the black drum ( pogonias cromis ) , also known as " blue drum " for its dark and hint of blue color , is a saltwater fish similar to its cousin , the red drum .

it is the only species in the genus pogonias .

though most specimens are generally found in the 5-30 lb ( 2 – 14 kg ) range , the black drum is well known as the largest of all the drum family with some specimens reaching excesses of 90 lb ( 40 kg ) .

the world record black drum was just over 113 lb ( 51 kg ) .

they are often black and/or gray in color with juvenile fish having distinctive dark stripes over a gray body .

their teeth are rounded and they have powerful jaws capable of crushing oysters and other shellfish .

it is recommended those over 15 lb pounds ( 7 kg ) should be released .

black drum are capable of producing tones between 100 hz and 500 hz when performing mating calls .

black drum

common name : black drum , sea drum , gray drum , striped drum , banded drum , oyster cracker .
black drum can be distinguished from the red drum by the presence of barbels . photo © richard bejarano
black drum find clams and crabs by sweeping the bottom with their chin barbels .
the internet has many recipes and helpful hints on preparation for both black and red drum . information adapted from a brochure , black drum in texas , by joe breuer .
every spring , schools of black drum enter the delaware bay to feed and spawn .
in bermitz’s experience , the docks normally hold pairs and smaller groups of black drum .
black drum are very similar in all aspects to their cousin , the red fish .
we show you how to catch black drum easy on this video . we show how to put a rigg together to catch black drum step by step . and we show you whats the best bait to use to catch these black drums .
the black drum is one of the largest fish in the bay . young black drums that weigh less than 8 pounds are also known as puppy drums .
predators : juvenile black drum are preyed upon by a variety of larger fishes such as seatrout and jacks . larger black drum are likely to be preyed upon by sharks ( murphy and muller 1995 )
reaching weights of 110 pounds , black drum are one of the largest inshore species in new jersey .
igure 2 . total black drum dollar value and percentage by county for the years 1987 - 2001 .
table 1 . total dollar value of irl black drum , pogonias cromis , between 1987 - 2001 .
sharks likely feed on black drum . juveniles are preyed upon by seatrouts , jacks and other large fish .
the chesapeake bay record black drum , caught in 1973 off cape charles , virginia , weighed 111 pounds .
bottom - feeders , black drum prey upon mollusks and crustaceans such as clams , oysters and crabs . black drum use their chin barbels to sense for prey and use their strong teeth plates to crush the hard shells open .
asmfc approves first step in black drum interstate management . public input sought on new plan development ( may 2012 )
the black drum uses the barbels under its chin to locate food along the mud bottom of the delaware bay .
figure 4 . summary of the black drum recreational harvest and percentage of total by area from 1997 - 2004 .
drum , sea drum , common drum , banded drum , butterfly drum , gray drum , striped drum , oyster drum , oyster cracker ; french : grand tambour ; japanese : guchi , ishimochi , nibe ; portuguese : corvina ; spanish : corvinón negro , corbina , corvina negro , corvina , roncador .
table 2 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the black drum harvest for the years 1987 - 2001 .
as of 2005 , fishing regulations in florida state that black drum must be no less than 14 inches tl , but not more than 24 inches tl to be of legal size ; however , one black drum larger than 24 inches tl may be kept . a bag limit of 5 legal - sized black drum per person per day is in effect .
there is no evidence of sex - specific differences in growth rates of black drum ( beckman et al . 1990 ) .
table 3 . by - county cumulative dollar value and percentage of total for the black drum harvest from 1987 - 2001 .
a popular sport fish , the best time to catch a black drum is during a full moon using soft crab as bait .
black drum average around 2 - 5 pounds , 10 - 20 pound fish are not uncommon and the largest exceed 100 pounds .
black drum from 1 to 10 pounds are very common and often referred to as
puppy drum .
larger fish , called
bull drum
, are not uncommon to 40 pounds and are occasionally even larger .
black drum tastes really similar to redfish and their fillets look just like redfish also . they are both part of the drum family so that is why they are so similar .
i had heard that the bigger black drum have worms in them and are not good to eat . i was watching the weekend fisherman this morning and the show was on black drum . they were catching black drum and several times captain herb gordon said that the fish they were catching were good eating , and the fish when he was saying that seemed to be in the lower 40
range . i have always released black drum in the past . wondering what size anyone has tried and was it any good . thanks wes
figure 1 . annual dollar value of the commercial catch of black drum to the 5 - county area of the indian river lagoon .
figure 3 . survey data for the black drum recreational fishery showing the number of fishes harvested in east florida waters from 1997 - 2004 .
then again , on a blustery , cool day , open - minded anglers like capt . al bermitz are quick to praise black drum .
dude ! that’s a pair of boss black drum , and the kind of prespawn school at right is a stunning sight on some florida inshore waters . most anglers release these bigger drum .
the old timers say , “the drum bite begins as the dogwood blooms . ” they’re right . the dogwoods are in full bloom , and the black drum are in delaware bay—and they’re hungry .
the black drum , pogonias cromis . illustration by diana rome peebles 1998 . courtesy of florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . used with permission .
black drum are not an important commercial species in florida , but are considered important recreationally . between 1987 - 2001 , the total commercial harvest of
black drum adults form schools and migrate in the spring to bay and river mouths for the spawning season ; in the gulf of mexico this is from february to may . larval black drum remain in shallow muddy waters until they are 4 to 5 inches long ; then they move near shore .
trophic mode : black drum are primarily bottom feeders , though they have been occasionally observed feeding near the surface on small finfishes such as menhaden ( ackerman 1951 ) . pearson ( 1929 ) reported black drum bottom feeding in a vertical position in waters so shallow , their tails protruded from the water .
irl distribution : black drum are common throughout the indian river lagoon and have notably large populations in volusia and martin counties ( murphy and taylor 1995 ) .
adults sometimes move onto near - shelf waters , but are primarily estuarine - dwelling and show little migratory behavior . simmons and breuer ( 1962 ) reported that tagged black drum in texas generally moved less than 5 miles from where they were tagged . beaumarriage ( 1969 ) reported similar results in florida black drum .
the most anticipated large fish of the virginia springtime fishery is the docile black drum . now is the time to try your luck for a gentle giant .
osburn and matlock ( 1984 ) examined movements of black drum in texas , reporting that black drum less than 3 years of age showed limited movement from bay systems into the gulf of mexico . older fishes were more commonly taken in deeper waters of the gulf , leading the authors to hypothesize that permanent movement of black drum to deeper gulf waters occurs in fishes older than 4 years of age ; with bays and estuaries thus supplying young fishes to spawning stocks of older fishes .
if you are currently without a vessel , you can still clean up on black drum at your local inlet , if there is suitable access . many anglers enjoy pulling drum up over the rails of the jetties .
the first coastwide benchmark stock assessment for black drum was performed in 2014 and approved for management use in 2015 . based onassessment results , black drum is not overfished and not experiencing overfishing . the median biomass is estimated to be declining slowly , though it is still estimated to be well above that necessary to produce maximum sustainable yield .
for those unable to catch their own , black drum are harvested commercially from texas bays throughout the year . these drum can be purchased in stores and fish markets for about half the cost of the
choice
fish .
black drum are heavy - bodied fish with large heads . fish up to about 15 pounds have 4 or 5 wide vertical black bars set on a silver - gray body . the bars fade as the fish grow larger , eventually disappearing . all sizes of black drum can be identified by the whisker - like barbels under their chin . black drum have large heavy pharyngeal teeth in the back of their throat that they use to crush mollusk shells . young black drum under 8 inches long feed mostly on marine worms and small fish . after 8 inches , they switch their diet to mollusks such as oysters , clams , and mussels . research has shown that drum captured from oyster reef areas prefer to eat oysters over clams and mussels . research has also shown that black drum can average eating one oyster per pound of body weight per day . feeding black drum swim with their heads slightly lowered , drifting their barbels ( chin whiskers ) over possible food items . when the barbels touch a food item , the drum stops swimming and inhales in the food item by creating a suction with its gill covers and mouth . the drum slowly swims forward while crushing the food item with its massive pharyngeal teeth . as the food item is crushed , small shell particles fall from the drum ' s gills . after finishing , the drum ejects the rest of the shell from its mouth . black drum can break apart and crush oyster clusters , but seem to select singles for ease of feeding . they feed both during daylight hours and at night , but feeding is less intensive during early morning hours . while feeding , schools of black drum often dredge up the bottom , creating muddy plumes in the water which can be easily seen from the air .
table fare : although some anglers will eat black drum , the flesh of these fish tends to be course , and most are infested with large , long parasitic tapeworms .
competitors : black drum likely compete with other drums , especially the red drum for benthic food resources , but because of their strong pharyngeal teeth , probably do not experience much competition for mollusks ( sutter et al . 1986 ) .
live or dead shrimp are primarily used . anglers using sandfleas and fresh clams catch drum and pompano . black drum have a habit of picking up the bait and running toward you , producing slack in the line . “that’s when you know you have a drum on , ” says ricciardi .
black drum are primarily bottom feeders . young black drum feed on small fish and invertebrates , such as copepods , annelids , and amphipods . the eggs and larvae of this species were shown to be subject to high predation . as juveniles , they are prey to a wide range of estuarine fish species , such as spotted seatrout and crevalle jack .
recreational fishery : the black drum , especially at larger size , is not generally considered a high - quality food fish due to commonly being infested with cestodes ( spaghetti worms ) ( simmons and breuer 1962 ; etzolt and christmas 1979 ) . however , black drum measuring less than 20 inches are valued in the recreational fishery ( silverman 1979 ) .
black drum are found in the western atlantic ocean , from massachusetts to southern florida and across the gulf of mexico to northern mexico . they rarely occur north of new jersey .
the black drum is one of the most popular inshore fish for food . they are rather good up to 24
, after which the meat looses flavor and become coarse .
1 ) out of all the species in the drum / croaker family—red drum , spotted seatrout , weakfish , whiting , spot , croaker—the black drum is the only species where females and males both produce calls . the other major difference recently determined by a usf grad student , now ph . d . , jim locasio , is that the volume and intensity of sound coming from a group of black drum does not necessarily mean more eggs in the water column , as it does for species like spotted seatrout and weakfish . black drum are more complex , or…um…either she or he has a headache more often , wanting to put off spawning until another evening !
the black drum is a silvery - gray , bottom - dwelling fish that visits the chesapeake bay from spring through autumn . it is one of the largest fish in the bay .
mike ricciardi , a sebastian inlet regular who has caught numerous black drum there , prefers the outgoing tide for black drum . “i fish the surf side , and also at the end of the jetty sometimes . the incoming tide is okay , but it rips around the end of the jetty so strong you really can’t keep a weight on bottom , ” he said .
the board approved addendum i to the black drum fmp in may 2018 . the addendum allows maryland to reopen its black drum commercial fishery in the chesapeake bay with a daily vessel limit of up to 10 fish and a 28 - inch minimum size . over the next year , maryland will develop a management program for the commercial fishery with implementation by april 1 , 2019 .
murphy , m . d . ; adams , d . h . ; tremain , d . m . ; winner , b . l . 1998 . direct validation of ages determined for adult black drum , pogonias cromis , in east - central florida with notes on black drum migration . fish . bull . ( us ) 96 ( 2 ) : 382 - 387 .
black drum can mature to near 100 - pounds . the virginia saltwater fishing tournament issues citations for catches of 80 pounds or more , or a release citation for 46 inches or more .
part of the black drum ' s scientific name , pogonias , means “bearded . ” this refers to the fish’s chin barbels , which look like a beard . cromis means “to croak . ”
recreational landings of black drum are significantly larger than commercial landings in all states within their range . for example , in 2003 , 757 , 867 pounds of black drum were landed in florida by commercial and recreational interests . of the total harvest , 98 % of landings were made by recreational anglers rather than by commercial fishers , with 72 % of landings occurring on the atlantic coast .
table 5 . by - county annual and cumulative percentages of the black drum harvest for the years 1997 - 2001 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .
means eye - like spots referring to black spots on the tail . the sciaenidae family has approximately 275 species within 70 genera .
pogonias cromis aka : drum description : black drum have short , deep bodies ( less than three times as long as deep ) with high - arched backs and flattish bellies . they have conspicuous chin barbells and make a loud grunting noise when excited . adults have dusky to black fins and are silver with a brassy luster when alive , but change to a dark gray after death . young drum possess four to six black vertical bars . size : black drum grow to 5 feet and 146 pounds . citations are given for fish weighing 35 pounds or more and for the live release of fish measuring 40 inches or longer . sometimes confused with : sheepshead , spadefish habitat : black drum are found from southern new england to mexico but are more commonly caught from new jersey southward . they prefer coastal waters of the bays , sounds and inlets , with a range of salinities . eating habits : black drum feed on the bottom and use their chin barbels to search for food . they have strong throat teeth that allow them to eat clams , mussels , oysters and crabs . they also eat worms and some fish . life cycle : black drum reach sexual maturity by age 3 . adults form schools and , in the spring , migrate to spawning grounds at sea near mouths of rivers and bays . newly hatched drum reside in estuaries for the first year of their lives , then move offshore . fishing tips : black drum are rarely caught with artificial lures since feeding is through feel and smell . anglers more commonly use conventional bottom rigs with sinkers or one or more drops with single hooks and no sinker . fishermen catch black drum fishing from banks , in the surf or from anchored boats using cut mullet , menhaden , shrimp and blood worms . larger fish are often taken on clams or pieces of crab .
the black drum also has the honor of being the most highly evolved , recently evolved species in our local group ( of sciaenids ) based on a variety of independent analyses , dna analyses , air bladder configurations , ear stone morphology and osteology ( skeletal characters ) . black drum live long , and carry on very loud conversations at night mostly in late fall , winter and early spring .
the black drum has a dark , silvery - gray body with a brassy sheen . it grows 40 to 60 inches in length and weighs between 50 to 100 pounds . it has a grayish belly , black fins and a high , rounded back . many small barbels appear on its lower chin , and it has cobblestone - like teeth plates . a deep notch appears in its dorsal fin . juveniles have four to five black vertical bars on their sides .
murphy , m . d . ; muller , r . g . 1995 . stock assessment of black drum pogonias cromis in florida . fmri , in - house report series ihr 1995 - 005 .
black drum can be caught on just about any rig . for fish intended for the table spinning or bait casting gear works well . for the larger fish heavy spinning and ocean gear is best .
good , especially smaller fish . the flesh of large black drum tends to be coarse . black drum , especially larger ones , often have had infestations of a larval tapeworm in their flesh . often called a
spaghetti worm ,
it is really a parasitic tapeworm of sharks and is using the drum as an intermediate host . if the drum is eaten by a shark , the larval worm becomes a reproducing adult in the shark . while they may look unappetizing , they are harmless to humans , even if eaten raw .
nice day on the water in bonaparte creek , sunset beach , nc . 12 keepers on the day ! 10 black drum , 1 specked trout , 1 spot and 1 likely red drum that got away . thanks for watching and as always be sure to subscribe !
growth information for black drum is relatively scarce , but some rate estimates have been produced . simmons and breuer ( 1962 ) used length - frequency analysis and tag return data to estimate growth rates in black drum , finding that black drum in texas measured approximately 160 mm ( 6 . 3 inches ) standard length ( sl ) , at the end of the first year , 310 mm ( 12 . 2 inches ) at the end of the second year , and 415 mm ( 16 . 3 inches ) by the end of the third year . older drum in their study had growth rates of approximately 50 mm ( 1 . 97 inches ) sl per year .
table 6 . summary of the black drum recreational harvest and percentage of total fish captured in each area from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .
oyster bars in al’s experience , there’s a rhythm to the bite . schools of juvenile black drum will feed in an area for around an hour , at which time they can be caught in numbers .
black drum sometimes grab artificial lures , and you can up the attraction by fishing scented baits such as the soft shrimp at right . bounce a lure like this around bridge or dock pilings in winter .
spaghetti worms are common parasites of saltwater fish in the drum family , which include speckled and white trout , black drum , redfish , and croakers . while they look alike to most fishermen , several different worms use these fish as hosts . most common in sea trout is poecilancistrium caryophyllum . worms found in black drum are most often pseudogrillotia pieistacantha . for ease of discussion , we will dispose of these tongue - twisting latin names and refer to them all as spaghetti worms .
average small drum weigh 5 to 10 pounds ; large specimens commonly weigh 20 to 40 pounds . in delaware bay , fish from 40 to 70 pounds are fairly common in the spring . the all - tackle record is 113 pounds . black drum live up to 35 years .
the black drum , the largest species in the drum family , is both a fine eating fish and excellent sport fish , depending on the size of fish targeted . these large fish are commonly 20 - to - 50 pounds , and reach over 100 pounds when fully grown .
table 4 . summary data for recreational fishery in eastern florida waters for the black drum , pogonias cromis , from 1997 - 2004 . data provided by national marine fisheries service , fisheries statistics division , noaa .
osburn , h . r . , and g . c . matlock . 1984 . black drum movement in texas bays . n . am . j . fish . manage . 4 : 523 - 530 .
richards , c . e . , 1973 age , growth and distribution of the black drum ( pogonias cromis ) . trans . am . fish . soc . 102 ( 3 ) : 584 - 590 .
as one of the largest fish inhabiting the inshore waters of new jersey , the black drum is a popular target when their spring spawning migration brings them into the delaware bay . their scientific name , pogonias cromis , literally means “bearded grunters , ” referring to the drum’s whisker - like barbels and ability to create a croaking sound using its air bladder . understanding more about the black drum’s habits and the bay where they live will help you find and catch more of these big booming gamefish .
body color in adults is a silver to black base color , highlighted with a with a coppery or brassy sheen . fins are dusky to black in color . young typically have 4 - 6 vertical black bars along their sides . coloration may change depending on habitat or age of the fish ( simmons and breuer 1962 ) . in the gulf of mexico , black drum are nearly uniformly silver in color , their vertical crossbars disappearing very early in life . fishes inhabiting bays and lagoons tend to be darker in color , typically with a bronze dorsal surface and gray - white sides ( simmons and breuer 1962 ; johnson 1978 ) .
this common fish is found gulfwide , from brackish estuarine waters out to nearshore offshore waters . black drum are found on mud , sand and shell bottoms and medium to large specimens are very common on oyster reefs .
black drum ( pogonias cromis ) can be found in nearshore waters along the atlantic coast from the gulf of maine to florida and as far south as argentina . atlantic coast black drum migrate inshore to the north in the spring , and to the south in the fall . fish can reach over 46
, 120 pounds and 60 years of age . they grow rapidly until the age of 15 , at which time growth slows .
large , captive drum were capable of feeding on more than 2 commercial - sized oysters per kilogram of body weight daily ( cave and cake 1980 ) . black drum are known to damage commercial stocks of oysters on seed reefs in lease areas in gulf of mexico waters ( benson 1982 ) .
young red drum prey upon small crustaceans and marine worms . as the drum reaches lengths above 200mm , the diet shifts to incorporate small bony fishes including
somewhat similar to the redfish in shape , but usually distinguishable by color , and always by the fact that the drum has barbels , or feelers on the underside of the lower jaw . juvenile drum have black vertical stripes on dusky white sides . the stripes fade with age and adult drum are usually blackish above and white below , although some develop a decidedly bronze hue .
ross , j . f . , j . s . pavela , and m . e . chittenden , jr . 1983 . seasonal occurrence of black drum , pogonias cromis , and red drum , sciaenops ocellatus , off texas . northeast gulf sci . 6 ( 1 ) : 67 - 70 .
murphy , m . d . ; taylor , r . g . 1989 . reproduction and growth of black drum , pogonias cromis , in northeast florida . northeast gulf sci . 10 ( 2 ) : 127 - 137 .
silverman , m . j . 1979 . biological and fisheries data on black drum , pogonias cromis ( linnaeus ) . northeast fish . nt . sandy hook lab . tech . ser . rep . 22 . 35 pp .
weird chin whiskers , faded stripes , utter disregard for topwater baits . for anglers in search of redfish , black drum are often regardedas a lowly consolation prize . an oddity , at best , compared to the sleek reds .
simmons eg ; breuer jp , 1962 . a study of redfish , sciaenops ocellata linnaeus , and black drum , pogonias cromis linnaeus . publ . inst . mar . sci . , university of texas 8 : 184 - 211 .
adult black drum feed on crustaceans and mollusks , with a preference for blue crabs , shedder crabs , shrimp , oysters , and squid . they locate food with their chin barbels and crush and grind shells with their pharyngeal teeth .
although similar in fundamental frequency and waveform , the advertisement calls of male black drum in uruguay have shorter durations than calls from the same species in the northern hemisphere . the florida black drum population has durations that are over three fold longer . to our knowledge , the history of separation between these two groups is unknown . if shorter calls evolved first , the ability to produce longer calls in florida may have been selected by females as an index of male quality .
the black drum , a mainstay in the commercial fishery , has never been fully accepted as game fish by sport anglers . annual harvest of black drum along the texas coast is usually more than 1 . 3 million pounds by the commercial fishery and approximately three quarters of a million pounds by the sport fishery . while some prefer flounder , red drum , snapper , or some more glamorous fish , many anglers maintain that black drum less than five pounds , cleaned and prepared properly , may be better than many of these so - called
choice
fish . many coastal restaurants noted for their seafood serve drum extensively . fish taken in cold weather before spawning tend to be fatter and in better condition than those caught in summer after spawning . drum weighing more than five pounds usually have coarse flesh ; the larger the fish , the coarser the flesh . rather than eating these larger drum , anglers are encouraged to release them to spawn and fight another day .
spaghetti worms
common in spotted seatrout are present in larger drum and , while unappetizing , they are not harmful to humans .
black drum are sensory - oriented fish , relying more on their sense of smell and taste from their chin barbels than on sight . because of this , natural bait and cut bait are much better than artificial bait for catching drums .
the black drum is the largest member of the sciaenidae family ( drum and croaker ) . the common term “drum” refers to the loud and distinctive “drumming” noise that occurs when the fish raps a muscle against the swim bladder . this voluntary noise is assumed to be associated with locating and attracting mates , and it can sometimes be heard from a good distance , even by people above the water .
early june is generally the best time for drum fishing in the delaware bay .
bermitz , who guides and fishes for sport on the indianriver lagoon near palm bay , knows that a little bait - dunking in the right spot can be just plain fun . especially when there’s a school of feisty , good - eating drum passing through . so here’s a basic primer on black drum fishing in florida .
leard , r . , and ten co - authors . 1993 . the black drum fishery of the gulf of mexico , united states : a regional management plan . gulf states marine fisheries commission , number 28 , ocean springs , ms .
black drum are multiple spawners with continuous oocyte recruitment throughout the spawning season ( fitzhugh 1993 ) , and are capable of spawning approximately every 3 days . pearson ( 1929 ) estimated that a ripe female black drum measuring 1 . 1 m ( 43 . 3 inches ) total length ( tl ) would produce approximately 6 million eggs annually . in a more recent study , fitzhugh et al . ( 1993 ) estimated fecundity of average sized females weighing 13 . 4 pounds at 32 million eggs annually .
joseph , e . b . , w . h . massmann , and j . j . norcross . 1964 . the pelagic eggs and early larval states of the black drum from chesapeake bay . copeia 1964 ( 2 ) : 425 - 434 .
all the drum species are in our waters all times of the year . black drum are around all year , although they are found in different places at different times of the year , and their sizes can vary considerably . you will catch them on grass flats , in residential canals , and in deeper channels around the big bridges .
this fish is a member of the croaker family and is related to the atlantic croaker , red drum , and spotted seatrout . a characteristic of this family of fish is the ability to produce croaking or drumming sounds with the air bladder , which is the reason for the common names croaker and drum . this ability is most developed in the black drum and anglers can sometime hear sounds from schools passing near their boats .
a school of drum feeds like a herd of cows—heads down , moving slowly and grazing along the bottom . drum move between established feeding stations scattered throughout the delaware bay .
spawning in many species occurs around periods of maximum current flow during spring tides that best disperse the fertilized eggs . most black drum spawning occurs around the big full moon tides , with some spawning occurring during the new moon as well . drum are serial spawners , meaning that they will spawn multiple times during their stay in the delaware bay .
the main predator of the red drum is humans . other predators include birds of prey including ospreys , as well as larger fishes . the black tail spot is thought to be used as mechanism to confuse predators into attacking the tail instead of the head .
i love black drum and i have eaten fish up to 80 lbs . those that are or might be
grossed out
by the parasite in the fish shouldn ' t watch the cleaning as they are there but were gone when it hit theplate .
first things first . about those photos of giant , breeding - size drum you begin to see this time of year in magazines and newspapers : starting in february and running through april , there are anglers who target spawning drum in deep ocean or gulf passes , usually far north florida , but sometimes tampa bay and charlotte harbor . prespawn aggregations of black drum at nearby bridges also stoke fires . big chunks of blue crab , clam and shrimp soaked on bottom attract humongous drum , some weighing close to 100 pounds .
black drum are a prolific species , with females producing 11 - 60 million eggs each over a 14 - week spawning season . generally , spawning takes place in or near passes , as well as in channels in open water in depths between 10 and 165 feet . the locations change with seasons and environmental conditions . black drum spawn between january and april . spawning activity takes place between 7 p . m . and 10 p . m . and at water temperatures of 59 to 75°f . black drum spawning sites are closely tied to the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water , with the more oxygen the better . during this period , each female spawns 20 to 30 times . spawning peaks seem to occur at new and full moon phases and spawning takes place in the early evening , one to two hours after sunset . after being spawned , the eggs are carried seaward by currents until they hatch . larval ( baby ) and small black drum then tend to travel inland with incoming tides where they settle out in marshes to grow . at 24 to 26 inches and 4 to 5 years of age , they become sexually mature and begin to spawn . mature black drum form large schools before the beginning of spawning season . often 20 , 000 - 60 , 000 pounds of fish will be in one of these offshore schools , frequently mixed with cownose rays and occasionally with crevalle jacks and red drum . after spawning season , these schools seem to disperse . black drum are long - lived fish , with most studies indicating a maximum age of over 40 years and one study in florida estimating a maximum of 58 years of age .
drum also love to feed in algae beds laden with crabs , clams , razor clams and oysters . algae can only grow in depths that receive sufficient sunlight . in the often turbid waters of the delaware bay , this usually means depths less than 45 feet . black drum will occasionally feed in water so shallow their tails wag in the air .
the best drum fishing takes place around the full moon . even though the drum do not feed while spawning , they will feed before and after . finding a large spawning congregation of drum could lead to fast fishing after they have completed the circle of life .
an inshore bottom fish , the black drum prefers sandy bottoms in salt or brackish waters near jetties , breakwaters , bridge and pier pilings , clam and oyster beds , channels , estuaries , bays , high marsh areas , and shorelines . larger fish often favor shoal areas and channels . black drum can survive wide ranges of salinity and temperature . the small fish inhabit brackish and freshwater habitats ; the adults usually prefer estuaries in which salinity ranges from 9 to 26 parts per thousand and the temperature ranges from 53° to 91°f .
simmons , e . g . , and j . p . breuer . 1962 . a study of redfish , sciaenops ocellata linnaeus , and black drum , pogonias cromis linnaeus . publ . inst . mar . univ . tex . 8 : 184 - 211 .
s . ocellatus is the second largest member of the drum family in the western atlantic and gulf of mexico , reaching a maximum length of 1 . 5 m . the world record s . ocellatus weighs 42 . 7 kg . only the black dru . . .
red drum coloration ranges from a deep cooper to an almost silvery sheen . photo courtesy fda
larvae feed primarily on zooplankton ( benson 1982 ) . juveniles feed on annelids , soft crustaceans , amphipods , and small fishes ( simmons and breuer 1962 ; peters and mcmichael 1990 ) . in texas , approximately 33 % of the diet in black drum measuring 21 - 50 cm ( 8 . 3 - 19 . 7 inches ) or more in length consisted of the surfclam ( mulinia sp . ) . larger drum consume mostly mollusks and crabs , while the largest specimens consumed mollusks and shrimp ( simmons and breuer 1962 ) . miles ( 1949 ) reported that black drum in texas fed primarily on shrimp , mollusks , and vegetation .
peters , k . m . ; mcmichael , r . h . , jr . 1990 . early life history of the black drum pogonias cromis ( pisces : sciaenidae ) in tampa bay , florida . northeast gulf sci . 11 ( 1 ) : 39 - 58 .
ilar to recent years at about 1 . 3 million pounds , landed fish constituted only 27 % of all black drum caught by the fishery . the other 73 % of recreationally caught fish were released alive , making 2016 the third highest year for releases in number of fish a
temperature : black drum prefer waters where temperatures range from 12 - 33°c ( mcilwain 1978 ) . sudden temperature drops during the winter months cause them to migrate to deeper waters . mass mortality is somewhat common when sudden , sustained temperature drops occur ( simmons and breuer 1962 ) .
fitzhugh , g . r . , b . a . thompson and t . g . snider iii , 1993 ovarian development , fecundity , and spawning frequency of black drum pogonias cromis in louisiana . fish . bull . , u . s . 91 : 244 - 253 .
drum , like many other fish , don’t feed while spawning . drum seem to spawn as the sun sets , the process lasting maybe an hour or so . a congregation of spawning drum is given away by the telltale drumming sound that can be heard coming from under the boat .
black drum are rarely taken on artificial baits since most feeding is done by feel and smell . cut fish , squid and shrimp are used , with peeled shrimp tails ( preferably ripe and smelly ) the most popular . since feeding is done on the bottom , the basic technique is simple - put a baited hook on the bottom and wait for the drum to swallow it .
the black drum is a chunky , high - backed fish with many barbels or whiskers under the lower jaw . younger fish have four or five dark vertical bars on their sides but these disappear with age . the bellies of older fish are white but coloration of backs and sides can vary greatly . fish from gulf waters frequently lack color and are light gray or silvery . those living in muddy bay waters have dark gray or bronze - colored backs and sides . some are solid silvery gray or jet black . a length of six inches is reached in the first year , 12 inches the second and 16 inches the third . increases of about two inches per year occur after that . the largest black drum on record weighed 146 pounds . the texas record taken by a sport angler is 78 pounds but most bull drum caught weigh 30 to 40 pounds .
a large bodied fish of the drum family . shorter and stockier than their cousin the redfish .
delaware bay water is often turbid , forcing drum to rely on scent to find their food .
the big black drum in the channels will be oriented facing the incoming water on moving tides . make sure your baits move with the same direction as the natural flow of water with those moving tides , or else your bait will be moving toward the fish’s tails instead of their mouths .
the reel should be loaded with 50lb braid . since braided lines have a thinner diameter and less water resistance , they provide an added advantage and allow the angler to hold bottom with lighter sinkers . the lack of stretch transmits even the softest of black drum hits back to the angler .
while some prefer flounder , red drum , snapper , or some more glamorous fish , many anglers maintain that black drum less than five pounds , cleaned and prepared properly , may be better than many of these so - called
choice
fish . many coastal restaurants noted for their seafood serve drum extensively . fish taken in cold weather before spawning tend to be fatter and in better condition than those caught in summer after spawning . drum weighing more than five pounds usually have coarse flesh ; the larger the fish , the coarser the flesh . rather than eating these larger drum , anglers are encouraged to release them to spawn and fight another day .
spaghetti worms
common in spotted seatrout are present in larger drum and , while unappetizing , they are not harmful to humans .
black drum aren’t sleek , beautiful fish , and they’ll probably never have the kind of following of the bronzed , spot - tail redfish . but they have mystique , and they pull hard when hooked . add great tablefare to their list of attributes and you’ve got a fine catch . – fs
a day later , bermitz called to inform me that he’d caught two large catch - and - release fish at the same place we had fished—a 38 - inch snook and a hefty goliath grouper ! talk about great bycatch ! oh yeah , a 26 - inch black drum came aboard as well .
rather than scale your drum , skin it . the skin contains most of the
fishy taste ,
so why save it ? besides , the scales of drum are tough and not easily removed .
as stated previously above , excellent eating . they do get
wormy
at 25 inches plus , but so do big specks . i tend to throw them back at the 30 inch or larger range not because of the worms , but because i usually end up having to use a damn hacksaw to get through that stiff bone in filleting . in fact , though , there was a stink around la a year or so ago when it was revealed that some restaurants were serving black drum but advertising as redfish . i know this for quite some time , but i say who gives a shite . while a redfish is a beautiful , gold and at times tealish mixed in color , and a black drum is plain ugly , black drum is a very pretty white meat , while redfish is bloodier . in other words , deep fry or marinate with lemon , red pepper and salt and cook on grill . enjoy !
beckman , d . w . , a . l . stanley , j . h . render and c . a . wilson , 1990 age and growth of black drum in louisiana waters of the gulf of mexico . trans . am . fish . soc . 119 ( 3 ) : 537 - 544 .
another friend of mine , tammy burgess , has had success with black drum fishing along mangrove banks with quick dropoffs . the areas are near channels , so the trick is to go when boat traffic is light . it can be hard to entice a bite when there is a steady stream of boat noise .
2 ) both sexes of black drum emit a disturbance call , but advertisement calls are emitted only by males . the disturbance call is a series of short pulses , typical of many sciaenid species . the long - duration advertisement call is unique among known sciaenids and is relatively rare among sonic fishes in general .
the black drum is found along the atlantic coast from new york south through the gulf states to mexico . it is most abundant in texas and is found in all bay and inshore waters and offshore in gulf waters . the area of greatest abundance in texas is from corpus christi to brownsville on the lower coast .
goodyear cp , 1989 . status of the red drum stocks of the gulf of mexico report for 1989 .
matlock gc , 1990 . the life history of red drum . in : red drum aquaculture , texas a & m ; university sea grant college program , college station , texas , pp . 1 - 21 .
cody , t . j . , k . w . rice , and c . e . bryan . 1985 . distribution and gonadal development of black drum in texas gulf waters . tex . pks . wildl . dep . , coast fish . branch , manage . data ser . no . 72 . 16 pp .
in florida totaled 1 . 6 million pounds , and was valued at $ 679 , 928 . approximately 69 . 7 % of black drum landings occurred on florida ' s west coast . east coast landings totaled approximately 484 , 600 pounds , and were valued at $ 290 , 466 . of this , the 5 county area encompassing the irl ( volusia , brevard , indian river , st . lucie and martin counties ) accounted for 94 % of east coast landings ( 272 , 514 pounds ) , and was valued at $ 131 , 995 . this ranks the black drum sixty - ninth in commercial value and fifty - ninth in pounds harvested .
unlike spotted seatrout that spawns only in the bays , and red drum that spawns only in the gulf , black drum will spawn in either bay or gulf or in the connecting passes . free spawning ( random release of eggs ) occurs mostly in february , march , and april with some later spawning occurring in june and july . larval drum are found in the surf and along bay shorelines in march and april , and by early summer one - half to one - inch juveniles are common in shallow , muddy creeks , sloughs and boat basins .
in general , the smaller fish taste very similar to a redfish , while the larger fish do not taste as well . black drum are a rather simple fish , but still take some time and patience to learn the tricks of the trade . here , we present the top 10 tips and tricks for catching these big drums .
in shallow water , it may be hard to see the drum on your fish - finder . instead , use the unit to locate structure that is likely to harbor a mussel or razor clam community . besides looking for areas where drum will stop to feed , captains also look for the telltale marks of big drum on the fish - finder . experienced captains will idle around an area , keeping their distance from other boats , looking for drum marks on the fish - finder . some days the fish will be found over sandy bottoms when they are moving from one feeding area to another . they may also be found over sandy bottoms as they aggregate to spawn . however , for the greatest likelihood of finding black drum , the feeding areas should be your primary target zone .
young drums feed on maritime worms , small shrimp , and crabs and small fish . larger drum eat small crabs , worms , algae , small fish and mollusks . barbels ( or whiskers ) are used to find food by feel and smell . drum often dig or root out buried mollusks and worms while feeding in a head - down position . this process is called
tailing
and creates small craters in the bottom which anglers call
drum noodles .
experienced anglers can detect the recent passage of a school of drum by the presence of many
noodles .
the black drum has no canine teeth like those of the spotted seatrout , but does have highly developed pharyngeal teeth ( in the pharynx or throat ) which are used to crush mollusks and crabs before swallowing .
natural baits are by far the best method for catching black drum . good baits include blue crabs , shrimp , clams , mussels , and anything else that puts off a good odor and taste . one trick if you’re not getting bites is to break open or pinch the baits , allowing more scent to be released into the water .
coloration the red drum is usually a copper reddish color . coloration can also range from a deep dark copper to an almost silvery sheen . the ventral side is usually a lighter color to almost white . red drums have a distinctive black spot near the base of the tail . one spot is most common however some individuals exhibit several spots .
holt j , 1990 . growth and development of red drum eggs and larvae . in : red drum aquaculture , texas a & m ; university sea grant college program , college station , texas , pp . 46 - 50 .
black drum fishing can be enjoyed by anyone at almost any time . it is a relaxing outing compared with other types of fishing which require experience , expensive tackle , boats and related equipment . anyone can catch a drum , whatever their skills or finances . tackle can be rod and reel , trotline , hand line or cane pole , and bait is inexpensive . fishing can be done from piers or from the bank and the entire family can join in .


aequidens is a genus of fish in the family cichlidae found in south america .

formerly a wastebasket genus , as presently defined aequidens is largely restricted to the amazon basin , orinoco basin and river basins in the guianas .

the only exceptions are a. plagiozonatus which also occurs in the paraná basin , and a. tetramerus which also occurs in the parnaíba river .

aequidens

aequidens plagiozonatus , live specimen collected near cuiabá , brazil . photo : a . kullander
matt clarke on aequidens patricki , a beautifully marked and rarely seen south american cichlid .
morphological aspects of henneguya aequidens n . sp . ( myxozoa : myxobolidae ) in aequidens plagiozonatus kullander , 1984 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) in the amazon region , brazil .
aequidens is a genus of the subfamily cichlasomatinae , tribe cichlasomatini , most similar to cichlasoma .
morphological aspects of henneguya aequidens n . sp . ( myxozoa : myxobolidae ) in aequidens plagiozonatus kullander , 1984 ( teleostei : cichlidae ) in the . . . - pubmed - ncbi
a new species of tripartiella ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from aequidens tetramerus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) in north brazil .
a new species of tripartiella ( ciliophora : trichodinidae ) from aequidens tetramerus ( perciformes : cichlidae ) in north brazil . - pubmed - ncbi
aequidens was long a catch - all group for south american cichlids with three anal fin spines and lacking conspicuous characters . the genus was reviewed by kullander ( 1983 ) , who distinguished a number of species groups . most of these species groups have since been recognized as genera : bujurquina , tahuantinsuyoa and laetacara in kullander ( 1986 ) , and krobia and cleithracara in kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) . also guianacara species have traditionally been included in aequidens . nonetheless , aequidens ' sensu stricto ' , remains vaguely diagnosed .
despite this considerable splitting aequidens as currently recognised continues to present taxonomical problems , with recent phylogenetic analyses failing to agree on how best to resolve them . musilová et al . ( 2009 ) recovered the a . tetramerus group as sister to cichlasoma with the a . didema group sister to that clade and recommended synonymising aequidens with cichlasoma while moving two species , a . potaroensis and a . paloemeuensis , into krobia .
availability : this aequidens is very rarely seen in the aquarium trade . these ones were imported by maidenhead aquatics @ iver . captive bred fish are sometimes available from europe , but they are normally wild caught .
( of otolithus aequidens cuvier , 1830 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
i hadn ' t heard of ' ae . ' sapayensis before , so my first step was to pull out my copy of die buntbarsche der neuen welt : südamerika . sure enough , there they were , in the chapter entitled
der buntbarsche der . . aequidens
- pulcher - gruppe .
there was a page of text , and pair of pictures , no less . all this told me three things : ( 1 ) sapayensis is valid species , ( 2 ) they are ' aequidens ' sapayensis until they are assigned to some genus ( as aequidens has been restricted to exclude this group of species ) , and ( 3 ) my fish resembling blue acaras as they did , stood a chance of being ' ae . ' sapayensis .
aquarium : i \ ' ve never kept patricki , but if it \ ' s anything like its close relatives in the aequidens genus , it could get a little feisty as it matures . most are pretty simple to keep , but should only be mixed with fish of equal size or larger who are capable of sticking up for themselves . many of the similar - looking aequidens can also be wife - beaters , so make sure you provide plenty of hiding places , or consider bringing the female into condition and then reintroducing the male to her tank using a divider .
eigenmann , c . h . & w . l . bray . 1894 . a revision of the american cichlidae . ann . n . y . acad . sci . 7 : 607 - 624 . kullander , s . o . 1986 . cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru . swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , 431 pp . kullander , s . o . 1995 . three new cichlid species from southern amazonia : aequidens gerciliae , a . epae and a . michaeli . ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 6 : 149 - 170 . kullander , s . o . & e . j . g . ferreira . 1991 . a new aequidens species from the rio trombetas , brasil , and redescription of aequidens pallidus . zool . scr . 19 : 425 - 433 . kullander , s . o . & h . nijssen . 1989 . the cichlids of surinam . e . j . brill , leiden and other cities , xxxiii + 256 pp .
the genus aequidens itself also has a complex history , having previously comprised a much larger grouping which contained members of the currently valid genera andinoacara , bujurquina , krobia , cleithracara and laetacara . all of these are usually placed within the subfamily cichlasomatinae alongside members of cichlasoma , ivanacara , nannacara , tahuantinsuyoa and acaronia following kullander ( 1998 ) and subsequent works .
further , the published meristics for the various species are quite similar ; the dorsal and anal fm spine / ray counts of ' ae . ' ; coeruleopunctatus and ' ae . ' sapayensis overlap entirely . ( see table . ) the case is probably even worse than suggested by the numbers in the original descriptions . now that many more specimens are generally examined when describing a species , it is recognized that spine and ray counts can vary widely within a species . in the recently described ' ae . ' patricki , to chose an example from the true aequidens , specimens are recorded with dorsal counts of 14 - 18 hard spines and 10 - 12 soft rays . 2 if these sorts of variances are found in species of ' aequidens ' as well , it might well be impossible to assign an individual fish to any of these species on the basis of spine and ray counts alone .
this is the type species of the genus aequidens and has the widest distribution of any member species . it exists in various colour forms depending on locality with variants from ecuador and peru being particularly sought after since they develop striking red ( ecuador ) or orange ( peru ) colouration on the lower part of the jaw , head and anterior portion of the belly whereas those from brazil tend to have an overall grey / blue / green colouration , for example .
nonetheless , i examined photos of two specimens of gold acaras ( a female from the original purchase and a male from two generations later ) to obtain dorsal and anal counts . the counts of these two fish agreed with each other ( not surprisingly ) but do not match those from the descriptions of any similar ' aequidens ' species . ( see table . ) they are closest to those of ' ae . ' latifrons but ( as per the discussion above ) this may well be insignificant .
a new species of tripartiella is described from the gills of the wild saddle cichlid aequidens tetramerus in north brazil . wet smears of skin and gills of examined fish were air - dried at room temperature and impregnated with klein ' s dry silver method for examination of the adhesive disc ' s structures and denticles . total prevalence of parasitism was 65 % . this ciliate is characterized as a small - sized trichodinid , body diameter 37 . 03 ± 4 . 9 μm , adhesive disc 30 . 50 ± 2 . 71 μm , denticulate ring 13 . 28 ± 0 . 8 μm and 24 ± 2 . 0 denticles . taxonomic and morphometric data for the new species are discussed .
the auctioneer took my bid , looked for another , and sold me the fish . i don ' t remember exactly how much i paid , but i thought they were quite the bargain . they could have been $ 200 . 00 , for all i knew when i bid on them , but fortunately they weren ' t . they were more along the lines of what you might pay for blue acaras in a store . interestingly enough , that ' s just what they looked like : three young blue acaras . ( blue acaras are supposedly ' aequidens ' pulcher , but they have been bred commercially for so long that it is difficult to ascertain what wild stock they might have originated from . ) hmmn .
aequidens sapayensis . probable trio ,
the bag read . well , one was larger than the other two , but it seemed a bit premature to be sexing them at 1
long . still , if these really were what they were said to be , i hoped that the size difference really did reflect a sex difference as well . the auction was in chicago , so it was late the next evening before they were placed in a tank at my home in minneapolis . i had changed some of their water at the hotel the evening of the auction and again the next morning , but the water looked rather foul in their bag when i got them home . the seemed to adjust well to their new tank , however .
no change in behavior was noted when the divider was removed , but a couple of weeks later the male was found dead . i imagine that he was killed by the female , but this is only speculation . in any case , this ended my attempts at spawning ' aequidens ' sapayensis , for the time being . i still have the female and the one of her offspring that grew up beside her . the remaining fry were all sold or given away to friends , local aquarists , or those attending the 1994 aca convention . i know that at least one aquarist has bred the gold acaras he got from me ( vinny kutty , pers . comm . ) and now has fry from them . also , considering the information provided by dr . wayne leibel ( above ) , it might be worthwhile to look for
green terrors
that really aren ' t .
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, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .
, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .
, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .
cfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013
latin , aequus , equal , equally + latin , dens , dentis = teeth ( ref . 45335 )
freshwater ; benthopelagic ; ph range : 4 . 9 - 7 . 5 ; dh range : 1 - 13 . 5 . tropical ; 24°c - 26°c ( ref . 1672 )
south america : widely distributed in the amazon river basin in peru , colombia , ecuador , brazil and bolivia . also in the tocantins and parnaíba rivers , french guiana , suriname , guyana , and in the orinoco river basin of venezuela and colombia .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 16 . 2 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 36377 )
one of the most colorful species of the genus , especially during its reproductive period . frequently occurs in zones with little current and over a substrate covered with vegetal debris ( ref . 27188 ) . caught frequently but not abundantly in most varied biotopes - in small creeks and flooded zones with clear , shallow and slow flowing water . feeds primarily on insects , secondarily on fishes and plants . very territorial . during reproduction , males attain a deeper coloration . about 1 , 000 eggs are released during spawning . spawning takes place on stone or wood . parents take care of juveniles ( ref . 35237 ) . maximum length 25 cm tl ( ref . 1672 ) .
kullander , s . o . and h . nijssen , 1989 . the cichlids of surinam : teleostei , labroidei . e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands . 256 p . ( ref . 26372 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 00890 - 0 . 02956 ) , b = 3 . 07 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 24 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 2 ±0 . 50 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( fec = 1 , 000 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 23 of 100 ) .
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in naked dorsal and anal fins and long caudal peduncle including 2 - 3 vertebrae instead of none .
the type species , a . tetramerus , which attains 160 mm sl , is one of the most widespread south american cichlids , and is recorded from most of the amazon , tocantins , and orinoco basins , and guianan rivers . it was recently redescribed by kullander ( 1986 ) on the basis of western amazonian material , by kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) on surinamese material , and by kullander ( 1995 ) on specimens from the aripuanã drainage . the other species reach 100 - 120 mm sl and are much more limited in distribution .
there is no published key available . please refer to kullander ( 1986 ) , kullander & nijssen ( 1989 ) , kullander & ferreira ( 1991 ) , and kullander ( 1995 ) for identification guides . more than half a dozen undescribed species are known from museum material .
tropical cis - andean south america , including the guianas , the orinoco drainage , the tocantins drainage , the parnaíba drainage , the amazon drainage and the uppermost paraguay drainage .
described from the rio branco in northern brazil but as currently recognised is widely - distributed throughout much of northern south america including the amazon system in peru , colombia , ecuador , brazil ( where it’s also been recorded from the rio tocantins and rio parnaiba ) and bolivia , plus various drainages in french guiana , suriname and guyana , and the rio orinoco basin in venezuela and colombia .
this species is essentially a habitat generalist exhibiting a preference for biotopes containing slow - moving or still water with well - structured substrates including submerged tree roots , branches , leaf litter , etc . like many species it often moves into flooded zones during periods of high water and can also be found in flood plain lakes and oxbows . it’s more frequently recorded in quieter tributary drainages than major river channels and at some localities aquatic plants grow thickly . the water itself may be black , clear or white though the former pair are apparently favoured .
in the belmont stream , a tributary of the lower rio madeira in rondônia state , western brazil a . tetramerus has been recorded to occur sympatrically alongside numerous other fish species including laemolyta taeniata , leporinus fasciatus , triportheus angulatus , tetragonopterus argenteus , mylossoma aureum , semaprochilodus taeniurus , biotodoma cupido , cichla monoculus , crenicichla johanna , centromochlus heckelii , hypoptopoma gulare , peckoltia bachi , squaliforma emarginata , sorubim lima and leiarius pictus .
a tank with base dimensions of 120 cm x 45 cm should be the smallest considered and something significantly larger is likely to be required should you wish to maintain more than a single pair .
ideally a soft , sandy substrate should be employed though it is not essential . additional furnishings are as much a case of personal taste as anything else but the most favoured set - ups tend to feature relatively dim lighting plus some chunks of driftwood and scattered roots / branches . one or two flattish , water - worn rocks can also be included to provide potential spawning sites if you wish .
water quality is of the utmost importance since these cichlids are susceptible to deteriorating water quality and should never be introduced to a biologically immature aquarium . the best way to achieve the desired stability is to over - filter the tank using a combination of external canister filters and / or a sump system and perform minimum weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % . if the maintenance regime and / or diet is insufficient individuals may develop health problems such as head and lateral line erosion or exhibit stunted growth . mechanical filtration should be tailored to trap small particles stirred up by the fish as sand can cause blockages / wearing issues with filter mechanisms if allowed to continually run through the system . high flow rates should be avoided so position filter returns accordingly .
ph : 4 . 5 – 7 . 5 depending on collection locality . wild specimens collected from black water regions may require acidic water on a mandatory basis .
omnivorous but the diet of wild specimens is apparently dominated by invertebrates . in the aquarium offer good quality , sinking dry foods as staple alongside regular meals of live or frozen bloodworm , artemia , etc .
males are territorial , particularly when spawning , while very small tankmates may be predated upon . can be maintained alongside other cichlids provided there is sufficient space available .
males grow larger than females and usually develop extensions to the unpaired fins as they mature . when in spawning condition they are also much the more colourful gender .
biparental substrate spawner and relatively simple to breed . the most proven method is to buy a group of 6 or more young specimens to be grown on together , removing the excess once pairs begin to form .
despite its type status it’s long been hypothesised that a . tetramerus as currently recognised is likely to represent a group of related fishes rather than a single taxon , meaning if a detailed analysis were to be conducted some of the populations may be described as distinct species .
these conclusions have not achieved general acceptance to date with the results of subsequent molecular research by h . lópez - fernández et al . suggesting that the a . diadema and a . tetramerus groups in fact form a putatively monophyletic groupings . both sets of authors agree that additional research is required in order to diagnose which species belong where .
kullander , s . o . 1986 - department of vertebrate zoology , research division , swedish museum of natural history , stockholm , sweden , 394 p . cichlid fishes of the amazon river drainage of peru .
kullander , s . o . and h . nijssen . 1989 - e . j . brill , leiden , the netherlands . 256 p . the cichlids of surinam : teleostei , labroidei .
lópez - fernández , h . , k . o . winemiller and r . l . honeycutt . 2010 - molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 1070–1086 multilocus phylogeny and rapid radiations in neotropical cichlid fishes ( perciformes : cichlidae : cichlinae ) .
musilová , z . , o . říčan and j . novák . 2009 - journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 47 ( 3 ) : 234 - 247 phylogeny of the neotropical cichlid fish tribe cichlasomatini ( teleostei : cichlidae ) based on morphological and molecular data , with the description of a new genus .
origin : this species is only known from a couple of river systems in peru - the rio aguaytia and rio pachitea .
size : males can reach around 12cm / 5 \
, but females are a little smaller .
water : i \ ' ve heard of these being kept in hard water without problems , but if you want to get them looking at their best , soft and slightly acidic water is best . i \ ' d keep them warm at about 27 - 29c .
identification : according to sven kullander , who described it , a . patricki is a member of the \
true acaras \
group . a few other representatives such as diadema , tetramerus , metae and pallidus also enter the trade , but there are about another seven or eight rarer species , and several that haven \ ' t been described yet .
notes : this species is named after patrick de rham , a swiss fishkeeper who is perhaps best known for his work on malagasy cichlids .
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special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
eschmeyer , w . n . 2013 . catalog of fishes . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 9 sep 2013 ) .
this species is recorded from arguin bank ( mauritania ) and from the gulf of guinea southwards to cape agulhas ( south africa ) , and eastward to southern mozambique and the gulf of aden . in the western pacific ocean , it occurs off the coasts of new south wales and southern queensland , australia ( griffiths and hecht 1995 ) . the distribution of this species is very disjunct occurring in three oceans and two continents ( sasaki 2001 , hoese et al . 2006 , scandol et al . 2008 ) .
both south african and australian stocks are significantly depleted ( hutton et al . 2001 , scandol et al . 2008 ) . in south africa the spawning component of the stock has been reduced by approximately 95 % from pristine levels . catch per boat / year in the 1980s had declined to approximately 3 % of the catches ( of equivalent unit ) in the 1900s ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . total catch along the south african coastline for the period 1985 - 1997 reported total catch landings of 500 t . however , it does not indicate the current status of the stock ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . in australia , annual commercial catches have been moderate and sporadic , but have declined ( e . g . from over 200 t in the 1950s to 35 t in 1989 - 90 ) and the recreational catch is significant ( annual harvest in nsw alone is of 70 - 110 tonnes ) ( kailola et al . 1993 , scandol et al . 2008 ) . historical data are lacking . this species status of exploitation is considered ' depleted ' by the fao review of the state of world marine fishery resources .
this species is an important food fish throughout most of its distributional range . in south africa , it is considered a premier commercial and recreational linefish species along the entire east coast ( cape point to natal ; grififths and hecht 1995 ) . it is ranked as the sixth most important in the linefishery of south africa since it was started in the 1800s ( hutton et al . 2001 ) .
in south africa , current catch restrictions include bag limits of 10 fish day for recreational anglers ( introduced in 1984 ) and a minimum size limit ( 60cm tl ) for both recreational and commercial fishers ( hutton et al . 2001 ) . a recent analysis of trends in cpue of linefish species in south africa indicated that many were severely overexploited during the 20th century . in order to address this and to allow the depleted stocks to recover , south africa is aiming to achieve a 70 % reduction in commercial effort in the linefishery , accompanied by stringent regulations to recreational fishing ( fao 2005 ) . in australia , with the purchase of a license , there is a minimum bag limit of five fish and a minimum legal length of 38 cm tl ( nsw dpi 2006 / 2007 ) . also this species distribution overlaps several marine reserves within its australian range ( wood 2007 ) .
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i wasn ' t paying much attention to the auction , like most cichlid auctions , this one was dominated by overpriced african , rift - lake cichlids . the few
south american
cichlids being sold were mostly discus and angels , which had been selectively bred for many generations so that they would not resemble their beautiful ancestors . so , i was talking quietly with a friend sitting beside me while the auctioneer ran through the fish .
two days later i found one of the smaller fish dead . i couldn ' t tell if the stress of the trip or one of its siblings killed it , but my probable trio was now a probable pair . i kept the label from the bag , which listed the seller ' s name and phone number , in case my probable pair turned into a definite loner .
that was pretty much where i let matters sit until i decided to write this article . two years had past , the fish had bred successfully ( see keeping and breeding , below ) , and i had accepted that my fish were , indeed . ' ae . ' sapayensis . as adults they still resembled blue acaras quite strongly , although they had horizontal rows of golden dots instead of the bluish dots of blue acaras . i had taken to referring to them as my
gold acaras ,
as i prepared to write this article , however , i became curious as to how the seller in chicago had identified his fish . while there are a few small differences between these gold acaras and the blue acaras of the aquarium hobby , these differences are assuredly not striking . i doubt that i would notice anything unusual if i came across these fish while perusing sellers ' tanks for rare fish . i doubted even more that most importers , wholesalers , or retailers would have noticed anything either .
fortunately . i had kept the seller ' s tag from the auction , although i hadn ' t had to call him for more fish . mike brousil , the seller , told me that he got his fish from steve covolo . he also told me that steve had either received his fish from , or at least had them identified by dr . wayne leibel .
wayne was unsure of the details ( it had been four or five years now since his role in this saga ) , but was able to confirm that he had probably identified the ancestors of my fish somewhere along the route . he told me that ' ae . ' sapayensis were sometimes found in pet shops at small sizes being sold as green terrors , having been brought in from the wild misidentified . he said that based on the fact that they were found in green terror territory and that they matched closely with good color photos published in the german aquarium literature , he was convinced they were ' ae . ' sapayensis .
good photos and collecting data probably provide as accurate an identification as can be reasonably had with these fish . the description of ' ae . ' sapayensis was done ninety years ago and the descriptions of the species most likely to be confused with ' ae . ' sapayensis ( which are ' ae . ' pulcher . ' ae . ' coeruleopunctatas , and ' ae . ' latifrons ) were made twenty - five to fifty years before that . as was the general case for descriptions of the time , these descriptions are brief and are made from a small number of specimens ( one in the case of ' ae . ' sapayensis ) . all but one of them lacks drawings and , of course , all of them lack photographs .
table . spine and ray counts from the original descriptions of ' ae . ' pulcher , ' ae . ' coeruleopunctatus . ' ae . ' latifrons , and ' ae . ' sapayensis and from two
gold acaras .
one might tend to wonder given the similarity of meristics and general overall appearance , whether or not the species mentioned above are all valid species . this is a question that i am not qualified to answer and will not attempt to . perhaps the best that we aquarists can do is wait for a modern review of these species by an ichthyologist .
gold acaras resemble blue acaras not only in appearance , but also in behavior and in their requirements for successful keeping and breeding . like most acaras ( but notably unlike the sympatric green terrors ) , gold acaras have a moderate temperament for a cichlid .
mike brousil reports ( pers comm . ) that his pair were quite timid and would not spawn if there were other fish in the tank . if isolated , however , they would spawn , at which point they would become very aggressive towards ( ie : kill ) any new fish introduced into their aquarium .
my own pair held their own in a tank with south american cichlids such as acarichthys heckelii and cichlasoma taenia which were at the time of similar size . when they matured they were placed alone in a thirty gallon aquarium with an undergravel filter which had been cichlid proofed
by placing a piece of plastic window screen on top of the bottom two inches of gravel . several rocks , pieces of driftwood and bark , and some homemade , plastic plants were present in the tank for hiding places and / or spawning sites . the tank was lit only by the ambient room light . a rather defective heater varied the water temperature between 70° and 85° f . the water was very soft ( approx . 3 dh ) , and the ph ranged from about 7 down to nearly 4 . no attempt was made to record the temperature and ph fluctuations and correlate them with behavior .
the larger of the fish staked out a territory at one end of the tank and the smaller fish spent most of its time hiding near the other end . the fish were fed primarily doro - min with a supplement of frozen blood worms . the larger fish ate greedily , but the smaller only caught an occasional food stick that floated near its hiding place or ventured cautiously forth after blood worms . both fish grew at about the same pace , but the larger fish grew much more robust , even fat . then one day the larger fish showed a female breeding tube .
i was a bit surprised to see that the probable male of my probable pair was actually a female . i began to worry that i either did not have a pair ( as i thought that the smaller fish was unlikely to be a male ) or if idid have a pair , that they wouldn ' t successfully spawn ( as i doubted that such a timid male would leave hiding long enough to fertilize the eggs ) . so , i wasn ' t all that excited when i finally saw eggs . many captive female cichlids will lay eggs by themselves if a suitable mate is not available .
the eggs were laid on a nearly vertical piece of rock at the female ' s end of the tank . the spawning was not observed , but the behavior of the other fish on the day the eggs were found did not differ from its previous behavior . it continued to hide on the far end of the tank from the larger fish ; this helped to convince me that i did not have a breeding pair of fish .
i was surprised then when the eggs , roughly 100 in number , did not fungus on the following days . after 3 days they hatched , but the fry soon disappeared , never to be seen again . still , i now knew i had a pair and i began to condition them with more feedings of blood worms in hopes of another spawn .
on the next spawning , there were approximately 300 eggs laid in the same location as before . this time , after the eggs hatched , the number of fry began to dwindle and the male became increasingly beaten - up . i suspected that the male was eating the fry and being attacked by the female as she attempted to defend them . i siphoned a couple of dozen fry out of the tank and set them up in a ten gallon aquarium with a sponge filter in order to raise them away from the parents . i also separated the male from the female using a piece of
eggcrate
light grating placed in the middle of the tank .
the fry in the thirty gallon with the parents grew much more quickly than those in the ten gallon tank , but their numbers continued to dwindle , although at a much slower rate than before . my guess is that now and then one of the fry in the parents ' tank would find its way to the male ' s side of the tank and be eaten by him , but i never actually witnessed this . the presence of the divider did not significantly change the general behavior of either adult fish ; the male continued to spend most of his time in hiding even though he was separated from the more outgoing female .
i decided to remove the remaining fry ( now down to about a dozen ) from the parents ' tank . they were too big to place in with the fry previously removed from the thirty gallon , so i put them in a ten gallon tank of their own . a couple of days later i observed that there was still one young fish in the parents ' tank , but i decided to leave it there .
in the next couple of weeks the growth of the single juvenile remaining in the parents ' tank greatly outpaced those of its siblings in the fry tanks . i decided that it could probably fend for itself with the barrier removed and i was anxious to have the adults spawn again , so i took out the egg - crate divider .
conkel , d . 1990 .
fishes of the balboan jungle .
tropical fish hobbyist , 38 ( 8 ) : 74ff .
gill , t . 1858 .
synopsis of the fresh water fishes of the western portion of the island of trinidad . w . r .
annals of the lycewnofnaturalhistory of new york . 6 : 363 - 430 .
kner . r . and f . steindachner . 1866 .
neue gattungen und arten von fischen aus centralamertka .
abhandlungen der mathematisch - phy sikalischen classe der koniglichbayerischen akademie der wissenschaften . 10 : 1 - 61 .
regan . c . 1903 .
descrtptions of new south amertcan fishes in the collection of the british museum .
annals and magazine of natural history . ser . 7 . vol . 12 : 621 - 630 .
stawikowski . r . and u . werner , 1988 . die buntbarsche der neuen welt : siidamertka . essen , west germany .
steindachner . f . 1878 .
zur fisch - fauna des magdalenenstromes . . . denkschriften der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften . mathematischnaturwissenschajtliche classe . wien . 39 : 19 - 78
u . s . office of geography , department of interior . 1957 gazetteer no . 36 : ecuador . washington , d . c .
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
videira m 1 , velasco m , azevedo r , silva r , gonçalves e , matos p , matos e .
laboratório de morfofisiologia e sanidade animal , universidade do estado do amapá ( ueap ) , macapá , ap , brazil .
description found in coastal waters , over sandy and sandy mud bottom . juveniles enter estuaries . adults feed on pelagic fishes at . . .
description found in coastal waters , over sandy and sandy mud bottom . juveniles enter estuaries . adults feed on pelagic fishes at night . often caught with @ umbrina canariensis @ . marketed fresh and is considered an important foodfish ( ref . 9772 ) . [ details ]
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of otolithus atelodus günther , 1867 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of otolithus teraglin macleay , 1880 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of atractoscion stelodus ( günther , 1867 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
robins , richard c . , reeve m . bailey , carl e . bond , james r . brooker , ernest a . lachner , et al .
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inhabit streams . is rare in the aquarium trade but has been imported on occasion ( ref . 12251 ) .
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the largest specimen collected was less than 15 cm long ( ref . 12251 ) .
smith - vaniz , b , robertson , r . , dominici - arosemena , a . , molina , h . , salas , e . & guzman - mora , a . g .
justification : this deep - water species is widespread in the eastern pacific . it is not targeted by fisheries due to its small size . there are no major threats known to this species , and no indication of widespread population decline . it is listed as least concern .
this species is endemic to the eastern pacific , and is found from southern california and the western gulf of california to western panama , including the galapagos and cocos island .
this demersal species lives on soft substrata at depths of 75 to 265m . it feeds on mobile benthic crustaceans , octupus , squid , cuttlefishes , and bony fishes .
there are no known species specific conservation measures . however , this species ' distribution includes a number of marine protected areas in the eastern pacific region .
smith - vaniz , b , robertson , r . , dominici - arosemena , a . , molina , h . , salas , e . & guzman - mora , a . g . 2010 .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
martins ml 1 , marchiori n 2 , bittencourt ls 3 , tavares - dias m 3 .
departamento de aquicultura , universidade federal de santa catarina , florianópolis , sc , brazil .
empresa de pesquisa agropecuária e extensão rural de santa catarina , campo experimental de piscicultura de camboriú , camboriú , sc , brazil .
laboratório de aquicultura e pesca , embrapa amapá , macapá , ap , brazil .
ortega torres , h . , correa , e . & chuctaya , j .
justification : this species is listed as least concern because its population is presumed to be stable and there are no known major threats affecting it .
this species is known from the peruvian amazon ( ortega et al . 2012 ) , and its type locality is a small brook from a drying pool , tributary of the aguaytia river ( 9°02 ' s , 75°31 ' w ) , in the coronel portillo province , peru ( kullander 1984 ) . the elevation range is between 190 and 600 m ( quezada - garcia 2009 ) .
this species inhabits slow to moderate streams of clear and white waters with sand , gravel or rocky bottoms ( quezada - garcia 2009 ) .
there are no conservation measures in place for this species . it is not present in protected areas .
ortega torres , h . , correa , e . & chuctaya , j . 2016 .