the underworld windowskate ( fenestraja plutonia ) is a species of cartilaginous fish in the family rajidae .

it is also known as the pluto skate .

the underworld windowskate is known from patches of continental slope in the western atlantic ocean between the coasts of the southern united states and suriname .

fenestraja plutonia

the following term was not found in genome : fenestraja plutonia [ orgn ] .
external morphology of fenestraja and gurgesiella . adult male 232 mm tl . . . | download scientific diagram
figure 3 : external morphology of fenestraja and gurgesiella . adult male 232 mm tl ( zmh 119851 ) of fenestraja plutonia ( garman , 1881 ) in ( a ) dorsal and ( b ) ventral views , as well as adult male holotype 424 mm tl ( zmh 25046 ) of gurgesiella dorsalifera mceachran & compagno , 1980 in ( c ) dorsal and ( d ) ventral views .
fenestraja maceachrani ( séret 1989 ) in honor of john d . mceachran ( b . 1941 , note latinization of “mc” to “mac” ) , for his major contributions to skate and ray systematics
( of raja plutonia garman , 1881 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of breviraja plutonia ( garman , 1881 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of gurgesiella plutonia ( garman , 1881 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
justification : fenestraja plutonia is a small ( to 27 cm tl ) deepwater skate known from depths of 293–1 , 024 m with a patchy distribution in the western central atlantic . virtually nothing is known of this species ' biology . no information is available on interactions with fisheries and while it is a potential bycatch of deeper water demersal trawling , its wide bathymetric range probably provides it with refuge at depth . however , at present this species cannot be assessed beyond data deficient .
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western central atlantic : recorded from north carolina to florida keys , bahamas , northeastern gulf of mexico , costa rica , colombia , venezuela , guyana and suriname ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) .
bathydemersal deepwater species reported at depths from 293–1 , 024 m ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . maximum size 27 cm total length ( tl ) , and males mature at about 23 cm tl ( mceachran and carvalho 2002 ) . reproduction is presumably oviparous , like other skates . little else is known of the biology of this species .
no specific information is available on the bycatch of this species in any fisheries but it may be vulnerable to bycatch in deepwater trawl fisheries off southern usa , in the gulf of mexico , and potentially elsewhere . there is probably some refuge for this species in deeper water beyond the depth of current fishing activities .
further surveys are required to better define the species ' distribution , depth range and biology . careful monitoring should also be undertaken should fisheries expand to greater depths in the region . the development and implementation of management plans ( national and / or regional e . g . , under the fao international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks : ipoa sharks ) are required to facilitate the conservation and sustainable management of all chondrichthyan species in the region .
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latin , fenestra , - ae = small hole or opening in a bone + latin , raja , - ae = a fish , raja sp . ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 290 - 750 m ( ref . 28767 ) . deep - water
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 3 cm tl ( female )
first and dorsal confluent . thorns on anterior part of tail and disc are larger and more conspicuous . upper surface from pale yellowish brown to darker greyish brown , purplish brown or mouse gray . lower surface yellowish white ( ref . 6902 ) .
deep water species ( ref . 6902 ) . oviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . eggs have horn - like projections on the shell ( ref . 205 ) .
oviparous , paired eggs are laid . embryos feed solely on yolk ( ref . 50449 ) .
mceachran , j . d . and k . a . dunn , 1998 . phylogenetic analysis of skates , a morphologically conservative clade of elasmobranchs ( chondrichthyes : rajidae ) . copeia 1998 ( 2 ) : 271 - 290 . ( ref . 27314 )
) : 8 . 5 - 15 . 9 , mean 11 . 5 ( based on 77 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5039 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00302 ( 0 . 00137 - 0 . 00665 ) , b = 3 . 21 ( 3 . 03 - 3 . 39 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 26 of 100 ) .
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compagno , leonard j . v . / hamlett , william c . , ed .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
deep water species ( ref . 6902 ) . oviparous ( ref . 50449 ) . eggs have horn - like projections on the shell ( ref . 205 ) .
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froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
mceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223–1316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
( of raja acanthiderma fowler , 1947 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
reports on the results of dredging , under the supervisionof ' alexander agassiz , along the atlantic coast of the united states during the summer of 1880 , by the u . s . coast survey steamer
blake ,
commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xii . reports on the selachians .
( garman , 1881 ) : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018
first and dorsal confluent . thorns on anterior part of tail and disc are larger and more conspicuous . upper surface from pale yellowish brown to darker greyish brown , purplish brown or mouse gray . lower surface yellowish white
host - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
the list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .
rather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .
but we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .
unless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .
this list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .
in the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .
when subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .
type genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .
type species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .
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atlantoraja menni 1972 atlanto , referring to distribution of a . castelnaui and a . cyclophora in southwestern atlantic ocean ; raia , latin for ray or skate
bathyraja ishiyama 1958 bathy , deep , referring to deepwater habitat of b . trachouros ; raia , latin for ray or skate
bathyraja diplotaenia ( ishiyama 1952 ) diplo , double ; taen , band or ribbon , referring to how ventral fin is divided into “double ribbons” ( i . e . , deeply notched between anterior and posterior lobes )
bathyraja eatonii ( günther 1876 ) in honor of naturalist and explorer rev . alfred edmund eaton ( 1845 - 1929 ) , who collected type
bathyraja ishiharai stehmann 2005 in honor of hajime ishihara ( b . 1950 ) , stehmann’s “skatology” colleague and friend for more than 25 years , who devoted his life’s research to chondrichthyan fishes , producing important revisions of north pacific bathyraja
bathyraja longicauda ( de buen 1959 ) longus , long ; cauda , tail , referring to long caudal region , 52 . 9 % of total length in holotype
bathyraja maccaini springer 1971 in honor of antarctic zoologist john c . mccain ( b . 1939 , note latinization of “mc” to “mac” ) , collector of the type , aboard the m / v hero in 1967 ( mccain later became a senior research scientist at the university of petroleum and minerals , dharan , saudi arabia , where he investigated the effects of oil spills in the persian gulf )
bathyraja richardsoni ( garrick 1961 ) in honor of l . r . richardson , victoria university of wellington , “for his extensive contribution to deep water research in new zealand , and especially in cook strait where the type specimen was taken”
bathyraja schroederi ( krefft 1968 ) in honor of william c . schroeder ( 1895 - 1977 ) , woods hole oceanographic institution , for his outstanding contribution to the study of western atlantic elasmobranchs
bathyraja shuntovi dolganov 1985 in honor of russian zoologist vyacheslav shuntov ( b . 1937 )
bathyraja tunae stehmann 2005 in honor of m . sc . student lic . maría cristina oddone f . , nicknamed “tuna , ” the “most enthusiastic elasmobranch student” stehmann has ever met ; “the author wishes her luck in her further career , and that all her dreams may come true . ”
bathyraja tzinovskii dolganov 1983 in honor of arctic oceanographer vladimir diodorovich tzinovskiy ( b . 1964 , also spelled tzinovsky ) , p . p . shirshov institute of oceanology ( moscow ) , who collected type
bathyraja smirnovi ( soldatov & pavlenko 1915 ) in honor of “mr . smirnov , ” inspector of fishes , who collected fishes from the sea of okhotsk
brochiraja heuresa last & séret 2012 latinized from the greek heuresis ( that which is found , discovered ) , based on the ancient greek heureka ( “i have found it” ) or , in modern english , “ eureka , ” referring to its being discovered among a collection of skates the authors initially thought represented a different species , b . aenigma
brochiraja microspinifera last & mceachran 2006 micro - , small , being a dwarfed version of its larger new zealand sibling species , b . spinifera
irolita waitii ( mcculloch 1911 ) patronym not identified but clearly in honor of zoologist and museum director edgar r . waite ( 1866 - 1928 ) , who works on fishes are frequently cited by mcculloch
notoraja ishiyama 1958 etymology not explained , perhaps notos , back , referring to numerous prickles on dorsal surface , or notos , south , referring to occurrence of n . tobitukai in “southernmost regions within the seas inhabited by the northern members” of breviraja ; raia , latin for ray or skate
notoraja inusitata séret & last 2012 unusual or strange , referring to its “strange” appearance , i . e . , head and disk morphology resembling some species of sinobatis , bathyraja and insentiraja
notoraja tobitukai ( hiyama 1940 ) in honor of t . tobituka , under whose direction the trawling fishery survey collected the type
pavoraja alleni mceachran & fechhelm 1982 in honor of ichthyologist gerald r . allen ( b . 1942 ) , western australia museum ( perth ) , who furnished the authors with specimens
pavoraja pseudonitida last , mallick & yearsley 2008 pseudo - , false , i . e . , although this species may superficially resemble p . nitida , such an appearance is false
psammobatis günther 1870 psammos , sand , referring to sandy point , magellan strait , argentina , type locality of p . rudis ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray
psammobatis normani mceachran 1983 in honor of ichthyologist j . r . ( john roxborough ) norman ( 1898 - 1944 ) , british museum ( natural history ) , who first described this ray but identified it as p . scobina in 1937
pseudoraja bigelow & schroeder 1954 a pseudo - , or false , raja : authors believed lack of dorsal fin and well - developed caudal fin on p . fischeri were sufficiently distinct to forbid its placement in rajidae
pseudoraja fischeri bigelow & schroeder 1954 in honor of zoological artist e . n . fischer , for the “skillful portrayals of elasmobranchs” featured in many publications by bigelow and schroeder
rhinoraja taranetzi dolganov 1983 in honor of the “eminent expert” on fishes of the far - eastern seas of the u . s . s . r . , anatoly yakovlevich taranetz ( 1910 - 1941 ) [ often placed in bathyraja ]
cruriraja hulleyi aschliman , ebert & compagno 2010 in honor of percy alexander “butch” hulley ( b . 1941 ) , iziko south african museum , for his “pioneering” research on southern african skates ( where this skate occurs )
gurgesiella de buen 1959 etymology not explained ; probably derived from gurges , abyss , referring to deepwater habitat of g . furvescens
amblyraja frerichsi ( krefft 1968 ) in honor of th . frerichs , captain of the research vessel walther herwig , from which type was collected , for “his keen interest in deep - sea catches , which assured us many precious discoveries” ( translation )
beringraja ishihara , treloar , bor , senou & jeong 2012 bering , referring to the bering sea , where b . binoculata and b . pulchra are presumed to have originated since they are allopatrically distributed on both sides of the sea ; raia , latin for ray or skate
breviraja colesi bigelow & schroeder 1948 patronym not identified , possibly in honor of angler and amateur shark and ray biologist russell j . coles ( 1865 - ? )
dactylobatus clarkii ( bigelow & schroeder 1958 ) in honor of robert s . clark , for his 1926 revision of european skates and rays
dentiraja whitley 1940 denti - , referring to numerous denticles embedded in skin of raja dentata ( = dentiraja lemprieri ) , i . e . , a denticulated raja
dentiraja australis ( macleay 1884 ) southern or australian , this being the first time macleay has known of a “true” skate ( i . e . , raja and its relatives ) being found in port jackson
dentiraja confusa ( last 2008 ) referring to previous confusion with two other australasian skates , d . cerva and zearaja nasuta
dentiraja endeavouri ( last 2008 ) “after the ill - fated f . i . s . endeavour , the federal fisheries survey vessel that was responsible for collecting the first specimens of this species and so many of australia’s continental shelf fishes in the early 20th century before it along with all hands was lost at sea in 1914”
dentiraja lemprieri ( richardson 1845 ) in honor of deputy assistant commissary - general f . j . lempriere , “to whose exertions the ichthyology of van diemen’s land [ tasmania ] is much indebted”
dipturus bullisi ( bigelow & schroeder 1962 ) in honor of marine biologist harvey r . bullis , jr . , for providing the batoid fishes collected during the exploratory cruises of u . s . fish and wildlife service vessels in the gulf of mexico , caribbean and along the south american coast
dipturus campbelli ( wallace 1967 ) in honor of g . g . campbell , “who was instrumental in the establishment of a marine biological research institute on the east coast of south africa”
dipturus crosnieri ( séret 1989 ) in honor of carcinologist alain crosnier ( b . 1930 ) , who initiated the deep trawling surveys off madagascar in the 1970s , and who entrusted séret with his valuable collection of madagascar skates
dipturus doutrei ( c adenat 1960 ) in honor of m . p . doutre , veterinary surgeon , labaortoire national de l’élevage et de recherches vétérinaires , dakar , senegal , and chief fisheries officer for senegal , off the coast of which this skate occurs ( note : doutre named a cod , merluccius polli cadenati , after cadenat the same year )
dipturus garricki ( bigelow & schroeder 1958 ) in honor of j . a . f . ( jack ) garrick ( 1928 - 1999 ) , victoria university college , wellington , for his work on the elasmobranchs of new zealand
dipturus gigas ( ishiyama 1958 ) large , i . e . , being the largest member of a raja subgenus ishiyama named tengujei ( now a junior synonym of dipturus )
dipturus intermedius ( parnell 1837 ) presumably referring to its being intermediate in form between d . batis and d . oxyrinchus
dipturus olseni ( bigelow & schroeder 1951 ) in honor of yngve h . olsen , assistant editor of the authors’ “fishes of the western north atlantic” monographs , for his “excellent editorial work”
dipturus oregoni ( bigelow & schroeder 1958 ) in recognition of the fishery explorations of the u . s . fish and wildlife service vessel oregon in the gulf of mexico and the caribbean sea
leucoraja malm 1877 leukos , white , referring to pale color of l . fullonica and l . lintea ( = rajella lintea ) ; raia , latin for ray or skate
leucoraja compagnoi ( stehmann 1995 ) in honor of leonard j . v . compagno , for his “fundamental contributions to chondrichthyan systematics , mainly on sharks , and his research devoted to south african chondrichthyans”
leucoraja leucosticta ( stehmann 1971 ) leukos , white ; stiktos , spotted or blotched , referring to relatively indistinct pale blotching on upper disc in contrast to clearly defined , small circular white spots in symmetric pattern of l . circularis
leucoraja wallacei ( hulley 1970 ) in honor of j . h . wallace , oceanographic research institute ( durban ) , whose 1967 study of east coast south african rajiform fishes is a companion to wallace’s 1970 study covering the west and south coasts
neoraja stehmanni ( hulley 1972 ) in honor of skate taxonomist matthias stehmann ( b . 1943 ) , institut für seefischerei ( hamburg )
okamejei heemstrai ( mceachran & fechhelm 1982 ) in honor of ichthyologist phillip c . heemstra , rhodes university ( grahamstown ) , who furnished specimens of the new species and for being “extremely cooperative” in supplying the authors with elasmobranch material from south africa
okamejei hollandi ( jordan & richardson 1909 ) in honor of zoologist - paleontologist william j . holland ( 1848 - 1932 ) , director of the carnegie museum , for supporting the authors’ study of taiwanese fishes
okamejei schmidti ( ishiyama 1958 ) patronym not identified , presumably in honor of soviet ichthyologist petr yulievich schmidt ( 1872 - 1949 ) , who identified this skate as raja fusca ( = o . kenojei ) in 1931
orbiraja powelli ( alcock 1898 ) in honor of lt . frederick thomas powell of the indian navy , “a colleague , in the old marine survey branch of the service , of captain [ robert ] moresby , ” hydrographer , maritime surveyor and draughtsman
rajella stehmann 1970 diminutive of raja , referring to small size of type species r . fyllae
rajella bathyphila ( holt & byrne 1908 ) bathys , deep ; philios , loving , i . e . , lover of the deep , referring to its deepwater ( up to 2050 m ) habitat
rajella bigelowi ( stehmann 1978 ) in honor of the late henry b . bigelow ( 1879–1967 ) , woods hole oceanographic institution , who , with william c . schroeder , wrote numerous standard - setting publications on cartilaginous fishes , especially among the rajid fauna of the western atlantic ; by resurrecting r . bathyphila , bigelow and schroeder provided the first comprehensive description and illustrations of this new species
rajella eisenhardti long & mccosker 1999 in honor of e . roy eisenhardt , director emeritus of the california academy of sciences , for “generously” assisting the authors and their colleagues
rajella kukujevi ( dolganov 1985 ) in honor of ichthyologist efim izrailevich kekuev ( b . 1947 , also spelled kukujev and kukuyev ) , atlantic scientific research institute of marine fisheries & oceanography ( atlantniro )
rostroraja ackleyi ( garman 1881 ) in honor of lieut . seth m . ackley ( 1845 - 1908 ) , united states navy , “to whose energy and enthusiasm we were indebted for much valuable assistance”
rostroraja cervigoni ( bigelow & schroeder 1964 ) in honor of ichthyologist and marine biologist fernando cervigón marcos ( b . 1930 ) , estacion de investigaciones marinas de margarita , for the opportunity to describe the venezuelan specimens
rostroraja velezi ( c hirichigno f . 1973 ) in honor of juan vélez d . , instituto del mar del perú , for his dedication to ichthyology and for collaborating with chirichigno f .
spiniraja whitley 1939 spini - , spiny , referring to how raja ogilbyi ( = s . whitleyi ) “differs from true raja in being very spiny above and below” ; raia , latin for ray or skate
spiniraja whitleyi ( iredale 1938 ) in honor of australian ichthyologist - malacologist gilbert percy whitley ( 1903 - 1975 ) , as a replacement name for the preoccupied raja scabra ogilby , which whitley had used in a recent article ; “mr . whitley’s oversight , ” wrote iredale , “is the more remarkable as he and i pride ourselves that we carefully check all of our references many times , yet even with our meticulousness errors may slip through” ; whitley later wrote that iredale “supplied a barrage of vigorous criticism”
zearaja whitley 1939 etymology not explained , perhaps zea , a kind of grain , referring to its rough disk , or an abbreviation of new zealand , referring to type locality of z . nasuta ; raia , latin for ray or skate
anacanthobatis von bonde & swart 1923 a - , without , akantha , thorn , referring to smooth skin of a . marmorata ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray
schroederobatis hulley 1973 patronym not identified but clearly in honor of william c . schroeder ( 1895 - 1977 ) , woods hole oceanographic institution , co - author of type species , a . americanus ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray
sinobatis hulley 1973 sino - , of sinica ( china ) , probably referring to south china sea distribution of s . melanosoma and s . borneensis ; batis , greek for a flat fish , usually applied to a skate or ray
sinobatis kotlyari stehmann & weigmann 2016 in honor of alexander kotlyar ( b . 1950 ) , p . p . shirshov institute of oceanology , russian academy of sciences , who collected type in 1979 ; through his “kind assistance” the authors were able to “reconstruct and verify from his original logbook” the type locality
eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
: urltoken contains images of sharks , skates , rays , and a few chimaera ' s from around the world . elasmodiver began as a simple web based
to help divers find the best places to encounter the different species of sharks and rays that live in shallow water but it has slowly evolved into a much larger project containing information on all aspects of shark diving and shark photography .
there are now more than 10 , 000 shark pictures and sections on shark evolution , biology , and conservation . there is a large library of reviewed shark books , a constantly updated shark taxonomy page , a monster list of shark links , and deeper in the site there are numerous articles and stories about shark encounters . elasmodiver is now so difficult to check for updates , that new information and pictures are listed on an elasmodiver updates page that can be accessed here :
the taxonomy of sharks and rays is a subject that remains in hot debate . although the majority of elasmobranch families have been nailed down there will always be individual species that don ' t quite fit the characteristics of their sibling species . consequently species are occasionally reclassified or simply listed as awaiting review . one of the most confusing of families is the potamotrygonidae - the fresh water stingrays of south america . not only do these ray species adopt extremely varied patterns that are sometimes visually indistinguishable from other species , they also produce hybrids in certain parts of their ranges leaving us wondering what exactly a true species is anyway .
among shark taxonomists conservative estimates of the number of known shark species is now approaching 500 . combined with the 700 or more species of rays and skates there are well over a thousand valid species of elasmobranches . in the past many more species were described only to be discounted later as being synonymous with elasmobranches already described from other geographic areas . in recent years this problem has lessened because taxonomic data has become easier to share over the internet . however , taxonomists are as vain as the rest of us and in their efforts to be the first to describe ( and name ) a new species there is often a counterproductive lack of collaboration .
some abyssal species have been described from only one or two specimens captured during deep water trawls . this implies that in all likelihood there are many shark and ray species lurking on the abyssal plain that have not yet been seen or captured . the best example being the relatively recent discovery of the megamouth shark . if this large and slow moving shark could remain hidden until the 1980 ' s , who knows how many other elasmobranches have gone unnoticed .
following is a list ( in need of an update ) of all the described species of elasmobranchs . included at the bottom are the holocephali ( the chimaeras or ghost sharks ) that share many characteristics with modern sharks and rays but are thought to be descended from a different group of cartilaginous fishes that thrived during the late devonian period .
occasionally new species of sharks and rays are described by science . in some cases they have been well known for a while e . g . the western wobbegong but no one has gotten around to describing them . more exciting is when a deep water trawl or a lucky diving expedition uncovers a species that the scientific community was completely unaware of . this page on elasmodiver highlights the discovery of these species . many thanks to helmut nickel who somehow manages to find out whenever a new species is described and diligently informs the rest of the lay community of shark fanatics through shark - l . without his input i wouldn ' t have a clue .
if you have information about a species i have overlooked please email me the information and i will add it to the list .
includes a key to identifying the genus of the dasyatidae ( whiptail stingrays ) .
includes a key to identifying the genus of the potamotrygonidae ( river stingrays ) .
phylum chordata - animals that at some point in their life cycle have the following : pharyngeal slits ( a series of openings connecting the inside of the throat to the outside of the neck . in fish these become gill slits ) , dorsal nerve cord ( a bundle of nerve fibres running down the back , connecting the brain with the organs and extremities , a notochord ( a cartilaginous rod supporting the nerve cord ) , post anal tail ( an extension of the ' back ' past the anal opening ) .
subphylum vertebrata - animals with a vertibral column or backbone and neural crest cells which are released as the nerve cord is forming , these cells move through the body to form major nerves , neural ganglia , and many head and facial features . other features that separate vertebrates from other chordates include : a relatively well - developed brain , paired complex eyes , a muscularized mouth and pharynx , and a well - developed circulatory system with a heart .
class chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes lacking true bone . chondrichthyes can be split into two distinct subclasses elasmobranchii and bradyodonti .
subclass elasmobranchii - sharks , skates and rays ( and some fossil relatives ) . elasmobranchs have an upper jaw that is not fused to the braincase and separate slitted gill openings .
subclass holocephali - includes forms with an upper jaw fused to the braincase and a flap of skin , the operculum , covering the gill slits . the holocephalii includes the chimaeras and ratfishes , which are relatively rare , often deep - water , mollusc - eating forms .
narcine brevilabiata - ( offshore species found on continental tropical waters , known from a depth of 49 m ) .
narcine prodorsalis - ( continental waters both inshore and offshore . known from a depth of 49m ) .
narcine vermiculatus - vermiculate electric ray ( benthic on soft bottoms in protected coastal areas ) .
temera hardwickii - pari karas ( malay / indonesian . found inshore and offshore )
j . p . c . b . da silva & m . r . de carvalho , 2011
tarsistes philippii jordan , 1919 no common name . known from one dried head from chile
rhynchobatus immaculatus peter r . last1 , hsuan - ching ho2 , 3 , * & rou - rong chen3 2013
callorhinchus milii ( elephantfish ) occurs on continental shelves of cool temperate areas of australia and new zealand to depths of at least 200 m . migrates into large estuaries and inshore bays in spring to breed .
chimaera monstrosa ( rabbit fish ) atlantic . upper continental slopes , 40 to 100m .
hydrolagus affinis ( smalleyed rabbitfish , atlantic chimaera ) eastern atlantic , mediterranean . continental slopes to deep - sea plains .
hydrolagus lemures ( blackfin ghostshark ) common and wide - ranging chimaera of the australian outer continental shelf and upper slopes .
hydrolagus mirabilis ( large - eyed rabbitfish ) moderately common on continental slopes . feeds on small fishes and invertebrates . oviparous
harriotta haeckeli ( smallspine spookfish ) north atlantic , taken in 1800 - 2600 m ; specimens collected by russian vessels from submarine seamounts of the indian ocean in 1400 - 1730 m ; off st . helens ( tasmania ) in 1480 - 1700 m .
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the four-eyed fishes are a genus , anableps , of fishes in the family anablepidae .

they have eyes raised above the top of the head and divided in two different parts , so that they can see below and above the water surface at the same time .

like their relatives , the onesided livebearers , four-eyed fishes only mate on one side , right - " handed " males with left - " handed " females and vice versa .

these fish inhabit freshwater and brackishwater and are only rarely coastal marine .

they originate from lowlands in southern mexico to honduras and northern south america .

four - eyed fish

a
four - eyed
fish swims along the surface with eyes appearing both in and out of the water .
eye development in the four - eyed fish anableps anableps : cranial and retinal adaptations to simultaneous aerial and aquatic vision .
eye development in the four - eyed fish anableps anableps : cranial and retinal adaptations to simultaneous aerial and aquatic vision . - pubmed - ncbi
in the case of the
four - eyed fish ,
or anableps , and its sister species a . microlepis and a . dowei , the fish have two large eyes .
brenner , m . and u . krumme . 2007 - j . fish biol . 70 ( 2 ) : 406 - 427 . tidal migration and patterns in feeding of the four - eyed fish anableps anableps l . in a north brazilian mangrove .
the four - eyed name derives from the fact that it divides each pupil into two , one above the water and one below ,
lead author gregory owens told discovery news .
an anableps ' eye at the water surface . the fish actually has only two eyes , and the four - eyed name
derives from the fact that it divides each pupil into two , one above the water and one below ,
researcher gregory owens explained .
to compensate for this problem , certain other marine dwellers , such as archerfish , have to mentally calculate refraction to find the true position of objects they encounter . the
four eyed
anableps instead sees a broader angle .
one of the strangest fish in the world is anableps anableps , commonly called the ‘four - eyed fish’ because of the unique configuration of its eyes . 1 these are large and bulging , like those of a frog , and are located on the top of its head so that it swims with its eyes half in and half out of the water .
…“four - eyed fish” of the genus anableps , which cruises the surface meniscus with the upper part of the eye looking into air and the lower part looking into water . it makes use of an elliptical lens , with the relatively flat sides adding little to the power of the cornea and the…
kanungo , j . , s . k . swamynathan and j . piatigorsky . 2004 - exp . eye res . 79 ( 6 ) : 949 - 956 . abundant corneal gelsolin in zebrafish and the ' four - eyed ' fish , anableps anableps : possible analogy with multifunctional lens crystallins .
…the eye of anableps , the four - eyed fish , so named because each eye is a double structure . the eye is set high on the head and the upper part projects above the water . the cornea is divided by a horizontal band of pigment , separating an upper , strongly convex part from a…
new research explains how the fish simultaneously sees in these two very different environments .
does this fish really have four eyes ? the generic name
anableps
is derived from the greek for
up - looking .
as you can see from the picture at the left , the fish appears to be gazing meditatively upward , as though it were trying to remember how to multiply 9 x 16 .
during neap tides the fish were observed feeding on exposed areas of mud in the furo do meio .
( family anablepidae , order atheriniformes ) . four - eyed fishes are surface dwellers and have eyes adapted for seeing both above and below the water surface . the eyes are on top of the head , and each is divided into two parts , an upper half for vision in air , and a lower half for vision in water ; hence , the common name . the
the fish literally ' surf ' the peak of the flood tide into temporarily - inundated zones . . .
spiny - finned fish , any member of the superorder acanthopterygii , including four orders of marine and freshwater fishes having fins with some spiny ( as opposed to soft ) rays—atheriniformes , beryciformes , zeiformes , and lampridiformes . the atheriniform is the best known of the spiny - finned group , …
the vision system and associated over water and under water lifestyle comes at a price , though . as one might imagine , it ' s not hard for predators to miss a bug - eyed fish skimming along the surface . but anableps is forever on the lookout , with large areas of its brain devoted to vision .
homepage : urltoken facebook : urltoken twitter : urltoken + + + this is none of my own tanks . in this video you can see a fish tank of a zoo aquarium called
allwetterzoo münster
. we have videos of many tanks of this zoo . + + + the population of this tank : - largescale four - eyed fish / vierauge ( anableps anableps ) - more coming soon ( if you are intrested in helping me classifying the other species in this tank , post your suggestions ) + + + intro : 5xlmusic weitere informationen unter urltoken + + + veröffentlichung des videomaterials mit der freundlichen genehmigung des allwetterzoos münster . weitere informationen unter urltoken
four - eyed fishes are classified as order atheriniformes , suborder cyprinodontoidei , family anablepidae , genus anableps . they live in shallow , muddy freshwater streams in central america and mexico , are born live , and grow from 4–6 cm ( 1 . 5–2 . 5 inches ) at birth to 15–30 cm ( 6–12 inches ) . they usually travel in schools , cruising the surface to feed on insects and other small invertebrates . return to text .
the red and green algae upon which the fish feed during high tide is clearly visible on these mangrove stilt roots in the high inter - tidal zone .
in nature it has a diverse , but highly adapted , feeding strategy dependant on environmental conditions . at low tide it seldom forages at all except during neap tides when fish carcasses or small quantities of mud are consumed . terrestrial insects along the shoreline may also be attacked with the fish leaping onto the exposed banks .
at the waterline , the eyes are divided by a band of epithelium ( tissue ) into upper and lower parts , with separate corneas and retinas , which function for aerial and underwater vision respectively . 2 , 3 the lens is more egg - shaped than convex and can focus two images simultaneously , one from above the water and the other from below ( see diagram ) . this means that the fish’s two eyes actually function as four eyes ; hence its name .
terrestrial insects and small crabs of the family grapsidae are the other main sources of food ; these are captured by jumping attacks or the fish leaping onto the stilt roots themselves . the above water eye is actually thought to have evolved to allow the fish to exploit such high protein food sources ; for example , small crabs climb down the stilt roots to moisten their gills and the fish is able to sneak up on them before using its elongated body to launch a powerful leap . gammarid amphipods , snails , mussels and worms are also eaten in smaller amounts .
during high tides , when the fish move into inundated first order channels to feed , the majority of the diet is composed of red macroalgae ( catanella and bostrychia spp . ) which grows on the exposed mangrove stilt roots at around the average high water level . this activity is thought to be mutually beneficial as the fish perform a cleaning function which is useful to the trees in terms of growth and productivity . the water in the temporary channels is very clear compared to the turbid main channel so the fish also use the below water part of the eye to search for submerged algae and other items .
the fish does not actually have four eyes , but the eye is divided to allow the fish to see both above and below the waterline . a narrow band of epithelium divides the upper and lower halves of the eye . each half of the eye has a separate pupil , iris and cornea , but the retina is divided . both halves of the eye use the same lens , with the upper light path traveling through the short axis of the lens , while the lower light path travels through the long axis . this dual use of the lens corrects for the different behavior of light in air and in water , with the underwater lens face more strongly curved . the underwater half of the eye projects an image to the upper half of the retina , while the part of the eye above water projects to the lower retina .
the upper eye must be occasionally wetted to prevent dehydration , but when the fish is completely submerged , the image from the upper half of the eye is out of focus . click here for more information about the anableps eye .
when anableps is looking out into the air , the light rays pass through the shorter width of the lens , which gives good distance vision for locating its prey of insects ; it also means that the fish is difficult to catch , as it can see fishermen approaching ! from under the water , the light rays pass through the full length of the lens , so that the fish is near - sighted under water . 4 one is reminded of a bifocal lens in spectacles .
the researchers suspect that anableps used to just have eyes suitable for the aerial environment . over time , they think the fish lost green sensitivity in the lower eye halves , gaining yellow sensitivity there for better aquatic vision , particularly in muddy yellow water .
he said several fish , amphibians , pigeons , other birds and certain primates , including humans , all possess what is known as
intraretinal variability ,
meaning that variations in spectral sensitivity exist across the retina , which is a delicate , light - sensitive membrane lining the inner eyeball .
fish , any of more than 30 , 000 species of vertebrate animals ( phylum chordata ) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world . living species range from the primitive , jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks , skates , and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes . most…
development is viviparous , with the young nourished by nutrient diffusion across the reproductive tract of the female . the fry are retained until they reach a length of about 45 mm . probably because of the size of the young fish at
birth
only 14 to 20 embryos develop from a brood . sexual maturity occurs at about 9 months .
there are three species in the genus anableps . the species found in the james r . record aquarium is anableps anableps . the genus belongs to the order cyprinodontes , small , often colorful livebearing fish with complex behaviors . the famous desert pupfish is also in this order . anableps is found in coastal waters from the yucatan peninsula to the equator .
two horizontal flaps of the iris are thought to reduce glare from the water surface . these adaptations allow the fish to see above and below the water simultaneously , and because there exists no predator which specialises on anableps the split eye is thought to have evolved specifically in order to allow exploitation of the narrow ecological niche between aquatic and terrestrial habitats .
we used in situ hybridization with opsin riboprobes to map cone opsin expression in the retina of a . anableps . this was repeated for jenynsia onca , a species with normal eye morphology in the sister genus to anableps . recently , both species have had their cone opsin repertoires characterized , revealing nine genes in a . anableps , ( one sws1 , two sws2 , two rh2 and four lws genes ) , and eight in j . onca ( one less lws gene ) [ 9 , 10 ] . by studying j . onca , we have inferred ancestral expression patterns and identified changes that have evolved in concert with the unique eye morphology of a . anableps .
inhabits brackish - water rhizophora mangrove forests where it has come to forge an extraordinary existence at the water’s edge of inter - tidal zones . these constantly fluctuating habitats are subjected to at least one , usually two , daily tidal movements and this fish has evolved to move with the water , inhabiting the shallow margins of permanent water channels during low tide and moving into inundated zones to forage when the water level rises .
for the study , owens , a university of victoria biologist , and his colleagues analyzed the eyes of the fish , focusing on light - sensitive proteins called visual opsins . each is most sensitive to a particular wavelength of light . humans , for example , have three visual opsins sensitive to blue , green and red light . they absorb light at slightly different wavelengths , enabling us to see those three colors and others .
the unique visual system allows the fish to avoid a problematic phenomenon
snell ' s window ,
which occurs when you are underwater while looking up out of the water . due to the refraction of light at the water ' s surface , after a certain angle you no longer see out of the water , and instead see a reflection on the water ' s surface . thus , your field of vision is limited to about 96 degrees .
this is supposed to mean that ‘right - sided’ males are only able to copulate with ‘left - sided’ females and vice versa . however sf members who have kept this species found that the gonopodium is flexible to a certain degree meaning it’s possible that males can mate with any partner . certainly if the former theory is true then the fish have 50 % less chance of finding a suitable partner compared with other livebearers , though perhaps they occupy such a unique ecological niche that no evolutionary bottleneck has occurred .
it’s exposed to highly variable salinity levels between 5 - 30‰ in the wild so water chemistry isn’t too much of a concern ; for ease of maintenance a specific gravity between 1 . 005 - 1 . 015 is normally recommended . apart from this the most important provision is shallow water with a depth of 15cm / 6″ or so being more than adequate ; the fish will spend almost all their time at the water surface and actually bob back up to the surface in a cork - like fashion if submerged for too long .
during low water the fish congregated in marginal zones of the main channel ( usually < 1 m away from the bank ) and the authors hypothesised that this allows them to maximise foraging time by always being close to the mouths of the temporary channels , as well as providing protection against potential predators and preventing them being swept away by strong currents in the central , deeper section . large areas of mud and sand banks are exposed during these periods and some individuals were observed to leap out of the water to lay in the sun , often for minutes at a time .
the best conditions for foraging were found to be at spring tide during daylight hours when the water level is highest and the fish are able to take full advantage of the above water eye ( see ‘notes’ ) , whereas when high tide occurred during the night less individuals were found to migrate . there is an initial rapid rise in water levels as the tide comes in and young specimens were observed swimming at the peak of the first wave to enter the marginal creeks , with adults behind . this ‘first flood rise’ was the trigger for the “virtual disappearance of a . anableps from the main channel” .
the encyclopaedia britannica describes anableps as ‘an extreme example of adaptation to life near the air - water interface’ . 5 if this is the case , how did it develop its multi - functional eyes , beginning as an ordinary fish with normal , single - function eyes ? it is extremely difficult to see how something as complex as this could develop by gradual stages , and the more parts that have to develop , the greater the difficulty . this includes the complex brain setup needed to simultaneously decode the double images being received by the two retinas . how did all this evolve until it was fully functional ?
archerfish ( toxotes chatareus ) experience a similar light environment to a . anableps and have had their vision studied using msp [ 4 ] . they were found to have double cones in the dorsal retina that were most sensitive to the most prevalent wavelengths of upwelling light . however , unlike a . anableps , double cones in the ventro - nasal retina in archerfish were shifted to even longer wavelengths , suggesting that the ventral exclusion of lws opsin expression seen in three surface - dwelling , cyprinodontiformes fish has not occurred . this implies that other features beyond light environment , such as phylogeny or the visual tasks required , may affect opsin expression .
fieldwork by brenner and krumme ( 2007 ) in the furo do meio , a tidally - influenced tributary of the caeté mangrove estuary located to the north of bragança city , 200 km south of the amazon delta , revealed that these daily migrations are entirely related to feeding ( see ‘diet’ ) . at low tide the permanent channel of the tributary measures just 30 m across , but during high water this increases to between 50 m in its upper reaches and 400 m near its mouth . smaller channels around its margins therefore become temporarily flooded and the fish move into these to forage , sometimes up to 1 km away from the main tributary .
in situ hybridization was used to characterize the topography of cone photoreceptor subtypes . anableps anableps and j . onca exhibited uniform distributions of cones expressing sws1 , sws2b and rh2 - 2 ( figure 2 and figures in the electronic supplementary material ) . neither species exhibited detectable sws2a expression in the retina . species - specific differences were noted for the rh2 - 1 - expressing cones . in j . onca , rh2 - 1 had uniform expression across the retina in all sections , whereas adult a . anableps had rh2 - 1 in a large number of ventral cone cells and in a small patch of cones at the dorsal tip of the retina . this pattern was observed in all adults . in juveniles , rh2 - 1 expression was confined to a smaller number of cells in the ventral half of the eye , or was entirely absent . the lws riboprobe , which was designed to bind all lws paralogues , revealed inter - individual and interspecific differences in lws cone photoreceptor distributions . in j . onca , lws - expressing cones were limited to the dorsal retina in two fish ( a male and a female ) and to a transverse streak in the middle of the eye in one male . in a . anableps , lws cones were detected only in the dorsal half of the retina . this pattern appears to be the inverse of the rh2 - 1 cone distribution ( figure 1 ) .
[ hd ] tank of the giants : 13200 us gallon / 50 . 000 liter landschafts - aquarium @ aquazoo [ 7 / 52 ]
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the findings , published in the latest royal society biology letters , help to explain how animal visual systems , including human ones , evolve in response to different light environments .
the scientists determined that the top part of anableps ' eyes , the set that sticks out of the water , possess opsins sensitive to green . the bottom half of the eyes , actually in the water , are sensitive to yellow . the entire eye has genes sensitive to ultraviolet , violet and blue light .
this tells us that anableps is more sensitive to yellow light from the water and green light from the air ,
owens said .
we hypothesize that this functions to match their sensitivity with the light available . the water anableps lives in is generally muddy ( mangrove forests of northern south america ) and in this muddy water yellow light transmits best .
all lightning on earth may have its roots in space , new research suggests .
karen carleton , an assistant professor in the university of maryland ' s department of biology , told discovery news that
what dr . owens and his colleagues are seeing is quite reasonable .
she said
it seems probable that anableps has
fine tuned
its eyes
for its two visual tasks .
shelby temple of the university of bristol ' s visual ecology group also supports the new findings , saying that they have
added yet another example of a vertebrate that has the potential to have different spectral sensitivity in different parts of its field of view .
temple concluded ,
now we just need to try and understand why so many animals may be sensitive to different wavelengths of light in different directions .
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anableps seems to be designed for asymmetrical mating . in females , a single large scale covers the cloaca and opens either to the left or to the right . in males , the anal fin is adapted as a funnel for sperm transfer , and similarly extends either to the right or the left of the body .
fertilization is internal , and males and females have to be appropriately matched . right - handed males outnumber left - handed males about 60 : 40 with about the same proportion of the appropriately structured females .
anableps is primarily a surface feeder and its view of surface activity makes it difficult to catch , except with long - handled nets .
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( ed . ali , m . a . ) 609–617 ( plenum , new york , 1975 ) .
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comparison of anablepid eye morphology . ( a ) a . anableps eye at the water surface . the dorsal cornea receives light from the aerial environment , while the ventral cornea receives light from the aquatic environment . dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea . photo by andreas werth . ( b ) jenynsia onca female . the eye is morphologically normal in this species . photo by leo van der meer . ( c ) a schematic of a sagittal section of an a . anableps eye . light paths are indicated . green and yellow dots indicate rh2 - 1 and lws gene expression , respectively . ael , aerial line - of - sight ; aql , aquatic line - of - sight ; l , lens ; on , optic nerve ; dt , dorsal tip of the retina ; d , dorsal retina ; m , medial retina ; v , ventral retina . ( d ) in situ hybridization images of adult a . anableps labelled with the rh2 - 1 or lws riboprobe . cone cells expressing the gene of interest are purple . the brown area is retinal pigment epithelium .
summary of expression domains for each gene tested in a . anableps and j . onca . ( a ) the visual spectrum as seen by humans with putative spectral sensitivity for each opsin tested . numbers are in nanometres . ( b ) schematic of eyes with dorsal on top , ventral on bottom . coloured areas indicated expression , while dotted bars indicated areas of polymorphic expression . cropped microscope images are retinal sections probed using each riboprobe . cone cells expressing the gene of interest are purple .
anableps anableps ' remarkable eyes simultaneously sample photons from terrestrial and aquatic habitats . in situ hybridization with six riboprobes demonstrated that a . anableps and the closely related j . onca express at least five cone opsins ( sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 1 , rh2 - 2 and lws ) , possibly more given the redundancy of our lws probe .
the wavelength of maximal sensitivity for a visual pigment ( and consequently the photoreceptor expressing it ) can be determined by microspectrophotometry ( msp ) or in vitro protein reconstitution [ 13 , 14 ] . by comparing maximal sensitivity data from a . anableps and its relatives obtained using these techniques , we have endeavoured to assign specific opsin genes to cone cell spectral sensitivities : sws1 ( 356–365 nm , uv ) , sws2b ( 405–425 nm , violet ) , rh2 - 2 ( 452–472 nm , blue ) , rh2 - 1 ( 492–539 nm , green ) and lws ( 543–576 nm , yellow ) ( figure 2 a and discussed in supplementary materials ) . while these represent the value for individual opsin proteins , multiple proteins may be found co - expressed in a single cone , causing intermediate sensitivity values for the photoreceptor .
early msp work showed no difference in the prevalence of different cone cells between retinal halves [ 15 ] . however , our in situ hybridization experiments , which are better suited to assess photoreceptor distributions because they sampled more photoreceptors by several orders of magnitude , did detect differences : the dorsal retina , used for aquatic vision , has cone photoreceptors that express sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 2 and lws , while the ventral retina , used for aerial vision , expresses sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 2 and rh2 - 1 ( figure 2 ) . from these observations , we predict that wavelength sensitivity differs in the dorsal and ventral regions of the retina .
the reduction of rh2 - 1 expression and retention of lws expression in the dorsal retina suggest that a . anableps has enhanced sensitivity to long wavelength light ( 543–576 nm ) in the aquatic field of view . this enhanced sensitivity could be advantageous in the brackish waters of the mangrove forests and river deltas that a . anableps inhabits , as these often contain dissolved organic matter that shifts light abundance to longer wavelengths [ 17 ] . light measurements taken in similar mangrove habitat showed that downwelling light is most prevalent at approximately 500 nm , while upwelling light peaks at approximately 580 nm [ 4 ] . we propose that , by the differential expression of rh2 - 1 and lws , a . anableps is better able to match its double cones to the background light in each field of view .
we thank three anonymous reviewers for helpful suggestions . we were supported by nserc discovery grants ( j . s . t . ) and graduate scholarship ( g . l . o . ) , as well as university of victoria graduate fellowships ( g . l . o . and d . j . r ) . we thank the university of victoria advanced imaging centre for their assistance .
switch in rod opsin gene expression in the european eel , anguilla anguilla ( l . )
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this configuration of the eyes enables anableps to search for food in one habitat ( air ) and at the same time watch out for predators in another habitat ( water ) . when it sees a predator approaching through the water , it escapes by leaping out of it , which is a reason why this species is not very suitable for keeping in a small home aquarium . another unusual habit is that when swimming it continually ducks its head under the water . this is because , unlike most land animals , it does not have a tear duct to keep the eye moist and so must duck to prevent its eyes from drying out .
) . this accounts for the formation of all the parts of the eyes and the needed complementary parts of the brain , with everything functional from the beginning .
‘the cornea is divided by a horizontal band of pigment , separating an upper , strongly convex part from a lower , flatter division . the iris has a pair of projections , partially dividing the pupil into two . ’ encyclopaedia britannica , 19 : 252 , 1992 . see also ibid 1 : 668 . return to text .
using a camera as a rough analogy , we can think of the cornea as the ‘window’ in front of the lens , and the retina as the surface on which the image is focused , somewhat like the film in a camera . from there , electrical signals send this visual information to the brain , where the signals are processed into mental images . return to text .
edward migdalski and george fichter , the fresh and salt water fishes of the world , bay books , sydney , australia , 1976 , p . 186 . return to text .
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atheriniform , any member of the order atheriniformes , containing 15 families of marine and freshwater spiny - finned fishes , including the flying fishes ( see photograph ) , needlefishes , silversides , and cyprinodonts . the last group , the cyprinodontidae , is an abundant tropical and subtropical family…
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perez ln 1 , lorena j 1 , costa cm 1 , araujo ms 1 , frota - lima gn 1 , matos - rodrigues ge 2 , martins ra 2 , mattox gm 3 , schneider pn 4 .
instituto de ciências biológicas , universidade federal do pará , belém , pará , brazil .
instituto de ciências biomédicas , universidade federal do rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro , brazil .
departamento de biologia , universidade federal de são carlos , campus sorocaba , são paulo , brazil .
instituto de ciências biológicas , universidade federal do pará , belém , pará , brazil schneider @ ufpa . br .
pmid : 28381624 pmcid : pmc5394668 doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2017 . 0157
the anableps eye . ( a ) anableps anableps adult female specimen . ( b ) close - up view of the a . anableps eye ; dorsal and ventral corneas and pupils are visible . ( c ) schematic of the visual aerial and aquatic inputs ( sagittal view of the eye ) . rpe , retinal pigmented epithelium ; onl , outer nuclear layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer ; on , optic nerve ; dr , dorsal retina ; dp , dorsal pupil ; vr , ventral retina ; vp , ventral pupil ; ch , choroid ; l , lens ; ir , iris ; ps , pigmented strip ; dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea ; do , dorsal ; ve , ventral ; di , distal ; pr , proximal . scale bars : 1 cm ( a ) , 0 . 5 cm ( b ) .
eye development during larval stages . anableps anableps larvae at stage 1 ( a , b ) , stage 2 ( c , d ) , stage 3 ( e , f ) , stage 4 ( g , h ) , stage 5 ( i , j ) and stage 6 ( k , l ) . figures to the right are higher magnification images of ocular region . scale bars : 5 mm ( a , c , e , g , i , k ) , 500 µm ( b , d , f , h , j , l ) .
neurocranium ontogeny . anableps anableps neurocranium at stage 3 ( a , b ) , stage 4 ( c , d ) , stage 5 ( e , f ) stage 6 ( g , h ) and in the adult ( i , j ) . panels show dorsal ( left ) and lateral ( right ) views . boc , basioccipital ; epbar , epiphyseal bar ; epo , epiotic ; epopr , epiotic process ; ethpla , ethmoid plate ; exoc , exoccipital ; fro , frontal ; intsp , interorbital septum ; lamorb , lamina orbitonasalis ; let , lateral ethmoid ; mfl , membranous flap ; otcap , otic capsule ; par , parietal ; pro , prootic ; pto , pterotic ; psph , parasphenoid ; soc , supraoccipital ; sph , sphenotic ; tm , taenia marginalis ; trcom , trabecula communis ; the frontal and the interorbital septum are denoted in bold . scale bars : 1 mm .
= 5 , mean and standard deviation were calculated for a total of 27 eye sections ) . (
= 2 ; biological replicates for each larval stage of development ) . dr , dorsal retina ; vr , ventral retina ; l , lens ; ir , iris ; ps , pigmented strip ; dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea ; rpe , retinal pigmented epithelium ; is , inner segments ; os , outer segments ; onl , outer nuclear layer ; opl , outer plexiform layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; ipl , inner plexiform layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer . scale bar : 200 µm .
asymmetric opsin gene expression in the larval retina . ( a ) analysis of the pattern of expression of five visual opsins in ventral retina , relative to the dorsal retina , as determined by qpcr . the relative expression values were determined using the 2 −δδct method . bars represent mean in log 2 scale ±standard deviation of biological and technical replicates ( n = 9 ; three biological and three technical replicates ) . student ' s t - test was used to assess statistical significance between samples ( * * p < 0 . 01 and * * * p < 0 . 001 ) . ( b – k ) in situ hybridizations of visual opsins in eye sections of larvae of a . anableps : rh1 ( b , c ) , rh2 - 1 ( d , e ) , rh2 - 2 ( f , g ) , sws2b ( h , i ) and lws ( j , k ) . left column shows expression pattern in portions of the dorsal retina , as well right column in the ventral retina . scale bars : 0 . 05 mm . ( l – o ) immunofluorescence assay showing opsin expression on the dorsal and ventral retina in a . anableps at stage 6 . ( l , m ) immunostaining showed that rhodopsin is expressed equally in the dorsal and ventral retina . ( n ) opsin l / m monoclonal is only expressed in the dorsal retina . ( o ) opsin l / m monoclonal expression is not detected on the ventral retina . onl , outer nuclear layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer . cryosections are 20 µm thick . scale bars : 50 µm ( b – k ) and 200 µm ( l – o ) .
female of a . anableps . the pale stripe running down the dorsal surface is an identifying feature for this species .
the furo do meio is a tidal tributary of caeté bay , brazil and a typical habitat of this species .
. . . whereas during low tide they typically congregate in large groups . this and the previous image were taken off the coast of suriname .
a . anableps during low tide in the main channel of the furo do meio .
occurs along much of the north - east south american coastline from the gulf of paria ( the shallow , brackish inland sea which separates trinidad and tobago from venezuela ) through guyana , suriname and french guiana and past the amazon delta in brazil as far as the parnaíba river estuary at the border between the states of maranhão and piauí .
sympatric species in the furo do meio included colomesus psittacus , sciades herzbergii , pseudauchenipterus nodosus and hyporhamphus roberti .
surface area is far more important than height but this species is unsuitable for all but the largest aquaria ; a tank with base dimensions of 150 cm x 45 cm should be the minimum considered , and even this could only house half a dozen adults at most . given that it’s known to congregate in large groups at low tide , often comprising several hundred individuals , it’s clearly more suited to public than private aquaria .
temperature : strictly a tropical species ; the temperature should be maintained between 25 – 31 °c .
in captivity most dried foods are accepted but should not form the principal component of the diet , and it’s best to use a product with added spirulina or similar . gut - loaded drosophila fruit flies , bloodworm , artemia and chopped earthworms are excellent treats and good results have been reported using a home - made , gel - based recipe containing a mixture of seafood and fresh vegetables . feed twice daily to mimic its natural feeding cycle and note that a poor diet may be associated with reproductive problems ( see ‘breeding’ ) .
best kept in a species - only display and may predate on much smaller fishes but in very large tanks can be combined with peaceful estuarine fishes . some poecilia spp . are suitable and if geography is ignored monodactylus and bottom - dwelling gobies such as stigmatogobius sadanundio are possibilities . avoid vigorous surface - dwellers such as toxotes spp . or voracious feeders like scatophagus as this species has no natural competitors .
it should be maintained in a group of at least six , preferably a dozen or more as it can behave nervously in the absence of conspecifics . aggression is rare except in gravid females ( see ‘breeding’ ) .
females grow considerably larger than males and the latter possess a prominent gonopodium . this has a different structure to that seen in poeciliid livebearers having a scaled , tubular structure .
anableps species are viviparous and mating usually presents few problems provided you have a mixed - sex group . the genital opening of the female is covered by a hinged flap of skin known as the foricula , and most aquarium literature suggests that both this and the gonopodium of the male are naturally - orientated to the left or right depending on the individual .
gestation takes around 12 weeks and the female’s appetite increases significantly during this period . just before giving birth she becomes hostile towards any other tankmates and will attempt to find a quiet spot to release the young . these are fully - formed , measure around 40 - 50mm and are able to accept quite large morsels of food immediately .
many breeders have experienced problems with young being born prematurely , often with sections of the gut protruding through an opening in the abdomen . this leaves them susceptible to infection but in some cases they can be saved via removal them to a separate tank containing sterile water . it’s unknown whether such issues relate to water quality , diet , sexual maturity or stress but we’d suggest isolating gravid specimens and offering a varied diet containing both high protein items and algae .
the eye of anableps species is split horizontally by a band of epithelial tissue . it has two corneas , two pupils , a single , egg - shaped lens and one retina that’s also split into two sections . the lens is oval and asymmetric with the upper part flattened as in the human eye and the lower section curved as in most other fishes . the upper cornea is thicker and enriched with glycogen which possibly helps to protect it from drying and uv irradiation .
the family anablepidae also includes the genera oxyzygonectes ( monotypic ) and jenynsia ( 13 species ) . they’re members of the order cyprinodontiformes so are related to killifish , goodeids and poeciliid livebearers . anableps is the only genus to have developed specialised eye morphology and but jenynsia species are also viviparous .
ghedotti , m . j . and e . o . wiley . 2003 - in : carpenter ( 2003 ) . the living marine resources of the western central atlantic . v . 2 . anablepidae .


aplysina archeri ( also known as stove-pipe sponge because of its shape ) is a species of tube sponge that has long tube-like structures of cylindrical shape .

although they can grow in a single tube , they often grow in large groups of up to 22 tubes .

a single tube can grow up to 5 feet ( 1.5 m ) high and 3 inches ( 7.6 cm ) thick .

these sponges mostly live in the western atlantic ocean : the caribbean , the bahamas , florida , and bonaire .

like most sponges , they are filter feeders ; they eat food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes them .

very little is known about their behavioral patterns except for their feeding ecology and reproductive biology .

tubes occur in varying colors including lavender , gray , and brown .

they reproduce both by asexual and sexual reproduction .

these sponges take hundreds of years to grow and never stop growing until they die .

snails are among their natural predators .

the population density of these sponges is going down because of oil spills and other pollution .

aplysina archeri

yan wong changed the thumbnail image of
file : aplysina archeri ( stove - pipe sponge - pink variation ) . jpg
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the stovepipe sponge ( aplysina archeri ) is a species of tube sponge found mainly in the atlantic ocean , including the waters around the caribbean , bahamas , florida , and bonaire .
( of verongia archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) ) alcolado , p . m . 1980 . esponjas de cuba . nuevos registros . poeyana 197 : 1 - 10 . page ( s ) : 2 [ details ]
( of luffaria archeri higgin , 1875 ) higgin , t . ( 1875 ) . on a new sponge of the genus luffaria , from yucatan , in the liverpool free museum . annals and magazine of natural history . ( 4 ) 16 : 223 - 227 . page ( s ) : 224 - 227 ; pl vi [ details ]
aplysina archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) : pérez et al . ( 2017 ) : 9 . [ statut pour la martinique ] pérez , t . , diaz , m - c . , ruiz , c . , condor - lujan , b . , klautau , m . , hajdu , e . , lobo - hadju , g . , zea , s . , pomponi , s . a . , thacker , r . w . , carteron , s . , tollu , g . , pouget - cuvelier , a . , thélamon , p . , marechal , j . - p . , thomas , o . p . , ereskovsky , a . v . , vacelet , j . & boury - esnault , n . 2017 . how acollaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859
aplysina archeri this is a type of sea sponge usually called stove pipe sponge . it can get to 5 feet tall and 3 inches thick . - this sponge mates like many other sponge species . - it can either be sexual or asexual . - it asexual , the sponge forms little pods called gammeles that are located on the external part of the sponge . currents in the water detach them and carry these pods to wherever . - where they land , is where they will hatch and start a new sponge . - sexual reproduction between two stove pipe sponges is random . - they are all the same gender , hermaphrodites , and do not have sexual organs . - to sexually reproduce , this sponge sprays sperms out all around it , into the water . - the sperm is carried by the current and if it hits another stove - pipe sponge , it becomes pregnant . - pregnant sponges keep the eggs in them until they are mature , then they let them out and they create new sponges .
( of verongia archeri ( higgin , 1875 ) ) laubenfels , m . w . de . ( 1936 ) . a discussion of the sponge fauna of the dry tortugas in particular and the west indies in general , with material for a revision of the families and orders of the porifera . carnegie institute of washington publication . 467 ( tortugas laboratory paper 30 ) 1 - 225 , pls 1 - 22 . page ( s ) : 24 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of luffaria archeri higgin , 1875 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1978 ) . marine sponges from curaçao and other caribbean localities . part i . keratosa . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 94 . studies on the fauna of curaçao and other caribbean islands . 56 ( 179 ) : 1–94 . [ details ]
m . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda
) . sometimes they grow single , but more often in large groups of up to 22 tubes , which normally are in contact with each other only at their base . the surface is though and shows much relief (
) and sometimes an obscured pattern of rounded disc - shaped elevations of 3 - 9 mm . the shallow depressions between the elevations contain rows of pores . the surface is generally finely conulose and does not show the deep and meandering grooves of
conspicuous pink or purplish gray . the tubes ' interiors often cream colored , but always lighter than the exterior color .
humann , p . , 1992 . reef creature identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .
soest , r . w . m . van , 1978 . marine sponges from curaçao and other caribbean islands . part i . keratosa . studies on the fauna of curaçao and other caribbean islands , 179 .
van soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; rützler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; schönberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; díaz , m . - c . ; cárdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; ríos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .
van soest , r . w . m . ( 1978 ) . marine sponges from curaçao and other caribbean localities . part i . keratosa . in : hummelinck , p . w . & van der steen , l . j . ( eds ) , uitgaven van de natuurwetenschappelijke studiekring voor suriname en de nederlandse antillen . no . 94 . studies on the fauna of curaçao and other caribbean islands . 56 ( 179 ) : 1–94 . page ( s ) : 58 - 59 ; fig 19 , pl xi 3 - 4 [ details ]
zea , s . ( 1987 ) . esponjas del caribe colombiano . ( catálogo cientifico : bogotá , colombia ) : 1 - 286 . page ( s ) : 55 - 57 [ details ]
rützler , k . ; díaz , m . c . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; zea , s . ; smith , k . p . ; alvarez , b . ; wulff , j . ( 2000 ) . diversity of sponge fauna in mangrove ponds , pelican cays , belize . atoll research bulletin . 476 : 230 - 248 . page ( s ) : 239 [ details ]
van soest , r . w . m . ( 1981 ) . a checklist of the curaçao sponges ( porifera demospongiae ) including a pictorial key to the more common reef - forms . verslagen en technische gegevens instituut voor taxonomische zoölogie ( zoölogisch museum ) universiteit van amsterdam . 31 : 1 - 39 . page ( s ) : 25 [ details ]
rützler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285–313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
alcolado , p . m . ; busutil , l . ( 2012 ) . inventaire des spongiaires néritiques du parc national de la guadeloupe ( inventario de las esponjas neríticas del parque nacional de guadalupe ) . serie oceanológica . 10 , 62 - 76 . page ( s ) : 71 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
vacelet , j . ( 1990 ) . les spongiaires . in le monde marin . ( ed . claude bouchon ) pp 16 - 33 . la grande encyclopédie de la caraïbe . editions caraïbes , pointe à pitre . page ( s ) : 31 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
pérez , t . ; díaz , m . c . ; ruiz , c . ; cóndor - luján , b . ; klautau , m . ; hajdu , e . ; lôbo - hajdu , g . ; zea , s . ; pomponi , s . a . ; thacker , r . w . ; carteron , s . ; tollu , g . ; pouget - cuvelier , a . ; thélamon , p . ; marechal , j . - p . ; thomas , o . p . ; ereskovsky , a . e . ; vacelet , j . ; boury - esnault , n . ( 2017 ) . how a collaborative integrated taxonomic effort has trained new spongiologists and improved knowledge of martinique island ( french antilles , eastern caribbean sea ) marine biodiversity . plos one . 12 ( 3 ) : e0173859 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ]
lehnert , h . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1998 ) . shallow water sponges of jamaica . beaufortia . 48 ( 5 ) : 71 - 103 . page ( s ) : 98 [ details ]
lendenfeld , r . von . ( 1889 ) . a monograph of the horny sponges . ( trübner and co . : london ) : iii - iv , 1 - 936 , pls 1 - 50 . , available online at urltoken ; view = 1up ; seq = 1 page ( s ) : 413 - 415 [ details ]
pulitzer - finali , g . ( 1986 ) . a collection of west indian demospongiae ( porifera ) . in appendix , a list of the demospongiae hitherto recorded from the west indies . annali del museo civico di storia naturale giacomo doria . 86 : 65 - 216 . page ( s ) : 183 - 184 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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notes : long tubes , single or in groups , usually having an iridiscent lavender color , but co - occurring specimens may be brownish or greenish tan .
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tricart & foubert ( 2000 ) [ statut pour la martinique ] tricart , s . & foubert , a . 2000 . base de référence de l ' inventaire znieff - mer : validation des données sur les espèces marines des caraïbes ( guadeloupe , martinique et guyane ) . in : guillaume , m . ( coord . ) 2000 . l ' inventaire znieff - mer dans les dom : bilan méthodologique et mise en place . patrimoines naturels , 42 : 105 - 128 .
alcolado & busutil ( 2012 ) [ statut pour la guadeloupe ] alcolado , p . m . & busutil , l . 2012 . inventaire des spongiaires néritiques du parc national de la guadeloupe . serie oceanológica , 10 : 62 - 76 .
national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .
this species has long tube - like structures cylindrical in nature and many tubes are attached to one particular part of the organism . the tubes occur in varying colors including lavender , gray and brown .
the stovepipe sponge is a filter feeder and eats food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes by them . very little is known about its behavioral patterns except for its feeding ecology and reproductive biology .
it reproduces both asexually and sexually . sperm is released into the water column where it floats and then settle down on substrate and begins to reproduce cells and grow . it takes hundreds of years for a single sponge to mature and it actually never stops growing until it dies .
image caption : stove - pipe sponge - pink variation . credit : nick hobgood / wikipedia ( cc by - sa 3 . 0 )
the tropical marine communities are considered among the most diverse on earth . the variety of colors , shapes , and sizes shown by the fauna of these communities are immense . the coral and sponge communities are among the most conspicuous . in spite of this , little is known about the ecology of marine sponges , as research has been hindered by taxonomic problems and difficulties that arise in their quantitative evaluation .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
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