lachesis stenophrys is a venomous pitviper species endemic to central america .

the specific name , stenophrys , is derived from the greek words stenos , meaning " narrow " , and ophrys , meaning " brow " or " eyebrow " .

no subspecies are currently recognized .

lachesis stenophrys

lachesis stenophrys cope 1876 : 152 bothrops achrocordus garcia 1896 : 22 lachesis muta stenophrys — taylor 1951 : 184 lachesis muta stenophrys — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 137 lachesis muta stenophrys — welch 1994 : 69 lachesis stenophrys — zamudio & greene 1997 lachesis stenophrys — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 313 lachesis stenophrys — savage 2002 lachesis stenophrys — wallach et al . 2014 : 356
snake venomics across genus lachesis . ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of lachesis stenophrys and comparative proteomics of the venoms of adult lachesis melanocephala and lachesis acrochorda .
lachesis stenophrys by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow
snake venomics across genus lachesis . ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of lachesis stenophrys and comparative proteomics of the venoms . . . - pubmed - ncbi
original file name : lachesis _ stenophrys _ ( 1 ) - lachesis stenophrys ( central american bushmaster ) . jpg resolution : 3085x2280 file size : 3890933 bytes upload time : 2017 : 02 : 12 06 : 24 : 24
lachesis stenophrys venom reduces the equine antibody response towards bothrops asper venom used as co - immunogen in the production of polyspecific snake antivenom .
figure 1 . ( a ) female of lachesis stenophrys coiled and displaying a protective posture with the eggs laid . ( b ) newborn of l . stenophrys placed in the terrarium after weight and length measures were taken .
s1 table . proteomic identification of 2de resolved proteins from costa rican l . stenophrys venom .
lachesis stenophrys venom reduces the equine antibody response towards bothrops asper venom used as co - immunogen in the production of polyspecific . . . - pubmed - ncbi
3 . chacón , d . & valverde , r . 2004 . lachesis stenophrys ( bushmaster ) reproduction . herpetological review 35 : 68 . [ links ]
venomous ! bothrops achrocordus garcia 1896 : 22 has been removed from the synonymy of lachesis stenophrys and is now considered to be a valid species by several authors .
s2 table . 2de - separated l . stenophrys venom protein spots recognized by mono and polyspecific antivenoms .
crotalus mutus linnaeus 1766 : 373 coluber crotalinus gmelin 1789 : 1094 scytale catenatus latreille in sonnini and latreille 1802 : 162 scytale ammodytes latreille in sonnini and latreille 1802 : 165 coluber alecto shaw 1802 : 405 lachesis mutus — daudin 1803 : 351 lachesis ater — daudin 1803 : 354 trigonocephalus ammodytes — oppel 1811 : 390 cophias crotalinus — merrem 1820 : 144 trigonocephalus crotalinus — schinz 1822 : 144 lachesis muta — schinz 1822 : 144 lachesis atra — schinz 1822 : 144 scytale catenata — schinz 1822 : 144 bothrops surucucu wagler 1824 : 59 bothrops sururucu wagler 1824 ( misspelled in franzen & glaw 2007 : 262 ) lachesis rhombeata wied 1824 crasedocephalus crotalinus — gray 1825 : 205 lachesis mutus — duméril & bibron 1854 : 1485 trigonocephalus ( lachoesis ) brasiliensis liais 1872 : 306 trigonocephalus rhumbeatus — liais 1872 : 306 lachoesis rhumbeata — liais 1872 : 306 lachesis muta — beebe 1946 : 47 lachesis muta — harding & welch 1980 lachesis muta — villa et al . 1988 lachesis mutus — boulenger 1896 : 534 lachesis muta muta — taylor 1951 : 184 lachesis muta noctivaga hoge 1966 lachesis muta muta — peters & orejas - miranda 1970 : 136 lachesis muta muta — duellman 1978 : 265 lachesis muta rhombeata — hoge & romano 1978 : 54 lachesis muta — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 312 lachesis muta — gorzula & señaris 1999 lachesis muta muta — boos 2001 lachesis muta — wallach et al . 2014 : 355
5 . ripa . d . 1994 . the reproduction of the central american bushmaster ( lachesis muta stenophrys ) and the blackheaded bushmasters ( lachesis muta melanocephala ) for the first time in captivity . bulletin of the chicago herpetological society 29 : 165 - 183 . [ links ]
gutiérrez , j . , c . avila , z . camacho , b . lomonte . 1990 . ontogenetic changes in the venom of the snake lachesis muta stenophrys ( bushmaster ) from costa rica .
distributions of lachesis stenophrys and lachesis melanocephala are shown west of longitude 79° w . distribution of the western andean form , lachesis acrochorda , is shown east of 78°50 w , and extending south to just below the equator . despite close proximity to l . stenophrys in panamá , l . acrochorda retains its own identity southwest of the tropical dry forest barrier that divides them , indicating low genetic flow between ancestors . intergradation between the two populations , in the narrow san blas corridor , is unlikely due to habitat requirements .
thus , we report a successful breeding of lachesis stenophrys in captivity ( ex - situ ) in costa rica , with the main objective of provide venom for scientific purposes as well as study of biological behavior in conditions of captivity .
corrales , greivin ; meidinger , robert ; rodríguez , santos ; chacon , danilo ; gomez , aaron 2014 . reproduction in captivity of the central american bushmaster ( lachesis stenophrys , serpentes : viperidae ) , in costa rica cuad . herpetol . 28 : - get paper here
venomous ! lachesis muta has been split into three separate species by zamudio & greene 1997 . synonymy mainly after peters & orejas - miranda 1970 and fernandes et al . ( 2004 ) , who reject any subspecies in l . muta . type species : lachesis mutus is the type species of the genus lachesis daudin 1803 .
de souza , r . 2007 . reproduction of the atlantic bushmaster ( lachesis muta rhombeata ) for the first time in captivity .
silva - haad j . accidentes humanos por las serpientes de los géneros bothrops y lachesis . mem inst butantan . 1982 ; 45 : 403–423 .
terence m . , d . 2012 .
bushmaster lachesis muta muta
( on - line ) . accessed december 09 , 2011 at urltoken .
iucn , 2011 .
red list : lachesis muta
( on - line ) . iucn red list . accessed december 09 , 2011 at urltoken .
bothrops , crotalus and lachesis represent the most medically relevant genera of pitvipers in central and south america . similarity in venom phenotype and physiopathological profile of envenomings caused by the four nominal lachesis species led us to hypothesize that an antivenom prepared against venom from any of them may exhibit paraspecificity against all the other congeneric taxa .
ripa d . the bushmasters ( genus lachesis daudin 1803 ) ; morphology , evolution and behavior . cd - rom . wilmington , nc : ecologica , 2001 .
at the antivenom / venom ratio of 500 μl antivenom / mg venom , the bcl and bl polyspecific antivenoms and the monospecific l antivenom , effectively neutralized the lethal activity of the seven lachesis venoms investigated ( table 5 ) . the monospecific ab antivenom only neutralized the lethal activity of l . stenophrys , l . muta muta ( cascalheira ) and l . muta rhombeata ( recife ) ( table 5 ) , while the monospecific ac antivenom was unable to neutralize the lethal activity of any of the lachesis venoms studied at the ratio of 500 μl antivenom / mg venom ( table 5 ) .
a brazilian native plant , stryphnodendron barbatman ( family : fabacea ) , common name : barbatimao , may be an effective venom inhibitor in cases of lachesis muta envenomation .
to cite this page : adams , a . 2012 .
lachesis muta
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
to assess this hypothesis , in this work we have applied antivenomics and immunochemical methods to investigate the immunoreactivity of three monovalent antivenoms and two polyvalent antivenoms towards the venoms from different geographic populations of three different lachesis species . the ability of the antivenoms to neutralize the proteolytic , hemorrhagic , coagulant , and lethal activities of the seven lachesis venoms was also investigated .
madrigal m , sanz l , flores - díaz m , sasa m , núñez v , et al . snake venomics across genus lachesis . ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of
exposure of the general population may be limited to those in close proximity to natural habitats which support lachesis species ; exposure will be via bites to the body . ( src )
there is only one species of bushmaster ( lachesis muta ) found in brazil . it is the largest venomous snake in brazil measuring up to 14 . 75 feet in length .
and genus - wide antivenomics assessment of the paraspecific immunoreactivity of two antivenoms evidence the high compositional and immunological conservation across lachesis . j proteomics 2013 ; 89 : 112–123 . pmid : 23747394
amaral , a . do 1926 . 4 . a nota de nomenclatura ophiologica . sobre a differenciacão dos nomes genericos lachesis , trimeresurus e bothrops . revista do museu paulista 14 : 34 - 40
borges - nojosa , d . m . & lima - verde , j . s . 1999 . geographic distribution : lachesis muta rhombeata . herpetological review 30 ( 4 ) : 235 - get paper here
/ case reports / two patients bitten on their hands / by a lachesis muta / were left with permanent contractures , and hypotension and hemorrhage were commonly recorded on admission . one patient was severely confused .
no significant differences were found in the levels of specific antibodies against lachesis venoms present in the bcl antivenom , and the ab and al antivenoms ( s1 fig ) . the highest titer corresponded to the binding of bl antivenom to l . stenophrys , l . m . muta ( colombia ) , l . m . muta ( cascalheira ) , and l . m . rhombeata ( recife ) venoms , whereas the titer of this antivenom against venoms from l . melanocephala , l . m . muta ( peru ) and l . m . muta ( tucurui ) was indistinguishable from that of the bcl antivenom ( s1 fig ) . monospecific ac antivenom exhibited the lowest reactivity against the seven lachesis venoms analyzed ( s1 fig ) .
the bcl and bl antivenoms , and the monospecific l antivenom effectively neutralized the hemorrhagic activity of all the lachesis venoms studied ( table 3 ) . the bl antivenom showed the highest neutralization capacity of the hemorrhagic activity than any of the other antivenoms used in this study ( table 3 ) . the monospecific ab antivenom was only able to neutralize the hemorrhagic activity of l . stenophrys and l . melanocephala venoms , whereas the monospecific ac antivenom was unable to neutralize the hemorrhagic activity of any of the venoms ( table 3 ) .
8 . solórzano , a . & cerdas , l . 1986 . a new subspecies of the bushmaster , lachesis muta , from southern costa rica . journal of herpetology 20 : 463 - 466 . [ links ]
corrales , greivin , gómez , aarón and flores , diego alejandro 2016 . reproduction of south american bushmaster , lachesis muta ( serpentes : viperidae ) , in captivity herpetological review 47 ( 4 ) : 608 - 611
hardy d , silva haad j . a review of venom toxinology and epidemiology of envenoming of the bushmaster ( lachesis ) with report of a fatal bite . bull chicago herp soc . 1998 ; 33 : 113–123 .
the reproductive cycle is seasonal , mating occurs in february and march , the eggs are deposited from june to august , and birthing takes place from august to october but sometimes in november ( chacón and valverde , 2004 ) . in captivity , females reach sexual maturity at approximately 1 . 6 m in total length and at about five years of age ( solórzano , 2004 ) . furthermore , there have been many fruitful efforts to maintain and breed lachesis stenophrys in captivity ( boyer et al . , 1989 ; ripa , 1994 ; de souza , 2007 ) .
/ case reports / after a snakebite by the costa rican bushmaster lachesis stenophrys , a 64 - year - old patient developed cardiovascular shock and coagulopathy . after intensive care and antivenom treatment , he was discharged after 4 days but had to be hospitalized again 3 days later because of abdominal pain and bowel obstruction . an emergency laparotomy revealed a necrotic ileum and cecum , and an obstruction of the superior mesenteric artery . until now , this type of intestinal ischemic complication after a snakebite has not been reported in the literature . the effects of bushmaster venom are discussed .
turner , e . ; carmichael , r . & souza , r . 2008 . dialogues on the tao of lachesis . bull . chicago herp . soc . 43 ( 10 ) : 157 - 164 - get paper here
/ case reports / three out of four cases of snake bite by lachesis muta stenophrys ( bushmaster ) in costa rica were fatal and one recovered after a long period of hospitalization . initial symptoms were similar to those of bothropic envenomation : intense pain , nausea , vomiting , sweating , and excitability , but differing in the magnitude of a tremendous edema and in the absence of intensive bleeding and phlyctenae . we found important alterations in arterial blood pressure and in the activity and concentration of coagulation factors . all patients showed infections , and necrosis was found in at least three of them .
vial , j . l . , & jimenez - porras , j . m . 1967 . the ecogeography of the bushmaster , lachesis muta , in central america . american midland naturalist 78 : 182 - 187 . - get paper here
4 . de souza , r . c . g . 2007 . reproduction of the atlantic bushmaster ( lachesis muta rhombeata ) for the first time in captivity . bulletin of the chicago herpetological society 42 : 41 - 43 . [ links ]
despite the broad geographic distribution of lachesis , antivenoms against venoms of different species are effective in the neutralization of congeneric venoms not used in the immunization mixture , indicating that they can be used equivalently for the clinical treatment of any lachesic envenoming .
junqueira - de - azevedo ilm . lachesis muta ( viperidae ) cdnas reveal diverging pit viper molecules and scaffolds typical of cobra ( elapidae ) venoms : implications for snake toxin repertoire evolution . genetics 2006 ; 173 : 877–889 . pmid : 16582429
araujo filho , joão antonio de , cícero ricardo de oliveira , robson waldemar ávila , igor joventino roberto and waltécio de oliveira almeida . 2013 . lachesis muta ( surucucu , atlantic forest bushmaster ) parasitism . herpetological review 44 ( 4 ) : 692
fernandes , d . s . ; franco , f . l . & fernandes , r . 2004 . systematic revision of the genus lachesis daudin 1803 ( serpentes : viperidae ) . herpetologica 60 ( 2 ) : 245 - 260 - get paper here
martínez , c . v . , & bolaños , r . 1983 . the bushmaster , lachesis muta muta ( linnaeus ) ( ophidia : viperidae ) in panamá . revista de biologia tropical 30 [ 1982 ] : 100 - 101 . - get paper here
/ case reports / a 45 - year - old peruvian tourist was bitten on the upper arm when he put his hand on a rope by a walkway to a waterfall at mazamari , chanchamayo , peru . the / lachesis muta / was 1 . 7 m in tl / total length / . he developed pain , swelling , and bruising ; was mildly hypotensive ; and evidenced great anxiety . he was treated with three vials of anti - lachesis antivenom and transferred to lima , where he made a full recovery .
panel a . 2de protein map of adult l . stenophrys venom . 350 μg of venom was separated on an 11 cm ipg strip with a ph gradient from 3 to 10 ( first dimension ) and on a 4–15 % sds - polyacrylamide criterion tgx gel as second dimension . proteins were stained with coomassie blue . isoelectric point ( ip ) , apparent mw , and relative spot intensity were computed using software imagej . protein identification was accomplished by maldi - tof - tof ms . protein spot features are listed in s1 table . panel b . electroblotted 2de separated venom proteins from adult l . stenophrys probed against commercial polyspecific bcl antivenom ; bl antivenom ; and monoespecific al , ab , and ac antivenoms . protein identifications by maldi - tof / tof ms are listed in s1 table ( supplementary materials ) .
there is only one species of bushmaster ( lachesis muta ) found in brazil . it is the largest venomous snake in brazil measuring up to 14 . 75 feet in length . the viperidae family ( genera lachesis , bothrops and crotalus ) as well as the elapidae family have accounted for all the envenomations in brazil . the extent of the problem is shown in the following statistics : 31 , 148 envenomations in 2011 with 143 deaths ; 29 , 322 envomations in 2012 with 129 deaths and 25 , 302 envenomations with 108 deaths .
this study demonstrates that antivenoms raised against venom of different lachesis species are indistinctly effective in the neutralization of congeneric venoms not used in the immunization mixture , indicating that antivenoms against conspecific venoms may be used equivalently for the clinical treatment of envenomings caused by any bushmaster species .
1 . boyer , d . m . ; mitchell , l . a . & murphy , j . b . 1898 . reproduction and husbandry of the bushmaster lachesis m . muta at the dallas zoo . international zoo yearbook 28 : 190 - 194 . [ links ]
alves , fátima q . ; antã´nio j . s . argã´lo , and gilson c . carvalho 2014 . reproductive biology of the bushmaster lachesis muta ( serpentes : viperidae ) in the brazilian atlantic forest . phyllomedusa 13 ( 2 ) : 99 - 109 - get paper here
lachesis stenophrys ( central american bushmaster ) feeding ,
rattling
and some photo ' s i made . 1 . 0 cb 09 / 2011 something different besides my gaming activity . note : dutchsnake ' s disclaimer : handling without ( experienced ) knowledge and safety precautions could mean the difference between life and death . if you see me handling a venomous snake does not mean you can try it out at home , snakes are just like animals ; unpredictable but can be dangerous . 80 % people dies after a bite from a bushmaster even with antivenom . venomous snakes are not a joke and not to be played with ! i do not own the rights from the music , only sharing it .
in costa rica lachesis stenophrys is the longest venomous snake reaching approximately a total length of 2 . 5 m . its distribution is along the caribbean versant of nicaragua to western and central panama ( campbell and lamar , 2004 ) , and in costa rica is found in tropical and subtropical rainforest on the caribbean versant . it is an uncommon species even though in certain protected areas remains relatively common ( solórzano and cerdas , 1986 ; zamudio and greene , 1997 ) . the species of this genus are the only ones in the new world that lay eggs instead of giving birth to newborns with the possible exception of bothrocophias colombianus ( savage , 2002 ; campbell and lamar , 2004 ; solórzano , 2004 ) .
zamudio , kelly r . & harry w . greene 1997 . phylogeography of the bushmaster ( lachesis muta : viperidae ) : implications for neotropical biogeography , systematics , and conservation . biol . j . linnean soc . 62 ( 3 ) : 421 - 442 - get paper here
hoge , a . r . ; romano , s . a . r . w . l . 1978 . lachesis muta rhombeata [ serpentes : viperidae , crotalinae ] . mem . inst . butantan 40 / 41 : 53 - 54 [ 1976 - 1977 ] - get paper here
initial assessment of the immunoreactivity of the commercial polyspecific bcl and bl antivenoms , and the experimental monospecific b , c and l antivenoms , against antigens present in the venoms of costa rican l . stenophrys and l . melanocephala , brazilian l . m . rhombeata ( recife ) and l . m . muta from different geographic locations ( colombia , peru , and brazil [ cascalheira and tucurui ] ) were done by elisa and 2de immunoblotting analysis .
9 . zamudio , k . r . & greene , h . w . 1997 . phylogeography of the bushmaster ( lachesis muta : viperidae ) : implications for neotropical biogeography , systematics , and conservation . biological journal of the linnean society . 62 : 421 - 442 . [ links ]
the terrariums in which the lachesis stenophrys were housed have the following dimensions : 1 . 2 m ( wide ) x 2 . 4 m ( long ) x 0 . 9 m ( tall ) ; they have a shelter that provides refuge to the snake , ad libitum water supply , and a log and rocks to facilitate the shedding of skin , and some large dry leaves . different layers compose the substrate ; the first layer is made of small stones and rocks , which work as filter and keep humidity inside the terrarium ; then a thin layer of river sand or substrate , and at last a layer of large dry leaves . this substrate composition prevents the animals to be directly exposed to constant humidity , which could lead to severe ventral infections .
/ case reports / in venezuela a patient developed intense sweating , vomiting , watery diarrhea , hypersalivation , conjunctival suffusion , hypotension , bradycardia , and respiratory distress 45 minutes after being bitten by a juvenile / lachesis muta / . this patient also showed neurotoxic signs : divergent strabismus , dysarthria , and dysphagia .
de souza ( 2007 ) , showed that l . muta rhombeata displayed sexual activity after storms or strong raining and furthermore boyer et al . ( 1989 ) , showed that a drop in temperature and an increase in humidity triggers hormonal response in bushmaster females . in agreement , we observed that the sexual activity starts at the end of december in costa rica , when the temperature falls , and continues until march . an interesting point is that the animals ( both sexes ) fasted during the season of mating and breeding , which we found to be a good indicator of the sexual activity of the snakes . in contrast , ripa ( 1994 ) found no sexual activity in lachesis stenophrys females despite the temperature / humidity changes . instead , he found that the use of chemical secretion left by l . melanocephala pairs would trigger a sexual response . on the other hand , solórzano ( 2004 ) showed that the mating season of l . stenophrys takes place during february and march and the females display a biannual reproductive cycle . nevertheless , we had two consecutive breeding seasons by two different bushmaster females . additionally , we found that isolation of females until shed their skins in mating season , and a later reintroduction of the male without removing the skin function as a sexual stimulus .
de souza r , bhering - nogueira a , lima t , cardoso j . the enigma of the north margin of the amazon river : proven lachesis bites in brazil , report of two cases , general considerations about the genus and bibliographic review . bull . chicago herp . soc . 2007 ; 42 : 105–115 .
the bcl and bl polyspecific antivenoms , and the monospecific l antivenom effectively neutralized the coagulant activity of lachesis venoms from the seven bushmaster taxa sampled ( table 4 ) . the bl antivenom showed the highest coagulant neutralization activity than any of the other antivenoms use in this study ( table 4 ) . on the other hand , neither the ab nor the ac monospecific antivenoms were able to neutralize the coagulant activity of any of the lachesis venoms used in this study ( table 4 ) . these data agree with a previous work showing the inefficacy of monospecific bothropic antivenom in the neutralization of the coagulation activity of l . m . muta venom [ 54 ] .
citation : madrigal m , pla d , sanz l , barboza e , arroyo - portilla c , corrêa - netto c , et al . ( 2017 ) cross - reactivity , antivenomics , and neutralization of toxic activities of lachesis venoms by polyspecific and monospecific antivenoms . plos negl trop dis 11 ( 8 ) : e0005793 . urltoken
monospecific antivenoms showed significantly more limited immunorecognition profiles than bcl and bl antivenoms toward venoms of all lachesis taxa investigated . the three monospecific antivenoms , but particularly the anti - crotalic ( ac ) antivenom , exhibited poor binding ability towards most venom proteins , including pla 2 s , crisp , gal - lectin , svsps , pi - and piii - svmps and lao . the average toxin immunocapturing activity of this monospecific antivenom was 16 % ( l . stenophrys ) , 21 % ( l . melanocephala , ) , 21 % ( l . m . muta colombia ) , 9 % ( l . m . muta peru ) , 9 % ( l . m . muta cascalheira ) , 17 % ( l . m . muta tucurui ) , and 19 % ( l . m . rhombeata ) ( panels i of figs 2 – 8 , respectively ) .
comprehensive transcriptomic and proteomic studies across lachesis [ 23 – 26 ] have revealed remarkably similar venom phenotypes comprising seven or eight toxin families , including bradykinin - potentiating / c - type natriuretic peptide ( bpps / c - np ) , zn 2 + - dependent snake venom ( sv ) metalloproteinase ( svmp ) , serine protease ( svsp ) , phospholipase a 2 ( pla 2 ) , l - amino acid oxidase ( laos ) , c - type lectin - like ( ctl ) , and in venoms of the south american species , also cysteine - rich secretory protein ( crisp ) . ontogenetic changes in the toxin composition of l . stenophrys venom result in the net shift from a bpps / c - np - rich and svsp - rich venom in newborns and 2 - years - old juveniles to a ( pi > piii ) svmp - rich venom in adults [ 24 ] .
antivenoms were serially diluted by a factor of 3 ( starting from a dilution of 1 / 500 ) and tested by elisa against the following crude lachesis venoms : l . stenophrys from costa rica ( a ) , l . melanocephala from costa rica ( b ) , l . muta muta from colombia ( c ) , peru ( d ) , the brazil regions of cascalheria ( e ) , tucurui ( f ) , and l . muta rhombeata from recife , brazil ( g ) . antivenom acronyms , bcl , polyspecific anti - bothropic , anti - crotalic , anti - lachesic antivenom from instituto clodomiro picado ( cr ) ; bl , anti - bothropic and anti - lachesic antivenom from instituto vital brazil , niterói , brazil ; al , monoespecific anti - lachesic antivenom ; ab , monoespecific anti - bothropic antivenom ; ac , monoespecific anti - crotalic antivenom . each point represents the mean ± sd of three independent determinations .
/ signs and symptoms / in amazonas state , brazil , 6 . 2 % of patients had vomiting , 0 . 9 % had faintness , 4 . 6 % felt dizziness , 4 . 1 % felt nausea , 2 . 4 % felt abdominal pain , and 1 . 9 % had visual disturbances , symptoms suggesting the possibility of envenoming by lachesis muta .
souza , r . c . g . de ; bhering nogueira , p . ; lima , t . & cardoso , j . l . c . 2007 . the enigma of the north margin of the amazon river : proven lachesis bites in brazil , report of two cases , general considerations about the genus and bibliographic review . bull . chicago herp . soc . 42 ( 7 ) : 105 - 115 - get paper here
human bites by lachesis species are not frequent but when occur cause severe envenoming due to large amount of venom ( 200–411 mg ) injected into the victim and also owing to its toxicity in humans , as reported for snakebites in brazil , colombia and costa rica [ 11 – 21 ] . common local effects include agonizing burning - throbbing pain , mild hemorrhage , edema , and blister formation . these signs and symptoms are accompanied by systemic alterations , such as hemorrhage , coagulopathy , cardiovascular collapse , and by the so - called “ lachesis syndrome” , an alteration of the autonomic nervous system which manifests with profuse sweating , abdominal colic , nausea , recurrent vomiting , watery diarrhea , diastolic and systolic hypotension , and sinus bradycardia , together with sensorial disorders ( uncoordinated march , lapses of unconsciousness ) and serious hemodynamic alterations within 15–20 min after a bite [ 12 – 19 , 22 ] .
the bcl and the bl therapeutic antivenoms , and the monospecific al antivenom effectively neutralized the proteolytic activity of venoms from the 7 lachesis taxa investigated ( table 2 ) . the bl antivenom showed higher neutralization activity than the other antivenoms used in this study ( table 2 ) . the ac monospecific antivenom was only able to neutralize the proteolytic activity of l . melanocephala venom ( table 2 ) . the ab monospecific antivenom was unable to neutralize the proteolytic activity of any of the venoms ( table 2 ) .
several toxic and enzymatic activities of the venom of lachesis muta melanocephala were studied . this venom has many similarities with that of l . m . stenophrys , although there are quantitative differences in venom activities , as well as in the immunodiffusion patterns of these venoms when reacted against polyvalent antivenom . this antivenom was tested for its ability to neutralize a series of toxic and enzymatic effects of l . m . melanocephala venom . a new method to study myonecrosis , based on the quantitation of residual creatine kinase in injected muscle , was used . antivenom was highly effective in neutralizing lethal , hemorrhagic , myotoxic , edema - forming , defibrinating , caseinolytic and fibrinolytic activities when venom and antivenom were incubated prior to the test or , in the case of edema - forming activity , when antivenom was administered before venom injection . on the other hand , when antivenom was injected i . v . at different time intervals after venom injection neutralization of lethality was good , although neutralization of local effects , i . e . hemorrhage and edema , was poor . these results indicate that polyvalent antivenom contains antibodies capable of neutralizing toxic and enzymatic activities of l . m . melanocephala venom . moreover , the partial inability of antivenom to neutralize local effects when administered after venom injection is probably due to the rapid development of these effects once venom is injected . pmid : 3672541
except for the bpps , both polyspecific antivenoms efficiently immunocaptured all the components from l . stenophrys ( fig 2 ) , l . m . muta ( colombia ) ( fig 4 ) and l . m . rhombeata ( fig 8 ) venoms . in addition , the bl antivenom immunocaptured the venom components of l . m . muta from the brazilian localities cascalheira ( fig 6 ) and tucurui ( fig 7 ) . the apparent low recovery of pi - and piii - svmps ( eluting from the rp - hplc column at 40–42 min ) in the immunoaffinity captured fractions of the bcl and bl affinity columns ( figs 2 – 8 , panels b and d , respectively ) may be ascribed to the high affinity of these venom proteins for the antivenom molecules , as has been demonstrated in a previous work [ 25 ] .
/ laboratory animals : acute exposure / the ability of crude venom and a basic phospholipase a ( 2 ) ( lmtx - i ) from lachesis muta muta venom to increase the microvascular permeability in rat paw and skin was investigated . crude venom or lmtx - i were injected subplantarly or intradermally and rat paw edema and dorsal skin plasma extravasation were measured . histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cell was also assessed . crude venom or lmtx - i induced dose - dependent rat paw edema and dorsal skin plasma extravasation . venom - induced plasma extravasation was inhibited by the histamine h ( 1 ) antagonist mepyramine ( 6mg / kg ) , histamine / 5 - hydroxytriptamine antagonist cyproheptadine ( 2 mg / kg ) , cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin ( 5mg / kg ) , nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor l - name ( 100 nmol / site ) , tachykinin nk ( 1 ) antagonist sr140333 ( 1 nmol / site ) and bradykinin b ( 2 ) receptor antagonist icatibant ( 0 . 6mg / kg ) . platelet - activating factor ( paf ) antagonist pca4248 ( 5 mg / kg ) had no effect . lmtx - i - induced skin extravasation was inhibited by cyproheptadine , mepyramine , indomethacin and pca4248 , while l - name and sr140333 had no effect . additionally , both lachesis muta muta venom and lmtx - i concentration - dependently induced histamine release from rat mast cells . in conclusion , lachesis muta muta venom and lmtx - i increase microvascular permeability by mechanisms involving in vivo mast cell activation and arachidonic acid metabolites . additionally , crude venom - induced responses also involve substance p , nitric oxide and bradykinin release , whether lmtx - i - induced responses involve paf .
/ case reports / / out of / 4 cases from costa rica , three of the victims died within 3 - 5 days / after being bitten by a lachesis muta / despite antivenom treatment . they had developed shock associated with massive local swelling and secondary infection , but spontaneous bleeding appeared less common than with envenoming by bothrops species . . . . bleeding from the fang marks / was observed , along with / epistaxis , hematemesis , hemoptysis , and hematuria in the 4 cases . the only survivor was left with severe contractures of the bitten arm .
/ case reports / we report a case of envenomation caused by a bushmaster ( lachesis muta ) in a male child in state of pernambuco , brazil . the victim showed discrete local manifestations , but presented altered blood coagulation 2 hours after the bite . ten ampoules of bothropic - lachetic antivenom therapy were administered , and 48 hours later , the patient showed discrete edema , pain , and ecchymosis around the bite and normal blood coagulation . the patient was discharged 5 days after the envenomation . the prompt administration of specific treatment was important for the favorable outcomes observed .
holotype : nhrm = nrm . according to andersson 1899 : 27 , there are two jars labeled as crotalus horridus , one of which contains a head in rather bad condition which does not belong to any crotalus and
possibly it is the head of a lachesis mutus .
( mcdiarmid et al . 1999 ) ; type unknown fide peters 1960 . holotype : zsm , uncatalogued specimen ( s ) ( lost ) , “habitat non rarus in brasiliae sylvis humidis ac densis sub arborum fronde delapsa” [ brazil ] according to the original description and vanzolini ( 1981 ) , collected by spix and martius expedition to brazil , 1817 - 1820 [ surucucu ]
/ signs and symptoms / the symptoms and signs of envenoming / by a lachesis muta / ( local swelling , blistering , bruising , and necrosis with coagulopathy , spontaneous systemic bleeding , shock , and renal failure ) may be confused with those caused by other pitvipers . however , a distinctive syndrome has been described in a proportion of cases . there is early nausea , abdominal colic , repeated vomiting , and watery diarrhea with profuse sweating . . . . vomiting , severe abdominal colic , profuse diarrhea , hypotension , bradycardia , impaired consciousness , and other manifestations of shock may develop as soon as 15 minutes after the bite , while local effects of envenoming may leave permanent impairment .
in the state of amazonas and in areas nearby manaus , the snakes responsible for the majority of accidents are bothrops atrox and lachesis muta muta , with a percentage of confirmed species of 76 % and 17 % , respectively . frequently , in the absence of the laquetic and bothropic - laquetic antivenoms , the instituto de medicina tropical de manaus ( imtm ) has been using bothropic antivenom in the treatment of laquetic accident . in this paper is related a case of accident caused by l . muta muta ; the patient was treated with bothropic antivenom , and after received twenty ampules of this antivenom , maintained blood incoagulability until the 13th day after the accident . experiments to obtain the potency of the bothropic antivenom for the coagulant and hemorrhagic activities have been done , using bothrops atrox venom as control . the results showed that the potency of the antivenom for the hemorrhagic activity was similar , and the potency for the coagulant activity for the l . m . muta venom was 9 . 2 times minor than that for b . atrox . the antibodies titers from three different lots of bothropic antivenom varied for the l . m . muta venom , and were constant for the b . atrox venom . due to the inefficiency of the bothropic antivenom on the neutralization of the coagulant activity for the l . m . muta venom , the use of bothropic antivenom is not recommended in the treatment of lachesis muta muta accidents .
/ case reports / in the state of amazonas and in areas nearby manaus , the snakes responsible for the majority of accidents are bothrops atrox and lachesis muta muta , with a percentage of confirmed species of 76 % and 17 % , respectively . frequently , in the absence of the laquetic and bothropic - laquetic antivenoms , the instituto de medicina tropical de manaus ( imtm ) has been using bothropic antivenom in the treatment of laquetic accident . in this paper is related a case of accident caused by l . muta muta ; the patient was treated with bothropic antivenom , and after received twenty ampoules of this antivenom , maintained blood incoagulability until the 13th day after the accident . experiments to obtain the potency of the bothropic antivenom for the coagulant and hemorrhagic activities has been done , using bothrops atrox venom as control . the results showed that the potency of the antivenom for the hemorrhagic activity was similar , and the potency for the coagulant activity for the l . m . muta venom was 9 . 2 times minor than that for b . atrox . the antibodies titles from three different lots of bothropic antivenom varied for the l . m . muta venom , and were constant for the b . atrox venom . due to the inefficiency of the bothropic antivenom on the neutralization of the coagulant activity for the l . m . muta venom , the use of bothropic antivenom is not recommended in the treatment of lachesis muta muta accidents .
figures 2 - 23 . map of south american distribution of l . muta muta and l . muta rhombeata . figure 2 shows the standard demographic arrangement of lachesis muta in south america , with l . muta muta occupying nearly all of the amazonian regions ; and the debated subspecies , l . muta rhombeata restricted to brazil ' s atlantic forest belt . figure 23 shows my recommended revision of this distribution based on morphology : l . muta muta becomes restricted to trinidad , the guyana shield and contiguous regions ; and the range of l . muta rhombeata expanded to include the amazonian basin and contiguous areas . there is obviously a high degree of overlap , not unexpected in trinominal classification . this is a true clinal variation within a single species of snake , and subspecific classification best addresses these morphological differences accordingly .
/ other toxicity information / snake - venom proteins form multi - component defence systems by the recruitment and rapid evolution of nonvenomous proteins and hence serve as model systems to understand the structural modifications that result in toxicity . l - amino - acid oxidases ( laaos ) are encountered in a number of snake venoms and have been implicated in the inhibition of platelet aggregation , cytotoxicity , hemolysis , apoptosis and hemorrhage . an l - amino - acid oxidase from lachesis muta venom has been purified and crystallized . the crystals belonged to space group p21 , with unit - cell parameters a = 66 . 05 , b = 79 . 41 , c = 100 . 52 a / angstrom / , beta = 96 . 55 deg . the asymmetric unit contained two molecules and the structure has been determined and partially refined at 3 . 0 a / angstrom / resolution .
l . stenophrys venom proteins were separated by two - dimensional electrophoresis ( 2de ) using an ettan ipgphor iii instrument ( ge healthcare bio - sciences ab , uppsala , sweden ) . for isoelectric focusing , 300–350 μg of total venom proteins in 200 μl destreak rehydration solution ( ge healthcare bio - sciences ab , uppsala , sweden ) including 10 mm dtt and 0 . 5 % ipg buffer ph 3–10 nl ( ge healthcare bio - sciences ab , uppsala , sweden ) were loaded on a 11 cm ipg strip , ph 3–10 ( ge healthcare bio - sciences ab , uppsala , sweden ) and then focused using the following electrophoretic conditions : 500 v for 30 min , 1000 v for 30 min and 5000 v for 80 min . after isoelectric focusing , sds - page was performed under reducing conditions in 4–15 % criterion tgx precast 11 cm gels ( bio - rad , usa ) . an unstained protein molecular weight marker ( fermentas ) was included in the analysis . gels were stained using bio - safe coomassie stain ( bio - rad , usa ) or plusone silver staining kit ( ge healthcare ab , uppsala , sweden ) following the manufacturer´s instructions , and images were taken with chemidoc xrs imaging system ( biorad , usa ) . spot identification was done using the collaborative bioimage informatics platform icy [ 34 ] and quantified as relative density percentage using imagej software [ 35 ] .
/ other toxicity information / the kinetic behavior of a thrombin - like enzyme from lachesis muta muta venom has been studied with 13 tripeptidyl p - nitroanilide substrates . eight substrates were unprotected at the n terminus and were used for the regression analysis of the experimentally determined kinetic parameters 1 / km , kcat and kcat / km . the individual contribution of each amino acid side chain to the kinetic parameters was calculated . the amino acid sequence of the ideal substrate ( d - pro - leu - arg - pna ) was determined from a regression analysis for each kinetic parameter . this result was confirmed experimentally . the structural analysis of the tripeptides showed that the binding to the s3 sub - site had a small effect on km . the binding of l - leu to the s2 sub - site increased kcat without changing the value of km . the analysis of the kinetic parameters revealed that , in the binding of l - leu to the s2 sub - site , the enzyme bound the transition state configuration of the substrate / product transformation more tightly than that of the substrate .
96 - well plates ( dynatech immulon , alexandria , va ) were coated overnight at 4°c with lachesis venoms ( 0 . 5 μm / well ) in 0 . 1 m tris , 0 . 15 m nacl , ph 9 . 0 buffer . the plates were blocked for 1h with 2 % bovine serum albumin ( bsa ) in 20 mm phosphate , 135 mm nacl , ph 7 . 4 ( pbs ) at room temperature . purified antivenom immunoglobulins were serially diluted by a factor of 3 ( starting from a dilution of 1 / 500 ) in pbs containing 1 % bsa , and added to the wells for 1 h at room temperature . the plates were washed four times with washing buffer ( 50 mm tris , 150 mm nacl , 20 μm zncl 2 , 1 mm mgcl 2 , ph 7 . 4 ) , and anti - horse igg - phosphatase - conjugate ( sigma , st . louis , mo , usa ) , diluted 1 : 20 , 000 with pbs containing 1 % bsa , was added and incubated for 1 h at room temperature . the plates were washed and developed with p - nitrophenylphosphate in diethanolamine buffer ( 1 mm mgcl 2 , 90 mm diethanolamine , ph 9 . 8 ) . absorbance at 405 nm was recorded after 90 min using a microplate reader ( multiskan labsystems ltd . , helsinki , finland ) .
all the in vivo experiments were performed in cd - 1 mice , and the protocols were approved by the institutional committee for the care and use of laboratory animals ( cicua ) of the university of costa rica . lethality was assessed by the intraperitoneal route in 16–18 g mice and a challenge dose corresponded to 3 median lethal doses ( ld 50 ) was used for the neutralization tests [ 37 ] . an arbitrary level of 500 μl antivenom / mg venom was selected to evaluate the efficacy of antivenoms for neutralizing lethality . only this antivenom / venom ratio was used owing to the scarcity of some venoms and also for reducing the number of mice used . death of mice was recorded at 48 h . hemorrhagic activity was evaluated by using the rodent skin test using 18–20 g mice and a challenge venom dose corresponding to 10 minimum hemorrhagic doses ( mhd ) [ 41 ] . coagulant activity was assessed on citrated human plasma and the challenge dose used was 2 minimum coagulant doses ( mcd ) [ 40 ] . proteolytic activity was determined using azocasein ( sigma , usa ) as substrate , as described by gutiérrez et al . [ 42 ] . for neutralization tests , a challenge dose was selected , corresponding to the amount of venom that induced a change in absorbance of 0 . 75 at 450 nm . a summary of reference venom activities ( median lethal dose , minimum hemorrhagic dose , minimum coagulant dose and challenge dose for proteolytic activity ) of lachesis venoms are listed in table 1 .
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
cope , e . d . 1875 . on the batrachia and reptilia of costa rica with notes on the herpetology and ichthyology of nicaragua and peru . journal of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia n . s . ( 2 ) 8 : 93 - 183 [ sometimes said to be published 1876 but see murphy et al . 2007 for clarification ] ] - get paper here
henderson , c . l . 2010 . mammals , amphibians , and reptiles of costa rica - a field guide . university of texas press , austin , 198 pp .
mcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & touré , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists’ league , 511 pp .
monzel , markus & wolfgang wüster 2008 . neotropische grubenottern – evolution , biogeographie und ökologie . draco 8 ( 33 ) : 4 - 27 - get paper here
parkinson , c . l . 1999 . molecular systematics and biogeographical history of pitvipers as determined by mitochondrial ribosomal dna sequences . copeia 1999 ( 3 ) : 576 - 586 - get paper here
peters , james a . ; donoso - barros , roberto & orejas - miranda , braulio 1970 . catalogue of the neotropical squamata : part i snakes . part ii lizards and amphisbaenians . bull . us natl . mus . 297 : 347 pp . - get paper here
porras , l . w . & solórzano , a . 2006 . costa rica’s venomous snakes . reptilia ( gb ) ( 48 ) : 11 - 17 - get paper here
porras , l . w . & solórzano , a . 2006 . die schlangen costa ricas . reptilia ( münster ) 11 ( 61 ) : 20 - 27 - get paper here
savage , j . m . 2002 . the amphibians and reptiles of costa rica : a herpetofauna between two continents , between two seas . university of chicago press , 934 pp . [ review in copeia 2003 ( 1 ) : 205 ]
smith , hobart m . ; langebartel , david a . ; williams , kenneth l . 1964 . herpetological type - specimens in the university of illinois museum of natural history . illinois biological monographs ( 32 ) : 1 - 80
solorzano , a . 2004 . serpientes de costa rica - snakes of costa rica . editorial inbio , costa rica , 792 pp .
sunyer , javier 2014 . an updated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of nicaragua . mesoamerican herpetology 1 ( 2 ) : 186–202 . - get paper here
taylor , e . h . 1951 . a brief review ot the snakes of costa rica . univ . kansas sci . bull . 34 ( 1 ) : 3 - 188 - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
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uetz , p . & jirí hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )
mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
continent : middle - america distribution : nicaragua , costa rica , panama type locality : sipúrio , costa rica .
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madrigal m 1 , sanz l , flores - díaz m , sasa m , núñez v , alape - girón a , calvete jj .
instituto clodomiro picado , facultad de microbiología , universidad de costa rica , san josé , costa rica .
arroyo c 1 , solano s 1 , herrera m 1 , segura á 1 , estrada r 1 , vargas m 1 , villalta m 1 , gutiérrez jm 1 , león g 2 .


murexsul octogonus , or the octagonal murex , is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family muricidae , the murex snails or rock snails .

murexsul octogonus

murexsul cuvierensis finlay , c . c . , 1927 : cuvier island , nw north island , new zealand
scott , i . oct / 2000 : murexsul feeding at leigh , poirieria , 26 ( p . 23 )
scott , i . apr / 1989 : a closer look at muricopsis octogonus , poirieria , 15 ( 6 ) ( p . 6 )
( of muricopsis ( murexsul ) octogonus ( quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
( of muricopsis octogonus ( quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
( of murex octogonus quoy & gaimard , 1833 ) quoy j . r . c . & gaimard j . p . ( 1832 - 1835 ) . voyage de découvertes de l '
astrolabe
exécuté par ordre du roi , pendant les années 1826 - 1829 , sous le commandement de m . j . dumont d ' urville . zoologie . paris : tastu . 1 : i - l 1 - 264 ; 2 ( 1 ) : 1 - 321 [ 1832 ] ; 2 ( 2 ) : 321 - 686 [ 1833 ] ; 3 ( 1 ) : 1 - 366 [ 1834 ] ; 3 ( 2 ) : 367 - 954 [ 1835 ] ; atlas ( mollusques ) : pls 1 - 93 [ 1833 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
maxwell , p . a . ( 2009 ) . cenozoic mollusca . pp 232 - 254 in gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
( of murex peruvianus g . b . sowerby ii , 1841 ) petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1–218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
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version 43 . 0 went live 11 / 6 / 2018 - i hope that the majority of issues have been fixed . my email address is on the home page if you see anything wrong .
the symbols k . a . c . f . m . an . are used to indicate the geographical range of the species . they have been adopted to give an approxomation of the range of each species within new zealand .
marshall , b . a . , burch , k . w . 2000 : the new zealand recent species of muricopsis bucquoy , dautzenberg and dollfus , 1882 ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , the nautilus , 114 ( 1 ) ( p . 18 )
beu , a . g . , maxwell , p . a . 1990 : cenozoic mollusca of new zealand , new zealand geological survey , 58 ( p . 359 )
powell , a . w . b . 1979 : new zealand mollusca : marine , land and freshwater shells , collins , auckland ( p . 170 )
note : localities are approximate , and represent only some of the known localities for the species .
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shell gallery view « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . » conchological megadatabase on mollusks
the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
we want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .
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click on an image to view all the information : family , species , author , date , and full locality .
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sowerby 1841 ( in 1832 - 1841 ) , pl . 195 , fig . 103 ;
, but most species in late neogene rocks are still in need of revision . they established the new species
n . sp . for specimens from 13 - 168 m off eastern northland , from the three kings islands to coromandel peninsula . the subgenus
is characterised by the shoulder spiral cord on early teleoconch whorls being medial on the whorl , and then ascending , and the intermediate spiral cords developes later than the others . in contrast , all species of
( sensu stricto ) have 3 equally prominent spiral cords commencing together on the first spire whorl . the possible application of this subgenus to the many fossil species from new zealand has not been considered as yet , one of the many questions remaining with the taxonomy of the genus .
with two coarsely spinose cords around the neck , but has weaker spiral cords and so shorter spines on the varices . most other named fossils referred here may not be closely related .
in its smaller size , its much weaker sculpture without obvious spines , and in having a smoothly rounded ( not flattened and keeled ) protoconch apex ; it is moderately common in nukumaruan siltstone in hawke ' s bay and wairarapa . the living northland intertidal species
in the young ( haweran , oxygen isotope stage 5a ) cover beds of hauriri terrace , at the mouth of wairoa stream , waverley beach , west of wanganui , according to fleming ' s ( 1953 ) identifications , but this needs checking . if correct , it would indicate that the temperature at wanganui was significantly higher when the terrace cover was deposited than it is at present .
as distinct genera in her catalogue of the muricidae , and has since ( e . g . , vokes & houart 1986 , p . 86 , 87 ; see particularly the statement by vokes 1988 , p . 36 ) consistently maintained them as distinct genera . we agree with this action . merle & hourt ( 2003 ) have since used the distinct genera
as examples of the way in which analyses of the ontogeny of spiral cords in muricidae can elicudate phylogeny ; they included both genera in subfamily muricopsinae .
) . uncommon at only a few castlecliffian fossil localities ( notably the basal shellbed member of shakespeare cliff sand at wanganui , but a few specimens occur in pinnacle sand , upper castlecliff shellbed , and tainui shellbed ) and its ancestry is obscure .
is common subtidally at present ( commonly dredged on the inner - mid shelf around the northeastern north island and in cook strait ) and occurs on intertidal rocks in a few localities in the north - eastern north island , from auckland to doubtless bay .
cite this publication as :
a . g . beu and j . i . raine ( 2009 ) . revised descriptions of new zealand cenozoic mollusca from beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) . gns science miscellaneous series no . 27 .
© gns science , 2009 isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 19705 - 1 issn 1177 - 2441 ( included with a pdf facsimile file copy of new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin 58 in cd version from : publications officer , gns science , p . o . box 30368 lower hutt , new zealand )
occurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed
abundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .
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balitora kwangsiensis is a species of hillstream loach found in southeast asia ( southern china , laos , and vietnam ) .

it inhabits rapid-flowing rivers and grows to a total length of 12 cm ( 4.7 in ) .

balitora kwangsiensis

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
there are a number of species described from viet nam which are likely to be synonyms . this includes :
justification : the species has been assessed as least concern as this species has a large distribution and there are no known widespread threats to the species .
the species has a southeast and east asian distribution . it is known from pearl river basin in south and southeastern china , on hainan island , the red river basin in viet nam and southern china and the ma river basin in lao pdr ( chu and chen 1990 , zheng 1991 , yue
this species is utilized as part of local subsistence fisheries ( m . kottelat pers . comm . 2011 ) .
the species has been recorded from gulongshan nature reserve , guanxi , china , and is likely present in others .
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scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
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known from guangdong province in the drainages of dong jiang , bei jiang and xi jiang , and from the drainages in hainan island and their river mouths ( ref . 33405 ) . found in the red river and nanpan - jiang in yunnan , guangxi and guangdong provinces ( ref . 37823 ) . recorded from lianzhou of guangdong province ; guangxi province : ( yangsu , ningming , longzhou , rongan ) ; hainan province : ( qiongzhong , shiyuan ) ; 7 specimens from lianshan county of beijiang river system in guangdong province , and qiongzhong county of hainan province ( ref . 45625 ) . also ref . 26563 , 35840 , 37823 , 43281 .
max length : 12 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 2059 ) ; common length : 7 . 8 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 35840 )
asia : nam ma basin in laos , red river basin in viet nam and yunnan , and southeastern china .
having body depth 1 . 0 - 1 . 2 times in width ( at pelvic origin ) ; belly entirely without scales in front of anus ; pectoral fin reaching only about halfway between its base and pelvic origin ; 8 - 9 relatively small black blotches along back , surrounded by a paler area ( ref . 43281 ) .
pd 50 = 0 . 5000 many relatives ( e . g . carps ) 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 few relatives ( e . g . lungfishes )
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]