millepora tenera is a species of fire coral in the family milleporidae .

it is native to the red sea and the western indo-pacific region and is a zooxanthellate species with a calcareous skeleton .

it was first described in 1949 by the dutch zoologist hilbrand boschma .

millepora tenera

stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts .
target species millepora platyphylla ( p , red ) and non - target species ; millepora intricata ( i , green ) , millepora dichotoma ( d , pink ) , millepora tenera ( t , purple ) , millepora complanata ( c , blue ) and millepora exaesa ( e , yellow ) .
nick hope added the english common name
fire coral
to
millepora tenera boschma , 1948
.
stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts . - pubmed - ncbi
( 1974 ) . stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts . toxicon
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millepora tenera is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .
the distinctive pores of millepora boschmai , which distinguish it from reef - building corals .
7 . wittle lw , tscura ed , middlebrook re . stinging coral ( millepora tenera ) toxin : a comparison of the crude extracts with isolated nematocyst extracts . toxicon . 1974 ; 12 ( 5 ) : 481 - 6 . [ links ]
globally , millepora boschmai is critically endangered and the only remaining populations occur in indonesia . the status of millepora boschmai in australia is unknown and currently there are no records of it occurring in australian waters .
there are another 14 species of _ millepora _ known to exist worldwide . two of these species are listed by the iucn as endangered and two are listed as data deficient . numerous millepora species are restricted to the atlantic ocean however six species are known to occur in australia ( m . dischotoma , m . exaesa , m . foveolata , m . intricata , m . platyphylla , and m . tenera ) .
characterisation of de novo microsatellite loci and genetic diversity in the target species millepora platyphylla collected in moorea , french polynesia .
( of millepora cruzi nemenzo , 1975 ) razak , t . b . & b . w . hoeksema , 2003 . the hydrocoral genus millepora ( hydrozoa : capitata : milleporidae ) in indonesia . zoologische verhandelingen leiden 345 : 313 - 336 . [ details ]
nevertheless , the exact status of all millepora species in australia is unknown and further research is needed to identify species and population status .
( of millepora tortuosa dana , 1848 ) boschma , h . 1948a . the species problem in millepora . zoologische verhandelingen , leiden 1 : 1 - 115 , pls . 1 - 15 . page ( s ) : 41 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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( of millepora tenella ortmann , 1892 ) razak , t . b . , hoeksema b . w . , 2003 . the hydrocoral genus millepora ( hydrozoa : capitata : milleporidae ) in indonesia . zool . verh . leiden 345 : 313 - 336 . page ( s ) : 323 [ details ]
millepora alcicornis is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .
23 . grajales a , sánchez ja . discharged nematocysts of millepora alcicornis . coral reefs . 2006 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 671 . [ links ]
summary of genetic distances ( gd ) based on the 16s gene between the target species and other millepora species together with indices indicating microsatellite transferability and genetic diversity .
21 . lewis jb . biology and ecology of the hydrocoral millepora on coral reefs . adv mar biol . 2006 ; 50 : 1 - 55 . [ links ]
5 . wittle lw , middlebrook r , lane c . isolation and partial purification of a toxin from millepora alcicornis . toxicon . 1971 ; 9 ( 4 ) : 327 - 31 . [ links ]
millepora boschmai is a type of hydrocoral , related to jellyfish , anemones and the true corals that build reefs . all corals are animals , and not plants . they have bodies made of many cells without cell walls , which distinguishes them from plants and fungi . the tiny bodies of corals are hidden in a calcium skeleton , and it is the thousands of pores in millepora skeletons that distinguish this type of coral .
6 . middlebrook re , wittle lw , scura ed , lane ce . isolation and partial purification of a toxin from millepora dichotoma . toxicon . 1971 ; 9 ( 4 ) : 333 - 6 . [ links ]
( of millepora tenella ortmann , 1892 ) s . d . cairns & j . van der land , 2000 - 2007 , as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
3 . prasad r , vincent l , hamilton r , lim k . minimal change disease in association with fire coral ( millepora species ) exposure . am j kidney dis . 2005 ; 47 ( 1 ) : e15 - 6 . [ links ]
9 . radwan ffy . comparative toxinological and immunological studies on the nematocyst venoms of the red sea fire corals millepora dichotoma and m . platyphylla . comp biochem physiol c pharmacol . 2002 ; 131 ( 3 ) : 323 - 34 . [ links ]
boschma , h . 1949c . notes on specimens of the genus millepora in the collection of the british museum . proceedings of the zoological society of london 119 : 661 - 672 , pls 1 - 2 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
hydrozoan cnidarians of the genus millepora are commonly denominated fire corals since contact with them immediately causes burning pain , erythema and pustule formation on human skin ( 1 - 3 ) . these hydrocorals are able to induce their damaging effects due to the presence of nematocysts , the characteristic stinging organelles used by all cnidarians for defense and capturing prey ( 4 ) . several studies have shown that the venom contained in the nematocysts from millepora species display lethal , hemolytic , dermonecrotic , and antigenic properties ( 5 - 10 ) .
razak , t . b . , hoeksema b . w . , 2003 . the hydrocoral genus millepora ( hydrozoa : capitata : milleporidae ) in indonesia . zool . verh . leiden 345 : 313 - 336 . page ( s ) : 323 [ details ]
this genus is generally not found in the aquarium trade , but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade . crown - of - thorns starfish are a major threat to corals in australia , but according to observations in fiji , millepora is not a target .
parts of the distributions of several millepora species fall within australian marine protected areas and it is likely they will benefit from those reserves . nevertheless , recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy , population , abundance and trends , ecology and habitat status .
structural characteristics of discharged and undischarged nematocysts from the hydrozoans millepora alcicornis and millepora complanata , two fire corals collected in the mexican caribbean , were examined using transmission electron , scanning and light microscopy . in this study , we report for the first time images of the nematocysts found in these mexican caribbean venomous species . two types of nematocysts were observed in both species , the more abundant identified as macrobasic mastigophore and the other a stenotele type . macrobasic mastigophores were present in medium and large size classes while stenoteles appeared in only one size .
1 . sagi a , rosenberg l , ben - meir p , hauben dj . the
fire coral
( millepora dichotoma ) as a cause of burns : a case report . burns incl therm inj . 1987 ; 13 ( 4 ) : 325 - 6 . [ links ]
propagation is rather simple for millepora corals . breaking and cementing the pieces onto plugs or rock is a typical way to frag this coral . rubber banding to a plug or rock is another way that has been used . however , there is another way that is quite ingenious . place rubble rock around the
the fire coral ( millepora boschmai ) is one of the rarest species of coral in the world . it is known only from a small number of locations in the pacific ocean , panama and indonesia , and it appears this species got into hot water almost a decade before it was even known to science .
10 . ibarra - alvarado c , alejandro garcía j , aguilar mb , rojas a , falcón a , heimer de la cotera ep . biochemical and pharmacological characterizations obtained from the fire coral millepora complanata . comp biochem physiol c toxicol pharmacol . 2007 ; 146 ( 4 ) : 511 - 8 . [ links ]
the millepora genus is very aggressive . these hydrocorals will encrust and take over other corals , so keep your eye on their growth rate . make sure you space them at least 6” from other corals . possibly place them on a rock in the sand away from the main rock work to keep them from encrusting on to the main rock formation .
( of millepora tortuosa dana , 1848 ) dana , j . d . , 1848 . zoophytes . in : narrative of the u . s . exploring expedition , during the years 1838 - 1842 , by ch . wilkes , 7 , zoophytes . 7 : vi + 740 pp . . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 545 [ details ]
in australia , millepora species occur in a variety of habitats to at least 30 metres deep . they can be found in inshore areas such as the kimberley coastal reefs , and also in the clear waters offshore . some of these species are found abundance . m . intricata , for example , is a dominant species in the lizard island lagoon on the great barrier reef .
the fire coral , millepora alcicornis , while immune to the crown of thorns can succumb to predatory polychaetes and nudibranchs from the phyllidia genus . many critters like this crab will find safety in it ' s branches . hawkfish , who do not have any tissue on their pelvic fins will perch between the branches and will not be stung as they enjoy the protection of the fire coral .
caring for a millepora coral in the aquarium requires that you be very careful . these hydrocorals have a potent sting . it can just be a mild sting for some , but for others it can be all the way up to anaphylactic shock . needless to say , wear gloves when you are handling them or are anywhere near the coral . don’t be dissuaded from keeping them because of their sting , however since they are hardy and easy to propagate . just be careful and wear gloves .
the fire coral , millepora alcicornis has earned the name
fire
for good reason ! it is strong enough to put some people into anaphylactic shock , however most of the time it is a bad sting . the positive thing is that they grow so slow , less than 1
per year , that they can be kept in a nano tank , without the risk of over growing everything so fast . they also will hold their own and other corals will generally stay away from them !
the millepora corals are found at depths from 0 to 148 feet ( 45 m ) in areas of high current and light . they inhabit reef slopes and projected parts of the reef that have strong wave and current action . these include tidal inlets , sheltered bays , mangrove shores , exposed bay areas and ledges at the entrance of these bays as well as in sounds , shallow reefs and shallow coastal benthic habitats . they are occasionally found on mangrove roots and in the shallow protected areas where there are solid beds .
assignment analyses based on bayesian clustering analysis using structure ( pritchard , stephens & donnelly , 2000 ) for five of the six studied species : ( 1 ) m . platyphylla , ( 2 ) m . exaesa , ( 3 ) m . intricata , ( 4 ) m . dichotoma and ( 5 ) m . tenera . the x - axis shows species identification and y - axis shows the cluster membership ( k = 2 ) . initial structure runs were used to determine the most likely number of clusters ( k ) . runs were performed with the default setting , a burn - in period of 50000 , 50000 mcmc repeats and 10 iterations per k . the results were uploaded to structure harvester ( earl & vonholdt , 2011 ) and the most likely k was retained for a second run in structure with a burn - in period of 500000 , 500000 mcmc repeats , 10 iterations and uniform prior setting .
genus has been propagated in captivity , yet are not always available . millepora hydrocorals have two principle forms ; the predominant body type is the polyp and the other is bell - shaped or the shape of a thin disk . their life cycle originates as a sessile polyp , and in this stage it multiplies asexually . animals in the polyp stage are known as “hydroids” . the polyp stage can then bud , forming a free - swimming , planktonic animal , like the jellyfish . in this stage they are known as “medusa” and can produce eggs or sperm .
millepora complanata is a plate - like fire coral common throughout the caribbean . contact with this species usually provokes burning pain , erythema and urticariform lesions . our previous study suggested that the aqueous extract of m . complanata contains non - protein hemolysins that are soluble in water and ethanol . in general , the local damage induced by cnidarian venoms has been associated with hemolysins . the characterization of the effects of these components is important for the understanding of the defense mechanisms of fire corals . in addition , this information could lead to better care for victims of envenomation accidents .
millepora alcicornis is a branching hydrocoral common throughout the caribbean sea . like other members of this genus , this species is capable of inducing skin eruptions and blisters with severe pain after contact . in the present study , we investigated the toxicity of the m . alcicornis aqueous extract on several animal models . considering that some cnidarian hemolysins have been associated to local tissue damage , since they also induce lysis of other cell types , we also made a partial characterization of the hemolytic activity of m . alcicornis aqueous extract . this information is important for understanding the defense mechanisms of the “fire corals” .
in this study , two types of nematocysts were observed in both caribbean millepora species . these nematocysts were identified as stenoteles and macrobasic mastigosphores according to weill ' s classification ( 16 , 17 ) . measurements of the capsule size of the nematocysts , made from the sem photographs , showed that in both species the macrobasic mastigophores were present in medium ( 10 . 6 - 13 . 0 x 18 . 1 - 21 . 6 µm ) and large ( 17 . 5 - 21 . 8 x 25 . 0 - 33 . 1 µm ) size classes , while stenoteles were present in only one size ( 10 . 5 - 15 . 6 x 18 . 7 - 25 . 0 µm ) .
the most abundant nematocyst type found in both millepora species was the macrobasic mastigophore . the structure of the undischarged form consists of an egg - shaped capsule with an inverted tubule coiled with an amorphous arrangement , which can be observed in the lm photographs ( figure 3 - a ) . the operculum , located in the apical part of the capsule , has a diameter of approximately 2 . 5 µm in both large and medium size classes ( figure 3 - b ) . in the discharged form of this nematocyst type one observes that the everted tubule is armed with three helically coiled bands of spines extended throughout the length of the tubule ( figure 3 - c to f ) . figure 3 - e shows a macrobasic mastigophore with the everted tubule completely extended ; this tubule has a diameter of 1 . 6 µm while the shaft , an enlarged portion in the middle of the tubule , has a diameter of 2 . 3 µm .
additionally , a 461 bp portion of the mitochondrial 16s gene was amplified for 30 specimens ( five colonies per species ) and used to estimate the genetic distances among the six millepora species . the pcr amplifications were performed using the primers 16s - sha and 16s - shb ( cunningham & buss , 1993 ) in 20 µl reactions containing : 1 . 5 mm of mgcl 2 , 0 . 2 mm of each dntp , 1× final concentration of buffer , 0 . 5 µm of each primer , 0 . 25 unit of red hot taq polymerase , 2 µl of dna template ( 80–100 ng / µl ) and sterilised water up to 20 µl . the cycling parameters were as follows : an initial denaturation step of 5 min at 94 °c , followed by 35 cycles of 1 min at 94 °c , 1 min at 50 °c , 1 . 5 min at 72 °c and a final elongation step of 5 min at 72 °c . sequencing of the pcr products was performed by genoscreen ( lille , france ) .
stenoteles are penetrating nematocysts limited to the class hydrozoa and are found mostly in hydras ( 20 , 21 ) . in this study , we found the presence of few stenoteles in both millepora species . calder ( 22 ) reported that the gastrozooids of m . alcicornis , collected in bermuda , contained stenoteles of small ( 5 . 7 - 6 . 6 x 8 . 3 - 8 . 9 µm ) , medium ( 12 . 9 - 14 . 2 x 15 . 9 - 17 . 6 µm ) and large ( 15 . 9 - 18 . 7 x 21 . 6 - 24 . 7 µm ) sizes , whereas the dactylozooids only contained small stenoteles ( 5 . 9 - 6 . 5 x 8 . 3 - 8 . 6 µm ) . the capsule of the undischarged form of this nematocyst type has a characteristic lime shape with pointed ends ( figure 1 - a , b ) , one of these ends consists of an aperture closed by a cover known as an operculum , whose diameter is approximately 4 . 5 µm while the other extreme has a diameter of approximately 2 µm ( figure 1 - b ) .
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m . tenella is considered a synonym of this species ( randall and cheng 1984 ) .
this species is widespread in the indo - pacific . it is found from the red sea and east africa to the mariana islands and american samoa , including australia and japan . specific records : red sea , gulf of aden , arabian sea ( socotra ) , madagascar , lakshadweep , west thailand , northwest australia , vietnam , indonesia , philippines , pohnpei ( micronesia ) , papua new guinea , bismarck sea - solomon islands , great barrier reef , fiji ( devantier and turak pers . comm . ) . randall and cheng ( 1984 ) give western indian ocean to samoa and great barrier reef to japan .
this species is considered relatively common throughout its range . there is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future . the age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years . see the supplementary material for further details on population decline and generation length estimates .
this species is most abundant in shallow reef habitat at depths of less than 15 m .
species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity , and exhibit a tolerance for siltation . they often occur in clear offshore sites ( lovell pers . comm . )
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best , w . g . , g . faure & m . pichon ( 1980 ) . contribution to the knowledge of the stony corals from the seychelles and eastern africa . rev . zool . afr . 94 , 3 : 600 - 627 . [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
fire corals get their common name from the painful stings they inflict on divers ( 3 ) . approximately 50 species of fire coral have been described , which express an array of growth forms . growth forms range from colonies composed of tree - like branches , solid colonies that are typically dome - shaped , or colonies that adhere closely to the substrate ( 3 ) . these reef - building ( hermatypic ) corals can be green , cream or yellow , and those species with branches have hollow cores , containing oxygen , that can be easily broken ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . other species form thick and sturdy colonies capable of withstanding the strongest wave action ( 4 ) .
reproduction in fire corals is more complex than in other reef - building corals . the polyps reproduce asexually , producing jellyfish - like medusae , which are released into the water from special cup - like structures known as ampullae . the medusae contain the reproductive organs that release eggs and sperm into the water . fertilised eggs develop into free - swimming larvae that will eventually settle on the substrate and form new colonies . fire corals can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
fire corals form extensive outcrops on projecting parts of the reef where the tidal currents are strong . they are also abundant on upper reef slopes and in lagoons ( 4 ) , and occur down to depths of 40 metres ( 5 ) .
fire corals face the many threats that are impacting coral reefs globally . it is estimated that 20 percent of the world’s coral reefs have already been effectively destroyed and show no immediate prospects of recovery , and 24 percent of the world’s reefs are under imminent risk of collapse due to human pressures . these human impacts include poor land management practices that are releasing more sediment , nutrients and pollutants into the oceans and stressing the fragile reef ecosystem . overfishing has ‘knock - on’ effects that result in the increase of macro - algae that can out - compete and smother corals , and fishing using destructive methods physically devastates the reef . a further potential threat is the increase of coral bleaching events , as a result of global climate change ( 7 ) .
most fire coral species have brittle skeletons that can easily be broken , for example , during storms , or by divers ( 3 ) . divers can easily break the branches of fire corals when diving for leisure , or when collecting fish for the aquarium trade . for instance , the yellowtail damselfish tends to dwell close to the branching fire coral colonies , and retreats into its branches when threatened . in brazil , fire coral colonies are extensively damaged when harvesting the yellowtail damselfish , as the corals are often deliberately smashed and fishes hiding amongst the branches are ‘shaken out’ into plastic bags ( 8 ) .
fire corals are listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that trade in these species should be carefully regulated ( 2 ) . indonesia and fiji both have quota systems for corals , monitored though cites ( 2 ) . the aim of the quotas are to ensure harvests are kept at a sustainable level , but in reality they are hard to set at the right level due to a lack of knowledge regarding coral biology . fire corals will form part of the marine community in many marine protected areas ( mpas ) , which offer coral reefs a degree of protection , and there are many calls from non - governmental organisations for larger mpas to ensure the persistence of these unique and fascinating ecosystems ( 7 ) .
for further information on this species see veron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus and robertson publishers , uk .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
veron , j . e . n . ( 2000 ) corals of the world . vol . 3 . australian institute of marine sciences , townsville , australia .
veron , j . e . n . ( 1986 ) corals of australia and the indo - pacific . angus and robertson publishers , uk .
borneman , e . h . ( 2001 ) aquarium corals ; selection , husbandry and natural history . t . f . h . publications , new jersey , usa .
wood , e . m . ( 1983 ) reef corals of the world : biology and field guide . t . f . h . publications , new jersey , usa .
wilkinson , c . ( 2004 ) status of coral reefs of the world . australian institute of marine science , townsville , australia .
gasparini , j . l . , floeter , s . r . , ferreira , c . e . l . and sazima , i . ( 2005 ) marine ornamental trade in brazil . biodiversity and conservation , 14 : 2883 - 2899 .
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this species is widespread in the indo - pacific . it is found from the red sea and east africa to the mariana islands and american samoa , including australia and japan .
specific records : red sea , gulf of aden , arabian sea ( socotra ) , madagascar , lakshadweep , west thailand , northwest australia , vietnam , indonesia , philippines , pohnpei ( micronesia ) , papua new guinea , bismarck sea - solomon islands , great barrier reef , fiji ( devantier and turak pers . comm . ) .
randall and cheng ( 1984 ) give western indian ocean to samoa and great barrier reef to japan .
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nematocysts free of extra - nematocyst material is described . the toxic material from the nematocysts had an
in mice of 40 μg protein per kg body weight and displayed hemolytic and dermonecrotic properties . comparison of nematocyst extract and crude extract of whole specimens of
by electrophoresis and double diffusion tests indicated the toxin in crude extract is of nematocyst origin and not from extra - nematocyst material .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
in : schuchert , p . ( 2015 ) world hydrozoa database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2016 - 08 - 30 .
in : schuchert , p . ( 2015 ) world hydrozoa database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken on 2016 - 10 - 11 .
catalogue of materials deposited in ryukyu university museum ( fujukan ) , no . 9 . ryukyu university museum ( fujukan ) , nishihara , 5 - 32 ( in japanese ) .
occurrence record in darwincore format ( elements of obis schema and some of dwc1 . 4 )
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belongs to the class hydrozoa , and are known as hydrocorals . this species is just one of the many members in the
genus . this genus contains the common
fire coral
or
stinging coral
species that have a potent sting , causing a burning sensation if touched . usually it is just a mild sting , but for some people the reaction can be all the way up to anaphylactic shock . divers , snorkelers , and aquarists need to wear gloves when handling these corals or are anywhere near them .
fire corals could be described as very hardy “soft” corals . they have a similar appearance to stony corals , and are found in similar habitats . but the
genus are not considered stony corals due to their internal structure . like the stony corals , they do produce a hard aragonite skeleton and aid in reef building , yet inside their structure are canals that house all of their polyps and aid in food distribution . this makes them no where near as dense and hard as a stony coral .
genus can take many forms including arborescent ( treelike ) , plate - like , encrusting , lace - like , box - like or columnar . these different forms develop in conjunction with the water flow where they are found . encrusting colonies are the initial growth form of these hydrocorals . in areas of strong water flow they will continue to encrust , but in a low water flow area they will develop into a lacy branching form similar to the
, but not on a single plane . their branches can become leaf - like , blade - like , or even box - like in areas where the water flow increases in strength . thus the common names they are known for besides fire coral and stinging coral are branching fire coral , box coral , bladed fire coral , finger coral , ginger coral , and wello fire coral .
don’t be dissuaded from keeping fire corals because of their sting . they are interesting corals that are hardy and easy to propagate , just be careful and wear gloves . in the wild they are adaptable to many environments , thus contributing to their hardy nature . they let you know their lighting needs by their color , with yellow indicating perfect light and brown being “not enough . ” they also need strong water movement or they will not grow as much .
genus was described by linnaeus in 1758 . this is the only genus in the milleporidae family . there are at least 48 species with a few being
genus are found from the red sea , south to madagascar , then east toward australia ' s west coast in the houtman abrolhos island area . they are also found from the great barrier reef all the way around australia ' s north coast and mid way down the east coast . from new caledonia they occur all the way to the tuamotu islands then north to the hawaiian islands , circling back to the southern tip of japan . then they are found westward including all of indonesia and back to the red sea . some are also found in the atlantic oceans including the gulf of mexico and up to canada via north america’s east coast .
the fire coral is on the iucn red list for endangered species under least concerned . this is due to population reduction from habitat loss and reef degradation , however they recover quickly . in 10 years , if climate changes and ocean acidification persists , this will change the classification . the
genus is commonly one of the first corals on the scene of a new reef and the last ones to leave when a reef is dying . they cover 10 % to 50 % of reefs , as well as being a small part of all reef building corals .
some common names these hydrocorals are known for are bladed fire coral , wello fire coral , fire coral , box coral , firecoral , stinging coral , finger coral , ginger coral , and wello fire coral . the
facing into a strong currents , they can make use of the passing plankton , small floating invertebrates , and other prey . they use the venomous cells ( nematocysts ) found in their tentacles to catch prey in these nutrient rich waters , but also to sting and deflect any possible threats or attacks .
lc - least concern - they have experienced some habitat loss , however they recover quickly .
genus grows in many formations , all dependent on water movement . they can form branching , laminar , encrusting and massive colonies . this genus is not considered a stony coral due to its internal structure . they do produce a hard aragonite skeleton , yet inside are canals that house all of the polyps and aid in food distribution . this makes them no where near as dense and hard as a stony coral . the smooth surface is densely dotted with mouths that look like small pores . the colors of the
are usually a mustard yellow to dark brown and cream with white or lighter colored tips , with some rarer species being green or pink .
at first glance this doesn ' t look anything like a typical fire coral . most are highly branched like small bushes . as it turns out though , there is an encrusting type of fire coral and this is it !
on the smooth surface , the dense populations of pores are called called gastropores and they contain polyps in two sizes . the larger polyps are called gastrozooid polyps . they tend to stay within the corallum , ( not extending outward past the surface of the coral ) , and help to digest food and pass it through the colony within the skeletal structure . the smaller polyps surrounding this gastrozooid polyp are called dactylozooids , and they number between 5 to 7 . the dactylozooids look like tiny hairs that stick up beyond the surface , giving these hydrocorals a fuzzy appearance .
the dactylozooids polyps have a strong toxin to sting prey . once stung , these polyps will then bring the food inward to the gastrozooid polyp in the middle , which will engulf the prey and digest it . these corals will burn your skin if you are not careful . they are a bane to divers and it is best to look and not touch in the wild .
can grow up to 12
( 30 cm ) in height . encrusting forms can sense nearby corals and will grow towards them and then encrust over them , using their structure as a base .
is found in several areas that do not have strong wave action , and so are generally the branching form . this coral will typically overgrow and take the shape of any coral it gets near , especially gorgonians .
is from the atlantic and are usually pink to cream with white or lighter colored tips . they tend to grow in a box - like formation from an encrusting base .
these hydrocorals are found in surge areas with strong waves and generally form heavier leaf - like , fanlike or vertical plate - like structures .
10 years - may live longer . maturity is reached at 3 to 8 years after a hydroid plants itself .
the fire corals can be easy to care for as long as lighting and water flow are strong . they will turn brown under inadequate lighting . they adjust themselves to the water flow in your tank as they grow , so once established try not to move them if you can . they will cease to grow very much at it there is weak water movement .
if you experience a sting , applying ammonia and warm water are two suggestions . however keeping powdered meat tenderizer around is a good idea if you own , or will be purchasing one of these corals . meat tenderizer seems to be a constant as a relief cure . this will alleviate the burn and itch of their sting . these items are a neutralizer for these particular forms of nematocyst stings , but will not necessarily work for jellyfish stings or other types of nematocyst stings .
fire corals depend on light and photosynthesis for about 75 % of their growth , they also do well being fed plankton . these “hungry hydrocorals” will eat live brine shrimp as well , or any defrosted foods like mysis , etc . that get into their “hairy” stingers . turning the pumps off while they feed is a good idea .
genus . although similar to a
soft coral
, they do have calcareous skeletons and need parameters similar to hard corals . do typical water changes of 20 % a month , 10 % biweekly , or 5 % weekly . it has been noted that 5 % weekly water changes replenish many of the needed additives .
purigen and poly - fiber are great products to help in maintaining water quality . purigen is a synthetic polymer that removes soluble and insoluble impurities from water at an exceptionally high rate and capacity , helping to control ammonia , nitrites and nitrates . additions of iodine and and trace elements are suggested .
weekly - changing 5 % of the water weekly is best , or 10 % bi - weekly . a 20 % monthly water change will work if additives are provided .
a typical reef environment is what is needed for your fire coral . this is a great nano tank coral , and it will also do fine in a larger tank due to its slow growing nature . a mature tank ( well over a year old ) is advised to increase the chance of successfully keeping
they need strong lighting , though not necessarily metal halide . they can be placed in the middle of the tank with t5s , and on the bottom of the tank with metal halides and strong led . these corals prefer a strong water flow that is turbulent and surging , but not linear . provide an average salinity of 1 . 026 and normal temperatures .
high - strong lighting - t5s are sufficient if the corals are placed in the middle of the tank rather than on the bottom .
1 . 025 - 1 . 027 sg - 1 . 026 is the best .
middle - middle of the tank if lighting witht5s , but on the bottom if using metal halides .
fire corals generally grow slowly at a rate of 1 / 16
to over 3 / 4
( 4 to 20 mm ) per year . however when other corals are present they will actually grow faster in their direction , at a whopping 1” or more a month . they are especially fond of gorgonians from the
genus . they can actually sense a gorgonian , overtake it , and assume its shape . ironically a strong , swift water current can snap this overgrown structure in half since the gorgonian is now dead and brittle underneath .
hawkfish are often found on these corals , and use them for protection . they can do this because their tissue - less pectoral fins are immune to the sting . the crown of thorns seastar will also not bother this strong stinging coral .
monitor - safe as long as they are no closer than 6 to 12
.
safe - safe as long as they are no closer than 6 to 12
.
may be aggressive - safe as long as they are no closer than 6 to 12
.
fire corals primarily consist of hydroid colonies . these usually have separate sexes consisting of either male or female members . thus each colony can produce only one type of gamete , either eggs or sperm . there is not usually both sexes in the same colony .
the gametes of fire corals are sexually mature in about 20 - 30 days , much sooner than the months it can take for stony corals . in the wild , the
genus is not dependent on lunar cycles and will release free swimming medusae at the same time as other fire corals . their medusae do not live for very long , only a few hours .
, and let their encrusting tendency take over and cover the rubble . then simply break away a piece of rubble as a frag .
easy - to propagate , fragments are cut and glued on to plug or live rock .
genus , although not susceptible to many things , does have few areas that can lead to its demise . having zooxanthellae algae makes them susceptible to bleaching . higher temperatures than they are used to will cause this too , along with their being too close to a metal halide lamp .
, will also eat these hydrocorals , even thought they are stung in the process .
nudibranchs . these feed on fire corals but can ingest the stinging nematocysts without digesting them . they then use these same nematocysts as defense by transporting them through their intestines to their dorsal appendages . when the sea slug feels threatened , it will then fire the stinging nematocysts at the predator !
genus is very hard to find at pet shops and on line . these corals can sometimes be sold under “hydrocorals” or “fire corals” . they may possibly be special ordered from a local fish store .
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colonies was used to optimise pcr amplification and identify polymorphic loci . small fragments of tissue - covered skeleton ( < 2cm
) were incubated at 55 °c for 1 h in 450 µl of digest buffer with proteinase k ( qiagen , hilden , germany ) . genomic dna was extracted using a qiaxtractor automated genomic dna extraction instrument , according to manufacturer’s instructions . pcrs were performed in a final volume of 10 µl including 5 µl type - it multiplex pcr master mix ( 1× ) ( qiagen , hilden , germany ) , 3 µl rnase - free water , 1 µl primers ( 2 µm for both forward and reverse primers diluted in te buffer ) and 1 µl of template ( 10–50 ng / µl ) . the pcr program included an initial denaturing step of 5 min at 95 °c , followed by 40 cycles of 30 s at 95 °c , 90 s at optimal temperature ( 57–60 °c ) depending on the microsatellite locus ( see
) , and 30 s at 72 °c , followed by a final 30 min elongation step at 60 °c . the pcr products were electrophoresed on 2 % agarose gels . for loci with high - quality and consistent amplification , the pcr was repeated on dna template isolated from
, the forward primer was fluorescently labelled with the g5 dye set including 6 - fam , vic , ned and pet ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca ) . amplified fragments were visualised on an applied biosystems 3730 sequencer using a genescan 500 liz ladder .
significant values of f is are indicated by bold values with ∗ p < 0 . 05 and ∗∗ p < 0 . 001 .
species to test for their transferability . for the characterisation of newly developed microsatellites , small fragments ( < 2 cm
colonies were collected on the reefs of moorea in french polynesia ( cites - fr1298700028 - e ) . for cross - species amplification transferability tests , samples were collected from various locations in the indo - pacific and the caribbean for five other species of fire corals : 11
) . pcrs ( 10 µl ) were performed with 2 µm of labelled forward primer and reverse primer with the same amplification conditions described above . pcr products were sent to genoscreen ( lille , france ) for fragment analysis and were visualised using an applied biosystems 3730 sequencer . an internal size ladder ( genescan 500 liz , applied biosystems ) was used for accurate sizing and alleles were scored and checked manually using genemapper v . 4 . 0 ( applied biosystems , foster city , ca ) . samples that were ambiguous in scoring were re - amplified and re - scored . all peak profiles that were faint or ambiguous ( i . e . , multiple peaks ) were considered as missing data .
control for the presence of null alleles , scoring errors and large allele dropout were performed with microchecker v . 3 . 7 ( van oosterhout et al . , 2004 ) . to assess the discriminative power of the microsatellite markers , the genotype probability ( gp ) was estimated for each locus and for a combination of all loci using genalex v . 6 . 5 ( peakall & smouse , 2006 ) . repeated multilocus genotypes ( mlgs ) were also identified in genalex and were considered as clone mates at gp < 0 . 001 . the probability of identity , p ( id ) , was computed to evaluate the power of our microsatellites to accurately distinguish closely related genotypes from those produced by asexual reproduction ( waits , luikart & taberlet , 2001 ) . population genetic analyses were then performed after the removal of all clonal replicates .


preuss 's red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) is a red colobus primate species endemic to the cross-sanaga rivers ecoregion .

an important population occurs in korup national park , southwest province , cameroon , but the species ' distribution is localized ( groups are frequently encountered near the main tourist camps ) .

the species is considered present in adjacent cross river national park - oban division in nigeria and hunter reports suggest that few groups remain in nkwende hills and nta ali forest reserve in the broader korup region .

a population is also present in ebo forest , littoral province of cameroon .

preuss ' s red colobus

photo : “ tourist view : preuss ' s red colobus monkeys in flight . ”
information on preuss ' s red colobus is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
tourist view : preuss ' s red colobus monkeys in flight . - picture of korup national park , korup national park
tourist view : preuss ' s red colobus monkeys in flight . - picture of korup national park , korup national park - tripadvisor
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attempted predation by nigeria - cameroon chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ellioti ) on preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) in the ebo forest , cameroon .
female preuss ' s red colobus with infant , in korup national park , cameroon . critically endangered . | endangered species board | pinterest | endangered species , …
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attempted predation by nigeria - cameroon chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ellioti ) on preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) in the ebo forest , camer . . . - pubmed - ncbi
preuss ' s red colobus monkey consumes immature leaves , shoots , fruits of the leguminosae , fungi , and sometimes termite clay . this species likes to forage for leaves in the upper strata of the forest ( estes , 1991 ) . pennant ' s colobus monkey is a
mcgraw , w . s . and j . f . oates . 2002 . evidence for a surviving population of miss waldron’s red colobus . oryx 36 : 223–226 .
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update on habitat loss and conservation status of the endangered zanzibar red colobus on uzi and vun . . .
mcgraw , w . s . 2005 . update on the search for miss waldron’s red colobus monkey ( procolobus badius waldroni ) . int . j . primatol . 26 ( 3 ) : 605–619 .
preuss ' s red colobus monkey has two kinds of groups , one multimale - multifemale , and the other all - male . for this species both males and females leave their natal group ( estes , 1991 ) . the red colobus is a nonterritorial species , but larger groups will supplant smaller ones in feeding areas ( estes , 1991 ) .
in ghana , very recent surveys ( oates 2006 ) support earlier suspicions that this monkey is almost certainly extinct in that country ( oates et al . 1996 / 1997 ; struhsaker and oates 1995 ) . if any animals have managed to survive , the numbers must be very small and it will take heroic efforts to preserve them . many forms of red colobus are endangered , including three other forms in west africa : pennant’s red colobus ( procolobus pennantii pennantii ) of bioko island ( see profile in this report ) , preuss’s red colobus ( p . p . preussi ) of cameroon , and the niger river delta red colobus ( p . p . epieni ) . in addition , bouvier’s red colobus ( p . p . bouvieri ) from the congo republic has not been seen by scientists for at least 30 years .
oates , j . f . , t . t . struhsaker and g . h . whitesides . 1996 / 1997 . extinction faces ghana’s red colobus and other locally endemic subspecies . primate conserv . ( 17 ) : 138–144 .
we describe the first observation of a predation attempt by nigerian - cameroon chimpanzees ( pan troglodytes ellioti ) on preuss ' s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) in the ebo forest , cameroon . the activity , which was observed for 15 min , primarily involved 1 chimpanzee and 1 red colobus individual , with a further 2 chimpanzees observing the event . although the behaviour was interrupted when we were detected by the chimpanzees , we believe that this is the first recorded observation of hunting behaviour in nigeria - cameroon chimpanzees .
over the following months , patrols began intercepting a variety of illegal activities and making their presence known , all while conducting surveys in search of preuss’s red colobus . delivering results on both fronts so quickly is an encouraging sign for the project . “conservation thrives well where there is effective collaboration” , summarizes andrew “and this project is demonstrating that almost on a daily basis” .
the plight of these monkeys highlights threats faced by red colobus generally ; they have patchy distributions , have suffered extensive habitat degradation and are particularly vulnerable to hunters ( wolfheim 1983 ; oates 1996 ; grubb and powell 1999 ; oates et al . 2000 ; struhsaker 2005 ) . implementation of a red colobus action plan should be a high conservation priority in africa .
classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the conservation status of each species is based on assessment summaries provided by the iucn red list . the red list website offers more information on the threat categories listed here .
struhsaker , t . t . 2005 . the conservation of red colobus monkeys ( procolobus ) and their habitats . int . j . primatol . 26 ( 3 ) : 525–538 .
however , there has been no proper knowledge or documentation about the presence , distribution and population status of preuss ' s red colobus in the area before . being an internationally - recognized biodiversity hotspot and an important site for rare and threatened primates , oban is now receiving attention after years of neglect , with an effective law enforcement programme implemented by the project team in coordination with the nigerian government .
oates , j . f . , m . abedi - lartey , w . s . mcgraw , t . t . struhsaker and g . h . whitesides . 2000 . extinction of a west african red colobus monkey . conserv . biol . 14 : 1526–1532 .
modern taxonomic arrangements of the colobus monkeys either divide the red colobus and the olive colobus into two genera , piliocolobus and procolobus , respectively ( e . g . , kingdon 1997 , groves 2005 ) , or consider them to belong to one genus , procolobus , with two subgenera ( procolobus for the olive colobus and piliocolubus for the red colobus ) ( grubb et al . 2003 [ followed in the 2008 iucn red list ] , grubb et al . 2013 ) . the arrangement of using two separate genera in groves ( 2001 , 2005 , 2007 ) is followed here . here treated as a distinct species from p . pennantii following kingdon and butynski ( 2013 ) ; this species has , in the past , also been considered a subspecies of p . badius . this is an updated assessment to reflect the change in genus name .
mcgraw , w . s . and oates , j . f . 2007 . miss waldron ' s red colobus , procolobus badius waldroni ( hayman , 1936 ) . in : primates in peril : the world’s 25 most endangered primates 2006–2008 , r . a . mittermeier et al . ( compilers ) , p . 10 . unpublished report , iucn / ssc primate specialist group ( psg ) , international primatological society ( ips ) , and conservation international ( ci ) , arlington , va .
n1 : the iucn red list has evaluated the nominate form of the silver galago under the classification otolemur crassicaudatus monteiri .
grubb , p . and c . b . powell . 1999 . discovery of red colobus monkeys ( procolobus badius ) in the niger delta with the description of a new and geographically isolated subspecies . j . zool . , lond . 248 : 67–73 .
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hrdy , s . b . and whitten p . l . 1987 . patterning of sexual activity . in
gartlan , s . 1989 . la conservation des ecosystémes forestiers du cameroun . iucn , gland and cambridge .
“persistence in anti - poaching patrolling pays off” according to inaoyom imong , director of the cross river landscape for iucn member and sos grantee , the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) . in 1 year , patrols through the oban division of the cross river national park ( crnp ) nigeria , have cleared almost 1 , 000 snares and hundreds of empty shotgun cartridges , discovered 45 hunting camps and arrested half a dozen poachers . but perhaps the cherry on the cake has been the visual confirmation of critically endangered preuss’s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) living in the oban .
the forest adjacent to the ehy lagoon has not been surveyed since 2002 , when no red colobus were found . however , the ehy forest seems to be the only place in côte d’ivoire where a small population of miss waldron’s red colobus might hang on . the forest is under heavy poaching pressure from ivorian and ghanaian hunters , and it is being logged , but kone et al . ( 2007 ) have begun an awareness and education campaign in the villages there . their plans are to build a community - based conservation system centered on the eight villages surrounding the lagoon . a thorough survey of the forest is needed as a matter of urgency .
kone , i . , d . coulibaly , k . bene , a . bitty , a . koffi , a . boko and r . kouadio . 2007 . initiation of a community based conservation system in southeastern cote d ' ivoire for the probable last refuge for the miss waldron ' s red colobus . report , west african primates conservation action , abidjan , côte d’ivoire .
persistence in anti - poaching patrolling pays off” according to inaoyom imong , director of the cross river landscape for iucn member and sos grantee , the wildlife conservation society ( wcs ) . in 1 year , patrols through the oban division of the cross river national park ( crnp ) nigeria , have cleared almost 1 , 000 snares and hundreds of empty shotgun cartridges , discovered 45 hunting camps and arrested half a dozen poachers . but perhaps the cherry on the cake has been the visual confirmation of critically endangered preuss’s red colobus ( procolobus preussi ) living in the oban .
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
through a partnership of conservation des espèces et des populations animales ( cepa ) and the centre suisse de recherches scientifiques en côte d’ivoire ( csrs ) , kone et al . ( 2007 ) surveyed 14 forest reserves in côte d’ivoire between 2004 and 2006 , including isles ehotiles national park . these surveys failed to provide any sightings of miss waldron’s red colobus , only a claim of a single vocalization in ehotiles in 2006 .
hilton - taylor , c . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , united kingdom .
miss waldron’s red colobus , p . badius waldroni , of western ghana and eastern côte d’ivoire is teetering on the very brink of extinction ( struhsaker 1999 ; oates et al . 2000 ; groves 2001 ; grubb et al . 2003 ) . primatologists have searched its known range since 1993 , but have failed to see a living animal ( oates et al . 1996 / 1997 ; mcgraw 1998 , 2005 ; mcgraw and oates 2002 ) . a single skin found in the possession of a hunter near the ehy lagoon in southeastern côte d’ivoire in early 2002 raised hopes that at least one population of miss waldron’s red colobus still hangs on , but subsequent fieldwork in this region , including several forest reserves and nearby isles ehotiles national park , has yielded no evidence of living individuals ( kone 2004 ; kone and akpatou 2005 ; mcgraw 2005 ; kone et al . 2007 ) .
furthermore , an office with storage space and limited visitor accommodations is available in mundemba , 10 km driving from the park’s border .
mcgraw , w . s . 1998 . three monkeys nearing extinction in the forest reserves of eastern cote d’ivoire . oryx 32 : 233–236 .
team wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet’s species and habitats from destruction .
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a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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sayer , j . a . , c . s . harcourt , and n . m . collins . 1992 . the conservation atlas of tropical forests : africa . iucn and simon & schuster , cambridge .
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bowen - jones , e . , and s . pendry . 1999 . the threat to primates and other mammals from the bushmeat trade in africa , and how this threat could be diminished . oryx 33 : 233 - 246 .
although more then 10 percent of the ecoregion is officially protected in national parks , in reality , these parks do not adequately protecte fauna and flora because of low staffing , inadequate budgets and lack of political will . some species of larger mammals in the korup and cross river national parks are severely threatened and populations of elephant , drill and red colobus have been seriously reduced . the national and international conservation community has not been effective in protecting fauna in this ecoregion , especially the primates and other large forest mammals ( e . g . oates 1995 , oates 1999b ) .
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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the herpetofauna is highly diverse and contains a some endemic species ; korup alone contains 174 species of reptiles and amphibians . among the reptiles , the forest chameleon ( chamaeleo camurunensis ) and two worm lizards ( cynisca schaeferi and c . gansi ) are strictly endemic . the amphibian fauna is exceptionally diverse , but contains few endemics . strict endemic species include schneider ' s banana frog ( afrixalus schneideri ) , dizangue reed frog ( hyperolius bopeleti ) and werner ' s river frog ( phrynobatrachus werneri ) .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
- - publisher ' s website .
grubb , p . , t . m . butynski , j . f . oates , s . k . bearder , t . r . disotell , c . p . groves and t . t . struhsaker . 2003 . an assessment of the diversity of african primates . int . j . primatol . 24 : 1301–1357 .
korup has experienced intense poaching in the past , which has caused drastic declines of mammal populations . forest elephants were hunted almost to extinction in the 1960s and 1970s . poaching has been reduced to moderate levels with the creation of the park and anti - poaching programs . animal abundance also remains naturally low because of the forest’s low productivity .
the hair around the pubic area is white colored . juveniles of both sexes have perineal organs that mimics the adult female ' s sexual swelling ( estes , 1991 ) . it is thought that this functions for the males to keep adult males from evicting them because the adult would think that this may be a female ( estes , 1991 ) .
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
n2 : see jones , t . , ehardt , c . l . , butynski , t . m . , davenport , t . r . b . , mpunga , n . e . , machaga , s . j . and de luca , d . w . 2005 . the highland mangabey lophocebus kipunji : a new species of african monkey . science 308 : 1161–1164 . due to the lack of a type specimen , the validity of the description was contested , arguing that the name is a nomen nudum . timm , r . m . , ramy ii , r . r . and the nomenclature committee of the american society of mammalogists . 2005 . what constitutes a proper description ? science 309 : 2163 - 2164 . landry , s . o . 2005 . untitled letter . science 309 : 2164 . polaszek , a . , grubb , p . , groves , c . , ehardt , c . l . and butynski , t . m . 2005 . response . science 309 : 2164 - 2165 . davenport et al . ( 2006 ) placed the highland mangabey in its own genus , rungwecebus davenport , t . r . b . , stanley , w . t . , sargis , e . , de luca , d . w . , mpunga , n e . , machaga , s . j . and olson , l . 2006 . a new genus of african monkey , rungwecebus : morphology , ecology and molecular phylogenetics . science 312 : 1378–1381 .
cheek , m . , s . cable , f . n . hepper , n . ndam , and j . watts . 1994 . mapping plant biodiversity on mount cameroon . pp . 110 - 210 . in . van der masen , l . j . g . , van der burgt , x . m . and van medenbach de rooy , j . m . ( eds . ) . the biodiversity of african plants . proceedings xivth aetfat congress , wageningen , the netherlands . kluwer academic press , dordrecht .
geologically , the majority of the ecoregion is found on the precambrian african shield . these basement rocks have been weathered for millions of years and are now overlain by thick layers of heavily leached , red earth soils . seawards of the shield rocks , silt and sand deposition has led to formation of beaches and mud banks that can be quite extensive . mt . cameroon and bioko are volcanoes , and in consequence adjacent parts of the ecoregion have soils , rocks and black sand beaches derived from pyroclastic lava and ash . bioko was most recently separated from the mainland some 12 , 000 years ago when rising sea levels following the end of the last ice age isolated it .
wwf . 2003 . biological priorities for conservation in the guinean - congolian forest and freshwater region . proceedings of workshop held on march 30 - april 2 , 2000 in libreville , gabon . kamdem toham , a . , d . olson , r . abell , j . d ' amico , n . burgess , m . thieme , a . blom , r . w . carroll , s . gartlan , o . langrand , r . mikala mussavu , d . o ' hara , h . strand , and l . trowbridge ( editors ) . available from urltoken
in cameroon ' s korup national park 1 , 700 species of vascular plants have been recorded , as many as 5 percent of which are narrow endemics . it is estimated that the park may eventually be found to include as many as 3 , 500 vascular plants . although floral inventories are incomplete for the cross river national park , the lowland forests are similar to korup , and likely to share the same level of diversity . on bioko , over 1 , 000 vascular plant species and 49 site endemics have been recorded in the lowland forests ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) .
justification of ecoregion delineation this forest ecoregion is a part of the guineo - congolian regional centre of endemism ( white 1983 ) . the biogeographical barriers of the sanaga river in cameroon and the cross river in nigeria define the mainland boundaries of this ecoregion . these rivers are particularly important barriers for primates ( e . g . drill ( mandrillus leucophaeus ) and red - eared guenon ( cercopithicus eurythrotis ) ) and amphibians ( e . g . dizangue reed frog ( hyperolius bopeleti ) . the bioko lowland forest shares close biological affinities with the adjacent mainland forests because it was connected to the mainland during lower sea levels towards the end of the last ice age , and thus is included in this ecoregion .
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mittermeier , r . a . , rylands , a . b . and wilson d . e . 2013 . handbook of the mammals of the world : volume 3 primates . lynx edicions , barcelona .
justification : listed as critically endangered as this species is estimated to have undergone a decline of more than 80 % over the past three generations ( ca . 30 years ) , due to high levels of hunting and habitat loss . it is now confined mainly to korup national park .
p . preussi is present in southeastern nigeria in the cross river national park ( oban division ) extending into the adjacent korup national park and surrounds in southwestern cameroon ; they also occur in ebo forest just north of the sanaga river ( grubb et al . 2000 , dowsett - lemaire and dowsett 2001 ) , and at least until fairly recently still persisted in makombe forest to the north of ebo where the were heard in 2003 ( b . morgan pers . comm . ) .
between 10 , 000 and 15 , 000 p . preussi may be present in korup national park , the stronghold for the taxon ( oates 1996 ) . edwards ( 1992 ) estimated group densities in northeastern korup at 0 . 52 - 0 . 56 groups / km² , which is not too dissimilar from more recent estimates by j . linder ( pers . comm . ) in the same area ( 0 . 46 grps / sq . km ) . no absolute density is available for southern korup , but j . linder ( pers . comm . ) encountered 12 groups in 243 km walked .
an inhabitant of lowland and mid - altitude moist forest up to 1 , 400 m ( butynski and kingdon 2013 ) . edwards ( 1992 ) recorded group sizes of 20 - 64 animals for p . preussi , similar to those recorded by j . linder ( pers . comm . ) .
the major threat to this species is hunting ( e . g . , dowsett - lemaire and dowsett 2001 ) and habitat degradation . p . preussi made up a relatively large proportion of the total primate offtake in korup national park , especially in the northeast ( 22 % of carcasses ) ( j . linder pers . comm . ) .
this taxon is listed on appendix ii of cites and on class b of the african convention on the conservation of nature and natural resources . p . preussi is present in korup national park ( 1 , 260 km² ) and its perimeter in cameroon , with a small number residing in the adjacent oban division of cross river national park ( nigeria ) . it is also recorded from ebo wildlife reserve , just north of the sanaga river , which has been proposed as a new national park .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
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“this is a huge discovery , and highlights the critical need for effective conservation in the area” explains andrew dunn , wcs country director for nigeria . geographical distribution of this rare primate is limited to western cameroon and a small patch of the southeastern sector of the oban division of crnp . cross river national park consists of two separate divisions : oban and okwangwo . the oban division covers an area of roughly 3000 km² and is contiguous with korup national park in cameroon .
this attention took the shape of multi - day patrols starting one year ago . it began with a group of six crnp rangers being trained by wcs on new techniques including the use of cybertracker and smart technologies to support data collection , monitoring and patrol effectiveness . following the success of the subsequent nine - day pilot patrol the project ramped up activities implementing daily patrols in the oban starting in january 2015 .
a joint initiative to conserve threatened species , their habitats and the people who depend on them .
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folia primatol ( basel ) . 2012 ; 83 ( 3 - 6 ) : 329 - 31 . doi : 10 . 1159 / 000339813 . epub 2013 jan 28 .
division of behavioral biology , institute for conservation research , san diego zoo global , escondido , calif . , usa . bmorgan @ urltoken
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i just returned from a trip to korup ( jan 2013 ) . spent three days in the park , camping at iriba , chimpanzee and renge . being a biologist , i had a strong interest in animals in the park and expected to see several mammal , bird and reptile species . i arrived at mundemba at 12h00 on a sunday with only a telephone number on . . .
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groves , c . p . 2001 . primate taxonomy . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .
kone , i . 2004 . report on recent primate surveys in the southeast of ivory coast . report , conservation des espèces et des populations animales ( cepa ) , schlierbach , france .
kone , i . and k . b . akpatou . 2005 . identification des sites abritant encore les singes cercopithecus diana roloway , cercocebus atys lunulatus et piliocolobus badius waldroni en cote d ' ivoire . report , conservation des espèces et populations animales ( cepa ) , schlierbach , france .
oates , j . f . 1996 . african primates : status survey and conservation action plan . revised edition . iucn / ssc primate specialist group , gland , switzerland . 80pp .
oates , j . f . 2006 . primate conservation in the forests of western ghana : field survey results , 2005–2006 . report to the wildlife division , forestry commission , ghana .
struhsaker , t . t . 1999 . primate communities in africa : the consequence of long - term evolution or the artifact of recent hunting ? in : primate communities , j . g . fleagle , c . janson and k . e . reed ( eds . ) , pp . 289–294 . cambridge university press , cambridge , uk .
struhsaker , t . t . and j . f . oates . 1995 . the biodiversity crisis in southwestern ghana . african primates 1 : 5–6 .
wolfheim , j . h . 1983 . primates of the world . university of washington press , seattle .
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( fleagle , 1988 ) . this species also is capable of leaping where it uses this in communication and to avoid predators ( estes , 1991 ) .
the performer of this stands and resembles a sexual mount and is done by all except small infants ( estes , 1991 ) . this often occurs before
this is when one individual grooms another and is used to reinforce the bonds between individuals . in this species it occurs more frequently in the presence of another troop ( estes , 1991 ) . parasites and dead skin is removed with lips and / or tongue ( estes , 1991 ) .
this behavior is performed by the female to elicit copulation from the male ; this pattern tells the male that she is ready for copulation ( estes , 1991 ) .
. eds . b . b . smuts , d . l . cheney , r . m . seyfarth , r . w . wrangham , and t . t . struhsaker . university of chicago press .
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impact of livelihood improvement on the conservation of large mammals in the bakossi landscape , sout . . .
rehabilitation and reintroduction of wild born orphan chimpanzee ( pan troglodytes ) within the pongo . . .
korup national park ( knp ) , located in southwest cameroon , covers 126 , 900 ha of forest , most of which is evergreen forest . the forest has never been logged . the park was created in 1986 and includes the former korup forest reserve , established under british mandate in the 1930s . it is now under the administration of the department of wildlife and protected areas in the ministry of environment and forests ( minef ) . korup became part of the team network in 2011 .
the korup national park has a number of camps , two of which harbour scientists . the camps are in the phase of rebuilding , as all buildings were destroyed by villagers in 2008 in a conflict over poaching . the team project operates from the chimpanzee camp . the current facilities are very basic , with partial housing in tents . there is no electricity and all materials have to be carried to the camps by porters .
korup was part of a pleistocene refugium . the forests are very ancient , rich in endemics , and highly diverse . the forest canopy is generally 15 - 25 m tall , with emergents up to 50 m tall . a typical large tree , second - most common in terms of basal area , is lecomtedoxa klaineana with huge boles and impressive buttresses . one unusual characteristic is the abundance of small , unbranched trees with large leaves placed in terminal rosettes that trap litter .
access to korup is from the isolated village of mundemba , which is located 5 hours driving from buea , and about 6 hours from douala international airport . the road to mundemba is in poor shape , and access can be very problematic in the wet season , especially in july - november . access to korup national park is via 10 km of dirt roads through extensive oil - palm plantations , and passage of a large suspension foot bridge across the mana river . it takes 10 km of hiking to get to chimpanzee camp from the mana bridge .
korup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2017 to 06 . 30 . 2017 )
korup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2017 to 03 . 31 . 2017 )
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korup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2016 to 09 . 30 . 2016 )
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korup national park ( 07 . 01 . 2015 to 09 . 30 . 2015 )
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korup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2015 to 03 . 31 . 2015 )
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korup national park ( 01 . 01 . 2014 to 03 . 31 . 2014 )
korup national park ( 10 . 01 . 2013 to 12 . 31 . 2013 )
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korup national park ( 04 . 01 . 2013 to 06 . 30 . 2013 )
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mt . kilimanjaro guereza dodinga hills guereza djaffa mountains guereza omo river guereza mt . kenya guereza mau forest guereza western guereza mt . uaraguess guereza
the cross - sanaga - bioko coastal forests ecoregion comprises the lowland and coastal forests of southeastern nigeria , southwestern cameroon , and the lowlands of the island of bioko . the flora includes high numbers of endemic genera , indicating a long history of forest cover . these forests contain some of the highest rates of animal species richness of any african forest , especially in terms of forest - restricted mammals , birds and butterflies . many of these animals are endemic to this ecoregion or to the continguous atlantic coastal forests ecoregion , but others are found more widely across the congo basin . the ecoregion is heavily impacted by human use , including logging and plantation agriculture .
description location and general description geographically this ecoregion extends from the left bank of the cross river in southeastern nigeria , follows the coast as far south as the sanaga river in cameroon , and extends inland up to 300 km . it also includes the lowland forests of the island of bioko . the forests above 800 m on mount cameroon and bioko , and above 900 m on other inland cameroon mountains are placed in the mount cameroon and bioko montane forests [ 9 ] and the cameroon highlands forests [ 10 ] ecoregions , respectively .
the area is one of low topographic relief at the eastern and western margins , but of increasingly rugged topography in the foothills of the nigerian - cameroonian mountains . mangroves occur in two large and distinct patches on the coasts at the two extremities of the ecoregion , and are included in the central african mangroves ecoregion [ 116 ] .
this entire ecoregion falls within the humid tropics . in the southwestern foothills of mt . cameroon and on southwest bioko , rainfall can exceed 10 , 000 mm per annum with little seasonal variation . away from the montane influence however , rainfall averages 3 , 000 mm per annum along the coast falling to around 2 , 000 mm inland and there can be a short but sometimes severe dry season of two to three months . humidity is always high , rarely dropping below 90 percent . temperatures range from a maximum of 27 to 33 oc , to a minimum of 15 to 21o c , with very minor seasonal differences . as in the atlantic equatorial coastal ecoregion , diurnal temperature ranges often exceed annual variations .
a number of river systems drain from this ecoregion into the atlantic ocean . notable among these are the cross river , the northern boundary of the ecoregion , and the sanaga river , its southern boundary . other important rivers include the meme , wouri , kwa , ndian and nyong rivers .
according to the phytogeographic vegetation classification by white ( 1983 ) , this lowland forest ecoregion falls within the lower guinea block of the guineo - congolian regional center of endemism . the principal vegetation is hygrophilous coastal evergreen rain forest , with mixed moist semi - evergreen rain forest further inland in the drier regions ( white 1983 ) . forest trees reach up to 50 m in height , and there are several distinct vegetation layers . the flora here shares affinities with other forest types in the lower and upper guinea blocks of the guineo - congolian lowland forest ( white 1979 ) . the most important families ( in terms of number of species ) are annonaceae , leguminosae , euphorbiaceae , rubiaceae and sterculiaceae . in general the forests are mixed , but tend to be dominated by caesalpinoid legumes .
biodiversity features there is exceptional species richness in the rain forests of this ecoregion . combined with the atlantic equatorial coastal forests to the south , these two ecoregions support about 50 percent of the 7 , 000 to 8 , 000 plants endemic to tropical west africa ( cheek et al . 1994 ) , mainly in the coastal portion of cameroon . this ecoregion is a center of diversity for the genera cola ( sterculiaceae ) , diospyros ( ebenaceae ) , dorstenia ( moraceae ) , and garcinia ( guttiferae ) . there are also many endemic trees in these lowland forests , including : camplyospermum dusenii , deinbollia angustifolia , d . saligna , hymenostegia bakeri , medusandra richardsiana , and soyauxia talbotii . among large trees , the endemic microberlinia bisulcata is regarded as critically endangered . these biological features , especially the presence of endemic families and genera ( cheek et al . 1994 ) indicates a long evolutionary past .
the forests of the cameroon - nigerian border are also known for harboring the highest forest butterfly species richness in africa ( larsen in prep ) , a finding that may be reflected in other invertebrate groups as well . this area also has very high vertebrate species richness , and contains the highest figures for forest restricted birds and mammals in africa ( burgess et al . 2000 ) .
no bird species are endemic in this lowland ecoregion , but eighteen bird species are shared only with adjacent ecoregions . six of these were used to define an endemic bird area in the coastal portion of the congo basin forests ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) .
the biodiversity and management issues on bioko are summarized in fa ( 1991 ) . information on the lowland forests of cameroon is summarized by gartlan ( 1989 ) and iucn ( 1989 ) , and the area at the base of mount cameroon is summarized by cheek et al . ( 1994 ) . there is also a great deal of information on the biological values of korup and cross river national parks ( e . g . wwf and iucn 1994 , urltoken ) .
current status despite much deforestation , there are still extensive areas of rain forest remaining in this ecoregion , particularly in the border region between cameroon and nigeria . sayer et al . ( 1992 ) present a map of the remaining forest cover from the late 1980s . at that time the main habitat blocks were between oban and obubra in southeastern nigeria , and northeast along the border between cameroon and nigeria . an update of this work ( wwf 2003 ) confirms that the same areas still have the largest remaining patches of forest .
there are also a number of forest blocks around korup national park , which is itself one of the largest protected areas in this ecoregion at 1 , 259 km2 . the cross river national park in nigeria ( 4 , 000 km2 ) is made up of the oban and okwango divisions , with the afi river forest reserve nearby . part of the gashaka gumti national park in nigeria also contains lowland forest ( estimated at 200 km2 ) . additionally , there are a number of important forest reserves in the ecoregion . the most significant is the takamanda forest reserve in cameroon , which is contiguous with the okwangwo division of the cross river national park ( wwf and iucn 1994 ) .
a number of spectacular primate species in this ecoregion could make suitable flagships for conservation investment , most notably the isolated population of lowland gorilla ( oates 1996a , b , oates 1998 , oates 1999a , sarmiento and oates 2000 ) and the drill .
types and severity of threats over the past 100 - 200 years , commercial logging and plantation agriculture have been the main causes of deforestation on the mainland , followed by subsistence agriculture , which often occurs after the logging has opened up an area . lowland forest habitats on bioko have also been lost through conversion to plantations , and farming activities – except in the southern sector where they are inaccessible due to rugged topography . despite these losses there is still much more forest remaining than in the adjacent cross - niger transition forest ecoregion [ 6 ] , and other forest ecoregions further west . while the original forest is now highly fragmented in many areas , some large habitat blocks remain , and in the border region between nigeria and cameroon these blocks are still well connected .
a major threat to the fauna of the area is the overhunting of larger mammal species for bushmeat ( bowen - jones and pendry 1999 ) . in some areas , this trade is fully commercialized , and supplies protein to major towns . in other areas , certain species such as lowland gorillas are hunted for their religious , magical , and supposed medicinal properties . the wildlife trade is also a cause of species depletion of reptiles . another threat is the pressure to establish rubber , wood pulp , oil and palm plantations in the forest zone of nigeria .
references aeccg 1991 . the african elephant conservation review . african elephant conservation coordinating group , unep , iucn , wwf , oxford , uk .
blom , a . , a . kamdem toham , j . d ' amico , d . o ' hara , r . abell , and d . olson in prep . assessment of biological priorirties for conservation in the guinean - congolian forest region . washington , dc : world wildlife fund
burgess , n . d . , h . de klerk , j . fjeldså , t . crowe , and c . rahbek . 2000 . a preliminary assessment of congruence between biodiversity patterns in afrotropical forest birds and forest mammals . ostrich 71 : 286–290 .
fa , j . e . 1991 . conservación de los ecosistemas forestales de guinea ecuatorial . iucn , gland and cambridge .
happold , d . c . d . 1994 . mammals of the guinea - congo rain forest . pp . 243 - 284 . in . alexander , i . j . , swaine , m . d . , and watling , r . ( eds . ) . essays on the ecology of the guinea - congo rain forest . proceedings of the royal society of edinburgh series b 104 .
iucn 1986 . review of the protected areas system in the afrotropical realm . iucn , gland and cambridge .
iucn 1989 . la conservation des ecosystems forestiers d ' afrique centrale . iucn , gland and cambridge .
larsen , t . b . in prep . the butterflies of west africa .
oates , j . 1995 . the dangers of conservation by rural development - a case - study from the forests of nigeria . oryx 29 : 115 - 122 .
oates , j . f . 1996a . habitat alteration , hunting and the conservation of folivorous primates in african forests . african journal of ecology 21 : 1 - 9 .
oates , j . f . 1996b . african primates : status survey and conservation action plan : revised edition : iucn / ssc primate specialist group .
oates , j . 1998 . the gorilla population in the nigeria - cameroon border region . gorilla conservation news ( 12 ) :
oates , j . 1999a . update on nigeria , 1998 . gorilla conservation news ( 13 ) :
oates , j . 1999b . myth and reality in the rainforest . university of california press , berkeley .
sarmiento , e . e . , and j . f . oates . 2000 . the cross river gorillas : a distinct subspecies , gorilla gorilla diehli matchie 1904 . american museum novitates 3304 : 55
stattersfield , a . j . , m . j . crosby , a . j . long , and d . c . wege . 1998 . endemic bird areas of the world : priorities for biodiveristy conservation . birdlife conservation series no . 7 . , birdlife international , cambridge , uk .
white , f . 1979 . the guineo - congolian region and its relationships to other phytochoria . bull . jard . bot . nat . belg . / bull . nat . plantentuin belg . 49 : 11 - 55 .
white , f . 1983 . the vegetation of africa , a descriptive memoir to accompany the unesco / aetfat / unso vegetation map of africa ( 3 plates , northwestern africa , northeastern africa , and southern africa , 1 : 5 , 000 , 000 ) . unesco , paris .
wwf and iucn . 1994 . centers of plant diversity , a guide and strategy for their conservation . wwf and iucn , oxford , uk .
world wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037
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