the square-tailed drongo-cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) is a species of cuckoo that resembles a black drongo .

it is found in sri lanka and southeast asia and is a summer visitor to the himalayas from kashmir to eastern bangladesh .

the calls are series of piercing sharp whistles rising in pitch but shrill and choppily delivered .

square - tailed drongo - cuckoo

square - tailed drongo - cuckoo ( surniculus lugubris ) is a species of bird in the cuculidae family .
these square - tailed drongo - cuckoo species have moderate forest dependence . these species occur in altitudes from 0 to 2100 meters . the artificial ecosystems of these square - tailed cuckoo species include rural gardens and urban parks .
( a square - tailed drongo - cuckoo chick being fed by an olive - winged bulbul . photographed by johnny chew at panti , malaysia in july 2010 )
from the above photos , the differences are quite easy to pick out . first look , the square - tailed drongo cuckoo has a slimmer look giving it a longish appearance . the crow - billed drongo looks broader .
( a young square - tailed drongo - cuckoo ready to be fed by a yellow - vented bulbul . photographed by alan ng at dairy farm nature park in august 2011 )
it was a rainy day . asian drongo - cuckoo calling constantly from early morning . we also heard distant answering call from another asian drongo - cuckoo . later other birders informs us , pair of asian drongo - cuckoo did mating there .
these square - tailed drongo - cuckoo species are distributed in india , bhutan , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia , singapore , brunei , indonesia and philippines . unconfirmed reports of their sightings were recorded from nepal .
the square - tailed drongo - cuckoo species are distributed in india , bhutan , bangladesh , myanmar , thailand , malaysia , singapore , brunei , indonesia and philippines . these cuckoo species resemble black drongos . there are two recognized subspecies of these cuckoos .
some recent work suggested that the species was conspecific with the fork - tailed drongo - cuckoo and together known as the asian drongo - cuckoo , but should be split based on call and morphological differences : . that treatment is taken here .
the overall plumage of these square - tailed drongo - cuckoo species is glossy blue - black in adult birds . the wing - coverts , inner secondaries and tertials are black with greenish tinge . the underparts are blackish with brownish tinge .
the breeding season of these square - tailed drongo - cuckoo species is from april to july in northeast india . the laying season is from may to july in malay peninsula . the breeding season is during april and may in indonesia .
the vent region and undertail have slight white barring . the tail is long and square . there are white specks on the tip of tail feathers . the bill is black and straight . the irises are black . the feet are dark gray . the square - tailed drongo cuckoo call is a loud , piercing sharp whistling sound .
the iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the cuckoo species and has listed it as of
least concern
. the cites ( convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is ‘not evaluated’ for the square - tailed drongo - cuckoo (
( a young square - tailed drongo - cuckoo being fed by a pin - striped tit - babbler . this record is from hulu langat , malaysia and was photographed by christopher lee in may 2010 . we have other records of this host species at macritchie reservoir previously )
the diet of these square - tailed drongo - cuckoo species is mostly insects . caterpillars , beetles , swarming termites and ants , spiders , grasshoppers , cicadas , and locust are their primary food . they are mostly arboreal . they glean the prey from foliage or the ground .
the last feature is the shape of the tail . the cuckoo has more or less a square tail sharing the characteristics of all cuckoos while the drongo has a forked tail flaring outwards quite a bit .
only the underside of the tail of the cuckoo has scattered white barrings on it like most cuckoo species while the tail of the drongo i s unmarked .
it is not often that two species from different families can be confusing . more so when they share the same common name as in the case of the crow - billed drongo dicrurus annectans and the squared - tailed drongo cuckoo surniculus lugubris . both are black and have more or less the same structure as each other . but look closer and you will find distinctive features in each species to tell them apart . the crow - billed drongo is a winter visitor and passage migrant to singapore while the st drongo cuckoo is a breeding resident with a few visiting during the winter months . if you see one during the summer months , it will be the squared - tailed drongo cuckoo . they are very vocal all over our forests in may during breeding .
these square - tailed cuckoos are brood parasites , laying eggs in the nest of other birds and rely on the host to raise their young . the breeding season coincides with breeding season of the local host species .
summer breeding populations of these drongo cuckoo species are found in bhutan , northeast india , bangladesh and east myanmar . they migrate to southeast asian countries for wintering .
the bill of the cuckoo is thinner and slightly decurved , typical of all cuckoos , while the drongo has an unmistakable broad bill from whence its name is derived .
rusty - breasted cuckoo the rusty - breasted cuckoo ( cacomantis sepulcralis ) is another uncommon resident in singapore . the female and young of the species is often confused with the plaintive cuckoo and the quickest way to sepoarate this two species is to look for the yellow eye - ring that is present in this species , but not the plaintive cuckoo . the local host for this species is the malaysian pied fantail .
violet cuckoo the last cuckoo in the roundup is the violet cuckoo ( chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus ) , probably the rarest resident cuckoo in singapore . it’s host species include the brown - throated sunbird , van hasselt’s sunbird and the olive - backed sunbird . unfortunately we could not obtain any local photos of these although we had sightings records in the past . perhaps the cuckoo’s rarity does not permit an easier encounter . looking through the internet we do have a photograph of a brown - throated sunbird feeding a chick from sabah that can be found here : urltoken
little bronze cuckoo the little bronze cuckoo ( chrysococcyx minutillus ) a common resident cuckoo species that is easily found in the various nature parks and gardens . interestingly before 1964 , they were not recorded in singapore . there are two host species historically recorded , the golden - bellied gerygone and the olive - backed sunbird ( 2008 ) .
a first winter crow - billed drongo on passage was photographed at bidadari on the 19th of september by lim ser chai . this is the first arrival for this season but stayed for less than 2 days .
in india , these cuckoo species are distributed in the states of assam , arunachal pradesh , meghalaya , tripura and mizoram .
) is a small cuckoo , measuring 25 cm in length and weighing 25 to 45 grams . both the sexes look alike .
( a plaintive cuckoo chick being fed by a ashy tailorbird . photographed at pasir ris park by johnson sia in september 2014 )
( a banded bay cuckoo chick being fed by a common iora . photographed by francis yap at lorong halus in may 2011 )
the populations of these cuckoo species in southern myanmar , eastern and southern thailand , malaysia , singapore , indonesia and philippines are resident birds .
( a golden - bellied gerygone passing food to a recently fledged little bronze cuckoo . photographed by francis yap at pasir ris park in august 2011 )
banded bay cuckoo rounding up the resident cacomantis cuckoos is the locally uncommon banded bay cuckoo ( cacomantis sonneratii ) . unlike the other two species where the appearance of the male and the female differ ( sexual dimorphism ) , both the sexes of this species are alike . the host of this species is the common iora .
( a rusty - breasted cuckoo chick post - feeding with its surrogate parent , the malaysian pied fantail . photographed by francis yap at lorong halus in august 2012 )
plaintive cuckoo the plaintive cuckoo ( cacomantis merulinus ) is a more uncommon resident cuckoo species . it is named for the plaintive call of the male in mating season . in the past , the british colonial birders referred to it as the malayan brain fever bird due to its call and the malay called it burung mati anak ( bird whose child died ) , such is the emotional intensity that it elicits . this species local host is reported to be the common iora but recent photographic report was with the ashy tailorbird .
normally one egg is laid in the nests of host species . in india , the hosts are small babblers . the cuckoo hatchling may heave out other eggs and nestlings of the host .
) does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable , either under the range size criterion , or under the population trend criterion , or under the population size criterion . the ongoing habitat destruction is the main threat that may endanger the survival of these cuckoo species .
( the video shows the behaviour of the chick in the presence of the the host parent , where the combination of call , wing flapping position and opened mouth with prominent gape all direct the iora with food to the cuckoo . this was taken at lorong halus in june 2011 )
the cuckoos are well known examples of brood parasites , birds that lay their eggs in the nest of of another bird species and relying on their host to raise the young . not all species of cuckoos do that however . in the local context , we have the malkohas and coucals that raise their young on their own , yet are part of the cuckoo family .
the most famous resident cuckoo is the asian koel , that is the source of most number of complaint from the public due to its noisy nature . it is known to use the crows and mynas as surrogate parents elsewhere . the house crow is listed as the most common surrogate host for the koel in singapore . however , less work and documentation exist for this host - brood parasite interaction even though these two species are a common sight . this is because crow nests are normally destroyed on sight as they are considered a pest species .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
surniculus lugubris , s . dicruroides , s . musschenbroeki and s . velutinus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as s . lugubris following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the population size has not been quantified owing to recent taxonomic splits . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction .
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was doing a short morning walk at this wonderful campsite and heard this very loud and consistent bird call .
could not see the bird due to bad light or hidden in the trees as it is a forested area .
same bird as xc180196 . taxon does not have consensus . this recording assumes s . l . lugubris .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : surniculus lugubris . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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) belongs to the family of cuckoos , roadrunners , koels and malkohas , cuculidae .
the natural ecosystems of these species include tropical and subtropical moist lowland forests , semi - evergreen forests , tropical and subtropical dry shrublands , swamp forests , riparian forests and tropical and subtropical mangrove forests .
post breeding , the juveniles may disperse and establish in new locations within the range . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding within their range .
) has not been quantified . the overall population trend of these species is reported to be decreasing . throughout its range it is reported to be uncommon to common . the generation length is 4 . 2 years . its distribution size is about 7 , 750 , 000 sq . km .
( ne india , n myanmar , n thailand , n indochina , and yunnan , hainan . off se china . . )
( s thailand , malaysia , sumatra , bangka i . , borneo and sw philippines )
this article will therefore deal with the other resident cuckoos that we have more documentation on .
that about cover the resident cuckoos in singapore and their host species . the sight of a small parent feeding a much larger bird often surprise the birder , even experienced ones . most of the time , this size imbalance occur due to brood parasitism by the cuckoos . do document it so that we have a much better understanding of this behaviour .
notice : all photographs and videos are copyrighted by the respective photographers who contributed to this article : alan ng , christopher lee , johnny chew , johnson sia and francis yap . all rights reserved .
well written and definitely a good source of reference for ornithology . keep it up .
the bird was opening its wings when making this call , there was another bird in vicinity , may be it was a couple .


trigoniulus corallinus , sometimes called the rusty millipede , is a species of millipede widely distributed in the indo-malayan region including india , sri lanka , china , myanmar , thailand , vietnam , malaysia , singapore , and much of indonesia .

it is also reported from fiji and tanzania and found in south asia and the caribbean as an introduced species .

these millipedes inhabit moist areas , rotten wood and compost .

the genome of t. corallinus was sequenced in 2015 , the first time this has been done for a millipede .

trigoniulus corallinus

genome of the rusty millipede , trigoniulus corallinus , illuminates diplopod , myriapod , and arthropod evolution .
genome of the rusty millipede , trigoniulus corallinus , illuminates diplopod , myriapod , and arthropod evolution . - pubmed - ncbi
trigoniulus corallinus biology . ( a ) phylogenetic relationships of diplopods and related clades . phylogeny based on regier et al . ( 2010 ) ( not all clades shown ) . ( b ) trigoniulus corallinus distribution . native range indicated broadly ( blue ) , with known introduced populations indicated in yellow . note that introduced t . corallinus may well be found elsewhere . ( c ) adult t . corallinus , approximately 5 cm in length . ( d ) egg capsules gathered in captivity as described in materials and methods . ( e ) egg case dissected to show single egg . in both ( d ) and ( e ) , white scale bar represents 1 mm in length . ( f ) overview of genomic dna sequencing , genome assembly procedures , and final data figures from this study .
rowland m . shelley , robert m . carmany & joseph burgess ( 2006 ) .
introduction of the milliped , trigoniulus corallinus ( gervais , 1847 ) ( spirobolida : trigonuilidae ) , in florida , u . s . a .
. entomological news 117 ( 2 ) : 239–241 .
trigoniulus corallinus has much potential as a model species . although the centipede s . maritima has an already well - developed community and history as a scientific model , we suggest that t . corallinus may be of broader utility as a myriapod model organism . it is a cosmopolitan species available commercially when not collectible in the wild . unlike s . maritima it can be kept in the laboratory and will breed in controllable conditions . although protocols for its use in a variety of developmental contexts remain to be established , there is no reason why this species could not become an important system for developmental biology research .
information from a diplopod outgroup is of wide utility for the discernment of ancestral arthropod characters when compared with better known insect model organisms and new crustacean models , such as the water flea daphnia and shrimp neocaridina ( colbourne et al . 2011 ; kenny et al . 2014 ) . furthermore , the cosmopolitanly distributed diplopod t . corallinus is easily cultivable and will breed in captivity , providing a ready resource for embryological study . trigoniulus corallinus therefore represents a potentially intriguing model for future work in developmental , ecological and evolutionary spheres of scientific investigation , and the initial genomic resources presented here will be of great interest to a variety of fields .
myriapod mtdna interrelationships : tree recovered by bayesian and maximum - likelihood inference of myriapod and panartropod interrelationships , on the basis of concatenated coding nucleotide sequences of 13 protein - coding genes , performed as described in materials and methods . trigoniulus corallinus boxed in red for ease of identification . familial , order , and class level classifications shown at right . note : symphalans are positioned as sister taxa to all other myriapods , in marked contrast to established phylogenies . bootstrap proportions ( as percentage , 1 , 000 replicates ) and bayesian posterior probabilities ( maximum 1 . 00 ) shown at base of nodes . scale bar represents sequence changes per site at unit distance .
mitochondrial genome gene order across the myriapoda , as compared with panarthropod and hexapod ground patterns , with that of t . corallinus boxed in red . note similarities to n . annularus , also a member of the spirobollidae . genes colored for ease of recognition .
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) gerstäcker , a . ( 1873 ) . die gliederthier - fauna des sansibar - gebietes . 1 - 542 . leipzig , heidelberg page ( s ) : 516 ; note : spirobolus lumbricinus , syn by shelley , 1999 [ details ]
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) gervais , p . ( 1847 ) . myriapodes . in : walckenaer , hist . natur . des insectes . aptères iv , 4 : 1 - 623 . paris , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 171 [ details ]
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 103 [ details ]
novel mycin sequences : alignment of known mycin ( antifungal ) genes from d . melanogaster , caenhorhabditis remanei , and novel mycins from t . corallinus . alignment visualized in jalview , colored with clustalx identity . note regions of high conservation around shared cysteine residues , with more divergence elsewhere , particularly at the n terminus of these sequences .
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) pocock , r . i . ( 1888 ) . contribution to our knowledge of the myriapoda of dominica . annals and magazine of natural history , ser . 6 , 2 page ( s ) : 481 ; note : spirobolus dominicae , syn by shelley , 1999 [ details ]
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) porat , c . o . von ( 1876 ) . om några exotiska myriopoder . kongl . svenska vetenskaps - akademiens handlingar , bihang , 4 ( 7 ) : 3 - 48 . stockholm page ( s ) : 136 ; note : spirobolus göesi , syn by shelley , 1999 [ details ]
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) enghoff , h . ; golovatch , s . i . ; nguyen duc , a . ( 2004 ) . a review of the millipede fauna of vietnam ( diplopoda ) . arthropoda selecta , 13 ( 1 - 2 ) : 29 - 43 . moscow page ( s ) : 35 [ details ]
the organization of the t . corallinus ( myriapoda : trigoniulidae ) mitochondrial genome . orientation of genes ( transcription clockwise or anticlockwise represented outside or inside the form , respectively ) is represented by the outside circle . local gc content , ( gc dark blue , at light blue ) represented on the inner ring . image displayed in organellargenomedraw ( ) . photograph by the authors .
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) bollman , c . h . ( 1888 ) . description of a new species of insect , fontaria pulchella , from strawberry plains , jefferson county , tenn . proceedings of the united states national museum , 11 : 316 page ( s ) : 214 ; note : spirobolus sanctae - luciae , syn by shelley , 1999 [ details ]
the organization of the t . corallinus ( myriapoda : trigoniulidae ) mitochondrial genome . orientation of genes ( transcription clockwise or anticlockwise represented outside or inside the form , respectively ) is represented by the outside circle . local gc content , ( gc dark blue , at light blue ) represented on the inner ring . image displayed in organellargenomedraw ( lohse et al . 2007 ) . photograph by the authors .
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) koch , c . l . ( 1847 ) . system der myriapoden mit den verzeichnissen und berichtigungen zu deutschlands crustaceen , myriapoden und arachniden . in : panzer & herrich - schäffer , a . : kritische revision der insectenfaune deutschlands , iii . bändchen , regensburg , 1 - 196 . regensburg , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 202 [ details ]
myriapods have been previously noted as displaying diversity in mtdna sequence and gene structure ( e . g . , gai et al . 2008 ; lavrov et al . 2002 ) , and the sequencing of the t . corallinus genome provided an ideal opportunity to add to our presently poor sampling of myriapod mtdna sequences—as of october 28 , 2014 , 14 myriapod mtdna sequences were available in public sources , a fraction of the 13 , 000 extant species of this clade .
in some ways the terrestrial lifestyle of t . corallinus suggests that it may possess more ancestrally shared characters than s . maritima , given the subterranean , marine lifestyle of the latter species . this is borne out by investigation of known gene families , whose absence in s . maritima could not previously be discerned to have resulted from selective pressure in the geophilomorph centipedes or ancestral loss . perhaps unsurprisingly , given the presence of classical ocelli in this species , canonical opsin genes are found in this genome . classical circadian clock - driving proteins , such as period ( per ) , clock ( clk ) and cycle ( cyc ) , are all found in the t . corallinus genome ( supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online ) , further reinforcing the lineage - specific nature of loss in the s . maritima resource ( chipman et al . 2014 ) . the presence of such genes robustly underlines the utility of a diplopod genomic resource .
( of iulus corallinus eydoux & souleyet , 1842 ) hoffman , r . l . ; golovatch , s . i . ; adis , j . ; demorais , j . w . ( 2002 ) . 5 . 2 diplopoda . adis , joachim [ ed . ] . amazonian arachnida and myriapoda : identification keys to all classes , orders , families , some genera , and lists of known terrestrial species . pensoft : 505 - 533 , 505 - 533 . sofia , moscow page ( s ) : 533 [ details ]
cegma ( parra et al . 2007 , 2009 ) results showing coverage of the expected metazoan gene complement are excellent—171 / 248 ultraconserved core eukaryotic genes ( cegs ) are recovered as present in our data ( 68 . 95 % ) . from blast results ( tblastn , e < 10 − 9 ) , 432 / 458 kog groups ( 94 . 3 % ) were shown to be present as noted in supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online , with 349 / 458 ( 76 . 2 % ) supported by all six species used by cegma . the missing 26 eukaryotic orthologous groups ( kog ) s groups are listed in supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online . as the genome of s . maritima contained 95 . 1 % ( cf . t . corallinus 94 . 3 % ) of this data set , we suggest that we have recovered the majority of coding sequence in our assembly , albeit at low contiguity . furthermore , taken together with the results of our targeted investigations into specific gene families , detailed below , we find no evidence for large - scale gene loss in the t . corallinus genome .
the utility of myriapod mitochondrial genomes for the reconstruction of arthropod phylogenetics has been the subject of some recent debate , due to the extensive rearrangement seen in the myriapod taxa ( brewer et al . 2013 ) . the t . corallinus mitochondrial genome appears similar in general arrangement to that of other related millipedes , and particularly that of the only other spirobolid mitochondrial genome yet sequenced , that of n . annularis . by other metrics however , such as at % , the t . corallinus genome is quite different to even that of its closest sequenced relative . these differences have obfuscated phylogenetic inference using mtdna sequences in the myriapoda in the past ( e . g . , brewer et al . 2013 ) and this was also found to an extent in our data , with symphalans posited as the sister group of all other myriapods , a likely artifact , perhaps caused by high rates of change in this clade . further sampling of myriapod mtdna is necessary to unravel the complex and intriguing patterns of evolution seen in these organelles in this clade ( lavrov et al . 2000 , 2002 ; brewer et al . 2013 ) , and our data will be a vital addition to this effort .
other than the hoxl class , our data set also offers interesting insights . as in the centipede genome , a clear dmbx ortholog is identified in the genome of t . corallinus , whose sequence can be found in supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online . its presence in myriapods and thus representatives of all bilaterian superphyla confirms further the presence of this gene at the base of the bilaterian radiation , and , along with its presence in annelids ( takahashi and holland 2004 ; kenny and shimeld 2012 ) suggests a means by which the origin of its role in demarcating the midbrain / hindbrain boundary may be tested .
it was noted in investigations of the s . maritima genome that duplication / paralogs were used to generate coding sequence diversity , where insects use alternate splicing ( chipman et al . 2014 ) . to investigate whether this trait is observed more broadly in the myriapoda , we have assayed cases noted from that species in the t . corallinus genome . the most pronounced example of duplication observed in the centipede was the down syndrome cell adhesion molecule ( dscam ) gene family , where over 100 unique loci were noted ( chipman et al . 2014 ) . using blast to compare s . maritima dscam homologs to our data set ( tblastn , cutoff 10 − 9 ; supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online ) , we recover 43 contigs containing the dscam ig7 domain .
however , care should be taken before assuming duplicates to be present ancestrally on the basis of duplicate loci in s . maritima , as duplications observed in that species are not necessarily shared across all myriapods . for instance , a single copy of gene cap’n’collar ( cnc ) has also been noted as exhibiting paralogy rather than splice variation in s . maritima ( nucleotide and amino acid sequence ; supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online ) , but only a single example is found in t . corallinus . although proving absence is difficult , the clear homology of this gene to its orthologs and our generally high recovery of coding regions of the genome gives us confidence that a second paralog would be spotted if present . the duplication of cnc in s . maritima therefore seems to be specific to that species , rather than a myriapod symplesiomorphy .
the recently published s . maritima genome data set was distinguished by its high levels of conservation across the majority of characterized gene families ( chipman et al . 2014 ) . to further test whether this “prototypical arthropod cassette” was also found in the millipede genome , we compared the complete annotated s . maritima proteome to the t . corallinus genome . of the 26 , 950 peptides in the drosophila melanogaster genome ( bdgp5 . 23 release ) , 15 , 995 ( 59 . 4 % ) possess a putative ortholog in the millipede genome ( tblastn , e < 10 − 9 ) . this is comparable to the number of s . maritima genes possessing a hit in the d . melanogaster proteome . of 15 , 008 s . maritima peptides ( release 23 , downloaded from ensembl , september 18 , 2014 ) , 9 , 168 ( 61 . 1 % ) possess a putative ortholog in d . melanogaster ( blastp , e < 10 − 9 ) .
introduction the rusty millipede ( trignoiulus corallinus ) is a medium to large - sized millipede commonly found in central taiwan ( and in other areas as well ) . the body is brick red in color with pale black bands on the sides . the adult grows up to 5cm in length and can often be found in dead leaves and low rock walls around the botanical garden at dawn or in the evening . individuals are also frequently sighted crossing paved paths . their relatively large size means they are easy to see so squashed rusty millipedes are a common sight in the morning . the rusty millipede however is quite harmless and is in fact a beneficial insect that helps break down dead leaves into organic soil for plants . the rusty millipede usually breeds in summer around july and august . during this time , they can often be found mating in shady areas near rocks or stone walls at dawn or in the evening . though not rare , the species was only formally recorded and classified in taiwan by dr . zoltan korsos in 2004 .
the exoskeleton of arthropods is made up of the polysaccharide chitin , along with a range of cuticular proteins . many kinds of cuticular protein are known , but the cpr family is the most common , with up to 150 genes found in some species of arthropod ( willis 2010 ) . these proteins can be recognized by a conserved , approximately 64 amino acid sequence ( rebers and willis 2001 ) . searches using sequences of known orthology of our data set identified 26 instances of this sequence in the t . corallinus genome . this is slightly fewer than the 39 members identified in the s . maritima genome ( chipman et al . 2014 ) , and as in that data set , both rr - 1 ( flexible cuticle ) and rr - 2 ( rigid cuticle ) associated forms of these genes can be identified , entirely consistent with the mandibulate origin of the rr - 1 family as proposed in chipman et al . ( 2014 ) . the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of these putatively identified domains can be found in supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online .
again similarly to observations in s . maritima , no odorant receptor ( or ) genes could be identified in our data set using a variety of sequences of known orthology at lenient blast settings ( tblastn , e cutoff 1 ) . this is consistent with the findings of robertson et al . ( 2003 ) , who suggested the or family represents an insect novelty . surprisingly we were unable to identify many gustatory receptor ( gr ) genes in our data set , finding only two sequences with clear homology to this family ( sequences , supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online ) , a marked contrast with s . maritima , which possesses 77 of these genes . gr genes are known to have existed in the arthropod common ancestor , and have been observed in arachnids and crustaceans as well as in the centipede , but the marked diversification seen in s . maritima seems limited to that species . a relatively large number of ionotropic receptor ( ir ) genes can be found in the t . corallinus genome , although not as many as the 69 observed in s . maritima . a total of 23 ir sequences ( listed in supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online ) were found in our data set , of all ir classes . this restricted complement relative to the centipede may reflect the use of duplication to build diversity in s . maritima , as noted earlier in this article .
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kenny nj 1 , shen x 2 , chan tt 1 , wong nw 1 , chan tf 2 , chu kh 3 , lam hm 2 , hui jh 4 .
simon f . s . li marine science laboratory of school of life sciences and center of soybean research of state key laboratory of agrobiotechnology , the chinese university of hong kong , shatin , hong kong .
center of soybean research of state key laboratory of agrobiotechnology , the chinese university of hong kong , shatin , hong kong .
simon f . s . li marine science laboratory of school of life sciences , the chinese university of hong kong , shatin , hong kong .
simon f . s . li marine science laboratory of school of life sciences and center of soybean research of state key laboratory of agrobiotechnology , the chinese university of hong kong , shatin , hong kong jeromehui @ cuhk . edu . hk .
pmid : 25900922 pmcid : pmc4453065 doi : 10 . 1093 / gbe / evv070
nathan j . kenny , 1 xin shen , 2 thomas t . h . chan , 1 nicola w . y . wong , 1 ting fung chan , 2 ka hou chu , 3 hon - ming lam , 2 and jerome h . l . hui 1 , *
* corresponding author : e - mail : kh . ude . khuc @ iuhemorej .
data deposition : data has been deposited in ncbi databases ( bioproject prjna260872 , biosample samn03048671 , experiment srx700727 ) and made available for download as noted in text .
copyright © the author ( s ) 2015 . published by oxford university press on behalf of the society for molecular biology and evolution .
this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non - commercial license ( urltoken ) , which permits non - commercial re - use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited . for commercial re - use , please contact journals . permissions @ urltoken
the myriapoda contains greater than 13 , 000 described species and is one of the most speciose metazoan subphyla . recent molecular analysis suggests that the myriapoda is the sister group to the pancrustacea (
) , limiting our ability to draw inferences into myriapod biology , as well as providing only a single outgroup from this clade for comparison to the pancrustacea .
millipedes can be found worldwide performing vital ecological roles as detritovores ( snyder et al . 2009 ; shelley and golovatch 2011 ) , and can be easily distinguished from other myriapods—segments posterior to the fourth from the head have two pairs of limb per segment ( diplosegments ) ( barnes 1982 ) . the oldest terrestrial metazoan fossil is that of a millipede ( pneumodesmus newmani ) dated at approximately 428 myr of age ( wilson and anderson 2004 ) . millipedes have the ability to synthesize a range of defensive chemical components to ward off predators ( shear et al . 2007 , 2010 ) , and a genomic resource will be useful to understand the metabolism of these organisms for a range of research into these novel pathways , which could represent a source for fungicides and other novel bioproducts ( roncadori et al . 1985 ) .
genomic dna was extracted from the organism after starvation using a dneasy blood & tissue kit ( qiagen ) following the manufacturer’s protocol , and sequenced on the illumina hiseq2000 platform by beijing genomics institute ( bgi ) hong kong .
for all analyses , the more complete ( 100 bp + ) data set was utilized . to determine coverage of the core eukaryotic gene cassette , cegma ( parra et al . 2007 ) was run with all default settings . for identification of other genes , ncbi - blast - 2 . 2 . 23 + ( altschul et al . 1990 ) tblastn searches were run using genes of known homology from the ncbi nr database as query sequences . the sequence of the contigs putatively identified was then reciprocally blasted ( blastx ) to the ncbi nr database for confirmation of identity .
gdna sample was sequenced on the illumina hiseq2000 platform by bgi hong kong . reads were provided from an external server , and a summary of these data can be seen in
. the data have been uploaded to ncbi’s short read archive ( bioproject prjna260872 , biosample samn03048671 , experiment srx700727 ) . read quality as assayed using fastqc was found to be good ( lower quartile phred score greater than 31 through to the 100th base for both read data sets ) , as can be observed in
) was selected for further optimization . initial assemblies were used to find expected coverage and average sequenced fragment size , and a final optimized assembly with settings as described in the materials and methods section was performed , resulting in 1 , 305 , 238 contigs with a size of 100 bp or above , before the removal of contaminating sequence .
initial analysis of our read data detected ribosomal gene sequence from non - millipede species . myriapods in general and
) . we therefore assayed our genomic resource for evidence of these species , using known ribosomal rna sequences . although we did not recover any evidence of
) , fragmentary ribosomal rna sequences with blast identity to a number of ciliophoran protist species were recovered in our data set before contamination removal . to ensure our data were not more broadly contaminated with protist sequence , all protist and bacterial genomic data present in ncbi databases as of september 16 , 2014 were used as the basis for comparison and removal using deconseq standalone 0 . 4 . 3 (
) . a total of 71 , 302 contigs were removed from our initial assembly ( 5 . 46 % ) . contigs removed will include shared repetitive elements , and as a result our data set should not be used for making conclusions about such regions of the genome . statistics for the final assembly after the removal of contamination , given for contigs 200 and 100 bp in size and greater , are presented in
of 15 , 008 proteins in the s . maritima genome , 8 , 459 ( 56 . 4 % ) possessed a putative ortholog in our data set ( tblastn , e < 10 − 9 ) . surprisingly , this was fractionally lower than d . melanogaster complement recovery . previous estimates have suggested that 32 % of genes present in the strigamia genome are the result of gene duplication events unique to the myriapoda lineage ( chipman et al . 2014 , phylomedb analysis ) , but the low percentage of centipede proteins recovered in our genome may mean that these genes are largely strigamia - or centipede - specific , rather than shared across the myriapoda .
we therefore suggest that myriapods share duplication at some loci , rather than utilizing splice variation to generate gene - level diversity , as suggested in chipman et al . ( 2014 ) . as duplication rather than splice variation has also been recently noted in the chelicerate ixodes scapularis ( brites et al . 2013 ) , it is likely that the alternative splicing of dscam , and perhaps other genes , has evolved independently in the pancrustacea ( chipman et al . 2014 ) .
) . these are distributed with 22 genes on the majority - strand ( α ) , and 15 on the minority - strand ( β ) . full details , along with start / stop codon and positional information can be found in
online , along with full mtdna sequence and primers used . of the 13 protein - coding genes , the typical metazoan start codon , “atn , ” is used by 12 , whereas
employs “acg . ” six genes , however , use an atypical incomplete stop codon . twelve genes overlap in coding sequence with another , and a total of 510 noncoding base pairs were noted , with 360 of these between the
) , followed by differential patterns of loss or mutation . this species’ mtdna gene arrangement generally closely resembles the unusual arrangement seen in its sister taxa and that of the spirostreptid
therefore seems generally conserved in spirobolid millipedes , and likely predates the divergence of the spirobolid and spirostreptid lineages .
as sister groups with maximal support . most local interrelationships are recovered as expected given previous knowledge ( e . g . ,
) and with firm bootstrap support . however , the location of the symphyla in particular in our analysis , as sister taxa to all other myriapoda , runs counter to many lines of evidence , which generally place symphyla as seen in
) using a range of models supports this topology . the placement of the pauropoda within the diplopoda is also interesting , given the extensive character loss which must be inferred if this is correct . difficulties in resolving deep phylogenetic relationships with mtdna data , both generally in the arthropoda (
) have been noted previously , and we suggest that deeper sampling in the myriapoda is a necessity if mtdna is to be used as a character for phylogenetic inference with confidence , given the high rates of change and reorganization seen in this clade .
insects have been the workhorses of genetics and developmental biology since that field began . we therefore know far more about how genes control development in insects than in any other clade in the arthropoda . with the publication of data from noninsect arthropods , our knowledge of the underpinnings of many developmental processes is maturing greatly ( e . g . ,
genome can also help this process . the sequences of many other key developmental genes and transcription factors are also found in the
genomic data set . high levels of recovery of several well - categorized gene families allow us to both confirm deep sequence recovery in our data set and clarify previously opaque areas of diplopod and arthropod molecular evolution .
) . after removal of all columns containing one or more gaps , a final , 57 amino acid alignment spanning the homeodomain was used as the basis of phylogenetic inference . bayesian phylogeny using the same sequences can be found in
online . numbers at base of nodes represent bootstrap percentages ( from 1 , 000 replicates ) . scale bar at top center represents substitutions per site at given unit distance . colored boxes denote individual hoxl gene families . note :
genes differ in sequence markedly from similar genes , and fall outside their known orthologs . tree rooted using
( underlined , red ) with those of known homology from other species , inferred by maximum - likelihood reconstruction . sequences downloaded from ncbi’s nr database have accession numbers as noted in next to taxa names , whereas others were sourced from the ensembl metazoa web resource (
) . after removal of all columns containing one or more gaps , a final , 68 amino acid alignment spanning the forkhead domain was used to infer phylogeny . bayesian phylogeny using the same sequences can be found in
online . numbers at base of nodes represent bootstrap percentages ( from 1 , 000 replicates ) . scale bar represents substitutions per site at given unit distance . tree rooted using
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the forkhead box ( fox ) gene class of transcription factors is responsible for mediating a broad range of cellular activity . known for its “winged helix” forkhead motif , derived from the helix - turn - helix class of genes to which they belong , these genes are easily recognizable and play key roles in metazoan growth and development (
) . however , how they have evolved is often difficult to discern . the
) , confirming further the sequencing depth of our genome . the identity of these was proven by phylogenetic inference , as can be seen in
) , confirming that losses in insects are specific to that clade . the only absentee from our data set is
the sox family of transcription factors was also targeted for detailed investigation . these hmg class genes play diverse roles in sex determination , growth , and development (
gene , confirming that this loss is specific to the centipede’s lineage rather than shared myriapod - wide . the only exception to the strong orthology with well - categorized sox clades comes in the form of a divergent hmg - box like sequence , found in both
this sequence diverges greatly from known sox clades , and is therefore pulled toward to base of the tree by long branch attraction . the sequence for the
( underlined , red ) as inferred by maximum - likelihood reconstruction in mega . sequences of known homology were downloaded from ncbi’s nr database with accession numbers given on taxa labels or downloaded from the ensembl metazoa web resource (
) . all columns containing one or more gaps were removed and the resulting 80 amino acid alignment spanning the hmg domain was used to reconstruct phylogeny . bayesian phylogeny reconstructed with the same alignment can be found in the
online . bootstrap percentages ( from 1 , 000 replicates ) are given at base of nodes . substitutions per unit distance given by scale bar at base of figure . colored boxes indicate generally inferred sox gene clades , with the enigmatic interrelationships of soxb genes noted .
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( underlined , red ) as inferred by maximum - likelihood reconstruction in mega . sequences were downloaded from ncbi’s nr database with accession numbers as noted in figure or sourced from the ensembl metazoa web resource (
) . after removal of all columns containing one or more gaps , a final , 88 amino acid alignment spanning the t - box domain was used to infer phylogeny . a bayesian phylogeny using this alignment is presented in
online . numbers at base of nodes represent bootstrap percentages ( from 1 , 000 replicates ) . scale bar represents substitutions per site at given unit distance . colored boxes demarcate commonly inferred t - box clades . tree rooted using
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tbx1 / 15 / 20 amino acid sequence . all sequences and alignments used can be found in
suggests that these genes could have duplicated early in the arthropod radiation and undergone extensive gene conversion in the interim , but the lack of evidence of paralogy could also mean that these loci are prone to independent duplication , for reasons unknown .
the recovery of developmentally important transcription factor genes in our data set is near - total . we show evidence of presence of in excess of 80 % of the expected transcription factor complements of a variety of key families , a considerable advance on presently extant data sets , and a figure which compares positively with that found in other genomes . these data will be vital for inferring the ancestral complements and functions of a variety of key genes across the arthropoda .
given the lifestyle of diplopods , the ability to sense and respond to a variety of environmental cues , and particularly the ability to assay the chemical composition of their habitat , is key to allowing them to find food and one another while avoiding predators and the worst environmental effects . the colonization of land by insects and myriapods occurred independently ( regier et al . 2010 ) , and thus it is interesting to consider whether chemosensory genes evolved before or after their diversification .
in s . maritima , no representatives of the odorant binding protein ( pelosi 1994 ) or chea / b families ( starostina et al . 2009 ) could be identified , leading to the conclusion that these genes are possible insect novelties ( chipman et al . 2014 ) . this is collaborated by our data set , where we were unable to note even putative homology to any sequence in our genome when we searched our data set using a number of genes from these families ( tblastn , e cutoff 1 ) . the chemosensory protein ( csp ) family ( pelosi et al . 2006 ) possesses two orthologs in our data set , as seen in s . maritima . these differ markedly in amino acid sequence from the centipede orthologs , however , which may reflect the differences in environments inhabited by these species .
our data set therefore corroborates the hypothesis that the odorant binding protein , chea / b , and or gene families are insect novelties . the csp , gr , and ir families are present in the rusty millipede , but differ greatly in sequence identity and complement number to that found in the centipede . this likely reflects the differences in environment and behavior exhibited by these species , but may also be a consequence of an increased tendency to duplicate genes for the creation of genetic diversity in s . maritima . increased sequencing efforts in the myriapoda will allow testing of these hypotheses further .
myriapods also represent possible sources of antifungal and antibacterial agents . these can be recognized by similarity to known genes in key domains . for instance ,
as with the known mycin sequences , these novel proteins possess clear similarity to the gamma - thionin ( pf00304 ) antifungal domains found in plants , but the differences in sequence outside the core domain mean that they may have novel characteristics . these and other novel bioagents may be of use and interest to a range of biochemical industries , given the often compromising niche inhabited by the millipede .
the resource detailed here represents a vital data set for beginning investigation into the evolution of a variety of traits in the diplopoda , myriapoda , and the arthropoda more generally . it is a draft genomic data set with deep coverage of the coding complement and high recovery of the total expected genome size . with a broader sampling of genomic diversity , our ability to infer the true origin of genes and phenotypes will allow us greater biological insight , and allow firm conclusions to be drawn as to the reasons for the success and diversity of the arthropod lineage . this data set also contains a variety of intriguing findings . millipedes were the first arthropods to emerge onto land , and possess a variety of unique adaptations which have contributed to their success over their 400 - myr old history . this genomic resource will allow us to investigate the diversity of millipede novelties , such as their defensive chemicals and fungicides , with much more vigor than previous studies have been able to accomplish .
we can also be more confident of assertions regarding myriapod genomics with the advent of this resource . for example , the extensive gene duplication seen in s . maritima is far less prevalent in this resource . although some duplication as a means to build genomic diversity seems to occur in this clade , it is of much more limited scope , and the scale of gene duplication seen in the centipede should therefore not necessarily be expected in other members of the myriapoda . our recovery of transcriptomic cassettes also allows a different angle to examine origin and loss of traits in arthropods from a molecular perspective—we can confirm , for instance , the presence of dmbx , foxj2 / 3 , and foxl1 in the arthropod common ancestor , and show firm evidence for the existence of tbx 4 / 5 and soxf in this lineage .
the advent of myriapod data sets will also allow a comprehensive revisiting of how extant gene complements were co - opted into the formation of new organs , particularly oxygen exchange systems , after terrestrialization in insects and myriapods ( e . g . , grillo et al . 2014 ; sánchez - higueras et al . 2014 ) . although genes involved in the development of respiratory organs , such as apterous ( e . g . , damen et al . 2002 , sequence ; supplementary file s1 , supplementary material online ) , are present in our data set , evidence remains to be gathered on any potential role of these genes in respiration in the myriapoda . this is because terrestrialization occurred independently in insects and myriapods , and we are cautious about inferring functional homology between genes in these species without expression data . further research using this genome as a resource will however offer a unique insight into how terrestrialization was accomplished independently in these speciose and successful metazoan clades .
as a developmental and genetic model , there is much that could be learnt from a millipede model species . segmentation , a subject of much interest in the insect developmental community , is presently still to be completely understood in the myriapoda , with janssen et al . ( 2004 ) suggesting that it may even be separately programmed dorsally and ventrally , at least in glomeris marginalia . millipedes may also be of developmental utility for understanding the original opening position of the genitalia in arthropods , given the peculiar cephalic location of this opening in this clade , and for understanding neurogenesis across the arthropoda ( e . g . , dove and stollewerk 2003 ) . millipedes also undergo periodomorphosis—adult to adult molts , with sexually mature and intercalary instars ( verhoeff 1923 ; sahli 1990 ) . understanding how this is regulated , in contrast with the final adult molts seen in other arthropods , is likely to benefit greatly from a genomic resource .
supplementary files s1–s4 are available at genome biology and evolution online ( urltoken ) .
the authors thank the afcd of the hk government for confirming identity of the millipede species . they also thank bgi for their help in sequencing . this work was supported by the lo kwee - seong biomedical research fund and lee hysan foundation to h - m . l . and j . h . l . h .
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zerbino dr , birney e . velvet : algorithms for de novo short read assembly using de bruijn graphs .
zhong yf , butts t , holland pwh . homeodb : a database of homeobox gene diversity .
zhong yf , holland pwh . homeodb2 : functional expansion of a comparative homeobox gene database for evolutionary developmental biology .
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .


this species is native to australia .

the myrmecia ferrguinea has been notably distributed in queensland .

being described in 1876 by mayr , the myrmecia ferruginea has a similar identity to the m. nigriceps .

the appearance of the myrmecia ferruginea is mostly a reddish like colour .

it was once assumed to be a colour variant of the m. nigriceps as well .

myrmecia ferruginea

myrmecia ferruginea - urdu meaning and translation of myrmecia ferruginea , translation , multiple word search ( seperate words with space ) , english to urdu machine translation of myrmecia ferruginea and more .
myrmecia ferruginea is an australian ant which belongs to the myrmecia genus . this species is native to australia .
richness of myrmecia species ( countries with darker colours are more species - rich ) . for a list of species and subspecies see the checklist of myrmecia species or for valid names only see myrmecia species .
the following myrmecia species groups are based on ogata & taylor ( 1991 [ 1 ] ) .
die gattung myrmecia ist unterteilt in 9 artengruppen damit sich die vielen arten dieser gattung leichter klassifizieren lassen .
the genus myrmecia is sub - divided in 9 species groups for an easier classification of the many species .
ogata , k . , taylor , r . w . ( 1991 ) ants of the genus myrmecia fabricius : a preliminary review and key to the named species ( hymenoptera : formicidae : myrmeciinae ) . journal of natural history , 25 , 1623–1673 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .