eurypygimorphae is a clade of birds that contains the orders phaethontiformes ( tropicbirds ) and eurypygiformes ( kagu and sunbittern ) recovered by genome analysis the relationship was first identified in 2013 based on their nuclear genes .

historically these birds were placed at different parts of the tree , with tropicbirds in pelecaniformes and the kagu and sunbittern in gruiformes , though in the last decade various genetic analysis had found in the almost obsolete clade metaves of uncertain placement within that group .

their sister taxon is possibly aequornithes .

eurypygimorphae

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ardeae is a clade that of birds that contains eurypygimorphae and aequornithes , named in 2014 by genome analysis . initially members of eurypygimorphae were originally classified in the obsolete group metaves , and aequornithes were classified as the sister taxon to musophagiformes or gruiformes .
' ardeae
' is a clade that of birds that contains eurypygimorphae and aequornithes , named in 2014 by genome analysis .
it contains the clades charadriiformes ( waders and shorebirds ) , mirandornithes ( flamingos and grebes ) and ardeae ( eurypygimorphae and aequornithes ) .
initially members of eurypygimorphae were originally classified in the obsolete group metaves , and aequornithes were classified as the sister taxon to musophagiformes or gruiformes .
' eurypygimorphae
' is a clade of birds that contains the orders phaethontiformes ( tropicbirds ) and eurypygiformes ( kagu and sunbittern ) recovered by genome analysis the relationship was first identified in 2013 based on their nuclear genes .
based on a whole - genome analysis of the bird orders , the kagu and sunbittern ( eurypygiformes ) and the three species of tropicbirds ( phaethontiformes ) together styled as the eurypygimorphae are the closest sister group of the aequornithes in the clade ardeae .
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yuri , t . ; kimball , r . t . ; harshman , j . ; bowie , r . c . k . ; braun , m . j . ; chojnowski , j . l . ; han , k . - l . ; hackett , s . j . ; huddleston , c . j . ; moore , w . s . ; reddy , s . ; sheldon , f . h . ; steadman , d . w . ; witt , c . c . ; braun , e . l . parsimony and model - based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals . biology 2013 , 2 , 419 - 444 .
yuri t , kimball rt , harshman j , bowie rck , braun mj , chojnowski jl , han k - l , hackett sj , huddleston cj , moore ws , reddy s , sheldon fh , steadman dw , witt cc , braun el . parsimony and model - based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals . biology . 2013 ; 2 ( 1 ) : 419 - 444 .
yuri , tamaki ; kimball , rebecca t . ; harshman , john ; bowie , rauri c . k . ; braun , michael j . ; chojnowski , jena l . ; han , kin - lan ; hackett , shannon j . ; huddleston , christopher j . ; moore , william s . ; reddy , sushma ; sheldon , frederick h . ; steadman , david w . ; witt , christopher c . ; braun , edward l . 2013 .
parsimony and model - based analyses of indels in avian nuclear genes reveal congruent and incongruent phylogenetic signals .
biology 2 , no . 1 : 419 - 444 .
1 department of neurobiology , howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) , and duke university medical center , durham , nc 27710 , usa .
2 department of computer science , the university of texas at austin , austin , tx 78712 , usa .
3 scientific computing group , heidelberg institute for theoretical studies , heidelberg , germany .
5 college of medicine and forensics , xi’an jiaotong university xi’an 710061 , china .
6 centre for geogenetics , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , øster voldgade 5 - 7 , 1350 copenhagen , denmark .
7 department of biology , new mexico state university , las cruces , nm 88003 , usa .
8 school of biological sciences , university of sydney , sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia .
9 department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california , los angeles , ca 90095 , usa .
10 department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .
11 cnrs umr 5554 , institut des sciences de l’evolution de montpellier , université montpellier ii montpellier , france .
12 department of evolutionary biology , evolutionary biology centre , uppsala university , se - 752 36 uppsala sweden .
13 biodiversity and biocomplexity unit , okinawa institute of science and technology onna - son , okinawa 904 - 0495 , japan .
14 department of statistics and institute of bioinformatics , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .
15 laboratoire de biométrie et biologie evolutive , centre national de la recherche scientifique , université de lyon , f - 69622 villeurbanne , france .
16 environmental futures research institute , griffith university , nathan , queensland 4111 , australia .
17 bioinformatics and genomics programme , centre for genomic regulation , dr . aiguader 88 , 08003 barcelona , spain .
20 joint institute for computational sciences , the university of tennessee , oak ridge national laboratory , oak ridge , tn 37831 , usa .
21 bioinformatics research centre , aarhus university , dk - 8000 aarhus c , denmark .
22 the genome institute , washington university school of medicine , st louis , mi 63108 , usa .
23 department of biochemistry , molecular biology , entomology and plant pathology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .
24 institute for genomics , biocomputing and biotechnology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .
25 department of biological sciences , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 , usa .
26 department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california santa cruz ( ucsc ) , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .
27 organisms and environment division , cardiff school of biosciences , cardiff university cardiff cf10 3ax , wales , uk .
28 key laboratory of animal ecology and conservation biology , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .
30 college of medicine and forensics , xi’an jiaotong university xi’an , 710061 , china .
31 state key laboratory for agrobiotechnology , china agricultural university , beijing 100094 , china .
32 department of ecology and evolutionary biology , tulane university , new orleans , la 70118 , usa .
33 museum of natural science and department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .
34 center for zoo and wild animal health , copenhagen zoo roskildevej 38 , dk - 2000 frederiksberg , denmark .
35 department of behavioral neuroscience , oregon health and science university , portland , or 97239 , usa .
36 brazilian avian genome consortium ( cnpq / fapespa - sisbio aves ) , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .
37 institute of biological sciences , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .
38 institute of medical biochemistry leopoldo de meis , federal university of rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro rj 21941 - 902 , brazil .
39 centre for biological sequence analysis , department of systems biology , technical university of denmark kemitorvet 208 , 2800 kgs lyngby , denmark .
43 trace and environmental dna laboratory department of environment and agriculture , curtin university , perth , western australia 6102 , australia .
44 department of integrative biology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .
45 laboratory of genomic diversity , national cancer institute frederick , md 21702 , usa .
46 institute of molecular and cellular biology , sb ras and novosibirsk state university , novosibirsk , russia .
47 smithsonian institution national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa .
49 department of biological sciences , national university of singapore , republic of singapore .
50 department of vertebrate zoology , national museum of natural history , smithsonian suitland , md 20746 , usa .
51 center for macroecology , evolution and climate , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 copenhagen ø , denmark .
52 bell museum of natural history , university of minnesota , saint paul , mn 55108 , usa .
53 department of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk .
54 department of life sciences , imperial college london , silwood park campus , ascot sl5 7py , uk .
55 smithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , front royal , va 22630 , usa .
56 smithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , washington , dc 20008 , usa .
57 theodosius dobzhansky center for genome bioinformatics , st . petersburg state university , st . petersburg , russia 199004 .
58 oceanographic center , nova southeastern university , ft lauderdale , fl 33004 , usa .
59 center for biomolecular science and engineering , ucsc , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .
60 san diego zoo institute for conservation research , escondido , ca 92027 , usa .
61 department of vertebrate zoology , mrc - 116 , national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc 20013 , usa .
62 department of environmental health science , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .
63 moore laboratory of zoology and department of biology , occidental college , los angeles , ca 90041 , usa .
64 department of genomics and genetics , the roslin institute and royal ( dick ) school of veterinary studies , university of edinburgh , easter bush campus , midlothian eh25 9rg , uk .
65 swedish species information centre , swedish university of agricultural sciences box 7007 , se - 750 07 uppsala , sweden .
66 key laboratory of zoological systematics and evolution , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .
67 department of organismic and evolutionary biology and museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cambridge , ma 02138 , usa .
68 institute of theoretical informatics , department of informatics , karlsruhe institute of technology , d - 76131 karlsruhe , germany .
69 department of biochemistry and biophysics , university of california , san francisco , ca 94158 , usa .
70 department of ornithology , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .
71 department of biology and genetics institute , university of florida , gainesville , fl 32611 , usa .
72 departments of bioengineering and computer science , university of illinois at urbana - champaign , urbana , il 61801 , usa .
73 department of biology , university of copenhagen , ole maaløes vej 5 , 2200 copenhagen , denmark .
74 princess al jawhara center of excellence in the research of hereditary disorders , king abdulaziz university , jeddah 21589 , saudi arabia .
75 macau university of science and technology , avenida wai long , taipa , macau 999078 , china .
77 centre for social evolution , department of biology , universitetsparken 15 , university of copenhagen , dk - 2100 copenhagen , denmark .
science 12 dec 2014 : vol . 346 , issue 6215 , pp . 1320 - 1331 doi : 10 . 1126 / science . 1253451
department of neurobiology , howard hughes medical institute ( hhmi ) , and duke university medical center , durham , nc 27710 , usa .
for correspondence : jarvis @ neuro . duke . edutandywarnow @ gmail . commtpgilbert @ gmail . comwangj @ urltoken zhanggj @ urltoken
department of computer science , the university of texas at austin , austin , tx 78712 , usa .
centre for geogenetics , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , øster voldgade 5 - 7 , 1350 copenhagen , denmark .
department of biology , new mexico state university , las cruces , nm 88003 , usa .
school of biological sciences , university of sydney , sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia .
department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california , los angeles , ca 90095 , usa .
department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .
cnrs umr 5554 , institut des sciences de l’evolution de montpellier , université montpellier ii montpellier , france .
department of evolutionary biology , evolutionary biology centre , uppsala university , se - 752 36 uppsala sweden .
biodiversity and biocomplexity unit , okinawa institute of science and technology onna - son , okinawa 904 - 0495 , japan .
department of statistics and institute of bioinformatics , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .
laboratoire de biométrie et biologie evolutive , centre national de la recherche scientifique , université de lyon , f - 69622 villeurbanne , france .
environmental futures research institute , griffith university , nathan , queensland 4111 , australia .
bioinformatics and genomics programme , centre for genomic regulation , dr . aiguader 88 , 08003 barcelona , spain .
joint institute for computational sciences , the university of tennessee , oak ridge national laboratory , oak ridge , tn 37831 , usa .
bioinformatics research centre , aarhus university , dk - 8000 aarhus c , denmark .
the genome institute , washington university school of medicine , st louis , mi 63108 , usa .
department of biochemistry , molecular biology , entomology and plant pathology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .
institute for genomics , biocomputing and biotechnology , mississippi state university , mississippi state , ms 39762 , usa .
department of biological sciences , texas tech university , lubbock , tx 79409 , usa .
department of ecology and evolutionary biology , university of california santa cruz ( ucsc ) , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .
organisms and environment division , cardiff school of biosciences , cardiff university cardiff cf10 3ax , wales , uk .
key laboratory of animal ecology and conservation biology , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .
college of medicine and forensics , xi’an jiaotong university xi’an , 710061 , china .
state key laboratory for agrobiotechnology , china agricultural university , beijing 100094 , china .
department of ecology and evolutionary biology , tulane university , new orleans , la 70118 , usa .
museum of natural science and department of biological sciences , louisiana state university , baton rouge , la 70803 , usa .
center for zoo and wild animal health , copenhagen zoo roskildevej 38 , dk - 2000 frederiksberg , denmark .
department of behavioral neuroscience , oregon health and science university , portland , or 97239 , usa .
brazilian avian genome consortium ( cnpq / fapespa - sisbio aves ) , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .
institute of biological sciences , federal university of para , belem , para , brazil .
institute of medical biochemistry leopoldo de meis , federal university of rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro rj 21941 - 902 , brazil .
centre for biological sequence analysis , department of systems biology , technical university of denmark kemitorvet 208 , 2800 kgs lyngby , denmark .
trace and environmental dna laboratory department of environment and agriculture , curtin university , perth , western australia 6102 , australia .
department of integrative biology , university of california , berkeley , ca 94720 , usa .
laboratory of genomic diversity , national cancer institute frederick , md 21702 , usa .
institute of molecular and cellular biology , sb ras and novosibirsk state university , novosibirsk , russia .
smithsonian institution national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa .
department of vertebrate zoology , national museum of natural history , smithsonian suitland , md 20746 , usa .
center for macroecology , evolution and climate , natural history museum of denmark , university of copenhagen , universitetsparken 15 , dk - 2100 copenhagen ø , denmark .
bell museum of natural history , university of minnesota , saint paul , mn 55108 , usa .
department of life sciences , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk .
department of life sciences , imperial college london , silwood park campus , ascot sl5 7py , uk .
smithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , front royal , va 22630 , usa .
smithsonian conservation biology institute , national zoological park , washington , dc 20008 , usa .
theodosius dobzhansky center for genome bioinformatics , st . petersburg state university , st . petersburg , russia 199004 .
oceanographic center , nova southeastern university , ft lauderdale , fl 33004 , usa .
center for biomolecular science and engineering , ucsc , santa cruz , ca 95064 , usa .
san diego zoo institute for conservation research , escondido , ca 92027 , usa .
department of vertebrate zoology , mrc - 116 , national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc 20013 , usa .
department of environmental health science , university of georgia , athens , ga 30602 , usa .
moore laboratory of zoology and department of biology , occidental college , los angeles , ca 90041 , usa .
department of genomics and genetics , the roslin institute and royal ( dick ) school of veterinary studies , university of edinburgh , easter bush campus , midlothian eh25 9rg , uk .
swedish species information centre , swedish university of agricultural sciences box 7007 , se - 750 07 uppsala , sweden .
key laboratory of zoological systematics and evolution , institute of zoology , chinese academy of sciences , beijing 100101 , china .
department of organismic and evolutionary biology and museum of comparative zoology , harvard university , cambridge , ma 02138 , usa .
institute of theoretical informatics , department of informatics , karlsruhe institute of technology , d - 76131 karlsruhe , germany .
department of biochemistry and biophysics , university of california , san francisco , ca 94158 , usa .
department of ornithology , american museum of natural history , new york , ny 10024 , usa .
department of biology and genetics institute , university of florida , gainesville , fl 32611 , usa .
departments of bioengineering and computer science , university of illinois at urbana - champaign , urbana , il 61801 , usa .
department of biology , university of copenhagen , ole maaløes vej 5 , 2200 copenhagen , denmark .
princess al jawhara center of excellence in the research of hereditary disorders , king abdulaziz university , jeddah 21589 , saudi arabia .
macau university of science and technology , avenida wai long , taipa , macau 999078 , china .
centre for social evolution , department of biology , universitetsparken 15 , university of copenhagen , dk - 2100 copenhagen , denmark .
to better determine the history of modern birds , we performed a genome - scale phylogenetic analysis of 48 species representing all orders of neoaves using phylogenomic methods created to handle genome - scale data . we recovered a highly resolved tree that confirms previously controversial sister or close relationships . we identified the first divergence in neoaves , two groups we named passerea and columbea , representing independent lineages of diverse and convergently evolved land and water bird species . among passerea , we infer the common ancestor of core landbirds to have been an apex predator and confirm independent gains of vocal learning . among columbea , we identify pigeons and flamingoes as belonging to sister clades . even with whole genomes , some of the earliest branches in neoaves proved challenging to resolve , which was best explained by massive protein - coding sequence convergence and high levels of incomplete lineage sorting that occurred during a rapid radiation after the cretaceous - paleogene mass extinction event about 66 million years ago .
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culex ( culex ) tritaeniorhynchus is a species of mosquito and is the main vector of the disease japanese encephalitis .

this mosquito is a native of northern asia , and parts of africa ( northeast and sub-saharan ) .

females target large animals for blood extraction , including cattle and swine , and are strongly anthropophilic .

culex tritaeniorhynchus

36 . culex : health important culex quinquefasciatus ( vector of brancroftian filariasis culex tritaeniorhynchus ( vector of japanese encephalitis - b )  some important culex sp . as a vector for malaria culex tritaeniorhynchus culex fuscocephala culex gelidus culex vishui culex pseudovish 36
yunnan orbivirus , a new orbivirus species isolated from culex tritaeniorhynchus mosquitoes in china .
culex gelidus , cuddalore district , cx . tritaeniorhynchus , elisa , jev , mir
outdoor resting preference of culex tritaeniorhynchus , the vector of japanese encephalitis in warangal and karim nagar districts , andhra pradesh .
seasonal abundance & role of predominant japanese encephalitis vectors culex tritaeniorhynchus & cx . gelidus theobald in cuddalore district , tamil nadu
outdoor resting preference of culex tritaeniorhynchus , the vector of japanese encephalitis in warangal and karim nagar districts , andhra pradesh . - pubmed - ncbi
culex tritaeniorhynchus and aedes albopictus ( diptera : culicidae ) as natural vectors of dirofilaria immitis ( spirurida : filariidae ) in miki city , japan .
hara 1957 : 56 ( f * ) [ both refs . as tritaeniorhynchus ]
changing scenario in the relative abundance of cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus .
. outdoor and indoor biting activities of cx . tritaeniorhynchus in the study areas .
vector abundance and linear decrease in abundance of cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus .
takahashi m ( 1976 ) the effects of environmental and physiological conditions of culex tritaeniorhynchus on the pattern of transmission of japanese encephalitis virus . j med entomol 13 : 275–284 .
culex tritaeniorhynchus and aedes albopictus ( diptera : culicidae ) as natural vectors of dirofilaria immitis ( spirurida : filariidae ) in miki city , j . . . - pubmed - ncbi
insecticidal and genotoxic activity of psoralea corylifolia linn . ( fabaceae ) against culex quinquefasciatus say , 1823
barcoding turkish culex mosquitoes to facilitate arbovirus vector incrimination studies reveals hidden diversity and new potential vectors .
outdoor collections revealed presence of culex tritaeniorhynchus , cx . bitaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus and in indoor collections - - cx . quinquefasciatus , cx . tritaeniorhynchus , an . vagus and an . subpictus . in the outdoor collections cx . tritaeniorhynchus was predominant ( 96 . 3 % of total collection ) . three samples out of 55 serum samples from human cases and five from contacts showed the presence of antibodies against je virus .
the mosquito species culex tritaeniorhynchus giles is part of the culex vishnui subgroup , which also includes culex pseudovishnui colless and cx . vishnui theobald . it is a relatively small , reddish brown species . the proboscis is predominantly dark scaled , with a narrow median pale ring . tarsi predominantly dark scaled with narrow basal and apical pale rings on tarsomeres i–iv , more distinct on fore legs . wing veins are entirely dark scaled .
another culex species which we were able to examine in terms of its biting activity was cx . tritaeniorhyncus .
reisen wk , aslamkhan m , basio rg . the effects of climatic patterns and agricultural practices on the population dynamics of culex tritaeniorhynchus in asia . southeast asian j trop med public health . 1976 ; 1 : 61–71 .
masuoka p , klein ta , kim hc , claborn dm , achee n , et al . ( 2010 ) modeling the distribution of culex tritaeniorhynchus to predict japanese encephalitis distribution in the republic of korea . geospat health 5 : 45–57 .
barcoding turkish culex mosquitoes to facilitate arbovirus vector incrimination studies reveals hidden diversity and new potential vectors . - pubmed - ncbi
contribution to the mosquito fauna to south - east asia , ii . the genus culex in thailand ( diptera ; culicidae )
japanese encephalitis is considered as a secondary legal infectious disease in korea and is transmitted by mosquitoes in the summer season . the purpose of this study was to predict the ratio of culex tritaeniorhynchus to all the species of mosquitoes present in the study regions .
temporal distribution of culex tritaeniorhynchus occurrence data . histogram showing the number of spatially unique cx . tritaeniorhynchus occurrence records per year in our dataset ( 1928–2014 ) . 73 . 43 % of occurrence records were obtained during the years for which we have annual land cover class layers ( 2001–2012 ) , as indicated by orange x - axis breaks . ( . docx ) ( docx 85 kb )
34 .  examples of such breeding sites are soakaway pits , septic tanks , pit latrines , blocked drains , canals and abandoned wells .  in many developing countries culex quinquefasciatus is common in rapidly expanding urban areas where drainage and sanitation are inadequate .  culex tritaeniorhynchus , the vector of japanese encephalitis in asia , prefers cleaner water .  it is most commonly found in irrigated rice fields and in ditches . 34
studies on the mosquitoes of north arcot district , madras state , india . 5 . breeding places of the culex vishnui group of species .
our map contributes towards efforts determining the spatial heterogeneity in cx . tritaeniorhynchus distribution within the limits of je transmission . specifically , this map can be used to inform vector control programs and can be used to identify key areas where the prevention of cx . tritaeniorhynchus establishment should be a priority .
arcgis analysis determined the approximate percentage of each country with > 25 % probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence based on the maxent model ( table 1 ) . of the 25 endemic countries , seven possessed > 50 % of their land area with a higher probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence . three countries ( bhutan , pakistan , and russia ) possessed < 1 % of their total country area with a 25 % probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence .
studies on the mosquitoes of north arcot district , madras state , india . 5 . breeding places of the culex vishnui group of species . - pubmed - ncbi
33 . culex : life - cycle rafts of 100 or more eggs are laid on the water surface .  the rafts remain afloat until hatching occurs 2–3 days later .  culex species breed in a large variety of still waters , ranging from artificial containers and catchment basins of drainage systems to large bodies of permanent water . 33
banerjee k , deshmukh pk , ilkal ma , dhanda v ( 1978 ) transmission of japanese encephalitis virus by culex bitaeniorhynchus giles . indian j med res 67 : 889–893 .
in the temperate zone cx . tritaeniorhynchus can hibernate as adult whether in northern places the densities of adults increase because of the immigration of the population of this species from the south .
the values of each environmental variable at each recorded location of occurrence were extracted using arcgis ( table 1 ) . for example , the known locations for cx . tritaeniorhynchus used in the model fell within 0 and 838 meters of elevation . this is consistent with the published reports that cx . tritaeniorhynchus is rarely collected above 1 , 000 meters [ 27 ] , [ 28 ] .
compared with the out - of - sample method , the sample - weighted regression method ' s case was relatively superior for prediction , and this method predicted a decrease in the frequency of cx . tritaeniorhynchus for 2013 . however , the actual frequency of this species showed an increase in frequency . by contrast , the frequency rate of all the mosquitoes including cx . tritaeniorhynchus gradually decreased .
cx . tritaeniorhynchus belongs to the subgenus culex and genus culex , which is the primary vector of je and a member of cx . vishnui subgroups . cx . gelidus breed in a variety of freshwater habitats including polluted waters sometimes with considerable organic matter 12 . there were eight jev isolations made from cx . gelidus in india 13 . of these , five were from cuddalore district in tamil nadu and three from mandya district in karnataka state . the presence of the mosquito vectors of jev , and the existence of amplifying hosts in close proximity to humans , favours virus transmission .
an ecological niche model was constructed using the maxent program to map the areas with suitable environmental conditions for the cx . tritaeniorhynchus vector . program input consisted of environmental data ( temperature , elevation , rainfall ) and known locations of vector presence resulting from an extensive literature search and records from mosquitomap . the statistically significant maxent model of the estimated probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence showed that the mean temperatures of the wettest quarter had the greatest impact on the model . further , the majority of human japanese encephalitis ( je ) cases were located in regions with higher estimated probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence .
reuben r ( 1971 ) studies on the mosquitoes of north arcot district , madras state , india . 5 . breeding places of the culex vishnui group of species . j med entomol 8 : 363–366 .
cca did identify more general relationships that may be useful in predicting larval abundance patterns . turbidity , cod , and lower do were predictive for culex population except cx . gelidus . anopheles species can be affected by emergent plant coverage and distance from nearest house as well as mansonia species . cca ordination diagram plotted aedes , culex , anopheles , and mansonia species in different axis that may explain different requirement for different mosquito species . the fact that aedes and culex presence in tires are influenced by different suites of environmental variables which may be useful when designing vector control strategies , especially as these two groups vary in their capability to transmit disease .
cx . tritaeniorhynchus can disperse long distance under natural conditions . the species has the ability to fly 5 km from the breeding site in only one day and the maximum dispersal distance during seven days is 8 . 4 km .
ritchie sa , phillips d , broom a , mackenzie j , poidinger m , et al . ( 1997 ) isolation of japanese encephalitis virus from culex annulirostris in australia . am j trop med hyg 56 : 80–84 .
japanese encephalitis ( je ) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in asia . the first major je outbreak occurred in 1978 and since 1981 several outbreaks had been reported in the cuddalore district ( erstwhile south arcot ) , tamil nadu , india . entomological monitoring was carried out during january 2010 - march 2013 , to determine the seasonal abundance and transmission dynamics of the vectors of je virus , with emphasis on the role of culex tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus .
a total of 46 , 343 mosquitoes comprising of 25 species and six genera were collected . species composition included viz , cx . tritaeniorhynchus ( 46 . 26 % ) , cx . gelidus ( 43 . 12 % ) and other species ( 10 . 62 % ) . a total of 17 , 678 specimens ( 403 pools ) of cx . gelidus and 14 , 358 specimens ( 309 pools ) of cx . tritaeniorhynchus were tested , of which 12 pools of cx . gelidus and 14 pools of cx . tritaeniorhynchus were positive for je virus antigen . the climatic factors were negatively correlated with minimum infection rate ( mir ) for both the species , except mean temperature ( p < 0 . 05 ) for cx . gelidus .
c . quinquefasciatus , the southern house mosquito , has been relatively well studied in recent years probably because of its role in the transmission of important human diseases such as urban lymphatic filariasis , saint louis encephalitis virus ( slev ) , and western equine encephalitis virus [ 2 , 3 ] . in the west africa subregion , culex mosquitoes are not filariasis vectors yet . they are potential vectors as there is minimal evidence that culex mosquitoes contribute to the transmission of the disease [ 4 ] .
g . molaei , t . g . andreadis , p . m . armstrong , j . f . anderson , and c . r . vossbrinck , “host feeding patterns of culex mosquitoes and west nile virus transmission , northeastern united states , ”
cx . tritaeniorhynchus , a known vector of je is predominant in outdoors and playing a main role in je transmission in this area . vector control aimed at the outdoor resting population might limit virus circulation in the mosquito vertebrate host cycle and prevent human infection .
illustration credit : harbach , r . e . 1988 . mosquitoes of the subgenus culex in southwestern asia and egypt ( diptera : culicidae ) . contr . am . ent . inst . 24 ( 1 ) : 1 - 240 . wr256 . pdf
high abundance of cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus was observed compared to other mosquito species in the study area . detection of jev antigen in the two species confirmed the maintenance of virus . appropriate vector control measures need to be taken to reduce the vector abundance .
illustration credit : sirivanakarn , s . 1975 . the systematics of culex vishnui complex in southeast asia with the diagnosis of three common species ( diptera : culicidae ) . mosq sys 7 ( 1 ) : 69 - 85 , illus . 122100 - 9 . pdf
bhattacharya s , chakraborty sk , chakraborty s , ghosh kk , palit a , et al . ( 1986 ) density of culex vishnui and appearance of je antibody in sentinel chicks and wild birds in relation to japanese encephalitis cases . trop geogr med 38 : 46–50 .
illustration credit : sirivanakarn , s . 1976 . medical entomology studies - iii . a revision of the subgenus culex in the oriental region ( diptera : culicidae ) . contr . am . ent . inst . 12 ( 2 ) : 1 - 272 . wr121 . pdf
our ecological niche model of the estimated probability of cx . tritaeniorhynchus presence provides a framework for better allocation of vector control resources , particularly in locations where jev vaccinations are unavailable . furthermore , this model provides estimates of vector probability that could improve vector surveillance programs and je control efforts .
19 . mosquito - borne diseases and their vectors ( protozoa and nematode disease ) disease pathogen vector species malaria plasmodium vivax anopheles sp . p . falciparum p . malariae p . ovale filariasis wuchereria bancrofti culex quinquefasciatus anopheles sp . brugia malayi mansonia sp . aedes togoi anopheles sinensis 19
larvae of cx . tritaeniorhynchus can be found in various temporary and permanent ground water habitats that are sunlit and contain vegetation . the water may be fresh or slightly brackish . that kind of habitats are ground pools , streams , swamps , shallow marshes , irrigation ditches , rice fields and animal hoof prints
as a precursor to planned arboviral vector incrimination studies , an integrated systematics approach was adopted using morphology and dna barcoding to examine the culex fauna present in turkey . the mitochondrial coi gene ( 658 bp ) were sequenced from 185 specimens collected across 11 turkish provinces , as well as from colony material .
van den hurk af , smith cs , field he , smith il , northill ja , et al . ( 2009 ) transmission of japanese encephalitis virus from the black flying fox , pteropus alecto , to culex annulirostris mosquitoes , despite the absence of detectable viremia . am j trop med hyg 81 : 457–462 .
cx . tritaeniorhynchus and cx . gelidus were the two main mosquito species collected abundantly during the three years of the study , demonstrating their significant role in jev transmission . during the je season ( october - december ) , pmd and mir for cx . tritaeniorhynchus were observed to be higher than cx . gelidus . the pattern was almost similar in the subsequent season ( jan - mar ) . however , in the two hot seasons ( apr - jun and jul - sep ) , higher pmd as well as virus infectivity were observed in cx . gelidus . thus , the je virus was observed to be maintained during all the seasons by these two species in this area .
our map defines geographic variation in suitability for cx . tritaeniorhynchus within the limits of je transmission , and thus contributes towards efforts to understand the spatial epidemiology of je . it can be used to aid predictions of current and future changes in disease distribution . specifically , this map can be used to inform vector control programs , highlighting areas which would most benefit from the use of insecticides and areas which would be ideal locations for sentinel sites to monitor vector abundance and disease presence . this map , coupled with fine spatial resolution maps of je distribution if available , can also be used in education campaigns to inform individuals of control methods to prevent vector establishment and disease spread in areas of high environmental suitability for cx . tritaeniorhynchus .
) . in this study , we detected the presence of four major species which included ma . bonneae being the largest found in the area ( 23 . 8 % ) , followed closely by two culex species , cx . vishnui at 22 . 3 % and cx . pseudovishnui at 19 , 6 % , and lastly at 13 . 7 % was cx . tritaeniorhyncus .
the females feed primarily on domestic animals such as cattle and pigs , but will bite man in their absence . they mainly bite outdoors between sunset and midnight , but may enter cattle sheds and dwellings and bite man during any time of the night . biting activity of the female cx . tritaeniorhynchus have been reported to have two peaks , the first at 9 p . m . and the second at 2 a . m .
alkalinity may affect the density of mosquito larvae . cx . gelidus , an . vagus , an . barbirostris , an . peditaeniatus , mn . annulifera , and mn . uniformis require higher alkalinity for their larval development , while ae . aegypti and ae . albopictus require low alkalinity . similar observation was depicted by rao et al . 76 they found that ae . albopictus preferred moderate alkalinity while culex and anopheles mosquitoes preferred high alkalinity .
the average annual mean temperature showed an escalating trend of 48 . 81 - 69 . 22 . at the same time the pmd decreased at the rate of 2 pmd per year . monthly analysis showed that pmd of cx . gelidus was at its minimum during the summer months of may to july . the mean temperature was negatively correlated with mir for cx . tritaeniorhynchus and positively correlated with mir for cx . gelidus ( p < 0 . 05 ) .
although by morphology only 9 species were recognised , dna barcoding recovered 13 distinct species including : cx . ( barraudius ) modestus , cx . ( culex ) laticinctus , cx . ( cux . ) mimeticus , cx . ( cux . ) perexiguus , cx . ( cux . ) pipiens , cx . ( cux . ) pipiens form molestus , cx . ( cux . ) quinquefasciatus , cx . ( cux . ) theileri , cx . ( cux . ) torrentium , cx . ( cux . ) tritaeniorhynchus and cx . ( maillotia ) hortensis . the taxon formerly identified as cx . ( neoculex ) territans was shown to comprise two distinct species , neither of which correspond to cx . territans s . s . these include cx . ( neo . ) impudicus and another uncertain species , which may be cx . ( neo . ) europaeus or cx . ( neo . ) martinii ( herein = cx . ( neo . ) sp . 1 ) . detailed examination of the pipiens group revealed cx . pipiens , cx . pipiens f . molestus and the widespread presence of the highly efficient west nile virus vector cx . quinquefasciatus for the first time . four new country records are reported , increasing the culex of turkey to 15 recognised species and cx . pipiens f . molestus . a new taxonomic checklist is provided , annotated with respective vector competencies for transmission of arboviruses .
in the current study , the maxent ecological niche modeling program was utilized to model the distribution of the primary vector of jev , cx . tritaeniorhynchus [ 22 ] . the resulting vector habitat suitability map was compared to the reported locations of je human cases and the current status of established je vaccination programs by country . our ecological niche model can be used by public health officials and government agencies in endemic regions to guide implementation of comprehensive vaccination programs , vector control strategies , and public health awareness campaigns .
in order to evaluate the contribution of each environmental variable to the model , maxent utilizes a jackknife test , which indicated that the annual precipitation ( bio12 ) environmental layer is the environmental variable with the highest gain when used in the model by itself . the maxent program also calculates a percent contribution for each variable in the model . the annual precipitation variable contributed 16 . 2 % of the information used by the model , another indication that it is an important environmental factor for estimating the distribution of cx . tritaeniorhynchus ( table 2 ) . the mean temperature of the wettest quarter variable ( bio08 ) contributed the highest percentage ( 21 . 7 % ) of the information to the model . elevation was also an important variable , contributing 9 . 6 % to the model . from the jackknife test , if elevation data were removed from the model , the overall training gain would decrease the most , indicating the elevation variable contained the most unique information of the variables in the cx . tritaeniorhynchus distribution model .
a clear association was observed in the study areas between the distance to potential breeding sites and larval density . cx . quinquefasciatus , cx . tritaeniorhynchus , mn . uniformis , and tx . splendens preferred to oviposit in habitats near house , while an . vagus , an . barbirostris , an . peditaeniatus , and mn . uniformis preferred laying eggs in habitats with long distance from the houses . barker et al . found that distance to nearest major larval habitat was not strongly related to culex abundance within the < 400 - m range from larval habitats . 68 in the present study , the longest distance of habitat from nearest house was 2 m . minakawa et al . reported that 90 % an . gambiae were found to breed within 300 m of human habitation . 69 similar findings were reported by sattler et al . for anopheles mosquito larvae in dar es salaam , tanzania . 70 hoek et al . suggested the use of a distance of 750 m as a cut - off point for developing a risk map of malaria in sri lanka . 71
it seems from the present investigation that the changes in agricultural practice and changes in the environmental conditions facilitated the proliferation of the breeding of cx . gelidus in cuddalore district of tamil nadu . since the density of cx . gelidus and virus infection were highest recorded during the hot dry seasons , during the july - january , paddy cultivation was done more in this region when the cx . tritaeniorhynchus was found more abundant and je virus infection was enhanced , it is suggested that effective vector control measures during this period would be an ideal strategy to curtail the transmission of je virus .
canopy coverage was also responsible for the selection of the breeding habitats of mosquitoes as it affects the sunlit condition of the habitat along with the water temperature . ae . albopictus preferred higher canopy coverage while cx . gelidus , an . vagus , an . barbirostris , an . peditaeniatus , mn . annulifera , and mn . uniformis preferred lower canopy coverage for ovipositing . okogun et al . suggested that mosquito larval density was highest in shady area . 62 yee et al . also found culex larvae in the habitats associated with human population density and canopy coverage . 63
we examined the species for every genus present and identified four mansonia species with ma . bonneae being the dominating species ( 92 % ) compared to the other species which contributed only a very small percentage : ma . dives at 3 . 7 % , followed by ma . uniformis at 3 . 5 % and finally ma . annulata at 0 . 4 % . we also captured nine species of culex mosquitoes during the study . there were two dominating species , cx . vishnui ( 30 % ) and cx . pseudovishnui ( 28 % ) . other culex species detected in the area were cx . tritaenorhynchus ( 19 % ) , cx . quinquefasciatus ( 13 % ) plus another five species which appeared in a very small percentage ( between 1 . 8 % - 0 . 02 % ) as follows : cx . whitmorei , cx . fuscocephala , cx . bitaeniorhynchus , cx . gelidus , and cx . hutchinsori . aedes mosquitoes were also present in balai ringin . the species included ae . albopictus , ae . ceacus , and ae . seatoi with ae . albopictus being the dominant species detected at 83 % followed by ae . ceacus at 11 % and ae . seatoi at 6 % .
water depth played a significant role in preferring the breeding habitat of mosquito . in the present study , cx . quinquefasciatus and cx . tritaeniorhynchus were found in high density where water depth was high , while ae . aegypti , ae . albopictus , preferred shallow water depth for oviposition . as aedes mosquitoes are container breeders , they have the ability to adapt with small water content . 52 , 56 rohani et al . found that an . maculates preferred to breed in habitats like shallow pools ( 5 . 0–15 . 0 cm deep ) with clear water , mud substrate and plants . 58 in this study , anopheles species were found in habitats with relatively higher water depth .
a total of 139 unique sites of documented cx . tritaeniorhynchus geographical locations were utilized to construct the ecological niche model ( figure 3 ) . of the 139 total points , 105 ( 76 % ) were randomly designated as training points in order to build the model and 34 ( 24 % ) points were used to test the model . the model was run four times using different combinations of environmental layers ( table 3 ) . statistical results indicate that the most accurate model included bioclimatic layers and elevation ( table 3 ) , and therefore this model was used in all subsequent analyses . statistical evaluation showed the model to have a high accuracy , with the auc > 0 . 9 and low p - values . the model is available to view or download from urltoken .
48 . mosquitoes behavior and itsimplication on control strategies adult stage - resting place after taking blood meals ( outdoor or indoor )  indoor e . g anopheles - insecticide spraying of walls - mosquitoes resting on sprayed walls come into contact with insecticide through their feet and are killed . - some insecticides irritate mosquitoes and cause them to leave houses - hungry mosquitoes entering a house may bite first and then be killed when resting on a treated wall  outdoor e . g mansonia , culex - resting after a blood - meal normally takes place out of doors . - space - spraying - it has an immediate effect on adult populations of insects and is therefore suitable for the control of disease outbreaks - it kills mosquitoes that do not rest in houses 48
do and chlorophyll a were the leading predictors for the richness of all collected mosquito larvae except ae . aegypti . water temperature was clearly associated with the breeding of an . vagus , an . barbirostris , and an . peditaeniatus . water depth , distance from nearest house , emergent plant coverage , and alkalinity were found as the basis of larval richness . culex mosquitoes and tx . splendens were found positively associated with cod , while mn . annulifera showed negative association . the results suggest that the abundance of mosquito larvae may be determined by many variables , each contributing a small effect . the specific cues that trigger oviposition behavior in mosquitoes are largely unknown . a large number of variables may be correlated with other characteristics that act as cues for ovipositing females .
showed an interesting finding where the highest number of biting was 140 bites which were three times higher than the other culex species . it also has biting patterns which were almost similar between indoor and outdoor activity with indoor activity ( 22 . 667 ± 13 . 262 ) being lower than the outdoor activity ( 59 . 75 ± 32 . 949 ) . outdoor biting activity presented three peaks , one peak during the early part of the night ( 8 pm ) and others during early morning ( 12 am and 2 am ) while indoor activity , although three peaks were also presented , two of three peaks were presented during the early part of the activity ( 8 pm and 10 pm ) and the other was at 3 am . in general , biting activity could be considered active throughout the 12 hour period .
the maxent 3 . 2 . 1 modeling program ( urltoken ) was utilized to model the distribution of cx . tritaeniorhynchus based on previously obtained geographical locations . maxent utilizes a maximum entropy algorithm to analyze values of environmental layers , such as temperature , precipitation , and elevation , at known locations of species occurrence ( collection records ) to estimate the probable range of the species over a geographic region [ 22 ] , [ 24 ] . this model is based on presence - only data instead of presence / absence data due to the lack of available absence data . although absence data can be informative for modeling , ecological niche models based on presence - only data are useful in regions with limited collection data [ 22 ] . without absence data , the true probability of presence cannot be modeled . in maxent , which uses presence only data , the species distribution is output as an estimated probability map [ 25 ] .
20 .  anopheline eggs are laid singly on the water surface , possess floats  all aedes lay their eggs singly , on the ground , at or above the waterline , never possess floats  culex eggs are deposited in rafts of 100 or more  anopheline – larvae never have a siphon . lie parallel to water surface  culicinae – all larvae have a short or long siphon . subtend an angle from the water surface  anophelines rest in a position where their head , thorax , and abdomen are in a straight line , usually at an angle of 40 to 90° , whereas the culicines rest in a position almost parallel to the surface . 20characteristics of anophelines and culicines . ( from pictorial keys to some arthropods and mammals ofpublic health importance , u . s . department of health , education , and welfare , public health services , washington , d . c . , 1964 . )
oviposition behavior of gravid female mosquitoes is an important factor that influenced mosquito species composition . generally anopheles larvae prefer open sunlit waters . 32 in the present study , it was found that anopheles larvae preferred both partially shady and exposed to sunlit area . this may vary due to the position of the sun during the sampling time . ae . albopictus , ae . aegypti , and tx . splendens prefer shady area for oviposition . culex larvae were found abundant where the habitat was partially exposed to sunlit except cx . gelidus , which preferred sunlit exposed habitats . mansonia larvae were found in open sunlit conditions or exposed to sunlight . water temperature of open sunlit condition has often reached higher . de meillon and mccrae reported that anopheles species are tolerant to high water temperatures . 59 , 60 the warm water in sunlit habitats may be an important factor for larval development because warm water accelerates their development . 60 in addition , warm temperatures may allow more microbes to develop , which provide food sources for the mosquito larvae . 61
this study was aimed at determining the abundance and biting patterns of culex quinquefasciatus in the coastal region of nigeria . collections were done by human landing catch and by cdc miniature light traps from september 2005 to august 2006 . a total of 3798 c . quinquefasciatus females were collected . the highest number of females was caught in the month of august and it represented nearly a quarter ( 24 . 0 % ) of the total females collected . in all , 38 . 8 % of females dissected were parous . the abundance of c . quinquefasciatus followed the pattern of rainfall with the population starting to expand at the onset of the rains . the highest increase was found after the temperature had peaked . the mean of biting was 3 . 2 times more in the rainy season than in the dry season , whereas the transmission potential was higher in the dry season . c . quinquefasciatus is presently regarded as a biting nuisance having no significant epidemiological importance yet . efforts at its control should be intensified before it is too late .
the preponderance of ae . aegypti can be predicted by lower chlorophyll a , alkalinity , water depth , water temperature , and distance from nearest house , while dominance of ae . albopictus can be predicted with higher canopy coverage and do , lower water depth , and water temperature . higher chlorophyll a , turbidity , water depth , lower alkalinity , and low do were the best predictors for cx . quinquefasciatus larval abundance . cx . hutchinsoni require lower nh4 , do , and higher cod for its larval growth and survival . lower alkalinity , do , emergent plant coverage , higher total hardness , and water depth in the breeding sites led to an increase in population density of cx . tritaeniorhynchus . higher do and chlorophyll a were the best predictors for larval abundance of cx . gelidus , an . barbirostris , and an . peditaeniatus , while an . vagus was found abundant with higher chlorophyll a , alkalinity , do , and water temperature . higher chlorophyll a and do are needed to develop mn . annulifera and mn . uniformis larvae . tx . splendens was noted to prefer lower alkalinity and do .
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how to cite this article : korgaonkar ns , kumar a , yadav rs , kabadi d , dash ap . mosquito biting activity on humans & detection of plasmodium falciparum infection in anopheles stephensi in goa , india . indian j med res 2012 ; 135 : 120 - 6
how to cite this url : korgaonkar ns , kumar a , yadav rs , kabadi d , dash ap . mosquito biting activity on humans & detection of plasmodium falciparum infection in anopheles stephensi in goa , india . indian j med res [ serial online ] 2012 [ cited 2018 jul 9 ] ; 135 : 120 - 6 . available from : urltoken
knowledge of bionomics of mosquitoes , especially of the disease vectors , is necessary to plan appropriate vector avoidance and control strategies . for example , information on biting activity of vectors during the night hours in different seasons could help in choosing personal protection measures that would prevent human - mosquito contact . earlier a study on the biting activity of disease vectors using human baits was conducted in the coastal urban areas of goa , india
. these studies point to the seasonal and temporal variations in mosquito biting rhythms . we undertook this study from october 2005 to september 2006 with two main objectives : (
: goa is situated on the western coast of india with a population of 1 . 34 million
residing in two districts and 11 sub districts comprising of 15 towns and 398 villages . the study was conducted in these ecotypes covering both urban and rural areas of goa within the jurisdiction of the urban health centres of panaji , margao and vasco and primary health centres candolim , bicholim , cansarvarnem , ponda , betki , cortalim , quepem , canacona , valpoi and sanguem .
. , maximum and minimum temperatures , rainfall and relative humidity were worked out for the pre - monsoon ( january - may ) , the monsoon ( june - september ) , and the post - monsoon periods ( october to december ) .
: a preliminary survey was conducted to select suitable human dwellings for all - night bait collections in the study areas . the inhabitants of the dwellings were pre - informed about the purpose of mosquito collections and their informed consent was taken after study protocol was approved by institutional ehics committee of national institute of malaria research , new delhi . collections of female mosquitoes landing on human volunteers were carried out indoors from 1800 to 0600 h during 85 nights . mosquitoes were etherized and identified in the laboratory to species level following the keys
247 . end point results were read visually and confirmed at 450 nm using a vmax kinetic microplate reader ( molecular devices corporation , sunnyvale , ca , usa ) . the mean absorbance values of the five known negative controls was 0 . 207 ( range : 0 . 119 - 0 . 305 ) for
species . eir was calculated for panaji and goa using formula eir = number of landing mosquitoes / person / night x sporozoite rate .
: hourly data of landing mosquitoes of all the nights in each month were pooled by species and averages were worked out . the hourly data of number of mosquitoes collected from 1800 to 0600 h were pooled to study landing trends in different phases of night . also to study seasonal biting trends , species - wise landing collections of various months were pooled for pre - monsoon , monsoons and post - monsoon period . z - test of proportions was applied to study differences of vectors landing in different seasons . to study biting trends during the night in the entire study period covering all the collection hours and in different seasons species - wise , william ' s mean ( m
the human volunteers and mosquito collectors were explained about the purpose , procedure and risk of infection during the collection and informed consent was obtained in writing from them . volunteers and mosquito collectors were administered a weekly prophylactic dose of 600 mg chloroquine in a single dose . the study protocol was approved by the e0 thics committee of national institute of malaria research , new delhi .
a total of 4 , 191 mosquitoes were collected during 85 nights from 14 different localities with an overall mean mosquito landing rate of 49 . 3 mosquitoes per person / night . these mosquitoes belonged to 5 genera and 23 species , including the malaria vectors
( skuse ) ( 63 , 1 . 5 % ) . of the total 4 , 191 female mosquitoes , 3 , 273 ( 78 . 1 % ) were known vectors of different mosquito borne diseases and the remaining ( 918 , 21 . 9 % ) were of non vector species
. the mean number of female mosquitoes landing per person per night for malaria vectors was 1 . 89 , filariasis vectors 20 . 9 , je vectors 14 . 83 , and dengue / chikungunya vectors 0 . 73 . the number of landing mosquitoes collected on human bait was maximum between 0300 - 0600 h ( 1622 ; 38 . 7 % ) followed by 1800 and 2100 h ( 1059 ; 25 . 3 % ) , 2100 - 2400 h ( 830 ; 19 . 8 % ) , and least ( 680 ; 16 . 2 % ) during 2400 to 0300 h
females were caught from 0300 - 0600 h ( 23 ; 41 . 8 % ) and the least during 2400 - 0300 h ( 6 ; 10 . 9 % )
was in the early hours of the morning . however , the temporal difference in biting behaviour was apparent during different seasons . a distinct peak in biting activity in the early hours of the morning was seen in the pre - monsoon months while in the monsoons there was accelerated biting between 2000 to 2400 h and in the early morning hours from 0300 to 0600 h . in the post - monsoons , a small peak in the evening was followed by another at midnight . of the total 55
collected , 15 ( 27 . 3 % ) , 17 ( 38 . 9 % ) and 23 ( 41 . 8 % ) were collected during pre - monsoons , monsoons and post - monsoon seasons , respectively . however , the seasonal differences were found to be non significant
sporozoites . among anophelines tested , the plasmodial infection rate was 0 . 2 per cent , while amongst
alone , it was 3 . 6 per cent . the two infected females were among 18
was calculated as 18 . 11 for panaji and 2 . 35 for entire goa .
were caught during early hours of the morning from 0300 to 0600 ( 30 ; 40 % ) and least during 2400 to 0300 h ( 10 ; 13 . 3 % ) .
showed bimodal peaks one from 2100 - 2300 h and a higher peak from 0300 to 0600 h during the monsoons while maximum biting was noticed from 2100 to 2200 h during post - monsoon period and biting during monsoons was very less . of the total 75
collected , most ( 54 , 72 % ) were collected during pre - monsoon which were significantly more than 5 ( 6 . 7 % ) collected during monsoons and 16 ( 21 . 3 % ) collected during post - monsoons
. there was no definite biting trend shown by the species although during the post - monsoons , maximum biting occurred before 0200 h . maximum number of landing
- this species was captured throughout the year though maximum landing females were collected from 0300 - 0600 h ( 698 ; 40 . 8 % ) and the least ( 280 ; 16 . 4 % ) during 2400 - 0300 h
increased gradually from 0200 h and peaked between 0500 and 0600 h both during pre - and post - monsoon seasons although peak in the post - monsoon season was comparatively much higher . of the 1710
mosquitoes , 636 ( 37 . 2 % ) were collected during the pre - monsoon , 200 ( 11 . 7 % ) during the monsoon and 874 ( 51 . 1 % ) during the post - monsoon and the difference between the different seasons was significant
in general although during the post - monsoon biting pattern showed variability temporally and biting increased past mid night during this season .
54 ( 71 . 1 % ) , followed by 20 ( 26 . 3 % ) during pre - monsoon and only 2 ( 2 . 6 % ) were encountered during the monsoon period and the difference between the seasons was significant
was found feeding in negligible numbers with biting activity between 1800 and 2100 h ( 3 ; 75 % ) and from 2100 - 2400 h ( 1 ; 25 % ) . of the four je vectors ,
showed distinct peak in biting activity after 0300 h during the post - monsoon while during pre - and post - monsoons there was no such distinct peak . in the case of
there was much more biting activity up to midnight compared with later hours during the pre - monsoon months while during the monsoon there was very less landing populations and no definite choice of biting hours . during the post - monsoon however , there were two clear peaks one from 2100 to 2200 h and other from 0500 to 0600 h . the third je vector
showed trimodal biting pattern during the pre - monsoon , the first peak from 2000 to 2100 h , the second from 2300 to 2400 h and the third much higher at 0500 - 0600 h . this species showed higher biting rate before 2100 h and decline thereafter . during the post - monsoon months there were three peaks like the pre - monsoon months , the first up to 2100 h , the second from 0100 to 0200 h and much higher peak from 0400 to 0500 h . overall , significantly more number of je vectors
were collected during the post - monsoon season being 408 ( 55 . 9 % ) , 206 ( 63 . 6 % ) and 124 ( 60 . 5 % ) , respectively than the pre - monsoon
are primarily diurnal species , they were also found active biting human host especially during the early phase of night and early morning hours as compared to the second and third phases of the night . although
was only found during post - monsoon season and of the 37 landing mosquitoes collected , the species showed crepuscular feeding up to 2100 h and then during early hours from 0300 to 0600 h .
. during the pre - monsoon months , the biting started during the first phase of night but declined after 2300 h and picked up after 0200 and peaked from 0500 to 0600 h . during the monsoon , the populations of these anophelines declined drastically , whereas during the post - monsoon , the pattern of biting appeared quite similar to pre - monsoon months .
96 ( 38 . 6 % ) in the pre - monsoon and 19 ( 7 . 6 % ) in the monsoon . the seasonal biting pattern revealed that during the pre - monsoon months there were two peaks , one in the early phase of night and second lower peak during early morning . during the monsoon , the populations declined significantly although maximum biting was noticed during early morning hours . during the post - monsoon months , there were two prominent peaks one crepuscular and the second in the early morning .
. 2156 ( 51 . 4 % ) followed by pre - monsoon 1586 ( 37 . 8 % ) and the least
the study revealed that the vectors of malaria , filariasis and japanese encephalitis were actively feeding on humans throughout the year between 1800 h to 0600 h . differences were observed in the biting rhythms of different vector species during different phases of the night and seasons . the data also revealed that vector biting was the least in the monsoon months compared with other seasons which could be due to the flushing effect of heavy rainfall on immature populations although the temperature and humidity conditions were ambient during this season .
. , panaji , candolim , margao and cortalim . it was found actively pursuing the host throughout the night with distinct peak activity in the early hours of the morning and in all the three seasons . however , a similar study
also suggest that the biting activity of the same species in a particular location can be influenced by sleeping behaviour of the host , microclimatic conditions and the lunar cycle .
. in the present study , this species was collected in the entire scotophase and in all seasons from both hills and foothills of sanguem and valpoi in the east , quepem in the south central and canacona in the south western parts of goa .
. in the present study also , this species was captured biting from the three sub coastal areas of bicholim , cansarvarnem and quepem and did not appear to play any significant role in malaria transmission . the species also did not show much seasonal and temporal variability . earlier studies had however , shown that the feeding patterns of
the je vectors pose a serious challenge to the public health in goa as sporadic outbreaks of je have been frequently reported especially in the sub coastal belt of goa . of all the je vectors ,
was found to be the predominant vector species in goa . this and other two species ,
were also similarly active throughout the night irrespective of seasons . however , the fourth japanese encephalitis vector ,
are well - known vectors of dengue and chikungunya respectively in urban and rural areas in india . small numbers of both these vectors were active after dusk and around dawn . although these two vectors are known to be primarily diurnal species and goa being endemic to both dengue and chikungunya , the present study suggests that preventive measures undertaken against other vector species would also be partly effective against these vectors especially during the early hours of the evening and morning when their biting was noticed .
postulated the possibility of genetic factors influencing the biting behaviour of mosquitoes and variations in the degree of anthropophily and endophagy among different populations of anophelines and aedine species of mosquitoes . other studies have indicated that feeding pattern of disease vectors varies widely and is dependent on climatic factors
. hence , the circadian rhythm of biting cycles is of great epidemiological significance .
the vector - host contact can be prevented by using available personal protection methods such as repellents , proper clothing and long lasting insecticide nets ( llins ) . the latter act as mechanical and insecticidal barrier which can repel or knockdown mosquitoes upon contact thus providing effective protection against vector borne diseases during most part of the night
. in the present study , about a quarter of all mosquitoes were found biting in the evening and early hours of the night . during this period , application of suitable repellents and proper clothing can provide protection against vectors .
the authors acknowledge the assistance rendered by the field and laboratory staff of national vector - borne disease control programme , and national institute of malaria research ( icmr ) , field station ( fs ) , goa , india . authors thank dr hemanth kumar , sr . research scientist of nimr , fs goa and also acknowledge the help of goa meteorological observatory for providing weather data and also the indian council of medical research for the facilities .
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