the light-mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) also known as the grey-mantled albatross or the light-mantled sooty albatross , is a small albatross in the genus phoebetria , which it shares with the sooty albatross .

the light-mantled albatross was first described as phoebetria palpebrata by johann reinhold forster , in 1785 , based on a specimen from south of the cape of good hope .

light - mantled albatross

a light mantled albatross , or light mantled sooty albatross , phoebetria palpebrata , on south georgia , on nesting cliffs at grytviken , calling to its mate .
light - mantled sooty albatross , south georgia . [ photo caoimhe g © ]
information on the light - mantled albatross is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
light - mantled albatross young and eggs are prey to rats , feral cats , and giant petrels .
' light - mantled albatross feeding chick , campbell island , new . . . by wayfair | havenly
there are no captive populations of the light - mantled sooty albatross ( international species information system 2008 ) .
light - mantled albatrosses can live for longer than 40 years in the wild .
there are about 87 , 000 light - mantled albatrosses in the world today .
light - mantled albatrosses are not known to have any negative effects on humans .
species assessments : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata ( agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels , 2010b ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross breeds at three locations within australian jurisdiction : heard island , macdonald islands and macquarie island .
light - mantled sooty albatross are the most abundant breeding albatrosses on macquarie island , where approximately 1000 pairs nest every year .
the breeding cycle of light - mantled sooty albatross is the same as that of wandering albatross , i . e . once every two years . however , the fledging period of light - mantled sooty albatrosses is only five months , while the fledging period of wandering albatross is almost one year .
the light - mantled sooty albatross does not undergo extreme natural fluctuations in population size , extent of occurrence or area of occupancy .
the diet of light - mantled sooty albatross is primarily composed of cephalopods and euphausiids , but they also take fish and carrion .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses have a dark grey head and a light grey body with a distinctive white crescent surrounding most of the eye .
caption : light - mantled sooty albatross at nest site , pair bonding behaviour , ( phoebetria palpebrata ) ; elsehul , south georgia .
thomas g ( 1982 ) the food and feeding ecology of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia . emu 82 : 92–100
light - mantled sooty albatross . adult in flight showing light blue mandible stripe and eye crescent . enderby island , auckland islands , january 2016 . image © tony whitehead by tony whitehead urltoken
range : the light - mantled albatross has circumpolar range in southern ocean . it breeds from south georgia e to campbell and antipodes islands .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses regularly dive in order to feed and can dive to below 12 m .
agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( 2010b ) . species assessments : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata . available from : urltoken .
in the 19 th century , light - mantled sooty albatrosses were named ' blue bird ' by sealers because their plumage looked blue in strong antarctic light .
agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels 2012 . acap species assessment : light - mantled albatross phoebetria palpebrata . downloaded from urltoken 1 october 2012 .
thomas , g . , j . croxall , p . prince . 1983 . breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia .
weimerskirch , h . , g . robertson . 1994 . satellite tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses .
croxall , j . 2008 .
oldest light - mantled sooty albatross
( on - line ) . accessed april 04 , 2008 at email correspondence .
unlike the other species of albatross breeding at south georgia , breeding light - mantled albatross are dispersed in low numbers around the entire coastline making it very difficult to monitor their population trends . nevertheless , south georgia is known to host the largest population of light - mantled albatross in the world . considered to be the most southerly of all the albatross species , these birds often forage close to the antarctic .
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4 . the light - mantled albatross’ method of soaring is so energy - efficient that it actually uses up less energy than when they’re sitting in a nest .
waugh , s . m . 2013 . light - mantled sooty albatross . in miskelly , c . m . ( ed . ) new zealand birds online . urltoken
the light - mantled sooty albatross is only likely to be confused with the closely - related sooty albatross ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . adults of the two species can generally be distinguished by the colour of the upperparts ( grey or light - grey in light - mantled sooty albatross and greyish - brown to blackish in sooty albatross ) and the colour of the sulcus ( pale blue or violet in light - mantled sooty albatross and creamy to creamy - yellow or orange in sooty albatross ) . however , adult sooty albatrosses in worn plumage and immature sooty albatrosses can also have pale upperparts , making separation more difficult or , in some instances , impossible ( harrison 1983 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ) .
the light - mantled albatross does not need to run for taking - off . it propels itself outwards from the steep slope where it is nesting . its agile flight allows elaborated aerial courtship displays . this albatross is a graceful glider .
3 . light - mantled albatrosses are masters of gliding , able to travel thousands of kilometres on wind currents without flapping their wings .
five species of chewing lice have been identified from light - mantled albatrosses . they are also hosts of a new species of flea (
phoebetria palpebrata ( light - mantled sooty albatross ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014vo ) [ state action plan ] .
morlan , j . ( 1994 ) . light - mantled sooty albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) over cordell banks , marin county , california . australasian seabird group newsletter . 27 : 5 - 8 .
a national recovery plan for albatrosses and giant - petrels has been developed and implemented ( environment australia 2001f ) . this recovery plan identifies the following objectives to aid the conservation of the light - mantled sooty albatross , and other albatross and giant - petrels :
the light - mantled sooty is suffering heavily from long line fishing . they are seen to follow ships regularly . they feed mainly on squid .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is highly territorial . pairs defend their nest sites against conspecifics ( for example , other pairs of light - mantled sooty albatross ) and sooty albatrosses ( phoebetria fusca ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . the defended area can be quite small with nests in colonies often separated by distances of less than 3 m ( berruti 1979 ; sorensen 1950 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 ) .
this paper is one of the few documented records of light - mantled albatross in brazil , noting that more records should be published in scientific journals to understand more the distribution and dispersion pattern of this species .
kerry , k . r . and colback , g . c . ( 1972 ) . follow that band ! light - mantled sooty albatross on macquarie island . australian bird bander . 10 : 61 - 62 .
) . light - mantled albatrosses can deliver meals up to 1 . 5 kg to their young , up to one half of this mass is liquid .
the generation length of the light - mantled sooty albatross is estimated to be 40 years . this estimate is based on documented life - history data for related taxa with similar ecological requirements ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) .
kerry , k . r . & b . r . garland ( 1984 ) . the breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross phoebetria palpebrata on macquarie island . tasmanian naturalist . 79 : 21 - 23 .
sorensen , j . h . ( 1950 ) . the light - mantled sooty albatross at campbell island . n . z . department of science and industrial research . cape expedition series . , bulletin no . 8 .
arguably the most beautiful albatross , the light–mantled sooty in new zealand waters breeds on the antidopes , auckland and campbell islands . the largest breeding colonies are to be found on south georgia , the kerguelen and auckland islands .
the breeding distribution of the light - mantled sooty albatross is naturally fragmented with individuals nesting on widely - separated islands across the southern reaches of the atlantic and indian oceans ( brooke 2004 ; gales 1998 ; tickell 2000 ) .
nests of light - mantled sooty albatross are made from mud with some plant material , and is usually lined with grasses . it is a low mound , 15 - 30 cm high and 45 - 55 cm at base .
light - mantled albatrosses tend to be solitary while at sea , and only form loosely - associated breeding colonies , if at all , during the mating season .
light - mantled albatrosses mature sexually starting at 8 years old . they will continue to mate until they are around 30 years old , mating every second year .
weimerskirch , h . & g . robertson ( 1994 ) . satellite tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses . polar biology . 14 : 123 - 129 .
light - mantled sooty albatross are solitary nesters , although occasionally they will nest in small colonies of up to 15 nests . little is known of their behaviour during the non - breeding period , which is spent entirely at sea .
at sea , light - mantled sooty albatrosses sometimes forage in association with wandering albatrosses ( diomedea exulans ) ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . the wandering albatross is listed as a threatened , marine and migratory species under the epbc act .
the light - mantled sooty albatross feeds on fish , cephalopods ( for example squid and octopus ) , crustaceans and carrion ( for example penguins , prions and seals ) ( cherel & klages 1998 ; green et al . 1998 ) .
light - mantled sooty albatross diet has been studied at south georgia , crozet and prince edward islands . it feeds mainly on squid ( 33 - 56 % of diet by fresh mass ) , followed by fish ( 10 - 45 % ) and crustaceans ( 4 - 40 % ) , with large variation in the importance of these last two groups by breeding site . analyses of squid species present in the diet show that light - mantled sooty albatrosses feed closer to the antarctic than other albatross species .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is one of a pair of sooty albatross species that have extremely pointed wings , wedge - shaped tails , and chocolate - brown colouration . their flight is effortless , and courting birds at breeding grounds are often seen in pairs in a synchronised aerodynamic display . the light - mantled sooty albatross is brown all over , except the greyish - brown mantle and back , which give it its name . a white crescent of feathers around the eye , and a pale blue stripe along the lower mandible contrasts with otherwise black bill and dark - brown head .
the light - mantled sooty albatross usually occurs solitarily or in small groups when at sea ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) . it breeds solitarily or in small colonies of up to 15 nests ( tickell 2000 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 , 1989 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is a pelagic marine species that occurs over continental shelf / slope and deeper waters in the sub - tropical , sub - antarctic and antarctic zones . the species breeds on sub - antarctic islands and rocky islets where pairs nest on cliffs and steep slopes ( downes et al . 1959 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; reid et al . 2002 ; tickell 2000 ) . the light - mantled sooty albatross does not occur in any of the threatened ecological communities listed under the epbc act .
protection / threats / status : the light - mantled albatross is always threatened by interactions with long line fishing operations . the bird can be injured or killed by ingestion of baited hooks when following the fish boats . in the same way , they can be killed by drowning when they are dragged underwater by the heavy fishing gear . introduced cats and rats , and natural avian predators kill the chicks at nest . adults are vulnerable to marine pollution and disturbances . the light - mantled albatross is currently classified as near threatened .
while at sea , light - mantled albatrosses have a range of thousands of miles . in their nesting habitat , however , their home territory is a small rocky outcropping on a cliffside .
thomas , g . , j . p . croxall & p . a . prince ( 1983 ) . breeding biology of the light - mantled sooty albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) at south georgia . journal of zoology ( london ) . 199 : 123 - 135 .
1 . like some other sea birds light - mantled albatrosses have a gland above their nasal passages that produces a saline solution to help expel excess salt taken in from sea water while feeding .
sky - pointing is one of the stereotyped actions of laysan albatross breeding dances .
chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study .
the light - mantled albatross can start breeding at 6 years old , but usually mostly at 12 years old . this species is long - lived with a lifespan of about 30 - 32 years . mates pair for life . they perform long sequences of stereotyped postures during displays , accompanied by various sounds and calls . these displays are performed while the birds are facing each other . the light - mantled albatross has low breeding productivity throughout the range . it has biennial breeding rate and one pair produces on average one young every 3 - 4 years .
light - mantled albatrosses are generally surface - fishers , diving only about 5 metres on average . they will sometimes follow dolphins and whales and use the mammals’ herding of fish to their own benefit .
the “albatross with light eyebrows” taken during cook’s first voyage in the south indian ocean , was an example of this species , and formed the basis of forster’s description of diomedea palpebrata published in 1785 .
the closely related sooty albatross lacks the pale mantle .
there are two key australian management documents for the light - mantled sooty albatross : national recovery plan for albatrosses and giant - petrels ( environment australia 2001f ) and a threat abatement plan for the incidental catch or bycatch of seabirds during longline fishing operations ( australian antarctic division 2006 ) .
terauds , a . & r . gales ( 2006 ) . provisioning strategies and growth patterns of light - mantled sooty albatrosses phoebetria palpebrata on macquarie island . polar biology . 29 : 917 - 926 .
the features of the light - mantled albatross are very different from the adult of the sooty albatross , although it can be confused with the plumage in the first year of this species ( see harrison , 1983 ) . however the immature sooty albatross has a clearer pale head , gray or black sulcus and the tail lacks pale shafts , while the adult of the light - mantled albatross has bluish sulcus and white shafts ( figures 1c and d ) ( harrison , 1983 ; onley and scofield , 2007 ) . the bird found was quite weak , possibly dehydrated , and unable to take flight . it later died , and there was no time to transport it to some environmental agency or research institution ; so , the bird was buried .
the agreement on the conservation of albatrosses and petrels ( acap 2007 ) , of which australia is a signatory , has established a working group on the taxonomy of albatrosses and petrels . the light - mantled sooty albatross is considered to be a conventionally accepted species by this taxonomic working group .
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the light - mantled albatross , like other albatrosses , produces the typical rattling sound by quick bill - clattering . cries , grunts and moans are heard too during displays . it is silent at sea but it gives eerie calls in flight .
albatrosses ( procellariiformes : diomedeidae ) are large birds that mostly occur in the southern hemisphere ( sick , 1997 ) . this family is represented by ten species in brazil , two belonging to the genus phoebetria : the light - mantled albatross p . palpebrata ( foster , 1785 ) and the sooty albatross p . fusca ( hilsenberg , 1822 ) ( cbro , 2014 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is a small dark albatross , with a body form honed for rapid flight . it has a dark sooty - brown body and head , with greyish - brown neck and back feathers , which distinguishes it from the similar - looking sooty albatross . the bill is dark with a pale blue stripe along the lower mandible , and there is a crescent of white feathers around the eye , giving the bird a slightly comical aspect .
a northern royal albatross in flight at the colony in taiaroa head , new zealand .
phylogenetic relationships of the four albatross genera . based on nunn et al . 1996 .
light - mantled albatrosses , along with other albatross species ( diomedeidae ) , are long - lived and slow to reproduce . they are increasingly being threatened by long - line fishing and by ingestion of plastic trash in the ocean . they are currently considered near threatened by the iucn and populations are declining .
phillips , r . a . , j . r . d . silk & j . p . croxall ( 2005 ) . foraging and provisioning strategies of the light - mantled sooty albatross at south georgia : competition and co - existence with sympatric pelagic predators . marine ecology progress series . 285 : 259 - 270 .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses follow longline fishing vessels to feed on cast baits and discarded scraps . this behaviour exposes them to incidental mortality through interactions with fishing vessels ( baker et al . 2002 ; gales 1993 , 1998 ) .
voice : light - mantled sooty albatrosses are generally silent at sea . at colonies they give the characteristic ‘sky call’ pee - aahh , and a braying threat call used to challenge other albatrosses and humans . bill snapping is also common .
) are thought to be predators that are capable of preying on young albatrosses . feral cats are also potential predators on breeding islands . however , the size and isolated nesting habitat of light - mantled albatrosses make them unlikely candidates for predation .
( a ) individual of light - mantled albatross found at vilatur beach , municipality of saquarema , rio de janeiro ; ( b ) side view ; ( c ) dorsal view showing features of the plumage and the white shafts of the tail ; ( d ) head showing the black bill with bluish sulcus ( photo by gustavo corrêa ) .
unlike most procellariiformes , albatrosses , like this black - footed albatross , can walk well on land .
chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study . - pubmed - ncbi
by using a combination of wind currents and gravity ( referred to as “dynamic soaring” ) light - mantled albatrosses can fly 110 metres with a drop of only 5 metres as the cost . they can fly at speeds of over 110 km per hour .
iucn . 2004 . red list : albatross species . world conservation union . retrieved september 13 , 2005 .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses are found around the southern ocean , with a circumpolar breeding distribution . they are thought to frequent less productive areas of the ocean , and are not commonly found on shelf - breaks or frontal zones . due to their lack of tolerance of handling , few satellite tracking studies have been undertaken . they forage in southern ocean waters from 40° s to the antarctic ice edge , and are perhaps the most southerly foraging of all albatross species . light - mantled sooty albatrosses tend to be solitary at sea , and don’t follow vessels or scavenge on fisheries waste to the same extent as most other small albatrosses .
2 . light - mantled albatrosses are one of the species of birds that produce foul - smelling oil in their stomachs that can be used to feed their young , feed themselves during long flights , or can be sprayed out of their mouths to deter predators .
green , k . , k . r . kerry , t . disney & m . r . clarke ( 1998 ) . dietary studies of light - mantled sooty albatrosses phoebetria palpebrata from macquarie and heard islands . marine ornithology . 26 : 19 - 26 .
the key breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction , based purely on the number of breeding pairs , is the population on macquarie island . however , as the total breeding population within australia is estimated at only 1600 or more pairs , all three breeding populations are likely to be important for the long - term persistence of the species within australia .
while in flight , light - mantled albatrosses spend about 77 % of the time gliding , 23 % of the time flap gliding , and 0 % of the time flapping . their small flight muscles rely on wind and ocean updrafts to support their long soaring times .
the total breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction is estimated at 1600 or more pairs . this figure is based on estimates of 500 pairs ( minimum ) at heard island ( woehler 2006 ) and 1110 pairs at macquarie island ( terauds 2000 ) and the presence of a small but non - quantified population at the mcdonald islands ( johnstone 1980 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross exhibits low breeding productivity throughout its range . pairs that breed successfully do not breed again for another two or three seasons . this behaviour , combined with low fecundity and modest rates of breeding success , means that pairs produce on average one fledging every three to four years ( brooke 2004 ; jouventin & weimerskirch 1988 ; kerry & garland 1984 ) .
reproduction of this species : the breeding season occurs between september / october and may / june . the light - mantled albatross often breeds solitary , but it can sometimes form very loose colonies . the nest - site is established on cliff ledges and steep slopes , usually backed by rock or earth . both adults build a low truncated cone - shaped nest with mud and plant materials .
in the new zealand region light - mantled sooty albatross nest on the antipodes ( 250 pairs ) , auckland ( 5000 pairs ) and campbell ( 1600 pairs ) islands and on nearby macquarie island . the new zealand populations account for around 30 % of the global population , with a world total of around 20 , 000 breeding pairs . population trend information is lacking for new zealand sites .
the breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction appears to be stable based on the few surveys conducted ( garnett & crowley 2000 ) . historically , numbers may have declined during the 19th century when whalers frequented both heard and macquarie islands and probably exploited the species for food , but no anecdotal or quantitative evidence is available to confirm this ( environment australia 2001f ) .
light - mantled albatrosses invest heavily in their offspring . males and females incubate the egg for 70 days , sharing incubation in seven to nine shifts that last from 1 to 29 days in length , but average 2 to 3 days . this is the longest average incubation for any
5 . the soaring however is at the mercy of the winds . if winds drop below speeds of about 18 km per hour the light - mantled albatross will not have enough lift to stay afloat . if winds get too heavy they will be blown off - course . if they have to flap much their big wings meet too much air resistance and they tire out at a rapid pace .
light - mantled albatrosses take about seven months to complete a breeding cycle . once the fledgling flies , parents have only three to four months before the next summer . this is not enough time to prepare to breed again , so they stay at sea for an entire summer and winter , this gives them at least 14 to 15 months between breeding seasons . on average , birds do not start breeding until 12 years of age , after that they fledge a chick every five years . light - mantled albatrosses are also capable of breeding until at least age 32 .
habitat : the light - mantled albatross is pelagic and marine . it usually occurs in colder waters than p . fusca , over the continental shelf but also in deeper waters in southern ocean . it breeds on remote sub - antarctic islands and rocky islets . the nest - site is established on cliff ledges and steep slopes . however , it may also nest inland , among tussock grass and ferns .
the remains of this laysan albatross chick show the plastic ingested prior to death , including a bottle cap and lighter .
the light - mantled sooty albatross forages entirely at sea . it obtains most of its food by floating on the surface of the ocean and plucking prey items from the water with its bill ( termed ' surface seizing ' ) . it occasionally forages by diving under water while floating on the surface ( ' surface diving ' ) or by plunging into the water from in flight and partially submerging or submerging to just below the surface ( ' surface plunging ' and ' shallow plunging ' ) ( harper et al . 1985 ) . individuals fitted with depth gauges have recorded dives to 12 m below the surface . the depths of these dives , combined with the streamlined body of the light - mantled sooty albatross , suggests that individuals probably employ some form of active swimming to attain such depths ( prince et al . 1994b ) .
they are one of the smaller albatross in the antarctic and subantarctic , with a wingspan of approximately 2 . 2 metres .
bbc news . 2005 . albatross chicks attacked by mice . jonathan amos , science writer . retrieved march 6 , 2006 .
the adult plumage of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper - wing and back , white undersides , often compared to that of a gull . of these , the species range from the southern royal albatross which is almost completely white except for the ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males , to the amsterdam albatross which has an almost juvenile - like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown , particularly a strong brown band around the chest . several species of mollymawks and north pacific albatrosses have face markings like eye patches , or have gray or yellow on the head and nape . three albatross species , the black - footed albatross and the two sooty albatrosses , vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark brown ( or dark gray in places in the case of the light - mantled sooty albatross ) . albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage .
an adult light - mantled albatross was found in 29 april 2014 at 08 : 45 min , at vilatur beach ( 22° 56’ s ; 42° 26’ o ) , municipality of saquarema , rio de janeiro . its plumage was sooty , with light gray back , vinaceous dark brown head , and darker wings and tail ( figures 1a and b ) . the bird was identified through the plates and photos of seabird guides and books , the contrasting light gray back , sharply contrasting the white crescent framing the upper half of the eye and the black bill with narrow pale bluish sulcus ( central line along ramicorn ) clinching the identification ( harrison , 1983 , 1987 ; enticott and tipling , 1997 ; onley and scofield , 2007 ) .
light - mantled albatrosses form committed pair bonds . one pair on macquarie island is known to have been together for 21 years . when light - mantled albatrosses are establishing a pair bond , males and females can be seen flying side by side silently in close formation . landing and taking off are also important in courtship because mating must be done on the cliffs . a large proportion of females do the landing while the males stay put at nest sites . displays can consist of sky calls and side - preens , among other movements and vocalizations . displays conclude by the female taking off and the male following .
the impact of invasive species on islands suitable for breeding for the light - mantled sooty albatross and other seabirds is also being addressed . introduced cats have been eradicated from macquarie island ( parks & wildlife service 2006 ; carmichael 2007 ) , and a plan to eradicate introduced european rabbits , black rats ( rattus rattus ) and house mice ( mus musculus ) from macquarie island has also been developed and implemented ( tas pws 2007a ) .
after the breeding season , the light - mantled albatross disperses widely over the southern ocean . they travel northwards and can reach subtropical waters , depending on the pack ice expansion . they return to the colonies in september / october . throughout the breeding season , the adults perform long - distance foraging trips , between 1500 and 2200 km from the breeding site . short and longer foraging trips are performed alternately when they are feeding the chick .
light - mantled sooty albatross pairs sometimes breed in mixed colonies with cape petrels ( daption capense ) , grey - headed albatrosses ( thalassarche chrysostoma ) and sooty albatrosses ( phoebetria fusca ) on islands outside of australian jurisdiction ( berruti 1979 ; mougin 1970 ; weimerskirch et al . 1986 ) , or near black - browed albatrosses ( thalassarche melanophris ) on heard island ( e . j . woehler 2007a , pers . comm . ) . each of these species is listed as a marine species , and the sooty albatross is also listed as a migratory species , under the epbc act .
( 2009 ) albatross foraging behaviour : no evidence for dual foraging , and limited support for anticipatory regulation of provisioning at south georgia .
6 . a light - mantled albatross’ take - off is an ungainly affair . they must find a spot where they can face into a fast - enough wind ( usually about at least 20 km per hour ) to take off without excessive flapping . if they have to flap to take off they have to skim across the surface of the water for a long distance ( sometimes more than a kilometre ) before they can attain enough speed to lift off .
carboneras , c . , jutglar , f . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . light - mantled albatross ( phoebetria palpebrata ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
since then , further studies have in some instances supported or disproved the splits . a 2004 paper analysing the mitochondrial dna and microsatellites agreed with the conclusion that the antipodean albatross and the tristan albatross were distinct from the wandering albatross , per robertson and nunn , but found that the suggested gibson ' s albatross , diomedea gibsoni , was not distinct from the antipodean albatross ( burg and croxall 2004 ) . for the most part , an interim taxonomy of 21 species is accepted by the world conservation union ( iucn ) and many other researchers , though by no means all—in 2004 , penhallurick and wink called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 ( including the lumping of the amsterdam albatross with the wandering albatross ) ( penhallurick and wink 2004 ) , although this paper was itself controversial ( double and chambers 2004 , rheindt and austin 2005 ) . on all sides , there is the widespread agreement on the need for further research to clarify the issue .
brothers n ( 1991 ) albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean . biol conserv 55 : 255–268
albatrosses have been described as
the most legendary of all birds
( carboneras 1992 ) . an albatross is a central emblem in the rime of the ancient mariner by samuel taylor coleridge ; a captive albatross is also a metaphor for the poète maudit in a poem of charles baudelaire . it is from the former poem that the usage of albatross as a metaphor is derived ; someone with a burden or obstacle is said to have ' an albatross around their neck ' , the punishment given in the poem to the mariner who killed the albatross . in part due to the poem , there is a widespread myth that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross ; in truth , however , sailors regularly killed and ate them ( cocker and mabey 2005 ) , but they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors .
the light - mantled albatross has a circumpolar distribution in the southern ocean , mostly south of the subantarctic convergence between 40° and 60° s ( carboneras , 1992 ; brooke , 2004 ) . it is the most abundant albatross in antarctic waters ( ainley et al . , 1984 ) , with strongly pelagic habits ( carboneras , 1992 ) . in brazil there are very few records of this species , concentrated in the south of the country ( roos and piacentini , 2003 ) ; there is also a record in são paulo , corrected afterward to sooty albatross , and one still unresolved from bahia ( see roos and piacentini , 2003 ) . the cbro ( 2014 ) consider the species as a seasonal south visitor , with presumed status , but not yet confirmed .
gales , r . ( 1998 ) . albatross populations : status and threats . in : robertson , g . & r . gales , eds . the albatross : biology and conservation . page ( s ) 20 - 45 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty and sons .
unlike the true albatrosses and mollymawks , the light - mantled sooty does not breed in large colonies but nests singly on the ledges and slopes of sea cliffs , usually with a cliff above and below so as to be quite inaccessible . any site will suit so long as it has steeply falling ground below to give room for take off . the birds take off by propelling themselves outward ; no run is taken , unlike the true albatrosses . the birds return to their breeding localities during the first week of october . the young leave the nest during the 20th week , that is the third week in may .
light - mantled sooty albatross pairs conduct courtship flights in sweeping synchronised loops , frequently swapping the lead as they bank to one side , then the other . they also give an eery call in flight .
light - mantled albatrosses spend most of their lives in flight . a juvenile may spend many years at sea before returning to breed . they return to a few isolated breeding islands : prince edward islands , iles crozet , iles kerguelen , heard island , macdonald islands , macquarie island , auckland islands , campbell islands , antipodes islands , and south georgia . nesting sites are located on the faces of steep , rocky cliffs on island coasts and some inland cliffs on these islands . nest sites on cliffs can be between 15 to 2000 m from sea level . light - mantled albatrosses are the deepest diving of the albatrosses , often diving to 5 m and once being recorded as deep as 12 m .
recent tracking of light - mantled sooty albatrosses breeding at macquarie island with miniaturised satellite transmitters , indicate that birds spent several days foraging before returning to their nests . these flights were at an average distance of 1516 km from macquarie island and located in antarctic waters , mostly along the antarctic continent . the maximum foraging range was in average 1721 km and the total distance covered by two birds for which there were complete tracks was 6463 and 6975 km . this study confirms previous suggestions that light - mantled sooty albatrosses are able to forage in the waters of the high antarctic while breeding in the sub - antarctic . the extreme separation of feeding zones from nesting grounds has implications in terms of conservation and life - history .
anderson , d . j . , and f . cruz . 1998 .
biology and management of the waved albatross at the galapagos islands .
g . roberston and r . gales , eds . , albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton : surrey beatty and & sons . isbn 0949324825 .
safina , c . 2002 . eye of the albatross : visions of hope and survival . new york : henry holt & company . isbn 0805062297 .
this article is part of project diomedeidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each albatross , including made - up species .
each stamp features a species of albatross which breeds on south georgia and highlights an important conservation issue . artwork was done by leigh - anne wolfaardt .
until recently , it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders , swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents , predators , or death . the deployment of capillary depth recorders , which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird ( between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land ) , has shown that while some species , like the wandering albatross , do not dive deeper than a meter , some species , like the light - mantled sooty albatross , have a mean diving depth of almost 5 m and can dive as deep as 12 . 5 m ( prince et al . 1994 ) . in addition to surface feeding and diving , they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey ( cobley 1996 ) .
the light - mantled sooty albatross breeds from october - november to may - june ( downes et al . 1959 ; kerry & garland 1984 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; tickell 2000 ) . pairs construct a truncated cone - shaped or pedestal - like nest of peat and / or plant material ( downes et al . 1959 ; tickell 2000 ) . nests are situated on ledges or terraces of cliffs or on steep slopes and are usually backed by a wall of rock or earth ( berruti 1979 ; tickell 2000 ) .
, are widespread near the edge of the antarctic pack ice and circumpolar throughout the high southern latitudes , between around 40° and 60° latitude . in november , the northernmost latitude at which light - mantled albatrosses are found is 42° south , in february it is 46° south . young birds tend to stay towards polar , antarctic waters , while adults are distributed throughout the range .
the main documented threat for light - mantled sooty albatrosses is mortality in longline fisheries , especially on the high seas , where the main overlap of the species’ range and the fisheries occurs . however , specific information is lacking as there is very little scientific observer deployment in these fisheries . occasional captures in monitored fisheries indicates that the species has very low capture rates in longline fisheries .
the light - mantled sooty albatross is a medium - sized albatross ( length 7890 cm ; wingspan 1 . 82 . 2 m ; weight 2 . 53 . 7 kg ) . its plumage is sooty - brown except for a white crescent around each eye ; a grey or light - grey mantle , back and rump ; and a pale brownish - grey breast and belly . it has brown irides , a black bill with a pale blue or violet sulcus , and mauve or greyish - flesh legs and feet ( brooke 2004 ; marchant & higgins 1990 ; tickell 2000 ) . juveniles are similar to adults but have a grey ( rather than white ) crescent around each eye ; dark ( rather than whitish ) shafts to the primaries and rectrices ; a grey , brownish or pale yellow sulcus ; and , in older immatures , mottled plumage ( marchant & higgins 1990 ) .
behaviour in the wild : the light - mantled albatross feeds mainly on cephalopods such as squid and octopus , caught at night . it also consumes fish , krill , crustaceans and floating carrion . it forages at sea . the preys are caught by surface - seizing , while floating on the water . it plucks the food items with the bill . it may occasionally perform surface - diving by diving underwater while floating , and also surface - plunging by plunging into the water while flying . the bird is partially submerged or just below the surface . it usually forages alone , but it may sometimes feed with the wandering albatross ( d . exulans ) and with cetaceans . it follows the fish boats too .
carboneras , c . 1992 . family diomedeidae ( albatross ) . in handbook of birds of the world vol 1 . barcelona : lynx edicions . isbn 8487334105 .
all breeding populations of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction are located on protected land . heard island and the mcdonald islands are listed together as a world heritage property , and the islands and selected areas of the surrounding waters form heard island and mcdonald islands marine reserve . macquarie island is also listed as a world heritage property . the island , the nearby bishop and clerk islets and the surrounding inshore waters form macquarie island nature reserve ; and a selected area of the surrounding waters beyond the boundary of the nature reserve forms macquarie island marine park .
they will also follow fishing trawlers to steal fish and pick up the ship’s offal and refuse , although they tend to do this less than other forms of albatross .
the light - mantled sooty albatross breeds on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island ( downes et al . 1959 ; gales 1998 ; johnstone 1980 ) . the species occurs over waters of the australian economic exclusion and australian fishing zones around heard , mcdonald and macquarie islands and off the coasts of western australia , south australia , victoria , tasmania and nsw ( alexander 1917 ; barrett et al . 2003 ; clarke & schulz 2005 ; reid et al . 2002 ; tickell 1995 ) . two dead individuals were recovered from north stradbroke island , south - eastern queensland , in 1959 ( hines 1962 ) .
other potential threats to albatrosses and petrels within australian jurisdiction include interactions with trawl and gillnet fisheries , dependence on fishery discards , over - extraction of prey species by fisheries , marine pollution ( chemicals and solids ) , introduced rats and rabbits and avian parasites and disease ( baker et al . 2002 ) . it is not known what impacts , if any , these threats are having on light - mantled sooty albatrosses within australian jurisdiction .
of the 21 albatross species recognised by the world conservation union ( iucn ) on their iucn red list , 19 are threatened , and the other two are near threatened ( iucn 2004 ) . two species ( as recognized by the iucn ) are considered critically endangered : the amsterdam albatross and the chatham albatross . one of the main threats is commercial long - line fishing ( brothers 1991 ) , as the albatrosses and other seabirds , which will readily feed on offal ( internal organs used as bait ) , are attracted to the set bait , become hooked on the lines , and drown . an estimated 100 , 000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion . unregulated pirate ( illegal ) fisheries exacerbate the problem .
weimerskirch , h . & j . jouventin ( 1998 ) . changes in population size and demographic parameters of six albatross species in french sub - antarctic islands . in : robertson , g . & r . gales , eds . the albatross : biology and conservation . page ( s ) 84 - 91 . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty and sons .
many albatross and petrel seabird species are killed in longline fisheries . longlining is one of the main methods used to catch fish and occurs in most oceans and seas in the world .
åkesson , s . , and h . weimerskirch . 2005 .
albatross long - distance navigation : comparing adults and juveniles .
journal of navigation 58 : 365 - 373 .
brothers , n . p . 1991 .
albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean .
biological conservation 55 : 255 - 268 .
light - mantled sooty albatrosses breed as monogamous pairs in the austral summer , over an extended period . like the great albatrosses , but unlike mollymawks , they breed once every two years . the single large ( 102 x 65 mm ) white egg is laid in october or november ; incubation is shared and takes about 67 days , with most hatching in december . the chick is fed by regurgitation by both parents , and fledges in may - june .
the government of south georgia & the south sandwich islands ( gsgssi ) is delighted to announce the launch of its latest stamp issue ‘albatross conservation’ . the stamps have been developed in conjunction with the royal society for the protection of birds ( rspb ) to raise awareness about the conservation status of south georgia albatross and the joint work being undertaken to better understand and protect these iconic birds .
cobley , n . d . 1996 . an observation of live prey capture by a black - browed albatross diomedea melanophrys . marine ornithology 24 : 45 - 46 . retrieved november 5 , 2007 .
auman , h . j . , j . p . ludwig , j . p . giesy , and t . colborn . 1997 .
plastic ingestion by laysan albatross chicks on sand island , midway atoll , in 1994 and 1995 .
in g . roberston and r . gales , eds . , albatross biology and conservation . chipping norton : surrey beatty and & sons . isbn 0949324825 .
weimerskirch , h . , p . jouventin & j . c . stahl ( 1986 ) . comparative ecology of six albatross species breeding on the crozet islands . ibis . 128 : 195 - 213 .
phillips , r . , j . green , b . phalan , j . croxall , p . butler . 2003 . chick metabolic rate and growth in three species of albatross : a comparative study .
burg , t . m . , and j . p . croxall . 2004 .
global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex .
molecular ecology 13 : 2345 - 2355 .
the breeding population of the light - mantled sooty albatross within australian jurisdiction is estimated at 1600 or more pairs or approximately 7 % of the estimated global breeding population . individuals that breed on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island regularly occur outside of australian jurisdiction ( parks & wildlife service 2006 ; weimerskirch & robertson 1994 ; woehler 2006 ) . for example , five satellite - tracked individuals breeding on macquarie island foraged south of the antarctic polar front at an average distance of 1516 km , and up to 2200 km , from their breeding sites ( weimerskirch & robertson 1994 ) . individuals that breed on heard island , mcdonald islands and macquarie island could therefore be affected by threats operating outside of australian jurisdiction .
robertson , c . j . r . 1993 .
survival and longevity of the northern royal albatross .
diomedea epomophora sanfordi at taiaroa head , 1937 - 93 . emu 93 : 269 - 276 .
light mantled sooty albatrosses look very different from mollymawks , as they are brown and grey all over . they are palest on the upper side of the body and nape ( mantle ) , with a contrasting dark head . their eyes have a white crescent at the upper back edge . chicks have grey down and a striking white face mask . unlike the mollymawks that nest in dense colonies , their nests are scattered along cliff sites , usually against a rock wall for protection . breeding adults weigh about 3 kilograms .
the light - mantled sooty albatross has a widespread circumpolar distribution . the species is mostly recorded between 40º s and 60º s , but individuals have been observed as far north as 20º s , and as far south as the limit of the antarctic pack - ice to 77º50´ s ( brooke 2004 ; harrison 1983 ; tickell 2000 ) , with a single record from the northern hemisphere of a solitary individual at cordell bank off the coast of california in the united states ( morlan 1994 ) . pairs breed on prince edward islands , crozet islands ( iles crozet ) , kerguelen islands ( iles kerguelen ) , heard island , mcdonald islands , macquarie island , auckland islands , campbell island , antipodes islands and south georgia ( gales 1998 ; tickell 2000 ) .
weimerskirch , h . , clobert , j . and jouventin , p . ( 1987 ) . survival in five southern albatross species and its relationship with their life history . journal of animal ecology . 56 : 1043 - 1055 .
mougin , j . l . ( 1970 ) . les albatross fuligineux phoebetria palpebrata et p . fusca de l ' île de la possession ( archipel crozet ) . oiseau revue francais d ' ornithologie . 40 : 37 - 61 .
maintain existing population monitoring programs for albatrosses and giant - petrels breeding on macquarie island , albatross island , pedra branca , the mewstone , and within the australian antarctic territory , and develop population monitoring programs for other representative breeding populations under australian jurisdiction .
pickering , s . p . c . , and s . d . berrow . 2001 . courtship behaviour of the wandering albatross diomedea exulans at bird island , south georgia . marine ornithology 29 : 29 - 37 . retrieved november 5 , 2007 .
weimerskirch h , salamolard m , jouventin p ( 1992 ) satellite telemetry of foraging movements in the wandering albatross . in : friede ig , swift sm ( eds ) wildlife telemetry - remote monitoring and tracking of animals . ellis horwood , chichester , pp 185–198
proceeds from the sale of the stamps will be used to fund albatross conservation initiatives . the stamps can be purchased online through falklands post service ltd ( urltoken ) or through the rspb via ebay ( use the advanced search function on ebay to search for rspb ) .
in spite of often being accorded legendary status , albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans . early encounters with albatrosses by polynesians and aleut indians resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands ( such as easter island ) . as europeans began sailing the world , they too began to hunt albatross ,
fishing
for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport ( safina 2002 ) . this sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for australia , and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from , and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons . in the nineteenth century , albatross colonies , particularly those in the north pacific , were harvested for the feather trade , leading to the near extinction of the short - tailed albatross .