the alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) is a small insect-eating bird of the tyrant flycatcher family .

the genus name empidonax is from ancient greek empis , " gnat " , and anax , " master " .

the specific alnorum is latin and means " of the alders " .

adults have olive-brown upperparts , browner on the wings and tail , with whitish underparts ; they have a white eye ring , white wing bars , a small bill and a short tail .

the breast is washed with olive-grey .

the upper part of the bill is grey ; the lower part is orangish .

at one time , this bird was included with the very similar willow flycatcher in a single species , " traill 's flycatcher " .

their breeding habitat is deciduous thickets , often alders or willows , near water across canada , alaska and the northeastern united states .

they make a cup nest low in a vertical fork in a shrub .

these birds migrate to south america , usually selecting winter habitat near water .

they wait on a perch near the top of a shrub and fly out to catch insects in flight , also sometimes picking insects from foliage while hovering .

they may eat some berries and seeds .

this bird 's song is a wheezed ree-bee-a .

the call is a quick preet .

alder flycatcher

a small , nondescript flycatcher of northern wet thickets , the alder flycatcher is difficult to distinguish from the willow flycatcher by any feature other than voice .
in an experiment on song learning , alder flycatchers were
tutored
with willow flycatcher song in the first two months of life . the next spring , the alder flycatchers sang normal alder flycatcher song .
the alder flycatcher and the willow flycatcher are so similar in their physical appearance , it was thought that they were the same species , which was known as traill’s flycatcher .
there are not known to be any conservation measures currently in place for the alder flycatcher .
the alder flycatcher has a relatively short breeding season , which lasts a maximum of 90 days .
in an experiment on song learning , alder flycatchers were
tutored
with willow flycatcher song in the first two months of life . the next spring , they sang normal alder flycatcher song .
the alder flycatcher is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the alder flycatcher is so similar to the willow flycatcher that they were once thought to be the same species . song is the only definitive way to tell them apart .
the alder flycatcher ' s nest is a coarse , loose cup that nearly always has material hanging off it . the nest of the willow flycatcher tends to be neater , with no hanging material .
the longest - lived alder flycatcher was over 9 years old , when it was recaptured and rereleased during a banding operation in british columbia .
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some alder flycatchers have white rings surrounding the eyes , whereas others do not .
no information is available on management activities in montana specific to alder flycatcher , although the suspected breeding location for this species is protected within pine butte preserve .
alder flycatcher : breeds from alaska east through manitoba to newfoundland and south to british columbia , great lakes region , much of new england , and into the mid - atlantic states . spends winters in tropics . preferred habitats include alder and birch thickets near
fee - bee - o .
this traditional description identifies the song of the alder flycatcher . songs of empidonax flycatchers , a notoriously difficult group to identify in the field , are the best , and sometimes only , means for determining species . this is especially true for separating the alder flycatcher from its sibling species , the willow flycatcher ( e . traillii ) . alder and willow flycatchers cannot be identified reliably by sight alone , and even in - hand identification is not always certain . alder ( fee - bee - o song ) and willow ( fitz - bew ) flycatchers were considered one species called traill ' s flycatcher , a name still used to refer to the species pair . of these two sibling species , the alder flycatcher has the more northern and boreal distribution . alder flycatchers are late migrants in spring and leave early in the fall ; northern populations have a short 70 - 90 day breeding season . this flycatcher is single brooded , although individual pairs may renest after an early loss . molt occurs primarily on wintering grounds . the alder flycatcher is thought to winter chiefly in northern south america ( and thus further south than wintering willow flycatchers in middle america and extreme northwestern south america ) . the only definite winter records for alder flycatcher , on basis of call , are from eastern peru , eastern ecuador , and northern and eastern bolivia .
in areas where breeding ranges overlap , alder flycatchers show less aggression toward willow flycatchers near nesting sites than any other species ; willow flycatcher are the more dominant of the two species ( gorski 1969b ) .
other flycatchers found in montana with which the alder may be confused are the least ( e . minimus ) and willow flycatchers . in comparison , the least flycatcher has a shorter , narrower bill , a bold , complete eye - ring , thinner tail , and different song ( lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . the general appearance of the alder flycatcher is so similar to that of the willow flycatcher that separating these two species visually can be extremely difficult ( lowther 1999 ) . the alder flycatcher is best separated from the willow flycatcher by voice . the song of the alder flycatcher ( a 3 - syllable
fee - bee - o
) is described as being harsh and burry in nature with a strongly accented second syllable , making it sound like a 2 syllable
rrree - beep
( lowther 1999 ) . the song of the willow flycatcher is accented on the first syllable , more of a
fitz - bew ,
but may occasionally sound as though it has a subtle third syllable ,
fritz - be - yew
( lowther 1999 ) . the call of the alder is described more as an emphatic
pip
or
pit
( reminiscent of an olive - sided flycatcher ) in contrast to the liquid
whit
of the willow ( gorski 1969a , 1971 , lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . lowther ( 1999 ) indicates that , generally , the alder has a darker overall appearance ,
slightly greener crown , more pointed wings , slightly shorter bill , and slightly longer tail .
lowther , p . e . ( 1999 ) alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) in : poole , a . ( ed . ) birds of north america online . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca . available at : urltoken
the habitat of the alder flycatcher is seasonally variable , with dense , wet areas of alder ( alnus species ) maple ( acer species ) and birch ( betula species ) forest preferred during the breeding season ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the breeding habitat is usually located in areas below elevations of 1 , 300 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
while migrating , the alder flycatcher is found in various humid and semi - arid open habitats , such as forest edges , woodlands and fields ( 2 ) up to elevations of 2 , 500 metres ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
willow and alder flycatchers do not respond to playback of recordings of each other ' s songs , even where their ranges overlap .
a burry fee - bee - o , rather different from the wheezy fitz - bew of the willow flycatcher .
the alder flycatcher is so similar to the willow flycatcher that they were thought to be the same species . song is the only definitive way to tell them apart . however , measurements of crown color with a colorimeter , together with other measures of wing shape , bill and tail , may be able to distinguish birds in the hand that are not calling .
the upperparts of the juvenile alder flycatcher are browner than the adult ( 2 ) ( 3 ) , the underparts are tinged yellow ( 3 ) and there are broad , yellow - buff bars on the wings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) .
most tyrant flycatcher species have stable populations in north america . the olive - sided flycatcher , though , has sharply declined throughout its range possibly due to habitat destruction on its wintering grounds and has been listed as near - threatened .
observations in may indicate the earliest presence of the species in the state . alder flycatcher records continue generally only through july , with one rarity ; an individual at pine butte that was observed in september of 1991 ( montana bird distribution committee 2012 ) .
as an american species , the alder flycatch drew a crowd of 200 birdwatchers from around the uk when it appeared in cornwall in 2008 .
the moderately long bill is black on the upper surface and pale orange - yellow on the underside ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the eyes of the alder flycatcher are dark brown ( 4 ) and the legs and feet are black ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
the alder flycatcher ' s diet is comprised mainly of insects obtained primarily by flycatching ( bent 1942 ) , although gleaning prey from tree and shrub foliage is also a known foraging behavior ( lowther 1999 ) . berries supplement their winter diet ( stiles and skutch 2003 ) .
in winter , the alder flycatcher inhabits thickets and forest borders ( 2 ) , as well as areas with early successional vegetation ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . while overwintering , this species is found up to elevations of 1 , 100 metres ( 2 ) .
although large in the empidonax genus , the alder flycatcher is a small species within the flycatcher family . thirteen to seventeen centimeters in length , with a wingspan of approximately 21 cm , the alder flycatcher has dull greenish - olive upperparts with a similarly colored , but darker , crown . the eye - ring is narrow , whitish , and sometimes indistinct but rarely lacking , while the throat is clearly white and contrasts with a gray breast band . the bill is black on the upper mandible and dull yellow - orange or pinkish on the lower . the wings are darker than the back , have white - edged tertials ( innermost secondaries ) and wing - bars that are whitish and boldly marked ( lowther 1999 ) . the vocalization of the alder flycatcher is a harsh and burry , three syllable
rreebeea
or
fee - bee - o
( lowther 1999 , sibley 2000 ) . for a more complete description , see below on distinguishing between the vocalizations of the alder and willow ( e . trailii ) flycatchers . for a comprehensive review of the conservation status , habitat use , and ecology of this and other montana bird species , please see marks et al . 2016 , birds of montana .
a long - distance migrant ( 2 ) ( 4 ) , the alder flycatcher leaves its wintering grounds between march and early may , moving northwards to breed ( 2 ) . this species usually remains at its breeding grounds until late august , when most individuals will have begun their southward migration ( 4 ) .
lowther , p . e . 1999 . alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) . species account number 446 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database
only the male alder flycatcher produces vocalisations ( 4 ) , which include a short ‘ pip ’ , ‘ pit ’ , ‘ tip ’ , ‘ bic ’ , ‘ peep ’ or ‘ whit ’ ( 2 ) , as well as a distinct , buzzy ‘ fee - bee - o ’ song ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
more of a long - distance migrant than willow flycatcher , tending to nest farther north and winter farther south . migrates late in spring and early in fall .
gorski , l . j . 1969 . traill ' s flycatcher of the
fitz - bew
songform wintering in panama . auk 86 : 745 - 747 .
the breeding range of the alder flycatcher extends through canada and into a small area in the north - eastern united states . the migratory pathway of this species passes through the eastern united states and central america , with the overwintering grounds located in various western south american countries , including colombia , argentina , peru , belize , and venezuela ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
the alder and willow flycatchers are so similar in plumage that visual identification is nearly impossible . these two species were actually considered to be one species , the “traill’s flycatcher , ” until small differences in their plumages and distinct differences in their vocalizations showed that they were separate species . this was also the case for the cordilleran and pacific - slope flycatchers , and the eastern and western wood - peewees .
the diet of the alder flycatcher includes a variety of arthropods , including bees , wasps , flies , moths , butterflies , grasshoppers and crickets ( 2 ) . an individual may search for prey from a perch and pursue it through the air , or may take it directly from within foliage ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . in winter , this species may also eat small amounts of fruit ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .
the alder flycatcher has a large breeding range of 3 , 390 , 000 square kilometers . this includes brushy swamps and wetlands in alaska , canada , the northern mid - western states , and the north - eastern united states south through the appalachians . it winters in edge habitats in western south america . this species has a very large estimated breeding population of 130 , 000 individuals , and a conservation rating of least concern .
gorski , l . g . 1969 . systematics and ecology of sibling species of traill ' s flycatcher . ph . d . dissertation , university of connecticut , storrs , connecticut . 81 pp .
harris , j . h . , s . d . sanders , and m . a . flett . 1987 . willow flycatcher surveys in the sierra nevada . western birds 18 : 27 - 36
a small bird that spends the summer catching flying insects in northern thickets . this bird and the willow flycatcher are so similar to each other that they were considered one species until the 1970s . the only differences apparent in the field are in their voices . however , voice is important to these birds : many other kinds of songbirds have to learn their songs , but willow and alder flycatchers are born instinctively knowing the voice of their own species .
in north america , one hundred forty - seven species of tyrant flycatchers in fifty - eight genera have occurred . these include the brilliant vermillion flycatcher , the sassy kingbirds , and the bridge - loving phoebes .
a few other exceptions to this color scheme are the frosty plumage of the scissor - tailed flycatcher highlighted by salmon pink underwings , the orangish coloration of the say’s phoebe , and the black and white plumages of the eastern kingbird and black phoebe .
the plumage of the alder flycatcher ( empidonax alnorum ) is dull olive - green on the upperparts ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , although the head and crown are slightly darker than the back ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . the underside and throat are white , and there are two white or pale yellow bars on the black wings ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . individuals of this species may have a narrow white eyering ( 4 ) , although this is absent in some , and the presence of pale - coloured lores is also variable ( 2 ) .
habitat use is similar to that of the willow flycatcher and includes willow ( salix ) thickets , red osier dogwood ( cornus sericea ) , or birch ( betula sp . ) along the edges of wetlands , streams , lakes , and forests ( johnsgard 1992 ) .
mostly insects . differences in diet , if any , between this species and willow flycatcher are not well known . apparently eats mostly insects , including wasps , bees , winged ants , beetles , flies , caterpillars , moths , true bugs , and others . also eats some spiders , a few berries , and possibly some seeds .
the relatively short breeding season of the alder flycatcher runs from mid - june to early august ( 2 ) . the nest is constructed solely by the female and is a loose cup of coarse grass which is lined with wiry grass and conifer needles ( 2 ) . the nest is usually completed after around 36 hours ( 4 ) and the female then produces a clutch of 3 or 4 cream - white eggs ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) , which may be unmarked or have an irregular dark pattern on the surface ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the female incubates the nest for between 11 and 15 days , and once the eggs have hatched ( 2 ) ( 4 ) the young are fed by both adults ( 4 ) . the young then fledge the nest after 14 or 15 days ( 2 ) .
members of the tyrannidae occur in most types of forested and non - forest habitats in north america except for the tundra . some species such as the willow flycatcher and black phoebe are associated with wetland habitats , others like the olive - sided and hammond’s flycatchers need coniferous forests , and other species such as the cassin’s kingbird and say’s phoebe , occur in grasslands . related species often replace each other in different habitats or regions such as in the case of the eastern and western wood - peewees .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
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much of breeding habitat in the north is remote from effects of human disturbance . numbers probably stable .
willows , alders , brushy swamps , swales . breeds in thickets of deciduous trees and shrubs , usually near water , as around streams , ponds , or bogs . especially common in thickets of willows or alders . winters in woodland edges or second growth in the tropics , especially near water .
forages by watching from a perch and then flying out to catch insects . usually forages from perches within tall shrubs or low trees ; catches insects in mid - air , or takes them from foliage while hovering .
3 - 4 , rarely 2 . white , with brown spots concentrated toward larger end . incubation is by female , 12 - 14 days . young : both parents bring food for nestlings . age of young at first flight about 13 - 14 days .
both parents bring food for nestlings . age of young at first flight about 13 - 14 days .
male defends nesting territory by singing . courtship behavior is not well known , probably involves male actively chasing female through the trees . nest site is usually low in a deciduous shrub , averaging about 2 ' up , usually lower than 6 ' above the ground . placed in a vertical or diagonal fork in a branch . nest ( probably built by female alone ) is an open cup , usually built rather loosely of grass , weeds , strips of bark , small twigs , rootlets , lined with plant down or other soft materials . nest may have strips of grass or bark dangling from the bottom .
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arthropods a major grouping of animals that includes crustaceans , insects and arachnids . all arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton ( exoskeleton ) . early successional vegetation the first plants to colonise an ecosystem after a disturbance . incubate to keep eggs warm so that development is possible . lores the space between a bird’s bill and eyes .
del hoyo , j . , farnsworth , a . and lebbin , d . ( 2004 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume 9 : contingas to pipits and wagtails . lynx edicions , barcelona . available at : urltoken
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
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copyright by borror laboratory of bioacoustics , department of evolution , ecology , and organismal biology , ohio state university , columbus , oh , all rights reserved .
using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;
calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of
observations versus availability of habitat
.
species that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,
point observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .
species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :
) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .
adams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .
dobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .
foresman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .
hart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .
hutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .
maxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .
werner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .
baicich , p . j . and c . j . o . harrison . 2005 . a guide to the nests , eggs and nestlings of north american birds . second edition . academic press , new york .
bent , a . c . 1942 . life histories of north american flycatchers , larks , swallows , and their allies . u . s . national museum bulletin 179 . washington , dc .
gorski , l . g . 1971 . traill ' s flycatchers of the
fee - bee - o
songform wintering in peru . auk 88 : 429 - 431 .
harrison , h . h . 1979 . a field guide to western birds nests . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma . 279 pp .
johnsgard , p . a . 1992 . birds of the rocky mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . lincoln : university of nebraska press . xi + 504 pp .
marks , j . s . , p . hendricks , and d . casey . 2016 . birds of montana . arrington , va . buteo books . 659 pages .
montana bird distribution committee . 2012 . p . d . skaar ' s montana bird distribution . 7th edition . montana audubon , helena , montana . 208 pp . + foldout map .
sibley , d . a . 2000 . the sibley guide to birds . national audubon society and alfred a . knopf , inc . , new york , ny . 544 pp .
stiles , f . g . and a . f . skutch . 2003 . a guide to the birds of costa rica . comstock publishing associates , cornell university press , ithaca . 511 pp .
american ornithologists union . 1983 . checklist of north american birds , 6th edition . 877 pp .
american ornithologists’ union [ aou ] . 1998 . check - list of north american birds , 7th edition . american ornithologists’ union , washington , d . c . 829 p .
casey , d . 2005 . rocky mountain front avian inventory . final report . prepared for the u . s . fish and wildlife service and the nature conservancy by the american bird conservancy , kalispell , montana .
ehrlich , p . , d . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder’s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster inc . new york . 785 pp .
godfrey , w . earl . 1966 . the birds of canada . national museums of canada , ottawa . 428 pp .
johnsgard , p . a . 1986 . birds of the rocky mountains : with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . colorado associated university press , boulder , co .
keast , a . , and e . s . morton . 1980 . migrant birds in the neotropics : ecology , distribution , and conservation . smithsonian institution press , washington , dc .
lenard , s . , j . carlson , j . ellis , c . jones , and c . tilly . 2003 . p . d . skaar’s montana bird distribution , 6th edition . montana audubon , helena , mt . 144 pp .
montana bird distribution online database . 2001 . helena , montana , usa . april - september 2003 .
sibley , d . 2014 . the sibley guide to birds . alfred a . knopf , new york , ny . 598 pp .
skaar , p . d . 1969 . birds of the bozeman latilong : a compilation of data concerning the birds which occur between 45 and 46 n . latitude and 111 and 112 w . longitude , with current lists for idaho , montana , wyoming , impinging montana counties and yellowstone national park . bozeman , mt . 132 p .
terres , j . k . 1980 . the audubon society encyclopedia of north american birds . alfred a . knopf , new york . 1109 pp .
u . s . forest service . 1991 . forest and rangeland birds of the united states : natural history and habitat use . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service agricultural handbook 688 . 625 pages .
wright , p . l . 1996 . status of rare birds in montana , with comments on known hybrids . northwestern naturalist 77 ( 3 ) : 57 - 85 .
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no modification . singing bird perched approximately 6 feet above ground in the top of rhododendron shrub .
natural vocalization , windy morning just behind the dock in a small wooded brushy lot . bird was perched on a willow type bush about 8 feet up .
black spruce ( picea mariana ) bog with a dwarf birch ( betula glandulosa ) and labrador tea ( rhododendron groenlandicum ) dominated understory . transitioning to willow ( salix sp . ) and white spruce ( picea glauca ) in drier upland areas .
heard singing in dense black willow stand on the bank of the mississippi river . continued singing while foraging and eventually flew within 10ft and intermittently gave different calls .
mixed paper birch - quaking aspen woodland about 10 - 15 meters from muddy river , a sinuous watercourse with many sloughs . within a kilometer were many muskegs and lakes surrounded by spruce .
same individual featured in xc194087 . habitat : shrubland , river , mature mixed forest .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
and indistinct white eye - ring . wings are olive - brown with two white or pale bars . bill is short with orange
black legs and feet . weak fluttering direct flight with shallow , rapid wing beats .
an estimated 63 % of their population breeds in canada ' s boreal forest .
a group of flycatchers has many collective nouns , including an
outfield
,
swatting
,
zapper
, and
zipper
of flycatchers .
the passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) , a large taxonomic order that includes antbirds , cotingas , and flycatchers , is composed of one hundred eighteen families of birds .
the tyrannidae ( pronounced tie - ran - uh - dee ) , or tyrant flycatchers , is a very large , successful family of four hundred and twenty - four species in one hundred genera only found in the americas .
some tyrant flycatchers are known for their bold , aggressive behavior , this family often called the tyrant flycatchers for this reason . the eastern kingbird in particular , seems to go out of its way to chase much larger birds ( such as turkey vultures ) away from its territory .
small to medium in size , tyrant flycatchers have stocky heads with medium sized beaks , tails that vary in length , and long wings . they also have short legs suited to their arboreal lifestyles .
tyrant flycatchers do not nest in colonies and mostly forage in pairs or alone although the eastern kingbird forms flocks during migration and on its wintering grounds in amazonia . most north american flycatchers share a similar foraging strategy that often varies by niche and prey item . this foraging strategy involves watching for insects from a perch , sallying out to catch one with a snap of the beak , and returning to the perch to eat it .
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relating to or living or located on the bank of a natural watercourse ( as a river ) or sometimes of a lake or a tidewater .


the yellow-tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) is one of the four species in the genus pionites of the family psittacidae .

originally the species was considered to be a subspecies of pionites leucogaster , but recent morphological work suggests the species should be split into three .

the species is rare in captivity in comparison to other taxa of the genus .

yellow - tailed parrot

another yellow - tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) showing its rosy - pink legs .
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, with which this species was formerly considered to be conspecific , a medium - sized , chunky , short - tailed parrot , with apricot - orange cap , . . .
the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo is found in south - eastern australia , from eyre peninsula , south australia to south and central eastern queensland .
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the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo is a large cockatoo . it is easily identified by its mostly black plumage , with most body feathers edged with yellow , not visible at a distance . it has a yellow cheek patch and yellow panels on the tail . the female has a larger yellow cheek patch , pale grey eye - ring ( pink in males ) , white upper bill ( grey - black in males ) and black marks in the yellow tail panels . young birds resemble the adult female , but young males have a smaller cheek patch .
the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo inhabits a variety of habitat types , but favours eucalypt woodland and pine plantations . small to large flocks can be seen in these areas , either perched or flying on slowly flapping wings .
the yellow - tailed black cockatoo will brace itself
woodpecker fashion
with their tails while looking for grubs and larvae . they will also perch on a
chopping platform
gouged out from the trunk of a tree .
until recently , the short - billed black - cockatoo , c . latirostris , found in south - western australia , was considered a subspecies of the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo . this species has white , instead of yellow , panels in the tail . another similarly sized black - coloured cockatoo is the red - tailed black - cockatoo , c . magnificus . this species overlaps with the range of the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo in south - eastern queensland . it has red panels in the tail , and spotting on the body and head . the smaller ( 48 cm ) glossy black - cockatoo , c . lathami , also has red panels in the tail .
yellow - tailed black - cockatoos feed in small to large , noisy flocks . the favoured food is seeds of native trees and pinecones , but birds also feed on the seeds of ground plants . some insects are also eaten .
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the yellow - tailed black - cockatoo is one of six species of black - cockatoo in australia . in recent years it has been in rapid decline because of native habitat clearance , with a loss of food supply and nest sites .
z . f . funerea : male - in general brown / black , with feathers finely margined dull yellow ; soft yellow ear - coverts ; side tail feathers have wide yellow band near tip spotted with brown / black . bill slate grey . eye ring pink , eye dark brown . female - ear coverts bright yellow ; tail band more heavily spotted brown / black . bill horn in colour . eye ring grey . z . f . xanthanotus : both adults as in funereus but with significantly shorter tail ; little brown spotting in yellow tail band , sometimes missing in male ; smaller in size .
hitherto considered conspecific with p . xanthurus and p . leucogaster , but separated as a species distinct from former by its green vs yellow tail ( 3 ) , black vs pinky - yellow feet ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) ; and from latter by its yellow vs green lower flanks and thighs ( 3 ) , black vs pinky - yellow feet ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) . monotypic .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . yellow - tailed parrot ( pionites xanthurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
hitherto considered conspecific with p . xanthomerius and p . leucogaster , but separated as a species distinct from former by characters given under that species , and from latter by its yellow vs green tail ( 3 ) , yellow vs green lower flanks and thighs ( 3 ) , and unknown - width hybrid zone ( at least 1 ) . monotypic .
yellow - tailed black - cockatoos have a long breeding season , which varies throughout their range . both sexes construct the nest , which is a large tree hollow , lined with wood chips . the female alone incubates the eggs , while the male supplies her with food . usually only one chick survives , and this will stay in the care of its parents for about six months .
cites birdlife international internet bird collection a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 ml media collection catalogue 4062 , yellow - tailed black cockatoo calyptorhynchus funereus , loetscher , fred w . , jr . , tasmania , australia , mar . 17 1969 , cornell lab of ornithology . site parrots of the world , forshaw and cooper , 1989 . 2010 edition parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . parrots in aviculture , low , 1992 . guide to incubation and handraising parrots , digney , 1998 .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . black - legged parrot ( pionites xanthomerius ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
e peru ( e of r ucayali ) and bolivia ( at least formerly s to santa cruz ) to w brazil s of amazon ( e to r juruá ) ; recently also recorded in extreme se colombia ( n of amazon ) # r .
not globally threatened . cites ii . common in most of range and in parts of e peru abundant , but suffering from habitat destruction in the e & sw , and possibly extinct in . . .
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recent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .
recent molecular studies indicate that this genus and deroptyus are sister - taxa # r # r # r .
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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
brazil s of amazon from r purús and r juruá to r madeira catchment in amazonas .
no information , though basic details are unlikely to differ significantly from p . leucogaster .
no data , though basic details of breeding biology are unlikely to differ significantly from p . leucogaster .
vulnerable . cites ii . no population estimate . suspected to lose 17·8–22·2 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 24 years ) from 2002 , based on a . . .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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arthur grosset , jacob . wijpkema , jacqueserard , lindolfo souto , mark sutton .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
there are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .
pionites leucogaster xanthurus : brazil s of the amazon ( r . purús and r . juruá to r . madeira )
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
pionites leucogaster , p . xanthomerius and p . xanthurus ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) were previously lumped as p . leucogaster following sibley and monroe ( 1990 , 1993 ) .
based on a model of future deforestation in the amazon basin , and the potential susceptibility of this newly split species to hunting , it is suspected that its population will decline rapidly over three generations from 2002 , and it is therefore listed as vulnerable .
the global population size has not been quantified , but this species is described as ' fairly common ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 17 . 8 - 22 . 2 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 24 years ) from 2002 , based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . given the susceptibility of the species to hunting and trapping , and the fact that it is intolerant of habitat degradation and small fragments , it is suspected to decline by 30 - 49 % over this time period .
2011 ) . despite being common in undisturbed landscapes , it is not thought to be tolerant of secondary forest or agropastoral land and appears restricted to alluvial habitats . it may also be susceptible to hunting ( a . lees
conservation actions underway it occurs within juruena national park . no targeted conservation actions are known for this species .
expand the protected area network to effectively protect ibas . effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas , utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation . conservation on private lands , through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture , is also essential ( soares - filho
2006 ) . campaign against proposed changes to the brazilian forest code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as permanent preservation areas ( apps ) , which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes .
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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pionites xanthurus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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the contact call is a drawn - out
kee - ow
. some screeches are also given .
medium to large ( 45 cm to 60 cm e . g . raven )
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in flight a loud unusual lengthy whistle . also emits harsh alarm notes . young birds emit a constant harsh raspy call .
nuts including : walnuts , almonds and pine nuts ; sunflower seeds , wheat , maize and fresh corn ; fresh fruit and green leaves sometimes accepted ; peas in the pod ; in australia banksia and hakia nuts ; complete kibble ; when rearing young provide mealworms .
are avid chewers so provide with lots of bird - safe wood ( fir , pine , eucalypt , etc ) , wood blocks , and vegetable tanned leather chew toys .
open at the top 24
x 24
x 48
( 61cm x 61cm x 122cm ) vertical box . provide with branches to provoke chewing and breeding behaviour .
is declining in some areas ( eyre peninsula ) due to habitat loss , but in general population is stable .
z . f . funerea : ce and se australia from c queensland south to e victoria , then west . z . f . xanthanotus : tasmania and se mainland australia from c victoria west to se south australia , including kangaroo island .
found in higher rainfall habitat such as coastal areas , eucalyptus woodlands , pine plantations , heathland , orchards and farmland .
eats seeds of : pines , eucalypt , hakea , casuarina , banksia and acacia . also fungus from seed cases . also feeds on wood - boring larvae which are removed from trunks or roots of trees .
is reliant on eucalyptus woodland for breeding ; is nomadic , will move between hills and coastland in response to breeding season . are encountered in large flocks of 300 birds or more ; is noisy and conspicuous .
1 or 2 ovate eggs , 50 . 0 x 34 . 5mm ( 2 x 1 . 3 in ) .
in northern part of range , april - july ; in n new south wales , january - may ; in s new south wales , december - february ; in s australia and tasmania , november - january .
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it reaches a length of 13 centimetres ( 5.1 in ) sl .

it lives in the upper parts of the kura river , massuleh river and the pasikhan river and in the anzali mordab ( iran ) .

downstream in kura it is replaced by ponticola gorlap .

ponticola cyrius

ponticola cyrius is a species of gobiid fish endemic to the kura river in the southern caucasus countries of georgia , turkey , iran and azerbaijan .
the sea breams or porgies are found in the atlantic , indian and pacific oceans and comprise about 36 genera and about 130 species ( nelson , 2006 ; eschmeyer and fong , 2011 ) . some commonly enter estuaries and penetrate up rivers . maximum length is about 1 . 2 m .
this family is characterised by a groove in the distal end of the premaxilla which accommodates the maxilla ; the body is oblong to ovate and is compressed ; the head is large with a steep upper profile ; the preopercle margin is smooth ; scales are weakly ctenoid , moderate in size and extend on to the cheeks and operculum ; teeth are conical to incisiform and molar teeth are found in some at the rear of the jaw ; there are no teeth on the vomer , palatines or tongue ; the dorsal fin is continuous with an anterior spiny portion and a soft - rayed posterior portion about equal in size ; with 10 - 13 spines and 10 - 15 soft rays respectively ; spines fold into a groove ; the anal fin has 3 spines ( the second the largest ) and 8 - 14 soft rays ; branchiostegal rays 5 - 6 ; branchiostegal rays 5 - 6 ; and lateral line not continued onto the caudal fin but with enlarged scales near the head .
many species in this family are hermaphrodites with male and female sex organs developing simultaneously , changing sex from male to female ( protandry ) , or from female to male ( protogyny ) . these fishes are often important as food or sought by anglers . young fish may very different in colour to adults , usually being more vividly coloured with distinctive patterns . most species are marine ( see marine list in checklists in the
) but a few enter fresh water and penetrate a considerable distance from the sea including one species in iran .
members of this genus have a compressed and moderately deep body , 4 - 6 enlarged incisiform teeth at the front of the jaws followed by 3 - 4 rows of molars , the second anal fin spine is longer than the third , there is a scaly sheath at the base of the dorsal and anal soft fins , and moderate - sized scales . iwatsuki and heemstra ( 2010 ) revised the genus in the western indian ocean .
شانك ( = shanak ) , شانك زردباله ( = shanak - e zardbaleh or yellowfin shanak ) .
[ shanak , shaghoom , shaam , sha ' m , shaem , sheim or sha - om in arabic ; yellow - finned porgy or seabream , yellow - finned black porgy , japanese silver bream ] .
al - hassan ( 1990 ) found differences in two meristic characters ( pectoral and dorsal fin ray counts ) but no differences in electrophoretic characters between populations from the shatt al arab and khor al zubair areas of southern iraq . he concludes that there is only one stock of this species in southern iraq as meristic variation may reflect environmental conditions .
this species is the only sparid member recorded from iranian freshwaters and is recognised by the dorsal fin spines alternately thick and thin and the colour pattern .
upper profile of head steep and convex back to above the posterior eye margin . the head bulges over the eye . dorsal fin spines 11 - 13 , soft rays 9 - 13 . anal fin with 3 spines , the second much stronger and wider than the third , and 8 - 9 soft rays . pectoral fin branched rays 10 - 16 . there is a strong spine in the pelvic fin and a well - developed axillary scale . lateral line scales 41 - 46 , or 48 - 50 , or up to 55 depending probably on differing counting methods . the scales are vertical ovals with the anterior margin wavy where radii intersect . they have very fine circuli , moderate numbers of posterior radii , a subcentral posterior focus , and ctenii on the central part of the posterior margin extending inwards towards the focus . four or five series of preopercular scales . the first pelvic fin ray is elongated as a small filament . there is a strong pelvic axillary scale . there are 3 - 4 scale rows sheathing the dorsal and anal fin bases . there are 4 - 6 compressed teeth in front of each jaw followed by 3 - 5 rows of molar teeth . the chromosome number is 2n = 48 ( klinkhardt
meristic values for iranian specimens are : - dorsal fin spines 12 , soft rays 10 , anal fin spines 3 , soft rays 8 , pectoral fin branched rays 13 , scales mostly lost .
this species is a protandrous hermaphrodite , being male early in its life and then becoming female later . catches will include males , females and hermaphrodites , e . g . in abu - hakima ' s ( 1984a ) study in kuwait , there were 326 males , 343 females and 41 hermaphrodites .
overall colour is a silvery - grey or silvery - white with the back darker and the belly yellowish . scales each have a dark , brownish to golden spot at the base which line up to form apparent stripes along the flank . there is a dark blotch at the upper corner of the gill opening , on both the body and gill cover . there is a dark band over the head between the eyes and the edge of the operculum is dark . dorsal fin spines are white and the membranes are grey , with dark margins between the spine tips . the soft dorsal fin is dark grey with a light orange tinge . there is a small back spot at the pectoral fin base and the fin is mostly hyaline with a light orange tinge . the anal and pelvic fins are a light yellowish - brown . the caudal fin is dark grey on the upper lobe and yellow on the lower with a black margin . the peritoneum is silvery brown in preserved fish with widely scattered melanophores .
found from the persian gulf to japan and north australia . recorded from the helleh river in bushehr province , iran ( j . holčík , pers comm . , 1995 ) , from the bahmanshir river ( marammazi , 1995 ; eskandary
this marine species enters rivers in southern iran and presumably freshwater stocks are maintained from this marine gene pool .
the usual habitat is over sand and rock bottoms in the sea down to about 50 m , but young fish may enter estuaries and may penetrate considerable distances inland , although some fish remain at sea permanently . the frequency of penetration into iranian rivers along the persian gulf coast is not known . larger specimens are known to penetrate the shatt al arab in autumn , october to december , and this water body is an important nursery for this species , found there year round as young . adults emigrate from january to march ( al - hassan , 1990 ; hussain
. , 1987 ) . at a freshwater station on the shatt al basrah canal with salinities up to 3 . 5‰ , al - daham and yousif ( 1990 ) found this species to be the second most dominant after
, comprising 7 . 1 % by number and 10 . 9 % by weight . al - daham
. ( 1993 ) found young fish in the shatt al basrah mostly from april to october . cage - cultured fish are reared at 14 - 31°c in kuwait bay ( abou - seedo
but not other species which begin to spawn in april ( abou - seedo and dadzie , 2004 ) . savari
. ( 2011 ) showed that hormones could also be used in this regard .
a fast growing and hardy fish . life in iranian fresh waters has not been studied and information is about marine or estuarine populations .
a study of fish in the shatt al basrah canal , a man - made estuary of southern iraq , was based on mostly small and immature fish ( 49 - 181 mm standard length ) caught mostly in april - october . the length - weight relationship was w = 0 . 0511 l 2 . 893 , the dominant age group was 1 + fish , the maximum age was 3 + years , fish grew to 95 , 155 and 215 mm total length in their first three years of life , and mortality ( z ) was 2 . 23 ( al - daham et al . , 1993 ) .
heydarnejad ( 2009 ) gave the length - weight relationship for an iranian sample as w = 0 . 0451tl 3 . 091 .
freshwater food habits not known for iran in detail but the one specimen examined contained plant fragments and scales of a cyprinid .
. ( 1993 ) have shown for fish from the shatt al arab near basrah , iraq that haematological parameters vary with reproductive phase and between sexes . cage - reared fish in kuwait bay have a prolonged spawning season from february to april . fecundity there is up to 3 , 837 , 000 eggs . spawning in the shatt al arab estuary is reported for april ( hussain and ahmed , 1995 ) and al - daham
. ( 1993 ) record a spawning season for the northwestern arabian ( = persian ) gulf as january to april with a peak in february and march . abu - hakima ( 1984a ) found the spawning period in kuwait waters to be january to march with fecundity up to 2 , 152 , 993 eggs . this species is a protandrous hermaphrodite with males dominating in smaller size groups ( 22 . 3 - 24 . 2 cm ) while females dominate in larger groups ( 24 . 3 - 26 . 2 cm ) ( abou - seedo
. , 2003 ) . samuel and mathews ( 1987 ) give a spawning date of 1 december for their kuwait sample . the gonadosomatic index was highest in february - march in hosseini ' s ( 1998 ) study in coastal waters of the northern persian gulf .
the average absolute fecundity in coastal waters near bushehr in iran was 1 , 842 , 700 , sex ratio was 1 : 1 , and the spawning peak was january - february ( hossini and savari , 2004 ) .
a good food fish of high market value seen in bazaars along the persian gulf coast and in the shatt al arab . it was selling at u . s . $ 3 . 5 - 5 . 5 per kg in kuwait about 1980 , with 213 tons landed in 1995 for a value of u . s . $ 1 , 769 , 407 ( abou - seedo
. , 2003 ) and this has been proposed for iranian waters in the persian gulf ( regunathan and kitto , 2005 ) . experimental culture has been tried at qeshm island where a million larvae were produced in march with 100 , 000 larvae 2 . 0 - 3 . 5 cm long surviving in may ( www . shilat . com , downloaded 7 june 2007 ) . it is caught by trawls , handlines , in hadra ( fixed stake nets ) and gargoor ( fish pots ) and in the sport fishery in the arabian ( = persian ) gulf ( samuel and mathews , 1987 ; carpenter
this marine species is fished commercially in the sea and populations there may be under some threat as a consequence . the status of freshwater populations is unclear as they appear quite rare and are presumably derived from marine populations at intervals .
the frequency of occurrence , detailed distribution and biology of this species in iranian fresh waters needs study .
iranian material : uncatalogued , 1 , 62 . 9 mm standard length , bushehr , about15 km above mouth in helleh river ( ca . 29
comparative material : bm ( nh ) 1974 . 2 . 22 : 1859 , 1 , 76 . 4 mm standard length , iraq , basrah ( 30º30 ' n , 47º47 ' e ) ; bm ( nh ) 1974 . 2 . 22 : 1858 , 1 , 76 . 3 mm standard length , iraq , beree ( no other locality data ) .
cichlids are found in fresh and brackish waters of central and south america , africa , madagascar , the levant , southern india , sri lanka and southern iran . there are about 221 genera and about 1606 species ( nelson , 2006 ; eschmeyer and fong , 2011 ) but only 1 is found in iran . maximum length is about 80 cm .
murray ( 2001 ) reviews the fossil record and the biogeography of the family and suggests an origin less than 65 mya in the early tertiary in contrast to other studies that give an origin over 130 million years ago . their salinity tolerance has enabled them to cross marine barriers .
mahi - e karoo , siklid irani , siklid - e hormuz , cichlid - e hormuz .
. , 2010 ) from northeast africa , on the basis of the low gill raker count , lower pharyngeal bone and teeth morphology , and morphometric characters such as a deep preorbital depth , long snout , head length and the small eye . trewavas ( 1983 ) places
trewavas , 1942 of the jordan river basin and that this requires further investigation . schwarzer
may be common responses to temperature and salinity extremes . in addition , trewavas ( 1983 ) suggests a possible relationship of
( hilgendorf , 1905 ) of the african rift valley . this species too is found in waters of high temperature and mineral content . klett and meyer ( 2002 ) group this genus with
the type locality is the
mehran river at 27°04 ' n , 54°35 ' e , hormozdgan province
( coad , 1982a ) . the holotype , 94 . 2 mm standard length , is a female with eggs in the mouth held in the canadian museum of nature , ottawa under cmnfi 1979 - 0408a ( see figure above ) . paratypes are cmnfi 1979 - 0408b , 15 , 24 . 3 - 86 . 5 mm standard length , same locality as the holotype and cmnfi 1979 - 0139 , 35 , 29 . 6 - 95 . 2 mm standard length , stream in rasul river drainage between chahar berkeh and tang - e dalan , ca . 27°25 . 5 ' n , 54°59 ' e , fars - hormozgan border . paratypes were deposited in the british museum ( natural history ) , london under bm ( nh ) 1981 . 1 . 12 : 1 - 2 ( 2 specimens ) , muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris under mnhn 1981 - 107 , 108 ( 2 ) , california academy of sciences , san francisco under cas 47324 ( 2 ) , the royal ontario museum , toronto under rom 36389 ( 1 ) and the university of british columbia , vancouver under bc 81 - 1 ( 1 ) .
this is the only cichlid species in iran , easily recognised by the single nostril opening on each side of the head .
this cichlid is uniquely characterised by a nearly circular dental field on the lower pharyngeal bone , the teeth there being of uniform size and not enlarged medially and by cheek , operculum , belly , isthmus and area between the pectoral and pelvic fin bases naked or poorly scaled . other significant characters are the posteriorly rounded dorsal and anal fins , short pectoral fins not reaching the vent , cycloid scales with granular posterior circuli bearing rounded or irregular protuberances , inferior apophyses for support of the swimbladder centred around the fourth vertebra ( figured in coad ( 1982a ) ) , mesethmoid not meeting the vomer , modal vertebral count 29 , median length of lower pharyngeal bone 31 . 8 - 40 . 9 % ( mean 35 % ) length of head , and pharyngeal blade / median length toothed area 0 . 6 - 1 . 0 , mean 0 . 8 .
scales are regularly arranged on the flanks except that in some large specimens the regular scale rows are interspersed with irregularly distributed smaller scales , particularly on the upper flank . scales may be absent entirely from the head , sparse above the lateral line anteriorly and on the belly posterior to the pelvic fins , absent from the dorsal and anal fin bases , absent from between the pectoral and pelvic fin bases and on the belly and isthmus anterior to the pelvic fins . however , in other specimens the head may be scaled dorsally to above the eyes , with scales variably imbricate , there may be 2 - 3 rows containing 4 - 7 minimally or non - imbricate scales on the cheek which is never completely scaled . the dorsal border of the opercle may have two large scales next to each other and a single scale may be present over the centre of the subopercular bone . scales may be present on the whole belly , isthmus and between the pectoral and pelvic fin bases , but they are minute , embedded , and non - imbricate . their extent and number varies between individuals . small to minute scales , numbering up to about 20 , are present on the caudal fin base , extending distally onto the fin membranes for more than half the fin ray length in some specimens .
flank scales below the mid - point of the spiny dorsal fin and beneath the upper lateral line are cycloid or very weakly ctenoid . the focus is central and there are 9 - 14 , mean 12 . 4 , radii on the anterior field based on 5 scales from 7 adult specimens 59 . 2 - 87 . 1 mm standard length . posterior circuli are granular so the exposed scale surface has rows of rounded or irregular protuberances .
the gut is a tightly coiled spiral with its apex ventral . gut length in 5 specimens ( 59 . 2 - 90 . 5 mm standard length ) is 6 . 8 - 8 . 3 , mean 7 . 6 , times the standard length . gill rakers are short and rounded , reaching the adjacent raker or a little further when appressed .
type ( greenwood , 1978 ) . the mesethmoid does not meet the vomer , the intervening space being cartilaginous . pores at the openings of the cephalic lateral line canals on the preorbital and preoperculum are single not multiple . the inferior apophyses for support of the anterior end of the swimbladder involve vertebrae 2 to 5 , the fourth vertebra being involved in 8 out of 10 fish examined .
teeth in the jaws are often irregularly arranged so that 4 rows are found in some places in both jaws . in some individual fish where teeth are regularly arranged there are 3 rows in the upper jaw and 4 rows in the lower jaw . number of rows decreases laterally to one at the rictus . the outer row teeth are bicuspid with the lateral cusp the smaller , while inner row teeth are tricuspid , with the central cusp the most prominent . the upper jaw has more teeth than the lower jaw .
the diploid chromosome number is 2n = 44 , comprising 25 submetacentic , 18 subtelocentric and 1 metacentric chromosomes with an arm number of 70 . the chromosome count may indicate a relationship to the levantine
scales in upper lateral line 17 ( 1 ) , 18 ( 1 ) , 19 ( 2 ) , 20 ( 8 ) , 21 ( 9 ) , 22 ( 10 ) , 23 ( 7 ) , 24 ( 4 ) , 25 ( 2 ) , 26 ( 1 ) or 29 ( 1 ) ; scales in lower lateral line 9 ( 6 ) , 10 ( 17 ) , 11 ( 14 ) or 12 ( 9 ) ; total scales in lateral series 28 ( 1 ) , 29 ( 2 ) , 30 ( 4 ) , 31 ( 9 ) , 32 ( 13 ) , 33 ( 5 ) , 34 ( 4 ) , 35 ( 4 ) , 36 ( 3 ) or 40 ( 1 ) ; scales around caudal peduncle 16 ( 15 ) , 17 ( 13 ) , 18 ( 15 ) , 19 ( 2 ) or 20 ( 1 ) ; precaudal vertebrae 14 ( 2 ) , 15 ( 53 ) or 16 ( 11 ) ; caudal vertebrae 13 ( 26 ) , 14 ( 35 ) or 15 ( 5 ) ; total vertebrae 28 ( 19 ) , 29 ( 40 ) or 30 ( 7 ) .
dorsal fin spines 14 ( 6 ) , 15 ( 46 ) or 16 ( 14 ) ; dorsal fin branched rays 9 ( 2 ) , 10 ( 36 ) or 11 ( 28 ) ; anal fin branched rays 6 ( 7 ) , 7 ( 20 ) , 8 ( 38 ) or 9 ( 1 ) ; pectoral fin branched rays 11 ( 42 ) or 12 ( 24 ) ; and total gill rakers 14 ( 6 ) , 15 ( 9 ) , 16 ( 24 ) , 17 ( 19 ) , 18 ( 6 ) or 19 ( 1 ) .
head length is greater in females while pelvic fin length is smaller in females compared to males . interorbital width is greater in males . dorsal and anal fins are larger in males when expressed in terms of longest ray length in head length ( coad , 1982a ) . colour differs as described below .
live specimens are brightly coloured in spawning condition ( based on aquarium photographs in schulz ( 2004 ) ) . the male is brick - red on the lower sides and underside of the head with black on the dorsal head surface . the underside of the head may also be black . the belly anterior to the pelvics is black . the chin is white . the sides off the head have a few , scattered white spots but the body , dorsal and caudal fins are densely covered with white spots and blotches . those on the dorsal fin are arranged in oblique rows and those on the caudal fin in bars . the anal fin has white spots also but these are not present distally . the pectoral fin has darkened rays but lacks spots . the pelvic fin has white spots proximally but less than the anal fin but is overall a dark black . other reports and photographs ( svardal ( 2006 ) and svardal and svardal ( 2006 ) ) show dominant spawning males to be black with brilliant turquoises blotches on the body but especially so on the fins . the female has an overall silvery colour with up to 9 faint to moderate flank bars . fins are yellowish . the dorsal fin has a black tilapia - mark on the posterior dorsal fin .
overall body colour outside the spawning season is a light lime green , with an iridescent tinge to the posterior edge of the operculum and on the back . the dorsal fin has light , lime - green , oblique bars , the last one or two black - edged and spot - like . the peritoneum is black .
preserved specimens have the following pigmentation . young fish have a distinct tilapia - mark , a spot on the rays of the soft dorsal fin typical of these cichlid fishes . the spot is black and is surrounded by a hyaline ring . occasionally a second spot is found posterior to the first spot . the principal spot is often retained in adult fish . young also have 7 - 11 bars along the flank which are also retained by adults but are then less distinct . in adults the dorsal fin rays and membranes are covered with melanophores interspersed with hyaline spots and irregular blotches . wavy , oblique bars are found posteriorly on the soft dorsal fin in some specimens . the caudal fin has a series of about 7 narrow bars in some male specimens while females are uniformly grey . the anal fin is narrowly barred with up to 6 vertical to oblique bars in some specimens , in others uniformly pigmented grey proximally fading to hyaline distally . pectoral and pelvic fins are not barred and are lightly pigmented , the pelvics being the darker . the head and body , including the belly , are more heavily pigmented to give an overall brown colour , lightest on the belly anterior to the pelvic fins in females . scales are not pigmented on their free margins , which are pale .
some specimens may be quite dark , particularly the back and fins and strikingly the lips .
attains 11 . 09 cm standard length or 12 . 95 cm total length ( esmaeili and ebrahimi , 2006 ) . lamboj
the cichlid is restricted to rivers draining to the straits of hormuz in southern iran ( coad , 1982a ; abdoli , 2000 ) . svardal and svardal ( 2006 ) also map this species at 27 . 770°n , 54 . 999°e , slightly to the north of samples mapped here . the distribution mapped by stiassny in keenleyside ( 1991 ) following berra ( 1981 ) is too far north . the map in berra ( 2001 ) is more accurate . abdoli ( 2000 ) records this species from the lower minab basin , lower hasan langi , middle to lower kul , gowdar and middle to lower mehran rivers .
specimens kindly sent to me by h . r . esmaeili in 1997 are from the dozdan river at 27°26 ' n , 57°10 ' e , an eastwards extension into the minab river basin . the cichlid was not collected there in the 1970s . the new record may simply be filling in a collecting gap , a natural range extension or possibly the result of an introduction .
bleher ( 2011a ) found only 2 of the 22 sites recorded by coad ( 1982 ) to still have water , although i have observed river stretches drying up and re - connecting and not always the same stretches .
trewavas ( 1983 ) suggests that the ancestor of this cichlid was distributed across the arabian peninsula in the late pliocene / early pleistocene when this area was more humid . desiccation in the pleistocene and recent periods then led to the extinction of the ancestor . a miocene - oligocene fossil
. however trewavas ( 1983 ) reports that this fossil cannot be identified as a cichlid . micklich and roscher ( 1990 ) and lippitsch and micklich ( 1998 ) also report three species of what are presumably cichlids from southwest saudi arabia in the baid formation of oligocene age at ad darb , tihamat asir . they belong to the basal grade of cichlids and to two different clades within the african assemblage . whybrow and clements ( 1999 ) record unidentified cichlidae from the early oligocene from the coastal trip of dhofar , sultanate of oman with a date of 33 mya . murray ( 2001 ) reviews these and other cichlid fossil material and the identity of omani material as cichlids appears questionable . southwest saudi arabian material is more clearly cichlid but does not point to a continuous distribution eastwards across the arabian peninsula . however , bănărescu ( 1992b ) considers that a common ancestor to
evolved in the arabian peninsula from african forebears in the miocene , the latter lineage extending its range northwards to the levant and the former eastwards to oman and southern iran , the straits of hormuz not then being in existence . murray ( 2001 ) gives an earliest date for colonisation of
ancestors to be the middle miocene when southern iran rose above sea level . she does not consider a coastwise dispersal through brackish waters of arabia to be a possible route as cichlids are not found there today but indicates a route through the tethys sea / indian ocean could be possible .
could be a relict of a once wider distribution across the tigris - euphrates basin in a northern arc rather than directly across the arabian peninsula . the absence of cichlids from southern arabia today warrant this alternative hypothesis . warm streams have probably been continually present in southern arabia and support a limited fish fauna today . there is no apparent reason why cichlids should have become extinct there . murray ( 2001 ) points out that
lives at 40 - 400 m above sea level and is limited by mountains north of the present distribution , and so it must have arrived before the mountains attained their current height , to support coad ' s hypothesis .
the headwaters of the tigris - euphrates basin are narrowly separated from the levant rift valley today and at times in the past may have had direct exchanges of faunas ( kosswig , 1965 ; 1973 ; krupp , 1987 ) . the modern absence of cichlids from the tigris - euphrates basin may be explained by low temperatures . the effects of low temperature on
, which occurs naturally in the southern levant rift valley , begin to die at 11°c and cease all motion at temperatures below 10°c ( chervinski and lahav , 1976 ) . most of syria , northern iraq and the northern arabian peninsula have temperatures below 10°c in winter ( beaumont
is found mainly in saline streams . this hypothesis can only be confirmed by fossil discoveries .
the streams in which this species lives are subject to desiccation with continuous flow breaking up into isolated pools . the survival of cichlid populations in these pools varies between years and some pools may be fishless in one year and populated in another .
the area around the straits of hormuz is rich in salt domes and consequently most surface streams are saline , up to 80 ms . cichlids are found in these streams but also in the sar khun oasis which is fresh with a conductivity of 1 . 6 ms . apparently they can be transported at 10 ms as this is less stressful . stream waters are cloudy to clear and colourless . water temperatures in winter ( november to march ) range from 15 to 33°c and would be considerably higher in summer when air temperatures reach 45°c with no riparian shade and low water levels . lamboj
. ( 2006 ) and svardal ( 2006 ) give water temperatures of 33 - 40°c and conductivity of 45 - 75 ms .
streams are 1 to 50 m wide and consist of alternating riffles and pools with occasional backwaters . the bottom is pebbles , sand or mud . aquatic vegetation is restricted to encrusting algae .
unknown . esmaeili and ebrahimi ( 2006 ) give a significant length - weight relationship based on 379 fish measuring 2 . 74 - 11 . 09 cm standard length . the
- value > 3 indicating a fish that becomes more rotund as length increases ) .
gut contents of 5 specimens ( 41 . 2 - 90 . 5 mm standard length ) included only algae and diatoms suggesting food is scraped from rocks and from bottom deposits . this is consistent with an elongate gut and black peritoneum . aquarium specimens eat algal tabs but also appreciate insects and fish remains .
this species is a mouth brooder . a breeding female and a male were caught in a backwater on march 18 of the mehran river ( the type series ) . this backwater was 1 - 5 m wide , maximum depth was 40 cm over a mud bottom , the water was cloudy and highly saline ( 40ms ) and temperature ranged from 26°c at the mouth of the backwater to 33°c at its head . eggs in fish taken in november and january are small so the breeding season is deduced to be around march . five eggs ranged in length from 3 . 2 to 3 . 8 mm , mean 3 . 6 mm and in width from 2 . 4 to 2 . 7 , mean 2 . 5 mm . total number of eggs from 2 females , 59 . 0 - 59 . 2 mm standard length was 36 and 38 respectively . eggs are yellow - orange in preserved fish .
a female 116 . 9 mm standard length from the mehran river had 153 larvae in her mouth , ranging in length from 9 . 6 to 10 . 9 mm ( h . r . esmaeili , pers . comm . , 6 october 2005 ; esmaeili
. ( 2009 ) found a sex ratio biased towards males in may and june , presumably because males were defending nests and easily caught , or possibly differential survival of the sexes . they suggest that the breeding season begins in march and lasts until the end of june with a peak in may . eggs attained 3 . 76 mm and fecundity reached 151 eggs with a relative fecundity of 5 . 4 eggs per gram body weight . esmaeili et al . ( 2010 ) detail gonad morphology and histology and confirmed peak spawning in may .
schulz ( 2004 ) observed fish in the field and found each male occupying a territory defending a nest about 1 m from each neighbouring nest . the nests were made on light grey , fine sand and consisted of a pit approximately 15 cm in diameter . the pit was black because of anoxic conditions below the sand surface . the actual nest was about the same as the body length of the fish ( 8 - 10 cm ) and lay at the centre of the pit . the pit was surrounded by a rim about 1 . 5 cm high with an internally indented margin . simpler pits are built where building materials are unavailable . females were present in schools in deeper water in the river centre . individual females swam purposefully to the nest defended by the male . the male directed the female to the nest centre with folded up fins while the female spread her fins and showed radiating colour changes . spawning occurred immediately and neighbouring males intervened continuously at a speed that did not allow full analysis of the movements . a defending male would chase away an intruding male allowing another male into the unprotected nest to mate with the female . a clutch of eggs was always inseminated by a whole group of males .
piscivorous birds have been observed along the streams where the cichlid is found . ansary
saadati ( 1977 ) suggests that this salt - tolerant species could be a valuable resource if introduced into the saline and fishless waters of internal basins . however this is not advisable since the native fauna , evolved in a fishless environment , could be devastated before it has even been documented . esmaeili
. ( 2009 ) note that it is eaten by local people when available in large numbers in spring . it is now an aquarium fish in germany ( schulz , 2002 ; 2004a ; 2004b ; oliver lucanus , pers . comm . , 23 january 2004 ; lamboj
. , 2006 ; svardal , 2006 ; svardal and svardal , 2006 ) and juveniles sell for about $ 80 each urltoken 21 march 2010 ) . articles in aquarium magazines give photographs in spawning condition , including mouth - brooding , and details for their maintenance , including water with a conductivity of 50 - 70ms / cm nacl or sea salt mixture , tank water changed once a week , vegetarian food tabs ( containing the blue - green alga
) , and a temperature of 20 - 35°c , optimally 27°c . it has been noted that males , in continually defending a nest and courting ,
wear out
earlier than females ( thomas schulz ,
may well be on its way to extinction - if it is not gone already
. bailey ( 2006 ) apparently repeats this . however its habitat is mostly saline streams which cannot readily be used for agriculture or industry . the surrounding area is not industrialised , nor likely to be , and was never a war zone so pollution is not a problem for this species .
flash floods are probably a significant problem as water drains rapidly off vegetation barren land . the scouring action may well displace or strand cichlids . mouth brooding offers protection against floods and against associated fishes .
svardal ( 2006 ) and svardal and svardal ( 2006 ) give details of capture , transport and aquarium care of this species .
rabbaniha ( 1993a , 1993b , 1994 ) gives farsi accounts of this species and cichlids in general . the account is based principally on coad ( 1982a ) .
type material : see above , cmnfi 1979 - 0408a , cmnfi 1979 - 0408b , cmnfi 1979 - 0139 , bm ( nh ) 1981 . 1 . 12 : 1 - 2 , mnhn 1981 - 107 , 108 , cas 47324 , rom 36389 and bc 81 - 1 .
introduced to the tigris river basin in iraq but did not apparently survive winterkill ( herzog , 1969 ) . mutlak and al - faisal ( 2009 ) , however , record
) from basrah in southern iraq and this species could easily become established in iran . no iranian record confirmed as yet . red tilapias (
sp . ) have been studied in aquaponic systems in iran so there is a potential for an exotic release ( rafiee and saad , 2005 ) . fingerlings from indonesia have been reared using saline waters at bafgh , yazd province in 3 ton fibreglass tanks . larvae were successfully grown to 2 . 0 kg at 28±1ºc (
introduced to the tigris river basin in iraq but did not apparently survive ( job , 1967 ) . redbelly tilapias are established in the syrian euphrates ( r . beck , pers . comm . , 2000 ) and a recent report by beshar abd al - hussain al - saadi (
. , 10 october 2006 ) of a cichlid at al musayyib on the euphrates river in iraq may well be this species . mutlak and al - faisal ( 2009 ) , record this species from basrah in southern iraq and these could spread to iranian waters . no iranian record as yet . the farsi name is تيلاپيا ( = tilapia ) .
the gobies are a world - wide family found mostly in warmer marine waters although some species enter fresh water and others live there permanently ( see also marine list in checklists in the introduction ) . the number of species is high and this may be the most speciose fish family in the world with about 248 genera and about 1630 species , perhaps more ( eschmeyer and fong , 2011 ) . a diversity of gobies occurs in the caspian sea basin . not all caspian gobies have valid iranian records but most will probably be found there . several gobies penetrate southern waters of iran from the persian gulf and sea of oman and are described here . others will probably be discovered when more detailed surveys are made .
gobies are easily distinguished by their pelvic fins being united as an adhesive or sucking disk or cup . body form and coloration are diverse . the pattern of head canals , canal pores and neuromasts is distinctive and used in identifying and relating species ( except in
( pinchuk , 1991 ) ) . however the neuromasts may be sunken in narrow furrows or pits and completely covered by epithelium so they do not preserve well and this can lead to confusion in identifications ( zambriborshch , 1968 ) . there is usually a short spiny dorsal fin ( 2 - 8 flexible spines ) separated from , but close to , a soft dorsal fin . the soft dorsal fin and anal fin are longer than the caudal peduncle . scales may be cycloid , ctenoid or rarely absent . no obvious lateral line . there are 5 branchiostegal rays . gill membranes are connected to the isthmus and gill openings are moderate to wide , or very restricted in the mudskippers . the head is usually blunt and the mouth is usually large . teeth are usually small and conical in one to several rows in both jaws . miller in miller ( 2003 ) gives a suite of osteological characters defining the family .
most gobies are quite small ( 5 - 10 cm ) and they are often very abundant . maximum size is about 50 cm . some of the world ' s smallest vertebrates are gobies from the indian ocean , mature at 8 mm . others , however , are large and form part of fisheries in both the caspian sea and the indian ocean . they are not significant food fishes in iran . gobies tend to rest on the bottom and move in sudden , characteristic dashes . the male goby guards a nest . food is crustaceans , worms , molluscs and small fishes . many gobies are important in the aquarium trade since they are beautifully coloured , small and tough .
they are known generally as gav mahi ( = cow fish ) or sag mahi ( = dog fish ) or contain the word gel ( = mud ) in iran . a general review in farsi of the caspian gobies is given by aslaanparviz ( 1991 ) .
the males of some caspian species become black during the spawning season , their fins elongate , head shape alters and some even become naked . loss of tubercles in adult male gobies of the genus
makes it possible to identify only juveniles and females . the males build nests and guard the eggs . life span of certain caspian species is said to be as short as one year , e . g . some species of
, as much as 10 - 15 % of total biomass in some areas ( mamedov , 2006 ) .
the black and caspian sea basins contain an endemic sarmatian fauna of gobies . there are two main clades , the gobiine - benthophilines ( or transverse gobiids ) and the pomatoschistines ( or sand gobies ) , that have probably been distinct for at least 40 million years . miller ( 2001 ) and miller in miller ( 2003 ) reviews the evolutionary history of these two clades and their anatomical differences based on head papillae and osteology . the transverse gobiids include
. the sarmatian fauna was separated from the atlantic - mediterranean fauna with the isolation of the paratethys during the late miocene messinian salinity crisis as the mediterranean dried . partial flooding of the mediterranean from the paratethys in the early pliocene allowed sarmatian gobies to spread westwards . within the ponto - caspian basin , evolution of species flocks was favoured by basin sub - divisions and rejoinings . the benthophilines may be a monophyletic group from these events .
ahnelt and duchkowitsch ( 2004 ) give information on the neogobiine stock . about 12 - 13 million years ago in the middle miocene , the ponto - caspian endemic and ancestral neogobiine stock may have differentiated from an atlantic - mediterranean gobiine stock . at this time the paratethys was a sea with reduced salinity and a high level of endemism . the
stock that invaded the mediterranean basin after that sea was restored about 5 million years ago in the late miocene .
ranges from 4 . 29 to 6 . 25 mya and the paper gives divergence times for major lineages in relation to geological events in the ponto - caspian . these events include connections with , and isolation from , the world ocean and salinity changes in a range of 1 - 30 p . p . t . over the last 5 million years . most genera diversified about 5 mya when the black and caspian seas separated .
the principal recent works on the systematics of caspian gobies are by v . i . pinchuk , d . b . ragimov , ye . d . vasil ' yeva , h . ahnelt and p . j . miller . earlier works are by b . s . iljin ( also spelled il ' in or ilyin ) . later molecular studies are cited above .
other gobies in iran are the familiar tropical mudskippers which can move quickly over land , using the muscular - based paired fins to row across mud , and some can even clasp and climb mangroves . they can live out of water because the gill openings are small to prevent desiccation of the gills , oxygen can be taken into the chamber and absorbed through the gills and chamber wall , and they can also absorb oxygen through their skin . they often rest with the tail immersed in water for this purpose or roll around in shallow water to moisten themselves . they may live entirely in water , or will come onto land even when there is enough oxygen in the water . their eyes are high on the head , protruding and able to revolve independently , and have a movable lower lid . the eyes are retracted periodically into small cups below the head to moisten them . such eyes are very effective as a means to watch for potential enemies on land but their vision under water is blurred . mudskippers have elaborate reproductive behaviour which involves tail standing , flip - flops , and fin displays . they are very territorial and defend their territory against other mudskippers and crabs . they can deliver a skin - breaking bite to humans even though they are only about 15 cm long !
this genus comprises only a single species and so its characters are those of the species . the snout is very distinctive and details of neuromasts are not given here as they are not needed in identification , although of importance in relating the genus . the genus is closely related to the tadpole goby clade comprising
and details are give in miller in miller ( 2004 ) . this author also gives an alternative terminology for the arrangement of neuromasts than that of ahnelt
eichwald , 1831 by berg ( 1927 ) but later iljin ( 1930 ) erected a new genus because of its unusual and distinctive morphology . the type locality is the caspian sea at 37°58 ' n , 52°22 ' e at a depth of 294 m ( but see below ) .
. ( 2000 ) although berg ( 1927 ) mentions 15 fish in his description . ragimov ( 1985 ) states that berg described this species from a single young specimen and also visually observed 15 others for a total of 16 in the type series .
the duckbill tadpole goby is characterised by the elongate and flattened head which is similar to a duck ' s bill . unlike gobies of the genus
first dorsal fin with 3 - 4 spines , usually 4 , second dorsal fin with 1 spine followed by 8 - 11 , usually 10 , soft rays . anal fin with 1 spine followed by 8 - 11 soft rays . pectoral fin rays 14 - 16 . gill rakers on the posterior part of the arch are very short and anteriorly are minute . pit organs on the side of the head are papilliform and clearly visible with the naked eye . further details of anatomy are given by ahnelt
iranian specimens had the following meristics : - first dorsal fin with 4 ( 4 ) spines ; second dorsal fin with 1 ( 4 ) spine followed by 10 ( 4 ) soft rays ; pectoral fin rays 14 ( 1 ) , 15 ( 2 ) or 16 ( 1 ) ; anal fin with 1 ( 4 ) spine followed by 11 ( 4 ) soft rays ; and total vertebrae 29 ( 4 ) .
overall , colour is a light grey or pale fawn fading to a whitish grey on the belly . various speckles and melanophores are found on the back and upper flank . the dorsal , caudal and pectoral fins have dark grey speckles . the head sides from the snout to the cheek are dark with transversal suborbital papillae series whitish giving the impression of narrow light stripes below the eye and on the cheek . the peritoneum is black or densely covered in fine speckles .
reaches 11 . 2 cm , or 13 cm total length ( jolodar and abdoli , 2004 ) . females may be larger than males ( mean total length 84 mm versus 77 mm ) .
known only from the caspian sea and one of the endemic sarmatian fauna ( see family account ) .
found to a depth of 294 m on white silt bottoms according to berg ( 1927 ) but the data in zisp states 244 sazhems ( = 446 . 5 m ) . recent iranian material is from 45 - 80 m , at 9 . 7 - 16 . 4°c at 50 m ( ahnelt
. , 2000 ) and jolodar and abdoli ( 2004 ) state it lives mainly at 50 - 100 m depths in the south caspian sea .
unknown but the duck bill may be an adaptation for feeding on silt bottoms ( ragimov , 1986 ) .
apparently mature eggs reach 1 . 9 mm in diameter in the iranian specimen .
. ( 1999 ) consider this species to be data deficient in the south caspian sea basin according to iucn criteria .
more specimens need to be caught to assess its distribution , numbers , variation and biology .
iranian material : cmnfi 1999 - 0023 , 4 , 76 . 1 - 79 . 1 mm standard length , gilan , caspian sea off astara ( 38º00 ' n , 49º30 ' e to 38º20 ' n , 50º00 ' e ) .
caspian sea basin but no iranian record although kottelat and freyhof ( 2007 ) map it from the iranian shore .
de filippi , 1863 described from lake palestrom near poti , georgia is a synonym .
reported from the south caspian sea by naseka and bogutskaya but no confirmed specimen from iran .
originally described from the lower dnieper river between kherson and kakhovka and the south bug river between novaya odessa and nikolayev , ukraine and also recorded from the caspian sea basin but no iranian record . ragimov ( 1998c ) and miller ( 2004 ) give recent descriptions . pinchuk and miller in miller ( 2004 ) question the validity of the caspian sea record for this species .
caspian sea basin , described from off chikishlar at 37°45 . 5 ' n , 53°47 ' e and southwest of ulsky bank at 38°05 ' n , 52°34 ' e , turkmenistan , but no iranian record . known only from the two type specimens , now lost ( reshetnikov
iljin , 1941 . miller in miler ( 2004 ) gives a general map that encompasses the southeastern caspian sea including iranian waters but the only records are not in iran .
the tadpole gobies are found in the black and caspian seas where there are about 20 species , 16 endemic to the caspian ( pinchuk and miller in miller , 2004 ; boldyrev and bogutskaya , 2007 ) . the general farsi name for fishes in this genus is گاو ماهي ( gav mahi ) or سگ ماهي ( sag mahi ) , not repeated under each species description .
members of this genus are characterised by the broad and flattened head , dorsal muscles not extending to the eyes , no sensory canals or pores , first dorsal fin with 2 - 4 rays , well - separated form the second dorsal fin , the caudal fin has only 2 rows of papillae , head and body scaleless but with spinulose bony granules , scutes and platelets except in adult males which are naked ( and cannot therefore be readily identified ) , anterior nostrils developed as small tubes overlying the upper lip , no swimbladder , a longitudinal dermal fold usually present on each side behind the mouth corner , and presence of a chin barbel . there is no pelagic larval stage and eggs are large and oligoplasmatic . ahnelt ( 2003 ) discuss the unique specialisations in the postcranial skeleton of benthophiline gobies ( which also includes
) including reductions in vertebral numbers and arrangement of pterygiophores . pinchuk and miller in miller ( 2004 ) review other characters that show relationships of this specialised group within a larger tadpole - goby clade , the broad and flattened head being the most obvious .
these fishes are found in brackish waters with a salinity up to about 20‰ , in deeper waters , estuaries and coastal waters . they can dig themselves into bottom sediments and are usually found on mud , silt or sand . food is insect larvae , crustaceans and molluscs . life span of these tadpole gobies is only a year , some individuals maturing at 6 - 7 months , called ephemery . fish die after spawning , females earlier than males by 3 - 4 weeks ( boldyrev and bogutskaya , 2004 ; 2007 ) . eggs are laid inside an empty mollusc shell .