the austral snipes , coenocorypha , also known as the new zealand snipes or tutukiwi , are a genus of tiny birds in the sandpiper family , which are now only found on new zealand 's outlying islands .

there are currently three living species and six known extinct species , with the subantarctic snipe having three subspecies , including the campbell island snipe discovered as recently as 1997 .

the genus was once distributed from fiji , new caledonia and norfolk island , across new zealand and southwards into new zealand 's subantarctic islands , but predation by introduced species , especially rats , has drastically reduced their range .

austral snipe

01 _ worthy _ an _ extinct _ austral _ snipe _ 2013 . pdf
nominate race at least locally moves to lower altitudes during austral winter , e . g . reaching . . .
worthy , t . h . , a . anderson , c . sand , 2013 . an extinct austral snipe aves : coenocorypha from new caledonia . emu 113 , 383–393 .
worthy , t . h . , a . anderson , c . sand , 2013 . an extinct austral snipe aves : coenocorypha from new caledonia . emu 113 , 383–393 . | trevor worthy - urltoken
richard chamberlain with latham’s snipe t0 – the first ever snipe to be tracked migrating between australia and japan . photo : karin lundström .
the latham’s snipe project was initiated to better understand the ecology and habitat use of latham’s snipe ( gallinago hardwickii ) , a shorebird species that breeds in japan and migrates to australia for the austral spring - summer . using light - level geolocators deployed on snipe in port fairy , south - west victoria , the first ever full migration track for the species has been obtained . the latham’s snipe project is supported by cerdi , the australia japan foundation and the woodland and wetlands trust .
a new and extinct species of austral snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) is described from late holocene cave deposits in new caledonia . the new species is larger than all congeners in the new zealand archipelago , including its subantarctic islands , bu
taxonomy of north and south island snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) , with analysis of a remarkable collection of snipe bones from greymouth , new zealand .
chathamica , was a species of new zealand snipe endemic to the chatham islands .
kingsford , r . t . 2000 . ecological impacts if dams , water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in australia . austral ecol . 25 : 109 - 127 .
handbook of australian , new zealand & antarctic birds . volume 3 . snipe to pigeons
the woodlands and wetlands trust ( jerrabomberra wetlands ) is a partner on the latham’s snipe project through its snipe program in canberra and provision of funding to support the project .
kingsford , r . t . ( 2000 ) . ecological impacts of dams , water diversions and river managements on floodplains wetlands in australia . austral ecology . 25 : 109 - 127 .
) , with analysis of a remarkable collection of snipe bones from greymouth , new zealand .
as rats had landed on campbell island with sealers in the early 1800s , no snipe remained when naturalists arrived in 1840 . however , in 1997 a few snipe were discovered on tiny jacquemart island , close to campbell island . to protect snipe and other birds , in 2001 the department of conservation eradicated the rats from campbell island . in 2005 snipe were found to have recolonised naturally . by early 2006 there were 30 snipe there , and they were considered to be on the way to repopulating 11 , 000 - hectare campbell island . the campbell snipe was named as a separate subspecies of subantarctic snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica perseverance ) in 2010 .
the australian painted snipe is not known to cross - breed with any other species of bird .
project lead dr birgita hansen helping young ranger kelly bateup to measure a snipe . photo lori gould .
as far as i can tell , all three are rare , nocturnal species of the high andes or austral lowlands that apparently roost in wooded areas and then feed and display in bogs or grassy areas … . i . e . somewhat more woodcock - like in being tied to wooded areas more than are most snipe .
predation by feral animals is a potential threat to the australian painted snipe . the habit of the snipe to nest on the ground could render it vulnerable to introduced terrestrial predators such as the european red fox (
in addition to australian studies , the latham’s snipe project team visited hokkaido , japan in july 2016 , to assist with the wild bird society of japan with their snipe research . this was critical to strengthening ties between the 2 countries and provided the australian team with many insights and new information about snipe in japan .
snipe existed on the mainland until pacific rats and dogs exterminated them before european settlement . four populations live on southern islands : the snares island snipe ( estimated at 1 , 000 birds in 1987 ) , and three subspecies of the subantarctic snipe , one on each of the auckland islands , antipodes islands and campbell island .
painted snipe - profile ( office of environment & heritage ( oeh ) , 2014al ) [ internet ] .
anon . 2002 . painted snippets - newsletter of the australian painted snipe project . 1 : 1 - 5
rogers , d . 2002 . australian painted snipe needs help . the tattler 30 : 1 - 2 .
anonymous ( 1928 ) . first snipe of the season . windsor and richmond gazette 6 january 1928 , 1 .
environment australia ( 2003ad ) . information sheet - australian painted snipe ( rostratula australis ) . available from : urltoken .
rogers , d . 2001 . conservation directions - painted snipe . wingspan 11 ( 4 ) : 6 - 7 .
hansen , b . ( 2015 ) . latham’s snipe count results . geelong naturalist 51 ( 8 ) , 9 .
as recently as 1964 there was another species of new zealand snipe , the south island snipe . a remnant population occurred on nearby big south cape island , but when rats invaded the island from a fishing boat they soon killed most of the snipe . two were rescued for release on a safe island but died . it was later found that they were both males .
no comprehensive management documents have been prepared for the australian painted snipe . however , a brief recovery outline for the species is featured in the action plan for australian birds 2000 ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) and the information sheet - australian painted snipe ( rostratula australis ) ( environment australia 2003ad ) discusses the implications of the australian painted snipe as a nationally threatened species .
new south wales national parks and wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 1999b ) . threatened species information - painted snipe .
new south wales national parks and wildlife service . 1999 . threatened species information sheet - painted snipe . npws , hurstville .
hansen , b . ( 2016 ) . latham’s snipe tracking project — news brief . wader quest newsletter 3 , 17 .
male vermilion flycatchers are showy and unmistakable , but the females may hold the keys to identification if vermilion flycatcher is split into multiple species . this female will look very dusky and smudgy to north american birders who are familiar with vermilion flycatcher ( northern ) and is a member of the austral migrant group , which can be reported as vermilion flycatcher ( austral ) in ebird . watch for these to appear in amazonia ( e . g . , eastern peru ) from april to october . photo chris wood / macaulay library .
lowe , v . t . ( 1963 ) . observations on the painted snipe . emu . 62 : 220 - 37 .
thomas , e . ( 1975 ) . painted snipe breeding at barham , nsw . australian bird watcher . 6 : 133 .
filming a black grouse lek early one morning , when a common snipe flew up and started singing . . . chip - per . . . chip - per . . . chip - per . . . . next task is to film the snipe drumming !
nsw national parks and wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 1999by ) . painted snipe threatened species information . available from : urltoken .
the subspecies group vermilion flycatcher ( austral ) pyrocephalus rubinus rubinus is retained , and the polytypic group vermilion flycatcher ( galapagos ) pyrocephalus rubinus nanus / dubius is split into two monotypic groups ; dubius is extinct and a single island endemic , while nanus occurs on multiple islands and remains relatively common .
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the latham’s snipe project was initiated in the wake of a victorian civil and administrative tribunal case in 2014 , regarding a housing development proposal on an important latham’s snipe wetland ( powling street wetlands ) in port fairy , south - west victoria . during the case , proponents claimed that the housing development would not impact the snipe population because the birds would move to another site . however , there was no evidence to support this claim .
hansen , b . ( 2016 ) . latham’s snipe use of urban versus non - urban wetland habitat in victoria . tattler 38 , 15 .
hansen , b . ( 2015 ) . latham’s snipe and urban wetlands in the port fairy region . vwsg bulletin 38 , 73 - 74 .
although traditionally considered a race of the greater painted snipe which occurs in africa and asia , recent studies of the morphology and dna of the australian painted snipe indicate that is should be regarded as a full species . they often occur in small parties , sometimes comprising one sex only . australian painted snipe usually sit quietly beneath cover during the day , becoming more active near dusk , when they begin foraging , and they may remain active all night . usually remaining in cover when foraging , where they skulk about , painted snipe rhythmically bob their heads downwards to probe the soft mud while they walk . when disturbed , australian painted snipe usually remain motionless , and will not flush unless the observer is very close . when flushed , painted snipe fly a short distance , usually keeping low , with slow , erratic wing - beats and legs dangling behind . they are usually silent .
described by one observer as ' pygmy kiwis ' 1 , chatham island snipe once inhabited most of the islands in the group , but from the 1890s were confined to rangatira ( south east ) island , a refuge for several endangered birds . the snipe has since been reintroduced to māngere island , and has made its own way to little māngere and rabbit islands . like all snipe , they find food by probing their beak into soft soil .
new south wales national parks and wildlife service ( nsw npws ) ( 2006 ) . painted snipe - endangered species listing . available from : urltoken .
: three species of andean snipe were traditionally ( e . g . , peters 1934 , hellmayr & conover 1948 ) placed in a separate genus ,
the wild bird society of japan is a collaborator on the latham’s snipe project through contribution to field study , knowledge sharing and reciprocal exchange of researchers .
until recently , the australian painted snipe was considered to be a subspecies of the species rostratula benghalensis that occurs in africa and asia . a recent taxonomic study by lane and rogers ( 2000 ) together with a dna study , as yet unpublished , verify that the australian painted snipe is a separate species . it has been confirmed that this new species is acceptable , that it will be known as rostratula australis ( australian painted snipe ) , and that it will appear in the new australian checklist of birds to be published in 2003 . there is no evidence that the australian painted snipe migrates outside of australia .
yes – having looked at a lot of snipe skins over time , i always wondered why chubbia was dropped . it looked like a fine subset in the woodcock - snipe clade . i think that some shifting may occur as we find out more , but including chubbia improves the taxonomy of this group . ”
some snipe appear to be highly site faithful , whilst others may transit through an area on their way to other non - breeding areas in southern australia .
the australia japan foundation is the key funding partner on the latham’s snipe project , supporting field - based engagement activities and exchange of australian and japanese scientists .
recorded as far south as subantarctic campbell island ( 52°s ) , the ruddy turnstone is the third most numerous arctic migrant wader species that occurs in new zealand . breeding adults have brightly patterned black , white , rufous - brown or
tortoiseshell
plumage on the upperparts , which develops annually towards the end of the austral summer .
the latham’s snipe project has gathered a large body of dedicated counters and volunteers . as the project continues to acquire new knowledge about the species , the number of people participating in counts and catches continues to grow . there is now an extended network of volunteers across eastern australia who contribute to the monitoring of snipe .
higgins pj , davies sjjf ( 1996 ) handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds , vol 3 . snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne
the latham’s snipe project will continue to expand its research in canberra , to build additional information about the ecology of the species from a non - coastal location .
the australian painted snipe project was established in 2001 to address population declines identified for the species across australia . with the help of the project the australian painted snipe has been recognised as an endemic species unique to the more widespread greater painted snipe . with these findings came the realisation that there were many gaps in our knowledge of this opportunistic and cryptic wader . through it’s monitoring program , the project continues to fill these gaps , track population trends and document habitat requirements in order to halt species decline . in 2011 birdlife australia nominated the australian painted snipe to be upgraded to endangered under the epbc act ; a result will be found in 2012 .
mcgilp , j . n . ( 1934b ) . the nesting of the painted snipe ( rostratula australis ) . south australian ornithologist . 12 : 167 - 169 .
in queensland , anecdotal evidence by national parks and wildlife service staff also indicates declines in numbers of australian painted snipe has occurred over the last 3 - 4 decades .
atlas of living australia ( 2015 ) . atlas of living australia . spatial data portal for latham’s snipe . available online : urltoken ( retrieved 20 november 2015 ) .
new zealand snipes have been described as living fossils and the most primitive of snipe - like birds . like the northern hemisphere snipe and woodcock , they stay among dense vegetation , moving out at dusk to feed in more open areas . however , these southern cousins are not migratory , remaining year - round on their own small island groups .
threatened species of the northern territory - australian painted snipe rostratula australis ( taylor , r , r . chatto & j . woinarski , 2013 ) [ information sheet ] .
the replacement of endemic wetland vegetation by invasive , noxious weeds could render habitats less suitable or unsuitable for the snipe ( rogers et al . 2005 ) . for example ,
jaensch , r . ( 2003 ) . breeding by australian painted snipe in the diamantina channel country , south - western queensland . stilt . 43 : 20 - 22 .
the south beach wetlands and landcare group is a key partner on the latham’s snipe project , providing knowledge , funding through landcare , field assistance and access to landholder networks .
the research to track the migration patterns of the latham’s snipe ( gallinago hardwickii ) is being coordinated by dr birgita hansen , a research fellow at cerdi . the latham’s snipe project is a collaboration between researchers , ornithologists and community groups . the team works collaboratively with colleagues from the wild bird society of japan ( wbsj ) . close connections with japan have been forged through this project , and there has been exchange of researchers between australia and hokkaido , japan , to conduct snipe research and teach school students about shorebird conservation .
painted snipe - endangered species listing . nsw scientific committee - final determination ( nsw department of environment , climate change and water ( nsw deccw ) , 2004o ) [ internet ] .
protect and manage habitat at principal breeding and wintering sites and , as a precautionary measure , identify and protect any additional habitat used by the australian painted snipe in the last 10 years .
hornsby , p . 1998 . observations of a painted snipe rostratula benghalensis and great egret ardea alba in the north flinders ranges . south aust . orn . 33 : 25 - 6 .
lane , b . & forest , b . ( 1984 ) . preliminary results from banding latham’s snipe ( gallinago hardwickii ) in southern victoria . victorian wader study group bulletin 8 , 2–12 .
a new and extinct species of austral snipe ( aves : scolopacidae : coenocorypha ) is described from late holocene cave deposits in new caledonia . the new species is larger than all congeners in the new zealand archipelago , including its subantarctic islands , but is slightly smaller than c . miratropica from viti levu , fiji . better developed ligamental sulci and attachment processes on the humerus suggest that this new species was perhaps the strongest flier in the genus . nevertheless , it went extinct within c . 1000 years of human arrival in new caledonia , probably as a result of depredation by the rats that arrived with humans .
the latham’s snipe project has combined a variety of research and monitoring approaches , including observation , survey , geolocator studies , radio tracking and satellite tracking , to substantially increase our knowledge of the species .
the habitat of the australian painted snipe might also be degraded by other processes . grazing and associated trampling of wetland vegetation by cattle and / or sheep is a threat to the australian painted snipe , particularly in arid regions where grazing tends to become concentrated around wetlands in the dry season ( nsw npws 1999b ; rogers et al . 2005 ) . for example , an apparent decline in australian painted snipe numbers in the kimberley region of western australia has been linked to overgrazing by cattle ( johnstone & storr 1998 ) . it is possible that cattle could also trample nests ( hassell & rogers 2002 ) .
as a wetland inhabitant , the australian painted snipe is also presumed to be vulnerable to other processes that reduce the potential for flooding , such as prolonged drought ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .
lane , b . a . and rogers , d . i . 2000 . the taxonomic and conservation status of the australian painted snipe rostratula ( benghalensis ) australis . stilt 36 : 26 - 34 .
more recently , the project has expanded further to include an investigation into the ecology of the population in canberra , and to investigate the characteristics of wetland habitats used by snipe south - west victoria . .
the victorian wader study group is a partner to the project through the group’s long - term scientific program on waders and terns . the latham’s snipe project field activities form part of the vwsg’s monitoring program .
the endemic new zealand snipes ( coenocorypha species ) are among the least known native birds . as their māori name , tutukiwi , suggests , they resemble small kiwi with their long bills , stout legs and probing method of finding worms , insect larvae and other invertebrates . they are considered waders , but live and feed in forest and shrubland , not near water . the snares island snipe ( coenocorypha huegeli ) and subantarctic snipe ( coenocorypha aucklandica ) are about the size of a blackbird , measuring 23 centimetres and weighing 110 grams . the chatham island snipe ( coenocorypha pusilla ) is smaller at 20 centimetres and 80 grams .
since 2002 , national surveys for the australian painted snipe have been conducted twice per year at important historic and contemporary sites and other sites of interest ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ) .
another threat to the australian painted snipe is likely to be predation by feral animals . this species is a ground - nesting bird , and predation by foxes on eggs and young birds is known to occur .
higgins , p . & davies , s . ( eds ) ( 1996 ) . handbook of australian , new zealand & antarctic birds , volume 3 : snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne .
scientific name : rostratula australis common name : australian painted snipe until recently , the australian painted snipe was considered to be a subspecies of rostratula benghalensis , a species that occurs across africa and asia ( marchant & higgins 1993 ) . however , lane and rogers ( 2000 ) recommended treating the subspecies found in australia ( r . benghalensis australis ) as a full species ( r . australis ) based on its distinctive appearance , call , measurements and anatomy . recent genetic studies indicate that the australian painted snipe is a distinct species that diverged around 19 million years ago . it is now accepted as a full species ( baker et . al . 2007 ; l . christidis 2002 , pers . comm . ) . the australian painted snipe is the only member of the genus rostratula that occurs in australia ( del hoyo et al . 1996 ) .
hassell , c . j . & d . i . rogers ( 2002 ) . painted snipe nesting at taylor ' s lagoon near broome , north - western australia . stilt . 41 : 14 - 21 .
lane , b . a . & d . i . rogers ( 2000 ) . the australian painted snipe , rostratula ( benghalensis ) australis : an endangered species ? . stilt . 36 : 26 - 34 .
hassell , c . j . , and d . i . rogers . 2002 . painted snipe nesting at taylor ' s lagoon near broome , north - western australia . the stilt 41 : 14 - 21 .
hansen , b . , wilson , d . , koyama , k . ( 2015 ) . australian researchers to study latham’s snipe migration . bird research water bird news . oct . 2015 . japan bird research association .
an area of improved grassland was dominated by rushes juncus spp . and purple moor - grass molinia caerulea . in order to try and attract breeding common snipe gallinago gallinago , the rush was cut in 2003 with tractor mounted mowers and then grazed . in addition , 18 small scrapes were dug and higher water levels were maintained . the number of snipe increased from one nesting pair in 2003 to 11 nesting pairs in both 2004 and 2005 .
all of this is qualitative , superficial , and potentially irrelevant – there is no reason why some snipe would not converge on “woodcockness” , and in fact there may be a continuum between the two groups in ecology and morphology .
hansen , b . , honan , j . , stewart , d . ( 2015 ) . what is the relative importance of urban wetlands for latham’s snipe in south - west victoria ? australasian ornithological conference 2015 , adelaide .
no major field studies have been conducted on the australian painted snipe . however , some moderately detailed information on the breeding behaviour of the snipe has been collected from opportunistic encounters with nesting birds ( hassell & rogers 2002 ; jaensch 2003 ; jaensch et al . 2004 ; lowe 1963 ; mcgilp 1934b ) , and the taxonomy , conservation status and habitat preferences of the species have been reviewed ( lane & rogers 2000 ; rogers et al . 2005 ) .
the australian painted snipe is infrequently and irregularly recorded in australia . it is absent from cape york peninsula and has been recorded only once from tasmania . there has been no marked change in the range of this species over time .
shigeta , y . , hiraoka , t . & gonzalez , j . ( 2002 ) . the first authentic record of the latham’s snipe gallinago hardwickii for the philippines . journal of the yamashina institute of ornithology 34 , 240–244 .
the likely causes of the decline of the australian painted snipe are habitat modification and loss . the species has probably suffered considerably from wetland drainage and the diversion of water from rivers , which means that shallow wetlands , its key habitat , never form . major water resource developments in the northern murray - darling basin from the 1960s - 1990s have coincided with a decline in snipe numbers ( lane and rogers 2000 ) . salinization is also likely to be adversely affecting suitable habitat , as is grazing and trampling by stock . grazing and trampling by stock in wetland areas can reduce or eliminate the vegetative cover used by the snipe for shelter ( especially when breeding ) , and allow easier assess to the birds by predators . impact on habitat through grazing and trampling by stock are thought to be the reason for the decline in numbers in the kimberley , western australia , ( johnstone and storr 1998 ) . similarly , cultivation practices that remove the perennial vegetation round the edges of swamps and wetlands are thought to increase the vulnerability of the snipe to predation . another threat to the australian painted snipe is likely to be predation by feral animals . this species is a ground - nesting bird , and predation by foxes on eggs and young birds is known to occur . most likely , the australian painted snipe will continue to decline in numbers because the processes that have caused past decline in numbers are ongoing .
jaensch , r . , j . mccabe , j . wahl & w . houston ( 2004 ) . breeding by australian painted snipe on the torilla plain , brigalow belt coast , queensland . stilt . 45 : 39 - 42 .
in summary , the australian painted snipe is not often recorded and is in limited numbers across its range . although there have been a number of analyses investigating the decline in numbers of painted snipe , none of them are conclusive . however , the consistent trend in all the analyses and evidence is the same - they all indicate a substantial decline in numbers has occurred over the last few decades . the reason for the species ' decline is likely to be associated with the loss of inland wetlands , its key habitat , large changes to wetland systems and predation by introduced animals . most likely , the australian painted snipe will continue to decline in numbers because the processes that have caused past declines in numbers are ongoing .
higgins , p . j . ; davies , s . j . j . f ( eds ) . 1996 . handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 3 , snipe to pigeons . oxford university press , melbourne .
an understanding of migration phenology is critical to the conservation of long - distance migrants . latham’s snipe gallinago hardwickii is a cryptic , dispersed migratory wader that breeds in northern japan during the austral winter and migrates to australia for the non - breeding period . records of this species for new south wales ( nsw ) and the australian capital territory ( act ) were extracted from a range of data sources including hunting reports , the atlas of living australia , ebird and citizen science records , generating a dataset of first - arrival dates for 170 years ( 1846–2016 ) . the first record in each year , corresponding to the expected arrival period of latham’s snipe on southward migration , was used to infer the date of first arrival . these dates were analysed using simple linear regression against julian day to test the hypothesis that changes in climate ( i . e . increasing mean annual temperature ) might result in a corresponding shift in arrival dates . the mean julian day of first arrivals in nsw and the act was 14 august ± 9 days , with no significant change over the 170 - year span of records . this suggests that migration phenology of latham’s snipe has not been strongly influenced by changing large - scale climatic conditions at either the breeding or non - breeding grounds .
each island population is threatened by any accidental introduction of rats . in 2005 , 30 snares snipe were transferred to rat - free putauhinu island near stewart island , to establish a back - up population . thirty birds were released on codfish island in 2012 .
leach , g . j . , c . g . lloyd & h . b . hines ( 1987 ) . observations at the nest of a painted snipe rostratula benghalensis in south - east queensland . australian bird watcher . 12 : 15 - 19 .
leach , g . j . , lloyd , c . g . and hines , h . b . 1987 . observations at the nest of the painted snipe rostratula benghalensis in south - east queensland . aust . bird watcher 12 : 15 - 19 .
the project has also been very successful in engaging local communities including school children in the canberra young rangers program . this is an important outcome of the project – the increase engagement with the public to highlight the importance of wetland habitat protection for snipe conservation .
the likely causes of the decline of the australian painted snipe are habitat modification and loss . the species has probably suffered considerably from wetland drainage and the diversion of water from rivers , which means that shallow wetlands , its key habitat , never form . major water resource developments in the northern murray - darling basin from the 1960s - 1990s have coincided with a decline in snipe numbers ( lane and rogers 2000 ) . salinization is also likely to be adversely affecting suitable habitat , as is grazing and trampling by stock . grazing and trampling by stock in wetland areas can reduce or eliminate the vegetative cover used by the snipe for shelter ( especially when breeding ) , and allow easier access to the birds by predators . impact on habitat through grazing and tramping by stock are thought to be the reason for the decline in numbers in the kimberley , western australia , ( johnstone and storr 1998 ) . similarly , cultivation practices that remove the perennial vegetation round the edges of swamps and wetlands are thought to increase the vulnerability of the snipe to predation .
hansen , b . , honan , j . , wilson , d . , chamberlain , r . , stewart , d . & gould , l . ( 2016 ) . first latham’s snipe ‘t0’ with geolocator recaptured at port fairy ! tattler 41 , 14 .
threats the australian painted snipe is threatened by the drainage of wetlands and the diversion of water from major rivers for irrigation , which prevents shallow wetlands from forming . a decline in the kimberley division of western australia has been linked with overgrazing and trampling by cattle .
as influxes of numbers of australian painted snipe irregularly occur in areas , it is possible that the species naturally fluctuates in numbers , building up in numbers when environmental conditions are favourable and declining when conditions are less favourable . there has been some speculation that the decline in numbers of australian painted snipe may be associated with natural fluctuations in the population . in 2001 - 2002 , with the start of a national painted snipe project , there was an unusually large number of sightings . the factors contributing to this large number of sightings were thought to be : ( 1 ) a good breeding year for the species in 2000 - 01 ; ( 2 ) widespread inland drought driving birds towards the coast where they are more likely to be seen ; and ( 3 ) increased awareness in the bird watching community that sightings should be reported . however , it is considered that the decline observed in the australian painted snipe since the 1950s - 1970s is not part of a natural fluctuation in the population . the decline has been prolonged , is widespread and has occurred over various wet and dry cycles .
hansen , b . , honan , j . , wilson , d . , chamberlain , r . , stewart , d . , gould , l . ( 2016 ) . konnichiwa ojishigi : following latham’s snipe from japan to australia . tattler 41 , 13 - 14 .
higgins , p . j . , and davies , s . j . j . f . ( eds ) ( 1996 ) . ‘handbook of australian , new zealand and antarctic birds . vol . 3 . snipe to pigeons . ’ ( oxford university press : melbourne . )
hansen , b . , veltheim , i . ( 2015 ) . wetlands , brolgas and latham’s snipe : south - west victoria’s great natural assets . pp . 57 - 58 in : wetlands australia , national wetlands update february 2015 — issue no 26 , commonwealth of australia 2015 .
habitat the australian painted snipe inhabits many different types of shallow , brackish or freshwater terrestrial wetlands , especially temporary ones , which have muddy margins and small , low - lying islands . suitable wetlands usually support a mosaic of low , patchy vegetation , as well as lignum and canegrass .
in summary , the population of the australian painted snipe may naturally fluctuate in numbers , but it is unlikely to ever exceed 10 000 mature individuals . in the past it has declined in numbers , and most likely will continue to decline as result of further loss of suitable wetland habitat .
the trends in the available data and evidence are consistent and considered to be sufficient enough to indicate that the australian painted snipe has declined substantially in numbers , with possible declines of up to 90 % , though there are some concerns regarding the limitations of some of this data ( see criterion 1 ) . there has been some speculation that the decline in numbers of australian painted snipe may be associated with natural fluctuations in the population . in 2001 - 2002 , with the start of a national painted snipe project , there was an unusually large number of sightings . the factors contributing to this large number of sightings were thought to be : ( 1 ) a good breeding year for the species in 2000 - 01 ; ( 2 ) widespread inland drought driving birds towards the coast where they are more likely to be seen ; and ( 3 ) increased awareness in the bird watching community that sightings should be reported . however , it is considered that the decline observed in the australian painted snipe since the 1950s - 1970s is not part of a natural fluctuation in the population . the decline has been prolonged , is widespread and has occurred over various wet and dry cycles .
wilson , d . , hansen , b . , honan , j . chamberlain , r . ( 2017 ) . 170 years of latham’s snipe gallinago hardwickii arrivals in new south wales and the australian capital territory show no change in arrival date . australian field ornithology 34 , 76 - 79 .
breeding occurs from september to january with the laying of two pinkish - brown , blotched eggs , which the parents incubate alternately . like the snares island and subantarctic snipe , each hatchling follows one parent and is fed for several weeks . they feed on worms , amphipods and a variety of insects .
distinctiveness the australian painted snipe is a distinctive bird and unlikely to be confused with any other species ( marchant & higgins 1993 ) . in flight , the australian painted snipe can be differentiated from its close relative , rostratula benghalensis , by its rounded wing shape ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ) . detectability the australian painted snipe is difficult to detect . it is thought to be mainly crepuscular , but can be detected during the day . it is secretive but conspicuous on the rare occasions that it ventures out into the open ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ; marchant & higgins 1993 ) . intensive vigilance is required to detect flushed birds ( d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ) . this species may often be overlooked during wader and other waterbird census projects because of its cryptic behaviour and occurrence in rank vegetation ( lane & rogers 2000 ) .
baker , a . j . , s . l . pereira , d . i . rogers , r . elbourne & c . j . hassell ( 2007 ) . mitochondrial - dna evidence shows the australian painted snipe is a full species , rostratula australis . emu . 107 iss 3 : 185 - 189 .
threatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2003y ) . non - current commonwealth listing advice for rostratula australis ( australian painted snipe ) . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 15 - aug - 2003 . ceased to be in effect under the epbc act from 14 - may - 2013 .
possibly there has been a reduction in the area that it occupies within its range ( sometimes referred to as area of occupancy ) . when comparing geographic data from the birds australia databases , the painted snipe has been recorded in much fewer areas during the 1998 - 2002 field atlas compared to the earlier 1977 - 1981 field atlas , suggesting that this species is declining in the areas that it occupies within its range . however , as the australian painted snipe appears to fluctuate in numbers and in the areas it occupies in response to environmental conditions , the significance of the decrease shown between the two atlases cannot be ascertained until the causes of the decrease are looked at in more detail .
the latham’s snipe project team hopes to visit hokkaido again in 2018 , to participate in a census of the breeding grounds with the wild bird society of japan . a funding application is currently being considered to support this visit and if successful , will also support the project to expand its education , outreach and community engagement program in canberra and japan .
the latham’s snipe project has used a number of strategies to address its objectives . the most critical of these has been to establish the project as a partnership between academic research and community groups . this has been achieved through a co - design approach that draws upon years of knowledge and expertise gained by community members which is combined with traditional scientific research .
this stocky blackbird - sized bird is a heavyweight - lifter among waders . its stout body , short powerful legs and feet , and robust wedge - shaped bill allow it to turn over large shells , stones and flotsam , such as driftwood and seaweed , while foraging for sandhoppers and other crustaceans . an annual circumpolar breeder on arctic and subarctic tundra , the ruddy turnstone is one of around 40 arctic breeding wading bird species that migrate south and reach new zealand . its migration route is not fully understood . some birds may fly south over the pacific ocean and some may fly along the east asia - australasian flyway . after spending the austral summer in new zealand ruddy turnstones are thought to fly to the korean peninsula before flying on to siberian breeding grounds .
wetlands , the habitat of the australian painted snipe , have been altered significantly throughout australia since european settlement , with approximately 50 % of australian wetlands converted to other uses . in some regions , the loss has been greater than in other areas . for example , on the swan coastal plain of western australia , 75 % of the wetlands have been filled or drained , and in south - east south australia , 89 % have been destroyed ( environment australia 1997 ) . a number of wetland systems in the murray - darling basin have suffered considerably from degradation and loss due to changes in flooding patterns and land uses . for example , it is estimated that about 76 % of the lower murrumbidgee wetlands have been lost or degraded , and substantial changes have also occurred in the macquarie wetlands , chowchilla floodplain and gwydir wetlands ( kingsford and thomas 1995 , 2001 ; kingsford 2000 ) . in victoria , shallow freshwater marshes and edges of deep freshwater marshes , the preferred habitat of australian painted snipe , have been depleted more than any other type of wetlands . as a result of this well - documented decline in wetlands , it may be inferred that substantial areas of suitable habitat for the australian painted snipe have also declined , and that because of this , the population numbers of this already scarce species have further diminished . although the loss of wetlands would be detrimental to all waterbirds , it is likely to be particularly so to an uncommon species of waterbird such as the australian painted snipe .
in 2001 , a project was initiated by the threatened bird network and australasian wader studies group to improve knowledge of the australian painted snipe so that meaningful conservation actions could be proposed ( rogers et al . 2005 ) . recovery actions implemented as part of this study include ( garnett & crowley 2000 ; d . ingwersen 2007 , pers . comm . ; rogers et al . 2005 ) :
the latham’s snipe project takes an unusual and innovative approach to investigating the migration and habitat use of this species . by building a collaboration with community groups from the outset , the project has established a research and monitoring program that combines traditional scientific approaches with community - based monitoring to answer questions about the species ecology and conservation . this is a rare example of a successful co - designed project .
movements the movements of the australian painted snipe are poorly understood . the species is possibly dispersive in response to the flooding and drying out of wetlands , and they are capable of travelling great distances . however , over 90 % of all records are received between august and march , introducing a possible seasonal element into their pattern of movements ; it is unknown where they generally occur outside these times .
the species is listed as rare or threatened under queensland , nsw , victorian , south australian , western australian and northern territory legislation . currently , the australian painted snipe is not listed as threatened under the commonwealth epbc act , however it is listed under the migratory and the marine provisions of the epbc act as rostratula benghalensis as it was considered to be part of this species when these listings were made .
the ruddy turnstone is a circumpolar annual breeder on arctic and subarctic tundra , mainly north of 60° n , making it one of the most northerly - breeding wader species . one bird was tracked in two consecutive years migrating from alaska to australia via the central pacific and back to siberia via the east asian - australasian flyway , each ' round trip ' a journey of 27 , 000 km . a bird banded in invercargill has been recorded on southward migration through broome in north - west australia during september in three successive years . this , along with tracks of birds flying south to australia via coastal china and indonesia , indicates some birds migrate along the same route before continuing on to new zealand . after spending the austral summer in new zealand ruddy turnstones are thought to fly to the korean peninsula in north - east asia before flying on to siberian breeding grounds .
it seems likely that the total population of mature individuals of australian painted snipe does not exceed 10 , 000 mature individuals , and is therefore limited . the population size is not known , but watkins ( 1993 ) estimated the population to be 1 , 500 , while garnett and crowley ( 2000 ) estimated the population to be 5 , 000 breeding birds . the basis for these estimates is not clear . lane and rogers ( 2000 ) were only able to find 550 records for the species across australia from 1800 until 2000 . over the two decades prior to 2002 , there were only 5 - 25 records per year ( unpublished data ) . records of the australian painted snipe generally refer to single birds but there are sightings of small groups of 3 - 4 and flocks up to about 30 ( marchant and higgins 1993 ) .
information from counts conducted by the south beach wetlands and landcare group formed the basis for designing a survey program that focused on a range of sites where snipe were present and absent . the group’s observations over time were critical to determining how to design a capture - based program aimed to deploying geolocators , which require re - capture of the bird and hence , knowledge of the bird’s likely behaviour from year - to - year .
records indicate that the australian painted snipe is in limited numbers across its range . the trends in the available data and evidence are consistent , and considered to be sufficient enough to indicate that the australian painted snipe has declined substantially in numbers , with possible declines of up to 90 % , though there are some concerns regarding the limitations of some of this data . although this species may undergo natural fluctuations in numbers , the recently observed decline is not considered to be part of a natural cycle . the species is likely to have suffered from loss of its wetland habitat , as over 50 % of wetland habitat in australia has been lost or altered since european settlement . the impact of past and future losses of wetlands will most likely result in further declines in numbers of this rare species . the species is eligible for listing as vulnerable under criteria 1 and 3 .
concern exists that changes to fire regimes might be affecting savannah vegetation around wetlands in northern australia ( white 1997 ) . over some time scales , fire may not be detrimental to the habitat of the australian painted snipe . for example , fire is employed as a management tool at wetlands in the riverina region to prevent the formation of dense stands of canegrass . however , the long term effects of persistent burning are poorly known ( rogers et al . 2005 ) .
rogers , d . , i . hance , s . paton , c . tzaros , p . griffioen , m . herring , r . jaensch , l . oring , a . silcocks & m . weston ( 2005 ) . the breeding bottleneck : breeding habitat and population decline in the australian painted snipe . in : straw , p . , ed . status and conservation of seabirds in the east asian - australasian flyway . pp . 15 - 23 .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . puna snipe ( gallinago andina ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
an independent expert on australia ' s bird databases has conducted a number of unpublished analyses on the eastcoast bird database ( for details of this database , see griffioen and clarke 2002 ) . while acknowledging that such a comparison across databases is limited , the expert concludes that a substantial decline has occurred since the 1970s . of all the analyses to date , this one gives most support to the notion that a marked decline has occurred in numbers of australian painted snipe .
so alarming was the snipe’s night - time call that it gave rise to the māori tradition of the fearful hakawai or hōkioi – one of the spirit birds of rakamaomao ( the wind ) that dwelt in space and came down to earth only at night . muttonbirders have compared the noise to a cable chain being lowered into a boat . preceded by a sequence of calls , this eerie sound is produced by vibrating tail feathers as the bird plunges from high in the air .
is a thorny shrub that currently infests more than 800 000 ha of land in the semi - arid and sub - humid tropical regions of australia , and has the potential to become much more widespread . it thrives around sources of water and forms tall , dense thickets that are unlikely to be used by the snipe and more generally have a detrimental impact on the health of wetland communities ( crc for australian weed management et al . 2003 ; rogers et al . 2005 ) .
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breeding ecology of brown skuas ( catharacta antarctica lonnbergi ) was studied at bird island , south georgia in the austral summers of 2000 / 2001–2003 / 2004 . a complete census recorded 467 breeding pairs in 3 . 55 km 2 of suitable habitat ( 132 pairs per km 2 ) , and an additional 312 nonbreeders at club - sites . comparison with previous counts indicates two phases of population change : an initial rapid increase ( 3 . 6 % per annum ) from the late 1950s to early 1980s , probably attributable to increased carrion availability from the expanding antarctic fur seal ( arctocephalus gazella ) population , followed by slower growth ( 0 . 9 % p . a . ) . currently , seal carrion dominates the diet of skuas during incubation , with a switch to seabird prey during chick - rearing . breeding is now later , chick growth poorer , and productivity significantly lower than in the early 1980s . there is also a strong seasonal decline in adult attendance , and chicks that hatch later and are in poorer condition are less likely to fledge . these results suggest a long - term increase in competition for carrion that is particularly apparent once fur seal pupping has ceased .


the grey-lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) is a smallish raptor found in open country and forest edges .

it is sometimes placed in the genus asturina as asturina nitida .

the species has been split by the aou from the grey hawk .

the grey-lined hawk is found from southern costa rica to argentina .

the grey-lined hawk is 46 – 61 cm ( 18 – 24 in ) in length and weighs 475 g ( 16.8 oz ) average .

the adult has a pale grey body , the tail is black with three white bands and the legs are orange .

it has fine white barring on the upper parts .

immature birds have dark brown upperparts , a pale-banded brown tail , brown-spotted white underparts and a brown streaked buff head and neck .

this species is quite short-winged , and has a fast agile flight for a buteo .

it feeds mainly on lizards and snakes , but will also take small mammals , birds and frogs .

it usually sits on an open high perch from which it swoops on its prey , but will also hunt from a low glide .

the nest is of sticks and built high in a tree .

the usual clutch is one to three , usually two white to pale blue eggs .

the young take about 6 weeks to fledging .

grey - lined hawk

photo of adult grey - lined hawk perched in dead tree . note barred back and nape , compared with unbarred grey back and nape of grey hawk .
grey - lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) is a species of bird in the accipitridae family .
38–46 cm ; male 350–497 g , female 320–592 g ; wingspan 75–94 cm . grey overall , with fine dark grey barring above and bolder white barring below ; tail . . .
38 - 46 cm . a small pale grey hawk with fairly broad wings , extensively barred dark grey . the tail has a single solid black sub - terminal band . fast flapping flight with short glides , soars on flat wings . voice . a high , clear , drawn out disyllabic whistle .
bierregaard , r . o . , jr , boesman , p . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . grey - lined hawk ( buteo nitidus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
eitniear , j . , s . mcgehee , w . waddell . 1990 . gray hawk mobbed by olive - throated parakeets .
glinski , r . 1988 . gray hawk . pp . 83 - 86 in r glinski , b pendleton , m moss , m lefranc , jr . , b millsap , eds .
grey - lined hawk , buteo nitidus , parque natural tayrona , birds caribe birding in santa marta many endemics ( about 25 ) and specialties occur here including santa marta antpitta , band - tailed , santa marta wood wren , bangs wood wren , white - tipped quetzal , santa marta sabrewing , santa marta wren , blue bearded helmetcrest , white - tailed starfrontlet , santa marta warbler , santa marta parakeet , santa marta mountain - tanager , yellow - crowned whitestart , santa marta bush - tyrant , santa marta rufous antpitta , brown - rumped tapaculo , rusty - headed spinetail , santa marta brush - finch , santa marta blossomcrown , santa marta foliage - gleaner , golden - breasted fruiteater , yellow - legged and black - hooded thrushes , black - headed tanager –furthermore an undescribed species of santa marta screech - owl , rusty - breasted antpitta , santa marta tapaculo , black backed thornbill , .
apparently some gray hawk pairs stay together after the breeding season is over . the gray hawks that overwintered in arizona were a pair . glinski called them out by mimicking their territorial breeding calls , and they responded in kind ( glinski , 1998 ) .
this species and b . plagiatus sometimes placed in asturina , partly because of distinctive moult pattern . probably closest to b . ridgwayi and b . lineatus ; previously considered to form a clade with these and rupornis magnirostris , but latter found to be basal to all buteos # r # r # r , and this group may be more closely allied to leucopternis than to buteo . until recently , commonly considered conspecific with b . plagiatus , which differs in its plain vs barred grey crown , nape , back and wings ( 3 ) ; uppertail coverts white vs grey with white tips , resulting in bold vs narrow white band on base of uppertail ( 2 ) ; and longer call , without sudden drop in pitch in middle of note ( 2 , perhaps 3 ) # r . n race blakei previously known as costaricensis , but latter name invalid , as preoccupied ( by b . jamaicensis costaricensis ) . three subspecies usually recognized .
there are no documented cases of predation of gray hawks , but like other mid - sized hawks , they may be vulnerable to larger birds of prey . raptor nestlings in the tropics may on rare occasions succumb to predation from arboreal hunters such as monkeys , coatis , snakes , and other birds , so it is possible that gray hawk nestlings may as well ( emmons and feer , 1997 ) .
on their wintering range , other factors could lead to gray hawk decline . glinski banded seven nestlings in arizona that were recovered in northern sinaloa state in mexico , and six of these had been shot . the greatest threat on these wintering grounds , however , is habitat loss . there , the gray hawks’ thornscrub habitat is being widely cleared for agriculture . gray hawks continue to persist along the living fence rows of trees that divide the agricultural fields , but it is unclear how many hawks this disrupted habitat can support , nor , ultimately , what effects this might have on arizona’s breeding population . little is known about demographics or conservation throughout the rest of the gray hawk ' s range ( glinski , 1988 , 1998 ; nabhan and sheridan , 1977 ; tellman et al . , 1997 ; urls below ) .
gray hawks are important predators of smaller lizards and snakes throughout their range , though cryptic coloration , speed , and good hiding places can help some reptile prey evade capture . gray hawks occasionally prey upon small birds . smaller birds will often deter predation by mobbing birds of prey to drive them away . olive - throated parakeets have been seen mobbing a gray hawk to force it to leave the area ( eitniear et al . , 1990 ) .
throughout their range , gray hawks inhabit woodlands and arid deciduous forests . in the tropics they prefer dry second growth forest and thorn scrub . they tend to select patchy open forest , forest edges , and savanna trees . it is not uncommon to find them on agricultural fields . in denser woodland they tend to keep high in the forest canopy . gray hawk northern breeding range is found in deciduous cottonwood - willow forests and mesquite bosques along riparian corridors or in evergreen oak woodlands ( glinski , 1998 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ) .
since the range of gray hawks in the united states is so limited , many birdwatchers come to arizona and texas to see them . bird watching has become increasingly important to the economy of southeastern arizona . just as the gray hawk ' s distribution barely extends into southern arizona , so do the ranges of many other tropical and subtropical bird species . several migratory species also use the area’s river corridors as they pass north from mexico . over 400 bird species draw birdwatchers from around the world . their visitation has been an economic boon to the area . in 2001 , visitors to two well - known birding spots in southeastern arizona - ramsey canyon preserve and the san pedro riparian national conservation area - spent an estimated $ 10 . 1 million to $ 16 . 9 million . about a third of the gray hawk nest sites in arizona have been identified in the san pedro ncr . while gray hawks are not the sole draw to the area , the numbers clearly illustrate the impact that conservation has on regional economies . gray hawks , as well as people , stand to benefit from this perceived economic value . ( bibles , 1999 ; relly , 2002 ; viers , 2000 ) .
bibles ( 1999 ) also revealed that gray hawks prefer home ranges with taller trees and more open understory , probably because these enable them to observe their cryptic prey more easily . the increased flight space may also facilitate greater capture success . mesquite bosques are the primary foraging areas of gray hawks breeding in arizona because they have these characteristics . the amount of mesquite bosque seems to be the main factor that determines habitat quality in gray hawk nesting range in arizona . ( amadon and phillips , 1939 ; bibles , 1999 ; glinski , 1988 ; glinski and millsap , 1987 ; gurrola - hidalgo and chavez , 1996 ; stensrude , 1965 ) .
gray hawks from northern populations arrive in arizona around mid - march to breed . nest site fidelity is high , and gray hawk territories remain fairly constant from year to year . pairs begin building the nest right after courtship , but they partition the work . the male builds the foundation , and the female shapes most of the bowl out of green , leafy twigs from the nest tree or neighboring trees . northerly - breeding gray hawks primarily nest in cottonwood trees , but they will also nest in willow , ash , oak , hackberry , and mesquites . they choose nest sites in the upper third of the tree , usually in branches away from the trunk . nests are crow - sized , about 60 cm across . the female usually lays two eggs in early may , although studies of nest productivity in arizona have recorded nests with four or even eight eggs per clutch with a mean of 1 . 2 or 1 . 1 young per occupied breeding site . the eggs are white to pale blue and rarely marked . only females incubate the eggs . incubation lasts about 33 days , during which the male captures food for the female . after hatching , the young stay in the nest for about six weeks .
) range from the amazon basin in south america into the southwestern united states . they are migratory in the northern part of their range , arriving in southern arizona and extreme south texas in the spring to breed , and occasionally entering new mexico . these northern members of the species generally depart in mid - october to overwinter in mexico , although they can be found in south texas year - round , and rare records exist of winter residents in arizona . further south in their range , gray hawks are non - migratory ( glinski , 1998 ; kaufman , 2000 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ) .
gray hawks are medium - sized , woodland buteos , with shorter wings and longer tails than typical buteos . adult birds have a slate - gray back , finely barred gray and white underparts , a black tail with two or three white bands , and a white rump . juveniles have dark brown backs and buff - streaked underparts , brownish - gray tails with five to nine narrow black bars , and a dark brown eye stripe . both adult and immature birds have dark gray or black beaks , brown irises , and yellow ceres and legs . males are smaller than females . gray hawks fly with accipiter - like movements , alternately flapping and gliding gracefully . their flight pattern and gray color is similar to that of northern goshawks , which led to their other common name , “mexican goshawks . ” northern goshawks , however , have a white eyebrow and lack the tail barring distinctive of gray hawks ( glinski , 1998 ; kaufman , 2000 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ; wheeler and clark , 1995 ) .
arizona is the northernmost stronghold of breeding gray hawks , with nearly 80 known nest sites , most of which are protected in nature preserves or conservation easements . six pairs also nest regularly along the rio grande river in south texas . there is one reported incidence of nesting in new mexico . further south in their range , gray hawks are non - migratory and nest from december through may in tall , evergreen trees ( bibles , 1999 ; brandt , 1951 ; glinski , 1988 ; glinski , 1998 ; hubbard , 1974 ; stiles and skutch , 1989 ; terres , 1980 ) .
females alone provide incubation , but the male feeds her . the male provides most of the food for the first two weeks post - hatching , after which the female begins to hunt as well . it is not known how quickly the young can hunt for themselves once they leave the nest .
gray hawks are swift , agile fliers that can actively pursue prey by maneuvering through trees . they perch in the forest understory , locate prey in the trees or on the ground with their keen eyesight , and make short dashes to capture it whit their talons . they take reptiles , small mammals , birds , and some insects . in arizona , glinski ( 1988 ) studied food types delivered to nestlings and found that the diet was composed predominantly of terrestrial and arboreal lizards ( 74 % ) , garter snakes ( 5 % ) , nestling and adult birds ( 11 % ) , and mammals ( 10 % ) . bibles’ ( 1999 ) study of nest productivity in arizona revealed similar findings , with reptiles comprising 68 . 6 % of prey delivered to nestlings ( all were lizards but for one snake ) , mammals 19 . 6 % ( rodents and one rabbit ) , birds 9 . 8 % , and amphibians 2 % ( a toad ) .
gray hawks have no special conservation status , although their limited numbers at the northern extreme of their range have led management agencies in arizona to regard them as “sensitive species” and in texas to consider them “threatened . ” arizona breeding populations seem to be holding steady , with reproduction balancing the losses from mortality . fortunately , most of the 80 nest sites in arizona today are located on protected lands . concerned about how human demand for ground and surface water has seriously reduced desert riparian areas in the southwestern united states , private landowners and public and private conservation organizations have worked to set aside the remaining riparian corridors in southern arizona . further protection of the cottonwood - willow forests and mesquite bosques they support will demand protection of the waters that sustain them . if land managers succeed , this will be good news for gray hawks and the myriad other species that use these areas . their only threat then would be recreational disturbance . nesting gray hawks are sensitive to human activity near their nests , and many of the protected areas are frequented by recreational groups . something as innocuous as a family picnic unknowingly staged near a nest tree can cause gray hawks to abandon their nest .
robin kropp ( author ) , university of arizona , jorge schondube ( editor ) , university of arizona .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals . ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .
referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody ( usually , but not always , a river or stream ) .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
texas parks and wildlife , texas threatened and endangered birds
( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .
usda forest service , coronado national forest , santa catalina ranger district , tucson , arizona , usa . threatened , endangered , and sensitive species
( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .
amadon , d . , a . phillips . 1939 . notes on the mexican goshawk .
. albuquerque , new mexico : unpublished report to office of endangered species , u . s . fish and wildlife service .
gurrola - hidalgo , m . , n . chavez . 1996 . serpentes : lampropeltis triangulum nelsoni ( milk snake ) . predation . .
nabhan , g . , t . sheridan . 1977 . living fencerows of the rio san miguel , sonora , mexico : traditional technology for floodplain management .
relly , j . 2002 .
arizona daily star : birding ' s big bucks . february 7 , 2002
( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .
stensrude , c . 1965 . observations on a pair of gray hawks in southern arizona .
arizona’s changing rivers : how people have affected the rivers . water resources research center issue paper 19
viers , j . 2000 .
economic development institute 2000 abstracts - southeastern arizona birdng trail
( on - line ) . accessed april 12 , 2002 at urltoken .
. london , san diego : academic press , harcourt brace and co . .
to cite this page : kropp , r . 2002 .
asturina nitida
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
buteo nitidus and b . plagiatus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as b . nitidus following aou ( 2006 ) , the gender agreement of which follows david and gosselin ( 2002a ) , and before then were placed in the genus asturina following aou ( 1998 ) , and before then were split as a . nitida and a . plagiata following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
this species has a large range from central america to amazonia and south into argentina . occurs from southwest costa rica south through panama and colombia to west ecuador on the west of the andes and on the east of the andes from east colombia , venezuela and guianas through east ecuador , northeast peru and much of brazil to north and east bolivia , paraguay and north argentina . the species is also found on trinidad .
described in parts of very large range as locally common and tolerant of open and secondary forest ; typically absent from closed humid forest . population likely to be large ( ferguson - lees & christie 2001 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 21 . 3 - 28 . 7 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 22 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it is suspected to decline by < 25 % over three generations as it is not highly forest - dependent , favouring open country and forest edges .
occurs in very wide variety of forest habitats from gallery and open woodland through to fairly open savannah with clumps of trees but is not typically found in dense humid forest . found from sea level up to 800 m , occasionally as high as 1 , 300 m . feeds on reptiles , amphibians , insects , small mammals and birds .
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( todd , 1915 ) – e bolivia and c brazil ( mato grosso to piauí and rio de janeiro ) s to paraguay and n argentina ( s to tucumán and n santa fe ) .
there are two primary vocalizations : a series of 3–8 piping notes used primarily during the . . .
adaptable , found in lowland tropical to subtropical zones in rain forest edge , disturbed forest and . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . no hard data on numbers or population trends , but generally considered widespread , locally common to relatively numerous , . . .
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previously incorporated several other genera , including e . g . rupornis , morphnarchus , pseudastur , as well as leucopternis and buteogallus . present arrangement based largely on recent molecular studies # r # r # r , but further modification likely .
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josep del hoyo , thore noernberg , pieter de groot boersma , greg baker , jacob . wijpkema , david ascanio , desmond allen , anthony laven , helbert e . noventa .
margareta wieser , lars petersson , jacob . wijpkema , luis r figueroa , paul van giersbergen , josef widmer , eduardo freitez gassan , stanislav harvančík , holger teichmann , thore noernberg , manakincarmelo , rodrigo y castro , nimali digo and thilanka edirisinghe , christophe gouraud , lmarce , juan fdo . alvarez castro , mauricio rueda , roger ahlman , samantha klein , sirroyalty , joe tobias , dusan m . brinkhuizen , manakin nature tours , tadeusz stawarczyk , alfredo rosas .
combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : buteo nitidus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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