the st kilda house mouse ( mus musculus muralis ) is an extinct subspecies of the house mouse found only on the islands of the st kilda archipelago of northwest scotland .

it is uncertain when they first arrived on the islands , but it is possible that they unwittingly were transported there during the norse period .

isolated on the islands , the st kilda house mouse diverged from relatives .

it became larger than the mainland varieties , although it had a number of traits in common with a subspecies found on mykines in the faroe islands , mus musculus mykinessiensis .

when the last st kildans were evacuated in 1930 , the endemic house mouse became extinct very quickly , as it was associated strictly with human settlement .

some specimens exist in museums .

the st kilda field mouse ( apodemus sylvaticus hirtensis ) is still present .

st kilda house mouse

mouse in the house . . - review of summer house backpackers , st kilda , australia - tripadvisor
the last mammal to go extinct in britain was the st kilda house mouse .
but the st . kilda house mouse needed the warm houses , farms , and dropped food crumbs of its human neighbors to survive . within three years of the humans evacuating , all the st . kilda house mice had died off . in contrast , the field mice survived and are still living on st . kilda today .
two kinds of mice used to be found on st kilda . both were varieties ( subspecies ) of the mainland house mouse and wood mouse respectively . they were probably brought to st kilda by norsemen . like many animals which have become isolated , they evolved to be different from their ancestors , in this case larger .
the reasons for this are not precisely known but may be the result of field mice having invaded house mouse habitat and , through some form of competition , preventing the house mouse from breeding .
scientists believe that as early as 500 bc , norse settlers arrived in st . kilda and brought along a few unwanted stowaways–european house mice . isolated from their mainland relatives , these house mice evolved over time into a distinct species , larger and shaped differently from their ancestors . st . kilda is also home to a unique subspecies of field mouse , that probably also arrived as stowaways and evolved into a new species .
following the evacuation of the human population from st kilda , field mice migrated from the hills to the abandoned homes and buildings .
the house mouse of mykines is considered to be a race of its own with special and significant characteristics . of these one must mention that the tale is very long and the hind legs are especial long and powerful probably giving the mouse extra power for jumping . the color is also different from its ancestor , the common house mouse , as it is more brownish and have a lighter tinted bellow . likewise it is interesting , that their inner nose openings are more conical than on other house mice , a trait it has in common with the mice of st . kilda , the most western , isolated island in the hebrides ! it is assumed , that the mykines and st . kilda house mice are the representatives of the eldest of europe ' s house mice .
it was probably the vikings that got the house mouse to st kilda . the mice lived exclusively in the human settlements , feeding exclusively off of the detritus that humans tend to leave about them . for a thousand years , no one really bothered about them .
we often hear about how human activity and expansion can endanger wildlife habitats . but can you think of any animals that might be threatened by the disappearance of humans ? after careful consideration , the story of the extinct st . kilda house mouse came to my mind .
the islands of st kilda , which lie 41 miles ( 66km ) west of benbecula in the outer hebrides , were abandoned by humans in 1930 .
the st kilda house mouse was dependent on the presence of people , as it fed on grain and other human commodities . with the evacuation of the people in 1930 , its source of food was lost and it died out . it is now extinct and only exists as specimens in museum collections .
a shame it’s gone then . but the good news is that another ‘man - made’ rodent subspecies , the st kilda field mouse , is currently thriving . by all accounts it has developed a taste for mars bars .
too . the relationship between the two species where they occur together has been the subject of much research . house mice used to occur on st kilda before the human population of that island was evacuated in 1930 after which they rapidly declined to extinction .
the st kilda field mouse is still common on hirta and is also present on dun . it was never so dependent on people , so it did not die out like the house mouse . it feeds on snails , insects , moss and seeds , but will also feed on the carcasses of dead sheep , birds and any apples , mars bars or other delicacies foolishly left around by work party members !
altogether there are only a few hundred pairs , making it a great rarity . specimens of the adult birds and their eggs were highly prized . the st kildans used to collect eggs for selling to collectors . today it is fully protected on st kilda .
the house mouse can be divided in two different races , western mouse and eastern mouse . the eastern mouse comes from norway while the western mouse comes from germany and england and now a days can be found in mykines , on nolsoy , hestur and fugloy , while the rest og the faroese mouse are mixtures of western mouse and eastern mouse . if it is true , what landt writes , it is interesting , that the mykines mouse in just 200 years have developed to a race of its own with it own name , mus musculus mykinessiensis . but more probably , it is a development , which have taken closer to 1000 years . the mykines house mouse is nowadays seen all around the island in an unknown number . it can be seen in the houses , in the houses for drying the sheep meat and in the open nature , the puffins lands and at least in a considerable number in borgardalur .
st . kilda is a small group of islands about one - hundred miles off the west coast of scotland . the isolated archipelago was inhabited by humans for more than two thousand years , from the bronze age until 1930 . in 1930 the few remaining residents of st . kilda were permanently evacuated because of sickness , crop failure , and casualties of world war i .
the st kilda wren is a sub - species of the mainland wren and has only been found on hirta , dun , soay and boreray . it is larger than those from the mainland .
if nothing else , the st kilda house mouse shows us the limitations of the words and ideas that we use to frame the great ecological debates of our age . it blurs the distinctions between wild and domestic , natural and man - made , history and natural history , anthropology and ecology , even between vermin and endangered animal . as such , it can help us to frame fundamental questions about conservation , what we are trying to achieve and why we are trying to achieve it . the st kilda house mouse should be a rallying call for the curiosity of conservationists ; we need to question perceived wisdom , distinctions and definitions and to measure worth and value and meaning . to care for the planet , or even to care about it at all , we need to be curious .
suggested routes of colonisation of the field mouse ( from a poster in the observatory ) .
there are only 2 wild species of terrestrial mammals on mykines . it is the house mouse and the hare . apart from that , there are the domestic mammals , sheep , cow , horse , dog and cat .
it is not known for how long there have been house mouses on mykines . the vicar landt in his
forsøg til en beskrivelse over færøerne
( a trial to a description of the faroes ) from 1800 states , that there were no house mice on mykines at that time . whether this is true , is not possibly to say anything about now , but it dosn´t seem probably . modern dna technologies , have shown interesting result . the distribution of house mouse can be taken as a proof of the way the faroes have been colonised , as the house mouse have followed man . genetical investigation of faroese people have shown , that the men came from norway while the faroese women came from ireland .
berry , r . j . & tricker , b . j . k . 1969 . competition and extinction : the mice of foula with notes on those on fair isle and st . kilda . journal of zoology 158 : 247 - 265 .
isolated from their mainland relatives , these house mice evolved over time into a distinct species , larger and shaped differently from their ancestors .
' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2014 . © ian andrews . although previously recognised as a subspecies of the field mouse or even a separate species in its own right , current thoughts are that is should be treated as an island form .
despite the field mice thriving , the change and lack of food resulted in extinction for the island ' s house mice , who took only two years to die out .
it is a curious story , and a curious creature , and one that i personally feel entirely ambiguous about . should it have been saved ? is its extinction a great loss for biodiversity ? was there a moral obligation to save the subspecies ? would there have been a moral obligation to save them had they not been classed as a subspecies ? is it a subspecies or a cultural relic or even just a cruel mistake ? a wild animal , or a pet , or vermin ? people worry about the loss of subspecies of tigers – should they have worried about the loss of the st kilda house mouse ? does this story belong in the annals of ecology , or history ?
' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2013 . © david parnaby . field mice are dark brown above and white below ; when compared to house mice , they have larger , more protruding eyes , larger ears and a longer tail . on fair isle , they are larger and darker ( less sandy brown ) than their mainland counterparts .
in recent years the islands ' summer warden has been plotting the distribution of st kilda wrens . the most recent census was done on hirta in 1993 . a total of 113 - 117 pairs were recorded . a map showing apparent occupied territories was produced . territories were based on areas where males were recorded singing at least three times , a nest or young were found , or where a bird was giving an alarm call .
st kilda is not the most hospitable of places . in fact , it is probably most famous for being decidedly inhospitable . by 1930 things had gotten so bad for the islanders that the whole community asked to be relocated to the mainland , and so the island was deserted . as is often the case with decidedly inhospitable places , the only people who currently bother to go there regularly are the military and a small group of conservationists .
' fair isle field mouse ' , observatory , 2014 . © ian andrews . these mice are most readily seen at dusk under the bird feeders from the observatory ' s lounge window .
st kilda is an archipelago on the wrong side , as it were , of the outer hebrides , making it the most remote place in the british isles . this did not stop it from being inhabited by humans from the bronze age right up until the twentieth century . in that time , the islanders developed their own remarkable culture , which i wholeheartedly advise you to research . it is a place where culture and nature bleed into each other . indeed , it is the uk’s only unesco world heritage site for both nature and culture , and hosts britain’s largest seabird colony .
wilson , k . , eady , p . & del nevo , a . j . 1998 . origin of an insular population of the wood mouse based on parasitological evidence . journal of wildlife diseases 34 ( 1 ) : 150 - 154 .
in any case by 1932 , within two years of humans leaving , the mouse was extinct . they were not hardy enough to leave the abandoned buildings , and without human food available to pilfer there was nothing for the fat little rodents to eat .
delany , m . j . & davis , p . e . 1961 . observations on the ecology and life history of the fair isle field - mouse apodemus sylvaticus fridariensis . proceedings of the zoological society of london 136 ( 3 ) : 439 - 452 .
flowerdew , j . r . & tattersall , f . h . 2008 . wood mouse . in : harris , s . & yalden , d . w . ( eds ) mammals of the british isles : handbook , 4th edition . the mammal society , southampton .
normally one don ' t see much to them , but they can be seen in cellars and drying houses for sheep meat , where an ongoing fight against both the mouse and the starlings takes place . the mice can pass through the smallest openings , a hole of only 16 millimeters diameter it said to be enough .
the hares live at quite high altitudes in the outfield , in 400 to 500 meters hight and are most often seen around knukur in the great slope of rocks and stones , where the radio and antenna house is situated . but they can also be seen in the lower parts of the outfield . normally only one is seen at a time , running quickly from its hiding place behind or under a stone , trying to come to a more secure distance from one .
evolutionarily speaking , a thousand years isn’t a lot , if you are a human . if you are a mouse , however , it is enough time to create the pitter - patter of 5 , 000 generations of little feet . as is often the case with animals on islands with little competition , it got bigger , because bigger animals are generally more efficient at conserving heat and energy . not massively so , but big enough to eventually become a subspecies . a human - made subspecies , completely dependant on human food to survive . little more than a parasite .
it was once thought that the various races of field mice on scottish islands may have been glacial relicts , in other words they had survived the ice age in these localities . however , it is now thought that all the island field mice have been introduced by humans . work by prof . r . j . ( sam ) berry , based on skeletal characteristics , has indicated that the mice were inadvertently introduced by the vikings from norway , the route by which these introductions occurred being shown on the map ( right ) . there is not a total agreement about this , however , and one more recent piece of work , based on the parasites carried by the mice , suggests that the ' fair isle field mouse ' , in contrast to most other island populations , may have come from the british mainland .
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all most daily one see the 2 species of seals , which are seen around the faroes , spotted seal and grey seal .
one can also be so fortunate to see whales . killer whales , pilot pilot whales , porpoises and , more seldom , fin whales , sperm whales and humpback whales .
the hares on mykines are found in a little but apparently stable number . they probably live on the margins as the number is not increasing and they have never been hunted .
the hares on mykines stem from the same hares that one sees an the other faroese islands and which were brought to the faroes from the norwegian island kragerø in the 1850 ' ies . it was snow hares , who in the beginning also became white in the winter , but they now only are grey in the winter , because of many years of natural selection .
if one goes to the holm , then on the narrow land before the stair down to lamba , one often hear and see the seals on the small skerries north of the holm . and that at all seasons . just outside the landingplace , just outside the holmgjogv with the little skerry one often can see them quite close and one get the impression , especially if one is in a bout , that they are quite curious . one see their head with the big black eyes looking directly at one and if one whistle , they seem to be even more curious .
in former time they were systematically hunted and the hunters were paid for the number of jaws they presented , as the seal were thought to be a danger for the fishery . the hunt was performed by killing the cubs in the caves in which they were brought up in the first time of their life . now they are occasionally hunted by rifle and their meat tastes quite good .
if one is lucky , it is possible to see around 300 seals at one time on the skerries north and west of mykines holm , where they are lying to dry , rest and sleep . all though they can be quite noisy . it can be a beautifully sight in calm and sunny weather to see them swim in the clear water west of the holm , north of uti a bølið in the little bay below the lighthouse .
almost every year there is reported sights of whales in the sea around mykines .
for some years ago 16 pilot whales were killed in lendingergjogv . in the late 90 ' ies , sulan departing from mykines met a group of pilot whales just outside lendingergjogv , from where they were driven to bøur in sørvags fjorður , where they were killed .
several times in the late years , there have been seen killer whales very close to the shoreline of mykines . once some men gathering sheep saw five killer whales swimming along the coast and in between the skerries on the south cost just east of the village .
in the late 90 ' ies some fin whales and a sperm whale were seen in the waters just south of mykines . there was at least 2 fins swimming westward while the sperm whale was more far out , but not longer than it could be seen , how the the blast was directed sideways as the sperm whales blast is .
it is sobering to think that humans can have such a dramatic effect on the genetics of a population of animals as to create a new subspecies . that is , until you look at a dog . or a cow .
whewell’s gazette : year 2 , vol . # 41 | whewell ' s ghost
researchers have begun a study into a remote island archipelagos super - sized field mice , which can grow up to twice the size of their mainland cousins .
a team from the university of edinburgh university wants to know why the mice came to be so big .
the mice weigh up to 50g and have pale - coloured hair on their underbellies .
he said :
they are cute and a little bit different from mainland mice .
mr black added :
the theory is that because they ' re here with very little competition or predation , that allows them to get bigger and being bigger allows them to cope better with the extreme conditions out here , the cold and the weather .
the foreign secretary quits , telling theresa may
needless self - doubt
is leading to
semi - brexit
.
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) . like most of the island forms , both are distinctly larger than mainland field mice .
text based largely on research by simon and richard aspinall and prof . r . j . berry
berry , r . j . 1985 . the natural history of orkney . collins , london .
© fibo 2018 . fair isle bird observatory is run by an independent charity , fair isle bird observatory trust ( a registered scottish charity sco 11160 ) .
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i stayed here for 2 weeks . . apart from it been very noisy . . there is a family of mice running about in the rooms . . avoid
sorry you didnt enjoy your stay with us . during the period you stayed with us we did experience some extremely bad weather and had pest control out immediately to rectify the problem , this was quickly resolved and we have had no further issues since then .
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booked into the beachhouse for a week ending up staying longer , had loads of fun free breakfast , ensuited bathrooms , kitchen is a little small but you work with it . $ 4 . 00 pizzas cheap drinks and the best backpacker night on fridays pashing pop on the rooftop bar . staff are so friendly in reception help you with everything and so close to the beach . would recommend it to fellow travellers .
i stayed here for a few days as i was backpacking through australia . there a few good things about this hostel . i met a lot of really nice people , most people are working or looking for work in australia . the staff are on the whole pretty friendly and helpful . the en suite bathrooms are really clean and modern . free breakfast was great . there are a few things that would make this hostel a lot better in my opinion . for starters they should put enough lockers in the room for every bedspace because if you are just staying a few days all the lockers are taken up by the long term residents . also if someone is using the en suite bathroom there are no alternative toilet facilities in the whole hostel unless you go down to the bar . i also don ' t like the fact you can ' t drink alcohol in your room , it wouldn ' t be a problem but the bar downstairs is too overpriced to be aimed at backpackers . also at one point a guy working for the hostel claiming to be
security
walked straight into a girl only dorm to make sure we weren ' t drinking alcohol , just as well no - one had just got out of the shower ! ! there is also a lot of noise from the upstairs bar at weekends which sucks cos most of the time the events there aren ' t even really marketed at the guests in the hostel . finally by far the worst thing in this hostel was the kitchen , it was soooo dirty . i know this is mostly the fault of people staying in the hostel but it was very small meaning that it didn ' t much for it to get dirty . also its really badly equipped , when i stayed the only had two forks ! ! my review makes it sound pretty terrible but its not the worst place in the world to stay for a few days especially if you are on a tight budget and can put up with a horrible kitchen . it could just be a whole lot better thats all !
one of the night in this hostel , the bed bugs bite me so bad ! i went to the reception and told them about this . the rude girl told me that they gonna spray my bed and change my sheet . when i came back that night , they didn ' t spray the bed at all ! and during that night , the bed bugs start again to attack me ! ! now , my body is full of bites and they told me to change the bed because the bed bugs was only on this area . . . . ! good answer ! and if i wanted to change the room i have to wash my clothes . i left and they didn ' t give me the money back ! ! so , sleep in this hostel is an adventure and i don ' t recommended this hostel . . . the personnel is rude and now my body is cover of bed bugs bites
i have no idea how places like this stay in business . not only did they capitalize on the f1 grand prix weekend by suddenly doubling their prices , we were generously allowed to make up our own beds and were not allowed our key deposit back the next day until we returned to our room to remove the sheets and take them to the laundry basket area . the bad : clouds of wine flies that breed in the bar carpet broken hand driers in all 3 toilets loud music until 3am from private rooftop function wine banned from our own room no dount to force us to buy their overpriced crap selection of spirits from $ 10 ( with discount ! ! ) ' continental ' breakfast turned out to be stale home brand bread , coffee and something that may have been jam . disgusting toilets in the bar being ignored every time i tried to ask for directions / borrow a pen / get more toilet paper / order a drink the good : do not stay here , there are many many alternatives even during busy season .
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the lipstick darter ( etheostoma chuckwachatte ) is a species of darter endemic to the eastern united states , where it occurs in the tallapoosa river drainage above the fall line in alabama and georgia .

it inhabits rocky riffles of creeks and small to medium rivers .

lipstick darter

this darter occurs throughout the tallapoosa river system above the fall line in alabama and georgia ( wood and mayden 1993 , storey et al . 2003 , boschung and mayden 2004 , page and burr 2011 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : extent of occurrence is less than 20 , 000 sq km , but listed as least concern because the species occurs in more than 10 locations , does not have a severely fragmented distribution , and appears to have a relatively stable trend .
habitat includes rocky riffles of creeks and small to medium rivers ( page and burr 2011 ) . adults typically occur in riffles and shallow runs of medium - sized to large streams with moderate to strong current and substrates of sand , gravel , cobble , and boulders , often where river - weed and water - willow are present ( wood and mayden 1993 , boschung and mayden 2004 ) . in georgia , storey et al . ( 2003 ) found this species in third to fifth order streams .
this species would benefit from habitat restoration , improved habitat protection and management , species management , and better information on trend .
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the bluehead wrasse or blue-headed wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) is a species of saltwater fish in the wrasse family ( labridae ) of order perciformes native to the coral reefs of the tropical waters of the western atlantic ocean .

individuals are small ( less than 110 mm standard length ) and rarely live longer than two years .

they form large schools over the reef and are important cleaner fish in the reefs they inhabit .

bluehead wrasse

information on the bluehead wrasse is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the spawning , growth , and general behavior of the bluehead wrasse . . . : ingenta connect
estrogenic control of behavioral sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . - pubmed - ncbi
manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse .
the bluehead wrasse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
hunt von herbing , i . & w . hunte . 1991 . spawning and recruitment of the bluehead wrasse
manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . - pubmed - ncbi
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cleaner wrasse ( species of wrasse ) collects and eats dead tissue and parasites accumulated in the mouth of large marine fish .
semsar k , godwin j ( 2004 ) multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 45 : 345–53 .
the bluehead wrasse is a small - bodied wrasse that lives on coral reefs of the caribbean sea and its adjacent waters ( florida , bermuda , and the gulf of mexico ) . as a result of its interesting mating system ( discussed below ) , the bluehead wrasse is one of the best - studied reef fishes on caribbean reefs .
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figure 4 and 5 . models of suppression and subsequent process of sex change following the loss of the tp male in the bluehead wrasse .
semsar k . and l . godwin . 2004 . multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . horm behav . 45 : 345–353 .
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semsar , k . and j . godwin ( 2004 ) multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 45 : 345 - 353 .
warner rr , swearer se ( 1991 ) social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biological bulletin 181 : 199–204 .
wrasse can reach 4 to 98 inches in length , depending on the species .
the blue head wrasse is rated by the iucn as an animal of least concern .
wrasse can be part of large school ( group of fish ) or live solitary life .
in the absence of dominant males , the larger females of the group can display sex reversal or change and replace the absent dominant males . this behavior is referred to as protogyny . bluehead wrasse harem
semsar k , kandel flm , godwin j ( 2001 ) manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 40 : 21–31 .
expression across female ( a ) , initial phase male ( b ) , and terminal phase male bluehead wrasse ( c ) . darkfield images of silver grain localization and density were taken at 100× total magnification .
warner , r . r . and s . e . swearer . 1991 . social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biol . bull . 181 : 199–204 .
the bluethroat wrasse can be recognised by its colouration . it occurs on rocky reefs of southern australia .
marsh ke , creutz lm , hawkins mb , godwin jj ( 2006 ) aromatase immunoreactivity in the bluehead wrasse brain , thalassoma bifasciatum : immunolocalization and co - regionalization with arginine vasotocin and tyrosine hydroxylase . brain research 1126 : 91–101 .
the bluehead wrasse is too small to be eaten but is captured for display in public and private aquaria . currently , scientists do not believe that the species is at any risk of extinction , and population sizes are apparently stable . however , it is important to continue to monitor bluehead wrasse populations in order to ensure that any changes resulting from capture of adults or from expected negative trends in coral reef health throughout its range will be identified at an early stage .
wrasse belong to the labridae family . with 60 genera and over 500 species , wrasse are one of the largest families of coral reef fish . the size of wrasse in an aquarium varies considerably within each genus , but most reach an average size of six inches in length . in the wild , the largest member of this family grows to an adult size of over six feet . wrasse are closely related to parrotfish , and can be recognized by their bright colors and elongated body with a pointed snout . wrasse are found throughout the world in all marine habitats . most wrasse are schooling fish , but others may be found in a harem or as individuals when young . most wrasse bury themselves in the sand at night , and also when threatened .
some species of wrasse go through drastic color changes from juvenile to adult form . most species of wrasse have no characteristics that differentiate males from females , and the breeding of these fish in an aquarium is extremely difficult .
wrasse is marine fish that belongs to the labridae family . there are more than 500 species of wrasse that can be found in tropical and subtropical waters of indian , pacific and atlantic ocean . wrasse inhabits coastal areas , rocky shores , coral reefs , tidal pools and sandy sea floor . few species of wrasse are part of human diet . wrasses are very popular among aquarists because of their colorful bodies . some species , such as humphead wrasse , are listed as endangered due to over - fishing and destruction of coral reefs ( their habitat ) .
wrasse can survive 3 to 30 years in the wild ( most species live from 3 to 5 years ) .
wrasse is a carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on small invertebrates ( crabs , shrimps , mollusks , snails and sea urchins ) and fish . wrasse occasionally follows large marine predators and collects leftover of their meals .
semsar , k . , f . l . m . kandel , and j . godwin ( 2001 ) manipulations of the avt system shifts social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . horm . behav . 40 : 21 - 31 .
warner , r . r . and e . t . schultz . 1992 . sexual selection and male characteristics in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum : mating site acquisition , mating site defense , and female choice . evolution . 46 ( 5 ) : 1421–1442 .
warner , r . r . and swearer , s . e . ( 1991 ) , social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biol . bull . 181 : 199 - 204 . ( october , 1991 )
red night shrimp ( rhynchocinetes rigens ; left ) are the most popular prey item for lionfish in bermudian waters . the invasive predators also feast on bluehead wrasse , which remove parasites from other fish species . photos by franco banfi ( left ) and paul starosta / via getty images
some wrasse adapt well to life in an aquarium , but others may require special attention and should only be kept by very experienced aquarists . wrasse must have an aquarium with a well - sealed lid , along with fine substrate , and good water conditions .
marsh - hunkin , k . e . , h . m . heinz , m . b hawkins , and j . godwin ( 2013 ) estrogenic control of behavioral sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . integrative and comparative biology 53 ( 6 ) : 951 - 9 .
lema , sean c . , melissa a . slane , kelley e . salvesen , john godwin ( 2012 ) variation in gene transcript profiles of two v1a - type arginine vasotocin receptors among sexual phases of bluehead wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) . general and comparative endocrinology 179 : 451 - 464 .
k semsar , fl kandel , and j godwin , manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse : hormones and behavior [ horm . behav . ] . vol . 40 , no . 1 , pp . 21 - 31 . aug 2001 .
some wrasse are referred to as cleaner fish , and will set up a station on the reef to pick parasites and dead tissue from larger fish , including predators . most cleaner wrasse are recognized by other reef fish , and are not eaten by larger fish on the reef .
bester , c .
bluehead .
florida museum of natural history : ichthyology . 2012 . florida museum of natural history . 27 may 2012 < urltoken > .
marsh , k . e . , l . m . creutz , m . b . hawkins , and j . godwin ( 2006 ) . aromatase immunoreactivity in the bluehead wrasse brain , thalassoma bifasciatum : immunolocalization and co - regionalization with arginine vasotocin and tyrosine hydroxylase . brain research 1126 : 91 - 101 .
expression data from bluehead wrasse brain cdna microarrays generated in our lab indicated that zic2 was upregulated in terminal phase males relative to both females and ip males ( passador - gurgel and godwin , unpublished data ) . this study focuses on the preoptic area of the hypothalamus and the possibility that zic2 mrna abundance is elevated specifically in tp males relative to females and ip males in this key integrative area for male - typical courtship and sexual behavior [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] . a second goal was to characterize the distribution of zic2 mrna expression in the brain of the bluehead wrasse using in situ hybridization .
nucleotide sequence alignment of the confirmed z ic2a partial nucleotide sequence isolated from thalassoma bifasciatum ( bluehead wrasse ; hq423137 . 1 ) aligned with gasterosteus aculeatus zic2a ( three - spined stickleback ; bt027912 . 1 ) . nucleotides indicated with “ * ” represent identical nucleotides when our clone was aligned with stickleback zic2a sequences from the ncbi database .
larson et , norris do , summers ch ( 2003b ) monoaminergic changes associated with socially induced sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse . neuroscience 119 : 251–263 .
koulish , s . and kramer , c . r . ( 1989 ) , human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hcg ) induces gonad reversal in a protogynous fish , the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( teleostei , labridae ) . j . exp . zool . , 252 : 156 - 168 . doi : 10 . 1002 / jez . 1402520207
wrasse has pointed snout , thick lips and prominent ( outward oriented ) canine teeth . it has elongated body covered with smooth scales and long dorsal and anal fins .
bluehead wrasses are generalist foragers and eat a variety of prey . they are known to forage for small invertebrates and crustaceans on the reef surface , target individual zooplankton in the water above the reef surface , and clean the parasites off of larger species . as they are one of the most common small - bodied fishes on reefs , bluehead wrasses are eaten by many different species of predatory fishes .
in summary , zic2 is widely expressed in the adult bluehead wrasse brain , including regions that regulate sexual behavior and function . the function of zic2 remains relatively unstudied in adult animals generally and this work is therefore novel in adult teleosts . we have also provided evidence of sexual phenotype differences in zic2 expression in the preoptic area . together with evidence of roles in neural differentiation and dopaminergic signaling in other species , these sexual phenotype differences in bluehead wrasses suggest a potential role in their remarkable sexual plasticity . further research involving mechanistic approaches will be necessary to explore this possibility .
larson et , norris do , gordon grau e , summers ch ( 2003a ) monoamines stimulate sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse . general and comparative endocrinology 130 : 289–298 .
it gets its common name from the adult coloration , which includes an obviously blue head on an otherwise green body . juveniles are solid yellow , or nearly so , with a black spot on the dorsal fin . the numerical success of the bluehead wrasse is apparent to anyone who has visited a caribbean reef ; it is one of the most common species in that region .
predatory threats to the blue head wrasse include the trumpetfish , red hind , greater soapfish , and yellowfin grouper ( bester ) . they are not predated by humans , but may be used as baitfish .
ty - jour ti - social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) t2 - the biological bulletin . vl - 181 ur - urltoken pb - marine biological laboratory , cy - woods hole , mass . : py - 1991 - 10 - 01 sp - 199 ep - 204 do - 10 . 2307 / 1542090 sn - 0006 - 3185 au - warner , r r au - swearer , s e er -
semsar , k . , f . l . m . kandel , and j . godwin . 2001 . manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior . 40 : 21 - 31 . semsar k . and l . godwin . 2003 . social influences on the arginine vasotocin system are independent of gonads in a sex - changing fish . j neurosci . 23 ( 10 ) : 4386–4393 .
wrasse can bury itself in the sand or quickly swim away ( thanks to well developed pectoral and caudal fins ) , to escape from predators . some species hide among the large tentacles of mushroom coral and sea anemones .
but , is that fair to the lionfish ? sure , humans created this problem , which endangers red night shrimp , bluehead wrasses and countless other animals . a lionfish , however , is a living creature too — one that didn’t purposefully migrate into our waters .
color of the body depends on the species , habitat , age and gender . wrasse can be white , yellow , orange , red , purple , blue , green , grey , brown or black and covered with numerous bars , stripes and markings .
@ article { bhlpart30476 , title = { social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) } , journal = { the biological bulletin . } , volume = { 181 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { woods hole , mass . : marine biological laboratory , } , author = { warner , r r and swearer , s e } , year = { 1991 - 10 - 01 } , pages = { 199 - - 204 } , }
caution is required with : dwarf angelfish , anglers & frogfish , anthias , basslets , blennies , butterflyfish , cardinalfish , clownfish , eels , filefish , goatfish , gobies , groupers , grunts & sweetlips , hawkfish , hogfish , lionfish & scorpionfish , parrotfish , puffers , squirrelfish , triggerfish and wrasse .
shapiro , d . y . 1979 . social behavior , group structure , and the control of sex reversal in hermaphroditic fish . adv . studies behav . 10 : 43 - 102 . warner , r . r . 1982 . mating systems , sex change , and sexual demography in the rainbow wrasse , thalassoma lucasanum . copeia . 653 - 661 .
bluehead wrasses are carnivorous and usually feed on zooplankton , the eggs of other fish , and small bottom - dwelling organisms . juveniles and initial phase individuals in particular may participate in cleaning stations , consuming dead material and parasites off of the bodies and out of the gills of larger fish as they pass through the station . which food source they capitalize on depends largely on ocean current and reef condition ( oceana ) .
females produce and release thousands of eggs during the spawning season . some wrasses show parental care . males guard eggs laid in the algae or various cavities until they hatch . other species of wrasse produce planktonic eggs which freely float , carried by ocean currents . incubation period lasts 24 hours on a temperature of 27 degrees of celsius ( lower temperature prolongs incubation period ) .
. again , much like avt , 11 - kt is affected by the fluctuation of cortisol ; elevated cortisol levels results in the inhibition of 11 - kt synthesis , thereby keeping gonads intact in suppressed ip females as well as allowing ip males to retain their reproductive function without the tp coloration since the lack of 11 - kt production does not affect testosterone levels . in fact , ip fish , both male and female , have undetectable levels of 11 - kt . as closely related they are to each other in terms aiding sex change in the bluehead wrasse , 11 - kt and avt systems can act independently of each other . 11 - kt does not increase avt mrna expression nor is it necessary for the display of such expression . however , 11 - kt could still play a role in the responsiveness to exogenous avt
the bluethroat wrasse can be recognised by its colouration . juveniles and females are greenish to reddish with a dusky bar behind the pectoral fin . the body scales have pale centres . males are brown to bluish - grey , with a white band across the body below the soft portion of the dorsal fin . the head is grey , the chin and throat are blue and the lips are yellow .
munday , p . l . , j . w . white , and r . r . warner . 2006b . a social basis for the development of primary males in a sex - changing fish . proc . r . soc . lond . , b , biol . sci . 273 : 2845–2851 . peacock , richard .
sex change in nature - coral reef fish .
evolution faq . web . 14 nov . 2010 . < urltoken > . petersen , c . w . , r . r . warner , d . y . shapiro , and a . marconato . 2001 . components of fertilization success in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . behavioral ecology . 12 : 237 - 245 . perry a . n . and m . s . grober . 2003 . a model for social control of sex change : interactions of behavior , neuropeptides , glucocorticoids , and sex steroids . horm behav . 43 ( 1 ) : 31e–8 .
lionfish also disrupt reef ecosystems by targeting baby bluehead wrasses and other cleaner fish . “cleaning stations are areas on the reef where our [ native ] predators don’t eat the other fish , ” flook said . akin to how we go to doctors to get checkups , the reef fish have these areas , which are like no - feed zones . except lionfish don’t abide . flook said lionfish target these cleaning stations in bermudian waters , not only eating the cleaners but all the fish in need of a tune - up .
as previously mentioned , when the dominant tp male disappears from his harem , the largest ip female is prompted to take over . once the largest fish of the harem detects the absence of the territorial dominant male , it immediately undergoes transitional changes in order to replace the missing leader . this process is a response to a social cue that is regulated by the change in hormones . during sex change , there are rapid changes in behavior , such as increased aggression and the beginnings of typical t - tp male courtship conduct , as well as permanent color change . additionally , the gonads in the ip female change dramatically . that is , the ovaries of the ip female that contain no detectable testicular tissue are transformed into perfect testes . within a week of changing from a large , yellow wrasse to a large , blue and green wrasse , the former female is already producing sperm and fertilizing the eggs laid by the females in the territory .
most research involving the blue head wrasse revolves around its ability to change sex . in a study by robert warner and stephen swearer , social control of sex change was studied . they found that “overall , there was a very strong response to the removal of tp and [ early terminal phase ] males on the experimental reefs” ( warner ) . following the removal of the tp males , it was always the largest individuals in the group that took their place as dominant males .
what is the neurochemical basis of such changes ? to recap , aggression and courtship behavior demonstrated by t - tp males is a means of suppressing sex change in ip females as well as nt - tp males . only when the suppression condition is lifted can sex change take place or be completed ( ross , 1989 ) . the dominated fish are placed under chronic social stress , thereby increasing their levels of cortisol ( perry and grober , 2003 ) . the changes in the levels of cortisol in turn affect the expression of arginine vasotocin ( avt ) . cortisol and avt have an inverse relationship . for the bluehead wrasse , behavioral sex change is associated with an increase of avt . thus , t - tp males have low levels of cortisol and high levels of avt while the reverse is true for ip females and males . for the suppressed fish , the high amounts of cortisol promote the pathway for estrogen production in the gonads , which accounts for their lower levels of avt and their lack of typical t - tp male behavior .
zic has been studied primarily in relation to development , but we found widespread expression of zic2 mrna in the brain of adult bluehead wrasses . expression was high in the granule cells of the cerebellum , as in other species examined to date , but is also present in a variety of other brain areas . these areas include the thalamus , hypothalamus , habenula , torus semicircularis , torus longitudinalis , medial longitudinal fascicle , and various telencephalic regions . we also found that zic2 mrna was more abundant in the preoptic area of terminal phase ( tp ) males than in either females or the female - mimic initial phase ( ip ) males , but found no significant differences in zic2 mrna in the habenula or cerebellum across sexual phenotypes .
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justification : this species is widespread in the northwestern atlantic and is common in many parts of its range . although it is collected for the aquarium trade , and is closely associated with reef habitat , these are not currently considered to be a threat to this species global population . it listed as least concern .
this species is common in the tropical waters of the western central atlantic ocean , and is found in bermuda , florida , the gulf of mexico , and the caribbean sea to venezuela and trinidad and tobago .
anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; curaçao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .
this species has been noted as one of the ‘top ten’ species of fish on the export list in florida ( wood 2001 ) and puerto rico ( sadovy 1992 ) . an ornamental fishery evaluation study found that 844 individuals were harvested per annum across the la parguera and rincón regions , puerto rico ( richard et al . 2006 ) .
there are no major threats known for this species , although it is closely associated with coral reefs and shows high site fidelity . adults remain on their home reefs , with no emigration or immigration after settlement ( warner and hoffman 1980 ) . habitat destruction may pose a local threat to this species .
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scott w . michael , marine fishes , 1st ed . ( t . f . h . publications inc , new jersey , 2001 ) . rudie h kuiter , fairy & rainbow wrasses and their relatives , 1st ed . ( tmc publishing , chorleywood , uk , 2002 ) in house resources : adam mangino , eli fleishauer urltoken name
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…such as young blueheads ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) and labroides species , act as cleaners for larger fishes . they pick off and eat the external parasites of groupers , eels , snappers , and other fishes that visit them periodically . this cleaning service is also performed by various other small fishes and by certain shrimps .
dog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies…
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figure 3 . the differentation of gonads and the changes the ovaries undertake into to become a tesis . all juveniles first develop a rudimentary female gonad that can differeniate into either primary testis or ovary . ( munday et al . , 2006 )
in addition to avt , serum 11 - ketotestostrone ( 11 - kt ) is involved with the transition from an ip female to a tp male . whereas avt is responsible for the behavioral aspect of the sex change , 11 - kt is responsible for the physical aspect . as the primary androgen in fish , increased 11 - kt , accompanied by a sharp drop of serum estradiol ( e2 ) , is the key component of the conversion of the ovary into a testis . additionally , increases in 11 - kt is correlated with the development of color change typical to that of the tp male
interestingly enough , neither the development nor the maintenance of male - typical behavior depends on the presence of gonads ( semsar and godwin , 2004 ) . in fact , ovariectomy does not prevent the development of male behavior in socially dominant females ( godwin et al . , 1996 ) . thus , increases of avt occur regardless of whether sex - changing females have gonads or not . this lends itself to the theory that male behavior assumption is purely dependent on attaining social dominance .
mechanism the physical characteristics and procedures in which a trait is able to express itself .
arginine vasotocin ( avt ) a hormone that is responsible for the expression of sociosexual behavior in vertebrates .
serum 11 - ketotestostrone ( 11 - kt ) and serum estradiol ( e2 ) types of steroid hormones .
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t . bifasciatum is a reef - dwelling fish found primarily throughout the caribbean and gulf of mexico . they are found as far north as the carolinas and as far south as brazil . they frequent shallow reef areas , mangroves , and sea grass beds . they may occur in schools , especially when feeding . juveniles are known to recede into sea anemones for protection from predation , but they must avoid the stinging tentacles and ingestion by the anemone ( bester ) .
t . bifasciatum is a brightly colored fish with multiple possible color variations depending on stage of development . the juvenile phase is generally an overall yellow coloration , while the initial phase ( ip ) is characterized by a “dusky blue color with irregular white stripes” ( beletsky , 2010 ) . variations include dark spots or stripes and may depend on location . the most notable color phase is that of the supermale , or terminal phase ( tp ) male . these individuals have a bright blue head adjacent to a dark bar , white bar , another dark bar , and a blue - green or yellow - green body ( bester ) . fins may have dark bars or spots as well .
reproduction normally occurs toward the middle of the day when the ip fishes form large groups and release gametes into the water . the supermales form harems of courted females and reproduce with each female separately .
a study conducted by koulish and kramer explored the effect of human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hcg ) on protogynous fish . in 1 - 6 weeks , after treatment with hcg , 80 % of the fish displayed signs of sex reversal ( compared to 11 % control ) ( koulish ) .
beletsky , l . ( 2010 ) . belize and northern guatemala . northampton : interlink books .
computer generated map for thalassoma bifasciatum ( un - reviewed ) . www . aquamaps . org , version of aug . 2010 . web . accessed 29 may . 2012 .
it occurs from the central coast of new south wales south to tasmania and west to eastern south australia .
the map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .
the species occurs on rocky reefs . juveniles are found in shallow weed habitats in bays and estuaries . adults are usually seen on deeper rocky reefs to depths of about 40 m but have been trawled from water down to 160 m .
edgar , g . j . 1997 . australian marine life : the plants and animals of temperate waters . reed books . pp . 544 .
gomon , m . f . & b . c . russell in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & r . h . kuiter ( eds ) . 1994 . the fishes of australia ' s south coast . state print , adelaide . pp . 992 .
hutchins , b . & r . swainston . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . swainston publishing . pp . 180 .
kuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .
kuiter , r . h . 2000 . coastal fishes of south - eastern australia . gary allen . pp . 437 .
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greek , thalassa = the sea + greek , soma = body ; the colour of the sea ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 40 m ( ref . 9710 ) , usually 3 - 30 m ( ref . 27115 ) . tropical ; 23°c - 26°c ( ref . 27115 ) ; 33°n - 8°n , 98°w - 59°w
western atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , southeastern gulf of mexico and throughout the caribbean sea to northern south america .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26340 ) ; max . reported age : 3 years ( ref . 3420 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 10 - 11 . body elongate ; 3 primary color phases , the smallest with a black mid - lateral stripe which continues as pale red blotches on head ; back above stripe yellow on reef fish and whitish on fish from inshore non - reef areas , and body below white . the largest phase , has a bright blue head and a green body with two broad vertical black bars anteriorly which are separated by a light blue interspace ; this phase is always male . the small yellow phase with the black stripe may be either male or female ( ref . 13442 ) .
inhabits reef areas , inshore bays and seagrass beds . feeds mainly on zooplankton and small benthic animals , but may also feed on ectoparasites of other fishes ( ref . 9626 ) . spawn at midday throughout the year ( ref . 26938 ) . a protogynous hermaphrodite ( ref . 55367 ) . generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size ( ref . 5217 ) .
a diandric species ( ref . 55367 ) . sex reversal is completed in more than 3 - 4 weeks ( ref . 34185 , 34257 ) . length at sex change = 8 . 3 cm tl , forms leks during breeding ( ref . 55367 ) .
robins , c . r . and g . c . ray , 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 354 p . ( ref . 7251 )
) : 25 - 28 . 1 , mean 26 . 8 ( based on 222 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00524 - 0 . 01589 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 16 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 7 ; tmax = 3 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .
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they are generally compatible with : large angelfish , boxfish , damselfish and tangs & surgeons .
they are not compatible with : batfish , pseudochromis , seahorses & pipefish and sharks & rays .
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spawning season of wrasses takes place all year round in tropical waters or during the warm period of year in subtropical and temperate areas .
some wrasses are born as females , but they change sex and transform into males later in life . these individuals are scientifically known as protogynous hermaphrodites .
larvae are part of plankton during the first month of their life . after that period , they become large enough to join the community on the coral reefs .
“the problem with the lionfish is it’s like darwin’s nightmare , ” oliver steeds said , standing on the deck of the baseline explorer .
a late afternoon sun dwindled over the 146 - foot research vessel , as it sat anchored in st . george’s harbour on bermuda’s northeast corner . licks of ocean water dried off a gold - plated submersible parked next to steeds , the director of a deep ocean exploration project called the nekton mission , as he recounted the basics of the invasive species .
“lionfish are chowing their way through the food chain , because they don’t have any predators , ” steeds said .
the first lionfish sightings occurred off the florida coast in the mid - 1980s . lionfish hail from the indo - pacific , but due to their ruby stripes and daggerlike spines , they are a favorite among exotic pet owners . scientists now believe that it was u . s . owners dumping adult lionfish into public waters that allowed a local population to establish itself . ( in 1992 , hurricane andrew famously washed out a tank of six lionfish into biscayne bay , florida , which people often inaccurately cite as the start of the invasion . )
since then , lionfish have terrorized atlantic waters , their ferocious appetites upsetting the balance of reef ecosystems . such was the case near the bahamas between 2003 and 2009 , where lionfish overconsumed juvenile parrotfish and other young plant eaters . the result : algae bloomed with abandon , choking the reef ecosystems at a 150 - to 200 - foot depth . coral coverage shrank by as much as 88 percent in places ; sponge coverage by 96 percent .
map of the lionfish spread based on sightings from 1985 to 2015 . data by u . s . geological survey . image by adam sarraf
“in u . s . waters , we know the lionfish are consuming a number of economically important species too , like snapper , grouper and even spiny lobster , ” said ocean ecologist james morris of noaa’s national ocean service . what’s more , lionfish multiply swiftly . a single female spawns every two to three days and can lay 2 million eggs in a year .
two species of lionfish — pterois volitans and pterois miles — now threaten reef ecosystems across the western atlantic and the caribbean .
but a solution may be on the way , in the form of a robot .
in a way , the lionfish terminator — not the robot’s official name — is cousin to a vacuum cleaner .
the idea surfaced in the fall of 2015 , when colin angle , the ceo for irobot and the maker of the roomba robotic vacuum , paid a visit to friends on bermuda . during the visit , angle and his wife , biochemist erika ebbel joined a group of locals and sailed offshore for a dive . with them was chris flook , who had a long relationship with lionfish .
as a collector of marine specimens for the bermuda aquarium , museum and zoo , flook had been one of the first people to notice lionfish in bermudian waters in the early 2000s . for unknown reasons , sightings began to surge up and down the atlantic around the turn of the millennia .
“the first one i saw , i thought “oh , that’s pretty cool . lionfish aren’t supposed to be here , so maybe somebody’s released it , ” flook said . “then very quickly i started to notice over time , we were losing small fish from these areas . ”
lionfish began outcompeting bermudian predators , like groupers , for food . groupers feed in spurts , flook said . they eat and then chill out for a few days . by comparison , lionfish feed constantly , which flook and other experts blame on a hunting technique developed in their native range . in the indo - pacific , small species see the spiked barbs and know to retreat , so the lionfish must work hard for its meals . fish in the atlantic , however , are naive to the danger and don’t flee .
left : marine ecologist chris flook filets a lionfish . flook was one of the first to notice bermuda’s lionfish invasion in the early 2000s . right : alex chequer of the ocean support foundation holds up an adult lionfish prior to a research dissection . photo by megan crigger
flook did early experiments when he noticed the invaders , where he put lionfish and bermuda’s dominant reef predator in separate tanks . he then collected juvenile bream fish from an enclosed bay , which he suspected had never come in contact with a grouper or lionfish .
“ [ the bream ] did exactly what we thought . they would stay away from the grouper because they knew at some point that grouper was going to try to eat them , ” flook said . “in the lionfish tank , it was actually surprising how quickly the breams swam up to the lionfish to try and hide next to it . the lionfish ate every single one . ”
as the invasion grew , flook and a collection of local divers founded the bermuda lionfish task force , which holds daily dives and fishing tournaments to rid their waters of the invasive species .
on that fall day , while the group ate their catch on the boat , flook and the other bermudians recounted these stories of the lionfish , and angle had a thought .
“he envisioned building a robot to kill lionfish , ” recalled geoffrey gardner , a native bermudian , a friend of angle’s and fellow mit alumnus . “and that was the beginning of rise . ”
after the trip concluded , the angles laid the foundation for robots in service of the environment ( rise ) .
the independent , nonprofit company has recruited a league of engineers and scientists — all volunteers — to establish a skynet for lionfish . gardner , for instance , is coordinating the robot testing . meanwhile , ed williams , an rov ( remotely operated underwater vehicle ) designer at robo nautica in california , is pitching in weekends to engineer prototypes .
john rizzi , a retired entrepreneur and navy veteran , was appointed as the group’s executive director . “in order to attack the problem of lionfish in the western atlantic , you need maybe thousands of machines , ” rizzi said . “to do that , you have to be able to build them reliably , inexpensively . ”
two rov designs are leading the way . one model carries a spear gun , matching how human divers typically harvest lionfish . the second model will electrocute the lionfish by using a robot arm equipped with two metal electrodes .
“when the probes get to either side of the fish , you basically zap it , ” rizzi said . to start , each model will sport video cameras , so a pilot can guide the rovs from onshore or inside a boat . but the team’s long - term plan is autonomous underwater robots that hunt lionfish on their own .
rise’s other leading prototype would use a pressure - powered speargun to cull lionfish . spearing is considered a humane method for collecting lionfish . this model will begin field tests in september . photo by ed williams , robo nautica
one of the first steps in development , especially for the zapper model , is observing how lionfish might react to an approaching robot . but here’s one advantage for the rise team . due to their venomous barbs , lionfish have few predators . as a result , they don’t automatically flee when approached .
to keep other nearby fish from being zapped , rizzi and the other designers are relying on ocean chemistry . saltwater is highly conductive , so they expect it should act almost like a straight wire between the two electrode plates . the team is testing the shocking mechanism on lionfish in aquariums before rolling out the design into oceans . rise hopes these robots will appeal to fishermen , who are looking for ways to supply lionfish to restaurants — a growing sustainable market .


the wingspan is 13 – 15 mm .

the hindwings are pale grey .

adults are on wing from march to july .

the larvae feed on helianthus species .

they create a gall , which has the form of a thickening of the walls of the stem .

it varies in form from oblong to almost round .

galls mostly occur singly on the stems and are generally located somewhat below mid-height of the plant .

bucculatrix needhami

bucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas .
bucculatrix needhami is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida , kentucky , illinois , maine , new york , ohio , south carolina and texas . the wingspan is 13–15 mm . the forewings are white marked with irrorated fuscous streaks . the hindwings are pale grey . adults are on wing from mar . . .
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collected at the wedge plantation , charleston county south carolina by richard b . dominick 3 april 1970
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