halichondria bowerbanki is a species of sponge that lives on rocky surfaces in the shallow subtidal , with occasional intertidal specimens under overhanging rocks .

the physical appearance and structure of the species is variable and it has tassel-like irregular branches .

colonies can be up to 25 centimeters high with branches reaching 12 centimeters high .

the color of the species is beige to brown in the summer , and light grey/yellow in the winter .

halichondria bowerbanki

variety halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagardère , 1995 accepted as halichondria ( halichondria ) bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( junior synonym )
easily confused with halichondria panicea , but halichondria bowerbanki is distinguished by the absence of the chimney - like oscules that occur in halichondria panicea .
the green filamentous algae microspora ficulinae lives in association with the tissues of halichondria bowerbanki .
hans - martin braun added the german common name
klumpenschwamm
to
halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930
.
jennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 to their own page .
biotic ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) marine life information network - uk to barcode of life ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 22 publications ) ( from synonym halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 59 publications ) ( from synonym spongia coalita sensu lamarck , 1814 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 9 publications ) ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 15 nucleotides ; 9 proteins ) ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to pesi ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) to pesi ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagardère , 1995 ) to pesi to usnm invertebrate zoology porifera collection ( 2 records ) ( from synonym halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) to usnm invertebrate zoology porifera collection ( 30 records ) ( from synonym halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 )
in the united kingdom , halichondria bowerbanki ( studied as halichondria coalita ) was recorded up to depths of 90 m ( bowerbank , 1874 , cited in vethaak et al . , 1982 ) .
similar species : the variable nature of halichondria bowerbanki can make it very difficult to identify positively . the most likely confusion is with halichondria panicea . the growth of tassels in h . bowerbanki seems to be a good character , but these are not present all year round . h . bowerbanki lacks the green colour that is present in h . panicea in well lit conditions and also the characteristic smell .
habitat : on rock or other animals , even ascidian tests . it reaches its maximal development in harbours and estuaries , being very tolerant of muddy and brackish conditions where it tends to replace halichondria panicea . ( but there are reports of both halichondria species occurring together in silty conditions , e . g . from sussex . ) halichondria bowerbanki can be partly embedded in mud . halichondria bowerbanki occurs typically from the upper infralittoral downwards , and is never ( ? ) found on the shore . halichondria panicea occurs from the shore to the lower infralittoral , rarely deeper .
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) gosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . boston : houghton mifflin . 329p . [ details ]
occurs in muddy environments where the similar sponge halichondria panicea cannot survive . reaches its best development in harbours . in the oosterschelde , halichondria bowerbanki was found growing on tunicates ( especially styela clava ) , molluscs and , in a brackish lagoon , on small reefs of electra crustulenta ( vethaak et al . , 1982 ) .
identity : the variable nature of halichondria bowerbanki can make it very difficult to identify positively . the most likely confusion is with halichondria panicea . the table with halichondria panicea will help to separate the two species . some growth forms are peculiar to one or other of the species and these are indicated . the growth of tassels in halichondria bowerbanki seems to be a good character , but these are not present all year round . frequently however , it is impossible to be certain to which of the two species a specimen belongs . however larval differences prove that two species are involved here . the cushion forms , with modest oscular chimneys , can be mistaken for myxilla incrustans ( q . v . ) . the confusion arises when a specimen of halichondria bowerbanki has an ' open ' sub - surface appearance , which is reminiscent of the labyrinthine channels of m . incrustans .
picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) vethaak , a . d . ; cronie , r . j . a . ; van soest , r . w . m . 1982 . ecology and distribution of two sympatric , closely related spongespecies , halichondria panicea ( pallas , 1766 ) and h . bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( porifera , demospongiae ) , with remarks on their speciation . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 52 ( 2 ) : 82 - 102 . page ( s ) : 86 [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) linkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]
halichondria bowerbanki survives over the winter months as a dormant form with no growth and a disintegration of tissue . in the oosterschelde , this species experienced a drastic reduction in biomass during the severe winter of 1978 / 9 , especially in the intertidal ( vethaak et al . , 1982 ) .
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) burton , m . ( 1930 ) . additions to the sponge fauna at plymouth . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 16 ( 2 ) : 489 - 507 . page ( s ) : 489 - 491 [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 1993 ) . affinities of the marine demospongiae fauna of the cape verde islands and tropical west africa . courier forschungsinstitut senckenberg . 159 : 205 - 219 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
consistency : soft and moderately elastic . branches do not break even if bent through 180 deg . ( cf . halichondria panicea ) .
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) solórzano , m . r . ( 1990 ) . poríferos del litoral gallego : estudio faunístico , distribución e inventario . phd thesis unversidad de santiago de compostela . 1036 pp . page ( s ) : 960 - 963 ; lám . 124 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) burton , m . ( 1954 ) . sponges . pp . 215 - 239 , pl . 9 . in : the ' rosaura ' expedition . part 5 . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology . 2 ( 6 ) . page ( s ) : 233 [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) labate , m . ; arena , p . ( 1964 ) . la fauna dei poriferi nei laghi di ganzirri e faro ( messina ) . archivo zoologico italiano . 49 : 249 - 280 . page ( s ) : 265 - 267 ; fig 5 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) ackers , r . g . ; moss , d . ; picton , b . e . ( 1992 ) . sponges of the british isles ( ‘sponges v’ ) . a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society . 1 - 175 . page ( s ) : 127 - 129 [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) alander , h . ( 1942 ) . sponges from the swedish west - coast and adjacent waters . ph . d . thesis . ( university of lund , h . struves : gøteborg ) . pp . 1 - 95 , 15 pls . page ( s ) : 28 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) castric - fey , a . ( 1996 ) . richesse et biodiversité en mer mégatidale : communautés sublittorales rocheuses de la région de trébeurden - ploumanac ' h ( nord bretagne france ) . cahiers de biologie marine . 37 , 7 - 31 . page ( s ) : 22 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) borojevic , r . ; cabioch , l . ; lévi , c . ( 1968 ) . inventaire de la faune marine de roscoff . spongiaires . cahiers de biologie marine . 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 44 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 15 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
bowerbank ' s halichondria is easy to confuse with the breadcrumb sponge . older specimen have long thin , stringy branches which emerge from a thin crust . young specimen lack these stringy branches . since the delta works were built , bowerbank ' s halichondria is found more often than the breadcrumb sponge . it used to be the other way around . but this sponge is more resistant to mud . bowerbank ' s halichondria is also known as crumb - of - bread sponge or the common sponge .
vethaak , a . d . , r . j . a . cronie and r . w . m . van soest , 1982 . ecology and distribution of two sympatric , closely related sponge species , halichondria panicea ( pallas , 1766 ) and h . bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( porifera , demospongiae ) , with remarks on their speciation . bijdragen tot de dierkunde , 52 ( 2 ) : 82 - 102 .
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
burton , m . , 1947a . the identity of halichondria albescens johnston and hymeniacidon albescens bowerbank . ann . mag . nat . hist . , ( 11 ) 14 : 252 - 256 .
vethaak , a . d . ; cronie , r . j . a . ; van soest , r . w . m . 1982 . ecology and distribution of two sympatric , closely related spongespecies , halichondria panicea ( pallas , 1766 ) and h . bowerbanki burton , 1930 ( porifera , demospongiae ) , with remarks on their speciation . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 52 ( 2 ) : 82 - 102 . page ( s ) : 86 [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
graat - kleeton , g . , 1965 . les halichondria de roscoff . proc . kon . ned . acad . wetensch . , ( c ) 68 ( 3 ) : 166 - 174 .
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) ereskovsky , a . ; kovtun , o . a . ; pronin , k . k . ; apostolov , a . ; erpenbeck , d . ; ivanenko , v . ( 2018 ) . sponge community of the western black sea shallow water caves : diversity and spatial distribution . peerj . 6 : e4596 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) carballo , j . l . ; garcia - gómez , j . c . ( 1994 ) . esponjas del estrecho de gibraltar y áreas próximas , con nuevas aportaciones para la fauna iberica [ porifera from the straits of gibraltar and nearby areas , new species of the iberian fauna ] . cahiers de biologie marine . 35 ( 2 ) : 193 - 211 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 197 [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagardère , 1995 ) breton , g . ; girard , a . ; lagardère , j . - p . ( 1995 ) . espèces animales benthiques des bassins du port du havre ( normandie , france ) rares , peu connues ou nouvelles pour la région . bull . trim . soc . géol . normandie et amis mus . havr , 82 ( 3 ) : 7 - 29 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) rützler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285–313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki var . stellifera breton , girard & lagardère , 1995 ) van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) cardone , f . ; corriero , g . ; fianchini , a . ; gravina , m . f . ; nonnis marzano , c . ( 2014 ) . biodiversity of transitional waters : species composition and comparative analysis of hard bottom communities from the south - eastern italian coast . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 94 ( 01 ) : 25 - 34 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) girard - descatoire , a . ; castric - fey , a . ; l ' hardy - halos , m . t . ( 1995 ) . inventaire de la faune et de la flore sur les fonds rocheux autour de l ' île d ' ouessant . rapport adms , direction régionale de l ' environnement bretagne , conseil régional de bretagne , conseil général du finistère , fonds européens , rennes . , 148pp . convention znieff 94 . page ( s ) : annexe 1 , 8 [ details ]
topsent , e . , 1911 . sur les affinités des halichondria et la classification des halichondrines d ' après leurs formes larvaires . arch . zool . expér . gén . , ( 5 ) 7 ( notes et revue ) : i - xv .
( of halichondria bowerbanki burton , 1930 ) wapstra , m . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1987 ) . sexual reproduction , larval morphology and behaviour in demosponges from the southwest of the netherlands . in : vacelet j . , boury - esnault n . ( eds ) taxonomy of porifera from the n . e . atlantic and the mediterranean sea . nato advanced science institutes series g , ecological sciences , springer , heidelberg . 13 : 281 - 307 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 285 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) grant , r . e . 1826c . observations on the structure and functions of thesponge . edinburgh new philosophical journal 2 : 121 - 141 , pl . ii . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
habitat : on rock or other animals , even ascidian tests . it reaches its maximal development in harbours and estuaries , being very tolerant of muddy and brackish conditions where it tends to replace halichondria panicea ( but there are reports of both species occuring together in silty conditions ) .
h . bowerbanki may be confused with another common species , h . panicea . it does not have the same distinct smell and is not easily broken into pieces . it is also more polymorph , taking a variety of forms from smooth cushions to very branched , bush - like shapes . the color is usually light brown or yellow , sometimes with shades of green .
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) topsent , e . ( 1934 ) . eponges observées dans les parages de monaco . ( première partie ) . bulletin de l’institut océanographique , monaco . 650 : 1 - 42 . page ( s ) : 22 - 23 [ details ]
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) topsent , e . ( 1925 ) . éponges de l ' étang de thau . bulletin de l ' institut océanographique de monaco . 452 , 1 - 42 . page ( s ) : 11 - 12 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1866 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 2 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xx , 1 - 388 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 238 - 240 [ details ]
spicules : simple . megascleres are slightly curved slender oxea only : 400 - ( 500 ) - 600 x 12ám , and 200 - ( 253 ) - 320 x 2 . 5ám . the spicules are rather more slender and show a wider size range than in haliclona spp . , with which certain forms of halichondria may be confused . no microscleres .
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) bowerbank , j . s . ( 1874 ) . a monograph of the british spongiadae . volume 3 . ( ray society : london ) : i - xvii , 1 - 367 , pls i - xcii . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 102 , pl . xli 18 - 20 [ details ]
apertures : oscules are
usually small
, ( but see photo 59 ) and either at the tops of chimneys , whose shape is uneven , or along the sides of branches . larger oscular chimneys ( up to 1 cm tall ) tend to have an ill defined translucent band running up one side . the apical termination of this band ( canal ? ) contributes to the unevenness of the oscular rims ( cf . halichondria panicea ) .
form : polymorphic , varying from a cushion to almost a branching - repent form . a cushion can give rise to oscular chimneys with oscules at the top or , more typically , to a profusion of simple , solid , tassel - like branches with the oscules mainly along their length ( cf . halichondria panicea ) . in some sheltered localities the branches grow over other organisms and loop like bramble stolons , attaching to any suitable object they encounter .
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of halichondria coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) harms , j . ( 1993 ) . check list of species ( algae , invertebrates and vertebrates ) found in the vicinity of the island of helgoland ( north sea , german bight ) : a review of recent records . helgoländer meeresunters . 47 : 1 - 34 . [ p . 25 , tab . 3 : gastrosaccus spinifer , mysis relicta , praunus inermis , schistomysis kervillei , schistomysis spiritus . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
description : this sponge can be very polymorphic , varying from a cushion to almost a branching - repent form . a cushion can give rise to oscular chimneys with oscules at the top or , more typically , to a profusion of simple , solid , tassel - like branches with the oscules mainly along their length ( cf . halichondria panicea ) . in some sheltered localities the branches grow over other organisms and loop like bramble stolons , attaching to any suitable object they encounter . the colour is usually buff or cream , never green .
skeleton : halichondroid . the main skeleton is a confused reticulation of oxea of variable size with a slight tendency to form fibres 4 - 10 spicules thick . the ectosomal skeleton is typically a regular reticulation of similar spicules arranged tangentially , these either lying singly and parallel to one another , or formed into fibres : this regular arrangement can become confused and lost . the surface spicules help to reinforce a well - defined ectosomal membrane . sub - surface spaces are not as well developed as in halichondria panicea . very small quantities of spongin are present .
is a shallow subtidal , occasionally intertidal yellowish beige sponge with characteristically stringy appearance . long , string - like projections issue from a thinly encrusting base . no apparent oscules . texture like crumb - of - bread , soft . confused
suffice to tell them apart . less common , but largely overlapping in ecological and geographical range .
beige or dull brownish grey in summer , light grey yellow or whitish in winter . specimens about to spawn their larvae are often characteristically yellow - orange due to colour of larvae . greenish shades are rarely encountered .
) . size up to 25 cm across and branches may reach12 cm . surface smooth or uneven , often with a translucence . parchment - like skin . consistency soft , compressible . texture crumb - of - bread like . oscules inconspicuous , at the base of branches , opening irregular , mostly small ( 1 - 2 mm ) , but occasionally larger ( up to 5 mm ) , then with irregular rim (
) oxeas , relatively long and thin , tapering very gradually towards the apices : 133 - 570 by 2 - 16 µm . average sizes are 375 by 6 or 385 by 11 µm . no statistically significant difference between ectosomal and choanosomal oxeas has been found .
) , with paucispicular bundles intercrossing , and lying at some distance from each other , giving a more open reticulated aspect .
: confused , with ill - defined paucispicular dendritic bundles ending at the surface at various angles . no visible spongin .
this is a viviparous species . the parenchymella larvae are yellow - ochre coloured , darker than those of
sheltered environments , under overhanging rocks in sediment rich environments . although it overlaps broadly with
cannot survive . it is less resistant towards desiccation and thus is found only in the lowest part of the intertidal . it grows often intertwined with hydroids and algae .
, on both sides of the atlantic , penetrating far to the south along the coasts of the eastern united states , e . g . it is reported from north carolina . on the european coasts it is reliably reported southwards until bretagne . morphologically similar specimens are found along the west coast of africa and in the mediterranean , but need revision . records from other oceans are likewise unreliable .
named after james scott bowerbank ( 1797 - 1877 ) , pioneering author of the w european sponges .
the type is in the natural history museum , london : bmnh 1938 . 6 . 30 . 32a ? ( bowerbank ' s specimen of
can make it very difficult to identify individual specimens . typical growth forms , however , are easy to recognize :
is compact with clearly recognizable regular oscular chimneys . below a table of differences between the two species is given . other species in the area with long and thin oxeas , which may be occasionally confused with the present species are
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parfitt , e . , 1869 . on the marine and freshwater sponges of devonshire . trans . devonshire assoc . , 1869 .
prenant , m . , 1927 . notes éthologiques sur la faune marine sessile des environs de roscoff . ii . spongiaires , tuniciers , anthozoaires . associations de la faune fixée . trav . stat . biol . roscoff , 6 : 1 - 58 .
rodriguez babio , c . and l . gondar , 1978 . fauna marina de galicia . ii . contribución al conocimiento de poríferos del litoral gallego . monogr . univ . santiago compostela : 1 - 68 .
schmidt , o . , 1870 . grundzüge einer spongien - fauna des atlantischen gebietes . engelmann , leipzig : iv + 88 pp . , vi pls .
soest , r . w . m . van , and s . weinberg , 1980 . a note on the sponges and octocorals from sherkin island and lough ine , co . cork . irish nat . j . , 20 : 1 - 15 .
soest , r . w . m . van , j . d . guiterman and m . sayer , 1981 . sponges from roaringwater bay and lough ine . j . sherkin isl . , 1 ( 2 ) : 35 - 49 .
soest , r . w . m . van , 1977 . marine and freshwater sponges ( porifera ) of the netherlands . zool . meded . leiden , 50 ( 16 ) : 261 - 273 .
soest , r . w . m . van , 1983 . sponzenonderzoek in nederland . het zeepaard , 43 ( 2 ) : 28 - 33 .
solórzano , m . r . , 1991 . inventario dos poríferos do litoral galego . cadernos de area de ciencias biolóxicas . inventarios , 7 : 1 - 53 .
topsent , e . , 1888a . contribution à l ' étude des clionides . arch . zool . expér . gén . , ( 2 ) 5 : 1 - 166 , pls . i - vii .
topsent , e . , 1891a . essai sur la faune de spongiaires de roscoff . arch . zool . expér . gén . , ( 2 ) 9 : 523 - 554 .
topsent , e . , 1913 . spongiaires provenant des campagnes scientifiques de la
princesse alice
dans les mers du nord . rés . camp . sci . prince albert monaco , 45 : 1 - 67 .
vethaak , a . d . , 1983 . het oecologische onderzoek van broodsponzen . het zeepaard , 43 ( 2 ) : 62 - 70 .
wapstra , m . and r . w . m . van soest , 1987 . sexual reproduction , larval morphology and behaviour in demosponges from the southwest of the netherlands : 281 - 307 . in : j . vacelet and n . boury - esnault , eds . taxonomy of porifera . springer verlag , berlin , heidelberg . nato - asi series , g13 : 1 - 332 .
burton , m . ( 1930 ) . additions to the sponge fauna at plymouth . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 16 ( 2 ) : 489 - 507 . page ( s ) : 489 - 491 [ details ]
van soest , r . w . m ; boury - esnault , n . ; hooper , j . n . a . ; rützler , k . ; de voogd , n . j . ; alvarez , b . ; hajdu , e . ; pisera , a . b . ; manconi , r . ; schönberg , c . ; klautau , m . ; picton , b . ; kelly , m . ; vacelet , j . ; dohrmann , m . ; díaz , m . - c . ; cárdenas , p . ; carballo , j . l . ; ríos , p . ; downey , r . ( 2018 ) . world porifera database .
van soest , r . w . m . ( 2001 ) . porifera , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels . 50 : 85 - 103 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
ackers , r . g . ; moss , d . ; picton , b . e . ( 1992 ) . sponges of the british isles ( ‘sponges v’ ) . a colour guide and working document . marine conservation society . 1 - 175 . page ( s ) : 127 - 129 [ details ]
alander , h . ( 1942 ) . sponges from the swedish west - coast and adjacent waters . ph . d . thesis . ( university of lund , h . struves : gøteborg ) . pp . 1 - 95 , 15 pls . page ( s ) : 28 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
borojevic , r . ; cabioch , l . ; lévi , c . ( 1968 ) . inventaire de la faune marine de roscoff . spongiaires . cahiers de biologie marine . 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 44 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 15 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
linkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]
hayward , p . j . ; ryland , j . s . ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) . the marine fauna of the british isles and north - west europe : 1 . introduction and protozoans to arthropods . clarendon press : oxford , uk . isbn 0 - 19 - 857356 - 1 . 627 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
burton , m . ( 1954 ) . sponges . pp . 215 - 239 , pl . 9 . in : the ' rosaura ' expedition . part 5 . bulletin of the british museum ( natural history ) zoology . 2 ( 6 ) . page ( s ) : 233 [ details ]
van soest , r . w . m . ( 1993 ) . affinities of the marine demospongiae fauna of the cape verde islands and tropical west africa . courier forschungsinstitut senckenberg . 159 : 205 - 219 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
wapstra , m . ; van soest , r . w . m . ( 1987 ) . sexual reproduction , larval morphology and behaviour in demosponges from the southwest of the netherlands . in : vacelet j . , boury - esnault n . ( eds ) taxonomy of porifera from the n . e . atlantic and the mediterranean sea . nato advanced science institutes series g , ecological sciences , springer , heidelberg . 13 : 281 - 307 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 285 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
muller , y . ( 2004 ) . faune et flore du littoral du nord , du pas - de - calais et de la belgique : inventaire . [ coastal fauna and flora of the nord , pas - de - calais and belgium : inventory ] . commission régionale de biologie région nord pas - de - calais : france . 307 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
carballo , j . l . ; garcia - gómez , j . c . ( 1994 ) . esponjas del estrecho de gibraltar y áreas próximas , con nuevas aportaciones para la fauna iberica [ porifera from the straits of gibraltar and nearby areas , new species of the iberian fauna ] . cahiers de biologie marine . 35 ( 2 ) : 193 - 211 . ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 197 [ details ]
labate , m . ; arena , p . ( 1964 ) . la fauna dei poriferi nei laghi di ganzirri e faro ( messina ) . archivo zoologico italiano . 49 : 249 - 280 . page ( s ) : 265 - 267 ; fig 5 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
rützler , k . ; van soest , r . w . m . ; piantoni , c . ( 2009 ) . sponges ( porifera ) of the gulf of mexico . in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m press , college station , texas . 285–313 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gosner , k . l . ( 1978 ) . a field guide to the atlantic seashore . boston : houghton mifflin . 329p . [ details ]
cardone , f . ; corriero , g . ; fianchini , a . ; gravina , m . f . ; nonnis marzano , c . ( 2014 ) . biodiversity of transitional waters : species composition and comparative analysis of hard bottom communities from the south - eastern italian coast . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom . 94 ( 01 ) : 25 - 34 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
solórzano , m . r . ( 1990 ) . poríferos del litoral gallego : estudio faunístico , distribución e inventario . phd thesis unversidad de santiago de compostela . 1036 pp . page ( s ) : 960 - 963 ; lám . 124 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
girard - descatoire , a . ; castric - fey , a . ; l ' hardy - halos , m . t . ( 1995 ) . inventaire de la faune et de la flore sur les fonds rocheux autour de l ' île d ' ouessant . rapport adms , direction régionale de l ' environnement bretagne , conseil régional de bretagne , conseil général du finistère , fonds européens , rennes . , 148pp . convention znieff 94 . page ( s ) : annexe 1 , 8 [ details ]
castric - fey , a . ( 1996 ) . richesse et biodiversité en mer mégatidale : communautés sublittorales rocheuses de la région de trébeurden - ploumanac ' h ( nord bretagne france ) . cahiers de biologie marine . 37 , 7 - 31 . page ( s ) : 22 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
ereskovsky , a . ; kovtun , o . a . ; pronin , k . k . ; apostolov , a . ; erpenbeck , d . ; ivanenko , v . ( 2018 ) . sponge community of the western black sea shallow water caves : diversity and spatial distribution . peerj . 6 : e4596 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 9 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spongia coalita sensu lamarck , 1814 ) lamarck , j . b . p . de monet , comte de . ( 1814 [ 1813 ] ) . sur les polypiers empâtés . annales du museum national d ' histoire naturelle . 294 - 312 ; 370 - 386 ; 432 - 458 . page ( s ) : 457 [ details ]
marra , m . v . ; bertolino , m . ; pansini , m . ; giacobbe , s . ; manconi , r . ; pronzato , r . ( 2016 ) . long - term turnover of the sponge fauna in faro lake ( north - east sicily , mediterranean sea ) . italian journal of zoology . 1 - 10 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 4 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spongia coalita sensu lamarck , 1814 ) montagu , g . ( 1814 ) . an essay on sponges , with descriptions of all the species that have been discovered on the coast of great britain . memoirs of the wernerian natural history society . 2 ( 1 ) : 67 - 122 , pls iii - xvi . page ( s ) : 80 [ details ]
( of amorphina coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) schmidt , o . ( 1870 ) . grundzüge einer spongien - fauna des atlantischen gebietes . ( wilhelm engelmann : leipzig ) : iii - iv , 1 - 88 , pls i - vi . [ details ]
( of amorphina coalita ( sensu lamarck , 1814 ) ) topsent , e . ( 1887 [ 1888 ] ) . contribution à l’étude des clionides . archives de zoologie expérimentale et générale . 2 ( 5 bis ) : 1 - 165 , pls i - vii . [ details ]
surface : smooth or uneven , often with a translucence which enables the outline of some deeper structures to be seen . in a collected specimen the translucence and consistency are reminiscent of parchment . surface spicules are sometimes more or less parallel and united into widely spaced fibres , or the spicules are arranged in no obvious order .
distribution :
arctic ; norway ; belgium ; british isles ; france ; mediterranean .
a common species in the british isles .
distribution map from nbn : grid map ( fast ) : interactive map ( slower , requires login to view records ) : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
picton , b . e . , morrow , c . c . & van soest , r . w . b . , 2011 . [ in ] sponges of britain and ireland urltoken
distribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
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it seems to thrive on current - and wave - exposed location in relatively shallow waters ( less than 100 meters ) .
this sponge is common in the north - east atlantic and can be found as far north as troms , norway .
microscopic examination of the spicules reveals that they are relatively long and thin , and taper to the apices .
named after james s . bowerbank ( 1797 - 1877 ) , a pioneering authority on sponges .
howson & picton , 1997 , soest van et al . , 2000 , moss & ackers , 1982 ,
under optimal conditions ( and with a low sample number ) , vethaak et al . ( 1982 ) recorded a mean length increase of 1 . 1 mm / day in summer and no growth in winter .
vethaak et al . ( 1982 ) identified five distinct growth forms ( plus intermediate forms ) including incrusting , bushlike and massive forms . they reported a maximum colony size of 25 cm width to 12 cm high although most colonies are rarely this big .
in some sheltered locations the branches grow over other species and loop like bramble stolons attaching to any suitable object they encounter .
found to house a large community of associated amphipod species which show seasonal variation ( biernbaum , 1981 ) .
soest van et al . , 2000 , moss & ackers , 1982 , farnham et al . , 1985 , biernbaum , 1981 , barthel & wolfrath , 1989 , barthel , 1988 ,
commonly found in southern england , pembrokeshire and north west wales , also frequently found in western scotland . isolated records from the north sea .
present on both sides of the north atlantic . in europe it has been reported south to brittany , and is found in the south west netherlands and in harbours of the wadden sea . it is a non - native species in north america .
soest van et al . , 2000 , hayward et al . , 1996 , moss & ackers , 1982 , biernbaum , 1981 , soest van , 1977 , jncc , 1999 , nbn , 2002 , vethaak et al . , 1982 , bowerbank , 1874 ,
from the same area contained oocytes from april through to november although embryos were only observed from june to november . newly settled colonies were seen within just over a year , i . e . the following september and october ( vethaak
could be protandrous or protogynous hermaphrodites . no information was found concerning the life span of
soest van et al . , 2000 , wapstra & van soest , 1987 ,
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spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs , the only genus in the family spondylidae .

as well as being the systematic or scientific name , spondylus is the most often used common name for these animals , though they are also known as spondylids , thorny oysters , and spiny oysters ( though they are not , in fact , oysters ) .

the meat of these bivalves is edible .

spondylus

variety spondylus gaederopus var . albinus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . coralinus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . foliosus monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . horrida dautzenberg , 1895 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . inermis monterosato , 1875 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
variety spondylus gaederopus var . spinosa pallary , 1904 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
species spondylus albidus broderip , 1836 accepted as spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830
species spondylus minimus chenu , 1844 accepted as spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830
species spondylus calcifer carpenter , 1857 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847
species spondylus ciliatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793
species spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793
species spondylus cumingii g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus regius linnaeus , 1758
species spondylus delessertii chenu , 1844 accepted as spondylus varius g . b . sowerby i , 1827
species spondylus digitatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus tenuis schreibers , 1793
species spondylus jamarci okutani , 1983 accepted as spondylus occidens g . b . sowerby iii , 1903
species spondylus petroselinum g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus foliaceus schreibers , 1793
species spondylus iredalei fulton , 1915 accepted as spondylus raoulensis w . r . b . oliver , 1915
spondylus linnaeus , 1758 ( basis of record ) spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus versicolor schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus candidus lamarck , 1819 ( basis of record ) spondylus castus reeve , 1856 accepted as spondylus echinatus schreibers , 1793 ( basis of record ) spondylus coccineus lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( additional source ) spondylus gloriandus melvill & standen , 1907 ( basis of record ) spondylus gravis fulton , 1915 ( basis of record ) spondylus groschi lamprell & kilburn , 1995 ( basis of record ) spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 accepted as spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus layardi reeve , 1856 ( basis of record ) spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( basis of record ) spondylus marisrubri röding , 1798 accepted as spondylus spinosus schreibers , 1793 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus nicobaricus schreibers , 1793 ( additional source ) spondylus pickeringae lamprell , 1998 accepted as spondylus darwini jousseaume , 1882 ( original description ) spondylus pratii parth , 1990 ( basis of record ) spondylus punicus bernard , cai & morton , 1993 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 accepted as spondylus fauroti jousseaume , 1888 ( original description ) spondylus somalicus parth & philippe , 1992 accepted as spondylus gravis fulton , 1915 ( source of synonymy ) spondylus spinosus schreibers , 1793 ( additional source ) spondylus versicolor schreibers , 1793 ( basis of record )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758
species spondylus mireilleae lamprell & healy , 2001 accepted as spondylus occidens g . b . sowerby iii , 1903
species spondylus darwini sensu lamprell & healy , 1998 accepted as spondylus asperrimus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847
species spondylus lamarckii sensu carpenter , 1857 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( misidentification )
species spondylus longitudinalis sensu g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus tenuis schreibers , 1793 ( misidentification )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
variety spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 accepted as spondylus gaederopus linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
species spondylus armatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 accepted as spondylus victoriae g . b . sowerby ii , 1860
one of the most - cited article on aegean spondylus , akira tsuneki’s “the manufacture of spondylus objects at neolithic dimini , greece “ , a pioneering study on spondylus shell technology , published in 1989 , is now available in pdf format .
the life expectancy of spondylus americanus has not been recorded as of march , 2011 .
no genetic data is currently available for spondylus americanus ( as of march 2011 ) .
worms - world register of marine species - spondylus gussonii o . g . costa , 1830
( of spondylus ( rimaespondylus ) damarco , 2015 ) damarco p . ( 2015 ) . a new species of spondylus from indonesia . malacologia mostra mondiale . 87 : 6 - 14 . [ details ]
species spondylus coccineus lamarck , 1819 accepted as spondylus limbatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ( invalid : junior homonym of s . coccineus schreibers , 1793 ; s . punicus is a replacement name )
( of spondylus parocellatus iredale , 1939 ) lamprell , k . 2006 . spiny oysters : a revision of the living spondylus species of the world . jean lamprell : brisbane . 119 pp . [ details ]
to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 194 publications ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to clemam to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to clemam ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 8 nucleotides ; 1 proteins ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to pesi ( from synonym spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection
spondylus is associated with water shrines in the wari and inca empires , at sites such as marcahuamachucot , viracochapampa , pachacamac , pikillacta , and cerro amaru . at marcahuamachucot was recovered an offering of about 10 kilograms ( 22 pounds ) of spondylus shells and shell fragments , and small turquoise figurines carved in the shape of spondylus .
( of spondylus rostratus chenu , 1844 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
( of spondylus igneus fulton , 1915 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
generally , members of the family spondylidae will look similar to each other because of the presence of spines ; spondylus princeps appears most alike , although its red coloration and shorter spines distinguish it from the more muted yellow shell of spondylus americanus ( weisbord , 1964 : 166 ) .
a chimu spondylus and mussel shell necklace with stone beads , 1100 - 1470 ce . ( american museum of natural history , new york )
spondylus was known as the
food of the gods
, according to a quechua myth recorded in the 17th century . some debate exists among scholars as to whether this meant that the gods consumed spondylus shells , or the flesh of the animal . american archaeologist mary glowacki ( 2005 ) makes an interesting argument that the effects of eating spondylus shell meat out of season may have made them an essential part of religious ceremonies .
what made you want to look up spondylus ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
a detail of the celebrated aztec double - headed serpent . it is made from wood covered in turquoise mosaic , spondylus ( red . . .
delivering alien invasive species inventories for europe ( daisie ) to barcode of life ( 1 barcode ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 20 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 37 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 50 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 52 publications ) ( from synonym spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 5 nucleotides ; 2 proteins ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology mollusca collection ( from synonym spondylus serratissimus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 )
the features of pectinids were adapted for swimming , but as a sessile species , spondylus americanus has experienced changes in the function of some organs : while the adductor muscle is similar , spondylus americanus ’ has more development in the area designed to close the shell ( dakin , 1928a : 342 ) .
spondylus americanus is threatened by predators , but not to the extent that conservational efforts will be required ( logan , 1974 : 583 - 584 ; feifarek , 1987 ) . human factors such as pollution or overfishing are probably not major threats to spondylus americanus either ( mikkelsen , 2003 : 454 ) .
one less - known to the western - language academia article on the diminian spondylus by akira tsuneki entitled “ spondylus shell objects of neolithic greece used on the materials from dimin i” and published in 1988 , is also available in pdf format . being written in japanese , it serves mostly as a “collector’s item”…
research focusing on spondylus varius reveals it to have hepatoprotective properties , preventing the human liver from damage ; whether the same holds for spondylus americanus remains to be seen ( koyama et al . , 2006 : 729 - 731 ) . because it is a filter feeder , spondylus americanus can also be of benefit to the oceanic ecosystems it is a part of , redistributing nutrients and clearing out particles suspended in water ( peterson and lubchenco , 1997 : 182 ) .
lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species .
spondylus americanus is a sessile bivalve , occurring in shallow water in the atlantic ocean from brazil to north carolina , where it is usually found as part of a coral reef . like all spondylidae , spondylus americanus is noted for its striking , spiny appearance , giving rise to its common name , the atlantic thorny oyster .
halstead p . 1993 . spondylus shell ornaments from late neolithic dimini , greece : specialized manufacture or unequal accumulation ? antiquity 67 ( 256 ) : 603 - 609 .
dimitrijevic v , and tripkovic b . 2006 . spondylus and glycymeris bracelets : trade reflections at neolithic vinca - belo brdo . documenta praehistoric a 33 : 237 - 252 .
( of spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 ) lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) check list of european marine mollusca ( clemam ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
because spondylus lives so far below sea level , retrieving them requires experienced divers . the earliest known illustration of spondylus diving in south america comes from drawings on pottery and murals during the early intermediate period [ ~ 200 bc - ad 600 ] : they likely represent s . calcifer and the images probably were of people diving off the coast of ecuador .
bauer de . 2007 . the reinvention of tradition : an ethnographic study of spondylus use in coastal ecuador . journal of anthropological research 63 ( 1 ) : 33 - 50 .
lamprell , k . l . ( 1987 ) . spiny oysters of the world - spondylus . e . j . brill / dr w . backhuys , leiden . [ details ]
glowacki m . 2005 . food of the gods or mere mortals ? hallucinogenic spondylus and its interpretive implications for early andean society . antiquity 79 ( 304 ) : 257 - 268 .
spondylus shell also was also part of the extensive north american pre - columbian trade network , finding its way into far - flung places in the form of beads , pendants , and unworked valves . ritually significant spondylus objects such as the so - called
charlie chaplin
figurines have been found in several maya sites dated between the pre - classic to late classic periods .
by the middle to late neolithic , the number and size of spondylus shell pieces sharply drop off , found in archaeological sites of this time period as tiny pieces of inlay in necklaces , belts , bracelets , and anklets . in addition , limestone beads appear as imitations , suggesting to scholars that the sources of spondylus dried up but the symbolic importance of the shell had not .
pillsbury j . 1996 . the thorny oyster and the origins of empire : implications of recently uncovered spondylus imagery from chan chan , peru . latin american antiquity 7 ( 4 ) : 313 - 340 .
spondylus americanus typically inhabits shallow water bodies that may be enclosed , such as lagoons , or unenclosed , at depths of 10m to 168m ( tunnell et al . , 2010 : 330 ; logan , 1974 : 576 ) . as part of the epifaunal community of its habitats , the adolescent spondylus americanus will traverse surfaces until it finds a suitable settling spot , where the adult will typically remain ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) .
spondylus gaederopus lives in the eastern mediterranean , at depths between 6 - 30 m ( 20 - 100 ft ) . spondylus shells were prestige goods showing up in burials within the carpathian basin by the early neolithic period ( 6000 - 5500 cal bc ) . they were used as whole shells or cut into pieces for ornaments , and they are found in graves and hoards associated with both sexes . at the serbian site of vinca in the middle danube valley , spondylus were found with other shell species such as glycymeris in contexts dated to 5500 - 4300 bc , and as such are thought to have been part of the trade network from the mediterranean region .
the main trade route for spondylus in south america was along the andean mountain routes which were precursors to the inca road system , with secondary pathways branching down the river valleys ; and perhaps partially by boat along the coasts .
mackensen ak , brey t , and sonnenholzner s . 2011 . the fate of spondylus stocks ( bivalvia : spondylidae ) in ecuador : is recovery likely ? journal of shellfish research 30 ( 1 ) : 115 - 121 .
archaeological research in the salango region indicates spondylus was first exploited beginning during the valdivia phase [ 3500 - 1500 bc ] , when beads and worked rectangular pendants were made and traded to the ecuadoran interior . between 1100 and 100 bc , the produced items increased in complexity , and small figurines and red and white beads were traded to the andean highlands for copper and cotton . beginning about 100 bc , trade in ecuadoran spondylus reached the lake titicaca region in bolivia .
spondylus shell first appears in andean archaeological sites dated to the preceramic period v [ 4200 - 2500 bc ] , and the shellfish was consistently used up until the spanish conquest in the 16th century . andean people used spondylus shell as complete shells in rituals , cut into pieces and used as inlay in jewelry , and ground into powder and used as architectural decoration . its form was carved into stone and made into pottery effigies ; it was worked into body adornments and placed in burials .
oxygen isotope analysis supports scholars & apos ; contentions that the sole source of the central european spondylus was the mediterranean , specifically the aegean and / or adriatic coasts . shell workshops were recently identified at the late neolithic site of dimini in thessaly , where over 250 worked spondylus shell fragments were recorded . finished objects were found in other locations throughout the settlement , but halstead ( 2003 ) argues that the distribution suggests that the amount of production waste indicates that the artifacts were being produced for trade into central europe .
distinguishing characteristics in the early stages of growth spondylus species are extremely difficult to identify and many exhibit a similar ornamentation , shape and color . differences from the very similar s . spinosus in rib number and shape , spine development and color are given under s . spinosus .
no documentation of the eggs and pre - juvenile stages of spondylus americanus exists , but that data is available for members of the family pectinidae , with which spondylus americanus shares some similarities ; possibly the larval stages are alike ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . pecten irradians hatches from the egg as a free - swimming , ciliated trocophore , before developing into a veliger which may feed using the velum ( fay et al . , 1983 : 4 ) . the foot is the final development of this stage ( fay et al . , 1983 : 5 ) .
the aim of this blog - based community is to gather info , news and data on spondylus , a sea - shell whose importance is acknowledged both in new and old worlds prehistory . if you want to become a co - author , please e - mail at fotisif @ urltoken
spondylus americanus is found in mostly tropical regions in the atlantic , where there is an abundance of calcium carbonate from coral reefs in the area . the calcium carbonate molecule is instrumental in the development of the species ' spines and cementation , so spondylus americanus will seek to settle near coral formations ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . they can then become members of the coral ecosystem , serving as roosts for epibiontic algae which camouflage the shell , as well as being subject to predators such as gastropods , and lobsters ( logan , 1974 : 581 ; feifarek , 1987 ) .
( of spondylus albibarbatus reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus spectrum reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
mienis h . k . , galili e . and rapoport j . , 1993a . the spiny oyster , spondylus spinosus , a well established indo - pacific bivalve in the eastern mediterranean off israel ( mollusca , bivalvia , spondylidae ) . zoology in the middle east , 9 : 83 - 91 .
lamprell , k . l . ( 1998 ) . recent spondylus species from the middle east and adjacent regions , with the description of two new species . vita marina . 45 ( 1 - 2 ) : 41 - 60 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
spondylus americanus is a heterotrophic organism , relying on omnivorous filter feeding to attain sustenance ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . water is brought in past the marginal denticles at the edge of the shell where particles may be foraged from the water to serve as nutrients ( logan , 1974 : 579 ) .
a few other organisms prey on spondylus americanus , including octopi and fish such as wrasses , although specific species that act as predators towards the species have not been recorded ( logan , 1974 : 583 - 584 ) . it is likely that the sharp spines defend against predators , and successful cementation to a substrate has been shown to increase survivability against predators ( logan , 1974 : 583 ; harper , 1990 : 457 ) . although parrot fish are not natural predators of the species , as they consume the algae lining the shell as camouflage , they may decrease spondylus americanus ’s survivability ( logan , 1974 : 583 ) .
( of spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) pallary p . ( 1900 ) . coquilles marines du littoral du départment d ' oran . journal de conchyliologie . 48 ( 3 ) : 211 - 422 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 372 [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) pallary p . ( 1912 ) . catalogue des mollusques du littoral méditerranéen de l ' egypte . mémoires de l ' institut d ' egypte , 7 ( 3 ) : 69 - 207 , pl . 15 - 18 , available online at urltoken [ details ]
these oysters ' spines serve as protection and provide growth areas for barnacles and algae , which in turn provide camouflage . although the spondylus imperialis resembles oysters , these creatures are more closely related to scallops . thorny oysters live attached to hard substrates or other shells , and interspecific variability makes them difficult to identify with certainty .
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) spencer h . g . , willan r . c . , marshall b . a . & murray t . j . ( 2011 ) . checklist of the recent mollusca recorded from the new zealand exclusive economic zone . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
the larval stage of spondylus americanus has not been observed , but presumably the larvae are free - swimming until choosing a substrate to attach to and develop into the postlarval stage ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . adults will remain attached to the substrate unless they have been forcibly detached ( logan , 1974 : 578 ) .
the symptoms of psp include sensory distortions , euphoria , loss of muscular control , and paralysis , and , in the most severe cases , death . glowacki suggests that purposefully eating spondylus during the wrong months may well have effected a hallucinogenic experience associated with shamanism , as an alternative to other forms of hallucinogens such as cocaine .
although evidence of shell - working is known in the andean highlands , workshops are also known to have been located much nearer their source beds along the pacific coast . in coastal ecuador , for example , several communities have been identified with prehispanic procurement and production of spondylus shell beads and other goods which were part of extensive trade networks .
( of spondylus contrarius anton , 1838 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus fulvus schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus mediterraneus hermann , 1781 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus aurantius lamarck , 1819 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus plurispinosus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus aculeatus broderip , 1833 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus rostratus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gracilis chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus lima chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus lindea iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus maculatus schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus parocellatus iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus percea iredale , 1939 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus pseudochama schreibers , 1793 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus igneus fulton , 1915 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus radians lamarck , 1819 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus hystrix röding , 1798 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albibarbatus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albus anton , 1838 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus spectrum reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus spinulosus kuster , 1858 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus castus reeve , 1856 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus albidus broderip , 1836 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus minimus chenu , 1844 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus smytheae lamprell , 1998 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
bajnóczi b , schöll - barna g , kalicz n , siklósi z , hourmouziadis gh , ifantidis f , kyparissi - apostolika a , pappa m , veropoulidou r , and ziota c . 2013 . tracing the source of late neolithic spondylus shell ornaments by stable isotope geochemistry and cathodoluminescence microscopy . journal of archaeological science 40 ( 2 ) : 874 - 882 .
calcium carbonate is necessary for spine development and cementation to a substrate , and spondylus americanus will attempt to dwell on or around coral in order to easily fulfill the requirements for that substance ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . a variety of substrate shapes are suitable : the species’ shell will adapt to even narrow clefts ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . the presence of coral is desirable , but by no means necessary for life once matured , as sand - dwelling , non - cemented adults have also been found ( logan , 1974 : 576 , 578 ) . however , life on the substrate is more sustainable , as spondylus americanus is protected from the turbulence of storms ( logan , 1974 : 578 ) .
foot : the foot serves the function of cleaning the interior of the shell , as cementation frees it from having to anchor spondylus americanus to the substrate ( yonge , 1973 : 180 - 181 ) . cilia are present to aid in transporting particles ; when large groups of particles are built up , they can then be expelled ( yonge , 1973 : 181 ) .
( of spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) lamprell k . , stanisic j . & clarkson p . ( 2001 ) . spondylids from the mediterranean sea and atlantic ocean with the description of a new species ( mollusca , bivalvia , spondylidae ) . . memoirs of the queensland museum 46 : 611 - 622 page ( s ) : 612 [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . spinosa pallary , 1904 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . albinus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . coralinus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosus monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . horrida dautzenberg , 1895 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis monterosato , 1875 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . lamellosa pallary , 1904 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus cevikeri lamprell , stanisic & clarkson , 2001 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus serratissimus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus ciliatus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus coccineus g . b . sowerby ii , 1847 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
eventual size of the shell and spines depends on the area the larva chooses to attach to : the valves have some plasticity to adapt for proper function in narrow places . spines grow at random angles before resolving to the large spines pointed away from the shell seen in adult spondylus americanus ; older spines are usually ground away by this point ( logan , 1974 : 573 - 574 ) .
( of spondylus gaederopus var . mixta koch & pallary in pallary , 1900 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of spondylus radians lamarck , 1819 ) dautzenberg , ph . ( 1929 ) . contribution à l ' étude de la faune de madagascar : mollusca marina testacea . faune des colonies françaises , iii ( fasc . 4 ) . société d ' editions géographiques , maritimes et coloniales : paris . 321 - 636 , plates iv - vii pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
the fossil record of spondylidae extends to the early jurassic , although spinous bivalves that existed during the late paleozoic may be ancestors ( logan , 1974 : 584 ) . spondylus americanus ' particular evolution does not appear to have been studied , but with respect to the family as a whole , one of these potential ancestors may be the pectinidae of the carboniferous ( dakin , 1928a : 354 ) .
mantle : the middle of three mantle folds houses a row of short tentacles and eyes , while the innermost fold is muscular and dappled with brown ( logan , 1974 : 570 ; yonge , 1973 : 177 ) . the eyes on spondylus americana are of a relatively small size , and there are 92 on the upper valve and 71 on the lower valve ( dakin , 1928b : 356 ) .
in 1525 , francisco pizarro & apos ; s pilot bartolomeo ruiz met an indigenous balsa wood craft sailing off the ecuadoran coast . its cargo included trade goods of silver , gold , textiles , and seashells , and they told ruiz they came from a place known as calangane . research conducted near the city of salango in that region indicated that it has been an important center of spondylus procurement for at least as long as 5 , 000 years .
between the months of april and september , the flesh of spondylus is toxic to humans , a seasonal toxicity recognized in most shellfish called paralytic shellfish poisoning ( psp ) . psp is caused by toxic algae or dinoflagellates consumed by shellfish during those months , and typically it is at its most toxic following the appearance of the algae bloom known as the
red tide
. red tides are associated with el niño oscillations , themselves associated with catastrophic storms .
( of spondylus sparsispinosus dall , bartsch & rehder , 1938 ) spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]
american anthropologist daniel bauer conducted ethnographic studies with modern shell - workers at salango in the early 21st century , before over - exploitation and climate change caused a crash in shellfish population and resulted in a fishing ban in 2009 . modern ecuadoran divers collect spondylus using oxygen tanks ; but some use a traditional method , holding their breaths for up to 2 . 5 minutes to dive to the shell beds 4 - 20 m ( 13 - 65 ft ) below the surface of the sea .
charlie chaplin figurines ( referred to in the literature as gingerbread cut - outs , anthropomorphic figurines , or anthropomorphic cut - outs ) are small , crudely - shaped human forms lacking much detail or gender identification . they are found primarily in ritual contexts such as burials , and dedicatory caches for stelae and buildings . they aren & apos ; t just made of spondylus : charlie chaplins are also made of jade , obsidian , slate , or sandstone , but they are almost always in ritual contexts .
the pectinidae have unique eyes among the bivalves that are homologous to those found in spondylus americanus ( dakin , 1928b : 356 ) . both families rest on the same valve ( dakin , 1928a : 337 , 338 ) . the mantle , adductor muscle , and radial muscle characteristics that have been specialized in pectinidae are mostly shared in spondylidae as well ( dakin , 1928a : 338 - 342 ) . the ctenidia of both families have a “respiratory expansion” that also appears unique ( dakin , 1928a : 344 ) .
the larvae are most likely motile , seeking suitable substrates to settle on ( logan , 1974 : 573 ) . adult spondylus americanus live a sessile existence , relying on filter feeding for sustenance and defense via sealing the valves ( logan , 1974 : 569 ) . if necessary , flapping of the valves allows the organism to swim , and may be useful in spreading sexual products during reproduction and possibly evading predators if s . americanus becomes detached from the substrate ( dakin , 1928a : 342 ; drew , 1906 : 34 ) .
atlantic thorny - oyster spondylus americanus hermann , 1781 description : this bivalve shell is attached to the substrate with one shell . the shells are roundish with numerous spines in rows . the spines can be up to 4 cm . long . the color is variable , from white via yellow and orange to purple . size : up to 10 cm . habitat : the shell lives on reefs , usually under overhangs or in recesses . well camouflaged by its color . depth : ranges from 12 m down to 40 m . distribution : common all over the caribbean . remarks : in most countries it is illegal to bring back these shells from holidays .
( of spondylus gaederopus var . contraria bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . foliosa bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . albina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . corallina bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of spondylus gaederopus var . inermis bucquoy , dautzenberg & dollfus , 1888 ) bucquoy e . , dautzenberg p . & dollfus g . ( 1887 - 1898 ) . les mollusques marins du roussillon . tome ii . pélécypodes . paris , j . b . baillière & fils 884 p . , 99 pl . [ pp . 1 - 24 , pl . 1 - 6 , november 1887 ; pp . 25 - 60 , pl . 7 - 11 , august 1888 ; pp . 61 - 112 , pl . 12 - 21 , may 1889 ; pp . 113 - 172 , pl . 22 - 29 , april 1890 ; pp . 173 - 220 , pl . 30 - 37 , april 1891 ; pp . 221 - 272 , pl . 38 - 44 , april 1892 ; pp . 273 - 320 , pl . 45 - 51 , may 1892 ; pp . 321 - 388 , pl . 52 - 59 , november 1893 ; pp . 389 - 450 , pl . 60 - 67 , december 1893 ; pp . 453 - 540 , pl . 68 - 70 , march 1895 ; pp . 541 - 620 , pl . 79 - 88 , april 1896 ; p . 621 - 690 , pl . 89 - 95 , march 1898 ; p . 693 - 884 , pl . 96 - 99 , october 1898 ] . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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parent taxon : spondylidae according to t . j . wild and j . d . stilwell 2016
see also coan and valentich - scott 2012 , dockery 1982 , islamoglu and taner 1995 , lamprell and healy 1998 , moore 1987 , olsson 1931 , perrilliat 1992 , sepkoski 2002 , spencer et al . 2004 , squires and demetrion 1990 , stilwell 1998 , todd 2001 , vokes 1980 , vokes and vokes 1992 , woodring 1982 and wozny 1977
this page was last edited on 2 june 2017 , at 13 : 08 .
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linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]