swainson 's thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , also called olive-backed thrush , is a medium-sized thrush .

it is a member of catharus genus and is typical of it in terms of its subdued coloration and beautiful voice .

swainson 's thrush was named after william swainson , an english ornithologist .

the genus name catharus comes from the ancient greek katharos , " pure or clean " and refers to the plumage of the orange-billed nightingale-thrush c. aurantiirostris .

the specific ustuatus is latin for " burnt " , from urere , " to burn " .

the breeding habitat of swainson 's thrush is coniferous woods with dense undergrowth across canada , alaska , and the northern united states ; also , deciduous wooded areas on the pacific coast of north america .

these birds migrate to southern mexico and as far south as argentina .

the coastal subspecies migrate down the pacific coast of north america and winter from mexico to costa rica , whereas the continental birds migrate eastwards within north america ( a substantial detour ) and then travel southwards via florida to winter from panama to bolivia .

swainson 's thrush is a very rare vagrant to western europe .

it has also occurred as a vagrant in northeast asia .

at least in the winter quarters , swainson 's thrush tends to keep away from areas of human construction and other activity .

swainson ' s thrush

the swainson ' s thrush is the only woodland thrush whose song goes up in pitch .
the swainson ' s thrush is a summer visitor along the coast of california .
figure 1 . distribution of swainson ' s thrush in north and middle america .
a swainson ' s thrush photographed at st . francis wildlife association in quincy , florida
thanks for that shyloh…so nice to hear the swainson’s thrush song on a cold october morning .
swainson’s thrush has been observed to be steadily declining , but is currently labeled as ‘least concern’ .
unlike most other forest dwelling thrushes , the swainson ' s thrush ' s song rises in pitch toward the end of the melody .
often heard but difficult to spot . this video of a singing swainson ' s thrush is a cherished prize !
information on the swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the swainson ' s thrush is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
i often wonder what ' s behind the name when i come across a bird that has an unusual name like the swainson ' s thrush instead of a self explanatory name like the black - capped chickadee . the swainson ' s thrush was named after william john swainson , an english ornithologist ( among other things ) , who lived from 1789 to 1855 . numerous species of birds were named after william john swainson , including the swainson ' s hawk and swainson ' s warbler . the swainson ' s thrush was named after mr . swainson by thomas nuttall , another zoologist who was also a botanist . mr . nuttall also has plants as well as birds named after him , like the nuttall ' s woodpecker .
flight : in flight , swainson’s thrush appears entirely olive brown on the upperparts . it hovers while gleaning insects from foliage .
regional differences in color and song occur within the swainson ' s thrush species . swainson ' s whose spring and summer range is the pacific northwest are more reddish brown in color than the olive color of the swainson ' s living within the rest of the species ' range . the swainson ' s of the pacific northwest also have a somewhat different song .
swainson’s thrushes are very common during migration across much of the u . s . , and they migrate at night
swainson’s thrush is shy and skulking , spending most of time on ground , under cover of undergrowth . it hops and will run in short bursts . swainson’s thrush is highly migratory . migration is mostly at night , often found in mixed flocks with other thrushes .
stefani ( 1996 ) reports that swainson’s thrush has been proposed as a species of special concern by laymon ( pending fish and game approval ) and that the usda forest service identified the swainson’s thrush as one of two priority landbird species for monitoring in the sierra nevada .
stefani reports 1 . 8 swainson’s thrushes / ha in plumas national forest , 1996 .
there are around 600 different species of birds in the thrush family . some of these like the wood thrush , varied thrush , hermit thrush , swainson ' s thrush and gray - cheeked thrush have their family name included in their individual names . others like the veery , american robin and western , mountain and eastern bluebirds are also thrushes but their family name is not a part of their common title .
protection / threats / status : swainson’s thrush populations appear to be declining , but is a widespread breeding bird occupying much of forested north america . they are however still vulnerable to loss of habitat on breeding and wintering grounds . occasionally , swainson’s thrush is a host of brown - headed cowbird .
density of swainson ' s thrush by detailed ecological unit in yukon - charley rivers national preserve , alaska , avian inventory , june 1999 and 2000 .
it was named after william swainson , an english ornithologist , and is also called the olive - backed thrush .
the distinct habitat requirements of the subspecies should be a major theme in conservation planning for the swainson’s thrush . however , data on breeding requirements of the western russet - backed swainson’s thrush , published or unpublished , is extremely sparse . although the majority of the swainson’s thrush range in ca is occupied by the russet - backed subspecies , no distinctions are made in published ca wildlife habitat manuals between habitat requirements this and the more northern and eastern olive - backed subspecies .
i could not find any legends about the swainson’s thrush , though if i were writing about the hermit thrush i would have at least one myth for this part . this is a scottish poem by walter wingate .
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diet : swainson’s thrush feeds on fruit , berries and insects . it also eats spiders and other invertebrates . young are fed insects , and possibly some fruits .
the swainson ' s thrush uses dense brushy areas along the coast of california . in the inland valleys it frequents oak woodlands as well as riparian pant communities .
the swainson ' s thrush occupies forested habitat at low to mid - elevations , overlapping with the veery below and the hermit thrush above . although it is found mostly in dense hardwood and mixed forests , young conifer forests , and forest openings , the swainson ' s thrush does not require as dense an understory as does the veery . they are attracted to salmonberry stands as nesting sites .
the longest - lived swainson’s thrush on record was at least 12 years , 1 month old when it was recaught and rereleased during banding operations in montana in 2006 .
the diet of the swainson ' s thrush changes seasonally from insects to berries . berries are important year round , making up over one third of the summer diet .
the swainson ' s thrush ' s breeding range is from alaska and across much of canada , south to the western united states and the northern parts of new england . they winter in central and south america .
new research shows that swainson ' s thrushes use a
genetic map
to pick their migration routes .
my favorite thrush songs besides the robin of course , are the swainson ' s and varied thrush ' s ~ we ' ve had the privilege of listening to both of them often . in addition to their superb singing abilities , there are many interesting things about this family of birds . in this months in scope , we ' ll be focusing our attention on the swainson ' s thrush ~ a wonderful spring and summer singer that frequents our neighborhood .
the song of the swainson ' s thrush is of a beautiful flute like quality with notes softly spiraling upward toward the end of the song . they also sing a simple whistled call note . a group of swainson ' s thrush males will often sing together in chorus in the early morning or evening , each singing from within his own territory .
the preferred habitat of the swainson ' s thrush is coniferous woodlands and forests and shrubby thickets . they enjoy berry bushes and will forage where they are well hidden . secretive by nature , swainson ' s thrushes are not always seen but their woodwind like songs echo for long distances .
other thrushes like the varied thrush may enjoy a birdseed mix , although it is not usually a food swainson ' s like to eat . ground level feeders like a low tray feeder suits any thrush ' s foraging style best ~ so when trying to attract them to your feeding station , be sure to offer thrush foods on or near the ground .
unlike the east where there are numerous species of thrushes , we have only the hermit and swainson ' s thrushes . separation of these two through binoculars in southern california is complicated because the local subspecies of swainson ' s thrush has a rufous rump . pyle has some very clear cut characteristics to separate the two species , fig . 228 for hermit thrush and fig . 227 for swainson ' s thrush . basically , p9 < p6 and p6 is emarginated in heth , while p9 > p6 and p6 is not emarginated in swth .
if you live within the swainson’s thrush’s range , you can make your yard more enticing to this bird by providing tree and shrub cover and ground - level bird baths , avoiding chemical pesticides , and letting leaf litter accumulate undisturbed .
the swainson’s thrush has olive to reddish - brown upperparts , head , and wings , buffy spectacles around the eyes , a buffy breast spotted with black , and a whitish belly .
habitat : swainson’s thrush favours coniferous or mixed forest , with rather open undergrowths , and also woodland thickets especially near streams . it winters in mature tropical forest , and secondary forest .
thrushes are excellent fliers and make use of this trait for short and long - distance migrations with species such as the veery and swainson ' s thrush wintering well south of the equator .
the swainson ' s thrush is a nocturnal migrant . at night this bird migrates up from mexico and central america in the summer . they just come to visit us in the summer .
the swainson’s thrush’s nest is a cup of twigs , leaves and grass , sometimes held together with mud , and lined with finer materials . it is often placed on a horizontal branch of a tree or shrub , either coniferous or deciduous .
they swainson ' s thrush enjoys toyon berries as well as the cover it provides . toyon is a large evergreen shrub with clusters of red berries . the swainson ' s thrush likes large and small shrubs for nesting and foraging as well as leaf litter for foraging . so don ' t rake up your leaf litter . it is a treasure trove of nutrition and organic matter .
the swainson’s thrush’s whirling song has a ventriloqual quality that can make it difficult to track . this may happen as the singer moves quickly from one perch to another between songs . it may also have to do with the sounds’ reverberation in dense foliage . swainson’s thrushes also sometimes sing quiet songs that create the illusion that its song emanates from a more distant location .
johnson , m . d . and g . r . geupel . 1998 . the importance of productivity to the dynamics of a swainson’s thrush population . the condor 98 : 134 - 142 .
there are three species of spot - breasted thrushes found in washington . all three - the swainson ' s thrush , the veery , and the hermit thrush - have solid brownish upperparts ( back , wings , and tail ) , light - colored bellies , whitish eye - rings , and varying degrees of spotting on their breasts . all are similar in shape to a robin , but smaller . males and females appear similar in most species . the spots on the swainson ' s thrush appear more faded than those of the hermit thrush , but more distinct than those of the veery . swainson ' s thrushes also have distinct buff - colored eye - rings .
swainson’s thrushes have been called “mosquito thrushes” for their flycatching habit of going after flying insects while feeding on their breeding grounds .
the swainson’s thrush is a medium bird which may also be called the olive - backed thrush . it prefers to breed in coniferous woodlands with dense undergrowth throughout canada , alaska and the northern united states . it is also found in deciduous forests of the north american pacific coast . during winter months , this species will migrate to southern mexico and argentina , costa rica , panama , bolivia and occasionally western europe . the swainson’s thrush forages for its food on the forest floor and gleans the surrounding vegetation . diets usually consist of insects and berries . nests are cup - shaped and placed on horizontal tree branches . the conservation rating for the swainson’s thrush is least concern .
although swainson ' s thrush is still considered one of the most common birds of northern spruce - fir forests , populations are declining even where abundant , particularly in alaska and the northeast . in california , the breeding range of this species has contracted during the last century , and
the disappearance of the swainson ' s thrush from yosemite valley is one of the unsolved mysteries of sierran ornithology
(
range : swainson’s thrush breeds from interior alaska throughout most of canada , southward to northern states in east , and through mountains in west and along pacific coasts . it winters in mexico and south america .
this month i have created for you a new coloring page featuring the swainson ' s thrush as well as a word search puzzle all about thrushes ! both activities are in a free downloadable pdf . just
swainson’s thrushes breed from alaska south to much of the western u . s . , as well as across southern canada to the northeastern u . s . they winter in mexico and central america . the population has declined in recent decades .
one other observation is timing . swainson ' s thrushes seem to pass south through southern california in late summer / early fall ( sep - oct ) and then north in late winter / early spring ( may ) . in between these two times , hermit thrushes are common ; we have never encountered a swainson ' s thrush in winter .
in north america , aside from the american robin and bluebirds , most thrushes are birds of woodland and forest . the wood thrush shares the eastern deciduous forests with the veery while out west , the ethereal tones of the varied thrush vie with the songs of hermit and swainson ' s thrushes in the tall coastal rainforests . the gray - cheeked thrush breeds further north in the boreal zone and the townsend ' s solitaire sings from the mountain conifers .
the swainson ' s thrush utilizes the organism rich leaf litter . this leaf litter is filled with all kinds of organisms that break down plant material . this includes spiders , worms , fungi , insects and many other creatures .
) . eight forms of swainson ' s thrush have been described based on geographical differences in coloration , with six currently recognized as subspecies . the confused historical taxonomy of this species and currently recognized differences may yet prompt further reclassification .
the scientific name of the swainson ' s thrush is catharus ustulatus . this thrush is smaller than the american robin at 6 1 / 2 to 7 3 / 4 inches long . the male and female of this species look alike . depending on where they live , both male and female are an olive or russet color on their upperparts and have a white and lightly buff underside heavily spotted with brown . they also have a creamy white eye ring around each eye . the swainson ' s thrush has the same basic body shape as the american robin .
swainson ' s thrushes are not particularly common birds in the santa monica mountains at the zuma canyon bird banding station ( only 22 encounters in seven years ) . but since this bird can easily be mistaken for a hermit thrush , i thought the inclusion of its species account would be useful . swainson ' s and hermit thrushes have an almost sympatric breeding range , but swainson ' s thrushes do not winter in the u . s . but rather in southern mexico and into central america . there are six subspecies in two groups . the key problem along the west coast is that the local subspecies ,
swainson’s thrush flit their way into the yukon mainly from mid - may to the end of may , being one of the last songbirds to make it to the yukon in spring . these birds overwinter in southern - most mexico , and down through western ( and part of central ) south america . they leave the yukon for the winter usually from the second - half of august to early september . these thrush nest in a wide variety of habitats , from cottonwood stands to old - growth spruce forest . around our yard it is a mix of black spruce and lodgepole pine , and the swainson’s thrush love it . swainson’s thrush prefer coniferous forests , particularly spruce . they forage for a mixed diet of bugs ( basically any ) and berries . at teslin lake bird observatory , there is a thicket of high - bush cranberries and you often see the swainson’s thrush in there stuffing themselves . they mostly forage on the ground , but also by hopping from low branch to low branch . they glean insects from plant foliage and will occasionally ‘flycatch’ in flight .
a characteristic also shown by the adults of the wood thrush and a few other species .
swainson’s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) are smaller than a robin , averaging at about 7 inches in length . they are greyish brown , with a white throat , belly , and undertail . the breast is covered with large brown spots that extend and fade down to the belly . it has a white eyering with a pale , creamy lore stripe extending from the front of the eye to the base of the bill . if you get a good look , you can see that it looks as though the thrush is wearing eye glasses . that is one of the main characteristics that you use to identify a swainson’s thrush . grey - cheeked thrush have no eyeglasses , though they do have a thin eyering . hermit thrush have a thick white eyering , but no eyeglasses . hermit thrush also have a rich , rufous tail and bigger / bolder breast spots .
the swainson ' s thrush ' s nest is made up of moss , lichens , sticks , leaves and grasses . it is usually constructed and well hidden in a shrub or tree in a woodland or forest setting . the female lays three or four very light bluish - green eggs with light brown speckles .
the swainson ' s thrush forages in the leaf litter for insects and spiders . they also glean them from shrubs . so make sure you have lots of mulch in your garden . it also helps retain moisture , and nutrients for your plants .
2 . 9 hectares , on riparian woodland plot in san diego co . ( weaver 1989 ) . swainson’s thrush density decreased yearly on this plot after 1989 , disappearing by 1992 and absent at least through 1994 . weaver reports drought in 1990 and spring floodwaters which scoured the plot in the years 1991 - 1993 . but by 1997 , swainson’s thrushes had returned to the plot , with 3 males detected countersinging .
although the swainson ' s thrush does much of its feeding on the ground , it spends more time foraging in trees than do the other spot - breasted thrushes in washington . they hover while gleaning insects from foliage , and also catch flying insects . in spring and summer , when they feed predominantly on insects and other invertebrates , they forage mostly on the ground . as the season progresses and they eat more berries , they forage farther off the ground . the song and call of the swainson ' s thrush are quite distinctive , and may help a birder to locate this thrush that usually stays under cover .
reproduction : male establishes a territory and attracts a female by singing . swainson’s thrush’s nest is usually in a low conifer , sometimes in deciduous tree , at 2 to 10 feet above the ground . it’s a bulky open cup on a horizontal tree branch , built by female in about 4 days . it’s made of grasses , plants stems , moss , small twigs and mud . it is lined with skeletonised leaves , rootlets , lichens or moss , and animal hair .
every spring i look forward to the evenings and early hours of morning . i step outside into the cool , fresh air , and listen to one of the prettiest songs i have ever heard . one swainson’s thrush sings its heavenward spiralling song close by ; more answer it throughout the forest . at times up to seven or more males are scattered in the thickest parts of the forest by our house , defending their territories and competing with each other to attract a females attention . to hear the swainson’s thrush song and call , click here .
when attempting to attract swainson ' s thrushes to your yard , you will have to rely much more on your plant choices and creating a habitat for them than filling the feeder with delicious goodies . since swainson ' s thrushes rarely visit feeders , you will need to offer them food and shelter in the form of good garden plantings instead .
mack , diane evans and wang yong . 2000 . swainson ' s thrush ( catharus ustulatus ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto swainson’s thrush is often silent . the most typical call is an emphatic , low , liquid “whit” . we can hear also a soft “whup” . song is an ascending spiral of varied whistles . at night , a peeping “queep” is heard .
when controlling for plot effect , two of the above variables were found to account for within - plot differences in nest success - - willow shrub cover , which negatively correlated with nest success , and western swordfern cover , which positively correlated with nest success . it is interesting to note the negative correlation of nest success with willow shrub cover ( defined as < 5m high and stem of < 8cm dbh ) , considering that bent describes russet - backed swainson’s thrush as being attracted to willow - alder thickets . perhaps at the early stage of willow regeneration , some nest site requirement is not met for the swainson’s thrush . therefore , the simultaneous presence of willows and breeding swainson’s thrushes should not necessarily be taken to represent a healthy population .
swainson’s thrush is seasonally monogamous , but pairs often re - form in multiples seasons after repeating the pair - bonding process . this may facilitate rapid pairing . males arrive first ; initially tries to drive arriving females on its territory . after several days of female persistence , which may de strengthened by the male’s defensive behaviour , male accepts female and mating occurs .
swainson’s thrush sings from a high perch . it may flick its wings and raise its crest when agitated . when is performing an agonistic display ( a behaviour used to threaten another bird ) the bird draws its head back , raises its bill while moving it slightly to the side .
marzluff and lyon ( 1983 ) found swainson’s thrush abundance correlated with snag density , and 25 - 50 cm dbh live stems . they state that density of snags > 30 cm dbh reflect shrub cover and the occurrence of large stems . according to timossi ( 1990 ) the swainson’s thrush is found in moist ecotones , such as tree / shrub , tree / grass , or shrub / grass , with water and dense understory being necessary elements . she suggests that a dense understory and canopy closure of 40 - 100 % provides both protection from predators and an ample food supply .
a very short breeding season , documented by bent ( 1949 ) , prbo nest and banding data ( 1996 - 97 ) , and rogers ( 1994 ) , means a very narrow window of opportunity for reproduction , and possibly a high sensitivity to disturbance of breeding grounds . therefore , swainson’s thrushes are limited by production of young on the breeding grounds ( johnson and guepel 1995 ) . prolonged negative impacts on nest survivorship could be catastrophic to the swainson’s thrush . unfortunately , we have a profound lack of knowledge of nest survivorship and nesting requirements of the swainson’s thrushes breeding in california . this gap in knowledge could be distastrous for the conservation of the species , which appears to be extirpated from a large portion of its historic range .
the swainson’s thrush is best known for its distinctive , fluting song , the upward - spiraling melody that breeding males use to defend nests and territory and also probably to attract mates . while this song varies somewhat from one individual bird to the next , its whistling , constantly ascending quality is always recognizable once you’ve heard it .
two subspecies of swainson ' s thrush occur in washington , the russet - backed form in western washington and the southeast cascades , and the olive - backed form found in eastern washington and the northeast cascades . swainson ' s thrushes appear to benefit from the extensive logging of low - elevation west - side forests because logging leaves brushy , early - successional habitat . they are currently the most abundant and widely distributed spot - breasted thrush in washington . they are , however , still vulnerable to loss of habitat on breeding and wintering grounds . the breeding bird survey shows a small , not statistically significant decline in the washington population between 1980 and 2002 .
originally classified in the genus turdus from specimens on the columbia river in washington and the saskatchewan river in canada , swainson ' s thrush is now included in the genus catharus with the veery ( c . fuscescens ) and hermit ( c . guttatus ) , gray - cheeked ( c . minimus ) , and bicknell ' s ( c . bicknelli ) thrushes . among these and other closely related , spotted north american thrushes , it forages higher off the ground than its relatives and uses more aerial , fly - catching techniques to obtain insect prey , a characteristic that earned it the name
mosquito thrush
in maine ( bent 1949 ) . eight forms of swainson ' s thrush have been described based on geographical differences in coloration , with six currently recognized as subspecies . the confused historical taxonomy of this species and currently recognized differences may yet prompt further reclassification .
in new england spruce - fir forests , the nests of swainson’s thrushes are often lined with root - like cords of horsehair fungus . the fungal filaments can have antibiotic effects and may help deter nest pathogens .
swainson’s thrush is a common species , but has been gradually declining across its range ; experiencing a loss of about 38 % between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 100 million , with 28 % spending some part of the year in the u . s . , 72 % in canada , and 7 % in mexico . the species rates a 10 out of 20 on the continental concern score . swainson ' s thrush is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . this species ' short breeding season may render it sensitive to disturbance on nesting grounds . problems on breeding grounds include grazing , development , human activity , and invasions of nonnative plants . during spring and fall migration , significant numbers of swainson’s thrushes die from collisions with windows , radio and cell - phone towers , and tall buildings . ( for more on the dangers of lights to migrating birds , visit the fatal light awareness program . ) studies of bird deaths at communications towers in minnesota , illinois , and west virginia revealed that swainson’s thrushes were killed in greater numbers than any other bird species . back to top
swainson ' s thrush : breeds from alaska east across canada to newfoundland , south to british columbia and along the west coast and rocky mountains , and also in northern new england . during migration , it may occur throughout north american and the caribbean . spends winters in tropics , from central mexico south . prefers coniferous forests and willow thickets .
swainson’s thrushes feed at higher levels than their relatives . they move in short hops along branches looking for food , gleaning from leaves of broad - leaved and coniferous trees . going after insects , they also lunge , hover , and flycatch . swainson’s thrushes often perch on low twigs or branches to survey the litter below , then dive for prey . on the forest floor , they take long , springy hops from one hunting stop to the next . in addition to the male’s haunting song , a peeping flight call , and other vocalizations , swainson’s thrushes communicate aggression and other attitudes with a variety of silent body poses and displays , such as wing - flitting , leaf - tossing , and foot - quivering . on migration stopovers , swainson’s thrushes may join multispecies foraging flocks . on breeding grounds , mating begins with the male chasing a fleeing female . as the courtship warms up , the pair progresses to slow flights and perching together . back to top
distribution : the swainson ' s thrush winters in from central mexico to guyana , western brazil , peru , bolivia , northwestern argentina and paraguay . their summer range stretches from interior alaska , across canada to the northeastern states and southward through the central pacific northwest and midwestern states . these birds were found in nearly all ecological units of yukon - charley rivers national preserve during the yukon - charley rivers national preserve bird inventory , june 1999 and 2000 . they occurred at highest density in the lower elevations of the yukon river valley ( yv ) ecological unit . swainson ' s thrush was the fourth most frequently detected bird on the bird inventory as their distinctive song is heard over long distances .
hermit thrush is the only catharus thrush to winter widely in the lower 48 . they are told by their bold black spotted underparts , and chestnut tail that contrasts with browner upperparts . this bird is safely aged as a first - winter based on its retained juvenile upperwing coverts , which are tipped buff . view this photographer ' s galleries here : urltoken
during summer , look—and especially listen—for the swainson’s thrush and its distinctive , spiraling song in closed forests of northern north america and the west . swainson’s thrushes become numerous across most of forested north america during migration in spring and fall . though these birds can be hard to spot on the ground in a dim forest understory , they sing frequently in summer and call frequently during migration . in the breeding season , listen for the species’ beautiful , flutelike song coming from rich forest . ( just remember that hermit thrushes have a similar song , though it usually includes a clear , level introductory note . ) swainson’s thrush also gives its distinctive water - drip call quite frequently . once you get eyes on a candidate , check the face for that distinctive buffy - spectacled look . on winter grounds in central and northern south america , the species inhabits closed - canopy forest and can often be found attending army - ant swarms .
the family turdidae is a diverse group of birds including thrushes , townsend ' s solitaires , northern wheatears , bluebirds , and robins . members of this family are eloquent songsters and may be found in various habitats from woodlands to open areas . all have narrow , notched bills used to feed on insects and fruits and the young have spotted breast plumage . birds of the genus catharus include the swainson ' s , gray - cheeked , and hermit thrushes . the word thrush may be derived from the greek verb
to twitter ,
reflecting the active nature of these small birds . these
spotted breasted
thrushes closely resemble one another and prefer the forest understory . although swainson ' s thrush may be seen occasionally standing or running on the forest floor , these birds spend less time on the ground than other thrushes .
according to bbs data for 1966 - 1996 , declining , but not quite significantly ( p < 0 . 20 ) . prbo banding data for 1980 - 1992 at palomarin field station , marin co . also shows insignificant decline . manly and davidson ( 1993 ) report swainson’s thrush declining in california but not in north america , from 26 years of bbs data .
the veery is redder above , and the gray - cheeked thrush lacks buffy tones in the face . hermit thrushes have a reddish tail .
winker , k . , d . w . warner , and a . r . weisbrod . 1989 . the northern waterthrush and swainson’s thrush as transients at a temperate inland stopover site . in hagan , j . m . and d . w . johnston [ eds . ] , ecology and conservation of neotropical migrant landbirds . manomet bird observatory , woods hole , ma .
tell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .
on one site in the sierra region , disturbance to riparian habitat during breeding season may have caused disruption or displacement of swainson’s thrushes in 1995 and 1996 . stefani ( 1996 ) discovered that swainson’s thrush productivity declined between the period 1989 - 91 and 1996 at a site where a waterfowl habitat creation project had commenced in fall 1995 . restoration activities continued through the breeding season of 1996 , possibly contributing to the population decline on the site . she recommends avoiding such activities during future breeding seasons . also , two active swainson’s thrrush nests were destroyed in marin co . in 1997 , as a direct result of summer fish habitat restoration activities ; the nest was inadvertantly knocked from its supporting shrub during fence - building ( prbo data 1997 ) . these examples serve merely to illustrate that timing of riparian restoration activites is critical , particularly when considering productivity of a species with a very short breeding season . predators
description : swainson’s thrush is rather warm olive brown above , and whitish below , with a distinct warm buff wash to the face , throat and breast , and a distinct buffish eye ring . underparts show more restricted spotting than in song thrush , being only weakly marked on lower breast and flanks . both sexes are alike . eyes are dusk . legs and feet are flesh coloured . bill is yellow with black tip . immature is similar to adults . birds in the east are more olive brown above ; western birds are more reddish - brown .
descriptions : swainson ' s thrush inhabits boreal coniferous woodlands and forest margins . favoring damp habitats , they may be found in the moist forest understory or near riparian thickets . their most distinctive traits are their buffy
spectacles
( eye rings joined by a band across the bill ) . these 18cm birds are brown above contrasted by a bright buffy breast with dark spots . sides and flanks are grayish brown .
behaviour : swainson’s thrush forages near ground , but higher than other thrushes . it may occasionally fly - catch insects . in winter , it follows army - ants swarms . it gleans insects from vegetation , and also forages for other invertebrates on the ground . in late summer , they feed on berries . it hovers while gleaning insects from foliage , and also catches flying insects , sometimes even in the canopy .
swainson’s thrushes eat largely insects and arthropods during the breeding season ; they also eat fruits , particularly in fall and winter . they tend to reject yellow fruits and favor red ones , going after elderberries , blackberries , raspberries , twinberries , huckleberries , and other wild fruits including those of brier , false solomon’s seal , and sumac . insect prey items include beetles , caterpillars , flies , grasshoppers , and bugs . swainson’s thrushes also feed on ants—a dietary item more commonly associated with some woodpeckers and unusual among temperate songbirds . nestlings are fed mostly insects , including especially caterpillars , beetles , moths , and flies . back to top
this species may be displaced by the hermit thrush where their ranges overlap . possibly , the latter species adapts more readily to human encroachment upon its habitat .
of the american robin , orange and gray of the varied thrush , and the earthy tones of other forest species . all juvenile thrushes are spotted on the
although swainson ' s thrush is still considered one of the most common birds of northern spruce - fir forests , populations are declining even where abundant , particularly in alaska and the northeast . in california , the breeding range of this species has contracted during the last century , and
the disappearance of the swainson ' s thrush from yosemite valley is one of the unsolved mysteries of sierran ornithology
( marshall 1988 : 367 , citing beedy and granholm 1985 ) . the trend is clear , but the reasons are not . nests are not besieged by cowbirds , but predation rates are high , resulting in low nest - success rates overall , critically low in some locales . loss of breeding habitat may be a contributing factor , including loss of mature conifer forest and forest fragmentation , but swainson ' s thrushes are relatively abundant in some early - successional habitats , such as conifer plantations ; this fact clouds the forest - management issue . on the pacific coast , loss of riparian habitat to development and grazing have likely contributed to declines . the impact of habitat changes on wintering grounds is unclear .
during the peak of migration , swainson ' s thrushes are often very common in woodlots and parks , lurking in the thickets , slipping into fruiting trees to pluck berries . although they tend to stay out of sight , the patient birder eventually can see them well enough to discern the bold buffy eye - rings that give these birds their alert or startled look . like the other brown thrushes , swainson ' s migrate mostly at night , and their distinctive callnotes can be heard from overhead on clear nights during spring and fall .
, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .
this species account is dedicated in honor of carol sisler , member of the cornell lab of ornithology ' s administrative board .
the more i learn about god and his creation , the more in awe and humbled i am at his greatness , his beauty and his love . the fact that god allows man to discover new things about his creation and learn more about the world he made is a humbling thought , especially when we , as humans don ' t always give him the praise or credit he is due . god ' s wisdom is shown in his varied and wondrous works . the swainson ' s thrush ' s song is one of the many voices in creation that praises their creator . we should do the same and humble ourselves before him because , after all , who are we in comparison to god himself ?
no published nest data exists for swainson’s thrush in california , and little exists for the russet - backed subspecies overall . data has been reported for seven nests located near juneau , ak ( rogers 1994 ) . according to diane evans , compiler of swth bna species account , very little nest data , published or unpublished , exists for the pacific coast region besides prbo and krrc nest data collected between 1995 and 1997 in marin county ( pers . comm . ) .
thrushes are well represented in north america with sixty species in thirteen genera ( including the extinct grand cayman thrush and amahui of hawaii ) . this family includes well known birds such as the american robin and bluebirds , and lesser known birds such as the townsend ' s solitaire of western mountain forests .
dilger , w . c . 1956a . adaptive modifications and ecological isolating mechanisms in the thrush genera catharus and hylocichla . wilson bull . no . 68 : 171 - 199 . close
they nest from early june to late july , building cups out of grasses , stems , small twigs , and moss in trees and shrubs . their nests can be found up to 6 metres high , but the average height is usually around 2 . 5 metres high . i found one , possibly two swainson’s thrush nests during our years here in tagish . the first was about two meters high in a small spruce tree with three brown - speckled blue eggs in it . the female seemed to only incubate at night , as i saw her once at 5 : 30 am , and not once during the day . unfortunately , the nest was found by a squirrel , and all of the eggs were destroyed . the second nest was just this past summer . i don’t know for sure if it was a swainson’s thrush , but it was being built on a ledge just under the eves of our outdoor shower . it was a cup nest of grass . we did have a swainson’s thrush nesting in there the year we moved here , but a weasel ate the eggs . this nest remained incomplete ; i guess the couple didn’t like their view . usually one to five eggs are laid , and are incubated by the female for about twelve to thirteen days . the female will only begin incubation after she has laid the third egg . when the eggs hatch , the hatchlings are fed by both parents and usually fledge after ten to twelve days .
none of the thrushes of mainland north america are considered threatened although populations of the wood thrush have declined in many areas possibly due to deforestation on its breeding and central american wintering grounds . most hawaiian solitaries , though , have become critically endangered or have gone extinct because of changes to their fragile habitat and susceptibility to avian malaria . ornithologists are also concerned about the future of some species , such as the bicknell ' s thrush , due to destruction and development of their small wintering habitat areas .
stanwood , c . j . 1913 . the olive - backed thrush ( hylocichla ustulata swainsoni ) at his summer home . wilson bull . no . 25 : 118 - 137 . close
dunne , p . ( 2006 ) . pete dunne ' s essential field guide companion . houghton mifflin harcourt , new york , usa .
swainson’s thrushes nest in shady sites in the forest understory—especially in thickets of deciduous shrubs or conifer saplings , mostly 3–10 feet off the ground . they build their nests on plants such as willow , fir , spruce , blackberry , alder , aspen , birch , maple , oak , briers , gooseberry , rose , and sumac .
you can also add more appeal to your yard for swainson ' s thrushes by adding coniferous evergreens for cover . since insects also make up a large part of a thrush ' s diet , ceasing the use of pesticides will make your yard even more bird pleasing and therefore , they will spend more time in your yard where you can enjoy them . of course , since thrushes dwell primarily on forest floors , having a forest or woodland nearby your home is key to enjoying these fabulous singing birds . if you don ' t have a woodland , forest or densely treed area nearby your home , chances are that you will have to go elsewhere to enjoy thrushes .
with spotted breast and reddish tail , the hermit thrush lives up to its name . although celebrated for its ethereal song , it is mostly a quiet and unobtrusive bird that spends much of its time in the lower branches of the undergrowth or on the forest floor , often seen flicking its wings while perched and quickly raising and slowly lowering its tail . a highly variable species in color and size , the hermit thrush ' s morphological characteristics and plumage have been well studied , with 12 - 13 subspecies now recognized ( see systematics ) .
swainson ' s thrushes are highly migratory , and none winter in washington . they arrive late in spring , and migration is spread out , with spring migrants appearing in late may in eastern washington . fall migration takes place during august and september . migration is mostly at night . the birds migrate to tropical forests for the winter .
johnson and geupel ( 1996 ) suggest that habitat specificity on their breeding grounds may be the basis for swainson’s thrushes being limited in the summer . they outline degree of habitat specificity by season : in breeding season swainson’s thrushes are riparian woodland specialists ( grinnell and miller 1944 , bent 1949 , verner and boss 1980 ) , on migration they use a range of habitats ( winker et al 1992 ) , and in winter they are possibly nomadic ( ramos and warner 1980 , rappole and warner 1980 ) , although there are arguments against this
winter nomad
interpretation ( marshall 1988 ) . they report a high hy return rate of 18 . 3 % at the palomarin field station in marin county , ca and hypothesize that
scarcity of habitat may limit dispersal possibilities .
bent ( 1949 ) describes a contrast in habitat preference between the two subspecies , stating that the western russet - backed subspecies most typically nests in willow - alder thickets , while the eastern olive - backed subspecies prefers young conifers . verner and boss ( 1980 ) state that in the western sierra , swainson’s thrushes prefer dense thickets near streams or wet meadows . swainson’s thrushes were found to be more abundant in riparian habitats than upland habitats on mixed - conifer study sites in the cascade mountains , lane county , oregon ( anthony et al 1996 ) .
thrushes are most well known for their beautiful flute - like songs ; an attribute shared by many north american thrush species . the caroling song of the american robin is often viewed as a harbinger of spring .
team wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet’s species and habitats from destruction .
in a study of avian abundance in riparian habitat of the cascade mountains , lane county , oregon , breeding densities differed by seral stage . plots were characterized as old - growth ( 400 - 450 yrs ) , mature ( 130 - 200 yrs ) , and young ( 25 - 35 yrs ) . young plots had been clearcut ; mature , even - aged plots had burned in a fire in the 1850s ; and old - growth were natural , unlogged forests . swainson’s thrush was least abundant in old - growth ( 6 . 50 / 40 ha ,
one of the most beautiful sounds on a spring or summer evening is the soft fluting calls of thrushes , making music in their woodland home . when i think of that family of birds it makes me think of their beautiful reedy like songs , softly lulling the day to sleep at sunset . its such a wonderful experience to witness these nightly concerts and its one of my favorite things about spring and summer . well known for their delightful songs , thrushes are truly virtuosos when it comes to their singing abilities . no matter where you live in the united states , with the proper habitat , you are sure to have one or more species from this family of birds to serenade you with a morning and evening song . here in the pacific northwest we have a few different types of thrushes , the varied thrush and american robin are year round residents here . we also have the hermit thrush in the winter and the western bluebird and swainson ' s thrush in the spring and summer . yes , the robin and bluebird are thrushes ! their young ' s spotted plumage ( especially on their chests ) is a clue to their family heritage .
people have developed different instruments over the years to play various types of music . some musical instruments like the flute , clarinet and saxophone are called woodwinds . they play beautiful music and are often used in orchestras and bands . but did you know that god created some thrushes with a woodwind - like song ? that ' s right , god thought of it first ! thrushes like the swainson ' s produce reedy flute - like calls which they sing in chorus in spring and summer at dawn and dusk .
swainson’s thrushes breed mainly in coniferous forests , except in coastal california where they are found primarily in deciduous streamside woodlands , alder or willow thickets , and occasionally in coastal scrub . these birds range from sea level up to about 8 , 500 feet in elevation . in coastal california , where their habitat may depend on the presence of fog , they tend to stay below about 500 feet . during migration , swainson’s thrushes occupy a wide variety of habitats , seeking mainly areas with dense undergrowth . look for migrants especially in forests , canyon bottoms , young woodland , swamp forests , lake edges , and parks . winter habitat includes primary and old second - growth tropical forest and forest - pasture edges . back to top
verner , j . and a . s . boss . 1980 . california wildlife and their habitats : western sierra nevada . gen . tech . rep . psw - 37 . pacific southwest forest and range exp . stn . , usfs , u . s . dept . agric . , berkeley , ca .
swainson’s thrushes declined and eventually disappeared over a 5 year period ( 1989 - 1994 ) from a 11 . 7 ha bbc plot in san diego county , after heavy spring flooding scoured the understory in the years 1991 - 93 ( weaver 1989 - 1994 ) . they have since returned , with three males detected countersinging in 1997 ( weaver , pers . comm ) .


tellina tenuis , the thin tellin , is a species of marine bivalve mollusc in the family tellinidae .

it is found off the coasts of north west europe and in the mediterranean sea where it lives buried in sandy sediments .

bivalves are molluscs with a body compressed between two usually similar shell valves joined by an elastic ligament .

there are teeth at the edge of the shell and the animal has a muscular foot , gills , siphons , mouth and gut and is surrounded by a mantle inside the shell .

tellina tenuis

scientific synonyms and common names tellina tenuis da costa , 1778 tellina exigua poli , 1791 tellina polita pulteney , 1799 non tellina polita poli , 1795 non tellina polita spengler , 1798 tellina exigua var . alba costa o . g . , 1830 tellina exigua var . flavescens costa o . g . , 1830 tellina hyalina deshayes , 1835 non tellina hyalina gmelin , 1791 tellina exigua deshayes , 1835 non tellina exigua gmelin , 1791 tellina tenuis var . angusta philippi , 1836 non tellina angusta gmelin , 1791 macoma commutata monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . flavida monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . pudibunda monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . albida monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . major monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . minor monterosato , 1884 tellina exigua var . aurantia monterosato , 1884 tellina tenuis var . aita de gregorio , 1885 tellina tenuis var . browni de gregorio , 1885 tellina tenuis var . jeffreysi de gregorio , 1885 tellina tenuis var . brevior b . d . d . , 1886 tellina bourguignati locard , 1886 tellina tenuis var . maxima b . d . d . , 1886 tellina tenuis var . minuta b . d . d . , 1886 tellina carnaria sensu von born , 1780 non linné , 1758 tellina incarnata sensu chemnitz , 1782 non linné , 1758 tellina planata sensu pennant , 1777 non linné , 1758 tellina tenuis sensu auct . non da costa , 1778 tellina exilis sensu brusina , 1866 non lamarck , 1818 angulus tenuis
worms - world register of marine species - tellina tenuis var . angusta philippi , 1836
dana campbell marked
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in kames bay the density of tellina tenuis falls in a progressive manner from l . w . m . to h . w . m .
distribution tellina tenuis was found in both periods in the western near - coastal zone . in addition , the species was also observed in . . .
the size - frequency curves and density of tellina tenuis in the other bays at l . w . m . correspond with those of half - tide in kames bay .
the present paper deals with the results of investigations into certain phases in the life - history of the bivalve mollusc tellina tenuis carried out during the autumn of 1926 and 1927 .
the tellina tenuis population in kames bay seems to be composed of four year - groups , one of which is almost unrepresented . collections from neighbouring bays indicate that older groups may be present .
dana campbell marked
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as trusted on the
tellina crassa
page .
dana campbell marked
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as trusted on the
tellina pulchella
page .
dana campbell marked
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dekker , r and beukema , j . j 1999 . relations of summer and winter temperatures with dynamics and growth of two bivalves , tellina tenuis and abra tenuis , on the northern edge of their intertidal distribution . journal of sea research , vol . 42 , issue . 3 , p . 207 .
holme , n . a . 1950 . population - dispersion in tellina tenuis da costa . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 29 , issue . 02 , p . 267 .
barnett , peter r . o . 1985 . the effect of temperature on the growth of planktonic larvae of tellina tenuis da costa . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 89 , issue . 1 , p . 1 .
ansell , alan d . and trevallion , ann 1967 . studies on tellina tenuis da costa i . seasonal growth and biochemical cycle . journal of experimental marine biology and ecology , vol . 1 , issue . 2 , p . 220 .
mcintyre , a . d . 1970 . the range of biomass in intertidal sand , with special reference to the bivalve tellina tenuis . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , vol . 50 , issue . 03 , p . 561 .
the two closely related species , t . tenuis and t . fabula , are both plentiful in kames bay , but their range is not coincident .
buchanan , j . s . 1978 . cytological studies on a new species of rickettsia found in association with a phage in the digestive gland of the marine bivalve mollusc , tellina tenuis ( da costa ) . journal of fish diseases , vol . 1 , issue . 1 , p . 27 .
young tellina tenuis , passing the 2 - mm . sieve but retained by the 1 - mm . sieve , were found in kames bay in august , chiefly below l . w . m . , but in october plentifully distributed up to half - tide and in lesser numbers higher up the shore .
in kames bay tellina tenuis ranges from a little below h . w . m . to depths of about 4 fm . the maximum concentration of about 1000 per sq . m . is found at l . w . m . springs and the numbers decrease to zero at h . w . m . and 4 fm .
distribution tellina tenuis was found in both periods in the western near - coastal zone . in addition , the species was also observed in the area of the hinder banks , but only in the 1994 - 2001 period . the frequency of occurrence in both periods was relatively low and the species never reached high density levels ( maximum 30 ind . / m2 ) . [ details ]
habitat tellina tenuis occurs in a wide range of sediments : median grain size of 150 to 500 μm . the main restrictive factor appears to be the mud content : the species only occurs in sediments with a mud content < 20 % . the relative occurrence of 10 % in sediments with a mud content of 40 - 50 % is considered an outlier and hence seen as unreliable . [ details ]
the dispersion of tellina tenuis da costa in the laboratory was analysed by the clark and evans nearest - neighbour test and by the kolmogorov - smirnov one - sample test . the dispersion was random , with a slight tendency toward aggregation that was independent of density . in the field , the dispersion was analysed by the clark and evans nearest - neighbour test and by the x 2 approximation to fisher ' s coefficient of dispersion . the dispersion was again random , this time with a slight tendency toward spacing out that was independent of density . the tendency toward aggregation displayed in the laboratory was independent of the dispersion pattern shown at the start of the experiment , and also unaffected by the edge of the container . the apparent randomness suggests that t . tenuis is primarily a suspension feeder , but may be a deposit feeder under certain environmental conditions .
prediction of safe levels of effluent discharge have in the past been largely based on the results of short term acute toxicity tests ( lc 5 0 s ) . such tests are usually carried out in unnatural experimental conditions , and in consequence the results are of only limited value . there is a need to enlarge the concept of the routine bioassay test to include quantitative measurement of the effects of pollutants on behaviour , physiology and metabolism . this paper describes a simple rapid bioassay test in which the effect of pollutants on the burrowing of the bivalve tellina tenuis has been used as a quantitative measure of pollutant effect .
description a thin , strongly flattened shell with an irregular oval shape . front edge broadly rounded , back edge tapering in a clear angle . the back is somewhat less acuminate than in the tellina fabula . the shell surface is practically smooth with only fine growth lines . measures up to 30 mm long . the colour varies from white with dark colour bands to pinkish red . [ details ]
the thin tellin is a species which regularly washes ashore . you usually find both valves still attached to one another . the connecting ligament between the two shell halves is namely very strong . the thin tellin is reasonably easy to find on the sand thanks to its pink to orange color . this colorful shellfish usually lives hidden in the sea bottom , where it ' s difficult to find despite its color . for food and oxygen , it extends its siphons out of the sand and filters the water . the thin tellin closely resembles the baltic tellin but is more delicate , flatter and lighter .
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ovate , posterior shortened , wedge - shaped and curves to the right when viewed from dorsal side . anterior gently sloping and broadly curved at anterior margin .
prominent mid - brown band extending less than a third the way to the posterior margin .
2 cardinals in each valve . in lv anterior bifid , posterior very weak . in rv posterior bifid . 2 laterals in rv , anterior short but prominent , posterior small , below nymph plate . 1 short posterior lateral in lv .
pallial sinus very deep , extends upwards and almost to anterior adductor and is confluent with the pallial line . cruciform muscle scars visible .
white / pink / orange / yellow external colouration more intense and covering more of the shell .
a burrower in sand and silty sand . lives from the mid intertidal to approximately 10m . widely distributed around all coasts .
but lacks the scissulate sculpture , is not so narrow and less acute posteriorly .
the marine life information network for britain and ireland ( marlin ) provides information for marine environmental management , protection and education . it is a centre of excellence in spatially based and time - series marine biological information and supports good stewardship in the marine environment .
national biodiversity network ' s gateway . use it to explore uk biodiversity data , as contributed by participating data providers .
marbef marbef , a network of excellence funded by the european union and consisting of 94 european marine institutes , is a platform to integrate and disseminate knowledge and expertise on marine biodiversity , with links to researchers , industry , stakeholders and the general public .
m . j . de kluijver , s . s . ingalsuo & r . h . de bruyne
just behind the midline directed inwards and backwards , almost touching . approximately oval in outline with the
white , pink , rose , orange or yellow in colour and various shades of each , normally in irregular bands , exceptionally each valve may be differently coloured .
is transparent , glossy . inside of shell coloured like the outside but normally fainter .
a deep burrower in sand or mud . this habit has had effect in developing a powerful
inhabits fine sand generally from about the middle of the intertidal zone to a depth of a few metres . it sometimes occurs in very large populations , particularly near low water - mark , where it may be the most abundant macro - invertebrate , its numbers steadily decreasing up the beach , where the sands dry out appreciably at low tide , or as coarse sand is met . the depth to which the animal burrows depends on the state of the tide and may be 10 . 16 - 12 . 7 cm , when the tide is out but less at high tide .
haas , f . , 1926 . lamellibranchia . in grimpe , g . & wagner , e . : die tierwelt der nord - und ostsee .
hayward , p . j . , wigham , g . d . & n . yonow , 1990 . mollusca i : polyplacophora , scaphopoda , and gastropoda . in : the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe . ( ed . p . j . hayward & j . s . ryland ) . clarendon press , oxford : 628 - 730 .
poppe , g . t . & y . goto , 1993 . european seashells . vol . ii . 221 pp . wiesbaden / verlag christa hemmen .
seaward , d . r . , 1990 . distribution of the marine molluscs of north west europe . nature conservancy council .
step , e . , 1927 . shell life . 421 pp . frederick warne & co . , ltd , london .
tebble , n . , 1966 . british bivalve seashells . 212 pp . trustees of the british museum ( natural history ) . london .
philippi r . a . ( 1836 ) . enumeratio molluscorum siciliae cum viventium tum in tellure tertiaria fossilium , quae in itinere suo observavit . vol . 1 . schropp , berlin [ berolini ] : xiv + 267 p . , pl . 1 - 12 , available online at urltoken ; = article & id ; = 355 & itemid ; = 167 page ( s ) : 27 [ details ]
check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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da costa e . m . ( 1778 ) . historia naturalis testaceorum britanniae , or , the british conchology . london : millan , white , elmsley & robson . xii + 254 + viii pp . 17 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 210 - 211 [ details ]
description a thin , strongly flattened shell with an irregular oval shape . front edge broadly rounded , back edge tapering in a clear . . .
long term trends in the macrobenthos of the belgian continental shelf ( macrobel ) .
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
ardovini , r . ; cossignani , t . ( 2004 ) . west african seashells ( including azores , madeira and canary is . ) = conchiglie dell ' africa occidentale ( incluse azzorre , madeira e canarie ) . english - italian edition . l ' informatore piceno : ancona , italy . isbn 88 - 86070 - 11 - x . 319 pp . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 52 [ details ]
zamouri - langar , n . ; chouba , l . ; ajjabi chebil , l . ; mrabet , r . ; el abed , a . ( 2011 ) . les coquillages bivalves des côtes tunisiennes . institut national des sciences et technologies de la mer : salammbô . isbn 978 - 9938 - 9512 - 0 - 2 . 128 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
backeljau , t . ( 1986 ) . lijst van de recente mariene mollusken van belgië [ list of the recent marine molluscs of belgium ] . koninklijk belgisch instituut voor natuurwetenschappen : brussels , belgium . 106 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
van zweeden , c . ; van asch , m . ; van den ende , d . ; troost , k . ( 2013 ) . het kokkelbestand in de nederlandse kustwateren in 2013 . imares wageningen report , c115 / 13 . imares wageningen ur : ijmuiden . 46 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
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filippova , nadezhda a . gerasimova , alexandra v . and maximovich , nikolay v . 2015 . methodical recommendations for the description of soft bottom communities in the littoral zone . marine biology research , vol . 11 , issue . 10 , p . 1076 .
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in the exe estuary is shown to be uniformly distributed , indicating a significant degree of ‘over - dispersion’ .
area it is shown that fewer individuals than would be expected occur less than 1 in . from their nearest neighbour , and none occurs closer than 0·6 in .
when the population density was artificially increased on the shore the same characteristic spacing was found at a moderate density , but not at a rather higher density .
it is suggested that spacing is correlated with the foraging activities of the inhalent siphon on the soil surface .
very dense populations have been found by stephen in other areas , indicating that the size of the ‘territory’ does not limit density . his results show no evidence of the same phenomena as observed in the exe .
studies on the scottish marine fauna . additional observations on the fauna of the sandy and muddy areas of the tidal zone
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collections in the intertidal zone and below l . w . m . , were made in a number of bays in the cumbrae and neighbourhood , kames bay , millport , being selected for intensive study .
the size - frequency distribution shows a regular gradation from the lower to the higher levels . at l . w . m . and below individuals of small size predominate , while at h . w . m . they are proportionately few .
the rate of growth may therefore be influenced by the density of population as well as by the habitat .
the amount of young brood on the bottom seems to vary considerably from year to year , being large and small in alternate years .
eipe sperms were found from may onwards and ova were rounding off in june .
the food usually consists of vegetable detritus , but during the spring increase diatoms appear almost exclusively in the gut .
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