desirable ( 29 march 1981 – 1998 ) was a british thoroughbred racehorse and broodmare .

as a two-year-old in 1983 she won on her debut and then took the princess margaret stakes on her second appearance .

after finishing second in the lowther stakes and the moyglare stud stakes she recorded her biggest victory in the cheveley park stakes .

in the following year she failed to win but was placed in the 1000 guineas and the nassau stakes as well as finishing fourth in the coronation stakes and the irish champion stakes .

after her retirement from racing she became a very successful broodmare , producing the 1000 guineas winner shadayid and several other good winners .

desirable ( horse )

all the latest horse racing form , betting odds , news , breeding , jockey and trainer information for desirable miss . desirable miss is a mare born in 2013 september 28 by snippetson out of chaste
desirable : dry , noble head with a distinctive eye and well - formed elastic mouth .
desirable : from both the front and rear observed movement of the legs straight in one straight line .
desirable : a noble sport horse of a medium body frame , dry joints , well - muscled , with a fine expressed sexual dimorphism .
balidaress , was now the mother of desirable , the winner of britain’s premier group one contest for juvenile fillies .
the current race record for desirable miss is 4 wins from 20 starts with prizemoney of $ 68 , 285 . 00 .
desirable : three - beat rhythm , elastic , powerful , with a good movement of the croup , with flexible hock .
figure 8 : a closer look at hip angles . the horse on the left has a desirable hip with a nice turn and good length . the horse on the right has a very short , steep hip .
multiple reserve populations consisting of free - living individuals organized into appropriate social groupings are desirable for preservation of total species genetic diversity .
desirable : four - beat , the legs move regularly , slightly powerfully , the rear hoofs advance with overtracking of the front hoof .
desirable : relaxed , elastic and flexible horse , moving in a good balance , focused on the cues of the rider and accepting them willingly , flexible , able to maintain rhythm .
horse breeders evaluate animals , direct breeding procedures , and oversee the general care of horses . they combine scientific knowledge and experience to eliminate unwanted traits while retaining desirable characteristics in offspring . desirable qualities can vary by intended use of the animal . recreational riding generally only requires a horse with a calm , quiet demeanor , while horses for performance and racing must meet exacting physical standards .
figure 3 : the horse on the top represents a balanced horse with roughly equal hip and wither height . the horse on the bottom represents a
downhill
horse with withers much lower than hips .
figure 19a : the horse in this example represents a horse with little knee action and a long stride length . figure 19b : the horse in this example represents a horse with a greater degree of knee action .
desirable : willing horse , overcoming the obstacles in a good style and with a reasonable respect , regularly and leisurely moving among the obstacles both during approach and after landing , it is easy to control .
for the wealthy owner - breeders success in the big races is desirable not just for its own sake but what it will do for stud values .
desirable : two - beat rhythm , ample , elastic , marked movement of croup with involvement of the back muscles , the front shoulder is well relaxed .
conformation is the overall body shape of a horse , and will vary from breed to breed . a major part of evaluating a horse is an assessment of its conformation . many breed societies publish lists of desirable and undesirable traits , to assist in the selection process .
desirable : appropriately long , marked withers fluently transforming into the fixed , medium - long , yet flexible back that continues into fixed , well - built loins .
figure 16a : horse with ideal pastern angle . figure 16b : horse pasterns with slightly too much angle . figure 16c : horse with pasterns at much too steep of an angle .
did you find a lot of champions in your horse & apos ; s pedigree ? remember that there is a lot more to a good horse than an impressive pedigree . many thoroughbred riding horse owners brag that their horse is descendent of a famous racehorse . however , what & apos ; s desirable in a racehorse may not be as welcome in a riding horse . for example , man o war was a spectacular racehorse , but he & apos ; s said to have been difficult to handle—not something you want in a pleasure horse !
horse breeders raise and sell horses for racing , performance and recreational use . they select horses with desirable characteristics and oversee breeding procedures . the completion of an animal science bachelor ' s degree program can provide the educational foundation for breeding horses .
desirable : horse with character , behaving well both in the stall and under saddle , causes no serious complications during treatment , correcting , shodding and veterinary interventions , it is of a vivid nature , tough constitution , good feeding behaviour , trainable .
guidelines – the recommended practices to achieve desirable animal welfare outcomes ; they describe better animal welfare outcomes compared to the standards . non - compliance with guidelines will not be an offence .
points on the horse to evaluate muscling include the chest and forearm , loin , stifle and gaskin . in these areas , quantity and quality of muscling can be evaluated . a deep pectoral
v
is desirable in the chest ( figure 20 ) .
desirable : an attentive horse with lust for jumping , focused , with quick , powerful take - off , arched back and neck ( a bascule ) , with a marked movement of the withers upwards , flexible back and open - angle in the hocks .
desirable : medium - long , well - muscled , medium - high set ( almost vertically to the shoulder ) , slightly rounded , lightly and regularly flexible between the head and the withers .
the most desirable are the single - coloured , distinguished silks , especially in the sport’s home country , england . in the uk ( where there are auctions for sought after license plates ! ) there are auctions for the privilege to ride in certain silks in horse racing .
initial stud fees are based on what the horse has achieved on the track , so knowing when to retire a horse is of crucial importance .
figure 10 : the horse on the top has a nicely shaped , refined head . the horse on the bottom has a slight roman nose .
if you own a grade horse , there is a ‘breed’ association for you too . any horse can be registered with the american grade horse registry and it is a useful resource for tracing pedigrees , identification and proving ownership .
bannikov a . g . 1960 [ the wild horse will not disappear ] . international symposium on przewalski horse , prague . priroda i : 70–71 .
to learn about the bones and their angles , we must be familiar with the points of the horse , and following are some desirable bone relationships and proportions ( figure 1 ) . they will be discussed in some detail later , but in general it should be accepted that the horse will be more bio mechanically efficient the closer these relationships are to the ideal .
figure 6a figure 6b figure 6c the shape and tie - in points of the neck also influence the shoulder . the horse in figure 6a ties in high ( white arrow ) while the horse in figure 6b ties in low , giving it a heavier and less refined neck . also , figure 6c shows a desirable 2 : 1 topline to underline ratio of the horse ' s neck , whereas the horse in figure 6b has almost a 1 : 1 ratio , contributing to a straighter shoulder and lower tie in .
figure 2 : the horse on the top represents good conformation — the topline is shorter than the underline . the horse on the bottom represents a horse with a long , weak back — the topline and underline are similar lengths .
way of going , also known as tracking , refers to the way the horse moves . the horse is evaluated both for cleanness and quality of movement .
tim finkenbinder is an accredited judge with the american quarter horse association , american paint horse association , palomino horse breeders of america and the national snaffle bit association . he has served as a judge for the aqha world show , the american quarter horse youth association world show , the all american quarter horse congress , the nsba breeders championship show and many major circuits and futurities . tim has owned or exhibited world champions in quarter horse , paint , palomino and appaloosa competition .
the grey stallion is out of the mare balidaress , who has an outstanding stud record . balideress is the dam of 8 winners , including irish and english 2yo champion park appeal ( by ahonoora ) , irish 3yo champion filly alydaress ( by alydar ) , and of gr1 placed desirable ( by lord gayle ) who is the dam of champion 2yo uk filly shadayid . desirable had been sold for one million guineas at the end of her 3yo career in 1984 .
figure 21 : points to evaluate muscling on the horse when viewing from the side .
another important consideration when examining the pastern angle is to check that the pastern angle and the hoof angle are approximately the same . a horse with a very steep hoof angle when compared to its pastern angle is said to be club - footed ( figure 17 ) . this is undesirable because the steep angle of the horse ' s hoof will not only change the way it moves but also makes the horse prone to foot and leg lameness . additionally , it is not desirable for the horse to have a hoof that is much more angled in comparison to the angle of the pastern .
on the hindquarters , the muscling over the stifle and gaskin should also be well defined but not bunchy . the muscling around the stifle should be the widest part of the horse when viewed from behind ( figure 22 ) . the muscling around the inner and outer gaskin should also be wide and well defined . in general , it is desirable to have a smooth , well - defined muscle pattern over the entire horse .
this is what we look for in a dressage sport horse . we have a picture in mind of what our ideal horse looks like . we should not forget , however , that there is no horse with perfect conformation . therefore , judges must look at each horse and determine where on the scale the horse fits . is he good or less than good ? or is he more toward excellent ? remember , excellent conformation is still not perfect .
is there a best horse breed for a beginner rider ? here ' s a look .
sles i . s . 1959 [ wild horse breeding in captivity ] . priroda 5 .
good conformation is desirable , not because it looks the best , but because it stands up the best . it is always refreshing to see a horse with a conformational weakness perform with excellence against all expectations . we must be aware , however , that , in such a case , the performance occurred in spite of the defect , not because of it .
figure 18 : how structural deviations affect movement . the horse in illustration a has ideal conformation and tracks straight . the horse in illustration b is splay footed ( toes out ) and wings in when tracking . the horse in illustration c is pigeon toed ( toes in ) and wings out when tracking . the horse in illustration d is base narrow and rope walks when tracking .
if you know the breed of the horse , suspect the horse was previously registered , and know the breeder & apos ; s name the breed association may be able to help identify your horse and re - issue the papers . knowing the horse & apos ; s registered name is a great help . you & apos ; ll need clear photos and a description , so they can match the information submitted when the horse was young . some breed associations charge for this service .
conformation is the overall body shape of the horse , and will vary from breed to breed .
a well conformed horse ' s body should be well balanced , and roughly divisible into thirds .
influence of maternal size on placental , fetal and postnatal growth in the horse . development in utero
in this review , we do not address welfare issues in horses that arise from heritable conditions ( reviewed by bettley and others 2012 ) , nor welfare issues related to selective breeding for traits that humans find desirable ( for example , extremes of size ) . nor do we address the welfare issues of horse abandonment and neglect , identified by various equine charities and in the media as being caused by overbreeding of horses ( for example , world horse welfare 2013 ) .
the first priority when looking at a horse is to determine if it is balanced . to begin with , the horse should carry equal weight on his front end and back end and on his topline and underline . this is determined by the skeletal structure of the horse allowing for correct proportion of the horse ' s parts . the neck , shoulder , back and hip should all be approximately equal lengths and the horse ' s topline should be shorter than its underline ( figure 1 ) .
figure 15 : conformation of the hind legs as viewed from the side . illustration b represents a horse with sickle hocks ( too much bend ) . illustration d represents a post - legged horse .
vogelsang says that when a stallion is popular , a high stud fee does not seem to deter mare owners seeking to produce marketable offspring . on the other end of the scale , setting a low stud fee is not necessarily a guarantee of more mares . vogelsang feels that when a horse’s stud fee falls below $ 500 , he looks cheap and less desirable to mare owners .
a horse like that , with that pedigree and those looks , should be making serious money .
the third place a stallion should be evaluated is in the performance arena . competition can both prove a horse’s worth for a particular equestrian activity and promote him to mare owners . “if a horse wins big or earns a horse - of - the - year title , he’ll be popular , ” says vogelsang .
the horse ' s hind legs should also be examined for structural deviations by viewing them both from the side and from behind the horse . when facing the hindquarters of the horse from behind ( standing behind the horse looking at its tail ) one should be able to draw a straight line from the horse ' s buttock through both its hock and fetlock ( figure 14 ) . the hooves on the back leg will not be as straight as the front hooves ; it is normal for these to point slightly outward .
desirable : long diagonal scapula with a well - muscled shoulder , regular posture , dry marked joints , shorter front cannon , it should not exceed 2 / 3 of a forearm , medium long pastern at an angle of 45° – 50° , regular hoof , ample , with a quality coronet .
* the farrier was an individual who shod horses by nailing iron horseshoes to a horse ' s hooves .
grum - grzimailo m . y . 1892 [ the wild horse - equus przewalskii ] . niva 17 .
having looked at the overall balance we move on to assess the individual parts that make up the horse .
we should know the points of the horse , and , if possible , the names of the bones .
when a sport horse breeder first looks at a horse he will be impressed by those qualities which he is trying to produce in his own breeding program . he will evaluate a stallion or mares potential for passing on certain characteristics ; and every horse , including geldings , may provide information on the heritable qualities of the parents .
rated at 132 by timeform , sadler’s wells entered stud in 1985 at coolmore as one of the most desirable stallion prospects in years , with el gran senor and secreto heading across the atlantic and his three - parts - brother nureyev ( northern dancer – special ) departing france for kentucky after one breeding season .
bannikov a . g . 1959 [ the current state and biology of the wild horse ] . priroda 5 .
eregden dagva d . 1959 [ the historic range of przewalski horse in mongolia ] . priroda 5 : 51–52 .
ashton d . 1984 a survey of diseases of the przewalski horse . equus 2 , heft 2 , 179–188 .
question : take the following measurements on a horse you own or have access to : point of shoulder to point of buttock , & height ( in centimetres ) . is this horse 10 % longer than it is high ?
use these simple checks to evaluate and monitor the state of your horse ' s vital stimulus - response network .
it is also desirable for the forearm and gaskin muscling to have definition and be long and smooth versus short and bunchy . when examining the horse from the side , the muscling over the back and loin area should be smooth and defined rather than weak . the back should tie smoothly into the hip without severe angles or bumps . the muscling over the entire topline should be smooth and flow together seamlessly ( figure 21 ) .
mating to correct weaknesses of conformation merits special mention . by way of an example , breeders may breed a long - backed horse to one with a short back , in an attempt to produce a foal with a back of desirable length . however , we know that over 90 % of all mammalian traits are controlled by multiple genes , while simple mendelian genetics apply to less than 10 % . the length of a horses back is controlled by a number of factors . these include the length of the vertebral bones themselves and the width and compressibility of the inter - vertebral discs . each of these factors , in turn , is controlled by several genes , producing the possibility of a large variation in back length . therefore , a long - backed horse might have long vertebrae and normal disc width , while a short - backed horse might have normal vertebrae and narrow discs , and there can be any combination of these variables . in general , the length of a horses back will lie somewhere between the lengths of the parents backs . rarely , the result will be a foal with a longer back than either of the parents . for the breeder , however , the best chance of success is to cull the long - backed horse and breed with two horses both of which have backs of desirable length .
after examining the horse for balance , a close second in importance is structural correctness . a horse ' s structural correctness is mainly determined by the structure and position of the bones in the legs . this is critical because the horse ' s legs take incredible impact in most riding disciplines . any conformational flaw causes deviations in where the horse absorbs concussion . conformational defects affect the horse ' s way of moving and can also lead to future lameness due to excessive stress placed on certain areas of the body during athletic movements . a horse carries approximately 65 percent of its weight on its front legs , thereby making the front legs the most likely area for injuries resulting from trauma or concussion . conformational defects cause deviations in the way the horse moves and places its hooves on the ground , and therefore affects the way impact travels up the leg . the more structurally correct the horse ' s legs are , the more evenly distributed the impact will be and the less likely the horse will be to have chronic or acute injuries .
desirable : regular posture , strong and muscled thigh , slightly leaned long croup , wide strong knee , dry and well - angled ( 140 – 150° ) wide hock , the pastern and the hoof make both one half of the total length and the angle of pastern forms an angle 50 – 55° to the ground .
balance is arguably the most critical aspect to evaluate when examining the horse . balance is essential for both quality of movement and performance in any event , and is determined by the horse ' s bone structure . balance refers to equal distribution of muscling and weight from the front of the horse to the back of the horse , from its top to its bottom and from side to side . however , balance is not determined by the horse ' s weight but instead by proper angles and proportions of different parts of the body . in other words , a horse can be light bodied or heavy bodied and still be balanced if its bone structure allows for equal distribution of that weight . proper balance enables the horse to carry itself in a manner to allow for easy maneuverability , greater power and smoother movement .
all horse owners must have a unique colour combination on their silks . and a combination of owners is considered a new owner . if , for example , mrs smith owns a horse , she has her own silks . if she owns a horse with her cousin mr jones , and the horse is registered with “mrs smith & mr jones” as owner then that “stable” must have its own silks , even if it’s only the colour on the cap that is different .
if , as suggested above , two sets of facilities can be made available , it would be desirable to import an equal number of males and females and establish these in single sex groups , with ten animals ( plus or minus 2 ) in each group . the females when they reach stage ( 3 ) should be joined by a selected male for breeding to commence providing all has gone well with the preceding stages and the mares have reached sexual maturity at this time . for this reason and one other it would be desirable for the male to be one year older than the females and arrive one year sooner . the second benefit of this arrangement is that valuable lessons may be learned from having the more expendable males testing the facilities and systems suggested . as near as possible all males should be of genetically desirable composition for mating with the females , so that eventual selection for the first “herd male” can be based on successful adaptation to the environment of the restoration site .
horse racing had its western beginnings in the military : in that sense , uniforms were the de facto first silks .
this article was published in issn 0023–3285 horse breeding and equestrian sport , soviet monthly magazine no . 4 . 1985 .
klements d . 1903 [ some considerations about the wild horse ] . s - petersburgskiye vedomosti , no . 186 .
when i & apos ; m judging or evaluating a horse , the first thing i look for is overall balance . a horse that has balanced conformation - - with neck , back and hip of equal length - - will generally be a good mover and that translates into good performance . a horse that exhibits correct conformation should be a natural athlete .
judges primarily look at conformation to know if each horse is capable of doing the job we expect of him as a future dressage sport horse and if our mares and stallions have the qualities necessary to produce suitable offspring . each horse should be able to develop into an athlete that will be able to carry a rider with as much ease as possible .
since 2015 , the second phase of breeding follows with emphasizing the stabilization of the desirable type . since 2013 , a premium award has been conferred to the individual horses that conform to the type at the national kk show , which becomes a part of identification of the horse jointly with a record into its certificate of origin , and it is registered in the pk and also in the certificate of origin of the foals born after the awarded parents .
her name was park appeal and she won the group one moyglare stakes at the curragh before repeating her sister , desirable’s , feat by winning the cheveley park . her performance was described by timeform as “comfortably the best by any two - year - old of her sex in a race in britain or ireland in the season . ”
the form of the horse varies with the function it is expected to perform , so that , before attempting to judge a sport horse , it is important to know what type we are looking for and what its function is to be . is it for jumping , dressage , eventing , driving , endurance or any other discipline ? although there are some variations of conformation which are discipline - specific , most of the desirable qualities are common to all sport horses . bio - mechanical efficiency permits ease of movement , which , in turn , reduces trauma and encourages soundness .
muscling is also a consideration when evaluating the horse , though not nearly as important as balance and structural correctness . the quantity , quality and distribution of the muscle are evaluated when looking at the horse from its sides , front and back .
klimov v . v . 1982 [ przewalski horse today and yesterday ] . journal konevodstvo i konny sport 10 : 34–35 .
koudryashov s . a . 1946 [ mongolian horse ] . in : uchyonye zapiski mongolskogo universiteta i , i . i .
polyakov i . s . 1881 [ przewalski horse ] . in : izvestia russkogo geograficheskogo obschestva 17 , i . i .
treus v . d . 1961 [ again on przewalski horse ] . in : konyevodstvo i konny sport 3 : 16–17 .
figure 9 : the horse on the top has an ideal head . note the distance between the eyes and the position of the eyes relative to the head . the horse on the bottom has a head that is too narrow for its length .
undesirable : small or overgrown horse , rough or lymphatic , too long or too short body frame , lacking sexual dimorphism .
evaluate the conformation of these three geldings and place them in your order of preference , then see how your choices compare to our expert judge ' s . plus , learn how to get your horse into horse & rider ' s next conformation clinic .
the final category to be judged , the general impression , counts as the last 10 percent of the score for both breeding - stock and sport - horse - prospect classes . the criteria for the dressage sport horse breeding stock includes masculinity or femininity .
common structural characteristics of the head that are generally faulted are the roman nose and the platter jaw . a roman nose describes a condition in which the front of the horse ' s face is rounded outwards as opposed to being flat ( figure 10 ) . this usually does not affect the use of the horse other than it is not as attractive and often adds weight to the horse ' s head . a platter jaw is condition that describes excessively large jaws on the horse . it also detracts from a refined look and is undesirable because it adds weight and interferes with the horse ' s ability to flex at the poll .
second : horse b horses b and c are a bit more challenging to place , as both lack overall balance and conditioning . however , horse b is my selection for second , as he has much better legs than horse c . this gelding has an average head and neck , and his expression isn & apos ; t as alert as horse a & apos ; s . his slightly thick throatlatch may restrict his flexibility at the poll . although his neck is a decent length as far as his overall balance , like horse a & apos ; s , it ties into his shoulder too low for correct balance and flexibility .
another consideration that can be grouped with balance is depth of heart girth . depth of heart girth is not quite as critical to a horse ' s balance but is considered in this section since it is an important measure of the body ' s capacity to house the heart , lungs and other vital organs . it is desirable for the horse to have a deep heart girth . when drawing a line from the withers to the chest floor , this length should be approximately the same as the distance from the chest floor to the ground and should be greater than depth of flank ( figure 4 ) .
it was assumed that due to the broadening of equestrian sport to include new and mostly inexperienced target groups , such as adult beginners or “weekend leisure riders” , a segmentation of the horse buyers’ market against the background of their personal knowledge about horses and their purchase would be expedient . taking into consideration the background of personal experience in equestrianism , three clusters , the “amateurs” , the “experienced” and the “experts” , could be determined in this study . highly significant differences could be seen in the evaluation of some of the criteria influencing horse purchasing behaviour among the three clusters . it could be confirmed that especially among the “amateurs” , who made up almost half of all the participants , there was a need for objective criteria for the evaluation of the horse for sale . as well as “measureable” qualities such as previous showing success or the training level of the horse , other qualities such as the easy handling of the horse are particularly important , but which are difficult to measure and quantify . combined within the term “interior” , these qualities appeared to lose importance with time , similar to the measureable attributes . horse buyers can form their own “image” of the desirable horse on the basis of their acquired personal experience and are thus less dependent on external sources of information .
can serve as an appropriate model for the target group segmentation of the horse buyers’ market related to the buyer’s riding experience background .
balashov n . t . 1961 [ breeding of przewalski wild horse in askania nova ] . equus i , no . 1 .
why are these qualities important ? a well - set neck makes it easy for the rider to mold the horse into a rounded , stretching - to - the - contact frame . the shoulders of the horse will not be inhibited when he is ridden into an uphill connection . that can be difficult if the neck is set too low . an open throatlatch allows the horse to flex the poll properly . if it’s too thick , the horse can’t yield easily and might have difficulties breathing . if it’s too thin , the horse might have a tendency to collapse the neck at the poll , coming behind the vertical and making evasion easier .
undesirable : unwilling horse , rigidly or flatly jumping , shows too much or no respect before the obstacles , hard to control .
it should be accepted for our purposes that athletic ability in the horse is determined by the phenotype and is detectable by examination .
research the requirements to become a horse riding instructor . learn about the job description and duties , and see the . . .
vogelsang points out that there is a lot of faddishness in the equine industry . there’s no escaping the fact that breeds , bloodlines and even horse colors go in and out of popularity like car bodies and clothing fashions . are your stallion’s bloodlines currently desirable , or are you going to have to promote not only the stallion as an individual but also convince mare owners that his ancestors are worth putting into their foal’s pedigree ? if the stallion does not have a competitive record of his own , does a parent , sibling or other close relative have an established reputation that might create a “shirttail effect” for your horse ?
cutting and reining horses are often closely bred down single genetic lines to capitalize upon their innate ability to “read a cow” and to perform specific athletic maneuvers such as a hard , deep stop . although line - breeding may capitalize on many desirable traits , it tends to also increase the occurrence of undesirable traits , such as developmental orthopedic disease ( osteochondrosis ) .
maximal preservation of genetic variation as well as the exchange of previously existing and newly arisen adaptive genetic variation will occur if periodic migrations of small numbers of individuals between the multiple reserve populations are conducted . similarly , continued bidirectional gene flow between the captive population and the reserve populations - achieved by periodic transfers of individuals ( or their germplasm ) - is highly desirable .
the slope of the shoulder greatly influences the look of the horse ' s neck . a horse with a steep shoulder often has withers that tie into the neck much farther forward than a horse with a good shoulder slope , which leads to a shorter neck topline and a longer back . such a horse will typically have a shorter stride coupled with more weight on its front end due to its longer back . a short neck is typically an undesirable characteristic because it causes the horse to lack flexibility of the neck , as well as typically being associated with a steep shoulder angle . another important consideration when examining the horse ' s neck and shoulder is the point where the neck ties into the chest at the shoulder . it is preferred that the horse ' s neck tie in high to its chest to allow for greater slope to the shoulder and a neater , more refined neck . if the horse ' s neck ties in low , the neck tends to be much heavier at the base and the shoulder is usually straighter ( figure 6 ) .
today’s western performance horse is an exceptional athlete . whether your passion is cutting or reining , team roping or steer wrestling , barrel racing or western pleasure , there’s an american quarter horse out there that can do the job for you . however , it is crucial that you and your veterinarian understand the different demands of each of these sports so that the right horse is selected for the job .
other important considerations when examining the head are nostril size and eye size and shape . nostrils should be large and round to allow maximum intake of air when the horse is working hard and breathing heavily . it is also desirable for the horse to have large , dark eyes set far apart and to the outside of the head to allow for good vision . it is important to understand the horse ' s field of vision in order to understand why eye placement and size is important . horses have more developed monocular vision than binocular vision . the horse sees a different picture out of each eye ( monocular vision ) very well but has more limited binocular vision ( seeing the same picture in both eyes of what is directly in front of it ) . because of these factors , horses with small eyes or eyes that are too close together are faulted because their field of vision may be more limited .
green n . f . and green h . d . 1977 wild horse population of stone cabin valley , nevada : a preliminary report . proc . national wild horse forum . coop . exten . serv . , univ . nevada , reno . pp . 59–65 .
bannikov a . g . 1961 [ the habitat and some biological characters of przewalski horse ] . equus i , no . 1 .
in order to become a thoroughbred horse racing jockey , students can enroll in a racing academy . these academies usually offer . . .
learn how to become a dog or horse racing official . research the job description and education and licensing requirements , and . . .
could your horse be in horse & rider magazine & apos ; s next conformation clinic ? to submit a photo of your horse to be evaluated in our conformation clinic , send us a left - side view photo of your horse ( for digital phots : high - resolution , 300 dpi , in at least 3
x 5
) . make sure he & apos ; s well - groomed , looking straight ahead and standing on level ground - - and try to avoid distracting backgrounds . send photos to : horseandrider @ urltoken .
figure 5 : evaluation of shoulder slope . the horse on the top has a more ideal shoulder with an approximately 45 - degree angle . the horse on the left has a much steeper , straighter shoulder , which can lead to more jarring movement and shorter stride length .
in recent years the hunter breeding national championship has seen a desirable growth in the variety of classes offered . the amateur handler class , judged 100 % on the presentation of the horse and handler , was added in 2013 . it is open to handlers who are no longer eligible to compete as junior exhibitors , and possess current amateur certification issued by usef . since 2015 the championship has held performance classes for both three and four - year olds , and continues to grow to include more performance options for younger horses .
why are these qualities important ? the hind legs and the hindquarters are the engine of the horse . straight legs ( as seen from standing behind the horse ) with correct angles are better for a dressage sport horse’s future . hind legs with insufficient angle in the hocks give a stiff backward push , making lowering of the hindquarters difficult . twisting hocks are never as sturdy and strong and they limit carrying capacity .
bannikov a . g . and lobanov n . v . 1980 [ przewalski horse - hopes and concerns ] . priroda 3 : 100–105 .
tikhomirov a . a . 1898 [ mongolian wild horse ] . in : yestestvoznaniye i geografia , no . 4 , s . petersburg .
ferguson believed he had half - ownership of the horse , magnier said that ferguson was only entitled to a share of the prize money .
when examining a horse ' s hind legs from a side view with the horse standing squarely , you should be able to draw a line perpendicular to the ground that touches the point of the horse ' s rump cheek , the back of the hock and the back of the fetlock ( figure 15 ) . this conformation of the hind leg allows the horse to carry weight well over its hindquarters and reach under itself as it moves to allow for maximum power . a horse that is sickle hocked has too much angle , or
set ,
to its hocks . a horse with sickle hocks will look like it has too much bend at the hock when standing squarely . when the hock angle looks normal on a sickle - hocked horse , the hind legs will often be farther behind the horse than they should be ( camped out ) . this puts extreme stress on the hock joint and surrounding tendons and ligaments and can lead to conditions such as curbed hocks , bog spavin and bone spavin . horses that have the opposite conformation of a sickle - hocked horse are said to be post legged . these horses have extremely straight angles to their hocks . this puts extreme strain on the hock and can also cause bog spavins and bone spavins .
in addition to watching the horse from the front and rear to determine its footfall , it is also important to watch the horse move from the side to determine stride length and quality . in some disciplines and breeds , such as quarter horses and thoroughbreds , the horse should have a long , smooth stride that is very flat with very little knee action ( figure 19 - a ) . for certain breeds such as arabians , morgans and saddlebreds , the horse should have more knee flexion and raise its legs higher ( figure 19 - bb ) . it is important for all horses to bring their hind legs well underneath themselves to power their movement . it is also important when watching the horse move from all angles to be sure that the horse does not
interfere
or hit its legs together at any point in its stride .
breed and sex character ( i . e . , “type” ) refers to how well a horse represents its particular breed and sex . most breeds have unique qualities by which they can be identified . judging a horse by its type refers to judging how well it resembles the ideal horse of that breed . this may or may not be important depending on the expectations of the horse . horses competing in many performance events do not necessarily have to represent a breed or sex well to be competitive . however , for horses competing in halter events this criteria is important .
desirable produced eight foals , six of them winners , the best of them being the classic winner , shadyid . another balidaress daughter , balistroika , produced russian rhythm a six - time group one winner and european champion 3yo filly in 2003 and yet another , alydaress won both the irish oaks and ribblesdale stakes in 1989 . haughey’s filly had developed into a true dam burst of genetic equine affluence .
conformation goes hand in hand with movement because a horse with conformational weaknesses has to work harder when he eventually works under the rider . correctness of conformation is hereditary , so the conformation score of dressage sport - horse breeding stock ( mares and stallions , 4 years and older ) is weighted more heavily ( 40 percent ) than it is for dressage sport - horse prospect classes because we don’t want heritable faults to breed weaknesses that could cause unsoundness in a sport - horse career . the score for breeding - stock movement ( gaits ) is 50 percent of the score .
bannikov a . g . 1960 [ the first international symposium on przewalski horse in prague ] . zoological magazine 39 ( 8 ) : 78–80 .
bikhner y . a . 1903 [ przewalski horse in the view of academician v . v . zalenski ] . saint petersburg ( leningrad ) .
a young charlie haughey with his first trainer , dick mccormick , after his first horse , miss cossie , won at naas in october 1962 .
figure 22 : black arrows point to muscling over the stifle . when viewed from behind , this should be the widest part of the horse .
the horse industry is notorious for its ups and downs when it comes to cash flow . here are some tips for weathering the slow times .
for a breeder purchasing breeding stock , or trying to decide which stallion to breed to which mare , or a rider or competitor selecting a horse for competition , a certain amount of judgment is required . and we all do some form of judging every time we look at a horse .
this paper aims to address that deficit by reviewing the existing knowledge base on welfare issues in horse breeding , and identifying areas in which data is lacking . we then go on to discuss how negative welfare effects associated with horse breeding could be better identified and limited . ‘horse breeding’ is defined for the purposes of this article as the processes which lead up to conception , pregnancy and the management of stallions , broodmares and foals until weaning .
he asked the leading vet ned gowing if he could find anything out of place . “he examined her and then told me to call haughey up and tell him he owns a horse . so that’s what i did . ” haughey named his new horse innocence , in what now seems to have been a flourish of his prophetic flair . the ve day flag burner had just bought a horse whose mother was owned by ve’s day mightiest conqueror .
an overabundance of muscling is the last thing i look for . excessive bulk can cause soundness problems . muscle mass and conditioning don & apos ; t change a horse & apos ; s basic structure . i want to see a horse that & apos ; s structurally correct , pretty , and balanced - - that & apos ; s the type of horse that can win a halter class and go on to do well in performance classes .
a common flaw that negatively affects the horse ' s balance is a back that is long in relation to the neck and hip . an important ratio to consider when analyzing balance is the ratio of the topline to the underline . the topline is measured from the withers to the point of coupling . the underline is measured from a point under the belly between the horse ' s front legs to a point roughly even with the stifle ( figure 2 ) . the topline should always be shorter than the underline in a balanced horse . a longer topline indicates that the horse has a long , weak back , which is often problematic due to long backs having weaker muscling . longer back length also makes it difficult for the horse to bring its hind legs up under its body when it moves . the hind legs reaching under the body are the source of power for the horse to move forward and also allow the horse to maneuver and adjust easily . if a horse is unable to bring its hind legs well underneath its body , more weight must be carried on its front end , thereby reducing its power and maneuverability as well as leading to a more jarring impact for the rider .
there are many different reasons why a horse & apos ; s breed registration papers can be lost . sometimes , if the horse has been bought and sold a number of times , a previous owner will not have passed the papers along . or as we know , sometimes paperwork just goes astray . unscrupulous sellers may sell the papers along with a similar horse to increase its value . along with being inconvenient for the new owner of the now & apos ; un - papered & apos ; horse , this is illegal . whatever the reason , it is sometimes possible to recover the registration papers .
klimov v . v . 1983 [ the processes of growth and development of przewalski horse ] . proc . republican conference of scientific youth , 10 .
finally , the length and turn of the hip is also critical to a horse ' s athletic ability . in general , larger hips are better since they provide more power and musculature to propel the horse forward and carry its weight . almost all disciplines of riding have maneuvers that require power and adjustability .
at first glance , i look for a pretty head - - one with small ears , that & apos ; s broad between the eyes . a clean , slender throatlatch will make it easier for a horse to flex at the poll and work with his head at the proper angle . next , my eyes go to a horse & apos ; s topline and shoulder . everything hangs on the quality of a horse & apos ; s shoulders and back . the slope , or angle , of a horse & apos ; s shoulder determines the length of his neck and back and also the way his front legs are set onto his body . together these attributes contribute to length of stride and balance . the back is the
hub
of a horse , and a short , strong back is essential to a horse staying sound and performing well . distinct withers of medium height will help keep a saddle in place .
in some cases , dna testing can help identify the horse & apos ; s sire and dam . this can be helpful in recovering pedigree information . i
roumiantsev b . f . 1936 [ about the origin of the wild horse ] . in : izvestia an sssr , biologicheskaya seriya 2 , part 3 .
innocence had only ever produced one foal and against professional advice and the accepted tribal wisdom established over centuries of horse breeding , that filly had been sold .
the larger and better shaped the hip is , the more power the horse will have . a horse ' s hip should be approximately the same length as its back . it is also important to consider the way the hip is shaped . the horse should ideally have a
nicely turned
hip and croup . the slope of the hip should be roughly the same as the slope of the shoulder . a horse with too flat of a hip will have trouble bringing its hind legs under itself , while one with too steep of a hip ( a
goose rump
) will lack the range of motion to provide power to the horse ' s movement . additionally , the hip should tie in low to the gaskin muscling ( muscling of the upper leg ) .


chalcid wasps ( / ˈkælsɪd / , from greek khalkos , meaning ' copper ' , for their metallic colour ) are insects within the superfamily chalcidoidea , part of the order hymenoptera .

the superfamily contains some 22,500 known species , and an estimated total diversity of more than 500,000 species , meaning the vast majority have yet to be discovered and described .

the name " chalcid " is often confused with the name " chalcidid " , though the latter refers strictly to one constituent family , the chalcididae , rather than the superfamily as a whole ; accordingly , most recent publications ( e.g. , ) use the name " chalcidoid " when referring to members of the superfamily .

most of the species are parasitoids of other insects , attacking the egg or larval stage of their host , though many other life cycles are known .

these hosts are to be found in at least 12 different insect orders including lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) , diptera ( true flies ) , coleoptera ( beetles ) , hemiptera ( true bugs ) , and other hymenoptera , as well as two orders of arachnida , and even one family of nematodes .

when the host is itself a parasitoid , they are referred to as hyperparasitoids .

a small percentage are phytophagous and the larvae feed inside seeds , stems , and galls , including some that act as pollinators ( e.g. fig wasps ) .

generally beneficial to humans as a group , chalcidoids help keep various crop pests under control , and many species have been imported as biocontrol agents .

copidosoma floridanum is one such species , whose genome is being sequenced by the human genome sequencing center as part of the i5k project , which aims to sequence the genomes of 5,000 arthropods .

chalcidoids are tiny , dark-coloured wasps , typically black or brown , but often metallic blue or green , with complex sculpturing on the body .

they are also recognized by the characteristic reduced wing venation , similar to that seen in other superfamilies of parasitic wasps .

chalcid wasp

get to know the beneficial insect chalcid wasp that preys on the eggs of garden predators .
the species of chalcid wasp my homeowner encountered
swarming
in her attic this spring appeared identical to other similar wasp pictures i ' ve received recently . these turned out to be
a chalcid wasp , order hymenoptera , family chalcidae . it ' s microterys nietneri , thanks to dan for the id .
could you identify this insect from this picture ? brachymeria podagrica is a chalcid wasp parasitoid that attacks filth flies , like those that feed on carrion .
an obscure critter . i ' m guessing that not one in 100 pmps has ever heard of a chalcid ( chal sid ) wasp before . but chalcid wasps are common natural enemies of many insect pests . identified by their small size and giant hind femurs , the chalcididae family makes up one of the dozen or so
parasitoid
wasp families within the bee / wasp / ant order hymenoptera .
fig wasp , ( family agaonidae ) , any of about 900 species of tiny wasps responsible for pollinating the world’s 900 species of figs ( see ficus ) . each species of wasp pollinates only one species of fig , and each fig species has its own wasp species to pollinate it . this…
to learn more about monarch butterflies and chalcid wasps , click on this sentence .
rappaport n , mori s , roques a . estimating impact of a seed chalcid
the alfalfa seed chalcid is attracted by flowering alfalfa and oviposits into immature seed in young developing pods . once the seed starts to swell it is not susceptible to oviposition by the chalcid . this wasp requires a flat , soft pod through which to oviposit . the wasp larva requires the duration of the seed - filling period to develop into a pre - pupa and pupa , and it feeds on the seed endosperm . once the seed ripens the pupa hatches and the wasp chews out of the seed and pod . the wasp will stay in a pre - pupal stage in the ripened seed if it is late in the season and is induced into a winter diapause .
single and double infections with wolbachia in the parasitic wasp nasonia vitripennis - effects on compatibility . genetics143 : 961 - 972 .
to learn more about chalcid wasps and how they infect chrysalises , click on this sentence .
parasitoid wasps are certainly one of the most fascinating and wonderful , yet horrifying , of all creatures . so seemingly cruel in its behavior that theologians and biologists argued over the last 200 years whether the mere existence of insects like the ichneumon wasp ( a cousin of the chalcid wasp ) served as proof against the christian belief in a loving creator - god . *
in combination with alterations in crop closure timing , both sanitation and closing date operate synergistically to diminish seed wasp populations . with a sanitation and closing date management programme in operation , the population of seed wasp in the area will decline over a period of seasons . seed producers need to assess the economics of management decisions that influence the susceptibility of seed crops to seed wasp damage in conjunction with net returns (
chalcid wasps are small insects that lay eggs in soft moth and butterfly chrysalises . wasp larvae hatch from the eggs . the larvae drink the hemolymph ( blood ) of the chrysalis . the chrysalis continues to live and mature for quite a few days . the chrysalis dies and the wasp larvae form pupae . when the wasp pupae mature , adult wasps emerge from the pupae and eat a tiny hole in the chrysalis . the wasps , from a few to hundreds , emerge from the chrysalis from the one or two holes they have eaten in the chrysalis .
hi , i came searching for identification of the same wasp ! my search words were : “small black wasp with strong hind legs” . i found this pupa on a mint leaf ( part of a bunch i had bought from the market ) . i wondered what butterfly / moth caterpillar would like to eat mint leaves which have such strong smell . so i kept the pupa in a jar with ventilation , and after two weeks , today morning i saw a wasp ! now i think i can connect the dots . some lepidoptera caterpillar on the mint got parasitised by this chalcid wasp either at larval or pupal stage . i will release it in my garden so that it can do some pest control : ) thanks a lot .
artokhin ks , 1983 . natural enemies of the lucerne seed chalcid . zashchita rasteni , no . 12 : 45
collecting and preserving chalcid wasps ( hymenoptera : chalcidoidea . ) journal of natural history 16 : 315 - 334 .
a sweep net should be swept through the alfalfa and the contents inspected . the seed wasp will be present in the net if any are in the field (
research indicates that eradication of the seed wasp is not possible . insecticide application is not a means of permanent control . the wasp will always be present where alfalfa is grown and the key to management is to live with the presence of the pest but make changes to the management in order to reduce its impact on seed yield (
some significant natural enemies of the alfalfa seed chalcid are reported . all of them are larval parasitoids from the order hymenoptera .
the records of the wasp in trifolium ( clover ) seed are probably a mistake . clover seeds are damaged by bruchophagus gibbus . the larvae of both species are morphologically similar .
to round out this discussion of chalcids , i should mention two species that display atypical habits — one beneficial , the other harmful . the first of these two oddball chalcids is the fig wasp ( family agaonidae ) , to which nature has given the responsibility of pollinating the commercially important smyrna fig — a tree that can produce fruit only after being pollinated by the wild fig , or caprifig . and because of the peculiar nature of the smyrna fig flower , the fig wasp is the only creature that can accomplish this feat . the black sheep of the chalcid family is the clover seed chalcid ( bruchophagus phatyptera ) , which infests the seeds of several varieties of legumes and is one of the very few harmful members of the chalcid clan .
[ 1880–85 ; < new latin chalcid - , s . of chalcis a genus < greek chalk ( ós ) copper , brass ]
peterson s , 2003 . seed chalcid damage to alfalfa seed in california . international pollination systems , visalia , california , usa . urltoken
. other important references to the chalcid taxonomic literature , with emphasis on the north american fauna , are given in the sections below .
the adult female of the alfalfa seed chalcid has a needle - like structure ( ovipositor ) that is used to insert eggs into immature alfalfa seeds . a single larva ( grub ) develops within each seed and destroys all the contents , leaving only the seed coat . when the wasp emerges from the seed , a hole is visible .
* an interesting discussion of the ichneumon wasp controversy can be found in stephen jay gould ' s essay on non - moral nature in the book hen ' s teeth and horse ' s toes .
de barro j , 2001 . living with the enemy : managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops . publication no . 01 / 135 . rural industries research and development corporation , australia . urltoken
de barro j , 2001 . evaluating and managing lucerne seed wasp in lucerne seed crops . a report for the rural industries research and development corporation . rirdc publication no 01 / 136 , australia . urltoken
about 12 mm in length , this leucospidid wasp is a parasite on the raspberry horntail , as well as being one of the largest chalcids and a superb mimic of the yellow jacket . photo : ron west
, chemical control of the seed wasp is not a viable or sensible option and does not form part of its management strategy . the wasp is exposed for 6 months of the year ( through the dryland and irrigated seed production season ) to insecticides that are used in commercial seed production to manage other pests . resistance of the seed wasp to insecticides including malathion , chlorpyrifos , and a range of synthetic pyrethroids is commonly reported in the seed - producing areas of south australia and new south wales . a similar scenario exists in the alfalfa seed - producing areas of north america , where district - wide sanitation practices are encouraged .
chalcid wasps are not likely to enter an account over and over by accident . if you find chalcids indoors , get a sample and have them identified .
cupressus sempervirens vs cypress seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli : genetic and evolutionary relationships , iufro s7 . 01 symposium physiology and genetics of trees . phytophage interactions .
brewer gj , 1980 . a survey of the alfalfa seed chalcid in central kansas . journal of the kansas entomological society , 53 ( 3 ) : 538
. the following publications that include keys to chalcid families are listed in alphabetical order by area covered ; those with an asterisk also include keys to genera .
in australia , it is known that the wasp is more active in february than earlier in the seed crop season and that the presence of volunteer alfalfa in the area surrounding the seed crop can augment the seed wasp population . the wasp does not develop populations in defined intervals . it has continuing , overlapping generations , which means that all the stages of the life cycle are present at any one time , in any one area and in any one paddock . a spray that kills the adults will have no effect on the pupae , which will hatch straight after the spray has been applied , and almost immediately mate and continue the life cycle (
on the other hand , another chalcid phenomenon — known as hyperparasitism — can work against the gardener , and occurs when a chalcid uses another parasitic insect for its host , thus negating the beneficial effect of the victim parasite . ( in one species of chalcid , this hyperparasitism takes on a bizarre twist in that while the females are parasites of scale insects , the males are hyperparasites that attack the parasites of scale insects . . . including the females of their own species ! )
resulting emergence of males and females of the cypress seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli , from eggs laid in seeds of cupressus sempervirens by unfertilized female m . wachtli .
compared pod - wall characteristics with seed damage and resistance to the alfalfa seed chalcid in medicago species . the findings suggested that pod - wall lignification may reduce seed losses due to chalcid damage . the highest levels of resistance to the eurytomid are found in the annual species , which also had highly lignified pod - walls .
the adult alfalfa seed chalcid is a minute , jet - black wasp . only some parts of the legs ( on the tibia and tarsus ) are yellow - brown . the male is 1 . 2 - 1 . 7 mm and the female is 1 . 3 - 1 . 8 mm long . the thorax protrudes and the abdomen is egg - shaped with a plain ventral part (
from hungary suggested a simple method for separating beneficial parasitoids ( b . bruchophagi , i . perplexus and pteromalus medicaginis ) of the alfalfa seed chalcid from alfalfa chaff .
thoenes sc ; moffett jo , 1990 . infestation patterns of the alfalfa seed chalcid in oklahoma alfalfa fields . southwestern entomologist , 15 ( 1 ) : 15 - 25
it is extremely difficult to briefly characterize or present a key to chalcid families on a world basis , particularly with current uncertainty and controversy over membership of some families .
the chalcidoidea is a widely distributed group that is divided into about 19 families , chief among which are the mymaridae ( fairyfly ) , trichogrammatidae , eulophidae , encyrtidae , eupelmidae , perilampidae , agaonidae ( fig wasp , q . v . ) , torymidae , pteromalidae , eurytomidae ( seed chalcid ) , and chalcididae . some of the leucospidae , largest of the chalcids , reach 15 mm in length .
i found this tiny wasp ( 2 - 3mm ) in leaf litter . black with a bluish iridescence and pointed abdomen . can anyone help with id please . also , is its host likely to be a leaf - litter dweller ?
chalcid
is usually used to refer to any member of this superfamily , rather than only members of the family chalcididae . using
chalcidoid
instead removes any ambiguity .
thoenes sc ; moffett jo , 1987 . emergence from overwintered seeds of hymenoptera parasitizing the alfalfa seed chalcid in oklahoma . southwestern entomologist , 12 ( 1 ) : 33 - 43
if anything , higher level relationships within chalcidoidea are even less well resolved than are relationships of chalcidoidea with other hymenoptera . a comprehensive historical review of chalcid higher classification was given by
the number of described chalcidoid taxa in the world that are currently regarded as valid . pages 9 - 10 in chalcid forum no . 13 . 31 pp . unpublished newsletter .
for a long time this species was identified as bruchophagus gibbus , which damages the seeds of clover and other leguminous plants . gussakovskii described the alfalfa seed chalcid as b . roddi (
nielson mw , 1976 . diapause in the alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( gussakovsky ) in relation to natural photoperiod . environmental entomology , 5 ( 1 ) : 123 - 127
strong fe , 1962 . laboratory studies of the biology of the alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi guss . ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . hilgardia , 32 : 229 - 249 .
many australian seed producers stop the seed production of alfalfa in december so that the crops flower in january and february when the warm / hot weather is optimal for pollination . however , this management strategy permits maximum wasp damage . the producers need to assess their management concepts . by closing a crop 2 - 4 weeks earlier than usual ( e . g . in november ) , harvesting at 100 % ripeness is permitted as opposed to 80 - 90 % ripeness , later in the season and prior to the autumn rainfall . seed wasp damage is reduced by earlier crop closure due to lower wasp populations being present at the time of flowering and seed set . the net return from a seed crop that is closed in the traditional december period is often the same or less than the net return from a similar standard seed crop that is closed earlier . in december , the crop is not permitted to reach complete ripeness prior to desiccation , whereas the crop that is closed earlier reaches full ripeness and has less seed wasp damage .
kral ' ovic j , 1971 . the ecology of the lucerne seed chalcid bruchophagus roddi guss . ( hymenoptera , eurytomidae ) . biologicke prace , 17 ( 3 ) : 2 - 75
tingey wm ; nielson mw , 1975 . developmental biology of the alfalfa seed chalcid on resistant and susceptible alfalfa clones . journal of economic entomology , 68 ( 2 ) : 167 - 168
brewer gj ; horber e , 1984 . field infestation and alfalfa seed chalcid ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) development in different medicago clones . environmental entomology , 13 ( 4 ) : 1157 - 1159
prashar hk ; dhaliwal js , 1984 . biology of lucerne seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi gussakovsky ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . indian journal of agricultural sciences , 54 ( 10 ) : 935 - 940
chalcidoid or chalcid wasps are one of the most diverse groups of hymenoptera ( bees , ants , wasps ) numerically , structurally , and biologically . they range in size from the smallest insect known ,
wasp , any member of a group of insects in the order hymenoptera , suborder apocrita , some of which are stinging . wasps are distinguished from the ants and bees of apocrita by various behavioral and physical characteristics , particularly their possession of a slender , smooth body and legs with…
there is no doubt that molecular analysis of chalcid relationships is an exciting new frontier that holds promising rewards for our understanding of the evolution of the group . however , such analyses seem likely to add to the instability of chalcid classification , at least in the short term , and by themselves seem unlikely to provide a fully resolved pattern of chalcid relationships . in order to fully resolve the evolutionary history of the chalcidoidea it will also be necessary to develop a comprehensive , accurate , morphological - based character matrix for the superfamily . this is an extremely complex and daunting task considering the enormous diversity of the group , but must be done in order to advance chalcid classification beyond the level of personal preference . although no cladistic hypotheses of family relationships based on analysis of morphology have considered the chalcidoidea in its entirety , noyes ( 1990 ) presented a tree diagram illustrating one set of potential chalcid family relationships ( see reproduction in
a word on chalcidoid classification
or dendrogram 1 in heraty et al . 1997 ) . gibson et al . ( 1999 ) reviewed current concepts of chalcid phylogenetics and classification , and this paper should be consulted for a comprehensive list of relevant publications . however , some of the more major molecular or morphological analyses that have investigated monophyly and relationships of chalcid families or subfamilies through explicit character state analysis are listed below . references are given under the primary family or families investigated though the papers often include discussion of other families .
in jhansi , uttar pradesh , india , the chalcid damage resulted in an economic loss of rs . 12 , 000 / ha in 2001 - 2002 and rs . 9300 / ha in 2000 - 2001 (
thoenes sc ; moffett jo , 1987 . emergence of alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) , from overwintered seeds in oklahoma . environmental entomology , 16 ( 3 ) : 774 - 778
all in all , though , chalcid wasps are among the most valuable insects you can have in your garden , packing one heck of a lot of pest control wallop in a very small , totally natural package .
the alfalfa seed wasp is a small insect ( less than 2 mm long ) that can be spread through flight . the larvae develop within a single alfalfa seed and they are easy to spread through the world in the seed trade . it is difficult to find all the stages . . . .
in california , usa , when the fields are divided into two groups ( based on the number of insecticide applications : one to two applications versus three to five applications ) , there are 2 . 3 times more chalcid - damaged seeds found in the three to five insecticide application group , compared to the one to two application group . increased insecticide applications may reduce the predator and parasitoid populations that would normally suppress the seed chalcid populations (
brewer gj ; sorensen el ; horber ek , 1983 . laboratory techniques to evaluate resistance of alfalfa clones to the alfalfa seed chalcid ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . environmental entomology , 12 ( 5 ) : 1601 - 1605
another particularly beneficial chalcid species is encarsia formosa , which has proven helpful in controlling stubborn infestations of the greenhouse whitefly ( trialeurodes vaporariorum ) . because this little wasp lays its eggs under the skins of whitefly larvae , its young will hatch right in the midst of an ample supply of food . ( tests have shown that . this control measure works best in greenhouses with temperatures averaging 75 degrees fahrenheit or higher . in cooler conditions , the whiteflies may develop faster than the chalcids and thus lessen the parasite ' s effectiveness . )
many small wasps and flies that exist in an alfalfa seed crop can be confused with the alfalfa seed chalcid . most of the small wasps are good predators of aphids and heliothis spp . and have long tail - like features ( ovipositors ) , which the seed wasps lack . many small flies such as midges are common in alfalfa , especially in irrigated crops . these midges are most often misidentified as seed wasps because they are the same size and shape . however , midges do not have a shiny jet - black abdomen but have a dull , grey - white one . the other feature that makes them distinct to the untrained eye is that the midge flies away quickly when captured , whereas a seed wasp tends to curl up and ' play dead ' . the midge also flies around people and animals on warm , humid days . the seed wasp keeps at a distance from people (
it is important that the control programme for the seed chalcid starts in the spring , as this species cannot be controlled by insecticide applications during the production of the seed crop . the adult wasp inserts eggs inside the pods , and the larval and pupal stages develop inside the alfalfa seeds . the pest over - winters as pupae in the seeds that were spilled in the previous season or in seeds that were produced by the alfalfa grown in field border areas and roadsides . the adults emerging in may and june lay eggs in the alfalfa seeds wherever they are available , with the most common seed source being the plants growing outside of the fields . several generations of the chalcid are completed each year , with the levels of seed infestation becoming progressively higher as the chalcid populations increase in mid - and late summer . that is why the insecticide treatment has to be directed against the adults before oviposition . the next application is when it is necessary . two treatments , one applied at budding and the other at the green - pod stage , reduce the percentage of infested seeds and almost double the yield (
springer tl ; kindler sd ; sorensen el , 1990 . comparison of pod - wall characteristics with seed damage and resistance to the alfalfa seed chalcid ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) in medicago species . environmental entomology , 19 ( 5 ) : 1614 - 1617
the wasp is an excellent parasite of alfalfa and develops its populations in response to the availability of the host rather than any particular environmental cue such as temperature or day - length . however , the wasp will hibernate ( diapause ) in the winter in response to cues in the autumn . irrigated seed crops within a 5 km radius of dryland seed crops ( or significant pasture or wasteland seed - producing alfalfa ) are infested unless they mature within 4 weeks of the maturity date of the dryland crop . the areas outside the 5 km radius are not significantly affected regardless of the crop maturity date , especially if the crops in this region mature at a similar time . the dryland seed crops and the presence of feral and pasture lucerne in the areas near to irrigated seed crops can be hosts for population development . research has shown that the seed wasp can be found everywhere in the presence of flowering alfalfa : around sheds , gardens , stock yards , fence lines , irrigation channels , check banks , stock raceways , along roadsides and grazing pastures (
arbab a , 2006 . spatial distribution pattern of immature stages of alfalfa seed weevil , tychius aureolus ( keiswetter ) ( col . curculionidae ) , and alfalfa seed wasp , brochophagus roddi , ( hym . eurytomidae ) ( gussakovski ) in alfalfa seed fields . journal of agricultural sciences - islamic azad university , 12 ( 2 ) : pe263 - pe269 .
padmavathi c ; pandey k ; rakesh s ; seth r , 2003 . assessment of losses caused by seed chalcid , bruchophagous roddi guss . ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) in lucerne grown for seed . indian journal of plant protection , 31 : 152 - 153 .
] . about 80 chalcid species are known to be pests of agriculture ( mostly seed - feeders in the families eurytomidae and torymidae ) and some chalcids are considered harmful because they are hyperparasitoids , but most are economically and environmentally beneficial . the large majority of chalcid species are primary parasitoids of other insects and arachnids and as such they are important participants in nature ' s own control system for regulating arthropod populations . in addition to the largely unappreciated role of most species in helping to control what might otherwise be pest species , over 800 chalcid species have been associated with targeted biological control programs . this represents about two - thirds of all biocontrol programs involving hymenoptera , and about one - third of all biocontrol programs in which partial or complete economic control of an insect pest was achieved (
hi folks , finally , i think i have discovered the mysterious source of my chalcid friends ! i was up in the attic this morning . we had a dead rat in one of the traps . all around the carcass of the rat were these brown little pupae . after doing some research , i discovered that these were fly pupae . then , on one site , i came across a photo of a chaclid wasp ( or parasite fly ) depositing an egg into a fly pupa : from : urltoken and here is the likely story : rat comes in and gets caught in the trap , dies . as it decomposed , flies lured to the stench flew in through the roof vents in the attic and did what they do best . later , after the fly maggots went into their pupal stage , the chalcid wasps came and did what they do best . mystery solved ! thanks for your help ! doon
dhaliwal js ; prashar hk , 1985 . varietal resistance and effect of date of last cut and insecticidal application on the control of lucerne seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi gussakovsky ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) . indian journal of agricultural sciences , 55 ( 5 ) : 354 - 357
erdélyi c ; szentkiralyi f ; manninger s , 1979 . data to the interrelationship of damages caused by the lucerne seed chalcid ( bruchophagus roddi ) and the lucerne seed weevil ( tychius flavus ) . acta phytopathologica academiae scientiarum hungaricae , 14 ( 12 ) : 201 - 207
butler gd jr ; ritchie pl jr ; werner fg , 1968 . the effect of temperature on the life cycle of the alfalfa seed chalcid and its parasites . technical bulletin , agricultural experiment station , college of agriculture , university of arizona , no . 185 : 17 pp .
the alfalfa seed wasp is a small insect ( less than 2 mm long ) that can be spread through flight . the larvae develop within a single alfalfa seed and they are easy to spread through the world in the seed trade . it is difficult to find all the stages . the pest only damages the seeds and where alfalfa is used in non - seed production it passes unnoticed . however , it can be found everywhere that flowering alfalfa is available : around sheds , gardens , stock yards , fence lines , irrigation channels , check banks , stock raceways , along roadsides and in grazing pastures . the seed wasp has continuing , overlapping generations , which means that all stages of the life cycle are present at any one time , in any one area and in any one paddock . a spray that is used to kill the adult will have no effect on the pupae and they will emerge immediately after the spray has been applied , and almost immediately mate and continue the life cycle . the wasp is exposed to insecticides , which are used in commercial seed production to manage other pests , for 6 months of the year through the dryland and irrigated seed production season . the resistance of the seed wasp to insecticides is commonly reported in the seed - producing areas of south australia and new south wales . a similar scenario exists in the alfalfa seed - producing areas of north america , where district - wide sanitation practices are encouraged . up to 80 - 90 % of the harvested seed may be infested and this can cause great financial losses .
szocs g ; erdélyi c ; makranczy g ; bus a , 1998 . a simple method for separating beneficial parasitoids of the alfalfa seed chalcid ( bruchophagus roddi ) from alfalfa chaff . acta phytopathologica et entomologica hungarica , 33 ( 3 / 4 ) : 357 - 365 ; 14 ref .
aeschlimann jp ; vitou j , 1989 . observations on the lucerne seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( hym . , eurytomidae ) , and its parasitoids in mediterranean france : a promising candidate for classical biological control in australia . acta oecologica , oecologia applicata , 10 ( 2 ) : 129 - 133
soroka jj ; spurr dt , 1998 . geographic incidence and damage levels of alfalfa seed chalcid , bruchophagus roddi ( hymenoptera : eurytomidae ) , in saskatchewan , and its relationship to weather and agronomic variables and production practices . canadian entomologist , 130 ( 1 ) : 1 - 11 ; 23 ref .
adults longevity of a cypress seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli , emerged from seed yield of 2 - year - old cones cupressus sempervirens in september ( a ) in field , placed into rearing boxes stored in an outdoor insectary at baïnem and nourished with honey water ; ( b ) breeding under laboratory conditions .
research indicates an average total of irrigated seed loss of 67 . 39 kg / ha . a value of a $ 3 / kg to the producer equates to a financial loss of a $ 202 . 16 / ha . approximately 9700 ha of irrigated seed production in south - east australia is susceptible to infestation by the seed wasp . losses to producers in the area are approximately a $ 2 million per season . in 1999 / 2000 , a total of 4993 tonnes of alfalfa seed at a value of a $ 3 . 63 / kg was exported , equating to a value in excess of a $ 18 . 2 million . a $ 5 . 18 million of potential seed exports are lost due to the alfalfa seed chalcid (
trichogrammatid , ( family trichogrammatidae ) , any of a group of tiny , parasitic chalcid wasps , particularly of the genus trichogramma , in the order hymenoptera . adults of trichogramma species are less than 1 mm ( 0 . 04 inch ) long , with pear - shaped wings having a single vein and fringing hairs and…
the relationship between colonization by a cypress seed chalcid and the tortricid was characterized by their presence / absence ratio in 1000 colonized 2 - year - old cones of c . sempervirens . 10 cones were collected from each of 100 trees . cones attacked by m . wachtli and p . tessulatana were identified on the basis of their external appearance , as they dried and opened precociously when compared to cones containing healthy seed . for each attacked cone , the presence or the absence of attack of the chalcid and the tortricid was noted to see whether m . wachtli prefers , rejects or is indifferent to the previous attack of the cones by p . tessulatana .
in my last column ( in mother earth news n0 . 97 ) , i mentioned that one natural , effective means of controlling cutworms and other caterpillars in your garden is to introduce a tiny parasitic wasp species — known scientifically as trichogramma — whose larvae feed upon the eggs of harmful insects . this time around , i ' d like to expand on the use of trichogramma and other chalcids as a natural means of controlling insect pests in your garden .
seed wasps develop populations where alfalfa is flowering and setting seed . sanitation practices such as mowing , grazing and herbicide spraying significantly reduce the presence of the wasps in the seed crops by reducing the availability of the alfalfa outside the seed crop for population development . australian alfalfa seed producers can individually and in co - operation with the adjacent landowners / seed producers , implement simple sanitation practices on a wide scale level to reduce seed wasp populations and damages to the seed crops .
the chalcid fauna of the ussr ( chalcidoidea ) . keys to the fauna of the ussr . zoological institute of the academy of sciences of the ussr , no . 44 , moscow , ussr . 574 pp . ( in russian ) . [ english translation : israel program for scientific translations , jerusalem , israel , 1963 . 593 pp . ]
the tortricid pseudococcyx tessulatana staudinger ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) and the seed chalcid m . wachtli also found in algeria ( bouaziz 1993 ; bouaziz and chakali 1997 ) seemed to cause significant damage ( guido et al . 1995 ; roques and raimbault 1986 ; zocchi 1963 ) . however , their exact distribution , and their biology , remains unstudied in algeria .
variety was centralized on two scales , a lower and a medium . the medium cone scale was significantly more colonized than the lower one ( number of holes = 40 , f 7 , 30 = 28 . 24 , p = 0 . 00 ) . thus , attack strategy by both the chalcid and tortricid varied according to the cypress species and location of attack on the cone .
research has shown that by reducing the presence of flowering alfalfa around sheds , gardens , stock yards , fence lines , irrigation channels , check banks , stock raceways , along roadsides and in grazing pastures , the presence of the seed wasp in seed crops is reduced . the best results are obtained by maintaining those sanitation efforts from the time that the alfalfa first flowers through to when the seed crops have finished flowering . in practice this may require a combination of grazing , spraying and mowing two or three times in a single season .
de barro ( 2001a , b ) in australia named two species of parasitic wasps that were collected from the reared wasps . i . perplexus and p . sequester hatched in late november at a ratio of 2 : 1 females to males . these wasps were collected from offal from across the district , providing evidence that they are widespread but in low populations . they have also been detected in forbes and deniliquin in new south wales . according to the author , very little is known about the biology of these wasp parasites but they are worth investigating as a biological control option .
cultural practices are important in managing this pest . in the spring , the cultivation of the soil using a disc cultivator and irrigation kills infested seeds on the soil surface . clipping - back established stands helps to delay bloom , provides a shorter pollination window and reduces the time that the green pods are available for egg laying . the elimination of volunteer alfalfa along roadsides and ditch banks is also important in minimizing seed chalcid populations (
) , but are beneficial as the obligate pollinators of figs . some members of five other families ( eulophidae , eurytomidae , pteromalidae , tanaostigmatidae and torymidae ) are seed - feeders or gall - formers on plants , though for many chalcids reared from galls it is not known whether they are primary gall - formers , or inquilines or parasitoids in the galls . john noyes provides a concise summary of known chalcid biology by family in
in addition to their devouring other insects in the embryonic or larval forms , certain chalcid species display a number of unusual , and therefore interesting , habits . for example , some chalcids are well known for polyembryony , in which anywhere from ten to over a thousand larvae develop from each egg . . . good news for the gardener who ' s plagued with insect pests and wants to introduce a large number of beneficial parasites quickly and with little effort .
the green cypress ( cupressus sempervirens l . , pinales : cupressaceae ) is of great interest for ornamental , reforestation and windbreak use in the entire mediterranean basin . it is well adaptated to the various mediterranean conditions and resists long dry periods as well as cold extremes . the entomological fauna that exploits cupressaceae seeds is well known . roques and battisti ( 1999 ) mention nine insects and acarina species found in cypress seeds and cones in natural forests , and in plantations , seedbeds , seed orchards or urban trees of the mediterranean area . these authors showed how insects specialized in seed exploitation . the seed chalcid , megastigmus wachtli seitner ( hymenoptera : torymidae ) , and seed bugs , orsillus ( dallas ) ( heteroptera : lygaeidae ) , limit seed yields , particularly in seed orchards . a total of 21 megastigmus seed chalcid species are recognized in europe , north africa and asia minor ( roques and skrzypczynska 2003 ) . battisti et al . ( 2003 ) affirmed that more than 60 % of cypress cones were colonized either by a seed chalcid , m . wachtli , or by the seed bug , orsillus maculatus ( fieber ) . a survey of the oviposition behavior of orsillus depressus carried out in algeria suggested that this seed bug lays eggs in emergence holes excavated through the cone scale by a seed chalcid , m . wachtli ( bouaziz 2003 ) . similarly , a survey of the oviposition behavior of o . maculatus carried out in france and italy suggested that this seed bug lays eggs preferentially in the emergence holes of m . wachtli ( rouault 2002 ) . in addition , the relationship between the exotic pathogenic fungus seiridium cardinale ( wagener ) sutton and gibson and species of the genus orsillus on c . sempervirens was shown to be essentially based on the availability of m . wachtli oviposition sites ( battisti et al . 1997 , battisti et al . 1999 ; battisti et al . 2000 ; bouaziz 2003 ; rouault et al . 2000 , rouault 2002 ) .
reported five species of larval parasites of the alfalfa seed chalcid . up to 93 % of the pest larvae were parasitized . the dominant species are pteromalus sequester and baryscapus bruchophagi , which cause 33 and 31 % parasitism , respectively . two had three generations per year and their flight began earlier than that of the host . idiomacromerus perplexus parasitized up to 18 % of the larvae ; it has two generations per year and its flight begins at the end of the flight period of the first generation of the host .
radiography of the seeds allowed the examination of later development of larvae during cone maturation . larval development proceeded entirely in a single seed . the larva initially developed at the expense of the cotyledons and it started to consume seed endosperm the following spring . similar results were observed previously ( roques 1983 ; roques et raimbault 1995 ; guido et al . 1995 ) . larvae of m . wachtli seemed able to develop in non - fertilized ovules as guido et al . ( 1995 ) suggested , but we could not experimentally infest non - fertilized ovules in order to test this assumption ( bouaziz and roques , unpublished results ) . rouault et al . ( 2004 ) hypothesize that all species of megastigmus associated with pinaceae can oviposit in unfertilized ovules , whereas those exploiting cupressaceae cannot , and thus oviposit only in already fully developed fertilized seeds . infested megagametophytes of unpollinated ovules did not degenerate as would have been expected , but continued to develop ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) . niwa and overhulser ( 1992 ) and rappaport et al . ( 1993 ) showed that the m . spermotrophus larvae were able to lay eggs on non - fertilized ovules of the pseudotsuga species and that the larva could complete its development there . the chalcid lays its eggs in seeds of douglas fir ( pseudotsuga menziesii ( mirbel ) franco ) before fertilization has taken place in the plant . oviposition not only prevents the expected degeneration and death of unfertilized ovules , but it induces energy reserve accumulation ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) . following oviposition by m . spermotrophus in unpollinated megagametophytes , larvae hatched and began consuming the central zone . eggs were laid in megagametophytes that were differentiating archegonia which would eventually house the plant eggs . ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) . the torymid chalcid wasp was able to induce identical nuclear behavior in infested , unfertilized megagametophytes , as occurred in uninfested , fertilized megagametophytes ( aderkas et al . , 2005 ) .
stated that seed yields and infestation levels were correlated with temperature , rain and degree - day data from the year of and the year preceding seed collection . the infestation level of b . roddi was most closely correlated with the temperature and rainfall in july and august of both years . the proportion of damaged seed is highest in the years following warm and dry summers . alfalfa cultivar also influences the infestation levels ; winter - hardy cultivars that become dormant early in the autumn have lower levels of chalcid - damaged seeds than less hardy cultivars that maintain growth later in the season .
, at about 130 microns ( 0 . 13 mm ) , to over 30 mm , including bizarre as well as beautiful winged and wingless forms . about 22 , 000 valid species have been described in about 2 , 100 genera world - wide , but these numbers represent only a fraction of true chalcid diversity and estimates of 60 , 000 to 100 , 000 species world - wide do not seem unreasonable . there are over 2 , 600 described species in over 700 genera in north america . illustrated keys to the families and genera of chalcids known from north america are given in
collected five hymenopterous parasitoids of the alfalfa seed chalcid . over 99 % of the parasitoids were either i . perplexus ( 90 . 4 % ) or b . bruchophagi . the other three species were eupelmus allynii , idiomacromerus insuetus and lyrcus maculatus . most parasitoid emergence occurred from early june to mid - july , the actual time depended on parasitoid species and where the seeds had been collected . emergence peaks of the parasitoids followed those of the pest by 1 to 2 weeks . small numbers of i . perplexus and b . bruchophagi emerged in the second year ( 1984 ) from seeds that were collected in the autumn of 1982 .
the percentage of cones colonized by megastigmus were compared among tree , stand , and species using analysis of variance ( anova , statsoft statistica / w package ) . anova was used to compare the percentage of m . wachtli and p . tessulatana emergence holes on the colonized cones , and to test localization of the colonization per cone shape , insect pests and cypress species . the percentages data were transformed by arcsin √ p to achieve homogeneity of the variance before statistical analysis . anova was followed by tukey ' s test to look for differences between locations and species . the results of the longevity of m . wachtli were analyzed by the χ 2 test . the relationship between the colonization by the seed chalcid and by the tortricids was subjected to a pearson correlation test ( r ) .
diapause in b . roddi is one of the principal mechanisms for the survival and perpetuation of this multivoltine species in alfalfa seed . the chalcid diapauses in the pre - pupal stage . diapause begins on approximately 1 september and is completed on approximately 1 december , when 100 % of the population is in diapause . the day - length for induction ranges from 10 . 5 - 13 h ; only approximately 40 % of the population diapauses at a day - length of 10 . 25 - 11 h . diapause lasts for approximately 5 . 5 months , from 1 december to 15 april . termination of the diapause and emergence of the population occur over a period of approximately 2 months , from 15 april to 15 june . a day - length of 13 - 14 . 5 h terminates diapause (
observations on the adults of b . roddi in oklahoma , usa from mid - may until the end of september show that maximal population densities generally occur in august . the adults emerge earlier at lower elevations and at more southern locations than at higher elevations or at the most northern location . the males emerge earlier and in greater numbers than the females , until early june . thereafter , more females emerge . overall , 60 % of the emerging adults are female . the females in the alfalfa fields outnumber the males by ratios of 1 . 5 : 1 to 2 : 1 . peaks of adult emergence in different fields range from three to six per year . the chalcid infests alfalfa seed throughout the growing season , with an infestation rate of 3 . 7 % in june , increasing to 38 . 6 % in august . diapausing chalcids are found in nearly every sample , and the percentage in diapause ranges from 0 in june to 81 . 9 in august (
. historically , family classification has been based primarily on external morphology rather than phylogenetic relationships . because of this , and because of the extreme structural diversity that characterizes the group , there have been a comparatively large number of families recognized within the superfamily as well as instability in the number of families recognized . anywhere from 9 to 24 families have been recognized since about 1950 , with 19 or 20 families generally being recognized at present . however , monophyly of many if not most of the families is in doubt . chalcid families often seem to intergrade into each other , with ' family level ' features sometimes working for only one sex , not being possessed by all members of the family , or being possessed by some members of other families . consequently , at least some families appear to be more taxa of convenience than monophyletic evolutionary lineages . as one might suspect , the classification of some subfamilies to one family or another is controversial and there is even uncertainty about the proper family classification of some genera .
quicke et al . ( 1994 ) also provided evidence that chalcids other than mymaridae ( and mymarommatidae ) have a structure of the female ovipositor that differs from all other hymenoptera — the fused second valvulae have asymmetrical dorsolateral portions that overlap medially to a greater or lesser extent [ sem ] . furthermore , they have a transversely striated band of notal membrane , the laminated bridge near the base of the second valvulae . quicke et al . proposed that both the unique structure of the second valvulae and the laminated bridge were synapomorphies uniting all chalcids except mymarids . this would support an hypothesis that mymaridae is the sister group of all other chalcidoidea . gibson and huber ( 2000 ) subsequently showed that females of at least one of two known genera of rotoitidae have an ovipositor structure that is intermediate between the mymarid - like and other chalcid - like structures . the rotoitid ovipositor has about the basal half of the second valvulae structured like mymarids and most other hymenoptera , but the apical half with asymmetrical overlapping portions similar to other chalcids . this intermediate structure could be evidence that rotoitidae is the second - most basal lineage of chalcidoidea after mymaridae .
unlike in southern europe , the seed bug o . depressus seems more abundant than o . maculatus on cypress species growing in north africa ( bouaziz and chakali 1997 ) . in europe and in the mediterranean basin , trees of the cupressaceae family host several seed bug species of the genus orsillus , especially o . maculatus and o . depressus . detailed information about natural history is available for o . maculatus ( guido et al 1995 ; battisti et al 1997 ; ramos and abrantes 2000 ) . this seed bug develops essentially on the evergreen cypress , c . sempervirens , where it lays eggs in cone openings , such as emergence holes of a cypress seed chalcid , m . wachtli , or at inner side of partly detached cone scales ( battisti et al 2000 ) . both nymphs and adults feed on mature seeds inside the cones , causing considerable damage to seed crops in seed orchards as well as in natural stands ( roques et al . 1999 ; battisti et al 2000 ) . information on the biology of o . depressus is much less detailed but this bug has been observed on several species of juniperus , chamaecyparis and thuja as well as on cupressus ssp and pinus ( cleu 1953 ; dupuis 1965 ; dioli 1991 ; stichel 1962 ) . in addition , it was reported to severely affect seed production on a plantation of cupressus lusitanica mill . in portugal ( ramos and abrantes 2000 ) . the seed bug o . maculatus is associted with pathogenic fungi affecting cypress , such as s . cardinal which is responsible for the cypress bark canker , and pestalotiopsis funerea ( desm . ) the adult bugs may disseminate the fungi conidia among trees whereas the nymphs may find a suitable development site in fungus - infested cones ( battisti et al 1999 ; ramos and abrantes 2000 ) . in algeria , a fungus - infected cone can be inhabited by the nymphs of the seed bug o . depressus , the adults of which may carry a heavy spore load at emergence . cones are infected when eggs are laid within the cone , most frequently via the emergence holes of m . wachtli ( bouaziz 2003 ) .
although still at what might be called an embryonic stage , molecular analyses have now started to provide independent evidence to test and refine family concepts that are widely acknowledged to be less than satisfactory . rasplus et al . ( 1998 ) concluded from analysis of the d1 and d2 regions of the 28s rrna gene that agaonidae sensu boucek ( 1988a ) is not monophyletic . they redefined the family to include only the pollinating agaoninae sensu boucek ( 1988a ) , reassigning some subfamilies to the pteromalidae and excluding other subfamilies that they left unassigned to family . more recently , gauthier et al . ( 2000 ) analysed the d2 region of the 28s rdna gene and concluded that the family elasmidae deserved only tribal status within the subfamily eulophinae of eulophidae . as for the previous study , they also excluded some taxa from eulophidae and left them unassigned to family . campbell et al . ( 2000 ) provided the first comprehensive analysis of chalcid subfamily and family relationships based on analysis of the d2 region of 28s rdna . they included 85 taxa , representing 18 families and 32 subfamilies , and concluded that their analysis placed 80 % of the taxa ( including outgroup taxa )
into some form of realistic grouping ( generic or family group taxon ) based on morphological evidence
. of 12 families with more than one taxon represented , only three were indicated as monophyletic ( eucharitidae , mymaridae and trichogrammatidae ) , though eulophidae was monophyletic with the inclusion of elasmus ( = elasmidae ) . more unrealistic or intriguing results included none of the three genera of eunotinae ( pteromalidae ) grouping together , and neither eupelminae nor calosotine ( eupelmidae ) being indicated as monophyletic or showing any affinities with cleonyminae , tanaostigmatidae or encyrtidae . interestingly , their analysis indicated mymaridae as the sister group of all other chalcidoidea , whereas most analyses of dowton and austin ( 2001 ) retrieved mymaridae as an apical clade within chalcidoidea . resolving the relationships of mymaridae with other chalcidoidea is critical for establishing the ancestral life history of the group . traditionally , chalcids have been considered as most likely evolving from some ectoparasitoid of wood - boring beetles . if mymarommatoidea is the sister group of chalcidoidea and if mymaridae is truly the sister group of all other chalcidoidea then parsimony would indicate the immediate ancestor was an endoparasitic egg parasitoid dowton and austin ( 2001 ) .