it is native to coastal parts of the east atlantic from mauritania to angola , also ranging into freshwater rivers .

this fish supports important fisheries and can reach up to 2 m ( 6.6 ft ) in length .

giant african threadfin

giant african threadfin ( polydactylus quadrifilis ) is a fish species in the family polynemidae .
light tackle spinning in the surf and lagoons of gabon for jacks , tarpon , giant african threadfin ( capitaine ) , and cubera snapper .
dietary composition and biometric characteristics of the giant african threadfin , polydactylus quadrifilis ( cuvier , 1829 ) from , nigeria | t . f . | journal of biology , agriculture and healthcare
garth stood over the mighty threadfin to be sure the next wave didn’t release him . i ran down to see my prize and was in instant awe . this giant african threadfin was a giant ! at first i could hardly handle him . his strength pushed me away twice before i finally got my hands under him enough to lift . he was easily 40lbs !
[ … ] any fun if he didn’t . i took a deep breath and went about my business . it wasn’t long ago i hoisted the giant african threadfin up the beach in much more difficult conditions . this one would be easy and it [ … ]
a lure fished slowly along the bottom — often intended for threadfin — is a sure tarpon producer .
the mission ' s conrad botes returns to gabon today on his second trip with tourette fishing . the first one was a massive success . several guys caught huge tarpon off the beach on fly , while plenty of pitbull - sized cubera snapper , a few giant african threadfin and loads of jack crevalle ( the local ' trash fish ' ) were caught too . [ . . . ]
when the rains arrive in gabon ,
says mark murray ,
the giant african threadfin come out to play .
murray says these exotic game fish hunt in big shoals
right behind the shore dump , and are arguably one of the strongest - fighting fish one can encounter in the surf
that love eat to lures , spoons or jigs . they grow to over 100 pounds .
the anticipation for everyone was no less than thrilling . while i still knew i had a threadfin the south africans weren’t so sure . finally , the wave i needed came just as the fish let go of bottom . i lifted and felt him give and with my rod over my shoulder pointed towards the sea i ran up the beach . the lunker of a fish rode the wave perfectly and when it receded the fish stayed on his side on the beach . a giant african threadfin on the fly off the beach !
it was nice on the beach at the mouth of the estuary . there were a few rolling tarpon we couldn’t reach and garth wellman took down this enormous longfin jack . but this brute was our only fish in daylight . things got so slow that we considered calling it an early night until mark assured us after dark is the best time for everyone’s dream fish for the trip , the giant african threadfin .
it was dark before 7 and that’s when the relentless blind casting began . six of us lined the beach around a point where the water rushes past in the dropping tide . mark feels the giant african threadfin are mostly deep and far from the beach except every once in a while they move close and this is the spot . the problem is keeping a fly down deep in the zone for more than a few seconds . the tidal current rips so hard that even with my 450 grain sonar sink fly line the fly gets swung back to the surface too fast . i envision literally needing to bump a threadfin in the nose in those short seconds much like hitting the lottery .
one of the best times to fish for the fabulous threadfin is following a big storm ( note the clouds heading away , on the horizon ) .
the biggest threadfin in the world are found here , a fish that murrays says is unique to west africa . the aggressive predators are available in large numbers along gabon beaches .
i’d have thought differently but mark was quick to announce that threadfin are delicate and our photos session must take place fast . the last thing i wanted to do was hurt this magnificent creature any more so i lifted for a couple shots then john pulled the fly and i ran him down to the water . waves crushed me at the edge of the beach drop but i held my breath and enjoyed the power of the threadfin one last time as he yanked himself away with one swift kick of his massive tail . mission accomplished !
if anyone were to compile a list of the world’s most exciting surf - fishing spots , there can be little doubt that the west african country of gabon would be at or near the top . in recent years , its reputation among globe - trotting surf enthusiasts has been growing , and as these dramatic , brilliant images taken by mark murray of tourette fishing reveal , with good reason . adjacent to ndogo lagoon at the southern boundary of loango national park are
some of the longest stretches of untouched coastline left on the african continent ,
according to the outfitter . for more information on fishing here , visit tourette fishing ( which is based in africa but organizes trips for anglers from all over ) .
like tarpon , cubera snapper will nail jigs and other lures fished slowly in the surf .
that ' s one of the reasons fishing gabon is so exciting ,
says murray .
you can be targeting a certain species — such as threadfin , as this angler was doing — but you ' ll run into surprise catches like this .
there’s a ton of wildlife in this area including lowland gorillas and chimpanzees . i can’t tell you how cool seeing one of these primates would be . the chances are slim though because they’re wild and have more jungle to hide in than anywhere . there have been lots of elephants however enjoying the estuary and we saw several on the boat ride to the fishing tonight . these are a smaller african species called the forest elephants . last night we had two walk right out on the beach while fishing .
furthermore , the monsters we’re after aren’t likely stopped on traditional leader systems of class tippet breaking strengths of 20lb . certainly not a tarpon when there’s a rocky reef near . i’ve learned from my african friends to fish straight 80lb flouro . this system stirs alarm with old - timers that feel the leader “must” have a weaker breaking point than the fly line and backing . no doubt they’re correct and i emphasized this in my saltwater fly fishing book . but times change and the modern philosophy is use heavy tippet and hold the fish close so he never reaches the backing and count on the newer stronger than ever cores of fly lines not to break .
there was one last stellar fish taken after the threadfin and that was a cubera snapper by conrad . the big fish for sure cruise the beach after dark . it’s just that tonight there were not many and it was a lot of hard work to capture what we did . we returned to camp for a very late night of beers and dinner . we made it to bed slightly before 1 am and mark is knocking on our doors at 4 : 30 . this is going to be one of those “hardest core” weeks that i thrive on !
if you read this blog however , you know i’m a believer and my persistence is that of an insane man . i traveled 9 , 000 miles for a threadfin and dang it i’m not going home without a fight . at 9 pm , two solid hours of relentless casting in the dark began to wear on me . it was so black i simply stared at the opening of my stripping basket being sure my strips of line made it in there for a productive next cast . honestly , i was falling asleep standing up in thigh deep water .
as the guys came around to see the fight , the fish steadily cleared my reel of fly line . i was using my scientific angler demo reel – not exactly my first choice but it was too late to second guess my decision . sa lined the attractive reel with the 450 grain sonar at the factory to help me save time packing . the run was powerful yet not speedy and my drag was tight and my backing crackled off the reel in a strange sound . undoubtedly the fish had size . by now some of the guys suggested big snapper while others a jack , both of which i am more than familiar with their fights . i kept saying , “no . this is a threadfin ” .
i told myself ten more casts , something i’ve been doing at the end of every hard fishing day since i was a kid . on my third cast my heavy fly got hit with the strangest thump i’ve ever felt from a fish in my life . so strange that at first i wasn’t sure it was a fish . but after a good strip set and a lift of the rod , without any doubt it was a fish . the strange thump was followed by heavy and violent headshakes . the kind that sever a 40lb tippet . the kind of power that if you’re squeezing your rod to tight the thrust could break your wrist ( very few anglers have any idea what i’m talking about but i promise you it’s true ) . i just knew and yelled “ threadfin on ! ”
greek , poly = a lot of + greek , daktylos = finger ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; freshwater ; brackish ; demersal ; depth range 15 - 55 m ( ref . 10799 ) . tropical ; 22°n - 5°s , 26°w - 13°e ( ref . 57343 )
eastern atlantic : senegal to angola ( ref . 57402 ) . also reported from mauritania ( ref . 55783 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 57402 ) ; common length : 150 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3659 ) ; max . published weight : 75 . 0 kg ( ref . 7386 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 9 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 11 - 12 . diagnosis : pectoral fin with 4 threadlike filaments ( ref . 57402 , 81658 ) . pectoral fin inserted very low on body , generally somewhat longer than upper part of fin ( ref . 57402 ) .
occurs in shallow coastal waters , over sandy and muddy bottoms , sometimes in brackish habitats ( ref . 57343 , 81658 ) . enters estuaries ( ref . 57402 ) , occasionally caught in fresh water ( ref . 57402 , 81658 ) . very large specimens are only found in marine waters ( ref . 81658 ) . feeds on crustaceans and fishes ( ref . 10799 , 81658 ) . flesh fairly tasteful ( ref . 57402 ) .
motomura , h . , 2004 . threadfins of the world ( family polynemidae ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of polynemid species known to date . fao spec . cat . fish . purp . rome : fao . 3 : 117 p . ( ref . 57343 )
) : 22 . 3 - 28 , mean 26 ( based on 48 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00724 ( 0 . 00465 - 0 . 01128 ) , b = 3 . 08 ( 2 . 95 - 3 . 21 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 0 ±0 . 66 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 34 - 0 . 41 ; assuming tm = 3 - 4 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 69 of 100 ) .
your igfa account is your personal portal to member benefits , including world records , videos , photos , and the latest in game fish conservation .
the international game fish association is a not - for - profit organization committed to the conservation of game fish and the promotion of responsible , ethical angling practices through science , education , rule making and record keeping .
© 2015 international game fish association , 300 gulf stream way , dania beach , fl 33004 .
if you look at a map of gabon we’re on the southern coast exactly at the border of loango national park . it’s a long way from idaho and takes a few days to adjust to the time change . because of this i slept like garbage last night . it was miserable waking up at 4 : 15 am . but then i realized i was fly fishing in gabon and filled my yeti tumbler with coffee and stimulated my brain on the 20 - minute boat ride to the mouth of the estuary where we fished last night .
it was plenty dark when we arrived . the winds were soft and the surf and waves easy to handle . today i brought my flimsy stripping basket and it made line control for casting slightly easier . the skies were full of puffy tropical clouds and moon and stars poked through every hole . by the time i got done being the weatherman john travis hooked up .
john got his fly on the water first and several casts in his reel started screaming and saw him against the moonlight backing up the beach . he had a tremendous fish pulling him around and things looked hectic . next we heard the splashes out in the darkness . john had a tarpon on .
landing a tarpon on a fly from a flats boat can be a chore for two guys working together . hooking and landing one off the beach here in gabon seems impossible especially when you consider the ripping currents and a reef not far from where we cast . but stronger than ever fly rods , reels and lines make the once impossible now possible .
tourette fishing carefully selected the anglers for this fly fishing exploratory trip to gabon . john wasn’t only fishing straight 80lb tippet but he knows all the tricks to break a tarpons spirit fast . he had his fish on the beach in a notable ten minutes . the quick battle was a sight to behold !
there was more action as well . as we photographed johns tarpon conrad botes hooked another but lost him after several jumps . as he was reeling in to check over the rig he hooked and landed a longfin jack and mike lasota beached a nice jack as well . as for me , i better put down the camera and get my game face on soon .
by 7 am the tide was useless for fishing the estuary mouth . mark murray knew 7 was the end of it so he had a plan and we paired up in the boats and headed in the estuary to fish for snapper and jack . i picked up my 9 - weight jungle rod and heaved some clouser’s at the mangroves from the front while mike did the same from the back .
there was action on almost every cast with snappers and grunter . i caught a new species called the mangrove jack . he’s a snapper not a jack . what’s nice about this catch for me is that i lost a huge one of these in sudan in 2014 right as i reached for him . finally , i can add one of the handsome fellas to my list .
i also added the guinean barracuda ( sphyraena afra ) to my species list . this one’s a baby but the species gets gigantic . unfortunately , the aggressive fish have made themselves too vulnerable in the area and the big boys are rare these days . i noticed the difference from other cuda species immediately with all the beautiful colors on this fishes back .
we packed in the morning session around 11 and headed for camp for lunch and beers . i adjusted my beach set up while mike napped and the south africans tied flies . the fun breather lasted until 4 pm when we left for the evening session during prime tide .
my technique was cast as long as i could which isn’t far with a 450 grain from a beach at night . then mend some slack line out as the system sinks . the second i felt the current swing against my fly line i made a strip then fed it back out . then another and another but by the time there was hope for a fourth strip and feed my fly was slamming into the beach down current . you can see how short a time the fly is in the zone .
forty feet away i could make out the silhouette of john and slightly further i could see conrad . beyond them but too dark to see was arno and garth . mike was on his own mission tonight somewhere searching for less surf to contend with . i made a deal with myself to be the last guy to call it quits but dang everyone was fishing hard . at last , i could hear john reeling in followed by conrad . their silhouettes met and up the beach they went . then arno and garth met them – the night was coming to an end .
the hard pulling fish never went more than about fifty feet in the backing . he fought back and forth around this distance for a good five minutes . then he started to give up . it was a huge relief when my fly line returned to the reel but it took another five minutes to get in my running line and finally see the sinking head of the line .
ten minutes in the fish had taken me a hundred yards down the beach . bad for me was here the surf was big and the beach was steep . i made my first attempt to surf him in on the beach but the lip at the sand drop was too much . the big fish , although tired now , anchored himself in the trough . each time a big wave came i timed it to lift hard and although the first few tries failed i could feel him start to budge .
we stayed fishing on the beach until 11 : 30 pm . while i relaxed shooting the bull with mark most of the time i did put in a few more casts that led to something quite humorous . my unlit headlamp was tight over my yeti ball cap . it was uncomfortably tight and i continued to adjust my hat . eventually i forgot the headlamp was there and ripped my hat off to shake it around to make it more comfortable and off went my headlamp out to sea . first full night – headlamp gone . not good .
a full ten minutes later i saw a red light flash off the drop - off far down the beach . it didn’t register with my spinning mind at first but the second time it flashed i charged the direction . it kept going off but each flash of red i got closer till finally i lunged and dove and miraculously retrieved my lamp . i forgot to take off my hat though and in trade for the lamp i lost my yeti hat .
while my dumb moves were stacking up it seemed like a good trade – the hat for a lamp ( even though it’s not waterproof and may not ever work again ) . then low and behold when we finally gave it up for the night , john came up the beach with my yeti hat in hand . it washed up against his feet in the blackness of the ocean . tonight was indeed my lucky night !
congrats jeff – what an awesome trip . have a blast for the rest of the week !
i started fly fishing at age 7 in the lakes and ponds of new england cutting my teeth on various sunfish , bass , crappie and stocked trout . i went to northland college in ashland , wisconsin , where i graduated with a naturalist degree while i discovered new fishing opportunities for pike , muskellunge , walleyes and various salmonids found in lake superior and its tributaries .
from there i headed west to work a few years in the yellowstone region to simply work as much as most people fish and fish as much as most people work . i did just that , only it lasted over 20 years working at the jack dennis fly shop in jackson , wy where i recently departed . now it’s time to work for
the man
, working for myself that is .
i plan to pursue my love to paint fish , lecture on any aspect of fly fishing you can imagine and host a few trips to some of the most exotic places you can think of . my ultimate goal is to catch as many species of fish on fly possible from freshwater to saltwater , throughout the world . i presently have taken over 325 species from over 50 countries !
give us your email and we ' ll notify you when jeff posts a new blog post .
no time for starlets , autographs , glitz or glamour . . . where’s the fly shop on hollywood blvd ?
the dot on the map shows the location of gabon ' s loango national park .
when longfin and crevalle jacks move into the surf , double and triple hookups are constant .
fishing inside the lower ndogo lagoon estuary offers great action in addition to the beaches . the igfa all - tackle world - record longfin jack ( caranx fischeri ) of 36 + pounds was caught here .
in few places can an angler tussle with big fish under the watchful eyes of elephants . the area is known as africa ' s eden ; says murray :
anglers can often end up sharing the beaches of gabon with forest elephants , hippos , sitatunga ( elegant , swamp - loving antelopes ) or lowland gorillas .
this is not a game fish on the bucket list of most guests who fish gabon with tourette fishing . their bad , says murray .
the guitarfish is hands down one of the most underrated species one can target here .
these very strong fish that share characteristics of both sharks and rays seldom touch lures ,
but a well - placed bait on the edge of a sandbar will get you hooked up with one of these beasts almost every time !
murray says .
while this isn ' t actually a huge seatrout or weakfish , the resemblance is unmistakable . it ' s a senegalese kob , in fact a very close cousin of those species . kobs are a prized group of the drum / croaker family found from south africa north into the mediterranean . slow - fished bucktails jigs or soft plastics are hard to beat .
an angler tossing a lure into the chaos of game fish tearing up the bait along these beaches is guaranteed an instant hookup .
even smaller longfin jacks made superb targets in the estuary for fly - rodders .
some species of barracuda grow much larger than this handsome specimen caught from a skiff .
re - rigging lures occupies time daily .
the size and power of fish off gabon beaches and in the estuaries mean they ' re really hard on tackle ,
says murray .
it ' s typical for a boat to have an entire lagoon to itself .
the first hour of the day is always a good time for action on gabon beaches . the light tackle this angler uses makes even smaller jacks a blast to catch .
while they may be caught during daylight hours , big cubera snapper become most active in the darkness .
when the bite is hot , the action comes hot and heavy . here , one longfin is beached and three anglers are battling fish — likely jacks but , says murray , very possibly other species such as tarpon or cubera snapper .
elongate , shallow - running minnow lures are particularly effective for longfin jacks in the estuary when fished fast with hard twitches .
catching big tarpon in the surf is what murray terms
an exceptional experience .
while this is a big fish , by gabon standards it ' s typical , since tarpon exceeding 250 pounds have been hooked off these beaches .
crashing surf on one side and a line of elephants ambling past on the other remind anglers that they ' re nowhere near kansas anymore .
as popular as throwing lures may be among gabon anglers , bait accounts for some great catches . murray says circle hooks help ensure quick release . tourette guides often invert a chunk of mullet , sewing it up to keep its shape in the surf .
if anglers tire of casting , they can toss out a live mullet on a circle hook . this huge longfin was caught that way , in the estuary .
real - world woes fall away for anglers casting on gabon ' s remote , peaceful beaches .
many products featured on this site were editorially chosen . sport fishing may receive financial compensation for products purchased through this site .
urltoken is part of the bonnier fishing group , a division of bonnier corporation .
copyright © 2018 sport fishing magazine . a bonnier corporation company . all rights reserved . reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
home > vol 6 , no 9 ( 2016 ) > t . f .
please add our address
contact @ urltoken
into your email contact list .
this journal follows iso 9001 management standard and licensed under a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 license .
this article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 9 / 3 / 2014 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .


the hainan black-crested gibbon or hainan gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) , is a species of gibbon found only on hainan island , china .

it was formerly considered a subspecies of the eastern black crested gibbon ( nomascus nasutus ) from hòa bình and cao bằng provinces of vietnam and jingxi county in guangxi zhuang autonomous region , china .

molecular data , like morphology and call differences , suggest it is a separate species .

its habitat consists of broad-leaved forests and semideciduous monsoon forests .

it feeds on ripe , sugar-rich fruit , such as figs ( ficus spp. ) and , at times , leaves , and insects .

hainan black crested gibbon

hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus ) conservation biology status and conservation strategy
hainan black - crested gibbons can act as seed dispersers for forest tree species . trade in live
the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china | oryx | cambridge core
haimoff , e . 1984 . the organization of song in the hainan black gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) .
chan bpl , tan xf , tan wj ( 2008 ) . rediscovery of the critically endangered eastern black - crested gibbon
zhou j , wei fw , li m , zhang jf , wang dl , pan rl ( 2005 ) . hainan black crested gibbon is headed for extinction .
hainan black - crested gibbons are almost exclusively frugivores . in the refuge they inhabit , the most common food sources are the fruits from
nadler , t . 2003 . rediscovery of the eastern black crested gibbon nomascus nasutus in vietnam . the gibbon’s voice 6 ( 1 ) : 1–3 .
the black - crested gibbon inhabits evergreen , semi - evergreen and deciduous forest , in subtropical and montane regions ( 1 ) .
western black crested gibbon ( n . concolor ) china , laos , vietnam , ( critically endangered a2cd ver 3 . 1 )
classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix i of cites ( 3 ) . four subspecies are currently recognised , all of which are classified as critically endangered : the tonkin black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor concolor ) , west yunnan black - crested gibbon ( n . c . furvogaster ) , central yunnan black - crested gibbon ( n . c . jingdongensis ) , and laotian black - crested gibbon ( n . c . lu ) ( 1 ) .
geissmann , t . 2006 . schutz des hainan - schopfgibbons , des seltensten menschenaffen der welt : ein projektbericht [ conservation of the hainan black crested gibbon , the most endangered ape species : a project report ] . gibbon journal 2 : 11 - 13 .
bleisch , w . and chen , n . 1991 . ecology and behavior of wild black crested gibbons
geissmann , t . & chan , b . 2004 : the hainan black crested gibbon : most critically endangered ape . folia primatologica 75 , supplement 1 : 116 ( abstract only ) .
zhang , y . z . , and shreeran , l . k . ( 1994 ) . current status of the hainan black gibbon
zhou , j . , f . wei , m . li , j . zhang , d . wang , r . pan . 2005 . hainan black - crested gibbon is headed for extinction .
la qt , trinh dh , long b , geissmann t ( 2002 ) . status review of black crested gibbons
geissmann , t . and b . chan . 2004 . the hainan black crested gibbon : most critically endangered ape . folia primatol . 75 ( suppl . 1 ) : 116 . ( abstract . )
mootnick , a . , b . chan , p . moisson , t . nadler . 2012 . the status of the hainan gibbon nomascus hainanus and the eastern black gibbon nomascus nosutus .
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
urltoken
title =
arkive species - black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor )
> < img src =
urltoken
alt =
arkive species - black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor )
title =
arkive species - black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor )
border =
0
/ > < / a >
the black - crested gibbon is found in south east asia , and the greatly reduced and fragmented range includes vietnam , china and laos . much confusion surrounds the taxonomy of this species but at present four different subspecies are recognised ( 7 ) . the central yunnan ( nomascus concolor jingdongensis ) and the west yunnan black - crested gibbon ( n . c . furvogaster ) are both found within the yunnan province of china ( 8 ) . the laotian black - crested gibbon ( n . c . lu ) is found in laos , the tonkin black - crested gibbon ( n . c . concolor ) is found in northern vietnam ( 4 ) .
the future of gibbons in vietnam is uncertain , but we should not give up hope . successful gibbon conservation is possible . the hainan gibbon , a related crested gibbon species on china’s hainan island , was down to 13 individuals , but after strict protection , the population has now grown to over 20 .
hainan black - crested gibbons are one of only three gibbon species in which the female makes vocalizations during mating . there are many hypotheses concerning these soft grunts of the female but it might have be related to the social polygyny of
hainan black - crested gibbons often perform morning duets between male and female pairs . the female usually only emits a single loud noise often referred to as a great - call . the male’s song is more elaborate and has at least three distinct calls . the presence of a laryngeal sac in males may contribute to the increased complexity of vocalizations . hainan black - crested gibbons are believed to be the only gibbon species with a male dominated duet .
liu , z . h . , yu , s . , and yuan , x . ( 1984 ) . the resource of the hainan black gibbon at its present situation .
hainan black - crested gibbons live in tropical primary forests . it is estimated that 95 % of their original habitat has been lost . hainan black - crested gibbons require indigenous forest of hainan island and do not inhabit recently planted pine forests or rubber plantations . due to habitat loss and hunting , this species has shifted its primary habitat from lowland forest to higher mountainous forest ( with elevations ranging from 100 to 1800 m on hainan island ) . optimal habitat is hard to determine as a result of the small population size and altered environment on the entire island . however , mature , ravine tropical forests , in particular , seem to be favored . like other gibbons , hainan black - crested gibbons are specialized for living in the canopies of forests .
hainan crested gibbon ( n . hainanus ) bawangling nature reserve on hainan island , china ( critically endangered a2acd ; b1ab ( iii , v ) + 2ab ( iii , v ) ; c2a ( ii ) ; d ver 3 . 1 )
habitat loss and human encroachment and activity are the main reasons for the decline in population of hainan black - crested gibbons . the species has seen a drastic reduction in range and population since the 1950s . the annual rate of habitat loss is approaching zero , although more work needs to be done concerning critical habitat conservation , but hainan black - crested gibbons are , without a doubt , on the very edge of extinction .
the case of the eastern black crested gibbon also shows that conservation management can stabilise wild gibbon populations . hunting for this species does not seem to be a major threat anymore due to conservation efforts , although it was in the past . but immediate and efficient conservation actions are still urgently needed . we should start protecting the gibbons now and not wait until population numbers have dropped as low as the eastern black - crested gibbon .
wei , w . , w . xiaoming , f . claro , d . youzhong , a . souris , w . chundong , w . changhe , r . berzins . 2004 . the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china .
adult male eastern black gibbons are black and can have a slight tinge of brown hair on the chest . adult male hainan gibbons are entirely black ( geissmann et al . 2000 ; mootnick 2006 ) . adult female hainan gibbons and eastern black gibbons vary from a buffish to a beige brown and have a black cap ( geissmann et al . 2000 ; mootnick 2006 ) . the adult female hainan gibbon has a thin , white face ring that is thicker above the mouth and below the orbital ridge . the hair surrounding the face of the female hainan gibbon creates a rounded appearance encircling the face . the hair grows outwards on the side of the face and in a more downward direction as it gets closer to the chin .
zhang , y . and sheeran , l . 1994 . current status of the hainan black gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) . asian primates 3 ( 3 - 4 ) : 3 .
haimoff , e . 1987 . preliminary observations of wild black - crested gibbons ( hylobates concolor concolor ) in yunnan province , people’s republic of china .
liu , z . , yu , s . and yuan , x . 1984 . the resources of the hainan black gibbon at its present situation . chinese wildlife 6 : 1 - 4 .
species . due to the rarity of hainan black - crested gibbons , very few specimens have been collected and little is known of variation in size . however , within gibbons there is little variation in body size . most likely
zhou , j . , wei , f . , li , m . , zhang , j . , wang , d . and pan , r . 2005 . hainan black - crested gibbon is headed for extinction . international journal of primatology 26 : 453 - 465 .
mootnick ar , fan pf ( 2010 ) . a comparative study of crested gibbons
due to the critically endangered status of hainan black - crested gibbons , the chinese government has put a ban on all types of forestry in or around bnnr . hainan island , which is home to many introduced rubber plantations , has been forced to stop the expansion of the rubber industry in order to save
southern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( n . siki ) savannakhet in southern laos , quang binh province in central vietnam ( endangered )
haimoff , e . , yang , x . , he , s . j . and chen , n . 1986 . census and survey of wild black crested gibbons
gibbon species in vietnam and worldwide are becoming increasingly endangered . five of the six species in vietnam should be classified as critically endangered and the other as endangered nationally due to steep declines in populations in the country . for example , the two most threatened species in vietnam are the eastern black crested gibbon , which has a population of 110 individuals , and the western black crested gibbon , which has fewer than 80 individuals remaining in vietnam . these species were once widely distributed in vietnam .
geissmann , t . 2005b . auf der suche nach den letzten gibbons von hainan . gibbon journal 1 : 18 - 22 .
zhang , y . 1992 . hainan gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) threatened . asian primates 2 ( 1 ) : 6 .
liu , z . h . , s . m . yu and x . c . yuan 1984 . resources of the hainan black gibbon and its present situation . chinese wildlife 6 : 1–4 . in chinese .
the taxonomy of the crested black gibbons , genus nomascus is still in debate , but experts now believe there are three species : the hainan gibbon , nomascus hainanus , the most endangered of any of the gibbons and restricted to the island of hainan ( geissmann 2003 ; geissmann and chan 2004 ; wu et al . 2004 ; zhou et al . 2004 ) ; the eastern black gibbon , nomascus nasutus , occurring in northeast vietnam ( nadler 2003 ) , and adjoining guangxi zhuang autonomous region , china ( chan et al . in prep . ) ; and the western black gibbon , nomascus concolor , occurring in central yunnan , china , and indochina .
key words : hainan black crested gibbon , extinction , indochina in october 2003 , we carried out a large - scale survey of the remaining gibbon ( nomascus sp . ) habitat in the bawangling national nature reserve ( bawangling ) in order to determine the size of the gibbon population . up to 17 teams surveyed all suitable habitat in bawangling using a fixed listening point method specially adapted for gibbon surveys . in addition , group compositions were established through direct sightings .
geissmann , t . 2005 . der hainan - schopfgibbon : der bedrohteste menschenaffe der welt . gibbon journal 1 : 10 - 12 .
zhou , j . , f . w . wei , m . li , j . f . zhang , d . l . wang and r . l . pan . 2005 . hainan black - crested gibbon is headed for extinction . int . j . primatol . 26 ( 2 ) : 453–465 .
black - crested gibbons feed preferentially on ripe sugar rich fruit such as figs ( ficus species ) , although they also supplement their diet with leaves and insects ( 2 ) .
hainan black - crested gibbons are found in social groups composed of females , juveniles , infants and , occasionally , males . males will also live solitarily . group size has been hard to determine due to the extremely low population size and fluctuations in behavior of
adults weigh between 5 . 8 and 10 kg . hind limbs are 70 . 4 % the length of forelimbs , which is slightly longer than in other black - crested gibbons (
haimoff , e . h . , yang , x . y . , he , s . j . and chen , n . 1987 . preliminary observations on black - crested gibbons
liu , z . h . , and tan , c . ( 1990 ) . an analysis on habitat structure of the hainan gibbon .
pocock , r . 1905 . observations upon a female specimen of the hainan gibbon ( hylobates hainanus ) now living in the society’s gardens .
humans are the main predators of hainan black - crested gibbons . humans can benefit by selling adults into the illegal animal trade , use the meat for food , or sell the bones for use in traditional chinese medicine . mass slaughters have been recorded on numerous occasions .
hainan black - crested gibbons have been described as an umbrella species for the local ecosystem . an umbrella species is one which indicates the overall health of an ecosystem . gibbons may also play a role in the seed dispersal of many of the fruits that they eat .
wei , w . , wang , x . , claro , f . , ding , y . , souris , a . c . , wang , c . , wang , c . and berzins , r . 2004 . the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china . oryx 38 : 452 - 456 .
a recent study found no molecular differences between the putative subspecies of n . concolor , but significant genetic differences between the forms hainanus and nasutus ( roos et al . 2007 ) . the hainan gibbon and eastern black gibbon differ in their hair coloration ( geissmann et al . 2000 ; mootnick 2006 ) and territorial calls ( la q . trung and trinh d . hoang 2004 ) . these characteristics , in association with the newly discovered genetic differences , suggest that the hainan gibbon and eastern black gibbon be considered distinct species ( roos and nadler 2005 ; roos et al . 2007 ) .
. a species survey of hainan island recorded 7 species of carnivorous eagles and hawks .
wu , w . , x . m . wang , f . claro , y . z . ding , a . c . souris , c . d . wang , c . h . wang and r . berzins . 2004 . the current status of the hainan black - crested gibbon nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus in bawangling national nature reserve , hainan , china . oryx 38 ( 4 ) : 452–456 .
gibbons have a hairless face with dark eyes , small nostrils , and jet - black skin .
lan , d . and sheeran , l . k . 1995 . the status of black gibbons
bleisch , w . v . and n . chen . 1991 . ecology and behavior of wild black - crested gibbons in china with a reconsideration of evidence of polygyny . primates 32 : 539–548 .
department of forest , hainan province , haifu street no . 80 , haikou 570000 , china
in bawanglin nature reserve , hainan , china . american journal of primatology 19 : 247–254 .
adult males and juveniles have completely black pelage while females are brownish buff with some black hairs appearing on the limbs as they age . males and females have a large black crest of fur on the top of their heads . the crest is approximately 10 by 3 cm . females also have a characteristic white face ring . infants are born tawny brown , becoming black within 5 to 6 months .
the world ' s final 23 hainan black - crested gibbons ( nomascus hainanus ) are making what may be their last stand in china , where their jungle habitat is being wiped out at a rate of 200 , 000 square meters a day , according to a new report from greenpeace international .
with only 17 hainan gibbons and 54 eastern black gibbons confirmed , each surviving in just one small forest block , the hainan gibbon and eastern black gibbon are among the most critically endangered primates in the world . it is important to gain full support from the surrounding community for conservation of the gibbons and their habitat , possibly by ensuring benefits linked to their compliance with conservation goals , and ensuring longer - term commitment from the government and outside partners . efforts are underway to contribute to the conservation of the eastern black gibbon in vietnam with the establishment of community - based protection activities . since there are unconfirmed reports of gibbon occurrences from other forests , additional surveys need to be conducted in both guangxi and hainan ( hainan daily online 2007b ) . there is an urgent need to secure and expand suitable forest for the survival of the few remaining gibbons and their habitats , which will require continued effort and cooperation among all parties .
haimoff , e . h . , yang , x . j . , he , s . j . , and chen , n . ( 1986 ) . census and survey of wild black - crested gibbons
several projects and studies support the conservation of the crested gibbons by collecting survey data , and by involving local communities and cooperating with administrative institutions . a recent example is a tree nursery for reforestation in hainan :
fellowes , j . r . and b . chan . 2004 . hainan gibbon : concerted action for the world’s most endangered ape . living forests 7 : 22–24 .
complete former distribution of gibbons across different administrative regions in china inferred from historical records . black areas represent regions containing gibbon populations ; white areas represent regions with no available records .
chan , b . p . l . , x . f . tan and w . j . tan . in preparation . rediscovery of the critically endangered eastern black crested gibbon nomascus nasutus nasutus ( hylobatidae ) in china ; with preliminary notes on population size , ecology and conservation status .
mootnick , a . , p . fan . 2011 . a comparative study of crested gibbons ( nomascus ) .
hainan gibbons are now limited to a few isolated patches of forest in the south west of china .
fellowes , j . and chan , b . 2003 . hainan gibbon : concerted action for the world ' s most endangered ape . living forests 7 : 22 - 24 .
liu , z . and tan , c . 1990 . an analysis on habitat structure of the hainan gibbon . acta theriologica sinica 10 ( 3 ) : 163 - 169 .
zhang , m . , j . fellowes , x . jiang , w . wang , b . chan , g . ren , j . zhu . 2010 . degradation of tropical forest in hainan , china , 1991 - 2008 : conservation implications for hainan gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) .
all six species in the genus nomascus ( crested gibbons ) are classified as endangered or even critically endangered by the iucn redlist . they are all listed on appendix i of cites . both classifications illustrate that all crested gibbons are threatened with extinction .
the black - crested gibbon is protected from international trade by its listing on appendix i of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 3 ) . fauna and flora international ( ffi ) have been studying the species in northern vietnam since 1999 . they have also been involved in a community awareness programmes in the area and there is pressure to designate the last stronghold of the species ( the che tao forest ) as a gibbon sanctuary ( 4 ) . in china , the largest population of the central yunnan black crested gibbon subspecies occurs within the wuliang mountain national reserve ( 4 ) . it is vital that any remaining viable populations and habitats are protected or this previously successful ape is in grave danger of disappearing .
fan p . f . , x . l . jiang , c . m . liu and w . s . luo . 2006 . polygynous mating system and behavioural reason of black crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor jingdongensis ) at dazhaizi , mt . wuliang , yunnan , china . zool . res . 27 ( 2 ) : 216–220 .
la q . trung and hoang d . trinh . 2004 . status review of the cao vit black crested gibbon ( nomascus nasutus nasutus ) in vietnam . in : conservation of primates in vietnam , t . nadler , u . streicher , and long t . ha ( eds . ) , pp . 90–94 . frankfurt zoological society , hanoi .
the hainan gibbon is such as rare species , but knowing that this species is still hanging on there gives you hope that conservation will be able to bring that population back from the brink .
liu , z . h . and c . f . tan . 1990 . an analysis of habitat structure of the hainan gibbon . acta theriologica sinica 10 : 163–169 . in chinese with english summary .
gibbon fragmentation index and 83 % cis for initial ( pre - 1600 ) gibbon distribution across china , and over nine consecutive 50 - year time intervals ( 1600–2000 ) .
mukherjee r . j . 1986 . the ecology of the hoolock gibbon , h .
song , x . , jiang , h . , zhang , j . , chen , q . , wang , c . , and lin , w . ( 1999 ) . a survey of the hainan gibbon
field study : population structure , social behaviour of the hainan gibbon . environment and peripherical anthropical activities in bawanglin nature reserve location of field site : bawanglin nature reserve , hainan island . project directors : china : pr . xiaoming wang france : dr françoise hergueta - claro contact person : prof . xiaoming wang e - mail : wxming @ urltoken phone : + 86 - 21 62 23 28 95 or + 86 - 21 62 57 62 17 dr françoise hergueta - claro e - mail : claro @ urltoken phone : + 33 - 1 44 75 20 31 fax : + 33 - 1 - 43 43 54 73 mailing address : prof . xiaoming wang department of biology east china normal university shangai 200 000 china dr françoise hergueta - claro muséum national d ' histoire naturelle laboratoire de conservation des espèces animales 53 , avenue st maurice 75012 paris france research objectives : - study the population structure , the social behaviour of the hainan black crested gibbon in bawanglin - characterize the bawanglin nature reserve and the peripheral anthropical activities - carry out a non - invasive genetic study of the gibbon population field positions and volunteers : n / a species studied : hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus ) other species found at site : rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) affiliations : muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , and east china normal university , shanghai project begin / end dates : ongoing until 2004
greenpeace is calling for the hainan government to enforce its laws for protecting the gibbons as well as the island ' s rainforests .
cao - vit / eastern black crested gibbon ( n . nasutus ) formerly : most of north eastern vietnam east of red river , south eastern china . now : small area of north eastern vietnam and south eastern china northeast of red river , possibly still in hoa binh province , vietnam ( critically endangered a2acd ; c2a ( i ) ; d ver 3 . 1 )
northern white - cheeked crested gibbon ( n . leucogenys ) formerly : southernmost yunnan province in china ; now only few localities in northwest and north central parts of vietnam and laos ( critically endangered a2cd + 3cd ver 3 . 1 )
the six species in vietnam are known as crested gibbons . these gibbons show a clear sexual dimorphism , with prominent differences in fur colour between the sexes . males are always black , sometimes with light cheeks , and have a crest on the crown whereas females are golden or buff coloured .
mackinnon jr , mackinnon ks ( 1977 ) . the formation of a new gibbon group .
sommer v , reichard u ( 2000 ) . rethinking monogamy : the gibbon case . in
vietnam is home to six of the 19 gibbon species . only indonesia has more species .
malone , n . and oktavinalis , h . 2006 . the socioecology of the silvery gibbon
tree selection for sleeping is an antipredator behavior for gibbons . they often sleep in the tallest trees in an area which would safeguard them from most terrestrial predators . gibbons also sleep on branches with many twigs so that the twigs , which vibrate easily , will act as an early warning system . hainan black - crested gibbons were not explicitly mentioned in a fei et al . 2012 study , but these insights into their close relatives ,
the iucn currently lists hainan black - crested gibbons as critically endangered . some have suggested that they are the rarest mammals in the world , with approximately 20 individuals counted in a recent survey . a major concern is that of the approximately 20 individuals left , only 4 are adult females and one of these may be post - reproductive . numbers have increased since 2003 , when it was believed that there were as few as 13 individuals .
was widespread on hainan island but a recent estimate put its entire geographic range as low as 14 to 16 km ^ 2 of bnnr .
yellow / red - cheeked crested gibbon ( n . gabriellae ) north eastern cambodia south of ratanakari province , savannakhet in southern laos , southern vietnam south of bach ma , thua thien hue province in central vietnam ( endangered a2cd ver 3 . 1 )
ahsan f ( 1995 ) . fighting between two females for a male in the hoolock gibbon .
conservation efforts are varied . technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems are being used to determine suitable habitats . the government is also planning on adding to the list of protected forest on hainan island . in 2003 , the hainan gibbon action plan was launched . population surveys , reforestation , and the training of staff to monitor the gibbons are all parts of the action plan .
this species is endemic to hainan island , china ( chan et al . 2005 ) . it is currently confined to the bawangling nature reserve on the western side of the island of hainan ( chan et al . 2005 ) . before the 1960s it was widely distributed across the island .
via satellite images and field work , greenpeace found that more than 72 , 000 acres of hainan rainforest have been illegally cut down since 2001 .
wang , c . 1995 . current status of conservation of the black gibbon ( hylobates concolor hainanus ) . in : w . xia and y . zhang ( eds ) , primate research and conservation , china , forestry publishing house , beijing , china .
field study on habitat selection behavior and its mechanism of the hainan gibbon south china institute of endangered animals , in : bawangling nature reserve , hainan ; project director : dr . jiang haisheng ; contact person : dr . jiang haisheng , email : jianghs @ urltoken , phone : + 86 - 20 - 84 19 25 36 , fax : + 86 - 20 - 84 18 37 04
liu , z . h . , jiang , h . , zhang , y , liu , y , chou , t . , manry , d . , and southwick , c . ( 1987 ) . field report on the hainan gibbon .
the black - crested gibbon is one of the world’s most endangered primates and may be on the very brink of extinction ( 4 ) . males and females are strikingly different in appearance with males almost completely black , but sometimes with white or buff cheeks , and females a golden or buff colour with variable black patches , including a black streak on the head ( 2 ) . the common name of this species comes from the tuft of longer fur on the crown of the head ( 5 ) . both sexes have the characteristic slender shape of the ‘lesser ape’ with long arms and legs , grasping hands and feet , and no tail ( 6 ) . a variety of calls are produced , which are amplified with the aid of a throat sac below the chin ; males and females engage in duets , in which males grunt , squeal and whistle whilst females sing rising notes and twitter ( 2 ) .
since 2003 , when the first hainan gibbon action plan was launched ( chan et al . 2005 ) , several teams have continued to work roughly in line with the plan , though with limited coordination . conservation actions include surveying the distribution of the hainan gibbon , providing training of staff to monitor the gibbons , restoring the forest , and community conservation work . one team consists of the kfbg , the hainan wildlife conservation centre of the hainan provincial forestry department ( hwcc ) , and bnnr . the second ( franco - chinese ) team consists of east china normal university of shanghai ( ecnu ) , the zoological society of paris ( pzs ) , and bnnr . a third team from fauna and flora international ( ffi ) china has also conducted monitoring , training and community work in the recent past .
, is found in the 300 km ^ 2 bawangling national nature reserve ( bnnr ) on hainan island off of the coast of china . historically ,
field study on the ecology and behaviour of the yellow - cheeked crested gibbon ( nomascus gabriellae ) . phd research , in : samling logging concession , southern mondulkiri province , cambodia , contact person : ben m . rawson , e - mail : ben . rawson @ urltoken
the researchers said a better understanding of the animals ' decline would help them to establish a conservation plan for the country ' s last few hainan gibbons .
in laos , the nam ha ecotourism project was developed by the lao national tourism authority , which together with the wcs western black crested gibbon conservation and ecotourism project aimed to develop ecotourism in the area of the nam ha national protected area . in 2003 gibbon populations had been documented in three areas of the nam ha npa , but a survey in 2005 / 2006 showed that due to hunting and logging activities population size had decreased dramatically and the number of gibbons is now too low to maintain an ecotourism project in this area ( brown , 2009 ) .
liu , z . , jiang , h . , zhang , y . , liu , y . , chou , t . , manry , d . and southwick , c . 1987 . field report on the hainan gibbon . primate conservation 8 : 49 - 50 .
geissmann , t . ( 1990 ) systematics of crested gibbons ( hylobates concolor group ) . abstracts , international symposium on primate conservation in china . kunming institute of zoology , kunming .
a some researchers recognize the white - bearded agile gibbon of borneo as a distinct species ( hylobates albibarbis ) .
liu , z . , y . zhang , h . jiang , c . southwick . 1989 . population structure of hylobates concolor in bawangling nature reserve , hainan .
number of administrative regions containing gibbon populations for complete historical gibbon distribution across china ( pre - 1600 ) and over nine consecutive 50 - year time intervals ( 1600–2000 ) . pale grey , regions north of the yangtze ; dark grey , regions south of the yangtze . arrow indicates temporal switch - point in the rate of gibbon population decline .
in the 1950s there were estimates of > 2000 hainan gibbons on the island of hainan in 866 , 000 ha of forests across 12 counties ( wang and quan 1986 ) . by 1989 , the hainan gibbon population was reduced to only 21 gibbons in four groups restricted to bawangling nature reserve ( liu et al . 1989 ) . in 1998 the population was said to be 17 ( kadoorie farm & botanic garden 2001 ) . a gibbon survey in october 2003 found two groups , and two lone males , comprising a total of 13 individuals ( fellowes and chan 2004 ; geissmann and chan 2004 ; chan et al . 2005 ; zhou et al . 2005 ) ; another survey in 2001–2002 estimated 12–19 individuals in four groups ( wu et al . 2004 ) . in recent months three newborns and at least one lone female have been observed , bringing the world total to 17 individuals ( hainan daily online 2007a ) .
field study on the population structure , social behaviour of the hainan gibbon . environment and peripherical anthropical activities in bawanglin nature reserve , in : bawanglin nature reserve , hainan island , project directors : china : pr . xiaoming wang , france : dr françoise hergueta - claro ; contact person : prof . xiaoming wang , e - mail : wxming @ urltoken , phone : + 86 - 21 62 23 28 95 or + 86 - 21 62 57 62 17
unreliable population estimates and problems with effective conservation management of crested gibbons show that multiple actions and measures are needed to prevent the extinction of these primates . these needs can be summarized as follows :
tilsen , r . 1979 . behaviour of hoolok gibbon ( hylobates hoolok ) during different seasons in assam , india .
gittins , s . p . 1982 . feeding and ranging in the agile gibbon . folia primatologica 38 : 39–71 .
changing distribution of gibbons across different administrative regions in china over nine consecutive 50 - year time intervals ( 1600–2000 ) . black areas represent regions containing gibbon populations ; grey areas represent regions where gibbons formerly occurred but have been extirpated by a given time interval ; white areas represent regions with no available records .
le td , fan pf , yan l , le ho , josh k ( 2008 ) . the global cao vit gibbon
zhang , y . z . , quan , g . q . , yang , d . , liu , z . , and sheeran , l . k . ( 1995 ) . population parameters of the black gibbon in china . in xia , w . , and zhang , y . ( eds . ) ,
today , china has between 26 and 28 hainan gibbons left , but government records that date back to the 17th century show that gibbons were once widespread across half of the country .
as well as body parts , can result in hefty profits from black market chinese medicine . there is no proven efficacy of these traditional
medicines
and the impact on wildlife populations is devastating .
zhang , y . , quan , g . , yang , d . , liu , z . and sheeran , l . 1995 . population parameters of the black gibbon in china . in : w . xia and y . zhang ( eds ) , primate research and conservation , forestry publishing house , beijing , china .
chan , b . , fellowes , j . , geissmann , t . and zhang , j . 2005 . hainan gibbon status survey and conservation action plan , version 1 ( last updated november 2005 ) . kadoorie farm and botanic garden technical report no . 3 . kadoorie farm and botanic garden , hong kong .
, which is the largest and darkest gibbon . because of the rapid deforestation of their habitats , gibbons are an endangered species .
project director : dr . jiang haisheng contact person : dr . jiang haisheng email : jianghs @ urltoken phone : + 86 - 20 - 84 19 25 36 fax : + 86 - 20 - 84 18 37 04 mailing address : dr . jiang haisheng ( project director ) south china institute of endangered animals 105 xingang road guangzhou , guangdong 510260 china research objectives : study the habitat structure of gibbons and the habitat values of rainforests influenced by humans in different degrees . field positions and volunteers : n / a species studied : hainan black crested gibbon ( nomascus sp . cf . nasutus hainanus ) other species found at site : rhesus macaque ( macaca mulatta ) affiliations : south china institute of endangered animals project begin / end dates : ongoing
esser , a . h . , deutch , r . d . and wolff , m . 1979 . social behavior adaptations of gibbon
li , s . , f . zou , q . zhang , f . sheldon . 2013 . species richness and guild composition in rubber plantations compared to secondary forest on hainan island , china .
density densities for some of the six species are tentative due to the absence of survey data for many populations , and when the status of the gibbons was assessed for iucn in 2006 / 2007 there were no population estimates available for 10 of the 16 species and subspecies ( geissmann 2007a ) . however , despite a lack of current survey data it is clear that there is a negative population trend for all crested gibbons . according to their iucn classification nomascus have suffered from a decline of 50 - 80 % in the last 50 years and are threatened with extinction in the near future ( iucn redlist 2011 . 1 ) and in fact the hainan crested gibbon ( n . hainanus ) is the most critically endangered primate species in the world ( geissmann & bleisch 2008 ) .
gibbon populations are decreasing ; they are threatened with extinction . gibbons are losing their natural habitat because human agriculture is encroaching on it . population numbers are decreasing . there are estimated to be about 79 , 000 lar gibbons ( the white - handed or common gibbon ) .
comments : kadoorie farm & botanic garden , a hong kong conservation organisation , has been working with the bawangling national nature reserve management office since 2003 to support conservation of the hainan gibbon . our work has included support for monitoring by staff , reforestation , and some research . contact john fellowes ( kfjrf @ kfbg . org ) for details .
brockelman , w . , and srikosamatara , s . ( 1993 ) . estimation of density of gibbon groups by use of loud songs .
the hainan gibbon only occurs in bawangling national nature reserve on the island of hainan in china , and a survey in 2003 revealed that only 13 individuals still existed . to stop the extinction of this species an action plan was published ( chan et al . 2005 ) and a conservation project started . the china - program of the kadoorie farm & botanic garden together with the bawangling national nature reserve established two tree nurseries in the reserve , with two main objectives . firstly , trees needed to be planted in order to reconnect forest fragments , and secondly the variety and availability of gibbon fruit trees needed to be increased to facilitate gibbon survival during the dry season . so in 2005 , 16 , 000 indigenous seedlings were planted with a plan to plant a further 150 , 000 trees within the next five years ( geissmann , 2006 ) .
geissmann , t . 2003 . symposium on gibbon diversity and conservation : concluding resolution . asian primates 8 ( 3 / 4 ) : 28–29 .
mcconkey , k . 2005 . the influence of gibbon primary seed shadows on post - dispersal seed fate in lowland dipterocarp forest in central borneo .
relatively few studies of the genus nomascus have been conducted ( haimoff et al . 1987 ; zhenhe et al . 1989 ; bleisch and chen 1991 ; sheeran 1993 ) , and these studies are limited to only a portion ( china ) of the entire range for the genus . species in this genus range in montane forests up to 2900 m . with the exception of the siamang , this represents the highest recorded altitude for a gibbon species ( bleisch and chen 1991 ) . the diet of the black - crested gibbon ( nomascus concolor ) has been reported to be more folivorous than those of other gibbons of similar size , and black - crested gibbons have been observed to come to the ground to forage on bamboo shoots . early reports of group structure reported one male–multifemale groups of up to four females , and average group sizes of 5 . 25 individuals ( haimoff et al . 1987 ) . overall , published reports indicate that approximately 25 % of nomascus spp . groups have greater than two adults , including the observations of groups of up to ten individuals , groups with up to four adult females , and multiple females with dependent infants ( haimoff et al . 1986 ; bleisch and chen 1991 ; lan and sheeran 1995 ) .
fellowes , j . r . , chan , b . p . l . , zhou , j . , chen , s . , yang , s . and ng , s . c . 2008 . current status of the hainan gibbon ( nomascus hainanus ) : progress of population monitoring and other priority actions . asian primates journal 1 : 2 - 9 .
minimum adequate generalized linear model for number of years since local gibbon population extinction in relation to environmental variables . asterisks denote significance of p - values .
ahsan , m . f . 1995 . fighting between two females for a male in the hoolock gibbon . international journal of primatology 16 : 731–737 .
deforestation has swept across south east asia at an alarming rate as trees are logged for timber or to make way for agriculture and development . gibbons throughout the region have undergone dramatic declines due principally to this habitat loss , but also as a result of hunting ( 4 ) . the fragmentation of their habitat causes groups to become separated from the remaining population ( 2 ) , and it is estimated that about 75 percent of the black crested gibbon’s original habitat has already been lost ( 9 ) . the taxonomic confusion surrounding this species makes population estimates particularly difficult but at least two of the subspecies are today at critically low levels ( 1 ) .
we invite everybody to contribute . do you know a gibbon field site which should be included here ? please send an e - mail to the webmaster .
conservation efforts to preserve the hainan gibbon have been slow to get off the ground . a conservation action plan ( pdf ) was established in 2003 , but according to the iucn primate specialist group , its success has been limited by lack of coordination between the eight participating government bodies , universities and organizations . most efforts to date have been restricted to surveying the apes and their habitat .
chan , b . p . l . , j . r . fellowes , t . geissmann and j . f . zhang ( eds . ) . 2005 . hainan gibbon status survey and conservation action plan – version i ( last updated november 2005 ) . kadoorie farm and botanic garden technical report no . 3 . kfbg , hong kong sar , iii + 33 pp . .
although gibbons are today restricted to 11 prefectures in a small area of southwestern china , we collected gibbon last - occurrence dates ranging from 250 ( fuling , chongqing ) to 1995 ( qiongzhong , hainan ) from a further 149 administrative regions in 19 provinces or equivalent areas distributed across much of central , southern and eastern china ( figure 1 ; electronic supplementary material , table s3 ) .
recently , a team of researchers from kadoorie farm & botanic garden ( kfbg ) and china confirmed 17 eastern black gibbons in three groups in the bangliang limestone forest of jingxi county in guangxi , neighboring the phong nam - ngoc khe mountains of vietnam . some of the gibbons observed in bangliang may be the same individuals counted by vietnamese counterparts as gibbon groups were seen traveling between the two countries ( people ' s daily online 2006 ; chan et al . in prep . ) . there is a rumor that there might be some eastern black gibbons in kim hy nature reserve , bac kan province , vietnam , as well as other border areas in guangxi , china .
mootnick , a . r . 2006 . gibbon ( hylobatidae ) species identification recommended for rescue and breeding centers . primate conserv . ( 21 ) : 103–138 .
] . the number of gibbon populations that persisted after isolation from populations in all neighbouring regions , and their post - isolation survival time , was also determined .
cheyne , s . m . and brulé , a . 2004 . adaptation of a captive - raised gibbon to the wild . folia primatologica 75 : 37–39 .
liu , z . , zhang , y . , jiang , h . and southwick , c . 1989 . population structure of hylobates concolor in bawanglin nature reserve , hainan , china . american journal of primatology 19 : 247 - 254 .
geissmann , t . 2002 . gibbon diversity and conservation . in xixth congress of the international primatological society , august 4–9 , 2002 . beijing , china , 112–113 .
xu , l . , liu , z . and yu , s . 1983 . mammalia . in : l . xu , z . liu and x . yi ( eds ) , birds and mammals of hainan island , beijing , china .
geissmann , t . ( 1997 ) new sounds from the crested gibbons ( hylobates concolor group ) : first results of a systematic revision . in : zissler , d . ( ed ) verhandlungen der deutschen zoologischen gesellschaft : kurzpublikationen – short communications . gustav fischer verlag , stuttgart .
gibbons generally establish long - term pair bonds , but in bawangling national nature reserve ( bnnr ) there have been repeated observations of two females in the same group both carrying offspring ( liu et al . 1989 ; bleisch and chen 1991 ; hainan daily online 2007a ) . this “non - traditional” group could be the result of older offspring being unable to locate appropriate mates ( wu et al . 2004 ) , limited space to establish new groups ( liu et al . 1989 ) , or could reflect habitual bigyny as in the crested black gibbons of yunnan ( bleisch and chen 1991 ; fan et al . 2006 ) . if fresh feces could be collected from these individuals , it is possible that nuclear dna sequencing could determine the relationships and confirm if observations are being conducted on the same group in different locations .
hainan gibbons are the world ' s rarest primates . sixty years ago they could be found all across hainan island in the south china sea . now they are limited to the 2 , 100 - hectare bawangling national nature reserve on the western side of the island . while the gibbons are legally protected , lack of enforcement has allowed illegal loggers and pulp paper plantation growers to take over 25 percent of the island ' s rainforests , including a portion of the apes ' reserve habitat , in the past 10 years .
liu , z . h . , y . z . zhang , h . s . jiang and c . h . southwick . 1989 . population structure of hylobates concolor in bawanglin nature reserve , hainan , china . am . j . primatol . 19 : 247–254 .
mootnick , a . r . and groves , c . p . 2005 . a new generic name for the hoolock gibbon ( hylobatidae ) . international journal of primatology 26 : 971–976 .
kadoorie farm and botanic garden . 2001 . report of rapid biodiversity assessments at bawangling national nature reserve and wangxia limestone forest , western hainan , 3 to 8 april 1998 . south china forest biodiversity survey report series no . 2 . kadoorie farm and botanic garden , hong kong .
kadoorie farm & botanic garden . 2001 . report of rapid biodiversity assessments at bawangling national nature reserve and wangxia limestone forest , western hainan , 3 to 8 april 1998 . south china forest biodiversity report series : no . 2 . kfbg , hong kong sar , ii + 33pp .
a dataset of 535 dated historical gibbon records from 420 gazetteers ( electronic supplementary material , table s1 ) , which provide detailed spatio - temporal coverage for china across the ming dynasty ( 1368–1644 ) , qing dynasty ( 1644–1912 ) and republican period ( 1912–1949 ) and with some further sampling of older jin–yuan dynasty records [ 26 ] , was obtained from a geographical compendium of chinese gazetteer natural history records [ 22 ] , constituting a larger dataset compared with previous studies of historical gibbon extinction [ 39 ] . this dataset was supplemented with further data on historical ( twentieth century and older ) and current - day gibbon distributions [ 17 , 36 , 40 – 42 ] in order to investigate gibbon population change through time . all chinese - language records were translated directly by the lead author .
250 , before any local populations had been extirpated ) , and for each 50 - year interval from 1600 until the last - occurrence date for gibbons from the target region . these proportion data were then averaged across all regions that still contained gibbon populations at each chosen time interval to calculate a gibbon range fragmentation index , which is interpreted as a proxy for population fragmentation and level of isolation or connectivity of gibbon populations . levels of population fragmentation were considered significantly different between different time intervals if cis for fragmentation index values did not overlap ; 83 % cis were used for comparison because these give an approximate
gibbons are covered with light - colored to very dark brown ( or black ) dense hair on most of their body ( except their face , fingers , palms , armpits , and bottoms of their feet ) . some species of gibbons have a white face ring , a band of white face completely surrounding their face .
the hoolock gibbon ( hoolock hoolock ) inhabits rainforests and semi - deciduous forests in tropical and subtropical areas of india , myanmar , china , and bangladesh . very little is known about the behavioral ecology of this genus . the hoolock gibbon is the second - largest hylobatid species and is the only gibbon species that ranges substantially outside of the tropics ( mootnick et al . 1987 ) . a predicted dietary response to a seasonal environment might include increased reliance on leaves as fruit availability decreases . however , gittins and tilson ( 1984 ) report stable consumption of fruit throughout the year at a level comparable to species of hylobates .
vna . 2004 . endangered gibbon and rare flora species found . report on web site of sci / tech - environment , vietnam news agency ( vna ) , hanoi . . accessed : 17 november 2004 .
) 20 million years ago . gibbon - like fossils have been found in africa ( from the oligocene and miocene ) , europe ( from the miocene ) , and asia ( from the upper pliocene and pleistocene ) .
sommer , v . and reichard , u . 2000 . rethinking monogamy : the gibbon case . in primate males , p . m . kappeler ( ed . ) , pp . 159–168 . cambridge : cambridge university press .
the most recent gibbon record for a given administrative unit was interpreted as a last - occurrence date for that region , with gibbons inferred to be regionally present until that date . gazetteer records of other wild animal species post - dating the latest gibbon records are also reported for most regions , indicating that later regional gibbon absence is unlikely to represent an artefact of incomplete reporting ; for example , 82 . 1 % of mainland regions with pre - twentieth century gibbon gazetteer last - occurrence records have younger gazetteer records of tiger , a species known to have survived across much of mainland china until the twentieth century [ 22 ] . nearly all ( 88 . 6 % ) historical gibbon last - occurrence records were associated with an exact calendar year , but a small number were instead only associated with a given date range ( e . g . ‘reign of the qianlong emperor’ ( 1735–1796 ) , ‘1950s’ ) . in order to include these data in our analyses , date ranges were converted to direct calendar years by randomly selecting a year from within this range , with an equal probability of being assigned to any year within the range .