orthops campestris is a species of plant bugs belonging to the family miridae , subfamily mirinae , that can be found everywhere in europe except for azores , faroe islands , iceland and african islands such as canary islands and cyprus .

orthops campestris

you selected lygus ( orthops ) campestris stillata stichel , 1958 . this is a synonym for :
length around 4 mm . this genus contains three similar species which are often found on umbellifers . they generally have dark antennae . although external characters are useful , some specimens cannot be reliably identified without dissection . o . campestris is usually green or green - tinged and is the smallest and most oval orthops species . note the short antennae ; the 3rd segment is much shorter than the head width .
wrzesinska d ; wawrzyniak m , 2005 . harmful heteroptera of orthops genus ( miridae , heteroptera ) occurring on sosnowski ' s hogweed ( heracleum sosnowskyi manden . ) in poland . journal of plant protection research , 45 ( 2 ) : 107 - 114 .
cimex campestris linnaeus , 1758 : linnaeus ( 1758 ) : 448 . [ description originale ] linnaeus , c . 1758 . systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . holmiæ . ( salvius ) . tomus i : 1 - 824 . [ urltoken ]
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umbellifers ( apiaceae ) . they generally have dark antennae . although external characters are useful ,
note the short antennae ; the 3rd segment is much shorter than the head width .
a very common bug throughout the uk , often associated with wild parsnip , the foodplant . adults overwinter and mate in the spring ; the new generation is complete from july onwards .
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museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken
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adults overwinter and mate in the spring ; the new generation is complete from july onwards .
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akingbohungbe , a . e . ( 1974 ) chromosome numbers of some north american mirids ( heteroptera : miridae ) . : canadian journal of genetics and cytology 16 : 251 - - 256 .
akingbohungbe , a . e . ( 1983 ) variation in testis follicle number in the miridae ( hemiptera : heteroptera ) and its relationship to the higher classification of the family . : annals of the entomological society of america 76 : 37 - - 43 .
akingbohungbe , a . e . , j . l . libby , and r . d . shenefelt . ( 1973 ) nymphs of wisconsin miridae ( hemiptera : heteroptera ) . : university of wisconsin research bulletin r2561 : 25 pp .
carvalho , j . c . m . ( 1959 ) a catalogue of the miridae of the world . part iv . : arquivos do museu nacional , rio de janeiro 48 : 384 pp .
coulianos , c . c . and f . ossiannilsson . ( 1976 ) catalogus insectorum sueciae . 7 . hemiptera - heteroptera . 2nd ed . : entomologisk tidskrift 97 ( 3 - - 4 ) : 135 - - 173 , map , 13 tabs .
franz , h . and e . wagner . ( 1961 ) die nordost - alpen im spiegel ihrer landtierwelt , ii . : universitatsverlag wagner , innsbruck , pp . 271 - - 401 .
gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1970 ) beiträge zur heteropteren - fauna brandenburgs . 1 . die heteropteren - fauna des gross - machnower weinbergs und seiner naheren umgebung . : archiv fur naturschutz und landschaftsforschung 10 : 41 - - 70 .
gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1972 ) beiträge zur heteropteren - fauna brandenburgs . 2 . übersicht über die heteropteren von brandenburg . : veroffentl . bizirksheimat mus . potsdam 25 / 26 : 5 - - 39 .
gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1974 ) beiträge zur heteropterenfauna brandenburgs . 3 . die heteropterenfauna der oderwiesen und - hange bei lebus / oder ( hemiptera , heteroptera ) . : faunistische abhandlungen 5 : 181 - - 198 .
gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1978 ) beitrag zur kenntnis der heteropterenfauna mazedoniens . : acta musei macedonici scientiae naturales 15 : 145 - - 150 .
hoberlandt , l . ( 1956 ) results of the zoological scientific expedition of the national museum in praha to turkey . 18 . hemiptera iv . terrestrial hemiptera - heteroptera of turkey . : acta entomologica musei nationalis pragae 3 ( suppl . ) : 1 - - 264 ( 1955 ) .
kerzhner , i . m . ( 1964 ) family isometopidae . family miridae ( capsidae ) , pp . 700 - - 765 . in : bei - bienko , g . y . ( ed . ) . , opredelitel ' nasekomykh evropeiskoichasti sssr [ keys to the insects of the european part of the ussr ] . vol . 1 . apterygota , palaeoptera , hemimetabol : nauka , moskova and leningrad . [ in russian ; english translation : 1967 , israel program for scientific translation , jerusalem , pp . 913 - - 1003 ] .
knight , h . h . ( 1968 ) taxonomic review : miridae of the nevada test site and the western united states . : brigham young university science bulletin , biological series 9 : 282pp .
kulik , s . a . ( 1965 ) blindwanzen ost sibiriens und des fernen ostens ( heteroptera - miridae ) . : acta faunistica entomologica musei nationalis pragae 11 : 39 - - 70 . [ in russian ]
pericart , j . ( 1965 ) contribution a la fanistique de la corse : héteroptères miridae et anthocoridae ( hem . ) . : bulletin mensuel de la societe linneenne de lyon 34 : 377 - - 384 .
ribes , j . ( 1965 ) hemipteros de mallorca . : publ . inst . biol . apl . , barcelona 39 : 71 - - 95 .
southwood , t . r . e . ( 1960 ) the flight activity of heteroptera . : transactions of the royal entomological society of london 112 : 173 - - 220 .
southwood , t . r . e . and d . leston ( 1959 ) land and water bugs of the british isles . : frederick warne and co . , london . 436 pp .
tamanini , l . ( 1981 ) gli eterotteri della basilicata e della calabria ( italia meridionale ) ( hemiptera , heteroptera ) . : memorie del museo civico di storia naturale di verona , ser . 2 , a , 3 : 1 - - 164 .
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national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
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urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c25e1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c277b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c38fa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 323a5beb - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 323a5d1f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 33f6f2af - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
schuh r . t . ( 2018 ) . pbi plant bug : on - line systematic catalog of plant bugs ( insecta : heteroptera : miridae ) ( version mar 2013 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 5d859509 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
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it is 4 millimetres ( 0 . 16 in ) long with short antennae . they feed on wild parsnip . adults overwinter after which they mate in spring . the new generation starts in july .
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c . maculatum is an herbaceous biennial and highly toxic plant , native across northern europe , western asia and north africa . it has been introduced widely outside its native area to many parts of america , south . . .
conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; habit . plants can reach 2m in height . mexico .
©pedro tenorio - lezama / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us
conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; typical , ' purple ' blotched stems . mexico .
conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; characteristic stem with purple blotching . oregon , usa . june , 2005 .
©eric coombs / oregon department of agriculture / bugwood . org - cc by 3 . 0 us
conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; foliage . pándzsa - patak völgye , pannonhalma , hungary .
©robert vidéki / doronicum kft . / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us
conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; flowering habit . oregon , usa . june , 2005 .
conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; close - up of a flowering umbel . oregon , usa . june , 2005 .
©steve hurst / usda nrcs plants database / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us
©ohio state weed lab archive / the ohio state university / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us
c . maculatum is an herbaceous biennial and highly toxic plant , native across northern europe , western asia and north africa . it has been introduced widely outside its native area to many parts of america , southern africa , china , new zealand and australia . c . maculatum is a twofold invader , competing with pasture and crops and encroaching on native vegetation , while also posing a serious health hazard to virtually all livestock , and humans . even within its native range , c . maculatum is increasing and tending to occur more commonly in crops .
the derivation of the genus name conium is uncertain , but may be from the greek koneion meaning to whirl or spin , describing the toxic effects of the plant ( mitich , 1998 ) . the specific name maculatum means spotted , from the characteristically spotted stem . although a wide range of synonyms have been applied to c . maculatum , the original linnean name is the only one to have been widely or consistently used , and there are no closely related species with which there is common confusion .
c . maculatum is an erect annual or biennial , virtually glabrous , with a foetid , mousy odour when crushed . the long taproot is forked , white or pale yellow and 1 - 2 cm in diameter . stems are hollow , striate , up to 2 - ( 3 ) m high , usually light green and purple spotted or blotched , sometimes tinged purple - ish or pink , particularly toward their base . leaves 2 - 4 - pinnate ; ultimate segments narrowly or broadly ovate to deltoid , pinnatisect or serrate , 5 - 40 mm long ; petioles light green and purple blotched when mature ; stem leaves similar to basal , but shortly petiolate and 1 - 3 - pinnate . umbels 1 - 8 cm in diameter ; rays 4 - 16 ; lateral umbels overtopping the terminal ; bracts c . > 4 - 8 , narrow - triangular , acuminate , reflexed ; bracteoles 3 - 6 , triangular , confined to outer side of umbellets . flowers numerous , white , c . 2 mm in diameter , hermaphrodite . sepals 0 , petals 5 notched at the broad tip . fruit 2 - seeded , dark brown , almost round , 2 . 5 - 3 mm long ; slightly flattened , ribs slender , light brown , often crenulate .
native across northern europe , western asia and n . africa , c . maculatum has been introduced , deliberately or otherwise to many countries of america , to southern africa and to china , new zealand and australia . introduction to micronesia is indicated by weber ( 2003 ) and by usda - ars ( 2015 ) but no specimens are recorded by gbif ( 2015 ) , nor is it noted by the normally very comprehensive pier ( 2015 ) . weber ( 2003 ) classes c . maculatum as invasive in australia and western usa , while pier ( 2015 ) additionally lists it as invasive in many central and south american countries and the chilean off - shore juan fernández islands .
the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
thompson , 1922 ; webb et al . , 1988 ; pier , 2015 ; royal new zealand institute of horticulture , 2015
) . in the latter instance it is believed to have been introduced accidentally with grain imports from the former ussr .
first record in hobart , tasmania . this plant is likely but not confirmed to have been sourced from the uk
the risk of introduction is relatively low . the seed is conspicuous and , although possible , it is unlikely to be an undetected contaminant of any crop seed . deliberate introduction as a garden plant or herbal medicine has occurred in the past but is less likely today .
thrives in a number of habitats , including grassland , forest margins , riparian habitats , freshwater wetlands , waste ground , disturbed sites , field margins and fallows . in fallows , however , the infestations are relatively short - lived , persisting only 1 - 2 years (
this plant grows best in moist and fertile soils ( weber , 2003 ) , avoiding acid soils and heavy shade ( pfaf , 2015 ) .
c . maculatum is thought to be more tolerant of soils containing heavy metals ( arsenic , cadmium , lead ) than some native species in usa , perhaps contributing to its competitive ability in such a situation ( gulezian et al . , 2012 ) . in usa , c . maculatum is associated with usda hardiness zones 4 - 8 , so is tolerant of moderate to hard frosts . in chile it may occur in usda hardiness zone 9 where there may be dry periods of 3 - 5 months and where precipitation of 400 - 800 mm is concentrated in the winter .
although growing mainly in non - crop areas , c . maculatum can invade field edges and encroach significantly on crops : maize in new zealand ; sugar beet in slovakia and in france ; pastures in turkey , poland , australia and new zealand ; olive in spain ; lucerne ( alfalfa ) in usa ; sunflower in czech republic ; chickpea in spain . mitich ( 1998 ) refers to its occurrence in pastures , cereals , vegetable crops and orchards in many countries .
a wide range of sources confirm c . maculatum to have a chromosome number of 2n = 22 ( missouri botanical garden , 2015 ) .
a detailed study by baskin and baskin ( 1990 ) concluded that in north - central kentucky , usa , seeds of c . maculatum are dispersed from mid - september to mid - late february , with up to 95 % of them being dispersed by late december . depending on the year , 40 - 85 % of the freshly matured seeds had morphological dormancy and thus only required a moist substrate for embryo growth and germination . the other seeds had morpho - physiological dormancy , which had to be broken before embryo growth and germination could occur . during late autumn and winter , a deeper form of dormancy was induced in most of the undispersed seeds . germination was found to be higher on soil than on sand , and in light than in darkness .
suggest that dormant seeds require high summer temperatures , low winter temperatures , or both , before they can germinate . once seeds break dormancy , they can germinate from late summer to early spring , as long as temperatures remain cool and the soil remains moist . they found that
degrees celsius were a more important requirement . germination was low at a constant 26
c in the light . furthermore germination was not greatly reduced by burial below 5 cm depth .
germination may occur in the autumn or the spring . after germination in spring it can flower and behave as an annual , but most plants behave as biennials , forming a low rosette of leaves before flowering in their second summer . flowering occurs in mid - summer , while seed shed may continue through the autumn and winter to the following spring .
the established plant does not normally persist for more than two summers . seeds can persist in the soil for up to six years ( csontos , 2008 ) .
c . maculatum can occur across a wide range of soil types and levels of fertility . it is most commonly found , however , in moist conditions along rivers and in marshy ground . it can persist through relatively dry periods in the summer provided the winter is wet ( chileflora , 2006 ) . it is stated to prefer high - nitrogen soils ( vetter 2004 ) .
warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , wet all year
warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , dry summers
warm temperate climate with dry winter ( warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , dry winters )
continental climate with dry summer ( warm average temp . > 10°c , coldest month < 0°c , dry summers )
natural dispersal of c . maculatum is limited . it may be moved by water or wind but most seed falls close to the parent plant .
some seed may cling to animal fur but there is no specialized mechanism for this . mitich ( 1998 ) refers to spread by rodents and birds .
accidental introduction can occur locally through movement of garden waste , and more widely via contaminated seed of crops , but neither is likely to be frequent .
deliberate introduction is possible , where c . maculatum is considered a garden plant or used as a medicinal herb . however , it seems that the latter use is not common .
significant damage may be caused by c . maculatum in establishing or established pastures , due to competition for light and other resources . losses in other crops may occur locally , but are not widespread or severe and no crop loss data are available .
) ; carrot thin leaf virus , e . g . in california , usa (
the most important source of losses from c . maculatum is through toxicity to livestock . all parts of the plant are poisonous . toxicity is due to a group of piperidine alkaloids of which the representative members are coniine and gamma - coniceine . the latter is the more toxic and is the first formed biosynthetically . its levels in relation to coniine vary widely according to environmental conditions and to provenance of the plants ( reynolds , 2005 ) .
acute toxicity doses are 3 . 3 mg / kg for cattle , 15 . 5 mg / kg for horses and 44 . 0 mg / kg for sheep ( ceh , 2004 ) . pigs are even more sensitive than cattle while goats are less sensitive than sheep ( usda , 2015 ) . mice given a fatal dose orally may die within 10 minutes . poultry , pigs , hamsters , nutria and rabbits are also susceptible . although birds can be poisoned , it appears that some at least are unharmed after eating the seeds . their bodies are , however , then toxic to other animals including humans ( the poison garden , 2015 ) . c . maculatum may cause birth defects in farm animals ( e . g . cleft palate , arthrogryposis , scoliosis , troticollis , kyphosis ) ( panter and keeler , 1993 ) , in addition to acute toxicity .
the estimated economic loss of livestock due to poisonous weeds , including c . maculatum , in the seventeen western states of usa , was $ 340 million ( n . b . based on prices and figures in 1989 ) . this was estimated from a 1 % death loss in cattle , a 3 . 5 % death loss in sheep , and a 1 % decrease in calf and lamb crops ( james et al . , 1992 ; nielsen and james , 1992 ) . we do not know , however , what proportion of those losses can be attributed to c . maculatum .
livestock tend to avoid the fresh plant but do not recognise it in the dried state . this and other aspects of toxicity to livestock are well reviewed by cao et al . ( 2015 ) .
spread of c . maculatum into grassland or other low vegetation can significantly modify environments , and is of concern in conservation areas ( royal new zealand institute of horticulture , 2015 ) .
c . maculatum can spread quickly in disturbed areas and is highly competitive , preventing the establishment of native grasses and forbs by shading and competing for space ( weber , 2003 ) .
c . maculatum is dangerously poisonous and children have died from its toxicity . it is famously reputed to have been involved in the death of socrates , though this is challenged by some , who find that the symptoms described do not adequately match those normally observed ( dayan , 2009 ) .
symptoms in humans include irritation and tachycardia leading to brachycardia , muscular paralysis and respiratory failure . rhabdomyolysis and convulsions may also occur . death can occur in two hours ( dauncey , 2010 ) .
these symptoms reflect effects on the nervous system : stimulation followed by paralysis of motor nerve endings ; and cns stimulation followed by cns depression . other effects include vomiting , trembling , problems in movement , slow and weak pulse becoming rapid , rapid respiration , salivation , urination , nausea , convulsions , coma and death ( vetter , 2004 ) . advice on treatment following accidental ingestion is provided by toxinz poisons information ( 2015 ) .
apart from the risks from ingestion , there is also a danger of significant effects from handling the plants without gloves , from breathing dust or pollen from the plant and from using the hollow stems as pea - shooters .
chemicals from c . maculatum have been shown to have plant protection properties . young chinese cabbage plants were sprayed with alkaloids from c . maculatum , including gamma - coniceine , and exposed to large numbers of starved slugs ( deroceras reticulatum ) . the alkaloids protected the plants over a 24 - hour test period ( dodds and henderson , 2002 ) . likewise , coniine from c . maculatum has proved effective against aphids and blowflies ( cao et al . , 2015 ) . alinezhad et al . ( 2012 ) have demonstrated useful activity against aspergillus parasiticus and a corresponding reduction in aflatoxin production . extracts were shown to inhibit fusarium pallidoroseum , the cause of twig blight in mulberry ( gulzar et al . , 2013 ) . however , it is unknown whether any of these ideas are being used in practice .
c . maculatum is superficially similar to a number of other apiaceae . most dangerously it has been mistaken for wild carrot ( daucus carota ) , by children who have unwisely chewed on the yellowish root , but d . carota is clearly distinguished by having finely hairy foliage . anthriscus sylvestris has similar foliage to c . maculatum but a hairy stem . the related and equally dangerous water hemlock , cicuta maculata , has a glabrous hollow stem which may also be spotted , but the leaves have much wider segments and it has a cluster of fleshy roots and occurs in wetter situations . in general , c . maculatum is distinguished by its glabrous multi - pinnate leaves , the glabrous , hollow , spotted stem and mousy odour .
c . maculatum is a declared noxious weed in the following states of usa : colorado , idaho , iowa , new mexico , nevada , ohio , oregon , utah , washington , west virginia , wyoming ( usda - ars , 2015 ) .
hand pulling of c . maculatum plants may be effective , especially prior to seed set . spring mowing kills mature plants effectively , and a second mowing in late summer kills emerged seedlings and regrowth ( weber , 2003 ) . it is warned that gloves should be used for any hand - pulling operation , and a mask if there is pollen or dry , powdery material to be handled .
asav and kadioglu ( 2008 ) demonstrated effective control of c . maculatum by solarisation in turkey .
agonopterix alstroemeriana ( moth ) has been introduced and spread naturally in the usa and new zealand . the caterpillars of the moth can cause almost complete defoliation of the weed . their use has been approved in usa for biological control and the moth has been utilized in eradication programmes ( mckenna et al . , 2001 ) . caterpillars are collected from infested areas and spread to where they are needed . care is needed to avoid excessive contact with the weed , and gloves are advised .
glyphosate is effective , but control is influenced by the surfactant used in the formulation ( gonzalez - gutierrez et al . , 2000 ) .
other effective post - emergent herbicides include 2 , 4 - d ester , 2 , 4 - d amine , dicamba and triclopyr ( weber , 2003 ) . effective pre - emergence herbicides include imazapyr , tebuthiuron , chlorsulfuron , metsulfuron , hexazinone , metribuzin , terbacil , aminopyralid .
herbicides for specific crops include pyridate and propaquizafop in chickpea ; clopyralid in rapeseed ; hexazinone , metribuzin and terbacil in lucerne / alfalfa . in clover - based pastures , flumetsulam or bentazone were better than 2 , 4 - db ( gawn et al . , 2012 ) .
‘basic management recommendations to reduce reproductive losses to poisonous plants include : ( 1 ) keep good records ; ( 2 ) know what poisonous plants grow on ranges and understand their effects ; ( 3 ) develop a management plan to provide for alternate grazing in poisonous plant - free pastures during critical times ; ( 4 ) provide for balanced nutrition , including protein , energy , minerals and vitamins ; ( 5 ) maintain a good herd health program ; ( 6 ) integrate a herbicide treatment programme to reduce poisonous plant populations or to maintain clean pastures for alternate grazing ; and ( 7 ) manage the range for maximum forage production . ’
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asav ü ; kadioglu i , 2008 . effects of soil solarization and poultry manure combinations on seed germination of some weed species . ( toprak solarizasyonu ile tavuk gübresigt ; kombinasyonunun bazi yabanci ot tohumlarinin çimlenmelerine etkileri ) . türkiye herboloji dergisi , 12 ( 2 ) : 11 - 22 .
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castells e ; berenbaum mr , 2008b . host plant selection by a monophagous herbivore is not mediated by quantitative changes in unique plant chemistry : agonopterix alstroemeriana and conium maculatum . arthropod - plant interactions , 2 ( 1 ) : 43 - 51 .
ceh , 2004 . information sheet 15 : poison - hemlock . wallingford , uk : centre for ecology and hydrology , 3 pp . urltoken
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csontos p , 2008 . longevity of conium maculatum l . achenes in a 6 - year - long seed burial experiment . ( a bürök ( conium maculatum l . ) terméseinek túlélése a talajban ) . növényvédelem , 44 ( 9 ) : 441 - 443 .
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distribution maps of plant pests , 1957 . psila rosae [ distribution map 84 ] . wallingford , uk : cab international .
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dodds cj ; henderson if , 2002 . control of slug and snail damage using low toxicity , plant - derived repellents and antifeedants . hgca project report , no . 294 : 49 pp .
eastwell kc ; glass jr ; seymour lm ; druffel kj , 2008 . first report of infection of poison hemlock and celery by apium virus y in washington state . plant disease , 92 ( 12 ) : 1710 .
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goeden rd ; ricker dw , 1982 . poison hemlock , conium maculatum , in southern california - an alien weed attacked by few insects . annals of the entomological society of america , 75 ( 2 ) : 173 - 176 .
gonzalez - gutierrez j ; osuna md ; de prado r , 2000 . behaviour of glyphosate in conium maculatum control . mededelingen - faculteit landbouwkundige en toegepaste biologische wetenschappen , universiteit gent [ proceedings , 52nd international symposium on crop protection , gent , belgium , 9 may 2000 , part i . ] , 65 ( 2a ) : 157 - 160 .
gracia o ; feldman jm , 1977 . isolation and identification of two celery viruses in argentina . plant disease reporter , 61 ( 11 ) : 905 - 908 .
gulezian pz ; ison jl ; granberg kj , 2012 . establishment of an invasive plant species ( conium maculatum ) in contaminated roadside soil in cook county , illinois . american midland naturalist , 168 ( 2 ) : 375 - 395 .
gulzar p ; kausar t ; sahaf ka ; munshi na ; ahmad s ; raja ta , 2013 . screening of ethanolic extracts of various botanicals against fusarium pallidoroseum ( cooke ) sacc . - the causal agent of twig blight of mulberry . indian journal of sericulture , 52 ( 1 ) : 24 - 28 .
herbs2000 . com , 2015 . homeopathy - conium maculatum . herbs2000 . com . urltoken
howell we ; mink gi , 1977 . the role of weed hosts , volunteer carrots , and overlapping growing seasons in the epidemiology of carrot thin leaf and carrot motley dwarf viruses in central washington . plant disease reporter , 61 ( 3 ) : 217 - 222 .
james lf ; nielsen db ; panter ke , 1992 . impact of poisonous plants on the livestock industry . journal of range management , 45 ( 1 ) : 3 - 8 .
kielland - lund j ; often a , 1998 . conium maculatum in hedmark county , eastern norway . ( giftkjeks conium maculatum pa hedemarken . ) blyttia , 56 ( 2 ) : 92 - 93 .
lorenzi h , 1982 . plantas daninhas do brasil . nova odessa , san paulo , brazil : h . lorenzi .
magyar d ; tóth s , 2003 . data to the knowledge of the microscopic fungi in the forests around budakeszi ( buda hills , hungary ) . acta phytopathologica et entomologica hungarica , 38 ( 1 / 2 ) : 61 - 72 .
mckenna dd ; zangerl ar ; berenbaum mr , 2001 . a native hymenopteran predator of agonopterix alstroemeriana ( lepidoptera : oecophoridae ) in east - central illinois . great lakes entomologist , 34 ( 1 ) : 71 - 75 .
milanova sd ; nikolova v ; maneva s , 2003 . some morphological and bioecological characteristics of conium maculatum l . in : uygur s , kolören o , eds . proceedings of the 7th ewrs ( european weed research society ) mediterranean symposium . doorwerth , netherlands : european weed research society , 161 - 162 .
missouri botanical garden , 2015 . tropicos database . st . louis , missouri , usa : missouri botanical garden . urltoken
mitich lw , 1998 . poison - hemlock ( conium maculatum l . ) . weed technology , 12 ( 1 ) : 194 - 197 .
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nielsen db ; james lf , 1992 . economic impact of poisonous plants on livestock production . in : james lf , keeler rf , bailey em , cheeke pr , hegarty mp , eds . poisonous plants : proceedings of the third international symposium . ames , usa : iowa state university press , 3 - 10 .
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the poison garden , 2015 . conium maculatum , poison hemlock . alnwick , uk : the poison garden . urltoken
thompson gm , 1922 . the naturalisation of animals and plants in new zealand . london , uk : cambridge university press , 607 pp .
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h . sosnowskyi is a monocarpic biennial or perennial plant that grows up to 3 m tall . leaves are divided into segments and can reach up to 3 m in length . white or pinkish flowers are organized in umbels and flower . . .
heracleum sosnowskyi ( sosnowskyi ' s hogweed ) ; habit . shkmeri , georgia . july 2009 .
public domain / via wikipedia - released by its author , popadius . this applies worldwide .
h . sosnowskyi is a monocarpic biennial or perennial plant that grows up to 3 m tall . leaves are divided into segments and can reach up to 3 m in length . white or pinkish flowers are organized in umbels and flowering occurs in the second year or later ( nielsen et al . , 2005 ) . an average plant can produce around 9000 fruits ( tkatschenko , 1989 ) . the mother plant dies after producing seeds , however the plant is reported to live up to 6 years before flowering ( satsiperova , 1984 ) . the whole plant contains photosensitizing furanocoumarins that can burn and / or blister human skin ( after contact with plant sap and subsequent uv irradiation ) .
the plant’s large size , high fecundity , early germination and vigorous growth makes h . sosnowskyi a very successful invader that can out - compete local flora , cause river bank erosion and is toxic to humans .
had been cultivated for biomass and silage production in the former ussr in the second half of the twentieth century . from the 1990s there were reports of the plant escaping from cultivation and methods of treating
et al . , 2005 ) . the plant is listed as invasive in several european lists and databases , e . g . eppo , nobanis , daisie .
( hoffm . ) m . bieb . , which she regarded as endemic to crimea . later authors consider
a . v . yena and e . s . kraynyuk speculate that h . sosnowskyi is synonymous with h . pubescens ( greuter and raus , 2007 ) but more research needs to be done to confirm this .
the section pubescentia comprises other heracleum species that have been reported as invasive in europe and / or north america : h . mantegazzianum sommier & levier and h . persicum desf . ex fisch . recent molecular - genetic studies showed close genetic relationship between all three invasive species , particularly between h . sosnowskyi and h . mantegazzianum ( jahodová et al . , 2007b ; logacheva et al . , 2008 ) . however , not all species from the section pubescentia were analysed in either study .
because h . sosnowskyi and h . mantegazzianum are not only genetically but also morphologically very similar , several botanists consider h . sosnowskyi only a subtaxon of h . mantegazzianum or h . pubescens . therefore , h . sosnowskyi does not appear in the lists of weedy flora in many ( western - ) european countries ( kabuce , 2006 ) . for practical reasons in countries where both species invade , authorities often collect combined data on distribution and monitoring of these two species ( personnel are not trained to distinguish the two species , which requires specialist expertise ) .
h . sosnowskyi has been bred and hybridized with other heracleum species . popular varieties were ‘uspekh’ and ‘severzhanin’ ( boodiak et al . , 1981 ; satsiperova , 1984 ; eppo , 2008 ) .
as well as sosnowskyi’s hogweed , other common names have been used for h . sosnowskyi in english . these include giant hogweed , giant cow parsnip ( normally used for h . mantegazzianum ) , cow parsnip ( the common name of north american h . lanatum [ h . sphondylium subsp . montanum ] ) or cow parsley ( the common name of anthriscus sylvestris ) .
the type specimen was collected in georgia , in ‘meschetia , distr . adygeni in pratis silvaticis in itinere ad jalas lelovani , 9 / 8 / 1936’ , and is deposited in tbilisi ( tbi ) .
detailed descriptions can be found in mandenova ( 1950 ) , satsiperova ( 1984 ) and other descriptions are given in nielsen et al . ( 2005 ) , kabuce ( 2006 ) and eppo ( 2008 ) .
h . sosnowskyi is native to the eastern main caucasian ridge and south - western and eastern transcaucasia ( mandenova , 1950 ) . countries in this region that have h . sosnowskyi among their native flora are georgia , russia , armenia , azerbaijan and turkey . type locality lies in meschetia district , adygeni in georgia .
in europe the plant is distributed mainly in eastern parts - reflecting the history of planting in the former ussr . most invaded areas are estonia , latvia , lithuania . there are reports of
being invasive in belarus , hungary , poland , ukraine and european parts of russia , however , detailed distribution for those areas is not known . in denmark there is only one known population from ryvangen naturpark in copenhagen (
j . thiele , institute of landscape ecology , münster , germany , personal communication ) .
after world war ii ( in 1946 - 1947 ) the seeds of h . sosnowskyi were brought to the polar - alpine botanical garden - institute ( pabgi ) in kirovsk , northern russia , where experiments took place to investigate the usefulness of this plant as fodder ( silage ) . in 1953 similar experiments began in leningrad ( st petersburg ) - in cooperation with three institutes ( the komarov botanical institute and two agricultural institutes ) . the aim of the experiments and breeding was to produce highly productive cultivars that would have minimal furanocoumarin content .
seeds of h . sosnowskyi for the first experiments were obtained from kabardino - balkaria ( north caucasus , russia ) , however later reports mention seeds from other sources , e . g . dagestan ( east caucasus , russia ) ( marchenko , 1954 ; satsiperova , 1984 ; jahodová et al . , 2007a ) . breeding programmes later spread to many other places in the former ussr ( including belarus , estonia , latvia , lithuania , ukraine ) . reports of introduction to these regions do not detail whether seeds were distributed only via the leningrad and / or kirovsk institutes or whether additional seeds were obtained from the native range of h . sosnowskyi .


abalistes stellatus is a member of the triggerfish family that occurs along the coasts of the indian ocean , the red sea , the persian gulf , and along the western edge of the pacific ocean .

abalistes stellatus

citation : - abalistes stellatus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .
there are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for abalistes stellatus . however , there are several marine protected areas within its distribution , including the jubail marine wildlife sanctuary , where abalistes stellatus has been recorded ( krupp and müller 1994 ) .
a starry triggerfish , abalistes stellatus , at lizard island , great barrier reef , queensland . source : anne hoggett / lizard island filed guide , urltoken license : cc by attribution
abalistes stellatus is rather common in the persian gulf and often observed in markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) . oceanographic data suggests that a rescue effect through the strait of hormuz is negligible .
synonymy trated as a synonym of abalistes stellaris in fishbase , not by eschmeyer . [ details ]
abalistes stellatus is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and utilized for human consumption ( hutchins 1984 ) , however , this is not thought to be a major threat at this time ( k . matsuura pers . comm . 2014 ) .
balistes stellatus anonymous 1798 , allgemeine literatur - zeitung , berlin 3 ( 287 ) : 682 . type locality : mauritius .
( of balistes stellatus anonymous , 1798 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
matsuura , keiichi , and tetsuo yoshino , 2004 : a new triggerfish of the genus abalistes ( tetraodontiformes : balistidae ) from the western pacific . records of the australian museum , vol . 56 . 189 - 194 .
the similar hairfin triggerfish , abalistes filamentosus has filamentous upper and lower caudal - fin rays , 3–4 longitudinal grooves on the cheek , and lacks the yellow or pale blue spots and yellow reticulations on the body of the starry triggerfish .
a greyish to greenish - brown triggerfish becoming whitish below , with four large white blotches along the back ( the last on the caudal peduncle ) , pale yellowish - brown spots on the body , and sometimes a white streak on the upper midside . video of starry triggerfish ( abalistes stellatus ) , coral trout ( plectropomus leopardus ) , and yellowtail fusiliers ( caesio cuning ) at a baited remote underwater video camera ( bruv ) in the blue zone , at karamea bank , queensland .
. two similar specific names , stellaris and stellatus , have been used for this triggerfish by many authors . based on reviews of the descriptions made by lacepède in 1798 by anonymous in an article in the allgemeine literatur - zeitung ( general literature newspaper ) , matsuura and yoshino ( 2004 ) conclude that
pufferfishes found in a fish landing place 60 km north of nha trang in southern vietnam ( a ) and a fish market in sabah , malaysia ( b ) : a many small pufferfishes of lagocephalus and a large specimen of l . inermis in the center ; b large specimens of arothron hispidus , a . reticularis , and a . stellatus
representatives of the 10 extant families of tetraodontiformes . a triacanthodidae , triacanthodes anomalus ; b triacanthidae , triacanthus biaculeatus ; c balistidae , abalistes filamentosus ; d monacanthidae , thamnaconus hypargyreus ; e aracanidae , kentrocapros aculeatus ; f ostraciidae , ostracion immaculatus ; g triodontidae triodon macropterus ; h tetraodonitidae , arothron mappa ; i diodontidae , diodon liturosus ; j molidae , masturus lanceolatus . photographs of a and e provided by bsku ; b , d , f , h , and i by kaum ; c and g by nsmt ; j by hideki sugiyama
greek , a = without + greek , ballo = to throw ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 7 - 350 m ( ref . 58488 ) . tropical ; 30°n - 38°s , 32°e - 179°w ( ref . 56007 )
indo - west pacific : red sea and persian gulf to south africa ( also reported from west africa ) , east to the western pacific .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 60 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11441 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 25 - 27 ; anal soft rays : 24 - 25 . body grey brown to olivaceous dorsally with very small pale spots , becoming whitish ventrally with brownish yellow spots many of which anastomose into a reticulum ; 3 large oval white spots along the back and a small one dorsally on caudal peduncle ; a broad white streak often on side of body posterior to upper end of gill opening . an oblique groove before the eye . behind gill opening are large osseous scales . greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth . depressed caudal peduncle , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep ( ref . 11441 ) .
inhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .
randall , j . e . , 1995 . coastal fishes of oman . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p . ( ref . 11441 )
) : 18 . 5 - 28 . 1 , mean 25 ( based on 856 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02570 ( 0 . 01243 - 0 . 05316 ) , b = 2 . 94 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .
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inhabits coastal areas , usually found on sand , sponge , and weed bottoms to depths of 100 m ( hutchins 1984 ) . juveniles are found in estuarine areas ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .
1997 ) . the recorded maximum total length ( tl ) is 60 cm ( hutchins 1984 ) .
is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and marketed fresh and dried salted ( hutchins 1984 ) . often observed in persian gulf markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) .
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dorsal fin iii + 25 - 27 ; anal fin 24 - 25 . an oblique groove before the eye ; large bony scales behind gill opening ; greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . caudal peduncle depressed , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth .
the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers
. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .
anonymous 1798 . review of tome i of ` histoire naturelle des poissons ' by lacépède ( 1798 ) .
hutchins , b . 2004 . fishes of the dampier archipelago , western australia .
johnson , j . w . 1999 . annotated checklist of the fishes of moreton bay , queensland , australia .
johnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .
jordan , d . s . & seale , a . 1906 . the fishes of samoa . description of the species found in the archipelago , with a provisional checklist of the fishes of oceania . b
. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .
larson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia .
matsuura , k . 1980 . a revision of the japanese balistoid fishes . i . family balistidae .
matsuura , k . 2014 . taxonomy and systematics of tetraodontiform fishes : a review focusing primarily on progress in the period 1980 to 2014 . review for ipfc9 special issue .
. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t193587a56996805 . downloaded on 09 march 2018 .
reef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands .
richardson , j . 1846 . description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 in stokes , j . l . ( ed . )
russell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia .
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eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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inhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .
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mcculloch , a . r . 1929 ,
a check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part iii
, records of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 329–436
richardson , j . 1846 ,
description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia
, ed . stokes , j . l . ( ed . ) , discoveries in australia , vol . 1 , pp . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 , t . & w . boone , london
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 994a75d7 - e293 - 42fb - be3f - 7895efc3a056
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f27d4ace - 8e5d - 4686 - aa37 - 5cdf517559aa
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 354058
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a starry triggerfish ( ams i . 44703 - 004 ) collected at palfrey island , queensland , 5 sep 2008 .
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scales of starry triggerfish enlarged above pectoral - fin base and just behind gill opening to form a flexible tympanum ; terminal mouth and depressed and wider caudal peduncle . it has grayish brown to olivaceous on back with small pale blue or yellow spots dorsally and large yellow spots ventrally and 3 large white blotches on back . this species occurring in sand , sponge and weed bottoms . it feeds on marine invertebrates .
yoshida , t , motomura , h , musikasinthorn , p & matsuura , , k ( 2013 ) . fishes of northern gulf of thailand , volume 8 . national museum of nature and science , tsukuba . research institute for humanity and nature , kyoto . kagoshima university museum , kagoshima . , japan . pp . 239 .
matsunuma , m . , motomura , h . , matsuura , k . , shazili , n . a . m . & ambak , m . a . ( 2011 ) . fishes of terengganu : east coast of malay peninsula , malaysia . national museum of nature and science , universiti malaysia terengganu and kagoshima universiti museum , malaysia . pp . ix + 251 .
acknowledgements : - ms . aida salihah binti abu bakar , ms . nurfadzilah bt azmi , ms . nurfarhana hizan binti hijas , nursyafiqa madzlen , siti zubaidah binti abdul latif & mr . yasser mohamed arifin
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chinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken
eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .
khalaf , m . a . and a . m . disi ( 1997 ) fishes of the gulf of aqaba . : marine science station , aqaba , jordan . 252 p .
kinch , j . ( 1999 ) economics and environment in island melanesia : a general overview of resource use and livelihoods on brooker island in the calvados chain of the louisiade archipelago , milne bay province , papua new guinea . : a report prepared for conservation international , port moresby , national capital district , papua new guinea .
kuiter , r . h . and t . tonozuka ( 2001 ) pictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 3 . jawfishes - sunfishes , opistognathidae - molidae . : zoonetics , australia . p . 623 - 893 .
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .
myers , r . f . ( 1999 ) micronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia , 3rd revised and expanded edition . : coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 330 p .
oceana philippines international ( 2016 ) atong tañon , atong ampingan : fisheries challenges in the tañon strait protected seascape . : manila : oceana philippines , 48 p . urltoken [ accessed 27 / 09 / 16 ] .
randall , j . e . ( 1995 ) coastal fishes of oman . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p .
randall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene ( 1990 ) fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p .
stobbs , r . e . ( 1990 ) comorian fish names with a preliminary list of malagasy common names . : investigational report no . 35
thaman , r . r . , t . fong and a . balawa ( 2008 ) ilava ni navakavu : finfishes of vanua navakavu , viti levu , fiji islands . : sprh - fio biodiversity and ethnobiodiversity report no . 4 , the university of the south pacific , suva , fiji islands .
wu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .
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this article was published as an online first article on the online publication date shown on this page . the article should be cited by using the doi number .
tetraodontiform fishes are distributed in tropical to temperate seas and freshwaters of the world . they show a remarkable diversity in shape , size , and way of life ( fig .
) . because of their peculiar morphological characters , tetraodontiforms have long attracted the attention of ichthyologists and biologists .
) provided their interpretations of the phylogenetic relationships of tetraodontiforms based on myology and osteology , respectively .
) published an excellent monograph on the superfamily triacanthoidea including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae . he recognized 19 triacanthodid species in 11 genera ( table
) , their taxonomic features are not repeated here , except for new information that provides a better understanding of taxa .
many species of the triacanthodidae are known from the tropical and warm regions of the indo - pacific . however , five species are distributed in the western atlantic :
with a color photograph based on specimens collected from off surinam . mceachran and fechhelm (
from the gulf of mexico and off greater new england , respectively . tyler et al . (
to the northeast coast of the usa off massachusetts , whereas this species had previously only been known from the florida keys , bahamas , bermuda , gulf of mexico , caribbean , and south to brazil , with the new northern occurence perhaps associated with warming currents along the east coast of north america .
in contrast to the atlantic spikefishes , many papers on indo - pacific spikefishes were published after 1980 . matsuura (
based on 13 specimens collected from the western indian ocean . this species is characterized by relatively large nasal organs compared to other species of
based on 25 specimens collected from the marquesas islands . in addition to these contributions , papers and books on taxonomic and zoogeographical studies of spikefishes were published by authors from various countries including australia , china , japan , korea , russia , taiwan , ukraine , and the usa .
with detailed descriptions and color photographs of fresh specimens collected from the kyushu - palau ridge . matsuura (
, these are the first records for the species from new caledonia . chen et al . (
) were based on specimens deposited at museums and institutions in taiwan and the usa . larson et al . (
has a narrower pelvis , a shorter postorbital length , a less distinctly supraterminal mouth , and a more concave snout profile . because the holotype of
) concluded that the most reliable character separating the two species is the degree of concavity of the snout . the depth of the snout in the middle of its length is 10 . 8−13 . 4 % sl ( average 12 . 0 ) in
) confirmed this difference in three specimens ( 86 . 2−93 . 0 mm sl ) of
) provided keys to the genera and species of spikefishes known from south and east africa . he recognized 11 species in this region :
) studied coastal fishes of the arabian sea based on specimens collected by research vessels of russia and ukraine from 1967 to 1991 . they also examined specimens collected by the german
, which are deposited at the zoological museum of hamburg university . the two authors recorded
( previously known only from the holotype , 52 . 2 mm sl from the andaman sea and a non - type specimen , 66 . 0 mm sl from off somalia in the western indian ocean ) , but did not provide descriptions of the two species . the specimens they studied are deposited at the national museum of natural history , national academy of sciences , ukraine , the zoological museum of the russian academy of sciences , and the zoological museum of moscow state university . in addition to these , venkataramanujam et al . (
this brief historical review clearly shows that there are many collection lacunae with respect to the distribution and diversity of spikefishes in the world oceans . new caledonia is one example of how collection efforts could provide us with better understanding of spikefish diversity . when matsuura and fourmanoir (
from new caledonia , only two type specimens were available for their study . long - term deep - water surveys by orstom around new caledonia added six species of spikefishes including 16 specimens of
) . many regions of the world oceans need to be surveyed , but the most promising areas would be waters in french polynesia and the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java in indonesia . japanese and indonesian fisheries agencies have recently implemented a joint survey along the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java . their surveys have resulted in many interesting spikefishes , including two undescribed species and several rarely collected species , which will be published elsewhere ( matsuura and kawai in preparation ) .
) reported that four specimens from the gulf of thailand near paknam have differences in eye size and the width of the interorbital space . two of these specimens ( 111 . 5 mm sl and 113 . 9 mm sl ) have exceptionally large eyes ( 10 . 4 % sl ) and the other two ( 105 . 6 mm sl and 107 . 9 mm sl ) have a normal eye size ( 7 . 8 and 8 . 5 % sl ) . the two large - eye specimens have eyes that are also larger than those of any other specimens of equivalent size . the large - eye specimens have a wider interorbital space ( 10 . 2−10 . 5 % sl vs . 6 . 3−10 . 0 % sl in many other specimens ) . tyler (
based on color notes or color photographs of fresh specimens , but neither was available for the other species . matsuura (
collected from phuket in the andaman sea : body silvery white with light brown tinge on dorsal half of body ; first dorsal spine silvery white with a black membrane between the first and third dorsal spines ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dark yellow . matsuura (
collected from the northern gulf of thailand : body silvery white with several irregular golden brownish markings on head and body ; basal half of first dorsal spine silvery white and proximal half black with yellowish orange first dorsal fin membrane ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dusky yellow .
) . after his monograph appeared , many publications on fish faunas , field guides and checklists have provided additional information on triplespine distributions ( e . g . , matsuura
) reported a 60 - mm sl specimen of this species from freshwater in indonesia .
) diagnosed and illustrated the 20 species of 10 genera found in japanese waters . his latter paper covered many of the 25 species that were known from the indo - pacific before 1980 . prior to this publication two papers reviewed triggerfishes in the eastern pacific ( berry and baldwin
. these were important contributions about the taxonomy of triggerfishes up to and including 1980 . a brief historical review of triggerfish taxonomy follows .
) published a review of the balistidae , one of his series of taxonomic studies of tetraodontiform fishes . he recognized 13 genera in the balistidae and provided a platform for triggerfish taxonomy . although de beaufort and briggs (
) reviewed triggerfishes of the eastern pacific with comments on fraser - brunner’s classification . they pointed out that fraser - brunner (
on trivial differences of squamation and the anterior few soft rays of the dorsal fin . berry and baldwin (
( i . e . , triggerfishes of other genera not occurring in the western atlantic ) . just after his review of the western atlantic triggerfishes , moore (
) also accepted these 11 genera in his phylogenetic study on tetraodontiform fishes . the osteologically based phylogenies of balistoids given by matsuura (
as a new species , based on a small juvenile washed up on a beach at the mouth of the van stadens river , south africa .
on the basis of two specimens collected off the northeast coast of kume - jima in the ryukyu islands , at depths of 120−150 m , which is quite deep for triggerfishes . matsuura and yoshino (
, which recognizes 37 species of triggerfishes in 11 genera . in addition to the above contributions , many checklists and illustrated books on shallow - water fishes also provided taxonomic and zoogeographical information of the balistidae and other tetraodontiforms ( böhlke and chaplin
has 28−30 dorsal rays and 24−26 anal rays . however , berry and baldwin (
from japan that dorsal rays range from 27 to 30 and anal rays from 24 to 27 . randall (
) comprised only 50 words with fin ray counts “d . 1 ? , a . 26 , p . 13 . ” because the poor original description fits several species of the balistidae , it is impossible to verify that
in a phylogenetic tree of the balistidae based on molecular analysis . their molecular analysis suggests that
) represent a single clade . these species should be revisited with detailed morphological examinations .
east africa , mozambique channel , comores and mascarenes , north to southern japan , ogasawara islands and hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia , lord howe island , rapa and ducie ( pitcairn group ) . east to central america
there are no comprehensive reviews of the monacanthidae , although in 1988 barry hutchins provided taxonomic , morphological , and phylogenetic data for all monacanthid species in the world in his doctoral dissertation . some parts of his dissertation were published , however , the taxonomic accounts of many species and genera and the phylogenetic analysis of the genera remain unpublished . hutchins published a series of articles on the monacanthidae between 1977 and 2002 . his first article on australian filefishes recognized 28 genera in australia ( hutchins
) published a review paper on the monacanthidae ( his aluteridae ) , recognizing 22 genera . although de beaufort and briggs (
lack long spines or long setae on the mid - side of the body . randall (
) provided brief accounts and color photographs of 26 monacanthids found in japanese waters . hutchins and matsuura (
and recognized four species with comments on their ability to inflate the abdomen . hutchins (
) provided a key and brief taxonomic accounts for 16 species of filefishes found along south africa . hutchins (
, a detailed study of diagnostic characters , including encasing scales of the posterior end of the pelvis , is needed . hutchins suggested in his dissertation that
remain . as in the case of triggerfishes , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided much useful information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of filefishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) .
trunkfishes of the family aracanidae occur in shallow to relatively deep waters in depths from 5 m to 300 m . the species of
the aracanidae and ostraciidae have been placed in separate families by some authors ( e . g . , winterbottom
) , but they have also been treated as two subfamilies of the family ostraciidae by others ( e . g . , winterbottom and tyler
) . all the above authors recognized the two groups as closely related phylogenetic clades ( sister groups ) , but placed them at different taxonomic ranks . santini and tyler (
) studied fossils and extant members of the tetraodontiformes extensively and recognized familial groupings for the aracanidae and ostraciidae . recently , santini et al . (
) investigated the phylogenetic relationships of the aracanidae and ostraciidae based on molecular analysis of many taxa ( nine species of five genera of aracanidae and 17 species of six genera of ostraciidae ) . they demonstrated that the species examined in their studies ( santini and tyler
) published his article on indian zoology , he used two different spellings for a species of trunkfish . at the beginning of the article , a section titled “directions for arranging the plates” provided the name of animals in the plates where he presented the name of the trunkfish as “many spined coffin fish .
. ” plate 98 provided a good illustration of the species showing appropriate characters to identify the species . it is the type species of the subgenus by monotypy . however , in 1838 john e . gray published another paper in which he described three species ,
” indicating his intention to establish the group at the subgeneric level . although the name
thus creating a nomenclatural problem . if one follows the priority rule of the code ( iczn
should be preserved under article 33 . 3 . 1 of the code , making the spelling of the family group name aracanidae preserved under article 35 . 4 . 1 .
) provided brief reviews of the family , his accounts of genera and species were cursory as they were based on few specimens and did not provide adequate characteristics for the species treated . kuiter (
is unique in having a fusiform body and the caudal peduncle nearly completely covered by discrete bony plates . in addition to australian genera of aracanidae , detailed descriptions and illustrations of all four known species of
kentrocapros eco ( nmnz p . 903 , 102 mm tl , from pahia , bay of islands , new zealand ; a lateral view ; b dorsal view ) and an undescribed species of kentrocapros ( c nsmt - p 43344 , 104 mm sl ) collected from new zealand
as discussed above , no major taxonomic problems remain in the aracanidae . however , there still remains a need to clarify the nomenclature of some species of anoplocapros as well as the intraspecific variation of morphological characters related to ontogenetic development of kentrocapros .
eastern atlantic from st . helena , ascension and azores islands , ghana and angola
, he differentiated it from other ostraciid genera by the degree of the development of the dorsal ridge , the convexity of the dorsal surface of the carapace , and the projection of the snout anterior to the mouth . however , the two characters involving the carapace do not clearly differentiate
, protrudes anteriorly beyond the mouth in adults but not juveniles . in addition , large adults of
have a snout protruding to some extent beyond the mouth . these factors led matsuura (
in their own genus in his key and brief accounts of ostraciids found in the western central pacific . klassen (
because the latter has priority over the former . however , it seems premature to accept his proposal because there are species - level taxonomic problems in several species of
) provided keys and accounts accompanied by illustrations to boxfishes found in the western atlantic . they recognized five species ,
are nested in a single clade on the basis of his extensive osteological analysis ; i agree with this .
on the basis of a specimen from queensland , australia . however , there seems little doubt that it is actually
from australia may suggest that the specimen was transferred by ballast water from a ship or released from an aquarium . as with the balistidae , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided a great deal of information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of boxfishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) . on the basis of the above overview , i recognize 22 species in the ostraciidae ( table
holotype of acanthostracion bucephalus ( ams ib . 6355 ) collected from queensland , australia . photograph provided by mark mcgrouther
two forms of tetrosomus reipublicae collected from the ryukyu islands ( a , b ) and kochi , japan ( c ) . a deep body with no blue lines ( bsku 29663 ) ; b , c slender body with wavy blue lines ( b bsku 29697 ; c bsku 59588 )
is rare in museum collections and poorly known . it is a deep - water species collected at depths of 50−377 m ( kyushin et al .
in detail , only 20 specimens were available for his study : five from the indian ocean ( mauritius , reunion and india ) and 15 from the west pacific ( indonesia , philippines and japan ) . due to the poor condition of two specimens , tyler (
) used 18 specimens to determine whether the first dorsal fin , composed of one or two spines , is present or absent . his examination revealed 12 specimens from the west pacific to have a first dorsal fin , and five indian ocean specimens and a specimen from the west pacific to lack a first dorsal fin ( table
) . however , he did not find other differences between the indian ocean specimens and those from the west pacific . this led him to recognize the two groups as being conspecific . i have recently had the opportunity of examining 28 specimens of
) also provided frequency distributions of fin - ray counts . my examination of 28 specimens produced almost the same frequency distributions of fin - ray counts as those of tyler (
) showed that a specimen ( 448 . 3 mm sl ) collected from the volcano islands , south of the ogasawara islands , had a single spine
frequency distributions of fin - ray counts in triodon macropterus . counts of fin rays of damaged or abnormal fins are excluded . counts of pectoral - fin rays were obtained from fins on both sides
was reported ( with color photographs ) from several areas in the indo - west pacific : the chagos archipelago ( kyushin et al .
to have the following coloration : body yellowish brown dorsally , becoming white ventrally ; ventral flap yellow in the ventral four - fifths and white in the proximal one - fifth ; a large black ocellus with a narrow white edge in the proximal part of the ventral flap ; second dorsal , anal , pectoral , and caudal fins yellow or yellowish brown ; when present , membrane of first dorsal fin black ( fig .
( 20 mm sl ) , collected at wallis and futuna at a depth of 245−440 m . they provided detailed characters and the visceral anatomy of the early juvenile that differs from adults in having a huge head ( 45 % sl vs 28 . 5−32 . 7 % sl in adults ) , no ventral flap , and different scale structure . juveniles also differ from adults in having a very large distended stomach .
) . because pufferfishes possess very few external characters useful for taxonomy and specimens are easily distorted when they are fixed in formalin and preserved in ethanol , it is often not easy for ichthyologists to recognize species limits and classify them into natural groups . consequently , they have been poorly studied and taxonomic confusion remains . although the tetraodontidae has never been comprehensively reviewed , the taxonomy of pufferfishes has progressed since fraser - brunner’s (
, based on osteological characters of the skull , the lateral - line system on the head and body , a skin fold on the ventrolateral side of the body , and spinule distributions on the body . although fraser - brunner (
) provided keys and accounts of pufferfishes in the seas around japan . subsequently , abe (
is the appropriate generic name for warmwater pufferfishes found mainly around japan , korea , and china . as with other tetraodontiform families , de beaufort and briggs (
marine pufferfishes occurring in warm and tropical regions of the world were studied by many authors from the 1970s to present . allen and randall (
and described seven new species , bringing the total number of species to 22 . since allen and randall’s (
from the gambier archipelago in french polynesia . in addition , randall et al . (
from the west coast of africa . the above studies bring the total number of species of
in the atlantic and provided a key to the species , along with detailed accounts of all atlantic species . walker and bussing (
) . the former is endemic to the atlantic and the latter is distributed in tropical and other warm seas of the world . abe and tabeta (
) based on an examination of the holotype and many specimens from the red sea . although the genus
has not been comprehensively reviewed , an ongoing study by the author has revealed 11 valid species in the genus . this study will be published elsewhere .
, many species found along the coast of china were not included in his articles . cheng et al . (
from brackish waters of modaomen zhuhai , guangdong . these chinese and japanese authors increased the number of
species making it the second largest genus in the tetraodontidae , with 25 species . however , taxonomic problems still remain in
as a new genus and species based on a single specimen collected at norfolk island .
is externally distinguished from other pufferfishes by its nasal apparatus in the form of an open , flat , and relatively unornamented disk . heemstra and smith (
in the period from 1980 to 1989 , graham s . hardy published a series of papers on the taxonomy of pufferfishes that are distributed mainly in the southern hemisphere . hardy (
from south africa revealed them to be conspecific , making the former a junior synonym of the latter . matsuura (
is unique in building large spawning nests , called “mystery circles” by local scuba divers . thus , the above studies of
) discussed nomenclatural issues of the tetraodontidae found in southeast asia in detail . he established the new genus
, but differentiated from other pufferfishes by their unique color pattern and a very elongate premaxillary pedicel that creates a greatly enlarged open space between their dorsomedial edges . thus , the generic name
as a new species from the mekong basin of thailand . because of its publication date , july 2013 , the authors were unaware of kottelat’s (
have a sufficient number of character differences to warrant being placed in separate genera . the type species of
. however , this is likely to cause confusion not only in pufferfish taxonomy , but also in the fisheries of east asia where pufferfishes are treated as important and expensive fishes ( e . g . , several species of
cost about us $ 100 per kilogram at fish markets ) . in addition , because pufferfishes have fatal poison in their viscera , scientific names are very important for food security management in east asia . as suggested by kottelat (
) , on the basis of the holotype from penang and two additional specimens from the west pacific . matsuura (
as a new species from the tropical region of the indo - west pacific . matsuura (
with a key to species and accounts of all members of the genus including two undescribed species .
as indicated above , there has been a great deal of progress in taxonomy of the tetraodontidae during the past several decades , especially in the period from the mid - 1970s to the present . however , there remain taxonomic problems in genera such as
where many species await description and detailed morphological and molecular comparisons to classify them into appropriate groups . the taxonomy of pufferfishes in southeast asia is important not only for the understanding of fish diversity of the region , but also for the welfare and food management for humans . dao et al . (
) reported that the number of victims of food poisoning by eating pufferfishes reached 737 , with 127 mortalities from 1999 to 2003 . due to the lack of knowledge about pufferfishes and their toxicity , pufferfishes are still found in southeast asian fish markets ( fig .
) , although local and state governments in countries around the south china sea have prohibited the sale of pufferfishes for food .
) provided a list of synonyms and keys for all species of the diodontidae . keys to regional species were also provided by leis (
, western indian ocean ; 2001 , eastern indian ocean and western central pacific ; 2003 , western atlantic ) . accounts and color photographs for species of the eastern pacific were provided by allen and robertson (
reach more than 3 m in length and two tons in weight , it is difficult to preserve specimens of adults in museums . it is also difficult for ichthyologists to obtain measurements and counts on large adult ocean sunfishes in the field , and specimens of
have also been rarely collected . since ichthyologists have few opportunities to study an adequate number of adult specimens of ocean sunfishes , authors have been unable to agree how many species in the family , some believing a single species exists in each genus , and others recognizing two species each in
) published a list of nominal species in the molidae . bass et al (
is found in all oceans . however , they were unable to differentiate among specimens of
from the west pacific ( taiwan ) and the western atlantic ( florida ) . yoshita et al . (
around japan . they took measurements and counted 99 specimens of young and adults ( maximum size 332 cm tl , fig .
) . they showed convincingly that there are two species with clear morphological differences : a well - developed head bump ( head bump height 12 . 1 % tl ) in group a vs . with no distinct head bump ( head bump height 7 . 8 % tl ) in group b , number of clavus fin rays 14−17 in group a vs 10−13 in group b , number of clavus ossicles 8−15 in group a vs . 8−9 in group b , and edge of clavus not wavy in group a vs . wavy in group b . yoshita et al . (
must await the availability of more specimens from other regions of the world’s oceans for study by both morphological and molecular methods .
) pioneered the classification of tetraodontiform fishes by placing them in the order plectognathi based on his detailed anatomical studies . since cuvier’s (
) , yseult le danois tried to destroy the order tetraodontiformes . she stated that the triacanthoids and balisoitds are of acanthurid origin and that the other plectognaths ( her orbiculati ) are not even of percoid derivation , being related to the isospondylous fishes , and that
is related to the ostracioids rather than the tetraodontids . however , her statements were based on erroneous observations and interpretations of the osteological and myological characters of tetraodontiforms ( tyler
) supported the monophyly of tetraodontiformes by adding to the already substantial list of synapomorphies . in addition , wiley and johnson (
) analyzed relationships of tetraodontiformes using cladistic methods . he recognized three major clades : ( 1 ) triacanthodidae + triacanthidae , ( 2 ) ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) , and ( 3 ) triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] ( fig .
) . the first clade , including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae , was considered to be the sister group of all other tetraodontiforms . tyler (
) studied tetraodontiforms extensively and provided a huge number of osteological descriptions , comparative diagnoses , and illustrations for all extant families , major representatives of extant genera , and most of the known fossil taxa of the tetraodontiformes . tyler (
) , except for placing the superfamily triacanthoidea ( triacanthodidae + triacanthidae ) as the basal sister group to the two superfamilies , the balistoidea ( balistidae and monacanthidae ) and the ostracioidea ( aracanidae and ostraciidae ) .
phylogenetic relationships of the extant families of tetraodontiformes inferred from cladistic analyses of morphological characters .
) proposed on the basis of his osteological analysis that zeoids have a sister - group relationship with tetraodontiforms and the two groups are sister to the caproids . leis (
) used characters of eggs and larvae to investigate tetraodontiform relationships . although no aracanid and triodontid larvae were available for his study , leis (
) placed the ostraciidae in an unresolved trichotomy , ostraciidae + diodontidae + molidae , and placed the three families as a sister clade to the tetraodontidae ( fig .
b ) . this was the first time that the ostraciidae was placed in the gymnodonts ( triodontidae , tetraodontidae , diodontidae , and molidae ) . winterbottom and tyler (
) also provided many synapomorphies involving osteological and myological characters that supported a sister - group relationship of balistoids and ostracioids . klassen (
james c . tyler and other authors published many papers on fossil tetraodontiforms ( e . g . , tyler and patterson
) used osteological data on fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes accumulated by previous contributions to generate a new classification of all known families represented by fossil and extant forms . for extant families , santini and tyler (
) placed the triacanthodidae as a sister group to all other families of the tetraodontiformes ( fig .
) . they arranged the other families into two suborders , the balistoidei and tetraodontoidei . the former is composed of the triacanthidae + [ ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) ] . the latter suborder is composed of the triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] . this classification is similar to those of winterbottom (
) analyzed molecular data for 100 species of higher teleosteans . their study was the first to hypothesize close relationships among lophiiforms , tetraodontiforms , and caproids . they retrieved phylogenetic topologies placing caproids as a sister group with tetraodontiforms and the two groups as sister to lophiiforms . however , they used few taxa : one species of caproidae , two species of tetraodontiformes , and six species of lophiiformes . yamanoue et al . (
) analyzed more species of the three groups and provided a robust phylogenetic topology that placed the caproidei as sister to the lophiiformes , and the two groups as a clade that is sister to the tetraodontiformes .
) studied the lateral - line system and its innervations of nine species of tetraodontiforms ( representing all families examined except for the molidae ) and a single species each from the lophiidae , zeidae , caproidae , and siganidae . their analysis supported a close relationship of the tetraodontiformes with the lophiidae , but not with the zeidae , caproidae , or siganidae . recently , chanet et al . (
) presented synapomorphies of tetraodontiforms and lophiiforms involving soft anatomical characters : rounded and anteriorly disposed kidneys , a compact thyroid included in a blood sinus , an abbreviated spinal cord , an asymmetric liver , and clusters of supramedullary neurons in the rostral part of the spinal cord . baldwin (