the four-line wrasse , larabicus quadrilineatus , is a species of wrasse native to the red sea and the gulf of aden .

it can be found on coral reefs at depths from the surface to 15 m ( 49 ft ) .

juveniles are cleaner fish , while the adults feed on coral polyps .

this species grows to 11.5 cm ( 4.5 in ) in total length .

this species is the only known member of its genus .

four - line wrasse

four line wrasse adults will reach only 2 . 9 inches ( 7 . 3 cm ) .
the four line wrasse is a beautiful fish but is quite secretive , shy and quick . . . making it a difficult fish to collect !
the 4 line wrasse comes from hawaii and isn’t as available as the 6 line wrasse . it’s not as aggressive as the 6 line wrasse , and is actually slightly small . you need to be careful when mixing it with other wrasse and basslet . needs a secure top as it’s a jumper .
the four line wrasse is a small beautifully colored fish . the body is dark blue with four orange lines outlined in black running horizontally across the upper part , and the eyes are red . the white lines through the red eye is similar to that of the six line wrasse , but with four lines instead of six and a white chin you will quickly be able to differentiate the two . they are slightly smaller as well .
the four line wrasse , generally imported from hawaii , is available most of the year . usually it can be acquired by request from your pet store or found on the internet .
it seems there is a direct correlation between size and sex for the four line wrasse . the males are generally the largest , with females coming in second and immature fish being the smallest .
the 6 line is much more readily available than the 4 line . although the 4 line is a little less violent than the 6 line i would avoid it as well . if your planning on adding it i would recommend making it the last fish you add . i had one and any new wrasse i would add would get harrassed to no end .
…flasher wrasse , also known as the eight - line fairy wrasse , originates from the waters of the red sea . the eightline flasher wrasse is a remarkably colored wrasse featuring different hues of yellow , orange and red . the distinguishing feature of this fish are the eight striking blue lines that run…
the four line wrasse is found in the tropical north and south pacific ; from indonesia to australia , japan to hawaii , the marshall islands and adjoining areas . they inhabit seaward reefs at depths of 20 feet to 145 feet ( 6 - 44 meters ) , dwelling close to the bottom among corals and rubble .
being active small colorful fish , the lined wrasses are popular for a small marine aquarium . they are quite hardy , disease resistant , and long lived . the aquarium care and behavior of the four line wrasse is very similar to that of the six line wrasse . once acclimated both these fish will even take care of a few pests in the aquarium , like the pyramidellid snails and commensal flatworms some coral keeping aquarists have to deal with at times . they are considered reef safe as they will not harm corals or coral anemones .
the hoeven ' s wrasse is also referred to as the tail spot wrasse , the yellow - lined wrasse , the orange - tipped rainbowfish , the tailspot wrasse , and the pinstriped wrasse . the body of this fish is blue - green in color and has pink or yellow stripes running horizontally across its sides . the color of the…
the fourline wrasse is best kept as the only member of its species due to its aggression towards other line wrasses . if you want to keep more than one you ' ll need a large aquarium into which you introduce all line wrasses at the same time . this species is quite aggressive in aquariums and should only be kept with larger semi - aggressive fish such as marine angelfish , tangs and puffers . it should not be kept with other wrasse species . if you want to keep friendly species with your fourline wrasse ( which is risky ) you should introduce these before the wrasse .
…tailed flasher wrasse is the newest member of the genus paracheilinus to be imported from fiji and vanuatu . we are fortunate to offer you this occasional fish outside of diver ' s den and on a more regular basis . the red tailed flasher wrasse has a wide red patch with a single line on its dorsal fin . …
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no other wrasse did a better job on the few flatworms i had than my dusky wrasse . it is constantly investigating every nook and cranny of the live rock searching for pods or anything else it can find . you can also try a yellow or green coris wrasse .
the linespot flasher wrasse is also known as the dot dash or spot lined flasher wrasse , and is one of the most peaceful members of all the flasher wrasse . this gorgeous fish is an active show - stopper and makes a perfect addition to your peaceful community reef aquarium . the color of the female is…
4 lines tend to cost more than a 6 line and i guess people like the coloring better on a 6 line . i see 6 lines around me from 10 - 15 bucks and 4 lines go up to 30 bucks , so i guess for someone starting out with no knowledge or very little on either fish will go with the cheaper brighter fish . just a guess
the four lined wrasse should be kept singly as they do not co - habitat well with other lined wrasses . they are basically reef safe with more semi - aggressive fish such as tangs , angels , and butterflies . they will not harm corals or coral anemones . they can also be kept in a non - reef setting with goatfish , puffers , and squirrelfish .
…simply - striking grey head wrasse , or threespot wrasse has three white lines on either side of its head , three black spots along its back , and three false
eyes
running along its dorsal fin back to a fourth on the tail in juveniles and females . adult male grey head wrasse , sport vivid blue stripes…
the four line wrasses are excellent hiders and love to have live rock with plenty of retreats . they are diurnal , which means they are active by day and sleeping at night . as with all fish in this genus they sleep in a mucus cocoon , which fortunately does not seem degrade the water quality . it is thought that the cocoon protects them from predators as they sleep by masking their scent . in nature they are found with a coral called pocillopora meandrina .
i ' m surprised to read this about a melanarus wrasse they are usually peaceful . mine is a model citizen .
seems like very few people go with the 4 - line ' s . is there a reason why that is the case ? i always thought both were very active , eat flatworms , etc , but the 6 - line is much more violent . i am deciding on which to get . i do want to put other wrasses in the tank too , so don ' t want to guess wrong at the beginning .
this species is very popular because of its stunning beauty and small size which makes the fourline wrasse suitable for small marine aquariums . it has a green body with blue and purple fins and four horizontal stripes that run across the upper half of the body . each stripe is made up of three smaller stripes : one black stripe , one blue stripe and one red stripe . the eye is red with two white lines on it .
my reef tanks lots of rare fish , 180 , 180 , 125 lots of angels , tangs , wrasse . lit by leds
in the wild they feed on many small organisms such as various crustaceans , molluscs , all kinds of worms , and fish eggs . in one article it was noted that during autopsy of 3 different four lines , one had remains of pistol shrimp , one had crab and a third only shrimp and gastropod larvae .
the fourline wrasse is an excellent jumper and it is important to cover the aquarium well do avoid that they jump out of the tank .
we have no information on the breeding of the fourline wrasse . sexing is possible since males are more colorful than females and grow larger .
…peaceful wrasses , including other halichoeres biocellatus . the red - lined wrasse will eat fireworms and pyramidellid snails ; protecting corals and clams . in addition , it may eat feather dusters , wild shrimp , tubeworms , and flatworms . it may also eat parasites off of tank mates . the red - lined wrasse …
i like the idea of the dusky and coris wrasses . my wife likes the green coris wrasses , as we have too much yellow in the tank already . are green coris wrasses as peaceful as the yellow variant ? will they accept other wrasses and also school together with other green coris ? i am going to open a new post specific on this question as well since this post may just be grabbing x - line wrasse browsers . thanks !
the fourline wrasse originates in the tropical pacific ocean where they are found from japan in the north to australia and the south and eastwards to hawaii and the marshall islands .
the sohal tang is hardy , but susceptible to a disease known as lateral line erosion , or hole in the head . a vegetarian diet high in vitamins , especially beta - carotene can aid in the prevention of development of the disease . stray voltages are also thought to contribute to this disease and the…
…have an elongated body that is dark in color as a juvenile . when mature , their body lightens to a silver color , and they develop a dark longitudinal line spanning the entire length of the fish . these are very interesting fish that swim in a vertical position . these shrimpfish are difficult to keep…
… wrasse , also known as the diamond - tail fairy wrasse , originates solely from the marshall islands . in nature , they occur close to the substrate within the sand and rubble zones of the reef . they are gold in color with a vibrant blue head . their entire body is marked with a maze - like series of lines , …
i mainly just need a wrasse that will eat up my flatworm problem . any others that are more peaceful that we will do this ? seems like the flatworm eaters are always violent .
ideal conditions for the fourline wrasse is ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 , salinity 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 , and temperature 72 - 78ºf ( 22 - 26°c ) .
the fourline wrasse is a small , gorgeous wrasse from hawaii . these fish are very similar in design and behavior to their popular cousin the six line wrasse , but are colored slightly differently and not nearly as available to the hobbyist . the fourline wrasse has a hunter green colored body with horizontal neon blue lines running along its body . they have bright eyes highlighted in red , which also have a horizontal band . as they move their eye upward or downward the band becomes more noticeable . these fish are very peaceful and love to swim around with curiousity . the fourline are also beneficial for their interest in eating nuisance bristle and flat worms . these fish are perfect for reef tanks . the wrasse family of fish is a large group of usually very colorful free swimming fish . these fish are powerful swimmers using their pectoral fins to propel them through the water . wrasses usually have powerful jaws that enable them to crush their food , which includes worms . these fish usually have long continuous dorsal fins and are found in groups in the wild . the wrasses are one of the few fish that will bury themselves in the sand when sleeping or during flight . as with most pomacanthus angels , these fish go through extraordinary color changes from juvenile to adult . wrasses are also able to change their sex during these phase changes .
the aquarium should be well lit . keep the water quality high and the water parameters stable . good filtration and circulation is important if you want the fourline wrasse , as well as most other marine species , to thrive .
the fourline wrasse is a relatively small species and it can there fore be kept in aquarium as small as 20 gallon / 80 l . it is important to create an environment where your wrasse feels safe . if the fourline wrasse doesn ' t feel safe it will become stressed and very shy , spending most of its time hiding in the sand rather than swimming around showing itself off . there are two basic things to think if you want to create an environment that feels safe for you wrasses : 1 . the bottom of the tank should be covered with at least 2 - 3 in / 5 - 7 . 5 cm sand . the sand is important as the fourline wrasse wants to bury itself when it feels threatened and when it time for it to go to sleep . 2 . decorate the aquarium so that a lot of caves and other hiding places are created among live rock . at least some of the caves should be shaded .
the fourline wrasse is a carnivore that mainly eats micro invertebrates in the wild . they will accept most food types when kept in an aquarium including flake food and pellets . they should be fed a varied diet and you can for instance create a diet based around a high quality flake food and complement with other foods such as vitamin enriched brine shrimp and fine chopped sea food ( shrimps , clams , crab ) . feed your fourline wrasse 3 - 4 times a day .
in the past my 4 - lines have always been nicer . but thats a fish by fish thing . i have had 6 - lines be very timid and not agressive at all towards anything but mayb e a snail / hermit here or there . yellow corris wrasse was a great addition in a zoo tank i had years ago . it was strictly zoas and palys with a few fish . the corris wrasse kept any pests i had under control and did a great job at it .
common name : fourline wrasse scientific name : pseudocheilinus tetrataenia max size : 3 inches / 7 . 5 cm ph : 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 salinity : 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 temperature : 72 - 78ºf ( 22 - 26°c )
this species is relatively hardy once it has acclimatized to an aquarium and it is a species that can be recommended to people who want to start their first marine aquarium . it is important to introduce the fourline wrasse to your tank slowly , giving it ample time to acclimate before letting it out into its new home . it is best to allow 4 hours for acclimatization before releasing it . the fourline wrasse will be very shy for the first few days but will slowly become more and more active and visible in the tank .
the fourline wrasse is reef save in that regard that it doesn ' t touch corals or anemones , but it may eat small delicate shrimp and other small invertebrates . it will help you control organisms like pyramidellid snails , commensal flatworms , and bristleworms by eating them .
…shades before acclimating this one out of the box , because the male vrolik ' s wrasse is a true razzle - dazzler . neon red stripes pop against iridescent blues and greens . a sunny yellow dorsal fin glows under the glimmer lines of your lighting system . halichoeres chrysotaenia , while appearing similar…
i mainly just need a wrasse that will eat up my flatworm problem . any others that are more peaceful that we will do this ? i bought a melanurus a little while back and took him out after he took out all my bangaii cardinals . seems like the flatworm eaters are always violent .
…has multiple blue horizontal lines covering the head and body , which break into spots as they progress towards the tail . the female / sub - dominant male will change into a dominant male if incorporated into the aquarium as the only fish of this species . these wrasse are one of the most beautiful…
…peaceful wrasses , including its own species , is an acceptable environment . it will eat fireworms and pyramidellid snails , protecting corals and clams . in addition , it may eat feather dusters , wild shrimp , tubeworms , and flatworms . it may also eat parasites off of tank mates . the christmas wrasse …
…online . the richmond ' s wrasse has distinct chain - like lines along its sides , with females also exhibiting orange and yellow toward the anal fin . a 70 gallon or larger aquarium with a sealed lid , a 2 - 3 inch sandy bottom to hide under when frightened , and other peaceful wrasses , including its own…
though they are shy secretive fish in the wild , once they become acclimated to the home aquarium they become quite boisterous . they are fine in a community tank but will become aggressive towards shy timid species in the same aquarium , and sometimes even larger fish . to prevent confrontations it is best to keep it with similar sized or larger semi - aggressive fish and to make a single lined wrasse the last addition to the aquarium . they do not co - habitat well with other lined wrasses .
this fourline wrasse seems to be displaying aggression towards a few pairs of peaceful hawaiian fairy flame wrasses ( c . jordani ) . fourline wrasses and others in their genus are aggressive toward slower moving or peaceful fish like fairy and flasher wrasses , leopard wrasses , and shy gobies . these are probably the least aggressive of their genus , but still need to be kept with fish that are larger and will not take their bossiness . they can do well in a reef tank as they will get rid of pyramidellid snails and flatworms , but they will attack ornamental shrimp . an interesting behavior is that they spin a cocoon at night within the rock work to sleep in .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is a red sea endemic that is collected for the aquarium trade . adults are live coral feeders . the conservation status of this species is unclear . there is no information available on current densities or on population declines associated with collection . it is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population . it is therefore listed as data deficient .
this species occurs in fringing reefs , among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth . adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes . it relies on live coral .
this species is collected for the aquarium trade and this could possibly pose as a threat .
there are no species - specific conservation measures in place for this species . however , its distribution overlaps some marine protected areas within its range ( wood 2007 ) . it is recommended that more information is collected on the threat posed by the aquarium trade and how this may be affecting the population .
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marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 9710 ) . tropical
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 11 . 5 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 8883 )
occurs in fringing reefs , among coral heads and in areas with dense coral growth ( ref . 9710 ) . adults feed on coral polyps while juveniles act as cleaners of other fishes .
randall , j . e . , 1986 . red sea reef fishes . london , immel publishing . 192 p . ( ref . 8883 )
) : 24 . 8 - 29 . 2 , mean 27 . 6 ( based on 307 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00977 ( 0 . 00458 - 0 . 02086 ) , b = 3 . 05 ( 2 . 87 - 3 . 23 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 61 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 21 of 100 ) .
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we would like to import some live zebra shark . contact me please . best regard , liu wei chung . email : s89186 @ urltoken
i have a green moray eel that is just too big now , does anyone have a huge tank . . . . 400 + gallons ?
being hardy and disease resistant , these fish are easy to maintain once they are established in the aquarium . they are poor shippers however , so make sure the individual you choose is eating and active .
, provide a diet rich in all kinds of protein foods , formulas and flakes with an emphasis on small crustaceans . they are very active and need to be fed twice a day at least if not more . as with other lined wrasses they benefit from productive live rock . picking on the rock is a particular love of theirs and they will eat the copepods , amphipods , and other micro fauna it provides .
these fish are generally very easy to care for and are hardy . provide basic marine aquarium care with a 20 % water change monthly or 10 % twice a month .
this timid fish needs to have plenty of good quality live rock with holes for hiding to feel comfortable especially in a smaller aquarium .
prefers sunlight to moderate light . they don ' t mind the bright light that most coral reef owners have due to their shallow water preferences .
no special requirements . normal temperatures for marine fish is between 74° and 79° fahrenheit .
in the wild they are not found far from the bottom , in fact no more than a foot above the substrate . they will spend time in the bottom of the aquarium , but usually spending most of the time in the rockwork .
do not keep with invertebrates such as small shrimp , or fish that are smaller than they are as they will become a quick meal . they have been known to go after small snails as well . it is feasible to keep the lined wrasses with larger crustacea however , as they reportedly are more amiable towards larger cleaner , marble and coral shrimp . shy fish such as firefish , gobies , grammas , fairy wrasses , flasher wrasses , leopard wrasses , and others will be pestered to death . the mandarins may or may not be picked on , but most likely will be . they will also out compete the mandarins and other fish for food . slow - moving feeders such as pipefish and seahorses will starve in their presence . predators such as groupers , lionfish , and scorpion fish will eat the lined wrasses in a heartbeat .
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availability ; that ' s all . 4 lines don ' t get quite as big ( 3
v . 4
) , but their temperament is just the same . pretty aggressive .
4 - lines are much nicer . both are territorial and rather vicious after established .
the bigger problem here is that the
flatworm eaters
are not very consistent in their tendency to eat flatworms . my advice in this situation is to get a fish that you want , and if it happens to eat flatworms , that ' s a bonus . every fish that i ' ve seen listed as a possible flatworm eater i ' ve seen fail in enough tanks that i don ' t even bother to recommend any of them anymore .
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ human beings , who are almost unique in having the ability to learn from the experience of others , are also remarkable for their apparent disinclination to do so . - douglas adams current tank info : 14g , 29g nano reefs
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choose 7278f 72 - 78° f ( 13 ) dkh812 dkh 8 - 12 ( 13 ) ph8184 ph 8 . 1 - 8 . 4 ( 13 ) sg10201025 sg 1 . 020 - 1 . 025 ( 12 ) kh812 kh 8 - 12 ( 1 ) sg10231025 sg 1 . 023 - 1 . 025 ( 1 )
…this method is considered more advanced then other methods . it is geared toward sensitive inhabitants such as snails , corals , shrimp , sea stars , wrasses , and discus . you need the foster & smith aquatics fish acclimation kit and must be willing to monitor the entire process . gather a clean , 3 - or…
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this species does very well in reef setups without small shrimp but can be kept in
fowlr
aquariums as well .
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the striped bush squirrel ( paraxerus flavovittis ) is a species of rodents in the family sciuridae found in kenya , malawi , mozambique , and tanzania .

its natural habitats are moist savanna and plantations .

striped bush squirrel

, the striped bush squirrel , is found throughout southern kenya , the united republic of tanzania , malawi , and northern mozambique .
striped bush squirrels eat seeds , fruits , roots , leaves , and buds .
, yields clues about the communication of striped bush squirrels . tail flicking and ear wagging have been recorded in
viljoen , s . 1977 . behaviour of the bush squirrel , paraxerus cepapi cepapi ( a . smith , 1836 ) .
there is very little information on the reproduction and mating systems in striped bush squirrels . however , in a related species , smith ' s bush squirrels ( paraxerus cepapi ) , there is more information .
very young striped bush squirrels have been collected in the months of march and april . in june , some half - grown young were collected . it has been suggested that the birthing season may occur around these months , and possibly a second one in september . a striped bush squirrel nest was recorded as being made from grass and coconut fibers and was located in a hollow tree .
follow the link to see all of schaapmans ' 2 photos of striped bush squirrel on flickr . please note that there are still 1000s of photos that schaapmans took that are not yet properly tagged or uploaded , so expect more photos in the future .
there is not much information on communication in striped bush squirrels except that young will emit a piercing squeak when threatened or fearful , to which the mother will respond .
striped bush squirrels are diurnal mammals . not much is known about their social system , but females and males associate with their young . there are no recordings of large associations of
striped bush squirrels are small to medium sized squirrels . head and body length measurement averages 175 mm and tail length also averages 175 mm . they can weight from 120 g to 200 g . striped bush squirrels undergo periodic color changes . the back can be dark grey or olive - brown , which can be replaced by brightly ochraceous tipped hairs . the dorsal surface can also take on a fulvous or bright gold hue .
murmurs , which is thought to be a form of communication used to contact another squirrel and can be aggressive or friendly . male and female
available information on the ecosystem roles of striped bush squirrels is lacking . it seems likely , however , that they disperse seeds of the tree species they feed on and affect the abundance of the specific plants on which they feed .
striped bush squirrels are terrestrial and live in a variety of habitats , from moist savannahs to forests . they can be found on cultivated lands , preferring sugar plum tree groves . populations are most numerous in old - growth hardwood forests .
. striped bush squirrels nest in hardwood tree hollows and can be seen basking near their nest holes in the early morning . if they realize they have attracted attention , they will flee . it has been suggested that females are more wary than males .
if a dominant p . cepapi narrows its eyes at a submissive p . cepapi , the submissive squirrel will run away and is then often chased by the dominant one .
it is thought that color changes in the fur might be connected with age . color changes do not seem to be merely seasonal , but may depend on the physiological condition of the squirrel .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , it occurs in a number of protected areas , has a tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this east african species is distributed in extreme southern kenya , through eastern tanzania into northern mozambique and southeastern malawi .
this species is found in savannah , forest , and thicket habitats and has been recorded from cultivated land , showing a preference for groves of sugar plum ( uapaca spp . ) trees ( kingdon 1997 ) .
there are presumably no major threats as a whole to this widespread and somewhat adaptable species .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t16207a115131995 .
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kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
juovapensasorava
to
paraxerus flavovittis ( peters , 1852 )
.
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has a single dorsal lateral stripe on each side . this stripe can be ivory , white , or yellowish and there is a dark line on either side of each stripe . the top of the head eventually can become ochraceous . when the dorsal surface of the muzzle is grizzled ochraceous , the crown is often dark grey as well as the neck . facial lines are alternatively white and dark brown . the underside of is white . the dorsal foot surfaces can be dull ochraceous . the toes are heavily clawed .
male p . cepapi increase the frequency of mating calls when approaching mating season . the male mating call often begins in april and ends by january . the cycle of the male mating call is probably controlled by androgen . in captivity , a male p . cepapi mating call is often followed by chasing the female and attempting to mount her . it is possible that the presence of a female will stimulate the male to emit his mating call . this call by the male also possibly brings the female into estrus . captive males have been recorded emitting the mating call sporadically , and will murmur continuously in the presence of a female who has given her mating call .
the high pitched mating call of females , emitted while in estrus , is given in short pulses . this call may be followed by grunting or growling softly . a female
young are well developed . weaning occurs between 4 and 6 weeks after birth . a new set of pups can be born as early as 62 days after birth of the last litter ;
( allen and loveridge , 1942 ; butler , et al . , 2004 ; emmons , 1979 )
breeding season young are born in march and april , and perhaps in september , but the gestation period and breeding season are unknown .
parental care shows that young will emit a squeak at ear piercing level when in danger or fearful . the mother will respond to this call , but one mother was observed fleeing from the rescue when she realized she was under observation .
a mother p . cepapi will remain in the nest almost continuously for the first days after parturition . males are often in the nest as well . paraxerus cepapi parents often approach their young and groom them forcefully .
in order to move her young , a female p . cepapi will carry the young by gripping the ventral body surface of its hindleg in her mouth . the young holds on with arms , legs and tail . it has been indicated that a mother will retrieve her young up to 4 weeks of age . after this , the young will resist retrieval .
neither the adult male nor the adult female will provide the young with solid food in the nest . for the first six months after birth , a young p . cepapi follows its parents around while eating .
. being a species that lives in the savannah , however , tail flicking does not occur often outside of an alarm context . the savannah is one habitat for
, so it is possible that minimal tail flicking occurs within this species as well , because of the risk of attracting predators . a quick head bob is also seen in
in p . cepapi olfactory signals include mouthwiping and anal - dragging . mouthwiping is done after eating or during grooming . paraxerus cepapi has also been observed mouthwiping in a modified form resembling flehmen . face - tail - face grooming in p . cepapi distributes scent all over the body .
individuals feel threatened , they will emit a warning growl or hiss . teeth grinding may also be used as a warning . ticking sounds emited by young
is classified as data deficient on the iucn list . it is not listed on either the cites appendices or the united states federal list .
nicole mason ( author ) , michigan state university , barbara lundrigan ( editor , instructor ) , michigan state university .
living in sub - saharan africa ( south of 30 degrees north ) and madagascar .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
a terrestrial biome . savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy . extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical africa and south america , and in australia .
a grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees , a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest . see also tropical savanna and grassland biome .
a terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5° n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
2007 .
u . s . fish and wildlife service : working together
( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .
2007 .
unep - wcmc species database : cites - listed species
( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .
allen , g . , a . loveridge . 1942 . scientific results of a fourth expedition to forested areas in east and central africa . i . mammals .
butler , j . , j . toit , j . bingham . 2004 . free - ranging domestic dogs ( canis familiaris ) as predators and prey in rural zimbabwe : threats of competition and disease to large wild carnivores .
emmons , l . 1979 . observations on litter size and development of some african rainforest squirrels .
grubb , p . 2006 .
the iucn red list of threatened species
( on - line ) . accessed march 16 , 2007 at urltoken .
thomas , o . 1919 . on a small collection of mammals from lumbo , mozambique .
viljoen , s . 1983 . communicatory behaviour of southern african tree squirrels , paraxerus palliatus ornatus , p . p . tongensis , p . c . cepapi and funisciurus congicus .
to cite this page : mason , n . 2007 .
paraxerus flavovittis
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) , aka the arboreal crab , is an arboreal , leaf-eating mangrove crab , found on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorhiza , but not on avicennia marina , and occupying an ecological niche similar to that of another sesarmid , aratus pisonii , from the americas .

crabs of the family sesarmidae are some of the most diverse and important components of mangrove estuary communities in the tropics and are not found in europe .

two genera common in african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) .

often colourful , they have a squarish appearance and have two transverse pectinated crests on the upper edge of the male chelar carpus .

the two genera are separated by the absence in parasesarma or presence in perisesarma of an anterolateral tooth .

parasesarma leptosoma occurs in mangrove estuaries along the coasts of kenya , tanzania , mozambique and south africa .

in order to escape low tide predators , this species twice daily climbs mangrove stems to the canopy and feeds on fresh leaves , and is commonly found on rhizophora mucronata , but studies suggest that it prefers the foliage of bruguiera gymnorhiza .

its diet also includes algae , mollusks , insects and annelids .

its aversion to avicennia marina may be due to its secreting salt from its leaves , while both r. mucronata and b. gymnorhiza are salt excluders .

distinguishing characters are its propodus being three times the length of its dactylus , and the carapace width only some 2 cm .

females carry the eggs , which remain attached to the swimming legs or pleopods until hatching .

important physiological adaptations enable these crabs to feed on leaves , with no evidence of fermentation in the gut , a solution common in other animals .

parasesarma leptosoma

remark also subgenus parasesarma in dahdouh , 1994 < 247 > . [ details ]
morphological differences among described zoeal stages of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma [ perisesarma fasciatum , this study ; perisesarma guttatum ( pereyra lago , 1993 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; perisesarma bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) ; perisesarma messa ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma leptosoma ( flores et al . , 2003 ) ; parasesarma acis ( terada , 1976 ) ; parasesarma catenata ( pereyra lago , 1987 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) * ; parasesarma pictum ( pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ) ; parasesarma erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) ; parasesarma plicatum ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; selvakumar , 1999 ) * ]
emmerson , w . , cannicci , s . , porri , f . , 2003 . new records for parasesarma leptosoma ( hilgendorf , 1869 ) ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from mangroves in mozambique and south africa . african zoology 38 ( 2 ) : 351 - 355 .
vannini , m . and r . k . ruwa , 1994 . vertical migrations in the tree crab sesarma leptosoma ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . marine biology 118 : 271 - 278 .
( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) hartnoll , r . g . ( 1975 ) . the grapsidae and ocypodidae ( decapoda : brachyura ) of tanzania . j . zool . london 177 , 305 - 328 [ details ]
vannini , m . , s . cannicci and r . k . ruwa , 1995 . effect of light intensity on vertical migration of the tree crab , sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf ( decapoda , grapsidae ) . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 185 : 181 - 189 .
it has already been observed that the conserved morphological characteristics of the larvae of sesarmidae make differentiation at generic levels difficult in this family ( cuesta , 1999 ) . likewise , differentiation at species level are only possible , if at all , using a combination of several morphological features ( schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . tables i and ii summarize the morphological differences of all described zoeal stages and the megalopa stage among species of perisesarma and parasesarma . we here included the larvae of the genus parasesarma because p . fasciatum was originally described as a member of parasesarma and because of the morphological similarity of the two genera ( see introduction ) . preliminary molecular comparisons also suggest a close phylogenetic relationship of these genera ( fratini et al . , 2004 ) . in the present study , we provide evidence that larval stages of perisesarma and parasesarma are very similar , to the point that it is impossible to distinguish the larvae consistently at the generic level . the first zoeal stage of parasesarma species bears five setae on the coxal endite of the maxillule ( table i ) , while p . fasciatum and perisesarma guttatum bear six setae on the coxal endite ( cf . pereyra lago , 1993 ) . however , the first zoeal stages of perisesarma messa and perisesarma bidens bear five setae , as the species of parasesarma ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) . it needs to be taken into account that the number of larval stages is variable ( 4–5 zoeal stages ) in both genera , and part of the variability in the setation of appendages could be due to this variability . for example , the number of scaphognathite setae on the maxilla of the zoea iv is reduced in species with five zoeal stages as compared with species with four zoeal stages ( table i ) . the zoea iv of p . guttatum is the only fourth stage with five setae on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped ; the sixth seta does not appear before the last zoeal stage ( zoea v ) . in contrast , parasesarma erythrodactyla and parasesarma plicatum , both species with five zoeal stages , show the sixth seta on the distal segment of the endopod of the first maxilliped already in stage iv . overall , the larval data ( zoea and megalopa ) support previous morphological and molecular indications and confirm a very close relationship between the genera perisesarma and parasesarma .
( of sesarma leptosoma hilgendorf , 1869 ) ruwa , r . k . ( 1989 ) . macrofaunal composition and zonation on sandy beaches at gazi , kanamai and malindi bay , kenya . kenya journal of sciences ( series b ) 10 ( 1 - 2 ) : 31 - 45 [ details ]
the complete larval development of the sesarmid crab perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) from singapore was obtained from laboratory culture . all four zoeal stages , the megalopa and the first crab stage are described and illustrated . the morphological characteristics of the larvae of p . fasciatum are compared with those of other known larvae of the genera perisesarma and parasesarma . the larval morphology of p . fasciatum clearly presents the typical combination of features that characterize sesarmid larvae . overall , larval stages are very similar in perisesarma and parasesarma and it is impossible to distinguish these two genera by larval morphology .
guillermo guerao , klaus anger , u . w . e . nettelmann , christoph d . schubart ; complete larval and early juvenile development of the mangrove crab perisesarma fasciatum ( crustacea : brachyura : sesarmidae ) from singapore , with a larval comparison of parasesarma and perisesarma , journal of plankton research , volume 26 , issue 12 , 1 december 2004 , pages 1389–1408 , urltoken
two of the more conspicuous and species - rich genera of african , asian and australian mangroves are parasesarma ( 26 species ) and perisesarma ( 23 species ) . they are often colourful crabs , similar in their overall squarish appearance and even sharing the defining morphological characteristic of two transverse pectinated crests on the upper border of the male chelar carpus . the only distinguishing characteristic between the two genera is the absence ( parasesarma ) or presence ( perisesarma ) of an anterolateral tooth . in american sesarmid crabs , it has been shown that the anterolateral tooth is not a very consistent characteristic and it is often weakly pronounced or absent in some of the species ( von hagen , 1978 ; abele , 1992 ) . also in one asian species of perisesarma , perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) , the anterolateral tooth is not always clearly defined . therefore , lanchester ( 1900 ) originally placed this species in the subgenus parasesarma , however , noticing that one of the females has ‘indications of a tooth behind the orbital angle’ . also tweedie ( 1936 ) states that the ‘epibranchial tooth is always low and obtuse , often obscure , and in one adult male , scarcely indicated’ .
ecological notes : adapted an aerial strategy where they can climb trees to avoid the incoming tide ; never seen on the forest floor . both true arboreal species , the american aratus pisonii milne - edwards , 1837 and the east african s . leptosoma , show morphological adaptations to life in the trees , namely a flat carapace , relatively long walking leg carpus and propodus and short dactylus ( hartnoll , 1988 ; vannini et al . , 1997 ) .
in this study , we newly describe the complete larval and early juvenile development of p . fasciatum from singapore and compare it with other published larval descriptions of species of parasesarma and perisesarma to test whether there are consistent larval differences between these two genera ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ) . this is only the fourth species of the genus perisesarma for which zoeal stages are described , the third megalopal description , and the second which includes the first juvenile .
sesarmid crabs are among the most diverse and important faunal components of mangrove forest communities worldwide . their importance for ecological processes related to leaf turnover is only recently being revealed ( macintosh , 1988 ; lee , 1989 , 1998 ; emmerson and mcgwynne , 1992 ; micheli , 1993a , b ; schrijvers et al . , 1996 ) . otherwise , very little is known about the biology of most of these tropical crabs , and even the systematic classification is far from being resolved . for a long time , most of the sesarmids were included in the genus sesarma say , 1817 . in 1895 , de man ( de man , 1895 ) introduced three subgenera ( i . e . episesarma , parasesarma and perisesarma ) based on the presence or absence of an anterolateral tooth and the type of tuberculation on the chelar carpus . serène and soh ( serène and soh , 1970 ) elevated these subgenera to full genus level and created a large number of new genera , thereby establishing a taxonomic system which even today is not fully accepted , only slowly adopted and still being revised ( davie , 1992 , 1994 ; ng and schubart , 2003 ) .
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according to the new taxonomy of serène and soh ( serène and soh , 1970 ) , the genus sesarma is now restricted to the american continent , which has an impoverished sesarmid fauna compared to the indo - westpacific ( < 30 species in america as compared with > 200 species in the indo - westpacific ) . there are no sesarmid crabs in europe . many larval stages of sesarma and its sister genera aratus h . milne edwards , 1853 and armases abele , 1992 have been described over the past 50 years from american waters ( costlow and bookhout , 1960 , 1962 ; díaz and ewald , 1968 ; warner , 1968 ; fransozo and hebling , 1986 ; schubart and cuesta , 1998 ; cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . in contrast , there are only very few larval descriptions of sesarmid crabs from africa , asia and oceania ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ; terada , 1976 ; krishnan and kannupandi , 1987 ; pasupathi and kannupandi , 1987 ; pereyra lago , 1987 , 1993 ; greenwood and fielder , 1988 ; selvakumar , 1999 ; flores et al . , 2003 ; schubart et al . , 2003 ) , especially considering the large number of species that are present in the mangroves of these continents .
perisesarma fasciatum is a relatively small and rounded representative of its genus . it lives in the upper , often dry , fringes of mangroves on relatively hard and sandy substratum and was repeatedly observed scurrying on mounds of the burrowing decapod thalassina ( c . d . schubart , personal observation ) . the known distribution of this species ranges from thailand [ rathbun , 1909 as sesarma ( chiromantes ) siamense ] , malaysia ( sasekumar , 1972 ) , singapore ( tweedie , 1936 ) and indonesia ( serène and moosa , 1971 ) to hong kong ( soh , 1978 ) . otherwise , there is no published information on the biology of this crab species .
several adult specimens of p . fasciatum were collected in the lim chu kang mangroves in singapore in january 2002 . they were transported alive to regensburg ( germany ) where they were slowly acclimated to fresh water . two females and two males were transported to the biologische anstalt helgoland ( germany ) in july 2002 , where they were maintained at a salinity of 5 ( 24°c ) and in an artificial 12 : 12 h light : dark cycle . the extrusion and incubation of eggs took place at the same conditions . larval rearing of one hatch was carried out at identical conditions of temperature and light , but at a salinity of 25 . the larvae were fed freshly hatched nauplii of artemia sp . ( great salt lake ) . water and food were changed daily . exuviae and specimens of each developmental stage were preserved in 70 % alcohol . first zoeal stages from three additional females were obtained in regensburg and barcelona ( spain ) for comparative purposes .
a wild binocular microscope , equipped with an ocular micrometer , was used for the dissection and measurements of individuals ( 10 individuals of each hatch and larval stage were measured ) . an olympus microscope was used for the determination of the setal formula and measurements of the appendages . the following measurements were taken : total length ( tl ) as the distance between the tips of the dorsal and rostral spines ; carapace length ( cl ) from the base of the rostral spine to the posterolateral carapace margin ; antennal exopod length ( el ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the distal margin ( without setae ) ; protopodal process length ( pl ) from the base of the antennal exopod to the tip of the protopodal process ; furcal length ( fl ) from an imaginary line across the base of the outer seta on the posterior margin of the telson to the furcal tip ; and basal telson length ( bt ) , from a line across the anterior margin to the posterior margin of the telson ( base of the outer seta ) . the proportions of the zoeal measurements el , pl , fl and bt were shown to be useful for separating species and genera of the sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) . for the megalopa , cl was measured as the distance from the frontal margin to the posterior margin of the carapace ; carapace width ( cw ) as the greatest distance across the carapace .
all drawings were made with the aid of a camera lucida and microscope photography . the number of individuals of each larval stage examined to describe the morphology varied between 5 and 10 . the long aesthetascs of the antennules and the long plumose setae on the distal exopod of the maxillipeds and pleopods are not fully illustrated and are drawn truncated , instead . larval descriptions followed the basic malacostracan body pattern , and setal armature on appendages is described from proximal to distal segments and from endopod to exopod ( clark et al . , 1998 ) .
samples of all larval stages were deposited in the biological collections of reference of the institut de ciències del mar ( csic ) in barcelona , under the catalogue numbers icmd 52 - 56 / 2004 .
the larval development of p . fasciatum was found to consist of four zoeal stages and one megalopa . the development through the zoea i stage lasted on average 4 . 6 ± 1 . 2 d , the zoea ii stage took 3 . 7 ± 0 . 7 d , the zoea iii 3 . 4 ± 0 . 5 d , the zoea iv 4 . 7 ± 0 . 5 and the megalopa 8 . 0 ± 0 . 7 d ( values are mean ± sd ; initial n = 100 ) . total larval development from hatching to metamorphosis lasted 23 . 9 ± 1 . 2 d . the comparison of zoeae i from four different hatches allowed to determine morphological and morphometric homogeneity ( i . e . no significant differences ) . the first zoeal stage is described in detail , while in subsequent stages only differences and changes are described .
globose , smooth and without tubercles . dorsal spine present , well developed and strongly curved posteriorly with sparsely minute protuberances . rostral spine present , straight and similar in length to spinous process of the antenna . lateral spines absent . pair of setae on the posterodorsal and anterodorsal regions . posterior and ventral margin without setae . eyes sessile .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . total animal , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the dorsal spine . scale bars = 0 . 15 mm .
uniramous . endopod absent . exopod unsegmented with three terminal aesthetascs and two terminal seta .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antennule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iv ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .
similar in size to rostral spine . protopodal process with one row of 12–15 spines of different size . exopod elongated , with two terminal simple setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) and two minute spines . pl / el = 2 . 35–2 . 40 .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . antenna . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( e 1 ) modified basal segment ; ( e 2 ) modified basal segment . mandible . ( g ) zoea i ; ( h ) zoea iv ; ( i ) megalopa . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .
exopod and epipod seta absent . coxal endite with six setae . basial endite with five setae and with two teeth . endopod two - segmented , with one seta on the proximal segment and one subterminal seta and four terminal setae on the distal segment .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .
coxal endite bilobed , with 5 + 3 setae , distal lobe terminates in a spine . basial endite bilobed with 5 + 4 setae . endopod unsegmented , bilobed , with 2 + 3 long setae on the proximal and distal lobe respectively . scaphognathite ( exopod ) with four plumose marginal setae and long setose posterior process .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . ( a 1 ) detail of the distal lobe of the coxal endite . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .
coxa with one seta . basis with 10 medial setae arranged 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 on the inner side , and a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae on the outer side . endopod five - segmented , with 2 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 5 ( one subterminal and four terminal ) . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . first maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iii , endopod ; ( c ) zoea iv , endopod ; ( d ) megalopa ; ( e ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
coxa without setae . basis with four medial setae arranged 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 . endopod three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 6 setae . exopod two - segmented ( incipient ) ; distal segment with four long plumose natatory setae .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . second maxilliped . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea iv ; ( c ) megalopa ; ( d ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
five somites . somites 2 and 3 with pairs of dorsolateral processes . somites 3–5 with posterolateral processes . somites 2–5 with pairs of posterodorsal setae .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , dorsal view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv ; ( e ) megalopa ; ( f ) first crab . ( a 1 ) detail of the furca ; ( e 1 ) modified telson ; ( e 2 ) modified telson . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . abdomen , lateral view . ( a ) zoea i ; ( b ) zoea ii ; ( c ) zoea iii ; ( d ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
lateral and dorsal medial spines absent . furca large , slightly divergent with three pairs of serrate setae on the posterior margin . two rows of arrow - shaped small spines on the margins of furcal arms . fl / bt ≤ 2 ( 1 . 8–2 . 0 ) .
two pairs of anterodorsal setae . each lateroventral margin with two setae . eyes stalked .
scaphognathite with eight ( 3 + 5 ) plumose marginal setae , without long setose posterior process present in zoea 1 .
basis without a mat of long dorsobasal microtrichiae . exopod distal segment with six long plumose natatory setae .
segments 2 and 3 of endopod with additional setae ( 2 , 2 + 1 , 2 , 2 , 1 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with eight long plumose natatory setae .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1–5 . ( a ) zoea iii ; ( b ) zoea iv . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
protopodal process with one row of 15–19 spines of different size . exopod with two terminal setae ( one long and one medium - sized ) . endopod segmented , slightly more than half the length of spinous process . pl / el = 2 . 0–2 . 1 .
coxal endite bilobed , with 6 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 6 + 5 setae . scaphognathite with 20 plumose marginal setae .
fifth segment of endopod with an additional subterminal seta ( 2 + 4 ) . exopod distal segment with nine long plumose natatory setae .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . third maxilliped . ( a ) zoea iv ; ( b ) megalopa ; ( c ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
longer than broad . with two lateral and longitudinal carinae . rostrum ventrally deflected with median cleft . setal arrangement as figured .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , lateral view ; ( b ) megalopa , detail of frontal view of the rostrum ; ( c ) megalopa , dorsal view ; ( d ) first crab , dorsal view . scale bars = 0 . 2 mm .
peduncle three - segmented , with 2 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 4 and 3 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 1 , 2 setae .
peduncle three - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . in several cases , exopod and spinous process present in different degrees of development . flagellum six - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 5 , 0 , 3 setae respectively .
coxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 17 ( 15 + 2 ) −18 ( 16 + 2 ) setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae . two setae on the outer propodal margin .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxillule . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . scale bars = 0 . 05 mm .
coxal endite bilobed , with always 8 + 4 setae . basial endite bilobed with 8–9 + 6–7 setae . endopod unsegmented , with variable setation ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 2 + 2 , 0 + 0 setae ) . scaphognathite with 29–33 plumose marginal setae and two anterior setae and one posterolateral seta .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . maxilla . ( a ) megalopa ; ( b ) first crab . ( a 1 ) modified endopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
epipod with four long setae . coxal endite with seven to eight setae . basial endite with 10–11 setae . endopod very variable and different degrees of reduction with zero to nine setae ( 0 , 3 , 4 , 9 setae ) . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with three distal setae , distal segment with five long terminal plumose setae .
epipod rudimentary . coxa and basis not differentiated , with three to four setae . endopod four - segmented , with 0 , 1 , 4 , 7 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one medial seta , distal segment with seven terminal plumose setae .
epipod elongated with 12 long setae . coxa and basis not differentiated with nine setae . endopod five - segmented , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus and dactylus with 8–9 , 7 , 3 , 3–4 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment without seta and distal segment with three long terminal plumose setae and one simple seta .
all segments well differentiated , chelipeds and pereiopods 2–4 without spines . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with three long terminal setae and one short terminal spine . setal arrangement as figured .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . pereiopods 1–5 . ( a – e ) megalopa ; ( f – j ) first crab . ( e 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod ; ( j 1 ) detail of the distal part of dactyl of the fifth pereiopod . scale bars = 0 . 1 mm .
somites 2–5 each with pairs of biramous pleopods , endopod unsegmented , with two terminal hooks ; exopod unsegmented with 13 , 13 , 13 , 10 long marginal plumose natatory setae respectively .
perisesarma fasciatum ( lanchester , 1900 ) . ( a ) megalopa , pleopod 1 ; ( b ) megalopa , pleopod 4 ; ( c ) megalopa , uropod ; ( d ) carapace of crabs 1–3 . scale bars of a and b , 0 . 1 mm ; scale bar of d , 0 . 5 mm .
uropods two - segmented on somite 6 , proximal segment with one and distal segment with five long plumose setae respectively .
square - shaped , setation as figured . in two examined individuals , telson with two to three pairs of long setae and furcal branches present in two different degrees of development ( fig . 14 e 1 and e 2 ) .
longer than broad . frontal region broad , measuring one half of carapace width . anterolateral margins with three teeth , first largest and third smallest . setal arrangement as figured .
peduncle three - segmented , with 5 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . endopod absent . exopod three - segmented , with 0 , 0 and 2 aesthetascs , respectively , and 0 , 0 , 2 setae .
peduncle four - segmented , with 1–2 , 1 , 1 , 1 setae respectively . flagellum five - segmented , with 0 , 2 , 0 , 4–5 , 3 setae respectively .
coxal endite with 11 setae . basial endite with 19 setae . endopod two - segmented , proximal segment with two setae , distal segment with three setae .
coxal endite bilobed with 7 + 1 seta . basial endite bilobed with 6–7 + 6 setae . endopod unsegmented , without setae . scaphognathite with 34–36 plumose marginal setae and eight lateral setae .
epipod with 6–7 long setae . coxal endite with 10 setae . basial endite with 11–12 setae . endopod with six setae . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with one distal seta , distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .
coxa and basis undifferentiated , with 1–2 setae . endopod four - segmented with 0–2 , 1 , 4–5 , 7 setae respectively . exopod three - segmented , proximal segment with five setae , second segment without setae and distal segment with five terminal plumose setae .
epipod elongated with 20 long setae . coxa and basis undifferentiated with 14 setae . endopod five - segmented with 14 , 8 , 4 , 4–5 , 4 setae respectively . exopod two - segmented , proximal segment with seven setae and distal segment with four long terminal plumose setae .
setation as figured . propodus of pereiopods 2–5 with one long seta . dactylus of fifth pereiopod with one long terminal plumose seta .
second to fourth crab stages are similar in morphology to the first stage , differing only in size ( fig . 16 d ) and in most of the setal counts .
overall , the zoeal morphology of p . fasciatum is similar to that known of other sesarmid species . it conforms very closely to the characteristic listed by rice ( rice , 1980 ) and cuesta ( cuesta , 1999 ) for sesarmid larvae : ( 1 ) carapace without lateral spines ; ( 2 ) a 2 , 3 setation of the maxillar endopod ; ( 3 ) a 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 setation of the first maxilliped basis ; ( 4 ) a 0 , 1 , 6 setation of the second maxilliped endopod ; and ( 5 ) an abdomen with dorsolateral processes in somites 2 and 3 .
likewise , the morphology of the megalopal stage is similar to that known from the other species of the family sesarmidae ( cuesta , 1999 ) : ( 1 ) antennule without endopod ; ( 2 ) an antennular flagellum with 5–6 segments ; ( 3 ) a 0 , 4 mandibular palp setation ; ( 4 ) scaphognathite with 25–50 marginal plumose setae ; ( 5 ) endopod of the pleopods with two terminal hooks and exopod with seven and 14 plumose setae ; ( 6 ) propodus of the uropod with one seta and exopod with ≤7 setae .
for a species–specific identification , there is one very useful characteristic by which megalopae of p . fasciatum can be distinguished from those of all other so - far described sesarmid megalopae : the presence of only five setae on the exopod of the uropod ( table ii ) . this is a useful characteristic , since these setae can be observed and counted easily with a microscope and since the uropod setation normally is characterized by low intraspecific variability ( cuesta , 1999 ) .
some megalopal features described in the present study for p . fasciatum appear to represent remnants of zoeal morphology : ( 1 ) the first segment of the antennular peduncle with a rudimentary exopod and / or spinous process in different stages of reduction ; ( 2 ) the bilobed endopod of the maxilla with a similar setation as in the zoeal stages ( 2 + 3 , 1 + 3 , 1 + 2 ) ; ( 3 ) the telson with a rudimentary furca and / or with three pairs of serrulate setae on the posterior margin in different stages of reduction . these features have been observed in only some of the studied individuals . similar traits were also found in the megalopae of other grapsoid species : aratus pisonii ( warner , 1968 ) , sesarma reticulatum ( costlow and bookhout , 1962 ) , p . plicatum ( selvakumar , 1999 ) , p . erythrodactyla ( greenwood and fielder , 1988 ) and armases angustipes ( cuesta and anger , 2001 ) . cuesta and anger ( 2001 ) suggested that retainment of zoeal characteristics in the megalopa could be due to unfavourable conditions during larval culturing . however , this still remains to be tested .
knowledge of the first juvenile of sesarmid crabs is very limited . the first crab stage was previously only described for p . bidens ( fukuda and baba , 1976 ) . the overall morphology of p . fasciatum and p . bidens is very similar , and some morphometric and meristic features are summarized in table iii .
this study confirms that there is a useful set of morphological characteristics that allows to distinguish larvae of the crab family sesarmidae sensu ( schubart et al . , 2002 ) from all other decapod larvae , and these characteristics are shared by the asian mangrove crab p . fasciatum , as described here . however , for the identification of larval stages from the plankton at a genus and species level , descriptions of many more larvae of sesarmid crabs will be necessary and taxonomic revisions of the genera currently comprised within this family will need to be continued .
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zone : rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza forests - very common in dabasso kenya ( mida creek ) .
habitat : climbs on rhizophora mucronata and bruguiera gymnorrhiza trees ; strictly mangrove dependent .
food : consumes fresh leaves from the tree . usually found on rhizophora mucronata ( vannini and ruwa , 1994 ) , but a preliminary experiment hints that they prefer bruguiera gymnorrhiza leaves ( gillikin , 2000 ) . also eats algae , mollusks , insects and annelids ( dahdouh - guebas et al . , 1999 ) .
distinguishing characteristics : found climbing trunks of trees to canopy ; propodus three times longer than dactylus , carpace width ~ 2 cm .
geographical range : east africa , including mozambique and south africa ( emmerson et al . , 2003 ) .
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this research was funded by a national research foundation ( nrf ) natural resources , utilisation , ecology and management grant ( gun number 2050973 ) . the assistance of tshawe makanandana , mzo nkaitshana and sintu hola in the field and for collecting additional soil and leaf samples for analysis is greatly appreciated . this paper is for thandi my post - graduate student , friend and colleague who died tragically in october 2003 .
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database contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families
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