 1 , no . 1 , p . 46 - 57 . [ links ]
in an expedition to the jari river to inventory fish as a part of the biodiversity corridor project of amapá ( ci - brasil / iepa / ibama / gea - amapá ) , locally hired assistants confirmed the sex of captured big trahiras ( h . aimara ) without examining the gonads . about 3 of 6 boatmen hired stated that the sex of the fishes could be easily determined by simply analysing the shape of the anal fins . since no related data for this species were available in the literature , it was necessary to confirm this characteristic by dissecting the gonads , which was performed for analysing and verifying the sex of the collected fishes .
hoplias microlepis . - starks , 1906 : 772 [ comparison with hoplias malabaricus , citation to guayaquil , ecuador ] . - regan , 1908 : 167 [ redescription , citation to rio chagres , panama and western ecuador ] . - meek & hildebrand , 1916 : 303 [ diagnosis in key , citation to both slopes of panama and the western slope of ecuador ] . - eigenmann , 1921 : 508 - 511 [ citation , distribution ] . - eigenmann , 1922 : 169 [ diagnosis in key , citation to pacific slope of southern ecuador and both slopes of central panama ] . - hildebrand , 1938 : 290 [ distribution ] . - bussing , 1966 : 218 [ citation to puntarenas , costa rica ] . - géry , 1977 : 102 [ diagnosis in key , citation to pacific slope of southern ecuador , panama and costa rica ] . - ortega & vari , 1986 : 10 [ checklist , citation to peru ] . - oyakawa , 2003 : 240 [ checklist , distribution ] . - barriga , 1991 : 31 [ checklist ] . - ortega et al . , 2011 : 39 [ checklist , citation to peru ] . - barriga , 2012a : 110 [ distribution , endemism in guayas basin ] . - barriga , 2012b : 213 [ citation to ecuador with photograph ] . - aguirre et al . , 2013 [ morphological and genetic divergence among populations in ecuador ] .
hoplias microlepis ( paralectotypes of macrodon microlepis ) . ( a ) bmnh 1864 . 1 . 26 . 222 , 222 . 8 mm sl , chagres river , panama ; ( b ) bmnh 1864 . 1 . 26 . 309 , 175 . 6 mm sl , chagres river , panama ; ( c ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 128 , 276 . 6 mm sl , west ecuador ; ( d ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 154 - 155 , 96 . 6 mm sl , west ecuador ; ( e ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 154 - 155 , 108 . 2 mm sl , west ecuador ; ( f ) bmnh 1860 . 6 . 16 . 154 - 155 , 118 . 5 mm sl , west ecuador .
hubbs ( 1953 ) made a few taxonomic considerations regarding hoplias microlepis . in the heading of the section concerning this species , he erroneously cited the year of publication as 1860 instead of 1864 . although günther ( 1864 ) in the original description of h . microlepis mentioned the species as occurring in guatemala , hubbs ( 1953 ) correctly stated that this was in error since günther ( 1864 ) only examined the syntypes from western ecuador and chagres river , panama . in addition , hubbs ( 1953 ) selected chagres river as the type locality of h . microlepis , probably due to the better condition of specimens from this locality among all seven syntypes ( figs . 1 - 2 ) . however , as hubbs ( 1953 ) did no designate a lectotype , his act is not valid and the type locality should encompass the localities of all syntypes together ( article 76 of iczn , 1999 ) . nevertheless , among the syntypes , specimens from chagres river are indeed the best ones in overall condition and we herein selected one of them as the lectotype , which establishes chagres river , panama as the type locality .
south america : tributaries of middle and lower amazon basin , including rios trombretas , jari , tapajós , xingu , tocantins , and in the coastal rivers of guyana , suriname , fr guiana ; rios araguari and amapá , state of amapá , brazil ; lower reaches of río orinoco , venezuela .
maturity : l m ? , range 22 - 22 cm max length : 100 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12225 ) ; max . published weight : 40 . 0 kg ( ref . 12225 )
frequently occurs in counter current zones of principal rivers and creeks . feeds mainly on fish but also on other animals that fall into the water like small terrestrial invertebrates . is active at dusk and at night . reproduction takes place at the onset of the rainy season from december to march . depending on the size , the female can carry around 6 , 000 to 60 , 000 eggs ( ref . 12225 ) . known for the quality of its flesh ( ref . 27188 ) .
planquette , p . , p . keith and p . - y . le bail , 1996 . atlas des poissons d ' eau douce de guyane . tome 1 . collection du patrimoine naturel volume 22 , mnhn , paris & inra , paris . 429 p . ( ref . 12225 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5001 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00435 - 0 . 01206 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 98 - 3 . 28 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 7 ±0 . 55 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 1 ; fec = 6 , 000 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 37 of 100 ) .
thanks to some advice from locals , jeremy finally caught the fish that eluded him for years .
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jeremy reels in an elusive tapah , a fish he has spent years trying to catch .
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jeremy was lucky enough to catch a goonch catfish once before , but not so much the second time around .
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jeremy meets with locals to find out what kind of monster fish could be terrorizing the rivers of western nepal .
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of all the fish jeremy has reeled in , the lau lau stands out as his most meaningful catch .
it wasn’t a fish , but rather a machine that left jeremy trembling hundreds of feet beneath the surface .
trying to reel in this fish off the coast of indonesia is a battle that pushes jeremy to his physical and mental limits .
extreme angler jeremy wade is on the hunt for fish with a taste for human flesh . this rip - roaring ride mixes action and adventure with mysteries , edge - of - the - seat chase and a battle of wills between man and nature .
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adventurers , wildlife fanatics and good friends rene and wayne travel to patagonia in search of a very special , unique puma . encountering a host of other interesting critters along the way , they remain true to their quest of finding the elusive
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no freshwater fish has a more fearsome reputation than the piranha , but , as many aquarists soon learn , these are actually quite timid . they get nervous when the aquarium is approached and prefer to bite pieces of other fishes’ fins rather than devour them whole .
despite their reputation wolffish can be good aquarium fish and are surprisingly interesting with other fish or in groups . special rules apply , but these fish are hardy and easy to maintain .
within their genus the species are similar and you’ll need to know where your fish were collected to have an idea of what species belong where . brazil , colombia and venezuela don’t export their wolffish species , so the list narrows .
several others are highly endemic and have rarely been exported . assume that an aquarium wolffish belongs to one of five species .
hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus is easily identified by its single horizontal stripe and elongate body , and exported occasionally from peru and colombia . it can be kept in a small school in a large aquarium .
their swimbladder is not as reduced as much as the other genera , so they are much more surface oriented and active than other wolffish . they can also do well in a community tank with other larger fishes such as catfishes , cichlids and larger characins , such as myleus and leporinus .
hoplerythrinus will accept dry foods such as pellets , freeze - dried shrimp and insects , and sometimes even flake foods more readily than their relatives .
hoplerythrinus also prefer flood zone habitats with mild or no currents and several hundred individuals can migrate deep into flooded plains or forests during the rainy season .
the other small species occasionally found in the hobby is erythrinus erythrurus , often called the redfin wolffish . juveniles especially can show attractive red , yellow and even purple hatch marks on their flanks over an overall brown or burgundy body .
margins of the unpaired fins can be bright red , yellow or white . the body shape is more stout than hoplerythrinus and the swimbladder is reduced much further — to the point that the species swims in open water only when it wants to grab prey from the water column .
erythrinus are more solitary , so groups require large aquariums with plenty of hiding places , allowing each fish to claim a territory . short lengths of clay or pvc pipe make ideal caves for a relatively shy fish that may fight with conspecifics .
fish that do not challenge them for territory and do not fit in their mouth are usually ignored .
ideal tank mates are sturdy characins such as myleus and metynnis . large - bodied cichlids such as astronotus , hoplarchus and cichla also fare well .
erythrinus will feed on live fish , crustaceans , worms and insects , and only slowly get used to frozen foods .
erythrinus is found in swampy shoreline habitats and shallow clear or blackwater streams deep inside the forest . besides insect larvae , all examined had apistogramma , moenkhausia and nannostomus in their stomachs .
any wolffish bought in an aquarium shop will probably belong to this particular species .
colour can range from mottled grey to brown and , depending on place of origin , almost black .
in nature they are solitary , found in slow moving waters of virtually any habitat . the smaller the fish the shallower the habitat , and it’s not unusual to find finger - long h . malabaricus in less than 5cm / 2” of water , stalking aquatic insects and small fish . as the fish mature they become less tolerant of each other and move to deeper water .
adult h . malabaricus are not overly aggressive , but require a larger territory . along riverbanks adults are usually spaced 3 - 4m / 10 - 13’ apart .
as with all wolffish species , aquarium water chemistry is of little importance , as these fish can adapt to just about any common range of values .
they are often more active at dusk and dawn , so keep lighting subdued to allow them to show more activity during the day . kept as a group of equal sizes they get along well until becoming sexually mature at 20cm / 8” .
as they mature , females develop a more robust shape and rounded stomach . they will become increasingly intolerant until a pair has formed , then will usually get along well and lay close together .
breeding can usually be induced by first dropping the temperature , raising it to 28 - 29°c / 82 - 84°f and slightly dropping the level of water .
during breeding the male digs shallow pits in which 2 , 000 - 10 , 000 yellowish eggs are laid in a cluster . he guards the nest and larvae until they hatch and spread out in the shallow water to hunt small prey .
in the aquarium the young will immediately eat artemia nauplii and grow rapidly , eventually cannibalising each other .
this fish will occur sympatrically with h . malabaricus , but usually occurs in a different niche .
the black wolffish prefers river banks of faster rivers , especially major tributaries of the middle orinoco .
the body is more stout and less elegant than h . malabaricus and overall colour is a more uniform black or dark brown . the eyes are usually equally dark and less apparent . a maximum 30cm / 12” size is considerably smaller than the 45cm / 18” commonly reached by h . malabaricus .
black wolffish seem to prefer large shrimp and larger fishes . stomach contents examined in the orinoco region revealed macrobranchium spp shrimp , juveniles of several cichlid species and larger sized leporinus .
large wolffish can cause deep cuts to a keeper’s hands . handle them with the same respect as a powerful reptile of equal size . such extreme aggression also means the fishes can be fed directly with large tweezers and the fish quickly learn to take large cocktail shrimp or smelt from them .
it’s much larger and aggressive than the others and in nature is found in fast - flowing rivers and rapids where it preys on anything that moves . this species is absolutely fearless !
these monsters may also be kept together . if aquarium size allows , the animals are moderately territorial and will display to each other with flared gills and fins , but rarely bite each other . pairs are formed at 50cm / 20” and harmonise well together .
moving adults can be dangerous because the fish will bite even out of the water and their 3cm / 1 . 2” long teeth can penetrate most gloves and easily break plastic bags used in transport .
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juvenile description : the juveniles have a slim profile with relatively large eyes for their physical size . because of their large eventual size they maintain this immature shape well up to 50cm .
water parameters : generally unfussy as long as extremes are avoided . anywhere between a ph of 6 . 5 and 8 will be fine . tropical temperatures of 23c – 30c
tank size : because of the large size of the fish a large aquarium should be provided . 240cm x 90cm x 60cm – 96” x 36” x 24” .
breeding : breeding is unknown in captivity but should require a vast aquarium . successfully putting two together would be an achievement .
availability : once rare and very expensive they have become readily available although still expensive compared to most other fish . only the venezuelan / columbian example is readily available as export form other locations is now illegal . when available other locality caught specimens are more expensive . they have been widely kept in asia for some time now and apart from a few specimens have only recently become widely available elsewhere .
we ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .
i wouldn ' t do it . . . but you never know ? try it lol
haha yeah . i already kept mala wolf with orinos . . . no problem ; s
haha yeah . i already kept mala wolf with orinos . . . no problem ; s i do think you won ' t have any problem ! ; d
i would guess as long as he is under 15 - 18
that the brutal personality they carry would be absent . giving you higher chances for it to work . . . i would try it and have a tank divider or 2nd cycled tank ready to seperate . i usually try new combos on my days off since i am not a fan of the jdm ( less tankmates , higher chance ' s of aggression ) .
one thing remains & promises from our heavenly father we will not be defeated , for we will always remain victorious in the lord . thank you jesus for joey ( r1 ) has victory in you
i could get a cycled tank prepared for him incase it all goes pete tong .
this fish doesn ' t eat what doesn ' t fit , they are not catfish . . . i ' m used to this fishes , they are not that brutal as jeremy and other people says . . .
they will not bite you while you swin in a lake or spot of water , they you not carry a 2 years old children down to the deep .
good luck with the future new fish . if we don ' t try , we will never know . .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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the evolution of secondary sexual characteristics is usually the result of a disparity in the parental investment of males and females ( trivers , 1972 ; andersson , 1994 ) . in some cases , this disparity can be exclusively attributed to size differences between males and females .
many teleost fishes do not exhibit any sexual dimorphism , even during the spawning season , and do not show sexual characteristics or permanent ornaments . on the other hand , some fishes show permanently dimorphic traits that are not necessarily associated with internal fertilization ( rapp py - daniel and fernandes , 2005 ) . when present , sexual characteristics can be easily recognized in some species whereas , in others , a detailed examination is required for identification of these characteristics ( godinho , 2007 ) . typically , in any fish , sex can be determined by visual inspection of the gonads ( primary sexual characteristics ) , which normally requires dissection ; however , in mature fishes , these characteristics are quite evident .
the objective of this study was to prove the existence of sexual dimorphism in the species hopliasaimara after riverine people indication that recognized accurately the sex of the individuals without the dissection of them .
consequently , on capture of the fishes during subsequent expeditions in the context of the same mission , a process was initiated to confirm the information provided by the assistants , intensifying the fishery of this species . the fishes analysed were collected during expeditions to sustainable development reserve of iratapuru river and montanhas do tumucumaque national park , which were state and federal conservation units , respectively . in sustainable development reserve of iratapuru river , specimens were captured between november 22 and 23 , 2004 ( 0°16′35″n , 53°06′24″w ) , from jari river , municipality of laranjal of jari . in montanhas do tumucumaque national park , specimens were captured between september 4 and 14 , 2005 ( 3°29′51″n ; 52°18′0″ w ) from anotai river , municipality of oiapoque .