euchelus bicinctus is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family chilodontidae .

many specimens of clanculus tonnerrei ( g & h nevill 1874 ) have been misdientified as belonging to this species , following a misidentification of issel ( 1869 ) ( herbert , 1996 ) .

euchelus bicinctus

worms - world register of marine species - euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849
species euchelus proximus a . adams , 1855 accepted as euchelus circulatus ( anton , 1849 )
species euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 accepted as clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 )
species euchelus angulatus pease , 1868 accepted as vaceuchelus foveolatus ( a . adams , 1853 )
species euchelus hachijoensis pilsbry , 1904 accepted as herpetopoma rubrum ( a . adams , 1853 )
species euchelus edentulus ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as clanculus edentulus a . adams , 1853
to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) ( from synonym clanculus gibbonsi sowerby iii , 1912 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) ( from synonym euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 4 publications ) ( from synonym euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 4 publications ) ( from synonym clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) to encyclopedia of life to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 ) to mnhn molluscs type collection ( 2000 - 31160 ) ( from synonym clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 )
species euchelus clathratus ( a . adams , 1853 ) accepted as vaceuchelus clathratus ( a . adams , 1853 )
species euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 accepted as clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 )
species euchelus ruber ( a . adams , 1851 ) accepted as herpetopoma rubrum ( a . adams , 1853 )
( of euchelus bicinctus auct . non philippi , 1849 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]
between otaki and waikanae . at first sight i took it to be a very small specimen of the banded dotterel ( charadrius bicinctus ) , several specimens of which were lying near , but observing that the colouration of the feet , breast , and head differed very much from that of c . bicinctus , i carefully preserved the skin .
subgenus euchelus ( pareuchelus ) o . boettger , 1907 † accepted as pareuchelus o . boettger , 1907 † ( original rank )
» species euchelus ( herpetopoma ) foveolatus ( a . adams , 1851 ) accepted as vaceuchelus foveolatus ( a . adams , 1853 )
species euchelus lamberti ( souverbie in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) accepted as tallorbis roseola g . nevill & h . nevill , 1869
subgenus euchelus ( nevillia ) h . adams , 1868 accepted as nevillia h . adams , 1868 accepted as alcyna a . adams , 1860
species euchelus gemmula w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as vaceuchelus gemmula ( w . h . turton , 1932 ) ( original combination )
species euchelus natalensis e . a . smith , 1906 accepted as vaceuchelus natalensis ( e . a . smith , 1906 ) ( original combination )
species euchelus scabriusculus a . adams & angas , 1867 accepted as herpetopoma scabriusculum ( a . adams & angas , 1867 ) ( original combination )
subgenus euchelus ( perrinia ) h . adams & a . adams , 1854 accepted as perrinia h . adams & a . adams , 1854 ( original rank )
» species euchelus ( herpetopoma ) pruinosus b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as herpetopoma pruinosum ( b . a . marshall , 1979 ) ( original combination )
species euchelus seychellarum g . nevill & h . nevill , 1869 accepted as herpetopoma seychellarum ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1869 ) ( original combination )
( of euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]
( of trochus ( euchelus ) philippi , 1847 ) philippi r . a . ( 1847 ) . versuch einer systematischen eintheilung des geschlechtes trochus . zeitschrift für malakozoologie . 4 : 17 - 26 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 20 [ details ]
ngu ? n : wikipedia . c c trang : 36 . ch ng : euchelus , neomphalidae , vaceuchelus , anatomidae , pendromidae , cantrainea , angaria delphinus , herpetopoma , granata , danilia , choristella , addisoniidae , perrinia , lepetella , pseudococculinidae , vetulonia , lepetellidae , leptothyra , bothropoma , neomphaloidea , scissurelloidea , vaceuchelus scrobiculatus , arene cruentata , ataphridae , agathodonta elongata , pyropeltidae , tecticrater , peltospira , crysomallon , euchelus bicinctus , cinysca , mirachelus corbis , danilia tinei , retiskenea diploura , perrinia stellata , granata sulcifera , lepetelloidea , euchelus guttarosea , danilia affinis , mirachelus clinocnemus , herpetopoma barbieri , didianema pauli , lirapex , lirapex costellata , pyropelta ryukyuensis , angaria melanacantha , sutilizonidae , chilodonta suduirauti , bichoristes , herpetopoma naokoae , hybochelus leucogranulatus , agathodonta meteorae , nodopelta , emiliotia immaculatus , vaceuchelus vangoethemi , danilia stratmanni , vaceuchelus ludiviniae , vaceuchelus pagoboorum , trochaclis , angaria nhatrangensis , peltospira smaragdina , vaceuchelus vallesi , angaria turpini , planorbidella , herpetopoma eboreum , herpetopoma bella , perrinia cecileae , vaceuchelus abdii , pyropelta sibuetae , lacunoides vitreus , nodopelta rigneae , pyropelta oluae , angaria carmencita , cantrainea globuloides , danilia discordata , perrinia docili , cataegis , lirapex humata , danilia angulosa , mirachelus urueuauau , pachydermia , haliotoidea , depressizona exorum , homalopoma imperforata , danilia galeata , trachysma , euchelus atratus , turcica , homalopoma variecostata , bathyphytophilidae , herpetopoma larochei alacerrima , homalopoma fluctuata , vetulonia paucivaricosa , symmetromphalus , choristella tenera , depressigyra globulus , choristella vitrea , cantrainea yoyottei , liotipoma wallisensis , homalopoma umbilicata , leptothyra filifer , planorbidella planispira , vetulonia parajeffreysi , choristella nofronii , lepetodriloidea , angaria rugosa , cantrainea peloritana , danilia eucheliformis , angaria n . . .
please note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . pages : 52 . chapters : tricolia , tricolia pullus , lepetodrilus , mikadotrochus , euchelus , neomphalidae , vaceuchelus , anatomidae , pendromidae , addisonia excentrica , cantrainea , leptogyra , herpetopoma , pleurotomaria , angaria delphinus , eulithidium , granata , danilia , addisoniidae , perrinia , perotrochus , pseudococculinidae , choristella , vetulonia , lepetella , entemnotrochus , lepetellidae , bayerotrochus , leptothyra , neomphaloidea , kaiparapelta askewi , bothropoma , scissurelloidea , leptogyra costellata , eulithidium tessellatum , bayerotrochus africanus , copulabyssia colombia , tricolia retrolineata , vaceuchelus scrobiculatus , entemnotrochus rumphii , amphiplica plutonica , pseudococculina rimula , tecticrater , ataphridae , pyropeltidae , copulabyssia riosi , crysomallon , arene cruentata , melanodrymiidae , peltospira , cinysca , agathodonta elongata , copulabyssia leptalea , mirachelus corbis , helicopelta , euchelus bicinctus , perrinia stellata , tricolia saxatilis , pilus conicus , lepetodrilus shannonae , danilia tinei , granata sulcifera , tricolia adusta , lepetelloidea , mirachelus clinocnemus , euchelus guttarosea , phasianella australis , herpetopoma barbieri , danilia affinis , entemnotrochus adansonianus , sutilizonidae , pyropelta ryukyuensis , melanodrymia , osteopelta mirabilis , addisonia brophyi , lirapex , herpetopoma bella , tricolia speciosa , gorgoleptis , lirapex costellata , didianema pauli , leptogyra inconspicua , leptogyra inflata , leptogyra eritmeta , leptogyra verrilli , herpetopoma naokoae , hybochelus leucogranulatus , vaceuchelus vangoethemi , lepetodrilus atlanticus , sutilizona , lepetodrilus gordensis , nodopelta , vaceuchelus ludiviniae , vaceuchelus pagoboorum , melanodrymia galeronae , sutilizona tunnicliffae , pyropelta sibuetae , trochaclis , chilodonta suduirauti , pyropelta oluae , peltospira smaragdina , vaceuchelus vallesi , angaria melanacantha , emiliotia immaculatu . . .
( of euchelus erythraeensis sturany , 1903 ) albano p . g . , bakker p . a . j . , janssen r . & eschner a . ( 2017 ) . an illustrated catalogue of rudolf sturany’s type specimens in the naturhistorisches museum wien , austria ( nhmw ) : red sea gastropods . zoosystematics and evolution . 93 ( 1 ) : 45 - 94 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
fairly common . the distinctness of this form is not beyond doubt , vittata , littorinoides , and strebeli all seem to intergrade somewhat on the mainland , and investigation of specific values in this genus must be left for another occasion . i have , however , used strebeli for a number of chatham shells , evidently not bicinctus , of a uniformly dull colour , and very solid habit ; i have identical shells from dunedin harbour ( the type locality of strebeli ) and other forsterian localities . it may be noted , however , that reeve ' s figure of the type of his littorinoides ( conch . icon . , vol . 3 , pl . 12 , f . 94 ) looks as much like strebeli as it does the form commonly accepted as littorinoides .
this seems to be needed for the various minolioid genera such as talopia gray , 1842 , minolia a . ad , 3860 , talopena iredale , 1918 , spectamen iredale , 1924 , antisolarium , conominolia , zeminailia , and zetela , all of finlay , 1926 , but not ethminolia iredale , 1924 ; of these talopia is the oldest name , and may be taken as the foundation of the family . solariella wood , 1842 , and machaeroplax friele , 1877 , perhaps belong here , but , being northern groups , may be more closely related to other associations . thiele has placed these in his subfamily margaritinae , but iredale has noted ( rec . austr . mus . , vol . 14 , no . 4 , p . 258 , 1925 ) that , as far as austral species are concerned , this should be termed stomatellinae , and to the euchelus - stotnatella series the austral minolioids show little resemblance .
manual of conchology , structural and systematic : with illustrations of the species : tryon , george w . ( george washington ) , 1838 - 1888 : free download , borrow , and streaming : internet archive
tryon , george w . ( george washington ) , 1838 - 1888 ; pilsbry , henry augustus , b . 1862 ; sharp , b
vols . 11 - 17 ( published 1889 - 1898 / 8 ) by george w . tryon , continued by henry a . pilsbry vols . 11 - 17 have imprint : published by the conchological section , academy of natural sciences originally issued quarterly , in 68 pts consists of
first series , marine univalves .
cf . p . [ 4 ] of covers of individual pts includes bibliographical references and index
there are no reviews yet . be the first one to write a review .
herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]
herbert d . g . ( 2012 ) a revision of the chilodontidae ( gastropoda : vetigastropoda : seguenzioidea ) of southern africa and the south - western indian ocean . african invertebrates , 53 ( 2 ) : 381–502 . [ 6 november 2012 ] , available online at urltoken [ details ]
worms - world register of marine species - clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 )
clanculus ( clanculopsis ) tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) · accepted , alternate representation
( of clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) fischer h . ( 1901 ) . liste des coquilles recueillies par m . de gennes à djibouti et ali - sabieh , avec description de plusieurs formes nouvelles . journal de conchyliologie . 49 : 96 - 130 , pl . 4 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 123 - 125 [ details ]
( of clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]
( of clanculus gennesi h . fischer , 1901 ) bosch d . t . , dance s . p . , moolenbeek r . g . & oliver p . g . ( 1995 ) seashells of eastern arabia . dubai : motivate publishing . 296 pp . [ details ]
( of clanculus gibbonsi sowerby iii , 1912 ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]
( of clanculus gibbonsi sowerby iii , 1912 ) petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1–218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of clanculus ( clanculopsis ) tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ) herbert d . g . ( 1996 ) . observations on clanculus tonnerrei ( g . nevill & h . nevill , 1874 ) ( mollusca gastropoda trochidae ) . tropical zoology 9 : 31 - 45 . [ details ]
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transactions and proceedings of the new zealand institute , 1879 . [ electronic resource ]
, ph . d . , f . r . s . , director of the canterbury museum .
[ read before the philosophical institute of canterbury , 26 th november , 1879 . ]
, i offered a description of the skeleton of this interesting southern ziphioid whale . i then stated on the authority of the late mr . f . fuller , taxidermist of the canterbury museum , who went to secure the skeleton of that specimen , stranded in lyttelton harbour , some details about the characteristic form and colour of the skin of the animal in question . when my informant arrived where the fishermen were at work , he found that the blubber had nearly all been taken off , so that he could only partially obtain the required measurements . from the observations i am about to offer to the society , on two more specimens stranded since then on our sea - beach , it will be seen that some of the statements were far from being correct .
in fact , the animal was so much cut about that its lower part was taken for the upper , and vice versâ and consequently no dorsal fin could be found where it was looked for . the first of the specimens under review was stranded on sunday , the 17th of november , 1878 , near new brighton . there were numerous visitors at the time who observed another whale ( according to other lookers - on , two whales ) in the offing , by which the animal was driven into the surf , where soon it became helpless . gradually it was drifted upon the low sandy beach , where it died only after a long struggle . having received prompt information , i arrived early next morning on the scene , and found the animal quite intact , so that i could not only take the necessary measurements , but also have a careful sketch prepared , which , as the sequel will show , is of importance , in offering us some curious information as to the habits of this species of ziphioids .
colour : head , neck , and anterior portion of the back , as far as the dorsal fin , white ; the rest of the body black ; a white narrow line running along the edge of the dorsal fin , which is otherwise black . the line of division between the two colours is everywhere well marked , except upon
the cheeks , where blackish blotches advance some distance towards the nose . the cylindrical form of the animal for its length is rather slender , its height at the occiput being only 2 feet 3 inches , and at about nine feet from the tip of the lower jaw 3 feet 3 inches , after which it tapers gradually to the tail . the animal proved to be a young female .
the two teeth at the termination of the lower jaw stood half an inch above the gums , having a diameter of one inch where they rose above the latter . they are conical , and have a sharp apex , and are not covered anywhere with enamel , not even on the tip . the dentine shows a number of horizontal lines one above the other , running round the tooth . they are therefore quite different from the teeth of the two specimens described in vol . ix . ( transactions of the new zealand institute ) , which were found to be covered with a rough cement . they are also different from those of another specimen , of which i shall give some details further on .
a single fold begins below the throat , 1 foot 1 inch from the top of the lower jaw . after rising rapidly for four inches , it continues for seven inches more at a smaller angle , ceasing where the black colour of the throat begins . this fold is separated into two portions by a ridge of the breadth of half an inch below the centre of the throat .
lips flesh - coloured ; roof of mouth slaty - black ; no signs of teeth along the jaws ; there is , however , a hardened ridge along both sides of the palate . the extremity of the lower jaw projects about two inches beyond the upper . the head rises steeply above the upper lip to the forehead .
the blow - hole is situated on the vertex of the head just above the eye . both the form and the size of the dorsal fin and of the tail - lobes , show that this species must be a remarkably swift swimmer .
before giving a description of the external appearance of the specimen under review , i wish to allude to another female , 21 feet 6 inches long , of the same species , stranded on may 15th , 1879 , on the sea - beach near kaiapoi , and of which the skeleton was also secured .
this was , doubtless , a full - grown , aged animal , the terminal epiphyses being so well anchylosed to the body of the vertebræ that even the line of junction could be scarcely distinguished , while in the new brighton specimen these discs were still unanchylosed , and detached themselves readily during maceration .
in form of the body , and colouration , this animal resembled in every respect the new brighton specimen . however , the two teeth existing at the tip of the lower jaw could not be felt when passing the fingers over the gums , and were only disclosed when making incisions .
the teeth are the smallest of all those known to me , being 1·98 and 2 inches long , and only ·46 of an inch broad . the left tooth weighs 66 and the right 62 grains . the flattened root is square , and somewhat constricted a quarter of an inch above the base , after which the tooth expands , being broadest about the middle . it then contracts rapidly , running out to a sharp point . this is thus confirmatory evidence that the teeth , with age , are absorbed , and disappear gradually below the gums ; although it is possible that even below the gums they may still be of some use to the animal . it is a peculiar character of the small teeth of the kaiapoi specimen that they should be so very thin , and terminate in a sharp point ; and that the latter should be covered with real enamel , different from any observed upon the dentine in any other teeth of the same species .
is no doubt in my mind that with them the teeth in front of the lower jaw are both permanent and of larger size than those of the females , just in the same manner as they exist in other ziphioid genera . fortunately , however , there is some evidence at hand strengthening such an hypothesis .
dr . hector , in his account of the skull of epiodon chathamiensis , * obtained in the chatham islands , describes the teeth of this species , as follows : —“the lower jaw * * * terminates in two , short , stout , slightly compressed teeth , 2 inches long , and 4 inches in circumference , implanted in shallow sockets . the teeth have slight , irregular striæ , and are worn down into two lateral facets , divided by an acute ridge . the position of the teeth , when the jaws are closed , is 2 inches beyond the upper mandible , and unless they are applied against callosities on the upper lip , it is difficult to conceive how they are worn down to this acute form . weight of teeth 817 and 836 grains . ”
finally , i should like to make a few observations on the nomenclature , and the changes proposed .
in plate viii . , b is the vent , c the pudendum , and d the fold .
[ read before the wellington philosophical society , 11 th october , 1879 . ]
having since made a minute examination , i have not the slightest hesitation in pronouncing it to be a specimen of gould ' s hiaticula ruficapilla ; it appears to be a very common australian species .
mr . gould , in his “handbook to the birds of australia , ” * states : —“the red - capped dotterel is universally dispersed over every part of the sea - shores of australia that i have visited , and everywhere evinces a greater preference for the shingly beach of the ocean , and especially for deep salt - water bays , than for the sides of rivers and inland waters ; it is very numerous in tasmania , on flinders ' island , on the sand - banks at the mouth of the hunter in new south wales , and at port adelaide in south australia ; and gilbert states that it is equally abundant in western australia , where it is likewise so strictly a bird of the coast that he never saw it inland . it is usually met with in pairs , but may be occasionally observed associating in small companies : —
“like the tringœ , this bird resorts to every possible device in order to lure the intruder from its nest ; throwing itself down upon its breast and flapping its wings , as if in the agonies of death , it will so continue until he has approached almost near enough to place his hand upon it , when it moves along for several yards , dragging one of its legs behind , and , if still followed , attempts to fly , and so well imitates the motion of a bird wounded in the wing , that the intruder is easily misled , and the eggs remain undiscovered . ”
“the male has the forehead crossed by a broad band of white , which gradually diminishes to a point at the posterior angle of the eye ; above , a band of black , which also diminishes to a point at the same place ; from the angle of the mouth to the eye , a line of black , which is continued from the posterior angle of the eye down the sides of the neck ; crown of head , nape , and back of neck , rich rusty red ; all the upper surface and wings pale brown , each feather margined with a still lighter tint : primaries , blackish - brown ; the shafts and extreme edge of the inner webs white ; four central tail - feathers dark brown , the remainder white ; all the under surface white ; irides very dark brown ; bill dark reddish brown ; naked part of legs above the tarsi dark greenish grey , tarsi light grey ; feet blackish brown . ”
the example before us is probably an accidental straggler to our shores from australia , it is , however , a very interesting addition to our list of new zealand birds .
it will be remembered that , in 1876 , dr . buller read before this society descriptions of several varieties of the common , wood - pigeon ( carpophaga novœ - zealandiœ ) . i have now the pleasure of bringing under your notice two additional examples of albinism in this species .
no . 1 is a beautiful albino , the whole plumage being pure white , with the exception of the lesser wing - coverts , which are a delicate yellowish - brown colour , but much more decided than in the specimen mentioned by dr . buller . the claws are yellow instead of black , which is the normal colour . this specimen was shot at springhill station , upper whareama , by mr . a . cameron , and by him presented to the museum ; he says it has frequently been seen about the station during the last four years .
no . 2 is a partial albino . the head , neck , back , and fore - part of the breast are light brown , stained in places with coppery - purple ; lesser wing - coverts , coppery - purple ; quills and their coverts , light brown ; quills tipped and margined with white . tail - feathers brown , tipped with white ; under - surface steel grey , changing to brown towards the extremities ; under - parts from breast downwards , white , slightly tinged with brown ; eyes and feet the usual carmine pink ; claws yellowish - pink , tipped with black . this specimen was procured at pahautanui , and presented to the museum by mr . wise , a very old resident in the district .
the next specimen i have to draw your attention to is a curious and interesting variety of the kotuku , or white heron ( ardea syrmatophora ) .
on the right wing , near the “bend , ” is a patch of dark feathers ; thence a band of black and brown passes right over the back and joins a much larger patch of the same colour on the left wing , and then extends obliquely across the breast , becoming fainter as it again approaches the left side . inner webs of primaries , lining of wings and flank - feathers , more or less marked with brown , passing in places into black . a black patch about an inch in length will also be noticed on the outer web of one of the “secondary plume feathers . ”
i have never before heard of a specimen of this species possessing a single coloured feather , and indeed i am informed that “white as a kotuku ” has passed into a proverb amongst the natives . i was therefore surprised , when , on proceeding to examine the six specimens contained in the “type collection , ” in the colonial museum , i found that no less than three of them had the wings , especially the under - surfaces , more or less spotted or dashed with brown and black .
museum collection . it is evidently the result of an accident , and from its appearance i should say that a shot had just passed below the nostril , splitting the bill in the manner shown . the left side of the upper mandible has also been broken off , but this was evidently a subsequent misfortune , as the broken edge is still somewhat sharp ; while the top of the bill and “spike” are smooth and polished . this unfortunate bird was presented to the museum several years ago , by mr . j . d . enys , who shot it at akitea .
[ read before the wellington philosophical society , 27 th september , 1879 . ]
( orange - wattled crow ) have been as yet entirely unknown , and the author , having chanced to find , towards the end of february last , two nests of this species near the ko - i - te - rangi hill , on the hokitika river , forwards the following description of them .
the nests , which were 15 inches externally , were somewhat loosely constructed of twigs and roots , and had well - formed cup - shaped interiors , lined with pine roots and twigs ; they were built in the branches of the coprosma , or “black” scrub , which grows upon the low river - flats of westland , near the mountain ranges . the average height of the scrub in this instance was about 15 feet , while the nests were about 9 feet above the ground , and 200 feet distant from each other ; one contained an egg , the other , two nearly fledged birds . the egg has been presented to the colonial museum . the two young birds were kept for some weeks in a cage for the
purpose of studying their habits ; their wattles were of a light - rose tint , changing into a violet colour towards the base , but after death , when their skins were dried , the wattles assumed a dull orange tint . the parent birds had wattles of the usual rich crimson - lake colour , the base being tinted with violet as in the young birds .
the egg has almost similarly rounded extremities . length 1·7 inch , breadth 1·1 inch ; the under tint of the egg is brownish , mottled with grey and dark brown blotches which are larger and darker at the larger ends .
. translated from the zoology of the voyage of the “novara , ” by professor hutton .
passage imperfectly developed ; transverse processes of the sacral vertebræ triangular , flat ; no paratoids . ( fingers and toes not dilated at the tips ; maxillary teeth ) .
tympanum , sacs , and auditory tubes wanting ; teeth in the upper jaw , and in two faint oblique rows on the palate , behind and between the interior nares . tongue roundish , more or less margined . fingers free . toes half webbed . projection of the navicular bone small .
fitz . verhandl . d . zool - bot . gesellschaft zu wien , jahrg 1861 ; xi ; pag . 218 , taf . vi
body moderately compressed . eyes rather large ; muzzle rather longer than the eye ; exterior nostrils rather nearer to the eye than to the end of the muzzle .
a glandular fold between the posterior corner of the eye and the shoulder ; a second from the eyes , along the sides of the body to the thighs . several warts about the corner of the mouth , and a few smaller ones on the back and on the sides of the rump . two smooth , yellow callosities on the palm of the hand , one on the metacarpus of the thumb , and one near that of the fourth finger . fingers and toes depressed . toes connected by the web for about half their length , the free part bordered by the membrane . projection of the navicular bone faintly elevated . a dark - grey triangular band between the eyes , in front of which is a broadish and lighter oblique stripe ; hind limbs with broad cross bands on a yellowish - brown ground . belly and sides of rump dirty grey - violet , marbled with yellowish - brown ; a
light oblique streak running down from the anterior and posterior corners of the eye , and diverging to the rim of the upper jaw . male without sound - bag .
[ read before the hawke ' s bay philosophical institute , 12 th may , 1879 . ]
in the winter of 1878 , i received a glass jar from hampden , in this provincial district , containing three full - grown living green lizards . they were pretty nearly alike in size ; two of them were spotted with large irregular - shaped light - green spots , or markings , and one was wholly green . they had been found together , a short time before , in a hole , with a fourth , which was accidentally killed ; and , on their capture , were put carefully into a jar , and packed loosely in moss . on my receiving them i found them apparently very well , but unwilling to move or to face the light , seeking to bury themselves more and more in their mossy bed , so i left them alone , believing they were hybernating . meanwhile , i made many enquiries , by letter , as to their “hole , ” its linings , etc . , but gained little reliable information , save that “in it , and with them , was a lot of stuff like blasting powder ; ” this , i have reason to believe , was the fæcal debris . i greatly regretted the loss of the fourth , as i think that would have proved to be a green male .
during the winter i looked at them three or four times , but they always acted in the same manner , as if averse to having their quiet sleep disturbed . on again looking at them early in october , i found them wholly altered ; they were now desirous of coming to the light , restless , and pawing against the glass , and had increased in number , having four little ones ! two being spotted with white , and two entirely green ; their lovely little bodies looking as if cased in silk velvet instead of scales ; this appearance continued for some weeks . i now lost no time in removing them to more suitable
early in november i was sorry to observe that the young ones , although all four had grown rapidly in length , were daily becoming more weak , especially the two entirely green ones ; this , of course , was owing to their not eating . on the 3rd of november one of the young green ones died . at this time , too , the head of one of the adult lizards ( as i believe , the female one ) swelled much , changed to a livid colour , and grew to an unshapely size , with a bloody discharge distilling from its ears . i thought , that something being the matter with its head , the other lizards in their scrambling about over each other ( which they commonly do ) had fixed their sharp claws in its ears , being now tender , and so caused them to bleed , & c . the sick lizard , however , was very patient under it ; and as its disorder increased , the skin of its head became more and more stretched with the swelling , and great and irregular throbbings or undulations were very apparent . ( here i should mention , that the regular pulsation in their throats is always prominently seen ) . and so , as this diseased lizard became
offensive , yet still living ( though not eating ) , dirtying the others with its discharges , anal now as well as aural , i threw it out into the field .
one of the spotted young ones ( which i shall term no . 1 . ) also cast its skin on the 6th december ; like that of the large male it commenced at the snout , but it came away in fragments—perhaps owing to its being both young and tender .
on the 8th december the second young green lizard died , just as the former young one died , from starvation . this one had , in common with the two young spotted ones , plenty of small flies ( now more easily obtained as the summer advanced ) , but it wanted the power to catch any .
about the 12th december the two remaining adult lizards seemed to be getting into a diseased state ; the handsome male , which had so lately shed its outer skin , had something the matter with its ear , from which a bloody discharge was oozing ( resembling in a smaller degree the early diseased state of the adult one that died ) , while the adult female was restless , swelled in the lower abdomen , and discharging a bloody mixture from its anus ; finding this one getting rapidly worse , with its anus greatly swelled and blotchy—starred all round the margin as it were in a curious regular manner—i lost no time in putting it into a bottle of spirits , and , on my going to look at it some ten minutes after , i found , to my astonishment , no less than 26 large living larvæ of that red - brown flesh - fly had been discharged from its anus ! these were each 5 lines long , and it was their posterior ends compacted together and jutting out from the lizard ' s anus which had given it in that part its peculiar appearance . now it flashed across my
mind , —their evident dislike and dread on their first seeing that flesh - fly in their cage ; and that this was also the cause of the death of my first lizard , into which the living larvæ had been deposited through its ears ! causing its head to possess and show those ugly , unnatural throbbings or semi - undulations . i now hastened to the adult male lizard , and caught it , and on gently squeezing its head i saw the posterior end of a larva presenting itself within its ear ; i took a needle and extracted it ; it was much larger than those in the spirits , and gorged with blood . after this the male lizard soon recovered and became lively , though that aural orifice completely closed up , and so remained until the next shedding of its skin , when i was glad to find that it resumed its former appearance . from the time of this discovery i was careful not to give them any more viviparous female flesh - flies , consequently i have had no more similar diseases to notice .
the big male lizard again shed its skin on the 24th january ; this time , however , in fragments , yet done quickly , all being over within two hours . and again this lizard shed its skin on the 15th of march , this time in large pieces ; finding that while it had extricated its hind - legs it could not draw out its tail , i caught it and helped it to do so . it was pleasing to see how quietly it remained in my hand , when it found out what i was doing , and how naturally it moved its long tail in an easy wriggling manner , and with
strong muscular power pulling against me , so that the whole outer skin of the tail came off , as at first , in one unbroken piece . the cast skin is damp , soft , and slightly clammy , on its being shed , but it quickly dries and hardens .
the young lizard ( no . 1 ) next cast off its skin on the 31st december , having assumed the milky appearance already mentioned the day before ; and to my great surprise this same lizard again put on the cloudy milky appearance on the 13th january , and again shed its skin on the following day when its scurf was just a fortnight old ! as before , it began to break away at its snout , but on this occasion , somehow , possibly owing to its fineness , it got rolled up together and backwards behind its eyes , giving the animal with its white wig the drollest appearance imaginable , so that i often laughed outright ! this time it was very slow in casting off its rags , as parts of its skin were still hanging on its sides on the 24th january—just ten days—when i caught it and helped it . this lizard again shed its skin on the 1st march , when it was two days in getting it wholly off : often biting it and tearing at it with its claws . the next time it did so was on the 19th april , having assumed the usual milky appearance two days before ; on this occasion its old scurf first broke through over its back .
the other young lizard ( no . 2 ) again cast off its outer skin on the 5th february , having the day before put on the peculiar milky appearance .
big adult male , 1878 , november 16 ; 1879 , january 24 ; march 15 . * young one , no . 1 , 1878 , december 6 , december 31 ; 1879 , january 14 , march 1 , april 19 . young one , no . 2 , 1878 , december 16 ; 1879 , february 5 .
their manner of taking their prey ( flies ) is peculiar : when the lizard clearly sees the fly , and makes sure it is living , it steals towards it in the most stealthy manner . as the lizard nears the fly , and when within two inches of it , then is the time closely to notice its actions . first it arches its neck to a tolerably sharp angle , and its eyes swell and bulge out , or rather upwards , over their orbits , and the expression of its countenance alters greatly , taking on a fierce look ; next it lifts its little hand - like paws and moves them , only a toe or a finger at a time and often in the air , very slowly and cautiously ( much like a little child does its hands when stealing along on tip - toe ) , and then it nears its head towards its prey , but so very slowly that i have better detected its movement by watching its shadow cast on marked paper by strong sunlight , —reminding me of the almost imperceptible movement of the hour - hand of a clock . at last it has got to
which they also did . the large lizard often puts its tongue out ( “licking its lips” ) when it goes after a fly , especially if a big one ; i am inclined to think that it is hungry then . it is pretty to see the two young lizards going together after the same fly , especially if the fly is crawling above them , within , on the glass roof ; to see them walking slowly , side by side , with measured gait , and step by step , like a pair of hounds in a leash or a couple of miniature fairy - like little creatures , with their heads up , and their little black eyes glistening ; at such times , too , when they at last near the fly , they often trample on each other in their eagerness , but whenever they do so , they always take it very quietly , the one underneath neither struggling nor retaliating .
it has often seemed to me as if it were a natural law , or rule , of these lizards ( a thing understood by them ) , that whenever they trample on , or walk slowly over , each other , or stand , or lie , or even sleep on each other , the under one , or ones , always take it patiently , and rarely ever move at all—not even when the sharp claws of the upper lizard are pressing on the eyes of the one under him : i have often been surprised at this . i have never once seen them fight or fall out , or attempt to bite each other , although confined in so small a compass . they often spend hours lying on each other ' s backs , which is a favourite posture with them , and sometimes sleep , or spend , the whole night thus . i have seen the whole seven thus together in one lump , with , sometimes , the little ones underneath .
they don ' t seem very timid nor easily startled to any great degree with noises , or sights , or sounds . i keep them on the table in my sitting - room , at which i take my meals , etc . , and i have often thrown down a newspaper by their side , or struck the table with a book pretty strongly , yet they never start ; it is the same when the candles are lit . they appear , too , as if they liked to snugly ensconce themselves in their cage under the koromiko branch , or ( the two young ones ) stretched out at full length on the upper side of the twigs .
i believe them to be inoffensive , peaceful , and sociable ; and if , as i have already surmised , the fourth one ( which was killed ) was also a male , then there would have been two couples , at least , hybernating together in one “hole ; ” or that “hole” may have been their usual dwelling - place , seeing there were found in it “ lots of black stuff”—no doubt their dry and hardened fæces , which could not , i think , have been so largely deposited during the short period then passed of their hybernation . an intelligent friend in the country , who is also an observer of nature , has informed me that he has found them , in clearing , “six or seven together , cuddled up under the roots of a flax - bush” ( phormium ) .
and then passing their broad , thin , and large tongue right over their eyes , as if washing them , and always so finishing their drinking . i have also seen them lick the wet koromiko leaves when fresh ; and the young ones , more than once , lick the adult male . their tongue and palate are of a deep purple colour , much like that of some plums , and the tongue , when fully extended ( as in licking ) , has an emarginate appearance , which may , however , be owing to the action of the hyoid muscle .
they seem to like the water , as they often go singly into their water - trough , and remain extended in the water for some time . they can swim very fast , too , but clumsily , as if they were in a great hurry about it ; i have occasionally tried them at swimming in a large vessel of water .
they can run very swiftly , as i have often proved . when they merely walk , their tails are always straight ; but when they make haste their tails are undulated laterally throughout their whole length . here , no doubt , their under - squamæ help them ; this , indeed , i have in a measure ascertained , in my taking the large lizard into my hands and holding it vertically , when , to aid its ascent in crawling , all the squamæ below are used strongly , and one feels them curiously applied against the hand . * this , also , i think , will account for their being able to climb up on the outside of their glass dome , which they can do—in which feat they are no doubt also materially aided by the large transverse scales on their toes , which are a beautiful object , and admirably adapted for climbing purposes . their claws , too , are exceedingly sharp , having a translucent or semi - crystalline appearance , and are set on at almost a right angle to their toes . one can hardly bear to hold them in one ' s hand when they struggle and use their sharp claws .
their tails have also a strong prehensile power , as i have found in their clasping my fingers with them very closely , and so holding on . on one occasion i had to clear the tail of one which was fast , having taken a half - turn over itself in the sharp angle of a twiggy branch of half - withered and flaccid koromiko , which , i suppose , it had pressed down by lying upon it .
they sometimes spring a short distance very nimbly when they wish to get away from any little obstructions ; and they also jump down fearlessly and without hesitation . i have taken them up and allowed them to run over a book , etc . , held horizontally , 2–3 feet above the table , when they would run straight over the edge of the book and drop on the table on all - fours , like a weasel or a cat , and so continue to run as before .
they assume all manner of curious and grotesque positions , some of them being most extraordinary , and some apparently painful , but in reality i suppose are not so . whatever posture they assume they both can and
[ footnote ] * the sensation being just as if every single scale was being forcibly moved forwards in rapid succession by the muscles of the animal .
8 p . m . it had not moved , so also it was at 11 p . m . , when i went to bed , and when i came down the next morning it was still in exactly the same strange position ; i now thought it could not easily get out , so i lifted the glass to help it , but the moment i did so it scuttled away very fast .
they always take a most peculiar attitude to void their fæces , which , however , they do not perform frequently . i always know when they are about to do so ( if on the look - out ) , for with young and old their preparation is pretty much alike . they first lift up their tails in a semi - curvature towards their backs , then they lift their hind - feet from the floor , and so slowly void their one pellet ; which done they gently lower their hind - feet , and then their tail , and move away . on one occasion i saw the adult male lizard , which was quietly at ease among the koromiko twigs , leave its lair and climb up into the water - trough ; at first i thought it was going to drink , or to bathe in the water , but i was agreeably surprised in noting its actions ; having got into the salt - cellar , it placed its feet on both sides , cocked - up its big tail , and voided its pellet into the water ! that over , it leisurely descended to its former resting - place . in their voiding the fæcal pellet the anus of the animal is produced much more than would be supposed . their dung is of a long oval shape 4–5 lines long , and not unlike that of a sheep ; it is black in colour , but always with a white adjunct ( uric acid ) , somewhat resembling that of a fowl , which portion always appears first ; they void rather slowly . sometimes , especially after eating “bluebottle flies , ” the portions of the fly in rather coarse fragments are very plain in the deposit .


the dugite / ˈdjuːɡaɪt / ( pseudonaja affinis ) is a species of venomous , potentially lethal , snake native to western australia , a member of the family elapidae .

the local nyungar name for the dugite is dobitj .

dugite

dugite - native / package . json at master · desktop / dugite - native · github
perth snake catcher’s joust with fiery 1 . 5m dugite at spearwood factory | perthnow
the dugite is not very aggressive . a member of the brown snake family , the dugite is nowhere near as venomous as its cousin , the eastern brown snake .
dugite snake image by rob ahern - some rights reserved . ( view image details )
workers at the factory spotted a 1 . 5m dugite coiled up outside their kitchen quarters .
snake catcher steve smartt with the fiesty 1 . 5 metre dugite which he later released in bushland .
but the dugite at ms cross ' parents ' home was the first of its kind for the season .
like other brown snakes , dugites are diurnal . the female dugite lays 10 to 20 eggs at a time .
common dugite pseudonaja affinis affinis - notice the broad belly scales on the shed skin . ( photo taken at the west australian reptile park ) an extremely large common dugite pseudonaja affinis affinis - ( photo taken at the west australian reptile park )
the pictures show the dugite wrapping its mouth around the tiger snake ' s body , slowly swallowing the venomous victuals whole .
‘a couple of hours later we saw the culprit by our pond - a 4 ft dugite slithering across the lawn . ’
the fact that the mainland dugite is common in degraded habitats and feeds on house mice suggests that it has a secure future .
kyle releases a rescued brown snake . the dugite is a deadly species of brown snake found in south - western parts of australia .
‘there are several species , the most important medically being the eastern or common brown , the western brown or gwardar and the dugite . ’
dugites are cannibalistic . they eat members of their own species as well as other snakes . an individual dugite can swallow another snake almost as large as itself !
snake handler marcus cosentino , from slithers and sliders who bagged the dugite from mrs cross ' parents ' abode said the area around city beach was notorious for snakes .
well , that question has been settled , sort of , after pictures emerged of a dugite eating a tiger snake near capel in western australia ' s south west .
ms hedzik said she returned to the site later to see if the dugite was still working its way through the tiger snake , but there was no sign of it .
other similar species of brown snake that overlap the dugite’s distribution include the penisular brown snake pseudonaja inframacula , the western brown snake pseudonaja nuchalis and the eastern brown snake pseudonaja textilis .
the 35 - year - old , who is eight months pregnant , said the one metre dugite bolted as soon as it spotted her so she quickly rang a snake handler .
mrs cross , who was aware how deadly a bite from a dugite can be , said at no stage did she fear for the safety of herself or her unborn bub .
they are protected under the australia’s wildlife conservation act 1950 . this means if someone tries to injure or kill a dugite , they can be fined up to aud $ 4000 .
the dugite is a type of brown snake , which is very common around perth and surrounding areas . it is found through the south of western australia through the nullarbor plain and eyre peninsula
in the wild , the dugite eats a variety of vertebrate prey including frogs , lizards , snakes , birds and mammals . however , the two largest groups of prey are lizards and house mice .
the dugite is a highly venomous snake . the adult usually olive green to brown , often with dark spots or flecks . the abdomen may also be dark , unlike that of other brown snakes .
well - known to south - western wa residents , the dugite has made itself at home around urban and semi - rural areas , drawn to the prevalence of its favoured prey – the house mouse .
a heavily pregnant mother - of - one said when she spotted a dugite scurrying across the driveway of her parents ' home , her first thought was to protect her two - year - old daughter .
tiger snake venom activates prothrombin in presence of factor v and calcium , whereas the western brown , brown , dugite , and taipan snakes directly activate prothrombin and may result in very low fibrinogen levels and severe biochemical coagulopathy .
the dugite is a dangerous snake . the venom is neurotoxic although the dugite rarely envenoms when biting people . most people seen in hospital after an attack do not require anti - venom treatment . dugites will avoid people when they can , but will attack if surprised , particularly during mating period . venomous bite symptoms include abdominal pain , breathing and swallowing difficulty , convulsions , hypotension , kidney failure . can be fatal if no anti - venom treatment .
dugites are diurnal , meaning that they aer most active during the day . this is quite common with other brown snakes . in terms of reproduction , a female dugite can lay between 10 to 20 snake eggs at one time .
the dugite is one of nine described species and two subspecies of brownsnake ( genus pseudonaja ) found in australia . the juveniles of all of these are very similar , sharing the dark head - blotch ( or blotches ) . many individuals are adorned with numerous dark crossbands .
the dugite may fall victim to raptors , monitor lizards , feral and domestic cats , and other snakes ( including its own species ) . although vertebrates are probably the main predators of this snake , there is evidence to suggest that spiders occasionally snare and feed on small specimens .
a dugite is an australian species of snake that is highly venomous that can inflict death in simply one bite . it is sometimes refered to as a brown snake and was first described by albert gunther in 1872 . there are 3 sub - species of dugites , and they are :
the dugite was bigger than the tiger - i thought it would have been the other way around , but he must have moved off , even with that big meal . i think anyone who came across that would have done what i ' d done , anyone would be rapt to see that .
as mentioned above , the dugite is an extremely venenous snake . in fact , it is one of the most lethal in the world as it causes coagulopathic and precogulant effects ( meaning that the blood will clot and therefore the victim will die ) . despite this , dugites do avoid biting humans but humans are at risk as the numbers of dugite - human encounters rise when they are more active during the mating season which runs during october and november . in fact , the last death that was attributed to this snake was in 1993 , when an elderly male died in spearwood which is one of perth’s southern suburbs .
because of the snake’s size and highly toxic venom the dugite is considered to be very dangerous to humans . its prevalence in residential areas and nervous disposition have helped make it responsible for approximately 70 % of all snake bites reporting to perth hospitals , but thanks to prompt and effective intervention , there has been only one recorded fatality .
dugites are either brown , green , or grey . however , the colors vary between individual snakes . however , the most distinguishable feature of a dugite is the shape of its head . it is quite small compared to the neck , as it grades gradually into the body . they can grow up to 2m ( 6 . 56 feet ) long .
although naturally shy , the dugite is easily agitated when confronted and will raise its forebody upright in a tight s - shape . it hisses loudly before making a fast snappy strike at the offender , usually aiming high . fortunately the fangs are very small and may not effectively penetrate solid shoes or heavy fabric ; however anyone with a suspected bite should seek immediate medical attention .
description : the rottnest island dugite is genetically different from the mainland population and is generally smaller than the mainland version . it is blackish brown all over . it has a long , slim body with a small head . its blackish brown eyes are large and have a golden orange rim . there is also a defined ridge above the eye . its scales are quite large for its body and give it a semi - glossy look .
pseudonaja species live mainly in australia . about 3000 bites occur per year in australia from all species of snakes , 500 of which require antivenin . the dugite brown snake may be found in the southwestern corner of australia , in western australia and along the south australian border . the speckled brown snake can be found from central queensland to the eastern areas of the northern territory . ingram ' s snake may be found around barkly tableland of the northern territory , and the ringed snake may be found in the arid regions of all the mainland states . the western snake may be found throughout australia and the common brown snake in queensland , new south wales , and from victoria to the southeast of south australia .
the brown snake may be found all over australia . it has extremely potent venom , and although the quantity of venom injected is usually small , this snake causes more snakebite deaths in australia than any other . sudden and relatively early deaths have been recorded . its venom causes severe coagulation disturbances , neurotoxicity , and occasionally nephrotoxicity ( by a direct action of the venom ) , but not rhabdomyolysis . the gwardir is also known as the western brown snake , and the dugite is a spotted brown snake found in western australia . all need brown snake antivenom . see also venom supplies brown snake pages , emedicine brown snake guidelines , urltoken , avru brown snake info and treatment , australian reptile park , wikipedia . some more local pics :
the species occupies a wide variety of habitats including coastal dunes , heathlands , shrublands , woodlands and forests . it seems to cope well with heavily degraded habitats such as golf course , industrial parks and open agricultural country ; in fact , it is one of the few reptile species that has probably increased in numbers with the opening up of natural habitats and the introduction of the house mouse . around the perth area , the dugite is one of the most common reptiles found near buildings . in areas of human habitation the snakes take temporary shelter under refuse such as concrete slabs , fibro sheets , roofing tin and the like , but in more “natural” surroundings they will shelter under rocks and in abandoned termite mounds , abandoned stick ant nests , and rabbit and rodent burrows . dugites also use burrows for overwintering .
the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
the three subspecies are fairly similar in general appearance . the body is long and slender in build . scales are relatively large with a semi - glossy appearance . the head is rather small and indistinct from the neck . there is a strong brow ridge over the large eye , which is blackish brown with a golden orange rim surrounding the round pupil . the mouth lining is pink , while the glottis and trachea are black .
mainland subspecies pseudonaja affinis affinis - the overall colour ranges from brown to olive brown to brownish grey , with irregular black / dark grey spotting ( each spot covering half to a whole scale ) . eastern and southern individuals are more heavily spotted ( sometimes becoming totally dark ) . the ventral surface is pale grey to brown with brownish orange or dark grey blotches .
the two island subspecies pseudonaja affinis exilis and p . a . tanneri are generally smaller and usually a uniform blackish brown above .
midbody scales in 19 rows , ventrals 190 - 230 , anal and subcaudal scales divided .
pseudonaja affinis affinis can reach total lengths of 2m ; however the average is probably around 1 . 5m . a specimen kept for some years in the perth zoo reached a total length of 2130mm . the two island subspecies appear to be smaller than the mainland subspecies , with the maximum recorded snout - vent lengths for pseudonaja affinis exilis and p . a . tanneri being 1005mm and 859mm respectively .
pseudonaja affinis affinis – far southwest corner of western australia , extending eastwards into western coastal south australia .
p . a . tanneri - boxer island and figure of eight island in the recherche archipelago ( wa ) .
the snakes are usually most active in the period between early spring and early autumn ( october through april ) and much less active from mid - autumn through late winter ( may through august ) .
they are known to be cannibalistic in the wild , and individuals can swallow snakes almost as large as themselves .
dugites actively search for prey sheltering in holes , crevices , tussock grasses and under surface debris . the snake employs both venom and constriction to subdue its prey .
the species is diurnal . on hot days , activity occurs mainly in the morning and to a lesser extent in the afternoon .
in captivity , adults can darken over the course of a few months . however , the significance of this colour change is obscure .
in the mainland subspecies , males appear to mature at a snout - vent length of about 581mm and females at about 680mm .
in the wild , male combat and mating occurs in late winter - early spring ( september ) , although male combat has been observed in pseudonaja affinis tanneri in mid - spring on boxer island . in the mainland population male combat involves , at least partly , the combatants loosely entwining their bodies . in captivity , mating can occur year around if the temperature is kept warm enough . after mating , captive females are said to eat very large amounts of food . a captive female weighing 309g when mated weighed 580g 27 days later . this represents an 87 . 7 percent gain and implies a daily rate gain of about 10g per day .
wild caught females from the mainland lay their eggs from late spring to mid - summer ( mid - december to end of january ) . the clutch size ranges from 11 to 35 ( average 21 ) for mainland dugites . in the smaller island pseudonaja affinis tanneri , it ranges from 12 to 15 . eggs from mainland dugites have taken between 53 days ( at 30°c ) and 105 days ( at 23°c ) to hatch .
wind the bandage around the bitten arm or leg , starting from the bite .
seek medical attention as soon as possible . first aid guidelines were correct at time of publication however these guidelines change over time . for up to date first aid information consult medical professionals such as st john ' s ambulance .
mirtshin , p . and davis , r . ( 1991 ) “dangerous snakes of australia” , revised edition , ure smith press
wilson , s . and swan , g . ( 2008 ) “a complete guide to reptiles of australia” , reed new holland
github is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .
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the source is in typescript , but can be consumed by any javascript application .
this project is under active development for git - related projects at github . this will stabilize as this library gets more usage in production , and is open to external contributions that align with the project ' s goals .
if you are interested in getting involved with this project , refer to the urltoken file for instructions and the documentation sections for more information about the project .
as this is under active development , the roadmap is also subject to change . some ideas :
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scarborough mum daile cross was dropping her daughter olivia at her parents ' house in city beach on thursday morning when she noticed something black and skinny on the driveway near a car .
mum still had olivia in her arms so i yelled at my mum to get her out of there ,
she said .
i panicked a little because i have a phobia of snakes – i would rather have a spider fall on my head .
i saw the snake heading towards the garage and i thought , ' you are not going in there ' , so i pressed the button for the garage .
the quick - thinking producer at watoday said she also bellowed at the two painters working at her parent ' s home to keep a look out for the unwelcome reptile .
i ' m a bit of a mumma bear , so i just wanted to protect olivia ,
she said .
dugites are roaming throughout the area , because it is near a dune system and near bold park ,
he said .
there are strips of bushland all around there so you see them all the way down to scarborough .
mr cosentino was blunt when asked what would ' ve happened to mr cross if she was bitten .
if she was bitten she would ' ve obviously been taken to hospital , and i ' m not sure what stress it would ' ve had on the unborn baby ,
he said .
but dugites are dangerous and venomous so essentially a bite could have been fatal .
mr cosentino said with the warmer weather over the last couple of days , he ' s had a number of call outs for tiger snakes .
i usually get about 50 call outs for dugites over the summer , but i usually only grab about 20 , because people forget to keep on an eye on them ,
he said .
last month a 75 - year - old woman died from a suspected snake bite south of fremantle after the warmest august day in 17 years brought the reptiles out of their torpor . follow watoday on twitter
the rare photos were taken by natalie hedzik , who works at iluka resource ' s mining operations near capel , and said it was a chance encounter .
i was driving along a track after taking some water samples at a dam we have and just saw this mass in the middle of the road . i got out and had a look and was just absolutely amazed . i ' m really rapt to have seen something so amazing ,
she said .
adam firstenberg from perth hills reptile removal said ms hedzik ' s photographs have captured an extremely rare event .
i certainly haven ' t ever seen it in the wild before . they [ snakes ] will eat reptiles . . . i ' ve seen a snake eat a bobtail lizard before . but they have rear facing fangs to keep food moving backwards , so it ' s going to take a while for the snake to digest another snake .
australian tiger snakes are widely considered to be among the top 10 most deadly in the world , while dugites are known to use both venom and constriction to subdue their prey .
but mr firstenberg said it ' s unlikely the snakes fought to the death .
snakes are very opportunistic eaters , so if they need a meal and the opportunity is there they will take it ,
he said .
but this is certainly a very rare occurrence . we keep snakes ourselves and we feed them once a week , so this is a pretty meal to take on .
if you need more of a snake fix , here ' s a rare sighting of a snakes ' mating ritual in nsw bushland .
the dinosaurs of zoorassic park are coming back but this time they’re bringing some never before seen friends . australian prehistoric megafauna !
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perth zoo works with the community and with partners here and overseas to save wildlife habitats .
this dangerous brown snake is slightly less venomous that its eastern counterparts and much less aggressive .
description : dugites are venomous snakes . they vary in colour from grey to olive to brown on the top of their bodies , with an olive or yellowish belly . black scales can be scattered over the body and the head can be paler or darker than the rest of the body . young dugites have black heads .
diet : dugites are carnivores . before human settlement they mostly ate other reptiles , such as lizards and snakes . since then they have adapted well to eating mice and rats .
in the wild : they may be found sheltering beneath logs or rocks or living in abandoned burrows or hollow logs . when disturbed , dugites are very shy and will often slither away , however , they will defend themselves if cornered .
the main natural predators of dugites are birds of prey and monitor lizards . introduced animals such as cats and dogs also attack dugites .
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a highly venomous snake found in south - western australia , similar to the related brown snakes .
‘other examples resembling the general appearance of dugites from the middleback ranges and environs have been found . ’
‘this includes many populous areas , and dugites are a relatively frequent cause of snakebite in this area . ’
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adjectives are used with nouns to make the meaning more specific . if you use the noun‘ bear’ it can mean any animal of that species . as soon as you say‘ a large , brown bear’ you have given two of its . . .
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dugites live in abandoned burrows or hollow logs . they can also be found sheltering underneath rocks or logs . in the summer months , they are often seen sunning themselves on roadsides .
dugites are very shy but will attack if they feel threatened . when it attacks , it lifts its head and front part of its body up into an s - shape . it hisses loudly and then makes a sharp strike . this snake has small fangs but highly toxic venom which is dangerous to humans . these snakes should never be approached and should only be watched from a distance . anyone who may have been bitten by a snake should find medical help immediately .
dugites search for prey in holes , cracks , small caves , grasses and under surface debris . it kills its prey by biting it and injecting venom and by wrapping its body around the animal and squeezing . this wrapping and squeezing is called constriction .
not listed under iucn ( 2016 ) . listed as vulnerable under the wildlife conservation act 1950 . all rottnest island’s fauna is protected under the rottnest island authority act 1987 .
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lays 10 - 20 eggs . hatchlings are 15 - 35 cm in length and can be brown , green or yellowish in colour , but always hatch with at least part of the head black .
map is from atlas of living australia website at urltoken licensed under creative commons attribution 3 . 0 australia license
npm run clean & & tsc - p . / tsconfig . json & & tsc - p . / examples / tsconfig . json
cross - env local _ git _ directory = . / git / mocha - - require ts - node / register test / fast / * . ts test / auth / * . ts
cross - env local _ git _ directory = . / git / mocha - t 20000ms - - require ts - node / register test / slow / * . ts test / auth / * . ts
mocha - t 20000ms - - require ts - node / register test / external / * . ts
{ examples , lib , script , test } / * * / * . ts
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- storr et al . ( 2002 ) . snakes of western australia . western australian museum . 309
dangerously venomous . note : even a bite from a ' virtually harmless ' or non - venomous reptile can result in serious complications . play it safe and don ' t get bitten by anything .
note : these are general threats and may not apply to this particular species .
there are many ways you can help our reptiles . here are my top three suggestions :
storr , g . m . ; smith , l . a . ; & johnstone , r . e . ( 2002 ) . snakes of western australia . western australian museum . 309 - search web for this book
note : the links below are automatically generated . some may not take you to useful information .
notes and disclaimer this information may not be complete . while all care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this page , primary sources should always be consulted for definitive information . animals have an endearing habit of disobeying the rules , so the information on this page should be interpreted with a degree of flexibility . the author and site operator accepts no responsibility for any losses or damages incurred through using this web site or the information contained herein . don ' t get bitten by anything ! this page may be cited as : pseudonaja affinis at the australian reptile online database . last updated 2017 - 04 - 22 13 : 20 : 54 . retrieved from urltoken on the 10th of july , 2018 . before citing information contained in arod , please read our citing arod page . copyright notice this page , its content and layout are copyright © 2007 - 2018 stewart macdonald / ug media , unless otherwise stated . all photographs in the australian reptile online database are © the photographer and may not be reproduced in any form without the express written consent of the photographer . no part of the australian reptile online database may be reproduced without written permission from stewart macdonald .
brown snakes are probably the most common cause of significant snakebites in australia . without appropriate antivenom treatment , a significant number of cases may be fatal . main risks are : coagulopathy , acute renal failure , neurotoxic paralysis . target organs : neuromuscular junction , coagulation system , kidneys .
locally : the bite is usually painless , without significant local erythema , bruising or oedema . bite marks may be difficult to see , and vary from a single puncture to multiple punctures or multiple scratches . local secondary infection is unusual . venom may spread to draining lymph nodes with consequent pain and / or tenderness and / or swelling . systemic : headache , nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , impaired conscious state , occasionally loss of consciousness and convulsions . coagulopathy , rarely with overt bleeding manifestations . progressive neurotoxic paralysis can occur but is unusual . acute renal failure .
monitor coagulation to establish the presence and extent of coagulopathy , and as an index of systemic envenomation . this should be performed at presentation , on development of symptoms or signs of systemic envenomation , regularly thereafter , and 1 - 2 hours after antivenom therapy until sufficient antivenom has been given to reverse coagulopathy . in the absence of a haematology laboratory , whole blood clotting time in a glass test tube is useful . if a laboratory is available , prothrombin ratio , activated partial thromboplastin time , thrombin clotting time , fibrinogen level , and fibrin ( ogen ) breakdown products are most useful . other useful tests are complete blood picture and platelet count , serum electrolytes , creatinine , urea , serum enzymes , especially creatine kinase , urine output and urine myoglobin , and venom detection using csl venom detection kit . best sample is swab from bite site ( sample swab stick in kit ) . if patient has systemic envenomation urine may also be useful sample . blood is not a reliable sample .
venom is produced in paired modified salivary glands , superficially situated beneath the scales , posterior to the eye , and surrounded by muscles , the contraction of which compress the glands , expelling venom anteriorly via venom ducts to the fangs . the paired fangs , situated at the anterior part of the upper jaw , on the maxillary bones . they have an enclosed groove for venom transport , with an exit point near the fang tip . average fang length in adult brown snakes is 2 . 8 mm ( 2 . 0 - 4 . 0 mm ) , and average distance between fangs is 9 mm . average venom yield is 2 - 6 mg , maximum 167 mg ( pseudonaja textilis ) . mean venom injected at first bite ( defensive strike ) is 4 . 5 mg ( 0 . 03 to 9 . 10 mg ) , mean venom left on skin is 0 . 22 mg .
pseudonaja venom is a complex mixture of protein and non - protein components , not all of which have been fully evaluated . ( a ) neurotoxins : both presynaptic ( eg textilotoxin ) and postsynaptic ( pseudonajatoxin a and b ) . ( b ) procoagulants : principally prothrombin converters ( factor xa analogues ) , converting prothrombin to thrombin ( meziothrombin ) . ( c ) nephrotoxins : not conclusively demonstrated experimentally , but strongly suspected on clinical evidence .
3 . 1 . 2 habitat brown snakes occupy a wide variety of habitats from arid dessert , to scrubland , to moister areas . they are not uncommon in association with man ' s activities , such as in paddocks , around rubbish dumps and farm buildings , and under elevated floors of country homesteads . principally diurnal , though active on warm nights .
3 . 1 . 3 distribution brown snakes are restricted to continental australia and a few adjacent islands but not tasmania ( longmore 1986 ) . p . textilis is also reported from papua new guinea . ( cogger 1975 ) . distribution for each species based on museum records are shown in figures .
venom glands ( paired ) situated superficially in posterior part of head , connected by ducts to forward placed ( paired ) fangs . fangs small , may leave classic single or double puncture in man , or a more complicated array of scratches and other punctures , the latter by non - fang teeth ( white 1987a , c ) . classic bite mark in plaster is shown in figure . actual cases illustrated in figures .
3 . 3 . 1 name : pseudonaja venom ; brown snake venom ; bsv components neurotoxins : textilotoxin ( = textilon ) ( coulter et al 1979 , southcott and coulter 1979 , coulter et al 1983 , su et al 1983 ) tyler et al 1987a ) pseudonajatoxin a ( parnett et al 1980 ) pseudonajatoxin b ( tyler et al 1987b ) coagulants : prothrombin converter ( unnamed ) from p . textilis . ( coulter et al 1983 , masci et al 1987 , white et al 1987 ) .
venom is used both in antivenom production and for laboratory research . the neurotoxins in particular may prove valuable in neuromuscular transmission research , and the procoagulants in further elucidating the mechanism of normal human coagulation .
children : when playing in areas were brown snakes are common , either through accidental encounter ( ie stepping on snake ) or while trying to emulate naturalists ( ie trying to catch snake ) . adults : when living in areas where brown snakes are common , and moving around barefoot and without due care , or while putting hands etc into non - reconnoitred potential snake retreats ( ie hollow logs etc ) . farm workers : when working in areas where brown snakes are common . reptile keepers and snake handlers : if due care is not exercised in catching and handling snakes , including venom milking . recreation seekers : camping or walking or playing sport in areas where brown snakes are common . homes : around homes in brown snake prone areas where water is seasonally scarce and free water is available in the garden or home .
brown snakes are widely distributed in most habitats of mainland australia , but are absent form some southern islands and tasmania . while no high risk geographic regions have been identified , it is evident that brown snakes may readily enter metropolitan fringes , and country towns , and are frequently found around country rubbish dumps and under the floors of elevated country homesteads , and around farm buildings .
no data , but unlikely to be hazardous unless there are open wounds in the gastrointestinal tract .
there is no evidence that venom can be absorbed through intact skin . current first - aid advice is to leave venom on skin for later venom identification .
5 . 5 . 1 bites in human envenomation , venom is always inoculated by the snake biting . owing to the size of the fangs , venom is most likely to be inoculated cutaneously or subcutaneously .
experimentally , venom may be administered to test animals via subcutaneous , intramuscular , intravenous , intraperitoneal , and intraventricular ( cns ) routes .
the rate and amount of absorption will depend on the quantity of venom injected , the depth of injection , site of injection including vascularity , the activity of the victim , and the type , efficiency of application and length of application of first aid . clinical evidence from human cases of envenomation suggests that much initial venom movement is via the lymphatic pathways . this is supported by work in monkeys . ( barnes & trueta , 1941 ; sutherland et al 1975 ; sutherland & coulter , 1977 ; sutherland et al 1981a ) direct intravenous injection , unrecorded in man , obviously allows rapid systemic circulation of venom and may result in different effects from normal routes of inoculation , particularly in regard to coagulation .
it appears that much venom is transported from the bite site via the lymphatic system , then concentrating in draining lymph nodes , before ultimately reaching the systemic circulation . however , experience with numerous human cases of brown snake envenomation shows that symptoms and signs of envenomation may occur within 15 - 30 minutes of the bite , especially in children . such early effects ( eg headache , nausea , abdominal pain , collapse ) may be due to either rapidly systemically circulating venom toxins , or systemically circulating autocoids released at the bite site by the action of venom on local tissue . once in the systemic circulation , venom rapidly reaches high concentrations in the kidneys and excreted in the urine . such venom must also exit the circulation , to enter the extravascular space where it binds within the neuromuscular junction ( presynaptically and / or postsynaptically ) and possibly other nerve junction sites ( eg autonomic system , perhaps causing abdominal pain ) . the kinetics of venom distribution , excretion , and detoxification are incompletely understood . neurotoxic paralysis usually takes at least 2 - 4 hours to become clinically detectable . coagulopathy however may become well established within 30 minues of a bite .
little information is available on the metabolism of venom components in man , but most components are fully active in whole venom , requiring no further modification for activity . venom reaches high concentrations in the kidneys and excreted in urine . ( sutherland & coulter , 1977 a , b ) . the fate of specific venom components , particularly neurotoxins and procoagulants , is unclear . it seems likely that these components are progressively detoxified in situ .
7 . 2 . 1 . 1 adults the human lethal dose for brown snake venom is unknown . without antivenom treatment , a few brown snake bites may be fatal ( fairley 1929a ) , but even in the early part of the 20th century , when neither antivenom nor icu facilities were available , only 8 . 6 % of reported brown snake bites were fatal . despite this , brown snakes are still thought to be the most common cause of fatal snakebite in australia . ( hilton 1989 ) .
7 . 2 . 1 . 2 children no data available , but clearly the smaller body mass of a child compared to available venom ensures that children are more likely to receive a lethal dose than adults .
7 . 2 . 2 animal data ld50 subcutaneous injection of dried venom in mice ( broad et al 1979 . ( mg / kg ) pseudonaja textilis 0 . 053 pseudonaja nuchalis 0 . 473 pseudonaja affinis 0 . 660
8 . 1 . 1 . 1 toxicological analyses for venom detection swab from bite site moistened in sterile saline . if systemic envenomation also collect urine ( 5ml in sterile container ) . for venom analysis ( research only using radioimmunoassay ) : 5ml blood ; 5ml urine , frozen . at autopsy collect vitreous humor , lymph nodes draining bite area , excised bite site . ( for other laboratory tests see 10 . 2 . 1 )
8 . 1 . 1 . 2 biomedical analyses for standard tests ( eg . serum / plasma electrolytes , ck , creatinine , urea ) collect venous blood in a container with appropriate anticoagulant as issued by the laboratory ( usually heparin ) .
8 . 1 . 1 . 3 arterial blood gas analysis collect arterial blood by sterile arterial puncture into a container as issued by the laboratory .
8 . 1 . 1 . 4 haematological analyses for whole blood clotting time as a
bedside
test collect 5 - 10 ml of venous blood without anticoagulant ( either in the collection syringe or from a central line or other venous access line that may have anticoagulant ) and place in a glass test tube . carefully observe the time until a clot appears . for standard tests ( eg . coagulation studies , complete blood picture ) collect venous blood in appropriate containers with anticoagulant as issued by the laboratory ensuring that the right amount of blood is used ( for coagulation studies citrate will usually be the anticoagulant , while edta will be used for complete blood pictures ) .
8 . 1 . 2 . 1 toxicological analyses for samples for standard venom detection : short term ( less than 24 hrs ) ordinary fridge is acceptable ( 4°c ) , in sterile container . long term , store frozen ( - 20°c or lower ) . for samples for venom analysis ( research ) store frozen ( - 200°c or lower ) .
8 . 1 . 2 . 2 biomedical analyses for samples for standard tests refer to laboratory . in general keep at 4°c , particularly for samples for coagulation studies .
8 . 2 . 1 . 2 advanced qualitative confirmation test ( s ) as for 8 . 2 . 1 . 1
8 . 2 . 1 . 3 simple quantitative method ( s ) not applicable .
8 . 2 . 1 . 4 advanced quantitative method ( s ) a radioimmune assay has been developed by staff at the commonwealth serum laboratories , melbourne to detect small quantities of many australian snake venoms . it is primarily a research tool , being too time consuming to be practical in determining emergency treatment of snakebite victims . it has proved useful in demonstrating snake venom either at autopsy or after patient recovery .
8 . 2 . 2 . 1 simple qualitative test ( s ) see 8 . 2 . 1 . 1 .
8 . 2 . 2 . 2 advanced qualitative confirmation test ( s ) see 8 . 2 . 1 . 1 .
8 . 2 . 2 . 3 simple quantitative method ( s ) not applicable .
8 . 2 . 2 . 4 advanced quantitative method ( s ) see 8 . 2 . 1 . 4 .
8 . 2 . 2 . 5 other dedicated method ( s ) no data .
8 . 2 . 3 interpretation of toxicological analyses for venom detection as for 8 . 1 . 1 . 1 subsection ( 12 ) : if the test is positive , it will indicate the presence of snake venom and the species / genus of snake and therefore the appropriate monovalent antivenom to neutralize the effects of that venom . if the test sample was a bite site swab , a positive result does not indicate either the presence of systemic envenomation , or the need to administer antivenom . other clinical criteria are required in this situation ( see sections 9 and 10 ) . if the test sample was urine a positive result indicates present or past systemic envenomation and together with other clinical and laboratory criteria may be used to determine the need for antivenom therapy . for venom analysis refer to the laboratory performing the tests .
8 . 3 . 1 . 1 blood , plasma or serum electrolytes : look for imbalance , particularly evidence of dehydration , hyponatraemia ( inappropriate adh syndrome ? ) , hyperkalaemia ( renal damage , rhabdomyolysis ? ) . urea , creatinine : look for evidence of renal function impairment . ck : if high may indicate rhabdomyolysis , usually greater than 1000 u / l .
8 . 3 . 1 . 2 urine output : low output may indicate renal damage or poor fluid input . myoglobin : if present indicates rhabdomyolysis , and may be missed as the red colouration of urine may be mistaken for haematuria ( both may be positive on dip stick testing ) . electrolytes if indicated ( eg . inappropriate adh syndrome )
8 . 3 . 2 arterial blood gas analysis impaired respiratory function is usually secondary to neurotoxic paralysis ; look for evidence of poor oxygenation and its sequelae .
8 . 3 . 5 interpretation of biomedical investigations the interpretation of the above tests should be made in the context of total patient assessment including clinical evidence of pathology such as paralysis , myolysis , coagulopathy and renal damage .
while other investigations are not usually required to make the primary diagnosis of snakebite envenomation , they may be indicated in response to secondary effects of envenomation . if there is either renal failure or severe rhabdomyolysis ( unlikely with brown snake envenoming ) there may be a hyperkalaemia , hence an ecg may be appropriate . if the patient is unconscious , especially in the presence of a severe coagulopathy , then a ct head scan may be appropriate to determine if there is intracranial pathology such as a haemorrhage .
overall interpretation of the results of the above tests will depend on the clinical setting . results should never be interpreted in isolation from an overall clinical assessment . a patient with positive venom detection from either the bite site or urine and a significant coagulopathy clearly is envenomed and will usually require antivenom therapy . a patient with positive venom detection from the bite site only and with no clinical symptoms or signs of envenoming and all other tests negative is not significantly envenomed at that point in time and does not require antivenom therapy . however this situation may change and so careful observation and repeat testing would be indicated . a patient presenting some hours after the bite with positive venom detection from the urine but clinically well and with all other tests either normal or showing a resolved coagulopathy , probably had a minor degree of envenomation , now resolved and will usually not require antivenom therapy . however they should be observed carefully for evidence of relapse .
9 . 1 . 5 parenteral exposure in practical terms , the only likely route of entry , is by s . c . or i . d . injection . early symptoms , usually in the first six hours . local : the wound is often painless , without local erythema , oedema , or ecchymosis ; persistent bleeding from wound , variable ; pain or swelling of draining lymph nodes ( may take 1 - 4 hours to develop ) . systemic : collapse , unconsciousness , convulsions may all occur , especially in children , occasionally as rapidly as 15 minutes after the bite . headache , nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , and visual disturbance may all occur . early signs of neurotoxic paralysis such as ptosis , diplopia , dysarthria may develop within 1 - 3 hours of the bite , or be delayed for 4 - 12 hours , or may not develop despite other evidence of severe envenomation . coagulopathy may develop within 30 minutes of the bite . delayed symptoms local : local bite site necrosis is not generally seen with brown snake bites but possibly might occur , particularly if first aid left in place more than 4 hours , or if a tourniquet used ( sutherland 1981 , 1983a ; white 1987d ) . systemic : paralysis progressive up to complete paralysis . coagulopathy bleeding from all puncture wounds . renal impairment oliguria or anuria .
9 . 4 . 1 cardiovascular collapse , presumably due to hypotension , is common in the early stages of systemic envenomation , especially in children . the mechanism is uncertain but may be due to release of vasoactive substances by or from the venom . specific cardiac abnormalities due to brown snake envenomation in man are not described , although there has been a suspicion that brown snake venom may cause cardiac anomalies ( sutherland personal communication ) .
9 . 4 . 2 respiratory no primary effects of brown snake venom on the respiratory system in man are reported , with the exception of respiratory muscle paralysis ( see below ) .
9 . 4 . 3 . 1 cns while no direct cns toxins have been reported for brown snake venom , early collapse and convulsions do occur , especially in children . their aetiology remains uncertain .
9 . 4 . 3 . 2 peripheral nervous system see 9 . 4 . 3 . 4
9 . 4 . 3 . 4 skeletal and smooth muscle the effects of brown snake venom at the neuromuscular junction , have been documented experimentally . both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins present , causing progressive neuromuscular paralysis , up to complete paralysis of all muscles of respiration .