dichocoenia is a genus of stony coral ( scleractinia ) in the family meandrinidae .

the corals in this genus are massive , hump-forming or flattened corals with irregular calyces .

they are found in the caribbean sea and western atlantic ocean .

dichocoenia

dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . colony with tentacles extended at night . charlie veron .
dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . this species commonly forms small spherical colonies . charlie veron .
aims coral factsheet photo : dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . an encrusting colony . charlie veron .
e . c . peters ( personal communication ) considers the recent caribbean genus dichocoenia to consist of only one highly polymorphic species ( manuscript in preparation ) . cairns ( 1982 ) and zlatarski and estalella ( 1982 ) both synonymized d . stellaris with this species .
( of dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) milne edwards h , haime j ( 1849 ) recherches sur les polypiers . mémoire 4 . monographie des astréides . annales des sciences naturelles , zoologie , series 3 , 12 : 95 - 197 . [ details ]
( of dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) zlatarski v . n . ; martinez e . n . ( 1982 ) . les scléractiniaires de cuba avec des données sur les organismes associés . editions l’académie bulgare des sciences , sofia . 472 pp . [ details ]
( of dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of dichocoenia stokesi f . stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1848 ) scaps , p . ; saunders , j . ( 2011 ) . shallow water stony corals ( scleractinia , milleporidae , and stylasteridae ) from utila and cayos cochinos , honduras . isrn zoology . 2011 : 1 - 9 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
taxonomic note : taxonomic note : colonies from lower reef slopes or shaded habitats have markedly smaller corallites than those from more exposed environments and are usually identified as dichocoenia stellaris ( see wells , 1973b ) . source reference : veron ( 2000 ) . taxonomic references : roos ( 1971 ) , wells ( 1973b ) , cairns ( 1982 ) . additional identification guides : colin ( 1978 ) , humann ( 1993 ) .
milne edwards h . , haime j . ( 1848 ) . note sur la classification de la deuxième tribu de la famille des astréides . comptes rendus de l ' académie des sciences , paris . 27 : 490–497 . [ details ]
hoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .
milne edwards & haime , 1848 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 267382 on 2018 - 07 - 09
budd , a . f . , fukami , h . , smith , n . d . & knowlton , n . 2012 . taxonomic classification of the reef coral family mussidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia . zoological journal of the linnean society 166 : 465–529 . [ details ]
van der land , j . ( ed ) . ( 2008 ) . unesco - ioc register of marine organisms ( urmo ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
veron jen . ( 2000 ) . corals of the world . vol . 1–3 . australian institute of marine science and crr , queensland , australia . [ details ]
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
this species occurs in the caribbean , gulf of mexico , florida ( including the florida middle grounds ) , the bahamas , and bermuda .
this species is common , and may be locally abundant in certain habitats and localities .
there is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is particularly susceptible to bleaching , disease , and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future .
the age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years .
this species is found in back and fore reef environments , rocky reefs , lagoon habitats , spur and groove formations , channels , and sometimes at the base of the reef , from 2 - 72 m . hemispherical heads are more abundant on shallow exposed reefs from 5 - 20 m ( goreau and wells , 1967 ; e . weil . pers . comm . ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
colonies are massive , often spherical , or may form thick submassive plates . corallites are evenly spaced , plocoid or ploco - meandroid . septo - costae are usually in two neatly alternating orders .
colour : a distinctive orange - brown with white septo - costae , rarely green .
© 2011 - 2012 australian institute of marine science and crr cc by - nc 3 . 0
m . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda
colonies form rounded heads , domes or flattened plates . rounded colonies may reach 40 cm in diameter . the
humann , p . , 1993 . reef coral identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .
roos , p . j . , 1964 . the distribution of reef corals in curacao . stud . fauna curacao , 20 : 1 - 51 .
roos , p . j . , 1971 . the shallow - water stony corals of the netherlands antilles . studies on the fauna of curaçao and other caribbean islands , 130 .
voss , g . l . , 1976 . seashore life of florida and the carribbean . banyan books , inc . miami , florida .
las colonias de esta especie forman pequeñas estructuras masivas o láminas gruesas de forma oval . tienen un color crema o verde - café . la característica distintiva de la especie consiste en las estructuras ovales que se extienden por arriba de la superficie entre los coralitos ( coenesteum ) . los coralitos son ovales y se vuelven elongados casi meandroides cerca del área donde se dividen . los coralitos se encuentran separados unos de otros y la superficie entre éstos tiene una textura granular ( photo 2 ) .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
if you are reading this text , you are viewing this document with a frames - incapable browser . this document was designed to be viewed by a frames - capable browser such as netscape navigator 2 . 0 . if you would like access to nmita database information but are having difficulty finding an appropriate browser , email us at
milne edwards h , haime j ( 1849 ) recherches sur les polypiers . mémoire 4 . monographie des astréides . annales des sciences naturelles , zoologie , series 3 , 12 : 95 - 197 . [ details ]
milne edwards & haime , 1848 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 289807 on 2018 - 07 - 09
( of astrea porcata lamarck , 1816 ) lamarck , j . - b . m . de . ( 1816 ) . histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres . tome second . paris : verdière , 568 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
zlatarski v . n . ; martinez e . n . ( 1982 ) . les scléractiniaires de cuba avec des données sur les organismes associés . editions l’académie bulgare des sciences , sofia . 472 pp . [ details ]
cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
cairns , s . d . , jaap , w . c . , and j . c . lang . 2009 . scleractinia ( cnidaria ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 333–347 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
( of astrea porcata lamarck , 1816 ) budd , a . f . , fukami , h . , smith , n . d . & knowlton , n . 2012 . taxonomic classification of the reef coral family mussidae ( cnidaria : anthozoa : scleractinia . zoological journal of the linnean society 166 : 465–529 . [ details ]
in the western atlantic , this coral was been divided into two species ( d . stokesii and d . stellaris ) , although most researchers lump both corals in d . stokesii . cairns et al . ( 1999 ) regard the two as distinct .
justification : this species is listed as data deficient as there is no reliable information on population status , and there are taxonomic uncertainties on the validity of the species . if this species is shown to be valid , and to be affected by white plague at levels similar to that observed in d . stokesii , this species may qualify for listing in a threatened category due to its low abundance .
this species occurs in the caribbean , southern gulf of mexico , florida ( including the florida middle grounds ) , and the bahamas .
this species is usually uncommon . this is a deep - water species , often classified as the more abundant and closely related
, and there is no reliable information on its current population status . ( aronson , r . , precht , w . , moore , j . , weil , e . , and bruckner , a . pers . comm . )
this species is found in fore reef habitats below 15 m . coexists with d . stokesii in deeper water . ( aronson , r . , precht , w . , moore , j . , weil , e . , and bruckner , a . pers . comm . ) this species may be found to 22 m .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
put your suggestion in the fields below . empty fields will keep the existing data .
siquijor is a splendid island situated between negros , bohol and mindanao . its waters are clear and rich in hard corals . the island has several tourist attractions such as a superb tropical but artificial forest , falls , caves and others .
none , but dive boats from dumaguete and even mactan will visit . there are a couple of hotels along the south coast , style tropical paradise .
in the shallow brown algae , going over deeper into green algae , then fringing reef . at about 20 - 25 m starts a sloping sand bottom .
© 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc .
scleractinian coral recruitment patterns at salt river submarine canyon , st . croix , u . s . virgin islands | article rogers cs , fitz iii hc , gilnack m , beets j , hardin j ( 1984 ) coral reefs 3 : 69 - 76 1 x mention ( s )
the distribution of algae , corals , and gorgonians in relation to depth , light attenuation , water movement and grazing pressure in the fringing reef . . . | article van den hoek c , breeman am , bak rpm , van buurt g ( 1978 ) aquat bot 5 : 1 - 46 1 x mention ( s )
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
cairns , s . d . , d . r . calder , a . brinckmann - voss , c . b . castro , d . g . fautin , p . r . pugh , c . e . mills , w . c . jaap , m . n . arai , s . h . d . haddock , and d . m . opresko . 2002 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : cnidaria and ctenophora . 2nd edition . american fisheries society , special publication 28 , bethesda , maryland . 115 pp .
widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , occurs on most classes of marine hardbottom communities , and has recently been classfied as common in much of its range , with more than 50 localities having been recorded . but it has been designated as vulnerable by the iucn in part because of recent declines . more information is needed .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , including the gulf of mexico , southern florida , bahamas , mexico , jamaica , belize , cuba , puerto rico , bermuda , curacao and bonaire and south to northern south america .
there are records for more than 50 localities between urltoken and the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission invertebrate collection and this species has a relatively large range .
common on low - relief hardbottom communities , patch reefs , fringing reefs , spur and groove reefs , transitional reefs and deeper intermediate reefs .
all coral reefs are being adversely affected by bleaching from rising ocean temperatures and water temperatures in 2005 were the warmest they ' d been in 150 years ( eakin et al . 2010 ) . coral disease , bleaching , sedimentation , and habitat loss are threats to this species and ocean acidification and climate change may be ( aronson et al . 2008 ) .
a 2008 iucn assessment estimated an approximate 38 % loss in the short term over its entire range ( aronson et al . 2008 ) .
( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , including the gulf of mexico , southern florida , bahamas , mexico , jamaica , belize , cuba , puerto rico , bermuda , curacao and bonaire and south to northern south america .
distribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .
a79bak02fcus : low reported recruitment rates . little information on reproductive ecology in resources consulted .
p91pet01fcus : protozoan parasites , diseases of unknown etiology . a90ghi01fcus : susceptible to bleaching ( loss of zooxanthellae ) due to adverse environmental conditions . a81ant02fcus : seldom inflicted with black band disease , never reported with white band disease . a15vau01fcus : growth rate measured at 2 - 7 mm / yr increase in diameter and 2 - 5 . 2 mm / yr increase in height . p93pet01fcus : slow growth rate at 1 - 2 mm / yr .
overall depth range from 2 - 40 + m , but typically occurs from 3 - 20 m on most classes of marine hardbottom communities .
data needed on reproduction and recruitment patterns . information needed on susceptibility to sedimentation and eutrophication .
four components to a stony coral element occurrence : 1 . ) determine size and boundary of site to be surveyed , 2 . ) determine density of colonies via quadrats , 3 . ) determine size distribution of colonies with a note on maximum colony size , and 4 . ) provide habitat description .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
almy , c . c . , jr . and carrion - torres , c . 1963 . shallow - water stony corals of puerto rico . caribbean journal of science 3 : 133 - 162 .
aronson , r . , a . bruckner , j . moore , b . precht , and e . weil . 2008 . [ various coral species treatments ] in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . urltoken .
bak , r . p . m . 1975 . ecological aspects of the distribution of reef corals in the netherlands antilles . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 45 : 181 - 190 .
bak , r . p . m . and elgershuizen , j . h . b . w . 1976 . patterns of oil - sediment rejection in corals . marine biology 37 : 105 - 113 .
bak , r . p . m . , brouns , j . j . w . m . and heys , f . m . l . 1977 . regeneration aspects of spatial competition in the scleractinian corals agaricia agaricites and montastrea annularis . proceedings of the 3rd international coral reef symposium 1 : 143 - 148 .
cairns , s . d . 1982 . stony corals of carrie bow cay , belize . smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences 12 : 271 - 302 .
cairns , s . d . , calder , d . r . , brinckman - voss , a . , castro , c . b . , pugh , p . r . , cutress , c . e . , jaap , w . c . , fautin , d . g . , larson , r . j . , harbison , g . r . , arai , m . n . and opresko , d . m . 1991 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : cnidaria and ctenophora . american fisheries society special publication 22 , bethesda , maryland . 75 pp .
colin , p . l . 1978 . caribbean reef invertebrates and plants . thf publications , hong kong . 512 pp .
dahlgren , e . j . 1989 . gorgonian community structure and reef zonation patterns on yucatan coral reefs . bull . mar . sci . 45 ( 3 ) : 678 - 696
dodge , r . e . , logan , a . and antonius , a . 1982 . quantitative reef assessment studies in bermuda : a comparison of methods and preliminary results . bulletin of marine science 32 ( 3 ) : 745 - 760 .
dryer , s . and logan , a . 1978 . holocene reefs and sediments of castle harbor , bermuda . journal of marine research 36 ( 3 ) : 399 - 425 .
dunne , r . p . and brown , b . e . 1979 . some aspects of the ecology of reefs surrounding anegada , british virgin islands . atoll research bulletin 236 : 1 - 83 .
dustan , p . 1985 . community structure of reef - building corals in the florida keys : carysfort reef , key largo and long key reef , dry tortugas . atoll research bulletin 288 : 1 - 27 .
dustan , p . and halas , j . c . 1987 . changes in the reef - coral community of carysfort reef , key largo , florida : 1974 to 1982 . coral reefs 6 : 91 - 106 .
edmunds , p . j . , roberts , d . a . and singer , r . 1990 . reefs of the northeastern caribbean i . scleractinian populations . bulletin of marine science 46 ( 3 ) : 780 - 789 .
farrell , t . m . , d ' elia , c . f . , lubbers , l . and pastor , l . j . 1983 . hermatypic coral diversity and reef zonation at cayos arcas , campeche , gulf of mexico . atoll research bulletin 270 : 1 - 7 .
florida museum of natural history . undated c . invertebrate zoology master database . online . available : urltoken
ghiold , j . and smith , s . h . 1990 . bleaching and recovery of deep - water , reef - dwelling invertebrates in the cayman islands , b . w . i . caribbean journal of science 26 ( 1 - 2 ) : 52 - 61 .
goldberg , w . m . 1973a . the ecology of the coral - octocoral communities off the southeast florida coast : geomorphology , species composition and zonation . bulletin of marine science 23 ( 3 ) : 465 - 487 .
goodwin , m . h . , cole , m . j . , stewart , w . e . and zimmermann , b . l . 1976 . species density and associations in caribbean reef corals . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 24 : 19 - 31 .
goreau , t . f . 1959 . the ecology of jamaican coral reefs . i . species composition and zonation . ecology 40 : 67 - 90 .
goreau , t . f . and wells , j . w . 1967 . the shallow - water scleractinia of jamaica : revised list of species and their vertical distribution range . bulletin of marine science 17 ( 2 ) : 442 - 453 .
hopkins , t . s . , blizzard , d . r . , brawley , s . a . , earle , s . a . , grimm , d . e . , gilbert , d . k . , johnson , p . g . , livingston , e . h . , lutz , c . h . , shaw , j . k . and shaw , b . b . 1977 . a preliminary characterization of the biotic components of composite strip transects on the florida middle grounds , northeastern gulf of mexico . proceedings of the 3rd international coral reef symposium 1 : 31 - 37 .
humann , p . and n . deloach . 2013 . reef coral identification : florida , carribean , bahamas . new world publications inc . jacksonville , florida . 270 pp .
jaap , w . c . 1984 . the ecology of the south florida coral reefs : a community profile . u . s . fish and wildlife service , office of biological services , washington , d . c . fws / obs - 82 / 08 . 138 pp .
jaap , w . c . , halas , j . c . and muller , r . g . 1988 . community dynamics of stony corals ( scleractinia and milleporina ) at key largo national marine sanctuary , key largo , florida during 1981 - 1986 . proceedings of the 6th international coral reef symposium 2 : 237 - 243 .
jaap , w . c . , w . g . lyons , p . dustan and j . c . halas . 1989 . stony coral ( scleractinia and milleporina ) community structure at bird key reef , ft . jefferson national monument , dry tortugas , florida . florida marine research publications 46 : 1 - 31
kuhlmann , d . 1974 . the coral reefs of cuba . proceedings of the 2nd international coral reef symposium 2 : 69 - 83 .
logan , a . 1984 . interspecific aggression in hermatypic corals from bermuda . coral reefs 3 : 131 - 138 .
roberts , h . h . 1972 . coral reefs of st . lucia , west indies . caribbean journal of science 12 ( 3 - 4 ) : 179 - 190 .
rogers , c . s . , h . c . fitz , iii , m . gilnack , j . beets , and j . hardin . 1984 . scleractinian coral recruitment patterns at salt river submarine canyon , st . croix , u . s . virgin islands . coral reefs 3 : 69 - 76 .
rogers , c . s . , m . gilnack , and h . c . fitz , iii . 1983 . monitoring of coral reefs with linear transects : a study of storm damage . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 66 : 285 - 300 .
scatterday , j . w . 1974 . reefs and associated coral assemblages off bonaire , netherlands antilles , and their bearing on pleistocene and recent reef models . proceedings of the 2nd international coral reef symposium 2 : 85 - 106 .
scoffin , t . p . and garrett , p . 1974 . processes in the formation and preservation of internal structure in bermuda patch reefs . proceedings of the 2nd international coral reef symposium 2 : 429 - 448 .
smith , f . g . w . 1971 . atlantic reef corals . university of miami press , coral gables , florida . 164 pp .
sterrer , w . 1986 . marine fauna and flora of bermuda . a systematic guide to the identification of marine organisms . john wiley and sons , new york . 742 pp .
tomascik , t . and sander , f . 1987a . effects of eutrophication on reef - building corals . ii . structure of scleractinian coral communities on fringing reefs , barbados , west indies . marine biology 94 : 53 - 75 .
tunnell , j . w . , jr . 1988 . regional comparison of southwestern gulf of mexico to caribbean sea coral reefs . proceedings of the 6th international coral reef symposium 3 : 303 - 308 .
vaughan , t . w . 1915 . the geologic significance of the growth - rate of the floridian and bahamian shoal - water corals . journal of the washington academy of sciences 5 : 591 - 600 .
wells , j . w . 1973a . new and old scleractinian corals from jamaica . bulletin of marine science 23 ( 1 ) : 16 - 58 .
wheaton , j . l . , and w . c . jaap . 1988 . corals and other prominent benthic cnidaria of looe key national marine sanctuary . florida marine research publications 43 , 25 pp .
white , m . h . and porter , j . w . 1985 . the establishment and monitoring of two permanent photograph transects in looe key and key largo national marine sanctuaries ( florida keys ) . proceedings of the 5th international coral reef congress 6 : 531 - 537 .
zlatarski , v . n . and estalella , n . m . 1982 . les scleractiniaires de cuba avec des donnees sur les organismes associes . academic bulgare des sciences , sofia , bulgaria . 472 pp .
the small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .
note : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on
trademark notice :
natureserve
, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .
copyright notice : copyright © 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .
natureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :
ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .
data developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .
no graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .
) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .


fragum unedo is a species of cockle , a marine bivalve mollusc in the family cardiidae , commonly known as the pacific strawberry cockle .

it is found in tropical seas in the indo-pacific region and the empty shells are prized for use in decorative crafts .

fragum unedo

pacific strawberry cockle ( fragum unedo ) from sealife base : technical fact sheet .
ultrastructural differences between the anterior and posterior adductors of the strawberry cockle , fragum unedo .
ultrastructural differences between the anterior and posterior adductors of the strawberry cockle , fragum unedo . - pubmed - ncbi
fragum fragum is a photosymbiotic species intermediate between corculum and fragum unedo . semi - transparent posterior areas ( pigment and windows ) exist to allow light penetration . as well , siphonal tentacles are exposed to light on posterior shell surface and contain photosymbionts .
family : bivalvia born : 1758 , linne genus and description : fragum unedo , 26 . 5 & 31 mm , f + + / f + + + , set of 2 specimens origin : collected by a local fishermen by nets off panglao island , bohol philippines , march 2013 .
pacific strawberry cockle ( fragum unedo ) in the bivalves section by j . m . poutiers in the fao species identification guide for fishery purposes : the living marine resources of the western central pacific volume 1 : seaweeds , corals , bivalves and gastropods on the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) website .
this is the type species of the genus fragum . kirkendale ( 2009 ) has shown ( and others have confirmed e . g . herrera et al . 2015 ) that fragum is paraphyletic and includes corculum and lunulicardia , the two other wholly photosymbiotic lineages of cardiids . the phylogeny of members of the fraginae subfamily is in a state of flux and the taxonomy of the group is in need of attention .
fragum unedo is commonly found in the indo - pacific region . prior literature shows that specimens have been found in sri lanka , southern japan , the pacific islands as well as the northern and eastern coasts of australia . ( 12 . 87n , 93e , 41 . 23n , 142 . 55e , 35 . 9s , 159 . 08e ) ( e . o . l . 2012 ) .
strawberry cockle fragum unedo family cardiidae updated oct 2016 where seen ? this pretty clam is not often seen , usually on sandy shores near reefs . elsewhere , they are shallow burrowers in sandy bottoms , often occuring in dense populations . features : 4 - 6cm . the sturdy two - part shell is heavy , squarish with strong ribs marked with little red beads . human uses : elsewhere , it is used in decorative shellcraft and may be eaten by coastal dwellers .
qld , nt and wa in australia , but widely distributed in the indo - west pacific . wilson and stevenson 1977 note that placement of red scales appears different than in f . unedo from the pacific ocean and philippines .
kirkendale ( 2009 ) has shown ( and others have confirmed e . g . herrera et al . 2015 ) that fragum is paraphyletic and includes corculum and lunulicardia , the two other wholly photosymbiotic lineages of cardiids . the phylogeny of members of the fraginae subfamily is in a state of flux and the taxonomy of the group is in need of attention
( of cardium unedo linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
adductors of fragum unedo were observed ultrastructurally and their muscle cells were classified according to the statistically analyzed diameter of their thick myofilaments . two types of smooth muscle cells were observed in the opaque portion of the anterior adductor : a - type cells containing thick myofilaments of about 46 nm in diameter and b - type cells having 62 nm thick myofilaments . the posterior adductor was also composed of two kinds of cells : the b - type cell , which had thick myofilaments of about 67 nm in diameter , and the c - type , containing thick myofilaments of 90 nm . two types of oblique - striated cells were commonly recognized in the translucent portions of anterior and posterior adductors . our observations thus indicate that the posterior adductor generally consists of cells which have thicker myofilaments than the ones of the anterior adductor .
as f . unedo burrows just below the surface ( habitat ) they are still susceptible to predation . in northern australian cockle - bed , starfish and rays are important ecological predators of cardiids ( rudman 1998 ) . the locomotory pattern of jumping ( locomotion ) is used as a means to escape from predatory species , displacing the cardiid a few centimetres from their prior location .
members of the cardiidae family , like many other marine bivalves are gonochoristic , meaning individuals are either male or female . by means of broadcast spawning they are able to reproduce sexually ( hickman et al . 2011 ) , utilizing processes of external fertilisation ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ; wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . no research has been conducted into the seasonal spawning patterns of f . unedo individuals . however , research conducted by kandeel et al . ( 2013 ) on cerastoderma glaucum , a cardiid cockle , has found that spawning events maybe be dependent on temperature and lunar cycles . c . glaucum are known to have an annual pattern of four spawning events ( kandeel et al . 2013 ) , it is possible that f . unedo may follow a similar trend .
like many other cardiids , f . unedo individuals spend most of their adult lives as a sedentary ( soo & todd 2014 ) , suspension feeder ( respiration and feeding ) . however , f . unedo individuals are not stuck in a single place for their entire lives , as they have the capability to locomote and burrow into sediments , using a muscular foot ( locomotion ) . the suspension feeding lifestyle imposes constraints upon the bivalves’ lifestyle , generally restricting it to aquatic environments ( habitat ) . however , during seasonal changes in tidal levels ( underwood 1981 ; tsimplis & woodworth 1994 ) , expose the intertidal reef zones . like other intertidal bivalves , f . undeo have developed the ability to survive without access to water for periods of time ( up to 8h at times ) . they accomplish this via aerial respiration , which is able to take place across the exposed posterior mantle region .
it is assumed that , f . unedo have a typical bivalve open circulatory system . with a three chambered heart , consisting of a single ventricle fed by a pair of lateral atria ( rudman 1998 ) , situated in a pericardial chamber . the heart is used to pump recently oxygenated blood , oxygenated haemoglobin is then transported to the rest of the body through blood ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ; hickman et al . 2011 ) . while veins return de - oxygenated blood back to the gills and eventually the heart .
it is assumed that , the excretory system of f . unedo is similar to many other bivalves . made up of a complex , were the heart and kidney have become a single organ . the excretory system is separated from the circulatory system by the pericardium ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . the pericardium contains pericardial glands , which aid in the nutrient filtration process . the system contains two nephridium , that act as pseudo - kidneys and concentrate waste products ( rudman 1998 ) . each nephridium empties into the exhalant siphon chamber via their respective nephridiopore ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .
tan siong kiat and henrietta p . m . woo , 2010 preliminary checklist of the molluscs of singapore ( pdf ) , lee kong chian natural history museum , national university of singapore .
tan , k . s . & l . m . chou , 2000 . a guide to the common seashells of singapore . singapore science centre . 160 pp .
abbott , r . tucker , 1991 . seashells of south east asia . graham brash , singapore . 145 pp .
( of cardium cruentum perry , 1811 ) perry , g . ( 1811 ) . conchology , or the natural history of shells : containing a new arrangement of the genera and species , illustrated by coloured engravings executed from the natural specimens , and including the latest discoveries . 1 - 4 , plates 1 - 61 . london . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hemicardium tegulatum dautzenberg , 1900 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1900 ) . description d ' une espèce nouvelle appartenant au genre hemicardium . j . conchyliol . xlviii : 5 - 8 , plate i ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
poorten , j . j . ter , 2009 . the cardiidae of the panglao marine biodiversity project 2004 and the panglao 2005 deep - sea cruise with descriptions of four new species ( bivalvia ) . vita malacologica 8 : 9 - 96 [ 21 november 2009 ] . available online at urltoken available online at urltoken [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of cardium cruentum perry , 1811 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of hemicardium tegulatum dautzenberg , 1900 ) poorten , j . j . ter , 2005 . outline of a systematic index - recent cardiidae ( lamarck , 1809 ) . visaya net . ( updated 2009 for worms ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
raffles museum of biodiversity research rmbr has its origins in the raffles museum which was founded in 1849 . established on…
developed by moving mouse © 2018 lee kong chian natural history museum . all rights reserved . terms of use .
we parsed the following live from the web into this page . such content is managed by its original site and not cached on discover life . please send feedback and corrections directly to the source . see original regarding copyrights and terms of use .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
morelet , l . 1889 ,
catalogue des coquilles recueillies par m . pavie dans le cambodge et la royaume de siam
, journal de conchyliologie , ser . 3 , vol . 29 , no . 2 , pp . 121 - 200
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 020dd48e - df2b - 43b6 - 9a5b - a2af40dc5edd
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 13390f09 - 3979 - 4e03 - 8f42 - d662e0bfc10b
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 218a93c6 - bbc5 - 4a65 - 8c0d - 3d64bb634731
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 6ab12a17 - 9635 - 43e9 - b3d8 - 6344c922138a
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0422a683 - fb73 - 48fd - aeee - daa6ecb61452
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 481385
explore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .
find out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .
did you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .
the atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
javascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .
in continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .
national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
the star system calculates the number of pieces that were handled by conchology , inc . in the last 15 years :
we want to point out that the star system is only very reliable for philippine shells only , as we handle very few foreign shells in general . as time goes , the system will become more and more performant .
enter your email address and we will send you an email with your username and password .
e - mail jecilia sisican if you do not receive your email with your username and password .
philippines . bohol . tubigon . 20 - 25 m . collected by local fishermen . 2009 .
© 1996 - 2018 guido t . poppe & philippe poppe - conchology , inc . ( 0 . 002 seconds . )
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en
urltoken
parasitism and symbioses in aquatic ecosystems ( v2 . 0 beta 1 . 4 )
journal of phycology 36 : 1153 - 1161 . doi : 10 . 1046 / j . 1529 - 8817 . 2000 . 00010 . x
this web site was designed by laure guillou and fabrice not ( biological station of roscoff , cnrs , france ) . contributions or suggestions are very welcome and can be submitted either to laure guillou or to fabrice not .
) . the two domed valves are equivalve , valves that mirror each other in both size and shape . however , each valve is asymmetrical . the valves are usually white or cream in colour , with strawberry - red scales ( fig . 2 ) . when in a still environment two siphons are able to be observed , an inhalant siphon (
individuals usually grow to lengths of 40mm , but when conditions are good they are able to grow to maximum lengths of 65mm .
shell with a scanning electronic microscope . they found that the shell was a bioceramic composite . made up of long and thin aragonite , crystal form of calcium carbonate caco3 , sheets and layers of collagen protein . the aragonite sheets were found to have a herringbone structure , which gives the shells added strength ( chen , peng and wu 2007 ) .
lateral view , the shell is of rhomboidal shaped ( fig . 3 ) .
dorsal view , the prosogyrate umbo aids to form the major characteristic heart shape ( fig . 4 ) .
the shells have a short heterodont , cyclodont hinge , and an external parivincular ligament .
the hinge of each valve usually has two cardinal teeth ( fig . 7 ) :
no research has been conducted into embryonic or larval development . the most educated assumption , is that they have similar embryonic and larval development to most other heterodont bivalves .
after the egg has been externally fertilized , the embryo undergoes the process of spiral cleavage ( hickman et al . 2011 ; wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . upon completion of embryonic cleavage , the embryo develops into a free swimming trochophore larvae ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) . this simple planktonic larval form , is dispersal utilizing ocean currents .
the trochophore larvae develops into the , longer lived , veliger larvae , unique to the molluscan phyla . during the veliger stage the mantle , shell and foot of the mollusc begin to develop ( hickman et al . 2011 ) . after successful feeding and dispersal , of the veliger larvae in the pelagic zone , the veliger larval form is lost as the bivalve develops into their adult forms (
savazzi ( 1985 ) states that members of the cardiidae family , display a variety of locomotory patterns that utilize the molluscs well developed l - shaped foot ( fig . 11 ) . these include , burrowing , jumping , ploughing and emerging ( fig . 12 ) .
to loosen the sediment , cardiids eject water into the substrate at the beginning of each burrowing sequence ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) allowing for easier burrowing . the burrowing process consists of a small number of burrowing sequences ( savazzi 1985 ) in which the shell rocks forwards and backwards ( fig . 13 ) , while being pulled downward by the foot ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .
jumping involves the rapid extension of the muscular foot , propelling the shell backwards . it is not uncommon for several jumps to occur in response ( savazzi 1985 ) .
ploughing , horizontal movement through the sediment , is the process of repeated burrowing sequences , with the hinge line horizontal and the foot pointing forward ( savazzi 1985 ) .
laboratory tests completed by savazzi ( 1985 ) found that movement involved in emerging from substrate occurred in a single movement , displacing the cardiid forward . emerging was often a result of insufficient oxygenation ( savazzi 1985 ) .
respire through the use of gas exchange which primarily occurs via the gills . additionally , when exposed from water , aerial respiration is possible through oxygen diffusion through the mantle ( kawaguti 1983 ) .
most heterodont bivalves are suspension feeders ( fig . 14 ) , pumping water and plankton in through an inhalant siphon ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) . large ctenidia are used to filter water and food particles . within ctenidia , water is moved using specialised cilia , that create current , causing the oxygenated and plankton filled waters to pump past the thin gill filaments of the demibranchs ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) . this allows nutrients and gasses to diffuse across the cells . the filtered water is then pumped out through the exhalent siphon ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .
have a similar nervous system to other bivalves . where a reduction of the head has resulted in limited cephalisation . instead of having a single large brain , bivalves have four separated ganglia ( wilbur and yonge 1964 ) :
cerebropleural ganglia , aids in the coordination of the muscular foot and the adductor muscle . pedal ganglia , provide motor control over the anterior pedal retractor muscles , byssal retractor muscles and the muscular foot . visceral ganglia , are responsible for the mantle , siphons , gills , heart , nephridia and gonads . siphonal ganglia , receives sensory information obtained by the siphons ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) .
as the head is located internally within the bivalves’ shell , it is unable to collect sensory information , and this task has been passed onto the foot and siphons ( rudman 1998 ) .
evolutionally bivalves undergone a complete loss of their radula , and developed two shells ( valves ) that are bilaterally symmetrical , with their hinge as the axial point . balvalia can be grouped into three major clades based on their morphological characteristics ( ruppert , fox and barnes 2004 ) :
consists of most extant bivalves , they are filter feeders with complex filibranch gills .
, was an important economic subsistence species for aboriginal communities in the western torres strait , before modern times .
has not yet been assessed for the iucn red list , and the current status of the species in unknown . however , like most other animals with a calcium carbonate , strawberry cockles are becoming more and more disadvantaged as the oceans become more acidic .
atlas of living australia . distribution map ( n . d . ) retrieved from
, new york , ny : mcgraw - hill companies , pp . 352 - 358 .
linnaeus , c 1758 , “system naturae” , regnum animale . cura societatis zoologicae germanicae ( 10th edi ) ,
ohno , t , katoh , t and yamasu , t 1995 . “the origin of algal - bivalve photo - symbiosis” ,
poutiers , jm 1998 , “bivalves . acephala , lamellibranchia , pelecypoda” , pp . 123 - 362 . in carpenter , ke and
, vol . 1 , seaweeds , corals , bivalves , and gastropods . rome ,
, belmont , calif : thomson - brooks / cole , pp . 367 - 403 .
acanthocardia tuberculate ) ” , stuttgarter beitr . naturk . a ( biol . ) , vol . 353 , pp . 1 - 12 .
australian customers can pay by direct bank deposit ( preferred ) , paypal or cheque . overseas customers please pay by paypal unless other arrangements have been made
prices quoted below are for regular airmail . please note that we can register and / or insure on larger orders . please enquire .
combining items in the one package is the most economical way to buy as postage stays the same up to 500grams .
as postage figures vary dramatically from state to state and country to country please message us if you need an accurate quote .
we offer a money - back guarantee if not happy with the item . money will be refunded once the item has been returned in its original condition . return postage is the buyers responsibility .
this is a single item listing . if an auction is running , the winning bidder will be the highest bidder .
i sold 4 more of my pin badges tonight , so over 100 sales now . the same newbie who purchase 4 of the 4th february has come back for 4 more
42 created tue 10 jul 2018 05 : 04 : 12 ( aest ) . copyright © 1999 - 2018 ebid ltd
shell solid and inequilateral , umbonal keel rounded , subquadrate to trapezoidal with strongly digitate posterior margin . no strong keel . strong broad , flat radial ribs ranging from 23 to 31 , mean 27 . lunule narrow , smooth with raised dorsal margin . escutcheon broad , smooth . exterior white , ribs with irregular , transverse red scales , sometimes with pale brown blotches ; interior white . it is distinct from all other fragines by the prominent red scales on the ribs of the shell . shell length and width to around 5 cm while depth to above 6 cm .
this is the most heavily bodied , heavily shelled species of the subfamily fraginae . in contrast to corculum that has a very light , thin and transparent shell ( in areas ) , this species also participates in photosymbiosis but in a very different manner . soft anatomy is not contained within the shell but is exposed as highly distinct leaf - like extensions of the posterior siphonal area , similar to but unique from the hypertrophied mantle of giant clams . these are spread out on the surface of the sediment and function to greatly increase surface area for photosymbionts that are contained within the exposed tissue .
all cockles or cardiids have short siphons . because of this morphological constraint , infaunal cardiids live close to the sediment water interface in order to filter water . this could be considered a preadaptation for a photosymbiotic lifestyle , as it also facilitates optimal light penetration into the soft tissues in shell interior where photosymbionts are housed .
rights we support the open release of data and information about our collections . text content on this page is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license . image content on this page is copyright wa museum .
the great barrier reef and adjacent isles : a comprehensive survey for visitor , naturalist and photographer .
hylleberg , j . ( 2004 ) . lexical approach to cardiacea . records of taxa . illustrated and annotated records of living and fossil shells , with emphasis on the families cardiidae and lymnocardiidae ( mollusca : bivalvia ) . part 3 : n - z .
kirkendale , l . ( 2009 ) . their day in the sun : molecular phylogenetics and origin of photosymbiosis in the ‘other’ group of photosymbiotic marine bivalves ( cardiidae : fraginae ) .
brisbane , queensland : jacaranda press . nielsen , c . ( 1976 ) . checklist of bivalves from pmbc beach and reef flat , phuket , thailand .
oostingh , c . h . ( 1925 ) . report on a collection of recent shells from obi and halmahera , molluccas .
poorten , j . j . ter . ( 2009 ) . the cardiidae of the panglao marine biodiversity project 2004 and the panglao 2005 deep - sea cruise with descriptions of four new species ( bivalvia ) . vita malacologica , 8 , 9 - 96 .
persselin , s . l . ( 1998 ) . the evolution of shell windows within the fraginae ( bivalvia : cardiidae ) and the origin of algal symbiosis in cardiids . m . s . thesis in biology : university of guam .
reeve , l . a . ( ed . ) . conchologica iconica . london : reeve & bentham vol . 2 ( as
, report on the zoological collections made in the indo - pacific ocean during the voyage of the h . m . s . ' alert ' 1881 - 2 . london , british museum trustees , printed by taylor , & francis . [ part i . collections of melanesia , pp . 34 - 116 ; part ii . collections from the western indian ocean , pp . 487 - 508 ; explanation of plates pp . 657 - 659 ] .
tan , s . k . , & low , m . e . y . ( 2014 ) . checklist of the mollusca of cocos ( keeling ) / christmas island ecoregion . raffles bulletin of zoology , suppl . , 30 : 313 - 375 .
wilson , b . r . , & stevenson , s . e . ( 1977 ) . cardiidae ( mollusca , bivalvia ) of western australia .
willan , r . c . , bryce , c . , & slack - smith , s . m . ( 2015 ) . kimberley marine biota . historical data : molluscs .
shell medium , inequilateral , shell notably higher than long , sharply pointed ventrally with strong keel . posterior flattened and narrow , steep . sculpture of strong radial ribs circa 32 range 27 - 37 ( wam material ) , surfaces broad and flat . ribs flattened with close set transverse curved scales , becoming coarser anteriorly . lateral teeth extremely inequidistant from cardinals . shell cream , rugae or nodules on ribs often yellowish . interior color white , but with often yellow - orange flares radiating from umbonal cavity .
intertidal to shallow subtidal insandy areas . generally in sheltered areas . in reefal habitats can be found from sandy areas through to seagrass bed perimeters and rubble .
qld , nt and wa in australia , but widely distributed in the indo - west pacific .
hedley , c . ( 1899 ) . the mollusca of funafuti . part 2 . pelecypoda and brachiopoda .
hylleberg , j . ( 2004 ) . lexical approach to cardiacea . records of taxa . illustrated and annotated records of living and fossil shells , with emphasis on the families cardiidae and lymnocardiidae ( mollusca : bivalvia ) . part 2 : a - m .
. vol . 1 . bathhurst , new south wales : crawford house press .
maes , v . o . ( 1967 ) . the littoral marine mollusks of cocos - keeling islands ( indian ocean ) .
persselin , s . l . ( 1998 ) . the evolution of shell windows within the fraginae ( bivalvia : cardiidae ) and the origin of algal symbiosis in cardiids . m . s . thesis in biology , university of guam .
reeve , l . a . ( ed . ) . conchologica iconica , vol . 2 . london :
tan , s . k . & low , m . e . y . ( 2014 ) . checklist of the mollusca of cocos ( keeling ) / christmas island ecoregion . raffles bulletin of zoology , suppl . , 30 , 313 - 375 .
tantanasiriwong , r . ( 1979 ) . a checklist of marine bivalves from phuket ( area ) .
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
department of biology , faculty of science , shimane university , matsue , japan .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
grown under ordinary air . i . active species of inorganic carbon utilized for photosynthesis . pl . cell physiol . 28 : 273–281
blank , r . j . , trench , r . k . ( 1985 ) . speciation and symbiotic dinoflagellates . science , n . y . 229 : 656–658
and the occurrence of age gradients in calcification and photosynthesis . j . exp . bot . 27 : 864–878
bradford , m . m . ( 1976 ) . a rapid sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein - dye binding . analyl . biochem . 72 : 248–254
cook , c . b . ( 1983 ) . metabolic interchange in algae - invertebrate symbiosis . int . rev . cytol . 14 : 117–210
fankboner , p . v . ( 1971 ) . intracellular digestion of symbiotic zooxanthellae by host amoebocytes in giant clams ( bivalvia : tridacnidae ) , with a note on the nutritional role of the hypertrophied siphonal epidermis . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 141 : 222–234
guillard , r . r . l . , ryther , j . h . ( 1962 ) . studies on marine planktonic diatoms . i .
hinde , r . ( 1988 ) . factors produced by symbiotic marine invertebrates with affect translocation between the symbionts . in : scannerini s . et al . ( ed . ) nato asi series , vol . h17 . cell to cell signals in plant , animal and microbial symbiosis . springer - verlag , berlin , p . 311–324
in higher plants , algae and natural phytoplankton . biochem . physiol . pfl . 167 : 191–194
( l . ) and its associated zooxanthellae . pacif . sci . 4 : 43–49
kawaguti , s . ( 1966 ) . electron microscopy on the mantle of the giant clam with special reference to zooxanthellae and iridophores . biol . j . okayama univ . 12 : 81–92
kawaguti , s . ( 1968 ) . electron microscopy on zooxanthellae in the mantle nad gill of the heart shell . biol . j . okayama univ . 14 : 1–12
kawaguti , s . ( 1983 ) . the third record of association between bivalve molluses and zooxanthellae . proc . japan acad . 59 ( ser . b ) : 17–20
keller , m . d . , selvin , r . c . , claus , w . , guillard , r . r . l . ( 1987 ) . media for the culture of oceanic ultraplankton . j . phycol . 23 : 633–638
muscatine , l . ( 1965 ) . symbiosis of hydra and algae . iii extracellular products of the algae . comp . biochem . physiol . 16 : 77–92
muscatine , l . ( 1967 ) . glycerol excretion by symbiotic algae from corals and tridacna and its control by the host . science , n . y . 156 : 516–519
muscatine , l . ( 1990 ) . the role of symbiotic algae in carbon and energy flux in reef corals . in : dubinsky z . ( ed . ) coral reefs . elsevier science publishers b . v . , amsterdam , p . 75–87
muscatine , l . , cernichiari , e ( 1969 ) . assimilation of photosynthetic products of zooxanthellae by a reef coral . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 137 : 506–523
muscatine , l . , pool , r . r . , cernichiari , e . ( 1972 ) . some factors influencing selective release of soluble organic material by zooxanthellae from reef corals . mar . biol . 13 : 298–308
norton , j . h . , shepherd m . a . , long h . m . , fitt , w . k . ( 1992 ) . the zooxanthellal tubular system in the giant clam . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 183 : 503–506
okaichi , t . , nishio , s . , imatomi , y . ( 1982 ) . collection and mass culture . in : jap . fish . soc . ( ed . ) toxic phytoplankton - occurrence , mode of action , and toxins . koseisha - koseikaku , tokyo , p . 23–34 ( in japanese )
streamer , m . , griffiths , d . j . , luong - van thinh ( 1988 ) . the products of photosynthesis by zooxanthellae (
sutton , d . c . , hoegh - guldberg , o . ( 1990 ) . host - zooxanthellae interactions in four temperate marine invertebrate symbioses : assessment of effect of host extracts on symbionts . biol . bull . mar biol . lab . , woods hole 178 : 175–186
trench , r . k . ( 1971 ) . the physiology and biochemistry of zooxanthellae symbiotic with marine coelenterates . iii . the effect of homogenates of host tissues on the excretion of photosynthetic products
by zooxanthellae from two marine coelenterates . proc . r . soc . lond . ( ser . b ) 177 : 251–264
trench , r . k . , wethey , porter , d . s . ( 1981 ) . observations on the symbiosis with zooxanthellae among the tridacnidae ( mollusca , bivalvia ) . biol . bull . mar . biol . lab . , woods hole 161 : 180–198
wafar , m . v . , qasim , s . z . ( 1975 ) . carbon fixation and excretion in symbiotic algae ( zooxanthellae ) in the presence of host homogenates . indian j . mar . sci . 4 : 43–46
waterbury , j . b . , stanier , r . y . ( 1981 ) . isolation and growth of cyanobacteria from marine and hypersaline environments . in : starr , m . p . , stolp , h . , trüper , h . g . ( eds . ) the orokaryotes , vol . 1 . springer - verlag , berlin , p . 221–223
in order to access this website , please configure your browser to support cookies .
877 . 705 . 1878 ( toll - free , u . s . & canada ) 773 . 753 . 3347 ( international )