hippocampus kuda , also known as the estuary seahorse , yellow seahorse or spotted seahorse is a seahorse of the family syngnathidae native to the indo-pacific .

hippocampus kuda

reproductive biology ; larval rearing ; hippocampus kuda ; taxonomy ; seahorses ; hippocampus spp . ; southern coast ; india
hippocampus fuscus , h . kelloggi , h . kuda , h . histrix , h . mohnikei
reproductive biology and larval rearing of hippocampus kuda , and the taxonomy of seahorses ( hippocampus spp . ) along the southern coast of india ( th 124 )
reproductive biology and larval rearing of hippocampus kuda , and the taxonomy of seahorses ( hippocampus spp . ) along the southern coast of india ( th 124 ) .
any number of species of seahorses can be suitable for the right aquarium . left to right : hippocampus erectus , hippocampus barbouri , hippocampus reidi
reproductive biology and larval rearing of hippocampus kuda , and the taxonomy of seahorses ( hippocampus spp . ) along the southern coast of india ( th 124 ) - cmfri repository
two species of seahorse , barbour ' s seahorse ( hippocampus barbouri ) and spotted seahorse ( hippocampus kuda ) in a 1m2 aquarium at the maritime museum and aquarium , göteborg sweden .
hippocampus kuda and h . trimacutus are the main cultured species dwelling in south china sea . the major external differences are the following :
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job , sd , do , hh , meeuwig , jj & hj hall . 2002 . culturing the oceanic seahorse , hippocampus kuda . aquaculture . 214 : 333 - 341 .
table 1 . 3 . the relationship between diets and growth of h . trimacutus and h . kuda .
lu , jy , wu , jy & dw yang . 2001 . growth rate of hippocampus kuda bleeker under intensive culture . j . fish . china . 26 : 61 - 66 .
figure 1 . 1 . four species of sea - horses found in chinese waters : a ) hippocampus kuda , b ) h . japonicus , c ) h . trimacutus , and d ) h . histrix .
( of hippocampus kuda multiannularis raj , 1941 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
lin , q , lu , jy & yl gao . 2006 . the effect of temperature on gonad , embryonic development and survival rate of juvenile seahorses , hippocampus kuda bleeker . aquaculture . 254 : 701 - 713 .
the 1996 and 2000 iucn red lists included hippocampus horai , h . novaehebudorum , h . raji , and h . taeniops . these are now all considered to be synonyms of h . kuda . according to vincent ( 1996 ) and lourie et al . ( 1999 ) , there may be as many as ten distinct species that are included under the name hippocampus kuda . further research into the literature on this species is needed to determine whether h . kuda is the correct name for populations occurring within the persian gulf ( t . munroe pers . comm . 2014 ) .
partial fin - clipping as an effective tool for tissue sampling in seahorses , hippocampus spp .
caution : frequently sold in stores from questionable sources and too young . often misidentified as h . kuda , if they are different species .
comparing interview and trade data in assessing changes in the seahorse hippocampus spp . trade following cites listing
zebra snout seahorse hippocampus barbouri , a beautiful seahorse but one that frequently does poor in captivity .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . hippocampus kuda in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 03 : 45 : 27 + 1000 .
panithanarak , t . , karuwancharoen , r . , na - nakorn , u . , & nguyen , t . 2010 . population genetics of spotted seahorses ( hippocampus kuda ) in thai waters . zoological studies 29 ( 4 ) : 564 - 576 .
job , s . d . , do , h . h . , meeuwig , j . j . and hall , h . j . 2002 . culturing the oceanic seahorse , hippocampus kuda . aquaculture 214 ( 1 - 4 ) : 333 - 341 .
froese r , pauly d . fish base - hippocampus fuscus . 2014 . world wide web electronic publication .
their is some debate whether this is distinct from h . kuda above , but much evidence , including size and behavior of young , suggests they are different .
lin , q , gao , yl , sheng , jq , chen , qx , zhang , b & jy lu . 2007 . the effect of food and the sum of effective temperature on the embryonic development of the seahorse , hippocampus kuda bleeker . aquaculture . 262 : 481 - 492 .
in short , you should consider treating your male kuda with a series of diamox baths . don \ ' t treat the whole aquarium or any of the seahorses that have no symptoms .
marichamy , r . , lipton , a . p . , ganapathy , a . and ramalingam , j . r . 1993 . large scale exploitation of seahorse ( hippocampus kuda ) along the palk bay coast of tamil nadu . marine fisheries information service . january / february ( 119 ) : 17 - 20 .
tiger tail seahorse , hippocampus comes , showing the distinctive tail coloration that earned this species it’s name . photo courtesy of debby ng
hippocampus kuda occurs from the persian gulf ( kuronuma and abe 1986 ) to southeast asia , australia , japan , and some of the pacific islands , including hawaii ( lourie et al . 1999 ) . the species has also been documented along the eastern coast of africa from tanzania to south africa ( teske et al . 2005 ) .
scarratt , am . 1995 . techniques for raising lined seahorses ( hippocampus erectus ) . aquar . front . 3 : 24 - 29 .
hippocampus subelongatus is frequently available in australia . unfortunately these are usually wild caught and do not fair well in captivity . photo by claire ross
( of hippocamphus kuda bleeker , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
fish , mp . 1953 . the production of underwater sound by the northern seahorse , hippocampus hudsonius . copeia . 1953 : 98 - 99 .
foster , sj , marsden , ad & acj vincent . 2003 . hippocampus erectus . iucn 2004 . 2004 iucn red list of threatened species .
the common seahorse is a wide - ranging indo - pacific seahorse that inhabits waters from indonesia to the philippines , pakistan , and india to southern japan , hawaii , and the society islands . variations of this species reside in other areas outside of the indo - pacific region . approximately 23 countries have confirmed the native presence of hippocampus kuda ranging from australia to china .
matlock , gc . 1992 . life history aspects of seahorses , hippocampus , in texas . texas j . sci . 44 : 213 - 222 .
caution : often found as tank raised individuals from questionable sources with the species in question due to their similarity to h . taeniopterus . h . kuda is also often the generic name for seahorses when the identification is unknown .
close - up of hippocampus erectus among blades of the green alga , caulerpa prolifera . photo l . holly sweat , smithsonian marine station at fort pierce .
all 33 species of hippocampus are listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites 2004 ) .
vincent , acj & lm sadler . 1995 . faithful pair bonds in wild seahorses , hippocampus whitei . anim . behav . 50 : 1557 - 1569 .
woods , cmc . 2003a . growth and survival of juvenile seahorse hippocampus abdominalis reared on live , frozen and artificial foods . aquaculture . 220 : 287 - 298 .
strawn , k . 1958 . life history of the pigmy seahorse , hippocampus zostrae jordan and gilbert , at cedar key , florida . copeia 1 : 16 - 22 .
bergert , ba & pc wainwright . 1997 . morphology and kinematics of prey capture in the syngnathid fishes hippocampus erectus and syngnathus floridae . mar . biol . 127 : 563 - 570 .
blasiola , gcj . 1979 . glugea heraldi n . sp . ( microsporida , glugeidae ) from the seahorse hippocampus erectus perry . j . fish diseases . 2 : 493 - 500 .
thangaraj m , lipton ap . morphological characterization of four selected sea horse species ( genus : hippocampus ) from india . ann biol res . 2011 ; 2 ( 4 ) : 159–67 .
lin , q , lin , j & d zhang . 2008 . breeding and juvenile culture of the lined seahorse , hippocampus erectus perry , 1810 . aquaculture . 277 : 287 - 292 .
vincent , a . c . j . and sadler , l . m . 1995 . faithful pair bonds in wild seahorses , hippocampus whitei . . animal behaviour 50 : 1557 - 1569 .
perante , nc , pajaro , mg , meeuwig , jj & acj vincent . 2002 . biology of hippocampus comes in the central philippines . j . fish biol . 60 : 821 - 837 .
vincent , acj & rs clifton - hadley . 1989 . parasitic infection of the seahorse ( hippocampus erectus ) - a case report . j . wildlife . diseases . 25 : 404 - 406 .
vincent , acj , evans , kl & ad marsden . 2003 . home range behavior of the monogamous australian seahorse , hippocampus whitei . env . biol . fishes . 72 : 1 - 12 .
linton , jr & bl soloff . 1964 . the physiology of the brood pouch of the male sea horse hippocampus erectus . bull . mar . sci . gulf carib . 14 : 45 - 61 .
lockyear , j , kaiser , h , & t hecht . 1997 . studies on the captive breeding of the knysna seahorse , hippocampus capensis . aquat . sci . conserv . 1 : 129 - 136 .
( of hippocampus chinensis basilewsky , 1855 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus horai duncker , 1926 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus melanospilos bleeker , 1854 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus moluccensis bleeker , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus novaehebudorum fowler , 1944 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus polytaenia bleeker , 1854 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus raji whitley , 1955 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus rhynchomacer duméril , 1870 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus taeniops fowler , 1904 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus taeniopterus bleeker , 1852 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus tristis castelnau , 1872 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
baum , jk , meeuwig , jj & acj vincent . 2003 . bycatch of lined seahorses ( hippocampus erectus ) in a gulf of mexico shrimp trawl fishery . fish . bull . 101 : 721 - 731 .
colson , dj , patek , sn , brainerd , el & sm lewis . 1998 . sound production during feeding in hippocampus seahorses ( syngnathidae ) . env . biol . fish . 51 : 221 - 229 .
correa , m , chung , ks & r manrique . 1989 . cultivo experimental del caballito de mar , hippocampus erectus . bol . inst . ocean . venezuela univ . oriente . 28 : 191 - 196 .
the study describes the range extension of the sea horse hippocampus fuscus from the south to north east coastal waters of the india , bay of bengal . after 99 years since initial discovery , the hippocampus fuscus was reported within the southern sector of the chilika lake . the extension range may be due to the east india coastal current of the bay of bengal and the predominance of extensive sea grass meadows within the southern sector of lake .
( of hippocampus aterrimus jordan & snyder , 1902 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hippocampus hilonis jordan & evermann , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
vari , rp . 1982 . fishes of the western north atlantic , subfamily hippocampus campinae . the seahorses . 173 - 189 . sears foundation for marine research memoir 1 . yale univ . new haven , ct . usa .
the minimum tank size should be 60 litres , this will safely house 2 adult ( 12cm ) kuda seahorses . seahorses need objects in the tank that they can attach themselves to with their prehensile tails , artificial plants , smooth rocks and artificial branching coral are ideal ; avoid live corals and sharp rocks as these can injure the seahorses .
teixeira , rl & ja musik . 2000 . reproduction and food habits of the lined seahorse , hippocampus erectus ( teleostei : syngnathidae ) of chesapeake bay , virginia . rev . bras . biol . 61 : 79 - 90 .
salin , k . r . , yohannan , t . m . and mohanakumaran . 2005 . fisheries and trade of seahorses , hippocampus spp . , in southern india . fisheries management & ecology 12 ( 4 ) : 269 .
vincent , a . c . j . , evans , k . l . and marsden , a . d . 2005 . home ranges of the monogamous australian seahorse , hippocampus whitei . environmental biology of fishes 72 : 1 - 12 .
kvarnemo , c , moore , gl , jones , ag , nelson , ws & jc avise . 2000 . monogamous pair bonds and mate switching in the western australian seahorse hippocampus subelongatus . j . evol . biol . 13 : 882 - 888 .
martinez , a , gardner , t & d littlehale . 2005 . lined seahorse , hippocampus erectus . in : koldewey , h , ed . syngnathid husbandry in public aquariums . project seahorse and zoological society of london . vancouver , bc . canada .
wong , jm & jah benzie . 2003 . the effects of temperature , artemia enrichment , stocking density and light on the growth of juvenile seahorses , hippocampus whitei ( bleeker , 1855 ) , from australia . aquaculture . 228 : 107 - 121 .
sea - horses are eurythermal , however changes in the seawater temperature have a direct influence on growth and survival . the optimum water temperature varies among species . for example , the temperature limits of h . japonicus are between 5–36 °c , 9–34 °c for h . kuda , and between 10–30 °c for h . trimacutus . in general , however , the optimum temperature for most species is around 28 °c .
fortunately , gas bubble disease in general responds very well to treatment with carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as acetazolamide . subcutaneous emphysema is the easiest form of gbd to cure and the tail bubbles usually respond very well to treatment with diamox ( the tablet form of acetazolmide ) . i would recommend treating your male kuda in isolation with a three - day series of diamox baths as soon as possible , as discussed below .
perante , n . c . , pajaro , m . g . , meeuwig , j . j . and vincent , a . c . j . 2002 . biology of a seahorse species hippocampus comes in the central philippines . journal of fish biology 60 : 821 - 837 .
sheng , jq , lin , q , chen , qx , gao , yl , shen , l & jy lu . 2006 . effects of food , temperature and light intensity on the feeding behavior of three - spot juveniles , hippocampus trimaculatus leach . aquaculture . 256 : 596 - 607 .
evanson , m . , foster , s . j . & vincent , a . c . j . 2011 . tracking the international trade of seahorses ( hippocampus species ) - the importance of cites . fisheries centre research reports 19 ( 2 ) . fisheries centre , university of british columbia , canada .
seahorses have a protruding snout and a body encased in bony rings . the tail is curled and prehensile . the common seahorse ( hippocampus kuda ) reaches a length of 30 cm although it appears shorter because the tail is coiled . it is variable in colour and has small knobs on the corners of the bony plates . common seahorses usually inhabit sheltered habitats such as bays and estuaries , but may occasionally be found on outer reefs down to depths of 30 m . seagrasses or seaweed provide a favourite habitat . seahorses live in pairs , and when breeding the female deposits her eggs in the male ' s brood pouch . they hatch there , and the male then takes care of them until they are ready to live independently . seahorses feed on small invertebrates , such as shrimps , which they suck into their tubular mouth .
hippocampus brunneus bean , 1906 h . fascicularis kaup , 1856 h . hudsonius dekay , 1842 h . kincaidi townsend & barbour , 1906 h . laevicaudatus kaup , 1856 h . marginalis kaup , 1856 h . punctulatus guichenot , 1853 h . stylifer jordan & gilbert , 1882 h . tetragonous mitchill , 1814 h . villosus günther , 1880
other forms of gbs are also believed to be depth related , but the aquarium must be greater than 30 inches deep to provide any significant protection against them , which is not feasible for most hobbyists ( giwojna , jan . 2004 ) . a depth of at least 3 feet is known to protect the hawaiian seahorse ( hippocampus fisheri ) against gbd ( karen brittain , pers . com . ) .
hippocampus reidi are next on the list in both popularity and ease . they are highly sought after due to bright yellow , oranges , and reds but can be found in blacks , whites , and greys . they are a large seahorses . the do tend to be a bit more standoffish than h . erectus , and not quite as overly “flirty” , more likely to stay pair bonded in the aquarium .
can anyone help me ? i \ ' ve had a male kuda who was doing very well . in fact , he had two batches of fry , last one in october . after the last batch , however , he began to develop air bubbles in his pouch , and i had to get them out about once every two or three days . my numbers at the time were . 023 , and 0 for all others except ph , which was 8 . 2 . temp . has been 74 . on nov . 20 , my cleaner shrimp and brittle starfish suddenly died ( the starfish lost all its legs the day before and then died . ) i immediately checked and found my nitrite had spiked to . 25 , as had ammonia and nitrate . i did an immediate 30 % water change and got them to within 0 again over the next three days . on dec . 6 , the male had 3 bumps on his tail and has not been eating well . in fact , for the last three days , i have not seen him eat at all . yesterday , i suddenly lost an 8 month old kuda who had been doing well . any ideas before i lose my other two ? : (
hello thank you for your insightful page . i have been considering trying to raise seahorses for some time now . can you please suggest a breeder that would have the hippocampus errectus . i think id like to give this breed a try for my first attempt of raising seahorses . also could you please tell me where the best place to purchase a tank and all the needed items . perhaps a place educated in seahorses , where i can talk to a real person ? i greatly appreciate your help .
another factor the hobbyist can control is water temperature . heat stress must be avoided at all costs so it is vitally important to keep seahorses in their comfort range at all times . if you \ ' ve had an episode of gbs in your tank , consider reducing the temperature . hippocampus erectus will fry that temperatures between 70 - 74°f ( of course they can tolerate considerably warmer temperatures than those , but it is healthier to maintain seahorses nearer the lower end of their comfort range for a number of reasons ) .
urltoken - ( english ) henry c . schultz . 2003 . there ' s more to pipes than just pvc : the genus doryrhamphus and other pipefish - reefkeeping magazine - ( english ) scott w . michael . 2001 . reef fishes volume 1 - tfh publications / microcosm ltd . - ( english ) beth panocha . 2004 . aquarium fish : seahorse care : a basic guide to starting your first herd - advanced aquarist - ( english ) pete giwojna . 2007 . a seahorse reef part 1 : reef compatibility of hippocampus spp . - tropical fish hobbyist - ( english ) pete giwojna . 2007 . a seahorse reef , part two : choosing your seahorses - tropical fish hobbyist - ( english )
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
bleeker , p . 1852 . bijdrage tat de kennis der ichthyologische fauna van singapore . natuurkd . tijdschr . neder . - indië 3 : 51 - 86 .
is listed as vulnerable ( vu a2cd + 3cd + 4cd ) based on suspected declines of at least 30 % , first reported in 1998 - 99 caused by targeted catch , incidental capture , and habitat degradation . while there is little information on changes in numbers of the species , there is indirect evidence to suggest that declines have taken place and are continuing . this listing is consistent with the precautionary approach of the iucn red list .
. 2010 ) . the demand for this species is high due to its large size , smooth texture , and pale complexion when dried , all desirable qualities for traditional medicine purposes ( vincent 1996 ) . this species is also incidentally caught as bycatch in other fisheries and affected by habitat degradation ( giles
likely to continue into the future we therefore suggest a precautionary listing of vulnerable ( vu a2cd + 3cd + 4cd ) .
2011 ) from coastal development and destructive fishing practices . land - based activities such as coastal construction can diminish seagrass beds and mangroves while leading to increased pollution and siltation in surrounding marine waters . some fishing methods such as trawling result in substantial damage seagrass beds ( short
) . the decline in and fragmentation of the species’ habitats throughout its range raise the possibility of declines in populations in addition to those caused by fisheries .
american samoa ; australia ( northern territory , queensland ) ; bahrain ; cambodia ; fiji ; french polynesia ; hong kong ; india ; indonesia ; japan ; kuwait ; malaysia ; micronesia , federated states of ; mozambique ; new caledonia ; pakistan ; papua new guinea ; philippines ; saudi arabia ; singapore ; solomon islands ; south africa ( kwazulu - natal ) ; taiwan , province of china ; tanzania , united republic of ; thailand ; tonga ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; viet nam
remain unknown , project seahorse trade surveys conducted between 1995 and 2000 give us reason to suspect that seahorse numbers in the wild appear to have declined throughout its range . for example , in 1998 and 1999 in thailand 81 % of surveyed fishers ( n = 30 of 37 ) and 71 % of fishers in malaysia ( n = 37 of 52 ) reported that in general , seahorse numbers including
. 2010 ) . in hong kong traders reported that local seahorses , while common 30 years ago , were rarely found in 2000 , with the decrease in availability attributed to habitat destruction and pollution ( b . kwan , unpublished data ) . these examples demonstrate that declines have been ongoing for well over 10 years . while measures are in place to regulate reported international trade , it has not declined and sub - national and illegal trade are expected to continue into the future .
is the most widespread and commonly encountered seahorse in papua new guinea and indonesia ( baine 2008 , lourie 2001 ) .
diet consists of zooplankton ( paulus 1999 ) . the recorded maximum total length is 30 cm ( stretched ) ( paulus 1999 ) .
2010 ) . this may be due to its large size , smooth texture , and pale complexion when dried ( vincent 1996 ) , all desirable qualities for traditional medicine purposes . trade in
2011 , unep - wcmc 2012a ) . international trade 2004 - 2010 consisted primarily of live animals and dried bodies , with smaller quantities of specimens and derivatives also reported ( unep - wcmc 2012a ) . trade was principally wild - sourced ( evanson
was among the seven species accounting for more than 99 per cent of international trade in live captive - bred specimens . many range states report that illegal trading and incidental capture in shrimp trawl fisheries remain problematic ( unep - wcmc 2012b ) .
the australian populations of this species were moved under the australian wildlife protection act in 1998 , so export permits are now required . the permits are only granted for approved management plans or captive - bred animals . such management was transferred under the new environment protection and biodiversity conservation act in 2001 . many states also placed their own controls on the capture and / or trade of syngnathid fishes .
all seahorses are listed on schedule i of india’s wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 , banning their capture and trade . in 2011 cambodia and china banned wild seahorse exports . in singapore ,
is recognized as being threatened by habitat destruction and harvesting for medicinal use and the aquarium trade and harvest is not allowed except by permit .
in general , incidental capture in shrimp trawl fisheries and habitat degradation and exploitation are the main threats to this species .
. 2010 ) . in china , cambodia and the republic of korea seahorses are caught as bycatch although no information exists on volumes ( unep - wcmc 2012b ) .
2011 ) from coastal development and destructive fishing practices . land - based activities such as coastal construction can diminish seagrass beds and mangroves while leading to increased pollution and siltation in surrounding marine waters . for example , in malaysia
. 2011 ) . the decline in and fragmentation of the species’ habitats throughout its range indicates possible declines in populations in addition to those caused by fisheries .
. 1998 , foster and vincent 2004 ) . although seahorses also have some traits , such as small body size , fast growth and high fecundity , that may confer resilience to exploitation pressures ( morgan 2007 ) ,
2008 ) . as a result of the lack of broadcast spawning of pelagic eggs , dispersal of potential recruits is limited . additionally , given the limited swimming abilities of seahorses , it is highly unlikely that rescue effects would occur from adjacent populations .
species are listed under appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ( cites ) . this means that countries who are signatories to cites are subject to regulations on the export of seahorses . countries are required to provide permits for all exports of seahorses and are meant to provide evidence that these exports are not detrimental to wild populations . however a lack of basic information on distribution , habitat and abundance means many cites authorities cannot assess sustainability of their seahorse exploitation and meet their obligations to the convention . the challenge is particularly large in that most seahorses entering trade are caught incidentally as bycatch and thus imposing export quotas would achieve next to nothing for wild populations . since this listing , an average annual trade of over two million individuals of
2011 , unep - wcmc 2012a ) . the general lack of capacity in funding and manpower devoted to realizing enforcement that has been demonstrated by cites authorities has further exacerbated trade issues .
cites has recommended a minimum size limit of 10 cm height for all seahorse specimens in trade ( cites decision 12 . 54 ) . this limit represents a compromise between the best biological information available at the time of listing and perceived socioeconomic feasibility . but there is an urgent need for information on wild populations to assess their conservation status in order to take effective action and refine management recommendations . for example , evidence on variation in the spatial and temporal abundance of seahorses would enable areas of high seahorse density to be identified , as the basis for considering area restrictions on non - selective fishing gear that obtains
species as bycatch . an understanding of the technical and logistical feasibility of returning to the sea live seahorses taken as bycatch in various types of fishing gear would provide the basis for considering the feasibility of minimum size limits and / or other output controls . establishing a monitoring program of landings of seahorses at representative sites , taking into account different gear types and means of extraction and recording catch and effort metrics would allow assessment of conservation status and development management recommendations for various fishery types .
is listed as vulnerable in the national red data books of singapore and thailand , and endangered in the red data book of viet nam . in france it is illegal to import seahorses under the name
has been recorded in the jubail marine wildlife sanctuary in saudi arabia ( krupp and muller 1994 , krupp and almarri 1996 ) .
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like other seahorses , the common seahorse is an ambush predator , and lies in wait for small crustaceans to swim by ; it then sucks the prey into the tube - like mouth and swallows it whole , as it does not have any teeth ( 5 ) . seahorses do not have many natural predators , as they rely on their excellent camouflage for protection , and they are unpalatable due to their bony - plated bodies ( 5 ) .
the common seahorse is found throughout south east asia , australia , japan and some pacific islands ( including hawaii ) ( 1 ) . surveys on seahorse trade carried out by project seahorse in 2000 and 2001 have shown that the populations of this species have declined throughout the entire range , with fishers reporting massive decreases ( 1 ) .
this species typically inhabits shallow waters , in estuaries , reefs and on mud slopes where there is seagrass or marine algae . the common seahorse has also been found in open water and attached to drifting vegetation up to 20 kilometres off shore ( 2 ) .
the common seahorse is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . all seahorses are listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
the common seahorse is sold locally and internationally for use in traditional medicines , in the aquarium trade and as curios ( 1 ) . it is one of the most valuable seahorses in traditional chinese medicine and is very popular as an aquarium species . in 2001 , the global consumption of seahorses was estimated at 25 million seahorses ( over 70 metric tonnes ) ( 6 ) . furthermore , habitat degradation and pollution in some areas reduces the available habitat for the common seahorse , and it is also often accidentally caught as bycatch in the shrimp - trawling industry ( 1 ) .
the most pressing requirement to assist in the conservation of the common seahorse is the need for further research . in order to effectively conserve a species , its biology , ecology , range and abundance must be fully understood and the threats facing it must be known ( 7 ) . in november 2002 , all seahorses were listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ; this means that the massive trade in seahorses must be regulated to ensure that the survival of wild populations is not threatened ( 3 ) . however , indonesia , japan , norway and south korea have opted out of the listing for seahorses ( 6 ) . the conservation organisation project seahorse was set up in 1994 in response to the massive pressures facing all seahorses around the world ( 5 ) .
to learn more about a whitley award - winning conservation project for this species , click here .
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without a doubt , with its
horse - like head
and erect body , the seahorse is one of the most recognized fish in the world . the seahorse
stands up
instead of laying flat as all other fish do . it propels itself through the water ( very slowly ) by vibrating its dorsal fin and steers with its tail . perhaps the most interesting fact about this fish is that it is the male seahorse that gives birth . seahorses have many natural predators that it evades with its ability to change its colors to blend in with almost any background .
because spotted seahorses are popular ornamental aquarium fish , their captive distribution has become global .
in the wild , the baby seahorses either become pelagic and ascend into the plankton layer on the surface of the ocean or descend to the bottom and attach themselves to algae , corals or other stationary objects with their prehensile tails and start feeding on small crustaceans as they drift by in the current .
not being strong swimmers , seahorses greatly prefer to inhabit the calmer shallow waters in mangroves , coastal seagrass beds , estuaries , coastal bays and lagoons , harbors , and rivers with brackish water where there is seagrass or marine algae for them to hold onto . common seahorses which have , for one reason or another been unable to make it to the shallows near land , have been found up to 10 miles offshore floating in the plankton layer at the water ' s surface with their tails wrapped around debris or pieces of floating algae .
common seahorses range in color from black to orange and yellow . black individuals often have silvery stripes or other markings on the body , and sometimes unique yellow individuals can be dotted with red spots . a protective trait that this and many other seahorses have is the ability to change color to match its surroundings . it is not unusual for them to take on the coloration of a favorite object one has decided to adopt as a hiding place .
seahorses are generally solitary , except for their mates , which they like to remain in close proximity to . they are active during the day and generally avoid associations with non - pair individuals .
they may be kept with small , shy fish such as small gobies , pipefish , dragonets , and firefish . but aggressive , territorial , or fast - moving fish do not make good companions . seahorses can be harmed by anemones and corals with stinging tentacles or corals that are large enough to consume them , such as brain corals . while sea fans , acropora corals , and other branching corals may be safe for seahorses , they can be irritated or damaged by a seahorse that continually hitches to them . crabs and clams may pinch a seahorse causing a wound that could lead to secondary infections . small ornamental crustaceans may be consumed by the seahorses .
a 30 - gallon aquarium is sufficient for a single pair . add 10 gallons to the size of the aquarium for each additional pair . since swimming is not its strong suit , the common seahorse does much better in an aquarium with a very little current .
spray bars may be used to create gentle flow while eliminating stagnant areas in the aquarium . seahorses use their prehensile tails to hitch to branching live rock , algae , or artificial decorations .
it also seems to do much better in a taller aquarium where it can drift up and down and attach to and hold fast to objects . this diy seahorse aquarium was specifically designed to give seahorses the area for vertical motion which they seem to prefer .
seahorse hitch onto an object and wait for its food to drift by , which it sucks up and swallows whole since seahorses do not have teeth . captive - bred seahorses are accustomed to frozen mysis shrimp , making them a smart alternative to their wild - caught counterparts . they will also feed upon amphipods and other small crustaceans found in live rock . they will also accept vitamin - enriched adult brine shrimp , but this should not make up a majority of their diet . they are slow , deliberate feeders and prefer two or more small feedings per day .
seahorses should be fed live or ( if they will take it ) vitamin - enriched frozen or freeze - dried mysid shrimp . seahorses should be fed several times per day with food available for 20 to 30 minutes per feeding . wild - caught seahorses may be slow to accept frozen or freeze - dried mysid shrimp as food , to begin with , and may have to be fed live foods until they are weaned onto prepared foods . tank - raised seahorses are normally trained to accept frozen or freeze - dried mysid shrimp at an early age and will make the transition to your tank much more easily than wild - caught specimens .
as males are the pregnant partner in seahorse mating , males that have reached sexual maturity have a brooding pouch . this is where the male carries the fertilized eggs . breeding occurs year round , so , a rounder belly pouch can signify a male . around the breeding time , the male begins by changing its color patterns and does a dance around the female . it also produces clicking sounds with its coronet , a crown - shaped piece of skin or horn - like structure at the top of its head .
seahorses choose a mating partner for life . they maintain a monogamous relationship with one partner until that partner dies at which time the remaining seahorse may search out a new mate . this seahorse becomes fully mature at about 14 weeks and can reproduce at that time .
not only does the male seahorse gives birth to the brood , but the male is responsible for attracting the female . after an elaborate courtship period , a dance , and intertwining of tails , the wooed female uses an ovipositor to insert her eggs into the male ' s pouch . it is in this brooding pouch where the eggs are fertilized and attach to the wall of the pouch . placental fluid removes waste products and supplies the eggs with oxygen and nutrients as they mature into baby seahorses . at the end of 20 to 28 days of pregnancy the male goes into labor , typically at night when there is a full moon . the baby seahorses are then ejected from the male ' s pouch . the brooding pouch may contain anywhere from 20 to 1 , 000 fertilized eggs .
if the common seahorse appeals to you , and you are interested maintaining a saltwater aquarium , check out other saltwater fish that may be compatible with seahorses .
check out additional fish breed profiles for more information on other freshwater or saltwater fish .
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unep - wcmc ( comps . ) 2011 . checklist of cites species ( cd - rom ) . cites secretariat , geneva , switzerland , and unep - wcmc , cambridge , united kingdom . isbn 2 - 88323 - 030 - 7 . available online at urltoken or from cites secretariat , chemin des anémones , 1219 châtelaine , genève , switzerland
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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did you know ? that seahorses are generally monogamous ? the two partners of a pair will greet one another with courtship displays in the morning and sometimes in the evening to reinforce their pair bond .
unknown . imports reported for the year 2005 to the cites trade daata base total 27 ' 664 live and 5762 dead specimens .
527 specimens reported to isis ( 2007 ) . considering that most public aquaria are not part of the waza system and do not register their collections with isis , available isis data are not significant .
during transportation seahorses are enclosed in a restrictive container that does not allow for ideal water quality parameters and is subject to unpredictable movement orientation and noise levels . the following points , therefore , should be taken into consideration : transit time must be minimized wherever possible . only healthy individuals should be selected for transportation . packaging must be adequate . strong containers with good thermal retention qualities should be used ( i . e . polystyrene ) to allow for external temperature fluctuations . heat / coolpacks can be used should the transit conditions dictate . packs must not be placed directly next to the water . for air transport , container note 51 of the iata live animals regulations should be followed . fish must be unpacked carefully and under low illumination .
common seahorses are not an endangered species but their habitats , are threatened in many places . they are thus presented by zoos and aquariums as an ambassador species for the protection of coasts and estuaries , and they are of educational intrerest because of their mode of reproduction .
description inhabits sea grass and marine algae areas in estuaries to seaward reefs at depths to 30 m or more .
description inhabits sea grass and marine algae areas in estuaries to seaward reefs at depths to 30 m or more . [ details ]
the webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
hong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
when you think about the visual look of a seahorse the one that will typically come to mind is that of the common seahorse . this is because it is the one that is found in art , used in various cultures for exhibits , and also found on tattoos that go on the human body .
it can be hard to accurately describe what a common seahorse looks like based on the fact that there are so many sub species . they can be many different colors but they will always be able to blend into their natural surroundings . they are among the smallest of all the species of seahorses found in the world .
many people enjoy keeping them as pets in aquariums but that can be tough to do . they are very prone to bacteria and other types of disease that develop in the water . they are also going to experience high levels of stress in captivity . it is important to be fully trained before you pursue having one as a pet as it isn’t a simple process to keep them alive .
the coloration of the common seahorse often depends on the gender . in many locations the females feature yellow and they have dark spots all over the body . the males also have dark spots but they are larger and the base color is a shade of gray .
the males grow larger than the females with a size of about 1 inch . the females range in size from ½ inch to ¾ inch . when you take a close look at the coral net on top of the head you will notice it looks like a crown . the design of it and the size will be different for every single one of them . they can be identified by this design just like humans can be identified by their fingerprints .
this particular species of seahorse has a very smooth texture to the body . the verdict is still out but there is plenty speculation about why they don’t have the rough texture that the various other species around the world offer .
the common seahorse is very common along the coral reef areas . they will use their tails to lock onto it . this allows them to be able to remain in place in spite of the current around them . they aren’t good swimmers at all so they need to do what they can to rest their bodies .
the males become very aggressive towards each other when it is time to find a mate . other than that they are usually very timid . they have been known to be aggressive though when they suffer from high levels of stress . should there be a lack of food or the habitat gets too small it will cause high levels of stress to occur .
the common seahorse has been observed in many different types of settings . the consensus is that that are very intelligent creatures . they are able to remember patterns of behavior . they know where they will get food both in the wild and in captivity .
there are several well known locations where the common seahorse lives . they include all over australia as well as places in indonesia . they prefer the warm tropical water locations along the shoreline . they live in bodies of water that have seawater in them .
you may find them well hidden among the sea grass that is found in those locations . you may have to look very close for them because they do blend in amazingly well . the water will need to be at least 72 degrees fahrenheit . however , they also don’t do well if the water gets too hot . that is why they tend to stay in areas that do go about 77 degrees fahrenheit .
even though there are some fossils of the common seahorse that date back 3 million years there isn’t much at all known regarding the evolution process . it is believed that they used to be substantially larger than they are today . the ability to live on less food is part of why they got smaller . the theories continue to float around though but there is very little concrete about how they branched off from other seahorse species due to the evolution process .
the location where the common seahorse happens to live strongly influences what they will eat . the main items are very small guppies and small brine shrimp . they have a large snout that they consume the food with . they have no teeth and they will swallow their prey . they can’t consume anything that is larger than that snout .
what is very interesting is that no seahorse has a digestive system . that is why they spend so much time feeding . they also eat very slowly so it can take them many hours each day to feed . when they aren’t eating they will typically be resting .


polymixis lichenea , the feathered ranunculus , is a moth of the noctuidae family .

it is found in western europe and morocco .

it is mainly found in coastal areas .

polymixis lichenea

polymixis lichenea subsp . lichenea polymixis lichenea subsp . lichenea ( hübner , 1813 )
feathered ranunculus ( polymixis lichenea ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .
ssp . lichenea found in norfolk . tends to be paler in calcareous areas .
polymixis flavicincta - large ranunculus , found on my lavender just outside my front door .
enter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .
we are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .
the id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .
museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken
the distribution of this moth is mainly coastal , in the southern half of britain and north - west england and wales , but occasional records do turn up in inland localities .
it frequents a range of dry habitats , including waste ground , sandhills and shingle beaches , and flies from august to october .
ukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .
the ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .
looking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .
procache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 05 06 : 04 : 38 page render time : 0 . 2268s total w / procache : 0 . 2680s
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recorded in 27 ( 39 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1930 . last recorded in 2017 .
underlying maps using digital map data © norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola™ 2018 . © james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data © nola™ 2018
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habitat : mainly coastal but also recorded inland . dry waste ground , shingle beaches
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view thousands of photos and video of butterflies and moths from around the world , or upload your own . to search by species , use the species guide ( change
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biodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to… urltoken
biodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p… urltoken
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notes : local on sea cliffs , sand - dunes , shingle beaches and grassy slopes , on the coast of england and wales . in hampshire fairly common in the south and on the isle of wight , but very uncommon in the north . wingspan 39 - 43 mm . can only be confused with black - banded p . xanthomista or large ranunculus p . flavicincta , which see . larva feeds on hound ' s - tongue , sea plantain , thrift and biting stonecrop .
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for the county , we have a total of 2308 records from 88 sites . first recorded in 1883 .
: this mainly coastal species is now spreading again in yorkshire . it has been re - recorded from its scarborough haunts mentioned by porritt ( 1883 - 86 ) and other coastal areas as well as at several new inland localities . this is unusual for this species so far north .
vc63 . elland , 25 . 9 . 2000 det . heb ( pt ) . new vice - county record .
: this is predominantly a coastal moth in the uk and it is doing well in yorkshire particularly at flamborough and spurn . we also have two unusual inland sites where it is recorded regularly ; knaresborough where it has been known since the 1960s and in calderdale where it was discovered in 2000 and seems to be resident . records occasionally come from other inland sites but these seem to be wandering individuals .
fact - sheet - eye - how - the - eye - and - brain - work - together . pdf
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as it ' s national moth night in the uk , one of last night ' s catch .
this one came to my light trap - or living room as gill prefers to call it - last night . i had no idea what it was but am very grateful to eastendswift who was able to pin it down within minutes , even though they aren ' t found in scotland ! ! thanks again david !
an odd name for a moth - ranunculus is the latin name for buttercup , yet they seem to like to feed on mint , and favour gardens . they had been absent from south herts for some years but appear to have recolonised since about 2006 .
a bit of an opportunistic shot here with an iphone , but i thought i ' d post it anyway . i ' ve not come across this attractive species before now .
i had a devil of time focusing on this moth at my village shop this morning . i was not sure if my camera had picked up this moth as it was about four feet above my head and at an angle . also this was the first time i had seen this species and i did not want to get to close to it in case i disturbed it and it flew away .
i have been getting reasonable numbers of these at a number of coastal sites in north antrim over the past couple of weeks .
kononenko , vladimir - s . 이메일 ( institute of biology et pedology , far eastern branch of russian academy of sciences )
out side my front door again this beauty was loving the lavender , i watched it for over half and hour and it was digging in deep just like the bee ' s were also .
there are still straw dots , mother of pearls and small phoenix flying , last night i went out on a field trip and we managed some great moths including a few shockingly late species . . . more on that tomorrow now .
i trapped once more last week on the 17th and managed a very small catch with just one new moth for the year , a lovely large ranunculus after having a ( rarely recorded ) second brood small ranunculus last week .
i also saw my second of the year at work today which was indoors .
may be edible . see the plants for a future link below for details .
attributes / relations provided by ♦ 1 plants for a future licensed under a creative commons license ♦ 2 ecofact 2a technical annex - ellenberg’s indicator values for british plants , m o hill , j o mountford , d b roy & r g h bunce ( 1999 ) ♦ 3 kattge , j . et al . ( 2011b ) try - a global database of plant traits global change biology 17 : 2905 - 2935 ♦ 4 biological records centre database of insects and their food plants ♦ 5 hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants gaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hernández ♦ 6 robertson , c . flowers and insects lists of visitors of four hundred and fifty three flowers . 1929 . the science press printing company lancaster , pa .
protected areas provided by biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators . ♦ natura 2000 , uk data : © crown copyright and database right [ 2010 ] all rights reserved . ordnance survey licence number 100017955 ♦ gbif global biodiversity information facility ♦ chippewa nature center ♦ edwin s . george reserve , university of michigan , department of ecology and evolutionary biology
brassica oleracea is the species of plant that includes many common foods as cultivars , including cabbage , broccoli , cauliflower , kale , brussels sprouts , collard greens , savoy , kohlrabi and kai - lan . in its uncultivated form , it is known as wild cabbage . it is native to coastal southern and western europe .
protected areas provided by gbif global biodiversity information facility ♦ biological inventories of the world ' s protected areas in cooperation between the information center for the environment at the university of california , davis and numerous collaborators .


the elopiformes / ᵻˌlɒpᵻˈfɔːrmiːz / are the order of ray-finned fish including the tarpons , tenpounders , and ladyfish , as well as a number of extinct types .

they have a long fossil record , easily distinguished from other fishes by the presence of an additional set of bones in the throat .

they are related to the order of eels , although the adults superficially resemble very large or giant herrings in appearance .

the larvae , however , are leptocephali , looking very similar to those of eels .

elopiformes

no one has contributed data records for elopiformes yet . learn how to contribute .
kento furui added the japanese common name
カライワシ目
to
elopiformes
.
elopiformes ( ladyfish and tarpon ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken
the order elopiformes includes two small families of medium to large - sized fishes found in coastal marine , estuarine and freshwater environments . elopiformes have well - developed gular plates , or extra bones in the throat between the lower jaws , found only in some primitive bony fishes .
elopiformes ( ladyfish and tarpon ) .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken
order elopiformes is one of four orders that make up the superorder elopomorpha , a group considered to be one of the most primitive of bony fishes ( infraclass teleostei ) . the other living orders in the superorder include the anguilliformes ( eels ) , saccopharyngiformes ( bobtail eels , swallowers , and gulpers ) , and albuliformes ( bonefish ) . most taxonomists divide order elopiformes into the families elopidae ( ladyfishes ) and megalopidae ( tarpons ) .
recent molecular work has shown that the order elopiformes is basal to other groups within the subdivision elopomorpha , which also contains the true eels ( order anguilliformes ) and the bonefishes ( order albuliformes ) . like their relatives , tarpons and tenpounders have a leptocephalus larval stage , that unlike most elopomorph fishes , has a forked caudal fin .
placement of the fossil taxa remains particularly problematic . much work remains to be done to understand the limits and relationships among the fossil and living elopomorph fishes . for example , members of the suborder crossognathoidei are considered to be part of order elopiformes by some authorities , such as british paleontologist john g . maisey , and more derived by others , such as british paleontologist colin patterson and american ichthyologist donn rosen .
smith , d . g . 1999 . order elopiformes , pp . 1619 - 1622 . in carpenter , k . e . & v . h . niem . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . the living marine resources of the western central pacific . volume 3 . batoid fishes , chimaeras and bony fishes part 1 ( elopidae to linophrynidae ) . rome , fao . 1999 . pp . 1397 - 2068 .
the order elopiformes contains two families : the elopidae and the megalopidae . the family megalopidae contains the single genus megalops . two species of tarpon exist worldwide . the atlantic tarpon occurs in the eastern and western atlantic , and the oxeye tarpon occurs in the indian and pacific oceans . morphologically the two species are quite similar ; however , the atlantic tarpon reaches a much larger size and can exceed 220 lb ( 100 kg ) and a length of over 6 . 6 ft ( 2 m ) . the oxeye tarpon is smaller and seldom exceeds 3 . 3 ft ( 1 m ) .
previously , the elopiforms and albuliforms had been classified together as suborders in an enlarged order elopiformes . the albuliforms are now placed in their own order ( albuliformes ) . the association between elopiforms and albuliforms was based on only negative evidence—that is , the two groups were elopomorph fishes that lacked the eel - like characters of the two other orders ( anguilliformes and saccopharyngiformes ) in the superorder elopomorpha . limits among these orders vary from taxonomist to taxonomist . for example , british ichthyologist peter l . forey , one of the principal elopomorph taxonomists , and coworkers classify the anguilliforms and saccopharyngiforms together in an expanded angulliformes .
an order of teleost fishes , comprising the ladyfishes , tenpounders , and tarpons , in the superorder elopomorpha . the members of the order elopiformes ( elopiforms ) are actinopterygian ( ray - finned ) fishes and are characterized by the following features : a slender body with abdominal pelvic fins and a deeply forked caudal fin supported by seven hypurals ( flattened bones along the ventral side of the urostyle ) ; a large mouth , terminal or superior , bordered by premaxillae and toothed maxillae ; teeth also present on the parasphenoid and mesopterygoid bones and the tongue ; mesocoracoid and postcleithra bones ; a well - developed gular plate ; and cycloid scales . in addition , all elopomorphs , including the elopiforms , share a distinctive type of larvae , namely , the leptocephalus - type larvae ( elliptical , slender , transparent larvae ) . elopiforms have small leptocephali , about 5 cm ( 2 in . ) in length , with a well - developed , forked caudal fin and strong teeth ( in contrast , eel leptocephali lack a caudal fin ) . there are two families of elopiforms : elopidae and megalopidae . see also : actinopterygii ; osteichthyes ; scale ( zoology ) ; teleostei
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forey , p . , d . littlewood , p . ritchie and a . meyer , 1996 | helfman , g . , b . collette and d . facey , 1997
pelvic fins abdominal ; body slender , usually compressed ; gill openings wide ; caudal fin deeply forked ; caudal fin with seven hypurals ; scales cycloid ; mesocoracoid and postcleithra present ; gular plate well developed ( median ) ; branchiostegal rays 23 - 35 ; mouth bordered by premaxilla and toothed maxilla ; upper jaw extending past eye ; tip of snout not overhanging mouth ( mouth terminal or superior ) ; no sensory canal extending onto the small premaxilla . leptocephali small , maximum length about 5 cm , with a well - developed , forked , caudal fin , a posterior dorsal fin ( pelvic fins in older larvae ) , and about 53 - 86 myomeres .
greek aktis = ray , thunderbolt , beam + greek pterygion , diminutive of pteryx = wing , fin . ref . 45335 .
greek , ellops = a kind of serpent + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .
tarpon , along with bonefish and ladyfish , are primitive fishes , and while tarpon and ladyfish are considered to be more closely related to each other than to any other elopomorph group , their distinct lineages extend more than 100 million years back in the fossil record . the structure of the skull , fin placement , and large thick scales are characteristic of ancient fishes .
tarpon and ladyfish are united by the common possession of a leptocephalus larvae and a variety of primitive features . the leptocephalus larvae is shared with a diverse group of other elopomorph fishes including the eels ; however , the leptocephalus larvae of tarpon and ladyfish are the smallest of all leptocephali and possess a forked tail . leptocephali of some albuliformes also have a forked tail .
the family elopidae contains the single genus elops , which occurs worldwide . as many as six morphologically similar species of elops are thought to exist . the genus is in need of revision , and the total number of species is unclear .
these are silver , elongate herring - like fishes with large upturned mouths , large eyes , and deeply forked tails . an important structural character is the presence of a long , bony gular plate between the branches of the lower jaw , a feature that the ladyfish shares with the tarpon but not with herring .
tarpon and ladyfish are coastal in habitat and often occur in estuarine waters . both tarpon and ladyfish are quite tolerant of low salinities . tarpon commonly enter freshwater and often travel far up freshwater rivers and enter lakes far from sea .
tarpon and ladyfish are pelagic predators that feed principally on mid - water prey . both have small sandpaper - like teeth , and their prey is swallowed whole . they often occur in large schools in shallow coastal and inshore waters .
small tarpon feed predominantly on cyclopoid copepods , fishes , caridean shrimp , and mosquito larvae . no detailed studies have examined the feeding habits of large tarpon , but anecdotal information suggests that a wide variety of fishes are consumed . ladyfish feed principally in midwater on pelagic prey . feeding is mainly on fish , but decapod crustaceans also are consumed .
ladyfish are probably preyed upon by a wide variety of inshore predators including sharks , porpoises , snook , and tarpon . they are occasionally used as bait by recreational anglers for tarpon and other species . juvenile tarpon are also likely preyed upon by a variety of species such as gar , snook , and larger tarpon . because juvenile tarpon are most often found in poorly oxygenated waters , they are probably vulnerable to a more limited suite of predators than ladyfish . large tarpon are preyed upon only by large coastal sharks including bull sharks and hammerheads .
both tarpon and ladyfish spawn offshore in high salinity oceanic waters . precise spawning areas are unknown , and fertilized eggs are undescribed . tarpon and ladyfish are broadcast spawners that produce large numbers of buoyant eggs that float in the surface waters of the ocean . the eggs hatch into the distinctive leptocephalus larvae characterized by an elongate , laterally compressed body consisting principally of an acellular mucinous material , large well - developed eyes , and large fang - like teeth . larvae of tarpon and ladyfish reach a length of from 1 . 0 to 2 . 0 in ( 25–50 mm ) before metamorphosis . metamorphosis occurs as the larvae enter coastal waters and pass through inlets into the inshore waters where juveniles are found . recruitment of tarpon through inlets appears to be pulsed and related to storm events .
tarpon and ladyfish are abundant , and there is no evidence that stocks of these species have been depleted by overfishing . it is unknown to what extent habitat loss has affected stocks .
tarpon support important recreational fisheries in florida and the caribbean . ladyfish are a food fish of minor importance in some areas .
megalops atlanticus valenciennes , 1847 , guadeloupe , santo domingo , martinique , and puerto rico .
anglers have long believed that the tarpon in some areas were different and larger than in other areas , but there is no genetic basis for this belief . while some areas may attract larger fish , these fish are not different genetically from those found elsewhere in the western atlantic , and they all appear to interbreed freely . however , the tarpon of the eastern atlantic do appear to be genetically distinct from their western atlantic cousins . these populations have probably been isolated by the vast expanse of the atlantic ocean , and there is little or no interbreeding with western atlantic tarpon . in is not known if the exceptionally large sizes attained by african tarpon have a genetic or environmental basis , but the isolation of the two stocks indicates that the differences could be genetically based .
elongate and highly compressed body . eye large . mouth oblique with a prominently projecting lower jaw . large , thick , prominent scales . teeth small and feel like sandpaper when touched . all fins are soft rayed . a single dorsal fin is located behind the pelvic fins but entirely before the anal fin ; the dorsal fin has a distinctive and greatly prolonged final ray . the final ray of the anal fin is also somewhat elongate , but much less so than that of the dorsal fin . deeply forked caudal fin . tarpon are bright silvery all over , and the back is darker than the sides or belly .
both sides of the tropical and subtropical atlantic ocean . in the western atlantic , tarpon regularly occur from the eastern shore of virginia to central brazil and throughout the caribbean sea and gulf of mexico , as well as off central and south america . at least seven records exist from as far north as nova scotia , where a few large tarpon have been captured between august and october . tarpon also are present in the eastern atlantic off the coast of tropical africa and are occasionally found as far north as portugal and france . there is a single record of a tarpon from ireland . african tarpon are known to reach exceptionally large sizes , and many recent world records have come from this area , including some unconfirmed reports of 330 . 7 - lb ( 150 - kg ) fish . tarpon are sexually dimorphic , and females reach much larger sizes than males .
young - of - the - year tarpon occur in small stagnant pools and sloughs of varying salinity and have been reported from north carolina , georgia , florida , texas , caribbean islands , costa rica , and venezuela . in tropical areas , juvenile tarpon typically occur in mangrove habitats , often in water with low dissolved oxygen levels . tarpon occur in salinities ranging from freshwater to more than 45 parts per thousand and are capable of surviving temperatures of at least 105°f ( 65 . 6°c ) , but they suffer mortalities at temperatures of 50–55°f ( 10–12 . 8°c ) . large numbers of tarpon die during severe cold fronts off florida .
anglers often detect the presence of schools of tarpon by observing individuals
rolling
at the surface . the tarpon ' s habit of rising to the surface and breathing air is unusual among marine species , although this practice is common among tropical freshwater swamp - dwelling fishes . breathing air is accomplished by way of a highly vascularized swimbladder that functions as an air - breathing organ . the swimbladder is an elongate , balloon - like sac located above the viscera and just below the backbone . in most fish species , the swimbladder acts as a buoyancy control mechanism . the fish can adjust the volume of air in the bladder and remain neutrally buoyant . in tarpon , this swimbladder is connected to the gut by a duct enabling the tarpon to gulp air and ventilate the swimbladder . young tarpon , when held in experimental chambers from which all of the dissolved oxygen has been removed , are able to meet their oxygen needs by breathing air . this adaptation allows tarpon to survive in water with low dissolved oxygen concentrations such as commonly encountered by juveniles in hot , stagnant mangrove marshes . experimental work also suggests that tarpon are facultative air - breathers , and in well - oxygenated waters are able to meet their oxygen requirements without breathing air . young tarpon can survive in well - oxygenated water when deprived of the opportunity to reach the surface and breathe air . however , after several unsuccessful attempts to reach the surface they have emptied their swimbladders and become negatively buoyant until allowed access to the surface again .
small tarpon ( 0 . 6–3 . 0 in [ 16–75 mm ] ) feed predominantly on cyclopoid copepods , fishes , caridean shrimp , and mosquito larvae . no detailed studies have examined the feeding habits of large tarpon , but anecdotal information suggests that a wide variety of fishes are consumed , including mullet ( mugil spp . ) , pinfish ( lagodon rhomboides ) , ariid catfishes , and clupeids , as well as crabs and shrimp .
female tarpon are larger than males regardless of capture location , and average fish size varies geographically . sexually mature florida females average about 110 lb ( 50 kg ) and can exceed 220 lb ( 100 kg ) . in contrast , sexually mature florida males average only 66 lb ( 30 kg ) , and they rarely exceed 110 lb ( 50 kg ) .
tarpon from costa rican waters are year - round spawners , unlike tarpon from other areas . inactive or resting ovaries are rare in costa rica females , suggesting that females spawn repeatedly throughout the year and have no extended period of inactivity . in florida , tarpon spawning is seasonal and peaks between may and july . by august , most females are finished spawning . in the southern hemisphere , off the northeast coast of brazil , researchers have reported that tarpon spawn from october to january—during the southern hemisphere ' s spring and summer .
ripe tarpon ovaries are large and can contain up to 20 million maturing oocytes and many more small resting oocytes .
oocyte
is the proper name of a developing egg that has not ovulated and is not yet ready to be spawned . although hundreds of mature female tarpon have been examined during the spawning season , none have been caught in the act of spawning . this is probably because spawning occurs in areas not typically fished . even though the number of eggs released by a female in a single spawning event is unknown , the numbers of developing oocytes in the ovary suggests that their reproductive output is immense .
tarpon are relatively long lived and can live more than 50 years . by age one , tarpon are about 1 . 5 ft ( 450 mm ) long and are common in rivers and the upper reaches of estuaries , where they remain until reaching sexual maturity . in florida , sexual maturity is reached at an age of about 10 years . after attaining sexual maturity , tarpon become more coastal in habitat and are most numerous around inlets and off beaches . large tarpon targeted by anglers in florida are typically from 15 to 35 years old .
florida ' s fishery is intensely regulated , and anglers must purchase a $ 50 permit before harvesting a fish . since the establishment of the permit system in 1989 , the harvest of tarpon in florida has declined to fewer than 100 fish per year , and the fishery is now mostly catch - and - release . encouraging catch - and - release fishing for tarpon has been an effective management strategy , because the vast majority of released fish survive to be caught again . the sale of tarpon in florida is prohibited , but in most of their range tarpon have never been considered a desirable food fish .
in central america and south florida , tarpon are the basis of economically important recreational fisheries . tarpon occur in a variety of habitats ranging from freshwater lakes and rivers to offshore marine waters , but large tarpon targeted by florida ' s fishery are most abundant in estuarine and coastal waters . in florida , the fishery is seasonal ; most tarpon are caught between may and july , although some fish are caught in all months . tarpon are known for their spectacular leaps from the water when hooked and for their willingness to enter shallow water and eat artificial baits . probably more than any other species , tarpon offer anglers in small boats an opportunity to pursue a large gamefish . tarpon are pursued by a large for - hire charter boat fleet in florida .
elops saurus linnaeus , 1766 ,
carolina .
the taxonomic status of elops saurus is unclear , and this name may be applied to more than one species .
abundant from north carolina south through the gulf of mexico and into the caribbean .
ladyfish have a single , soft - rayed dorsal fin that originates about midway along the back . the pelvic fins are located midway between the tip of the snout and the fork of the deeply forked caudal fin . scales are small and thin . ladyfish are silvery all over ; the back is bluish , and the lower parts of the sides and the belly are yellowish .
common in estuaries and coastal waters of tropical and subtropical latitudes . often occur in large schools . tolerant of a wide range of salinities but seldom occur in freshwater .
little is known other than general descriptions of feeding habits and reproductive migrations . ladyfish can be extremely abundant and most often occur in large schools . they are voracious predators .
ladyfish feed principally in midwater on pelagic prey . feeding is mainly on fish , but decapod crustaceans also are consumed .
spawning appears to occur offshore . larvae are common in the gulf of mexico and off the southern united states , where they have been reported as far north as virginia . fertilized eggs are undescribed . spawning may occur throughout the year but probably peaks during fall in florida and in the gulf of mexico .
ladyfish are often caught by recreational anglers but are seldom a targeted species . ladyfish are voracious predators and will attack a variety of lures and baits . the species is fished commercially in florida and sold both for human consumption and as bait to recreational anglers .
hildebrand , s . f .
family elopidae .
in fishes of the western north atlantic , edited by h . b . bigelow . new haven , ct : sears foundation for marine research , 1963 .
andrews , a . , e . burton , k . coale , g . cailliet , and r . e . crabtree .
radiometric age validation of atlantic tarpon , megalops atlanticus .
fishery bulletin 99 ( 2001 ) : 389–398 .
crabtree , r . e . , e . c . cyr , r . e . bishop , l . m . falkenstein , and j . m . dean .
age and growth of larval tarpon , megalops atlanticus , in the eastern gulf of mexico with notes on relative abundance and probable spawning areas .
environmental biology of fishes 35 ( 1992 ) : 361–370 .
crabtree , r . e . , e . c . cyr , d . chacon , w . o . mclarney , and j . m . dean .
reproduction of tarpon , megalops atlanticus , from florida and costa rican waters and notes on their age and growth .
bulletin of marine science 61 ( 1997 ) : 271–285 .
geiger , s . p . , j . j . torres , and r . e . crabtree .
air - breathing and gill ventilation frequencies in juvenile tarpon , megalops atlanticus : responses to changes in dissolved oxygen , temperature , hydrogen sulfide , and ph .
environmental biology of fishes 59 ( 2000 ) : 181–190 .
zale , a . v . and s . g . merrifield
species profiles : life histories and environmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates ( south florida ) —ladyfish and tarpon .
u . s . fish and wildlife service biological report 82 ( 1989 ) .
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van der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . zootaxa . 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the elopiform fossil record dates back 135 million years ago to the upper cretaceous period , with fossils resembling tarpons .
forey , p . , d . littlewood , p . ritchie & a . meyer . 1996 . interrelationships of elopomorph fishes . p . 175 - 192 . in m . stiassny , l . parenti & g . johnson ( eds . ) interrelationships of fishes . academic press , new york . 496 p .
helfman , g . , b . collette & d . facey . 1997 the diversity of fishes . blackwell science , malden , ma . 528 pp .
inoue , j . g . , m . miya , k . tsukamoto & m . nishida 2004 . mitogenomic evidence for the monophyly of elopomorph fishes ( teleostei ) and the evolutionary origin of the leptocephalus larva . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 32 ( 1 ) : 274 - 286
mccosker , j . f . 1998 . eels and their allies , pp . 85–86 . in paxton , j . r . & w . n . eschmeyer ( eds . ) encyclopedia of fishes . 2nd ed . san diego : academic press .
nelson , j . s . 2006 . fishes of the world . new york : john wiley & sons 601 pp .
a taxonomic order within the class actinopterygii – ray - finned fish including tarpons , tenpounders , and ladyfish .
ruggiero ma , gordon dp , orrell tm , bailly n , bourgoin t , brusca rc , et al . ( 2015 ) a higher level classification of all living organisms . plos one 10 ( 4 ) : e0119248 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0119248 . pmid : 25923521
this page was last edited on 13 april 2018 , at 10 : 32 .
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kento furui added the japanese common name
イセゴイ科
to
megalopidae
.
kento furui added the japanese common name
カライワシ科
to
elopidae
.
kento furui added the japanese common name
ソトイワシ科
to
albulidae
.
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research curator of fishes , north carolina state museum of natural sciences , research laboratory , 4301 reedy creek rd . , raleigh , nc , 27607 , usa
banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .
full author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , héctor espinosa - pérez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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) . elopiforms live in marine and brackish water habitats . a few are prized game fishes , but only the pacific tarpon ( or oxeye ) is of economic importance as food ; it supports a major fishery in
. as is usual with primitive groups , the elopiforms have an extensive fossil record—with many more fossils than modern species .
elopiforms are coastal fishes , and adults are able to enter brackish or fresh water . adult ladyfishes ( several species of
) are typical predators of coastal waters , feeding mainly on other fishes . tarpons grow to adult lengths of up to 2 . 5 metres ( approximately 8 feet ) , whereas ladyfishes average about 1 metre ( about 3 feet ) . the silverfish , or atlantic tarpon , (
) and ladyfishes behave similarly , “rolling” at the surface . the purpose of this behaviour seems to be the
, and air that is taken in at the mouth can be passed into it .
in tarpons the swim bladder is lunglike , partially compartmented and highly vascularized . tarpons are obligate air breathers , dying from asphyxiation if prevented from reaching the surface , an unusual condition for a species in which adults normally inhabit well - oxygenated waters . such an adaptation , however , is certainly advantageous in the stagnant pools where postlarval life is spent . the tarpons exhibit a further modification of the swim bladder , a pair of forward outgrowths that contact the auditory region of the braincase and are partially enclosed in bony bullae , a modification that presumably improves the sense of hearing .
tarpons and ladyfishes spawn close to shore , and the eggs are shed and fertilized in shoal water , sinking to the bottom . in addition , they are prolific breeders . for example , a large atlantic tarpon ( tarpon atlanticus ) was estimated to contain more than 12 million eggs , about seven times as many as in the proverbially fecund cod .
involving shrinkage to about half the maximum larval size . the newly hatched leptocephali may be carried out to sea by offshore currents , but metamorphosis only occurs close inshore , and it is probable that larvae carried far out to sea die . during or immediately after their metamorphosis , the postlarvae migrate inland and accumulate in brackish pools or creeks , often connected with open water only at extreme high tide . such
are stagnant and low in oxygen , and air breathing is an important aid to survival . the juvenile
feed on small crustaceans , insect larvae , and other small animals , moving back to the sea as young adults .
the family elopidae is the only extant teleostean family whose fossil record extends back into the jurassic period ( 199 . 6 million–145 . 5 million years ago ) . the late jurassic genus anaethalionis is included in this family on the basis of some forms that were extremely similar to the modern elops . the genera notelops , from the early cretaceous ( 145 . 5 million–99 . 6 million years ago ) of brazil , and osmeroides , widely distributed in the seas of the late cretaceous ( 99 . 6 million–65 . 5 million years ago ) , were probably true elopids . at present the allocation of numerous little - known cretaceous genera , such as notelops and osmeroides , to the family elopidae , often on the basis of negative evidence , must be considered tentative .
the earliest known member of the tarpon family appears to be the fossil sedenhorstia , from the upper cretaceous of europe and lebanon . fossils assigned to megalops appear in eocene deposits . the earliest member of the extinct suborder pachyrhizodontoidei is rhacolepis ( from the lower cretaceous of brazil ) . rhacolepis was small and resembled the ladyfishes , but later ( upper cretaceous ) members of this group become considerably more specialized . pachyrhizodus , from the cretaceous chalks of europe and north america , exceeded 3 metres ( about 10 feet ) in length and superficially resembled a tuna . pachyrhizodontoids may well have been large fast - swimming predators of the open sea , a niche which is now filled by the tunas ( thunnus ) .
leptocephalus larva ( ribbonlike and translucent , unlike the adult and typically longer ) ; hypurals , when present , on 3 or more centra ; branchiostegal rays usually more than 15 .
mouth terminal and snout unmodified ; 2 supramaxillaries ; many branchiostegal rays ( 23–35 ) ; teeth small ; large gular plate between the lower jaws ; 7 hypural bones .
very generalized fish , the living forms having 32–35 branchiostegal rays and the swim bladder unmodified . length to 0 . 9 metre ( about 3 feet ) ; weight to about 13 kg ( 28 . 5 pounds ) . 1 living genus (
) with 5 or 6 species ; circumtropical . numerous fossil genera . late jurassic to present .
swim bladder partially cellular , lunglike , and connected with the ear ; scales large ; 23–25 branchiostegal rays . length to 2 . 5 metres ( about 8 feet ) and weight to 150 kg ( about 330 pounds ) in
order elopiform es ( tarpons and ten - pounders ) body fusiform , typical fishlike shape ; bone - enclosed ethmoid commissure present ; roofed post - temporal fossae ; primary bite a tongue - parasphenoid type . 2 families , 2 genera , and 8 species . marine ; worldwide in temperate and tropical zones . late jurassic to present . order…
fish , any of more than 30 , 000 species of vertebrate animals ( phylum chordata ) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world . living species range from the primitive , jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks , skates , and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes . most fish species are…
tarpon , any of certain marine fish of the family megalopidae ( order elopiform es ) , related to the bonefish and the ladyfish and identified by the elongated last dorsal fin ray and the bony throat plate between the sides of the protruding lower jaw . the scales are large , thick , and silvery . …
bony fish , any member of the superclass osteichthyes , a group made up of the classes sarcopterygii ( lobe - finned fishes ) and actinopterygii ( ray - finned fishes ) in the subphylum vertebrata , including the great majority of living fishes and virtually all the world’s sport and commercial fishes . the scientific term pisces has also been used…
eel , ( order anguilliformes ) , any of more than 800 species of teleost fishes characterized by elongate wormlike bodies . anguilliforms include the common freshwater eels as well as the voracious marine morays . …
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banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , a . l . gardner , and w . c . starnes , 2003 : null . checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada .
eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .
nelson , joseph s . , 1994 : null . fishes of the world , third edition . xvii + 600 .
nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds . , 2004 : common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico , sixth edition . american fisheries society special publication , no . 29 . ix + 386 .
shiino , sueo m . , 1976 : list of common names of fishes of the world , those prevailing among english - speaking nations . science report of shima marineland , no . 4 . 262 .
van der laan , r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ( 2014 ) . family - group names of recent fishes . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 3882 ( 1 ) : 1 - 230 .
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