the lovebug ( plecia nearctica ) is a species of march fly found in parts of central america and the southeastern united states , especially along the gulf coast .

it is also known as the honeymoon fly or double-headed bug .

during and after mating , adult pairs remain coupled , even in flight , for up to several days .

the species was first described in 1940 by d. e. hardy , but was seen in louisiana as early as 1911 .

at that time , he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread , but most common in texas , florida , alabama , mississippi , and louisiana .

however , by the end of the 20th century the species had spread heavily to all areas bordering the gulf of mexico , as well as georgia and south carolina .

l. a. hetrick , writing in 1970 , found the bug was also widespread in central and northern florida and described its flights as reaching altitudes of 300 to 450 metres ( 980 to 1,480 ft ) and extending several kilometers over the gulf .

in 2006 , it was reported as far north as topsail beach , north carolina .

lovebugs ' larvae feed on partially decayed vegetation in the landscape and , in this respect , are beneficial to humans .

adults primarily feed on nectar from various plants , particularly sweet clover , goldenrod , and brazilian pepper .

lovebug

i heard that uf was responsible for releasing the lovebug . is that true ?
callahan , p . , h . denmark . 1974 . the lovebug phenomenon .
you can read more about lovebug myths and facts at this uf / ifas document .
originally an invasive species from central america , the lovebug—harmless to humans—is now found throughout florida .
you could become a & apos ; lovebug & apos ; because you are so full of love . someone else could become a lovebug because they are so full of love . to be called a lovebug is the ultimate expression of affection , you are so full of love .
, proved to be pathogenic to the lovebug and to cause signifigant mortality among larva and adults .
the lovebug in florida : setting the record straight ( 3 . 9mb powerpoint ) - uf / ifas
chemical controls are ineffective , as the lovebug is widespread and continually drifts onto highways from adjacent areas .
figure 5 . larvae of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . photograph by james castner , university of florida .
the first lovebug messages were intercepted by messagelabs ' skeptic heuristic detection engine just after midnight on 4 may 2000 .
chambers , s . 1977 . genetic characteristics of a colonizing episode in the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * .
van handel , e . 1976 . metabolism of the lovebug * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .
larval lovebug . photo : dr . timothy a . mousseau , dept of biological sciences , university of south carolina .
buschman , l . 1976 . invasion of florida by the lovebug * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .
thornhill , r . 1976 . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .
jonas brothers lyrics are property and copyright of their owners .
lovebug
lyrics provided for educational purposes and personal use only .
the lovebug laboratory is staffed with leading scientists , doctors and medical experts working to pick the prime probiotics for each of our products .
thornhill , r . 1980 . sexual selection within mating swarms of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) .
the tool looks at previously analysed malcode to identify potential threats , and blocked lovebug based on characterstics seen in the melissa virus , said fletcher .
uf’s only significant research on lovebugs came in the early 1970s , when the usda funded studies to determine the extent of florida’s newly arrived lovebug problem .
lovebug was primitive by today ' s standards , being a simple script virus with clear , unobfuscated code that was easy to understand , said fletcher .
hieber , c . , j . cohen . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * : the role of male choice .
cherry r . 1998 . attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to anethole . florida entomologist 81 : 559 - 562 .
this enabled lovebug to spread faster and wider than anything we had seen before ,
said fletcher , chief architect at symantec hosted services , formerly messagelabs .
lovebugs are an introduced species , and do not have many natural enemies . because of this , lovebug populations continue to grow and move . many people consider
cherry , r . 1998 . attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to anethole . florida entomologist 81 : 559 - 562 . urltoken
buschman ll . 1976 . invasion of florida by the
lovebug ,
plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 59 : 191 - 194 .
hieber cs , cohen ja . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , plecia nearctica : the role of male choice . evolution 37 : 987 - 992 .
kish , l . , i . terry , g . allen . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * , in florida .
chambers sm . 1977 . genetic characteristics of a colonizing episode in the lovebug , plecia nearctica . annals of the entomological society of america 70 : 537 - 540 .
this 1975 range map shows the extent of the lovebug invasion ; it is now reported in north carolina and oklahoma . ( figure from cuda & leppla , uf )
kish lp , terry i , allen ge . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 60 : 291 - 295 .
thornhill r . 1976b . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 69 : 843 - 847 .
trimble jj . 1974 . ultrastructure of the ejaculatory duct region of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . international journal of insect morphology and embryology 3 : 353 - 359 .
lovebugs plastered on car . acid from the smashed lovebug bodies etch vehicle paint if allowed to remain on very long . photo credit : tim donovan , florida fish and wildlife
the adult lovebug lives only about three to four days , which is just long enough to mate , feed and disperse eggs . a female lovebug can lay an average of 350 eggs , which she deposits under decaying vegetation in grassy or weedy areas . after the eggs are laid , the larvae develop and begin feeding on grass and decomposing leaves . the next phase of the lovebug life cycle is the pupal stage and this can last seven to nine days before lovebugs become adults and start the cycle all over again .
buschman , l . l . 1976 . invasion of florida by the
lovebug
plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 59 : 191 - 194 . urltoken
whitesell . 1974 . heat , sound , and engine exhaust as
lovebug
attractants ( diptera : bibionidae : plecia nearctica ) . environmental entomology 3 : 1038 - 1039 .
van handel e . 1976 . metabolism of the
lovebug
plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 69 : 215 - 216 .
a decade after the lovebug computer virus caught the online world by surprise , social engineering is still a popular element of cyber attacks , but it has become far more sophisticated .
callahan , p . , h . denmark . 1973 . attraction of the lovebug , * plecia nearctica * ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes .
thornhill , r . 1976c . reproductive behavior of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . ann . entomol . soc . amer . 69 : 843 - 847 .
whitesell jj . 1974 . heat , sound , and engine exhaust as
lovebug
attractants ( diptera : bibionidae : plecia nearctica ) . environmental entomology 3 : 1038 - 1039 .
van handel , e . 1976 . metabolism of the
lovebug
plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . ann . entomol . soc . amer . 69 : 215 - 216 .
lay their eggs in places with dying vegetation . after hatching , the larva feeds on this vegetation . lovebug larva benefit humans by breaking down dead vegetation and returning it to the soil .
callahan , p . s . 1985 . dielectric waveguide modeling at 3 . 0 cm of the antenna sensilla of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . applied optics 24 : 1094 - 1097 .
the key thing about the lovebug worm , was that it used social engineering ,
according to paul fletcher , a member of the first security team to intercept and name the virus .
the lovebug was about wanting to be seen , but most of the e - mail - borne malware of today is designed to steal information , undetected for months or years , said fletcher .
lovebug life cycle with the approximate duration and size of each stage ( not drawn exactly to scale , adult pair 0 . 6 in . head to head ; partially derived from pinto 2002 ) . the lovebug has two generations each year , emerging as adults in april - may ( winter generation , larvae 240 days ) and august - september ( summer generation , larvae 120 days ) .
hieber , c . s . and j . a . cohen . 1983 . sexual selection in the lovebug , plecia nearctica : the role of male choice . evolution 37 : 987 - 992 .
callahan ps , denmark ha . 1973 . attraction of the
lovebug ,
plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes . florida entomologist 56 : 113 - 119 .
kish lp , allen ge , kimbrough jw , kuitert lc . 1974 . a survey of fungi associated with the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 57 : 281 - 284 .
an army isn’t going to win the war if the soldiers don’t make it to the battlefield . that’s why the microscopic soldiers in each lovebug probiotics supplement are guarded by bio - tract ® technology .
that’s why lovebug probiotics are carefully created probiotics to benefit everyone . our supplements are geared toward various needs and stages of life , from young infants , to kids , to full - grown adults .
, nor are there any that particularly feed on the adult fly . lovebugs are considered to be pests to humans . biologists have tested different fungi on lovebug larva as a possibility of biological control .
callahan ps , denmark ha . 1974 . the
lovebug
phenomenon . proceedings of the tall timbers conference on ecological animal control by habitat management ( march 1973 ) . 5 : 93 - 101 .
evans he . 1985 . the lovebug . in the pleasures of entomology . portraits of insects and the people who study them . smithsonian institution press , washington , d . c . , 238 pp .
denmark , h . a . and f . w . mead . 2001 . lovebug . university of florida , ifas , entomology and nematology department , featured creatures , eeny - 47 . ( urltoken ) .
mousseau , t . a . 2004 . populations of the lovebug , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) go unchecked by predators . bull . royal entomol . society . antenna 28 : 78 - 80 .
there’s nothing about the lovebug that would harm florida’s blood - feeding mosquito species . so it’s hard to imagine any competent scientist looking at plecia nearctica and thinking “this creature could help us control mosquito populations . ”
some natural enemies of lovebugs are fungi . although more time and research is needed , nine different species of fungi are known to affect lovebug larvae . however , available data indicate that only the fungus beauveria bassiana causes significant mortality levels ( 27 to 33 % ) in adults and immatures . laboratory studies using invertebrate predators found in lovebug - infested pastures indicated that these predators included earwigs , two species of beetle larvae , and a centipede .
lovebug adults are attracted to light - colored surfaces , especially if they are freshly painted , but the adults can congregate almost anywhere by reacting to the effects of sunlight on automobile fumes , asphalt , and other products .
kish , l . p . , i . terry , g . e . allen . 1977 . three fungi tested against the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist . 60 : 291 - 295 . urltoken
jack : hows things with jane ? eddi : oh ok , she & apos ; s my lil lovebug . jack : i see , she must really love you then ! eddi : yep : ) emily : hows things with jack ? jane : great thanks ! but i & apos ; m turning into a bit of a lovebug . emily : i guess you & apos ; ve proppa fallen for him then ? jane : yep : )
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lovebug tablets release the good bugs gradually over an 8–10 hour period , delivering billions of helpful organisms deep down into your digestive tract so they can get to work . this technology provides you with the maximum probiotic benefit throughout the day .
callahan , p . s . and h . a . denmark . 1973 . attraction of the
lovebug ,
plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) , to uv irradiated automobile exhaust fumes . florida entomologist 56 : 113 - 119 . urltoken
callahan ps , carlysle tc , denmark ha . 1985 . mechanism of attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica , to southern highways : further evidence for the ir - dielectric waveguide theory of insect olfaction . applied optics 24 : 1088 - 1093 .
i never understood what all the hype about probiotics was , until now . these products are life changing ! it ' s like i have a brand new digestive system . i am a lovebug convert for life ! kate - san francisco , ca
during the past several years , both the april–may and august–september lovebug flights have been substantially reduced in north central florida . this reduction in the population is partly attributed to predators . larvae aggregate in extremely high numbers in pastures and other grassy habitats . this makes them vulnerable to foraging birds . lovebug larvae have been found in the gizzards of robins and quail . although examinations of the stomach contents of armadillos have been negative , observations suggest that they , too , may be excellent predators of the larvae .
the lovebug invasion will soon be over for this season , but we can expect a revival in august and september for another four weeks or so . lovebugs don ' t bite , poison , or carry diseases . they are simply an inconvenient nuisance .
after a lovebug - filled drive , wash your car with water and scrub it to remove the lovebugs . a hood air deflector or screen will reduce the number of spattered lovebugs on your car . using car wax will protect an automobile ' s paint .
florida was one of the last gulf coast states the lovebug moved into . they were initially reported in 1949 , in escambia county – the county at the westernmost tip of florida’s panhandle . the insect gradually made its way further east and south into peninsular florida .
are completely dependent upon nectar and pollen as food . lovebugs feed during the day , and are thought to stop feeding in the late afternoon . lovebug larvae use decaying vegetation as a source of food . emerging lovebugs cannot survive more than 24 hours without food .
local reduction of annual burning of woodlands , the development of improved pastures , and the increase of cattle probably have contributed to the presence of larger populations of lovebugs . chemical controls are ineffective as the lovebug is widespread and adults continually drift onto highways from adjacent areas .
the slow - moving lovebug , often attached to a mate , is a familiar sight to most people in the southern united states in the summer and early fall . these creatures are well known for splattering bug guts all over people’s cars , generally causing a mess .
kish , l . p . , g . e . allen , j . w . kimbrough , and l . c . kuitert . 1974 . a survey of fungi associated with the lovebug , plecia nearctica , in florida . florida entomologist 57 : 281 - 284 . urltoken
lovebug swarms can get so large and thick that drivers cannot see ahead of them . this in turn can create a dangerous hazard . it is quite common to see motorists pulled over waiting for the swarm to pass . only then can they get back on the road and drive safely .
now , let’s talk about the really miraculous lovebugs that are anything but a nuisance to humans . lovebug probiotics retain the cutesy name , but nothing else from its namesake . our lovebugs work in quite the opposite way , and support gut health while offering your body hundreds of health benefits simultaneously .
callahan , p . s . , t . c . carlysle , and h . a . denmark . 1985 . mechanism of attraction of the lovebug , plecia nearctica , to southern highways : further evidence for the ir - dielectric waveguide theory of insect olfaction . applied optics 24 : 1088 - 1093 .
a number of insecticides have been evaluated for effectiveness in controlling lovebug larvae and adults . most of them kill lovebugs but are impractical because high populations of the insects occur over vast areas of the state . a vacuum cleaner can be used to remove adults from confined areas , such as in buildings and vehicles .
no parasites have emerged from lovebug larvae or adults held in the laboratory , and few cases of predation have been observed in nature over the years ( hetrick 1970 , mousseau 2004 ) . apparently lovebugs adults are avoided by red imported fire ants , solenopsis invicta buren ( = s . wagneri santschi ) , and other predators but one periodically eaten by spiders , dragonflies , and birds . they have aposematic coloration that implies defensive mimicry but have not been chemically analyzed or tested as food for predators ( dunford et al . 2008 ) . bee keepers report anecdotally that honeybees do not visit flowers infested with lovebugs . fungal pathogens , identified by screening larvae and adults , could be limiting lovebug populations ( kish et al . 1974 , 1977 ) . these fungi include the well - known insect pathogenic genera , metarhizium , beauveria , conidiobolus , and tolypocladium . although not yet studied , lovebug eggs may be subjected to predation or parasitism .
dunford , j . c . , m . a . branham and j . m . leavengood , jr . 2008 . additional notes on aposematic insects at archbold biological station , florida , with comments on the arrival of the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy . journal of entomological science 43 : 337 - 343 .
the lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy , is a bibionid fly species that motorists may encounter as a serious nuisance when traveling in southern states . it was first described by hardy ( 1940 ) from galveston , texas . at that time he reported it to be widely spread , but more common in texas and louisiana than other gulf coast states .
the species was formally described under the name plecia nearctica in 1940 , by an entomology graduate student at the university of kansas , d . elmo hardy . he had witnessed swarms of the insect in texas and louisiana . incidentally , the lovebug had been recognized by scientists even earlier , and was given a provisional scientific name , plecia bicolor .
soon after rainy periods in the spring and especially in the fall in the wooded upper coast counties of texas , “lovebugs” ( plecia narctica ) emerge as adults and mate in swarms around roads and buildings . in reality , these insects are actually flies . the common name , lovebug , has been given to these black colored , orange - backed flies because they are most often seen flying around in mating pairs .
the imminent demise of thousands of lovebugs on the windshield and front of a car will not dissolve the paint . the fluid of a smashed lovebug is not the same as battery acid , but the dead insect will become acidic within 24 hours if allowed to remain baking in the sun on the car surface . experts advise removal as soon as possible , before damage can occur , with scrubbing as a removal technique .
emerge from their pupal stage ready to mate . males emerge first and hover above the emergence site . male lovebug swarms consist of large males near the ground , medium males in the middle , and small males farthest from the ground . the large males ( closest to the ground ) are able to
pair
with the females before the other males . there is evidence of a great amount of male intraspecific competition over females .
status : semi - annual pest . this species ' reputation as a public nuisance is due to its slightly acidic body chemistry ( affecting automobile windshields , hoods , and radiator grills when the vehicles travel at high speeds ) the remains become dried and extremely difficult to remove . research showed that migration explained the introduction of the lovebug into florida and other southeastern states , contrary to the urban myth that the university of florida created them by manipulating dna to control mosquito .
on to a bug that most of us wish was a myth : the lovebug . there ' s a legend that lovebugs were somehow developed by the government to stem the mosquito problem you ' re all probably very aware of down here in florida . supposedly , they were trying to create only a female bug that would attract male mosquitoes , distracting them from actual reproduction . unfortunately , they accidentally created a male as well , and the things bred like crazy .
some people consider the lovebug to be among the peskiest alien invasive species to become established in the gulf states . on the contrary , these potentially annoying flies are actually beneficial as larvae because they help to decompose dead plant material . people would also appreciate esthetic aspects of the adults , if these insects were not such a nuisance . like cute little migratory birds , lovebugs signal changes in the seasons from spring to summer and again from summer to fall . moreover , if they were larger , people could easily see and admire their delicate features , particularly the big round eyes of the males . wilhelm rudolph wiedemann named the lovebug genus plecia in 1828 , so his concept for the term may never be known . a reasonable guess , however , is that he applied the greek verb
pleo
intending to mean
to sail
( jaeger , e . c . 1955 ) . lovebugs sail from flower to flower much like butterflies and in smaller numbers could be perceived as beautiful . they have become less abundant over the past 30 years , and people living in the gulf states are beginning to accept them as a normal part of nature . however , newcomers are much less tolerant of lovebugs until they learn that these insects are not dangerous . since lovebug populations tend to rebound unpredictably , we are fortunate that these creatures create inconveniences and tickle , rather than threaten human health and the environment .
lovebug pairs are not strong fliers , so tend to remain within a few hundred yards of emergence sites when there is little or no wind ( thornhill 1976b ) . they are able to move across the wind when it is 5 - 7 mph and search for sources of nectar and suitable oviposition sites . stronger winds blow them as high as 1500 ft in the air and concentrate them against down - wind objects . coupled females initiate and control flight but males assist if they are able to obtain food ( sharp et al . 1974 ) . locations within 20 - 30 miles can have quite different levels of lovebug emergence and dispersal ( cherry and raid 2000 ) , and this variable distribution can lead to naturally occurring
hotspots
in different places from year to year . lovebugs are most abundant in moist grassy habitats . people who live near these habitats , or are exposed to winds that deposit the insects at their homes , can perceive erroneously that they are attracting these pests .
lovebug larvae thrive in moist habitats high in organic matter such as bar ditches and swampy areas . they are harmless in their immature state and actually help nature by decomposing dead plant tissues . mass adult emergence occurs during specific periods of the year as dictated by environmental conditions ( prolonged periods of soil saturation from rains ) conducive to their development . adults spend their time sipping nectar from flowers and searching for mates and mating while hovering in the air . it has been thought that car fumes contained some properties that were attractive to these flies , but they are naturally attracted to open spaces within their generally wooded habitats . because of their harmless biology , chemical control using insecticides has not been recommended . they do not respond to insect repellents ( citronella , deet ) since they are not attracted by carbon dioxide as are blood - feeding arthropods . adulticides , such as fogs and aerosol insecticides , designed to quickly knock down and kill swarming adults , will affect exposed insects . however , these compounds are readily displaced by wind currents and are generally quick to lose effectiveness relative to the duration of lovebug swarming periods , which may last several weeks . at best , all that can be done is to learn how to cope with lovebug swarms . populations of adult flies may be drastically diminished by heavy rains . otherwise , adults may naturally be present for a period of several weeks in the spring and especially in the late summer or early fall . it may be helpful to remember the following points .
in the lovebug , copulation begins with males flying and swarming above females , who remain on or close to the ground . the swarm is most dense from one foot to about five feet off the ground , but the swarm can be as high as 20 feet above the ground and can contain up to 40 - plus males . larger males often dominate the bottom of the swarm in competition to get a fit mate . the males prefer larger , heavier females because they provide better odds of reproducing and mating .
within florida , this fly was first collected in 1949 in escambia county , the westernmost county of the florida panhandle . today , it is found throughout florida . with numerous variations , it is a widely held myth that university of florida entomologists introduced this species into florida . however , buschman ( 1976 ) documented the progressive movement of this fly species around the gulf coast into florida . research was conducted by university of florida and u . s . department of agriculture entomologists only after the lovebug was well established in florida .
adult lovebugs are nonthreatening to humans because they do not bite or sting . they primarily feed on nectar from various plants , particularly sweet clover , goldenrod , and brazilian pepper . under laboratory conditions , male lovebugs live for about 92 hours , whereas females live up to 72 hours . in nature , the adults live just long enough to mate , feed , disperse and deposit a batch of eggs—about three to four days . lovebug flights are usually restricted to daylight hours and temperatures above 68°f . at night lovebugs rest on low - growing vegetation .
thompson ( 1975 ) reported over 200 species in the genus plecia . however , there are only two species of plecia in the u . s . — plecia nearctica and plecia americana hardy . their ranges are similar , but plecia americana extends northeastward to north carolina and south to mexico , whereas plecia nearctica ranges farther south to costa rica . plecia americana is a woodland species that does not seem to be a problem on highways . before hardy described the lovebug species as plecia nearctica , it was known as plecia bicolor bellardi ( hetrick 1970a ) .
lovebugs are small , slow herbivorous insects that feed on the pollen and nectar found in flowers . thus , they lack the mandibles ( jaws ) , grasping legs , speed , and other characteristics of predaceous insects , such as dragonflies . lovebugs are active during the day , whereas most mosquitoes are crepuscular ( active at twilight ) or nocturnal , and they are only adults for a few weeks each year . for these and many other reasons , the lovebug would be a poor candidate to genetically engineer as a mosquito predator , even if it were possible .
it is during the daylight that lovebugs become a problem . during this time , males will do nothing but follow females . females will seek good egg sites and consequently , massive swarms of these flies will form . since females are searching for good places to lay eggs , they tend to be attracted to areas which produce methane or co2 gas ; both are associated with decaying organic matter . car emissions have similar gases so consequently , lovebug swarms will find their way onto highways following the gases released by automobile exhaust pipes . it is here where lovebugs have earned their notorious reputation .
lastly , if you just have the occasional lovebug flying around , space spray any room using aquacide aerosol . this water based space spray is ideally suited for flying pests and can be applied as often as is needed . it uses pyrethrin as an active which means there won’t be any lasting residual . but its very safe for use in the home and won’t pose a hazard to people or pets so then can remain even when treating . remember that aquacide is a not a true “cure” . so if you have a large population of lovebugs outside the home , treating the yard will help stop them from invading .
spattered bugs should be washed off the car as soon as possible . lovebugs are more easily removed , and the chance of damaging the car’s finish is lessened , if the car has been waxed recently . when the remains are left on an unwaxed car for several days , the finish will often be permanently damaged . soaking splattered lovebugs for several minutes with water aids in their removal . when lovebugs are numerous , motorists may choose to spread a light film of baby oil over the front of the hood , above the windshield , and on the grill and bumper . this practice will make lovebug removal a simpler task .
it ' s like mass murder of the
love bugs
by everyone that has to drive during the love bug season below link for member ' s that want to know more about how bugs love to ruin your ride they love , then they die , or get smashed by your monte : ( lovebug - wikipedia , the free encyclopedia < button class = vspib type = submit > < / button > < cite > urltoken lovebug < / cite > - cached similar you + 1 ' d this publicly . undo for other uses , see love bug ( disambiguation ) . . . . at that time , he reported the incidence of lovebugs to be widespread , but most common in texas and . . . semi - annual pest status - folklore - management - citations sometimes , they are so thick that they will block your view . . . they are difficult to remove , especially if they aren ' t removed fast . . . . i just use heavy coats of wax for protection . . . . on long trips you have to stop & clean them off often . . . they do eat your paint ` if you don ' t clean them soon . : ( the price floridians pay 2 live & love in a paradise called florida ~ >
lovebugs are members of the fly family and certain times of the year , they will become a huge nuisance along roadways and in the yard . they’re active in many regions of the united states and seem to have two primary seasons . the first is in spring , during the months of april , may and june . the second season is in the fall and usually during the months august , september and october . lovebugs are well known even though their season is short and limited . this article will explain some basic biology of the lovebug , explain why they are a major problem and what can be done to minimize and treat local infestations .
i recently received a call from a guy who lives south of daytona who was shocked to see some kind of insect eating lovebugs on his porch . a family member told him that this was unheard of , since everyone knows nothing eats lovebugs , so they decided to call me here at the headquarters of the entomological society of america . i asked if he could send me a photo , which he did , and it turned out to be an assassin bug nymph , a voracious hunter . i’m sure praying mantises and other insect predators would be happy to dine on them as well , and lovebug larvae have been found in the gizzards of robins and quail .
insecticides available to the public for controlling houseflies , mosquitoes , and other flies will also kill lovebug adults . however , there are risks associated with using these products around humans and pets , and the lovebugs will return almost immediately . other insects are often misidentified as being lovebugs , some of which are innocuous or beneficial , and therefore , should not be killed . it is important to preserve lady beetles , lacewings , honeybees , and other insects that help to protect or pollinate plants . thus , insecticides are expensive , potentially harmful , and of no value in controlling lovebugs . it is best just to avoid lovebugs if they become a nuisance during their brief appearances each year .
callahan and denmark ( 1973 ) reported that ambient temperatures above 28°c and visible light at above 20 , 000 lux ( 2000 ft - c ) stimulated lovebug flight but not orientation behavior . lovebugs are attracted to irradiated automobile exhaust fumes ( diesel and gasoline ) when the ultraviolet light incident over the highway ranges from 0 . 3 to 0 . 4 microns ( 3000 to 4000 angstroms ( a ) ) between 10 am and 4 pm , with a temperature above 28°c . hot engines and the vibrations of automobiles apparently contribute to the attraction of lovebugs to highways . callahan et al . ( 1985 ) reported that formaldehyde and heptaldehyde were the two most attractive components of diesel exhaust .
1 . thorax with dorsum rufous and pleura extensively black ; head with oral margin distinctly produced forward . male genitalia with 9th tergum not as broad as in plecia americana , just slightly broader than long , with shallow medial excavation and ventromedial flap , not produced ventrolaterally ; 9th sternum with dorsolateral lobe extending under 9th tergum , produced ventromedially into a narrow forked process ; telomeres large , l - shaped in lateral view . female genitalia with 9th tergum large , almost completely concealing cerci in lateral view , strongly excavated dorsomedially ; cerci small , narrow in dorsal view ; 8th sternum small , with a shallow medial excavation ; ovipositor lobes broad , blunt apically and strongly sclerotized dorsally . . . . . lovebug , plecia nearctica hardy
when numerous lovebugs are smashed on the front of a vehicle , the contents of their bodies , especially eggs , coat the painted surface . no permanent damage is caused , however , if the surface is cleaned before the coating is baked by the sun for a day or two . marisa and jeffrey gedney ( personnel communication ) determined that macerated lovebugs are about neutral with a ph of 6 . 5 but become acidic at 4 . 25 within 24 hours . yet , automobile paint was not damaged after being coated with macerated lovebugs and held in a humid indoor environment for 21 days . a lovebug - coated surface exposed to the sun for an extended period of time , however , may be damaged by the insects and their removal ( denmark and mead 2001 ) . the front of a vehicle can be protected by coating it with “car wax” and removing the lovebugs within 24 hours .
the “lovebug” ( figure 1 ) is a fly in the family bibionidae that is easily identified by its black , slender body and red thorax . these small flies , also known as march flies , are closely related to mosquitoes and gnats . the males are about 1 / 4 inch in length , while females are 1 / 3 inch in length . there are two known species of lovebugs in the united states . one is a native species , and the other is an invasive species that first appeared in southern louisiana during the 1920s . the outbreak soon spread southward , crossing deep into mississippi and alabama , and finally reaching florida in 1947 . they have since migrated northward , reaching from georgia to south carolina . both species have two key outbreaks in population a year : once during april–may and the next in august–september . they are often found near or by highways and are a nuisance and hindrance to drivers .
if have lovebug activity in your yard , expect to see their swarms alight and congregate more and more from year to year once the problem starts . if you have a well landscaped yard with plenty of flowers and other plants which produce nectar and other sweet smells of plant life , they’ll keep coming back as they need nectar to fuel their swarming . aphids and whiteflies allowed to live in your plants will cause the release of honey dew which in turn will attract feeding lovebugs . such invasions can become messy and relentless . worse yet is that once they start , they don’t seem to ever stop . the members of any swarm will die off within a week yet once they are found in or around any property , expect them to come back year after year if you don’t take some defensive measures . these measures will help to kill off local invasions so they don’t find their way into your home and become established .
the
lovebug ,
plecia nearctica hardy ( diptera : bibionidae ) , is a seasonally abundant member of a generally unnoticed family of small flies related to gnats and mosquitoes . the males are about 1 / 4 inch and the females 1 / 3 inch in length , both entirely black except for red on top of their thoraxes ( middle insect body segment ) . other common names for this insect include march flies , double - headed bugs , honeymoon flies , united bugs , and some expletives that are not repeatable . lovebugs characteristically appear in excessive abundance throughout florida as male - female pairs for only a few weeks every april - may and august - september ( ipm florida 2006 ) . although they exist over the entire state during these months , they can reach outbreak levels in some areas and be absent in others . they are a nuisance pest , as opposed to destructive or dangerous , in areas where they accumulate in large numbers .
although the lovebug has two distinct generations per year in florida , adults can be found during most months ( buschman 1976 ) . higher temperatures cause adult populations to peak slightly earlier in the southern areas of the state . as in all other flies , lovebugs exhibit complete metamorphosis , having egg , larva , pupa and adult stages ( figure 3 ) . an individual female deposits an average of 350 eggs under decaying vegetation in a grassy or weedy area with adequate moisture . conditions must not be too wet or dry , although the larvae soon emerge and can move short distances to locate the best habitats . larvae develop more rapidly at higher temperatures , so the summer generation is shorter than the one in the winter . the larvae feed on decomposing leaves and grass until they pupate . the pupal stage lasts 7 - 9 days ( hetrick 1970 ) . in nature , the adults live just long enough to mate , feed , disperse and deposit a batch of eggs , about 3 - 4 days ( thornhill 1976b ) .
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j . weston , d . e . short , and m . p . lehnert 2
this fact sheet is excerpted from sp486 : pests in and around the southern home , which is available from the uf / ifas extension bookstore . urltoken
female lovebugs lay 100 to 350 eggs that are deposited underneath debris and decaying vegetation . after about 20 days the larvae hatch and feed on the decaying plant vegetation . the larvae act as a decomposer in the natural habitat by converting the plant material into nutrients that can then be used by the growing plants . once the larvae mature and have stopped feeding on the decomposing vegetation , they pupate . in warmer climates such as florida , the generation during the summer is significantly shorter than the winter generation because the rate at which the larvae pupate increases significantly with an increase in temperature . the pupal stage generally lasts about seven to nine days .
males hover over the females by orienting themselves with the wind in order to ease flight . as the females emerge from the vegetation , males immediately swoop down and grasp a female . at times , males will grasp a female that is already mating with a male in an attempt to disrupt mating . as many as 10 males have been observed holding onto a female , each attempting to copulate . after finding a match , the pair will come to a rest on the vegetation below and finish their mating process , during which the male faces the opposite direction of the female .
lovebugs are a considerable nuisance to motorists . they congregate in unbelievable numbers along highways , and the insects spatter on the windshields and grills of moving vehicles . windshields become covered with the fatty remains , and vision is obstructed . during flights , the flies clog radiator fins , causing cars to overheat . they also get into refrigeration equipment on trucks , causing them to malfunction . the fatty tissue will cause pitting of the car’s finish if it is not removed within a few days . flies enter cars and sometimes are crushed by drivers and passengers , causing stains on clothing . they are also a considerable nuisance to fresh paint . the flies enter houses under construction in such numbers that carpenters refuse to work . beekeepers complain because worker bees do not visit flowers that have been infested with the flies .
there are several things that can be done to lessen the problem facing motorists . by traveling at night motorists can avoid the insects ; lovebugs reach peak activity at 10 am and stop flying at dusk . traveling at slower speeds will reduce the number of bugs that will be spattered . a large screen placed in the front of the grill will keep the radiator fins from clogging , and will protect the finish on the front of the car . if a large screen is not used in front of the grill , a small screen can be placed behind the grill in front of the radiator .
this document is eny - 329 , one of a series of the department of entomology and nematology , uf / ifas extension . original publication date october 1993 . revised may 2003 and july 2011 . reviewed january 2017 . visit the edis website at urltoken .
j . weston ; d . e . short , retired professor ; and m . p . lehnert , ms 2008 ; department of entomology and nematology , uf / ifas extension , gainesville , fl 32611 .
the institute of food and agricultural sciences ( ifas ) is an equal opportunity institution authorized to provide research , educational information and other services only to individuals and institutions that function with non - discrimination with respect to race , creed , color , religion , age , disability , sex , sexual orientation , marital status , national origin , political opinions or affiliations . for more information on obtaining other uf / ifas extension publications , contact your county ' s uf / ifas extension office . u . s . department of agriculture , uf / ifas extension service , university of florida , ifas , florida a & m university cooperative extension program , and boards of county commissioners cooperating . nick t . place , dean for uf / ifas extension .
pair of mating lovebugs with larger female on left . note the elongated female rostrum ( snout - like prolongation of the head ) and large circular male eyes .
taxonomic characters to distinguish p . nearctica from p . americana . head of plecia nearctica male ( a ) and female ( b ) , head of p . americana , male ( c ) and female ( d ) : ocelli ( o ) , antenna ( a ) , oral margin - forward ( om - f ) , and oral margin - convex ( om - c ) . wing of p . nearctica ( e ) : costa ( c ) , radial sector ( rs ) , medial cell ( mc ) , anal cell ( a ) , and basal cells ( bc ) .
lovebugs are not native to most of the southern united states ( hardy 1945 ) . according to buschman ( 1976 ) , since 1940 p . nearctica has extended its range from louisiana and mississippi across the gulf states , reaching florida in 1949 . in the late 1960s , it became established entirely across north florida . during the 1970s explosive populations occurred progressively southward nearly to the end of peninsular florida and northward into south carolina ( figure 4 ) . its movement may have been accelerated by prevailing winds , vehicle traffic , sod transport , increased habitat along highways , and expansion of pastures , but not by uf researchers .
pattern of migration of plecia nearctica from central america to the southeastern u . s .
after mating , lovebugs disperse as coupled pairs , presumably flying in search of nectar on which to feed and suitable oviposition sites . mated females are attracted to sandy sites with adequate moisture , dead leaves , grass clippings , cow manure , and other decomposing organic debris . cherry ( 1998 ) found that lovebugs are attracted to anethole , an essential oil found in plants that also attracts bees . both sexes of adults also are attracted to the floral odorant , phenylacetaldehyde ( arthurs et al . 2012 & 2015 ) . additionally , female lovebugs are attracted to uv irradiated aldehydes , a major component of automobile exhaust fumes ( callahan and denmark 1973 , callahan et al . 1985 ) . they may confuse these chemicals with the odors emitted from decaying organic matter at typical oviposition sites . heat has also been shown to attract lovebugs ( whitesell 1974 ) and contribute to their abundance on highways . additionally , lovebugs seem to collect on light - colored buildings , especially when freshly painted ( callahan 1985 ) . many kinds of flies are attracted to light - colored and shiny surfaces , although the physiological or behavioral mechanisms are unknown . thus , lovebugs apparently accumulate in relatively warm , humid , sunny areas with food and chemicals in the atmosphere that mimic oviposition sites .
the general pattern of mating in lovebugs begins with males forming swarms above emergence areas each day in the morning and afternoon ( leppla et al 1974 , thornhill 1976c ) . individual males also may fly just above these areas . females emerge from the soil later than males , crawl onto vegetation , and fly into the swarms . a male may grasp a female before or after she flies into a swarm . in either case , the pair lands on vegetation where the male transfers sperm to the female . sperm transfer requires an average of 12 . 5 , hours but the pair can remain coupled for several days during which they feed and disperse ( thornhill 1976c ) . the male ejects a depleted spermatophore after separating from the female ( leppla et al . 1975 ) , and both sexes may mate again . pairs formed during the morning hours begin dispersal flights , whereas those that couple in the evening remain on vegetation until taking flight the following day .
myth : the body fluids of lovebugs are acidic and immediately dissolve automobile paint .
the university of florida research programs in urban and public health entomology are among the strongest in the u . s . priority is placed on destructive or dangerous pests that threaten human health and resources . these pests include mosquitoes that transmit west nile virus , equine encephalitis , and other diseases ; those that infest people , livestock and pets ; and urban insects , such as cockroaches , ants , and termites . nuisance pests like lovebugs and blind mosquitoes are important but much less damaging and costly . the florida legislature funded research on lovebugs at the university of florida during the outbreak that swept through the state in the early 1970s . additional resources were contributed by the usda and florida department of agriculture and consumer services , division of plant industry . even though this support is no longer available , the university of florida continues to provide information to help educate florida residents and tourists about lovebugs .
it is possible but usually not necessary to avoid lovebugs and the problems they cause . unlike some of their close relatives , lovebugs do not bite , sting , or transmit diseases and are not poisonous . lovebugs are only active in the daylight and are much less mobile during the early and late daytime hours . typically , the pairs fly across the wind during their dispersal flights and are blown against obstacles , especially vehicles traveling at high speeds . their remains can be removed from surfaces easily if not left to bake in the sun . lovebugs are poor fliers that can be kept out of a building by creating positive pressure with an air - conditioning fan . if a few lovebugs enter , a vacuum cleaner can be used to remove them . screens can be added to windows and doors , particularly on the prevailing windward side of a building , and placed over decks and swimming pools . a fan can be used outside near work or recreational areas to keep lovebugs away . due to their abundance and mobility , lovebugs cannot be controlled effectively with poisons or repellents .
the figures were prepared by s . h . johnson ; j . p . cuda , m . a . branham , and j . l . gillett - kaufman provided very helpful reviews of the manuscript .
arthurs , s . p . , n . tofangsazi , r . l . meagher and r . cherry . 2012 . attraction of plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) to floral lures containing phenylacetaldehyde . florida entomologist . 95 : 199 - 201 . urltoken
arthurs , s . p . , c . morales - reyes and r . h . cherry . 2015 . trap design for lovebugs , plecia nearctica ( diptera : bibionidae ) . florida entomologist 98 : 892 - 898 . urltoken


rissoina spirata , common name the spiral risso , is a species of minute sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family rissoinidae .

rissoina spirata

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rissoina ( rissoina ) orbigny , a . v . m . d . d ' , 1840 type species : unknowngenustype
chiliostigma melvill , j . c . , 1918 type species : rissoina ( rissoina ) refugium melvill , j . c . , 1918
rissoina ( rissolina ) gould , a . a . , 1861 type species : rissoina ( rissolina ) plicatula gould , a . a . , 1861
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : rissoina spirata ( g . b . i sowerby , 1825 ) - id : 5192001062
rissoina ( moerchiella ) , r . ( apataxia ) , r . ( alinzebina )
misidentification rissoina decussata ( montagu , 1803 ) [ giannuzzi - savelli et al . , 1997 ]
rissoina ( moerchiella ) nevill , 1885 type species : moerchiella gigantea deshayes , g . p . , 1848
( of zebina spirata ( sowerby , 1825 ) ) taylor , j . d . ( 1973 ) . provisional list of the mollusca of aldabra atoll . [ details ]
( of rissoa spirata g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) sleurs w . j . m . ( 1993 ) . a revision of the recent species of rissoina ( moerchiella ) , r . ( apataxia ) , r . ( ailinzebina ) and r . ( pachyrissoina ) ( gastropoda : rissoidae ) . bulletin de l ' institut royal des sciences naturelles de belgique , 63 : 71 - 135 [ details ]
in some areas , a few genera went through a speciation process that led to a high number of both species and endemics , for example , alvania , crisilla , onoba , pusillina , rissoa , and setia at the mediterranean ; benthonellania and rissoina at the caribbean ; manzonia and crisilla at the madeira , selvagens , and canaries archipelagos ; crisilla and schwartziella at the cape verde archipelago ; onoba at iceland ; and cingula at the geographically isolated saint helena island .
( of rissoa spirata g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) sowerby i , g . b . ( 1821–34 ) . the genera of recent and fossil shells , for the use of students , in conchology and geology . g . b . sowerby , london . vol . 1 pl . 1 - 126 + text ( unpaginated ) [ 1821 - 1825 ] ; vol . 2 : pl . 127 - 162 + text ( unpaginated ) [ 1825 - 1834 ] ( [ published in 42 numbers . for complete collation see sykes , 1906 and see petit r . e . 2006 . notes on sowerby ' s the genera of recent and fossil shells ( 1821–1834 ) archives of natural history 33 : 71 - 89 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : plate 209 ; note : no page number [ details ]
sowerby , g . b . , i . ( 1821–1834 ) the genera of recent and fossil shells , for the use of students in conchology and geology : plates of genera ; also corresponding letter - press , descriptive of the characters by which each genus is distinguished . particularly th page ( s ) : no page number [ details ]
dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution à l ' étude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies françaises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . société d ' editions géographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . 43 : 419 - 453 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1–218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
galil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions . 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
publication date the year of publication ( 1833 ) is given by petit ( 2009 ) . [ details ]
taylor , j . d . ( 1973 ) . provisional list of the mollusca of aldabra atoll . [ details ]
short description shell elongated , high - spired , of 7 - 8 moderately convex whorls with a distinct rim under the suture ; body whorl distinctly constricted . sculpture of spire whorls of oblique axial ribs which fade out on the body whorl or the previous one . spiral sculpture of very faint grooves . aperture oval , with a thickened outer lip , smooth inside , and a hardly indicated siphonal canal .
common size : reported mediterranean specimens 6 - 8 mm , up to 14 mm in the red sea .
distinguishing characteristics this species is unmistakable , owing to the strong subsutural rim crenulated by the axial ribs .
distribution worldwide : indo - pacific . mediterranean : a spurious record in 1974 from the tyrrhenian sea ( bogi et al . , 1984 ) not further documented and possibly based on a displaced specimen . the records from haifa , israel seem more likely ( giannuzzi - savelli et al . , 1997 ) .
bogi c . , coppini m . and margelli a . , 1984 . ritrovamento nel mediterraneo di
giannuzzi - savelli r . , pusateri f . , palmeri a . and ebreo c . , 1997 . atlante delle conchiglie marine del mediterraneo . vol . 2 : caenogastropoda . la conchiglia , roma , 258 p .
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the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .
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shell gallery view « shell encyclopedia , conchology , inc . » conchological megadatabase on mollusks
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sowerby , g . b . , i . ( 1821–1834 ) the genera of recent and fossil shells , for the use of students in conchology and geology : plates of genera ; also corresponding letter - press , descriptive of the characters by which each genus is distinguished . particularly th
dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution à l ' étude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies françaises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . société d ' editions géographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp .
galil , b . ( 2007 ) . seeing red : alien species along the mediterranean coast of israel . < em > aquatic invasions . < / em > 2 ( 4 ) : 281 - 312 .
petit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . < em > zootaxa . < / em > 2189 : 1–218 .
streftaris , n . ; zenetos , a . ; papathanassiou , e . ( 2005 ) . globalisation in marine ecosystems : the story of non - indigenous marine species across european seas . < em > oceanogr . mar . biol . ann . rev . < / em > 43 : 419 - 453 .
zenetos , a . , m . e . çinar , m . a . pancucci - papadopoulou , j . g . harmelin , g . furnari , f . andaloro , n . bellou , n . streftaris & h . zibrowius . ( 2005 ) . annotated list of marine alien species in the mediterranean with records of the worst invasive species . mediterranean marine science 6 ( 2 ) : 63 - 118 .
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sérgio p . ávila , 1 , 2 , 3 , * jeroen goud , 4 and antónio m . de frias martins 1 , 2
4 national museum of natural history , invertebrates , naturalis darwinweg , leiden , p . o . box 9517 , 2300 ra leiden , the netherlands
this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .
rapoport ' s latitudinal rule relates geographical distribution with latitude [ 1 , 2 ] . this rule states that the range of the geographical distribution of species increases with latitude [ 3 ] . several hypotheses were provided : the seasonal variability hypothesis [ 2 , 4 ] , the differential extinction hypothesis [ 3 ] , the competition hypothesis [ 5 – 7 ] , or the milankovitch climate oscillations , which force larger distributional changes [ 8 ] .
to our knowledge , this is the first attempt to summarize present information about the geographic distributional pattern of this family in the atlantic ocean and the mediterranean sea , with the purpose of identifying the biotic similarities between areas .
the geographical distribution of the rissoidae in the atlantic ocean and mediterranean sea was compiled through an exhaustive search of the primary literature and is up to date until july 2011 . the following sites and references were considered :
por : western atlantic iberian façade ( from cabo vilán , western galician shores , down to cape são vicente ) and southern shores of algarve , portugal ) : nobre [ 33 , 34 ] , nobre and braga [ 35 ] , macedo et al . [ 36 ] , rolán [ 37 ] ,
med : mediterranean : nordsieck [ 19 ] , aartsen and fehr - de - wal [ 38 ] , aartsen [ 39 – 47 ] , verduin [ 48 – 50 ] , aartsen and verduin [ 23 , 51 ] , palazzi [ 52 ] , aartsen et al . [ 53 ] , amati [ 54 – 56 ] , amati and nofroni [ 57 – 59 ] , amati and oliverio [ 56 ] , oliverio [ 60 – 62 ] , oliverio et al . [ 63 ] , aartsen and linden [ 64 ] , linden and wagner [ 65 ] , hoenselaar and moolenbeek [ 66 ] , aartsen and menkhorst [ 53 ] , giusti and nofroni [ 67 ] , aartsen et al . [ 68 ] , amati et al [ 69 ] , hoenselaar and hoenselaar [ 70 ] , nofroni and pizzini [ 71 ] , oliverio et al . [ 72 ] , aartsen and engl [ 73 ] , smriglio and mariottini [ 74 ] , margelli [ 75 ] , bogi and galil [ 76 ] , buzzurro and landini [ 77 ] , peñas et al . [ 78 ] , oliver and templado [ 79 ] , ciesm , clemam ,
azo : azores : watson [ 80 ] , dautzenberg [ 81 ] , amati [ 82 ] , gofas [ 83 ] , oliverio et al . [ 72 ] , linden [ 84 ] , linden and van aartsen [ 85 ] , ávila [ 86 – 88 ] ,
lus : lusitanian group of seamounts ( a chain of seamounts located between portugal and madeira ) : gorringe , josephine , ampère , seine : ávila and malaquias [ 89 ] , beck et al . [ 90 ] , gofas [ 91 ] ,
mad : madeira , porto santo and desertas islands , nobre [ 92 ] , van aartsen [ 47 ] , palazzi [ 52 ] , verduin [ 93 ] , moolenbeek and hoenselaar [ 94 , 95 ] , segers et al . [ 96 ] ,
can : canary islands : van aartsen [ 47 ] , moolenbeek and faber [ 98 ] , rolán [ 99 ] , verduin [ 93 ] , linden and wagner [ 100 ] , moolenbeek and hoenselaar [ 94 , 95 , 101 ] , segers [ 102 ] , hernández - otero et al . [ 103 ] ,
trs : tristão da cunha island : worsfold et al . [ 112 ] , malacolog ,
crl : carolinian biogeographical province–atlantic shores of usa , between cape hatteras , north carolina ( 35° n ) and cape canaveral ( 28°30′ n ) : rex et al . [ 120 ] , malacolog ,
tro : tropical biogeographical province ( from now on generically designated as “caribbean” ) —atlantic shores of usa , south of cape canaveral ( 28°30′ n ) , including western and eastern shores of florida , gulf of mexico ( louisiana and texas shores , as well as yucatan peninsula , méxico ) , bahamas , caribbean sea , south to cabo frio ( brazil ) ( 23°s ) : dall [ 121 ] , baker et al . [ 122 ] , faber and moolenbeek [ 123 ] , jong and coomans [ 124 ] , leal and moore [ 125 ] , faber [ 126 ] , leal [ 127 ] , rolán [ 128 ] , espinosa and ortea [ 129 ] , rosenberg et al . [ 130 ] malacolog ,
ant : antarctic—from 60°s south , including south orkney islands ( signy island ) , south shetland islands , antarctic peninsula and weddell sea : ponder [ 132 ] .
we have also consulted other bibliographical sources , with a wider systematical or geographical subject , such as babio and thiriot - quiévreux [ 134 ] , aartsen [ 40 ] , fretter and graham [ 30 ] , ponder [ 21 ] , verduin [ 135 ] , templado and rolán [ 136 ] , hoenselaar and moolenbeek [ 66 ] , moolenbeek and hoenselaar [ 137 ] , moolenbeek and faber [ 138 – 140 ] , sleurs [ 141 – 143 ] , hoenselaar [ 70 , 144 ] , bouchet and warén [ 27 ] , sleurs and preece [ 145 ] , warén [ 146 ] , hoenselaar and goud [ 147 ] , goud [ 148 ] , gofas et al . [ 149 ] , rolán [ 150 ] , gofas [ 91 ] , and garilli [ 151 ] . malacolog , ciesm , clemam , and worms web databases were very useful and widely consulted .
the bathymetrical zonation considers shallow species ( those living between the intertidal and 50 m depth ) and deep species ( those usually living below 50 m depth ) . the choice of the threshold at 50 m depth is related with the following reasons : ( i ) algal species to which rissoidae are very often associated are rare below 50 m depth ; ( ii ) direct sampling by scuba - diving is more frequent in waters less than 50 m depth ; ( iii ) in waters deeper than 50 m depth , usually the samplings are obtained via indirect methodologies ( grabs , most often ) .
the complete database was last updated in october 2011 and is available from the authors upon request .
where a is the total number of rissoid species present in area a , and b is the total number of rissoid species present in area b . when a faunal flow happened in historical times , from a source area to the target area , we expect the target area to show a subset of the species present in the source area . so , different values of the two indices ( x a and x b ) are expectable , and the source area must have the smaller value [ 167 ] .
the mediterranean sea is the most diverse site , with 160 species of rissoidae , followed by canary islands ( 89 species ) , caribbean ( 77 ) , portugal ( 74 ) , and cape verde ( 67 ) . the lowest diversity sites are the carolinian province ( 18 species ) , greenland ( 16 ) , arctic ( 13 ) , angola ( 11 ) , new scotia biogeographical province ( 10 ) , antarctic ( 8 ) , virginian biogeographical province , tristan da cunha island , and brazil ( all with just 7 species ,
( 11 ) are species - abundant in the mediterranean and along the portuguese shores .
( as the name indicates ) are restricted to higher latitudes ( arctic , greenland , iceland , and scandinavia ) .
is reported to the atlantic shores of north america ( nsc and vir ) .
is a genus with high number of species at iceland and greenland ( 9 and 5 , resp . ) , but the most diverse sites are in the south atlantic : 22 species at southeast of south america and 6 species at tristan da cunha island and antarctic (
are particularly species - diverse in the macaronesian archipelagos , especially at canary islands , selvagens and madeira , porto santo , and desertas islands .
spp . is very abundant at cape verde archipelago ( 26 species ) as well as in the carolinian and tropical provinces , and at saint helena islands ( 4 , 9 , and 5 species , resp . ) .
stosicia and voorwindia occur predominantly in the indo - pacific region [ 21 ] , with just two species reported to the western atlantic , stosicia aberrans [ 172 ] , and stosicia houbricki [ 173 ] ( = stosicia fernandezgarcesi [ 129 ] , all restricted to the tropical province ; voorwindia tiberiana [ 163 ] occurs in the mediterranean , where this lessepsian species is considered as alien ( nonestablished , ciesm database ) . however , fossil species of stosicia are known from the lower miocene of the eastern atlantic and the mediterranean [ 173 ] .
the mediterranean and cape verde islands are the sites with higher numbers of endemic species ( 71 and 58 , resp . ) , with predominance of
( 20 ) at cape verde . caribbean also has a high number of endemisms ( 57 species ) , especially of the genera
) . however , if these figures are viewed in percentages , saint helena island , cape verde , and tristan da cunha are the sites with higher percentages of rissoid endemisms ( 90 . 0 % , 86 . 6 % , and 85 . 7 % , resp . ) . other sites with high percentage values are the meteor group of seamounts ( 76 . 9 % ) , the caribbean ( 74 . 0 % ) , southeastern shores of south america ( 66 . 7 % ) , the azores ( 44 . 7 % ) , and the mediterranean ( 44 . 4 % ) . antarctic ( 37 . 5 % ) , the lusitanian group of seamounts ( 37 . 0 % ) , the west - african shores ( 24 . 0 % ) , and canary islands ( 19 . 1 % ) also have a significant amount of endemic rissoids (
) , thus only 3 species are endemic to these islands ( 7 . 9 % ) . similar percentages of rissoid endemics occur at greenland ( 6 . 3 % ) and scandinavia ( 3 . 3 % ) . iceland has 12 . 0 % of endemisms (
most of the 542 - rissoid species that live in the atlantic and in the mediterranean are shallow species ( 329 ) . one hundred and forty - six are considered as deep species , living in waters with more than 50 m depth , and 23 species are reported to both shallow and deep waters . it was not possible to establish the bathymetrical zonation of 44 rissoid species .
are mostly constituted by shallow species . some of these genera ( e . g . ,
) are exclusively littoral . in the eastern - atlantic shores and at latitudes higher than 55° n ( arctic , greenland , iceland , and scandinavia ) ,
bathymetric zonation of the rissoidae . lit—littoral species ( usually living at depths less than 50 m depth ) ; deep—deep species ( usually living at depths higher than 50 m depth ) . other abbreviations as in
) . there is a predominance of nonplanktotrophs in islands , seamounts , and at high and medium latitudes . this pattern is particularly evident in the genera
. planktotrophic species are more abundant in the eastern atlantic and in the mediterranean sea . the british isles and angola are the only sites with excess of planktotrophs in relation to nonplanktotrophic rissoids .
is a very diverse genus in the mediterranean sea and along the shores of portugal , and most are planktotrophic species . in the arctic , greenland , southeastern south america , and antarctic , all rissoid species are nonplanktotrophs (
scandinavia , british isles , portugal , angola , and the carolinian province are the only sites with higher numbers of shallow planktotrophic species relative to the number of shallow non - planktotrophs ( cf . tables
benthonella tenella [ 169 ] , the sole representative of this genus in the studied area , is the rissoid species with wider geographical range in the atlantic ; other species with large geographical ranges are obtusella intersecta [ 174 ] and alvania cimicoides [ 175 ] ; all of them are deep planktotrophic species , although obtusella intersecta may also occur in the littoral .
we used pae separately on the shallow and on the deep rissoid species . after removing all the endemic species ( no cosmopolitan species were found ) , 115 shallow species and 41 deep species of rissoids were analysed with the pae methodology , using paup * .
= 180 , ci = 0 . 6389 , ri = 0 . 7005 ) with three main groups . the first one strongly clusters portugal , the mediterranean , british isles , and scandinavia , with bootstrap values higher than 91 % . a second group subdivides in two : the first subgroup , the macaronesian archipelagos of madeira , canary islands , selvagens , and the azores clusters ; the second subgroup has west - african coast , angola , and cape verde islands . in a third group , western atlantic sites are clustered : caribbean and carolinian province cluster to brazil at 65 % bootstrap value . saint helena island weakly clusters to the previous sites ( bootstrap value of only 51 % ) . new scotia and virginian provinces cluster in an independent group ( 66 % ) , as well as southern south america and antarctic ( 95 % ) (
. bootstrap values are higher than 50 % only for three groups : portugal - mediterranean ( 78 % ) , caribbean - carolinian province ( 75 % ) , and new scotia province - virginian province . some other sites also cluster , but at values lower than 50 % (
, and support the patterns found by both the pae analysis and the geographical distribution . four main source areas for rissoids emerge : mediterranean , caribbean , canaries / madeira archipelagos , and the cape verde archipelago . in the western atlantic , a rissoid movement originating in the caribbean seems to have developed southwards to brazil (
probable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the central west - atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in
probable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the northwest atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in
probable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the south atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in
probable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the central east - atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in
) . scandinavia seems to be the source area for both iceland and arctic ( 64 and 54 % , resp . ) and iceland probably played an important role as a source for both greenland and arctic . the mediterranean is weakly related with the west - african shores ( 44 % ,
) . the relationships between the azores and both madeira and canaries are weak ( 32 and 24 % , resp . ) , and canaries seem to be the main source of the rissoid fauna of madeira ( 67 % ) and selvagens ( 79 % ) . cape verde archipelago is isolated from all sites (
probable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the macaronesian islands , northeast - atlantic , and mediterranean . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in
probable colonization patterns of rissoid fauna in the northeast atlantic . the arrows represent the probable main flux direction of faunas , and the associated numbers represent , for each pair of areas , the higher of the two similarity index values computed as described in the methods , abbreviations as in
it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss in detail all hypotheses related with rapoport ' s latitudinal rule ( e . g . , the seasonal variability hypothesis [
] ) , but one of the corollaries of the seasonal variability hypothesis is that , at low latitudes , the expected bathymetrical range of a given species , in average , should be lower than at high latitudes . stevens [
relation between ( a ) number of rissoids with large bathymetrical range ( # sh - de : shallow - deep ) and latitude in the eastern atlantic ; ( b ) number of littoral rissoids and latitude in the eastern atlantic ; ( c ) number of littoral rissoids and latitude in the western atlantic ; ( d ) number of littoral rissoids and latitude in the western atlantic .
] , when they compared the north and south hemispheres of the east - pacific coast of america . in the northern hemisphere , there is correspondence between the diversity latitudinal gradient and ssts , but in the southern hemisphere , in particular from 40 to 60°s , the number of species increases with latitude , even though ssts decrease monotonically with this variable . this pattern is also evident with the shallow rissoidae along the west - atlantic coasts of south america ( figures
) and the explanation is dependent on the coastal area ( comprising depths less than 200 m ) which , according to valdovinos et al . [
] , is a factor that better explains biodiversity than ssts . thus , the increase of the number of shallow rissoids with latitude along the southern south - america shores (
) . this is certainly due to the high sampling effort for this region , but we think that other reasons are also behind this fact ( see below ) . a similar trend was also reported in several other taxonomic groups ( hydromedusae , siphonophora , chaetognatha , appendicularia , salpida , cephalopoda , euphausiacea , decapoda , and pisces ) [
] , reinforcing the mediterranean as an area of high marine biodiversity . this is even more interesting if we think that the mediterranean area was repopulated just 5 . 33 ma ago , when the “messinian salinity crisis” ended [
] . this dramatic event occurred between 5 . 96–5 . 33 ma and provoked an almost complete annihilation of the mediterranean marine fauna and flora [
] . the reopening of the connection between the atlantic and the mediterranean happened 5 . 33 ma ago and , although there are different hypothesis under discussion such as tectonic movements of the crust [
] , and this may be the reason for the high number of rissoid species that this area possesses nowadays .
by definition , “a species can be endemic to an area for two different reasons : ( a ) because it has originated in that place and never dispersed , or ( b ) because it now survives in only a part of its former wider range” [ 196 ] . we do not know any endemic rissoid to the azores , madeira , or canaries that is documented in the fossil record as formerly having a broader geographic distribution [ 197 , 198 ] . so , they are autochthonous descendents of immigrants , rather than geographic relicts .
it is a well - known fact that biotic communities in high latitudes are usually rich in nonplanktotrophic species [ 157 , 201 ] . this is thorson ' s rule “pelagic development reveals a clear biological polarity : from low towards high latitude pelagic development disappears progressively and becomes replaced by direct development , demersal development , and viviparity” [ 202 , 203 ] . thorson ' s original formulation related also pelagic development with depth , saying that the number of species with such a type of development would gradually diminish from the shallow shelf downwards to the abyssal depths , until its complete disappearance [ 202 ] a concept that did not hold [ 204 , 205 ] .
] stated that species with a planktotrophic larval development and long - distance dispersal usually have wider geographical ranges , longer geological ranges , and smaller speciation and extinction rates than nonplanktotrophic relatives . he detected changes in the modes of larval development of cretacian molluscs , from planktotrophic to nonplanktotrophic , but the reverse was not found . in the mediterranean , sibling species were found , almost identical in their teleoconchs and differing mostly in their protoconchs : one multispiral , denoting a planktotrophic larval development , the other one paucispiral , denoting a nonplanktotrophic larval development [
] at rockall , an isolated and inhabited islet located in the north atlantic ( 57°n , 13°w ) , first noted this phenomenon and stated that a pelagic phase may be an advantage for dispersal , but it may exclude species from certain habitats , namely , from oceanic islands . moreover , larvae of nonplanktotrophic species are protected from the surrounding environment during the initial phase of their development , by the walls of the egg . in addition , they do not need external food supply , as vitelum provides them all energy they need to account for the completion of the metamorphosis [
] and resources for larval stages are available only during short periods , there exists such a predominance of nonplanktotrophic rissoid species .
) . similar speciation events also happened in other families of gastropods ( e . g . , in cape verde , conidae , with about 45 species / subspecies , and
) . interestingly , canaries act as a probable source of rissoid fauna , instead of recipient , when compared to all areas , with the sole exception of the mediterranean .
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urltoken
alvania risso , a . , 1826 type species : alvania ( alvania ) europea risso , a . , 1826
alvania ( alvanolira ) nordsieck , f . , 1972 type species : alvania ( alvanolira ) lineata risso , a . , 1826
alvania ( coronalvania ) nordsieck , f . , 1972 type species : alvania ( coronalvania ) corona nordsieck , f . , 1972
alvania ( lanciella ) nordsieck , f . , 1972 type species : alvania ( lanciella ) lanciae calcara , p . , 1845
alvania ( linemera ) finlay , h . j . , 1924 type species : turboella interrupta adams , j . , 1798