the white-footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) is a rodent native to north america from ontario , quebec , labrador , and the maritime provinces ( excluding the island of newfoundland ) to the southwest united states and mexico .

in the maritimes , its only location is a disjunct population in southern nova scotia .

it is also known as the woodmouse , particularly in texas .

white - footed mouse

the white - footed mouse . ( courtesy of cary institute of ecosystem studies )
white - footed mouse with vhf radio tracking collar . credit : virginie millien , mcgill university
a captive white - footed mouse . she is at least 3 years and 8 months old .
white - footed mouse can survive one year in the wild and 3 years in the captivity .
what are predators of the white - footed mouse ? since the white - footed mouse is primarily nocturnal , its main predators are those that are active between dusk and dawn . snakes , owls , bobcats , weasels , and foxes are common predators of the white - footed mouse . the primary diet of the white - footed mouse is seeds , grains , small fruits , and small insects .
white - footed mouse is an excellent climber and swimmer . white - footed mouse has good orientation skills . it can easily find way and return back to its territory from a distance of 2 miles
white - footed mouse with vhf radio tracking collar . photo courtesy of virginie millien , mcgill university .
munshi - south j , kharchenko k . rapid , pervasive genetic differentiation of urban white - footed mouse (
white - footed mouse uses keen sense of hearing , smell and eyesight to find food and avoid predators .
most white - footed mice live for 1 year in the wild . in captivity , white - footed mice can live several years .
white - footed mouse is covered with grey , reddish , light or dark brown fur . abdominal side of the body and feet are covered with white fur ( hence the name ,
white - footed
) .
has a generally longer tail than white - footed mice that is distinctly bicolored . in white - footed mice , the tail is indistinctly bicolored .
deer mouse , peromyscus maniculatus , looks very similar and it can be a challenge to tell a woodland form of a deer mouse from a white - footed or wood mouse . the deer mouse is larger with a longer tail and long hind feet .
grieco tm , rizk ot . cranial shape varies along an elevation gradient in gambel ' s white - footed mouse (
main predators of white - footed mouse are hawks , owls , falcons , foxes , bobcats , weasels and snakes .
the cotton mouse can be distinguished from the white - footed mouse by the cotton mouse ' s darker fur , larger size , and noticeably large back feet . habitat preferences also help distinguish between these two species .
similar species : the white footed mouse is very similar to the deer mouse in size and color . it is hard to find distinguishable features between them . [ 2 ]
the white - footed mouse is also widely distributed but prefers wooded or brushy areas . it is sometimes found in open areas .
munshi - south j , nagy c . urban park characteristics , genetic variation , and historical demography of white - footed mouse (
white - footed mouse has large brown eyes , large , hairy ears and long tail ( one third of body length ) .
breeding interval white - footed mice can have 2 to 4 litters per year .
fig . 2 . range of the deer mouse ( p . maniculatus ) ( a ) and white - footed mouse ( p . leucopus ) ( b ) in north america .
white - footed mouse sleeps during extremely cold periods of the year . it occasionally wakes up to eat food stored near the nest .
white - footed mice are not endangered or threatened . they are common and abundant .
white - footed mice are omnivorous . they mostly eat seeds , berries , nuts ,
breeding interval : white - footed mice can have 2 to 4 litters per year .
brown , l . n . 1964 . reproduction of the brush mouse and white - footed mouse in the central united states . amer . midland nat . , 72 : 226 - 240 .
white - footed mice are not endangered or threatened . they are abundant throughout their range .
mating season of white - footed mouse depends on the climate . southern populations reproduce all year round . northern populations reproduce during the spring and autumn .
in general , white - footed mice are not aggressive toward humans unless they feel threatened . they avoid contact with humans whenever possible . as a nocturnal species , encounters with humans are relatively rare . this does not mean that a cornered or captured white - footed mouse is not capable of biting . if someone is bitten by a white - footed mouse , then they will require medical attention .
like other mouse species , white - footed mice are considered omnivorous . their staple foods include items like berries , seeds and grains . indoors , white - footed mice will eat fruits and certain vegetables . white - footed mice also eat insects such as gypsy moths , which makes them important for controlling pests in the wild . other insects frequently consumed by white - footed mice include caterpillars , grasshoppers , flies , snails and beetles .
white - footed mouse can reach 5 . 5 to 8 inches in length ( including the tail ) and 0 . 5 to 1 ounces of weight .
the white - footed mouse is often misidentified as a deer mouse ( peromycsus maniculatus ) as it closely resembles it in both size and coloration although deer mice tend to have a more distinctive separation of fur colors .
the white - footed mouse is one of the hosts that provides a blood meal for the ticks that can spread lyme disease . credit : phil myers , urltoken
how often does reproduction occur ? white - footed mice can have 2 to 4 litters per year .
goldman , e . a . 1942 . a new white - footed mouse from mexico . proc . biol . soc . washington , 55 : 157 - 158 .
female takes care of the babies on her own . young white - footed mice depend on their mother during the first three weeks of their life . after that period , they begin independent life . white - footed mouse reaches sexual maturity at the age of 44 days .
white - footed mice are small rodents that are capable not only of causing significant damage to buildings , but also of contaminating food and transmitting diseases . newtown - area homes and businesses should look to professional pest control to deal with matters involving the white - footed mouse .
the deer mouse is found throughout most of north america ( fig . 2 ) . the white - footed mouse is found throughout the united states east of the rocky mountains except in parts of the southeast ( fig . 2 ) .
the white - footed mouse is one of the hosts that provides a blood meal for the ticks that can spread lyme disease . photo courtesy of phil myers , urltoken .
what are some adaptations of the white - footed mouse ? white - footed mice area solitary and territorial through home ranges sometimes overlap . they are excellent climbers and swimmers allowing them to be found on almost any land mass . they have excellent sight , smell , and hearing .
research shows that white - footed mice reach maturity at about one month and can then start to reproduce .
white - footed mouse is a type of small rodent that can be found across north america . there are 17 subspecies of white - footed mouse that inhabit dry forests , brushlands , semi - deserts , and rural and urban areas . they keep number of insects under control and facilitate dispersion of plant seed and spores of fungi in the wild . also , they represent important source of food for wild birds and mammals . in rural and urban areas , white - footed mouse are classified as pests because they spread bacterial ( lyme disease ) and viral diseases and destroy crops . wild population of white - footed mice is large and stable .
white - footed mice are often abundant where they occur and are important as prey items for many small predators .
white - footed mouse occasionally produces buzzing sound by drumming on the surface of hollow reed or dry leaves using its front paws . this unusual behavior is still a mystery for scientists .
batzli , g . o . 1977 . population dynamics of the white - footed mouse in floodplain and upland forests . amer . midland nat . , 97 : 18 - 32 .
long , c . a . 1973 . reproduction in the white - footed mouse at the northern limits of its geographical range . southwestern nat . , 18 : 11 - 20 .
price , p . k . , and m . l . kennedy . 1980 . genic relationships in the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus , and the cotton mouse , peromyscus gossypinus . amer . midland nat . , 103 : 73 - 82 .
lynch , c . b . 1974 . environmental modification of nest - building in the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus . anim . behav . , 22 : 405 - 409 .
white - footed mice have excellent homing instincts , and can find their way back home from over 2 miles away .
white - footed mice have keen eyesight , hearing , and sense of smell . they use their vibrissae ( whiskers ) as touch receptors . a distinctive behavior of white - footed mice is drumming on a hollow reed or a dry leaf with their front paws . this produces a long musical buzzing . it is unclear why white - footed mice do this .
paradiso , j . l . 1960 . a new white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) from southeastern virginia . proc . biol . soc . washington , 73 : 21 - 24 .
white - footed mice eat various types of fungi and help to disperse the spores of these fungi through their droppings . this helps to spread spores of fungi , such as mycorhizzal fungi , which help trees to gain nutrients through their roots . white footed mice may also eat harmful insect pests , such as gypsy moths . white - footed mice are not significant crop pests .
white - footed mice are omnivorous . they mostly eat seeds , berries , nuts , insects , grains , fruits , and fungi . in order to prepare for the winter , white - footed mice gather and store seeds and nuts in the fall .
) . this chapter will deal primarily with these species . collectively , all species of peromyscus are often referred to as “white - footed mice” or “deer mice . ” other species include the brush mouse (
range and habitat : this species is not as widespread as the deer mouse , and occurs throughout much of the eastern two - thirds of the u . s . ( except for the southeast ) and much of eastern mexico . the range of the white - footed mouse barely extends into canada in a few provinces . white - footed mice are most abundant in the adirondack lowlands along the periphery of the park in brushy , grassy fields , and especially in the drier forests and woodlands which support oaks and hickories . however , they are also found in other habitats such as coniferous , and mixed forests , bogs , and swamp edges , to elevations of at least 1484 m ( 4867 ft ) . while the deer mouse is more abundant at higher elevations , and the white - footed mouse at lower , both coexist at intermediate altitudes which offer the greatest variety of tree species . the white - footed mouse appears to use underground nest sites more than the deer mouse .
breeding season white - footed mice breed from march to october , or throughout the year in the southern parts of their range .
glaser , h . , and s . lustick . 1975 . energetics and nesting behavior of the northern white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus aoveboracensis . physiol . zool . , 48 : 105 - 113 .
this mouse is a typical rodent in being nocturnal and active throughout the year .
this mouse also makes very high pitched vocalizations , sounding like a bird trilling .
blair wf . a study of prairie deer - mouse populations in southern michigan .
gubernick dj , alberts jr . the biparental care system of the california mouse ,
breeding season : white - footed mice breed from march to october , or throughout the year in the southern parts of their range .
white - footed mouse is an omnivore ( it eats plants and meat ) . its diet is based on seed , acorns , grains , berries , fruit , fungi , insects , caterpillars and small mammals and birds .
white - footed mouse is solitary and territorial animal . it occupies territory of 0 . 5 to 1 . 5 acres . burrows of various mammals , abandoned nests of birds and hollow logs are favorite locations for nesting .
the scientist said a key to protecting human health is to take measures to try to control the white - footed mouse population , and one way to do that is by supporting natural predators by keeping their habitats intact .
what is the breeding season for white - footed mice ? white - footed mice are generally not social animals with the exception of the breeding season , which ranges from march to october in the north and year round in the south . gestation period is 22 to 28 days with nursing occurring until young are weaned . the mice are born hairless and blind , eyes open around 10 days and ears open around 12 days . the mature mating age of the white - footed mouse is 44 days .
the white - footed mouse is common in upland mature forests with fallen logs and snags , rocks , ledges , and brush piles . it also inhabits marshes , canebrakes , and brushy fence rows . the white - footed mouse eats seeds , nuts , grasses , fruits , and some insects . this species will commonly cache seeds and nuts in burrows and near nests . it is active throughout the year , primarily at night . principal predators include owls , skunks , foxes , the coyote , weasels , and snakes . the life span of a white - footed mouse is usually less than 2 years in the wild , but in captivity the record is 8 years . white - footed mice communicate with each other by foot - stamping , vocal squeaks , and scent . females are territorial during breeding season .
white - footed mice live an average of 1 year in the wild , meaning there is an almost complete turnover of wildmice every year .
the white - footed mouse is found in the mountains and piedmont region of northern georgia . its range includes most of the eastern united states , but this species is absent from the coastal plains of the southeastern united states .
the merriam mouse is limited to areas within southern arizona . the california mouse ranges from san francisco bay to northern baja california , including parts of the southern san joaquin valley . the sitka mouse is found only on certain islands of alaska and british columbia .
arbogast p , glösmann m , peichl l . retinal cone photoreceptors of the deer mouse
cornish , l . m . , and w . n . bradshaw . 1978 . patterns in twelve reproductive parameters for the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j . mamm . , 59 : 731 - 739 .
what do white - footed mice look like ? the white - footed mouse ranges in color from grayish - brown to reddish - brown on its dorsal side and face while its ventral side and legs are white . its average mass is 0 . 81 oz but can range from 0 . 5 oz to 1 oz . other members of the peromyscus family all have smiliar looks or ranges but can be differentiated by either tail length or mass .
workman jl , bowers sl , nelson rj . enrichment and photoperiod interact to affect spatial learning and hippocampal dendritic morphology in white - footed mice (
the old field mouse is distributed across eastern alabama , georgia , south carolina , and florida . the florida mouse , as its name indicates , is found only in florida .
the white - footed mouse is often mistaken for a deer mouse due to their similar appearance . both species have a brown or grayish back and a lighter colored underside . however , the deer mouse tends to have more distinct color variations between its back and belly . white - footed mice are still lighter colored on their bellies , feet and the underside of their tail . they have large eyes and ears to help them navigate in the dark . white - footed mice range from five - and - a - half inches to eight inches in length including their tail . the tail usually represents approximately one - third of that length . most members of the species weigh in at less than one ounce .
the cotton mouse is found only in the southeastern united states from east texas and arkansas through southeastern virginia . the golden mouse occupies a similar range but it extends slightly farther north .
while investigating how forests responded to defoliation stress , institute ecologists discovered that white - footed mouse populations played a large role in regulating the moths . key predators on gypsy moth pupae , research showed that moth populations declined when mice were abundant .
unlike the deer mouse which it closely resembles , the white - footed mouse’s fur is not soft and luxuriant , and the general color of the back and sides is a reddish or orangish , not grayish , brown . a darkish brown stripe occurs along the middle of the back from the head to tail . the tail is shorter than the combined head - body length , is paler but not white below , and does not end in a tuff of white hairs . in other respects the white - footed mouse is similar to the deer mouse . the throat , belly , and feet are white ; the ears thin , sparsely furred , and prominent . the black , beady eyes protrude and the whiskers are long and conspicuous . the average size of an adult is 176 mm ( 6 . 9 in ) in total length and 21 g ( 0 . 7 oz ) in weight .
parsons , l . m . , and c . r . terman . 1978 . influence of vision and olfaction on the homing ability of the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus noveboraceasis ) . j . mamm . , 59 : 761771 .
none are registered for white - footed or deer mice . because of the species’ habitat , there are few situations where fumigation would be practical or necessary .
white - footed mice are primarily nocturnal . they are mainly solitary and are territorial , although their home ranges often overlap . white - footed mice climb and swim well . they also have a good sense of direction , and are able to return to a particular location from as much as 2 miles away .
when young white - footed mice are threatened , their mother carries them to safety one at a time by holding them by the neck with her teeth .
ormiston , b . g . 1983 . population and habitat dynamics of the white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ) . unpubl . ph . d . dissert . , state univ . new york at stony brook , new york , 181 pp .
white - footed mice are primarily nocturnal . they are mainly solitary and are territorial , though adjacent home ranges do overlap . white - footed mice climb and swim well . they also have keen homing instincts . in one study , captured individuals returned to the site of their capture after being released 2 miles away . when young white - footed mice are threatened , their mother carries them to safety one at a time by holding them by the neck with her teeth .
most white - footed mice live for one year in the wild . this means that there is an almost complete replacement of all mice in the population from one year to the next . most mortality occurs in the spring and early summer . in captivity , however , white - footed mice can live several years .
pedersen ab , antonovics j . anthelmintic treatment alters the parasite community in a wild mouse host .
, grains , fruits , and fungi . in order to prepare for the winter , white - footed mice gather and store seeds and nuts in the fall .
orr , h . d . 1959 . activity of white - footed mice in relation to environment . j . mamm . , 40 : 213 - 221 .
the piñon mouse is found from southwestern california through the southwestern united states to the texas panhandle . the rock mouse is limited to colorado , southeastern utah , eastern arizona , new mexico , and the far western portion of texas . the white - ankled mouse is found only in parts of texas and small areas in southern new mexico , southern oklahoma , and southern arizona .
size : the white - footed mouse is a medium size rodent like other common peromyscus species , although size can vary widely ( hall , 1981 and others ) . the tail is nearly half the total length and the ears are average to large in size .
snyder , d . p . 1956 . survival rates , longevity , and population fluctuations in the white - footed mouse , peromyscus leucopus , in southeastern michigan . misc . publ . mus . zool . , univ . michigan , 95 : 1 - 33 .
white - footed mice carry deer ticks , which spread lyme disease . they also may be a reservoir for four - corners disease , as their fecal matter can contain hantavirus , the organism that causes this disease . white - footed mice may also act as seed predators of oaks and pines , hindering their growth and spread .
harris se , munshi - south j , obergfell c , o ' neill r . signatures of rapid evolution in urban and rural transcriptomes of white - footed mice (
dewsbury , d . a . 1975a . copulatory behavior of white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j . mamm . , 56 : 420 - 428 .
grau , h . j . 1982 . kin recognition in white - footed deermice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . anim . behav . , 30 : 497 - 505 .
long - term research shows that white - footed mice are the critical hosts for black - legged ticks , which carry and spread the bacterium that causes lyme disease . superabundant mouse populations allow more ticks to survive and lead to predictable spikes in human lyme disease exposure .
collier ' s encyclopedia . vol 8 .
deer mouse .
1993 . n . y .
unlike typical gray house mice , white - footed mice , known as peromyscus leucopus , are tawny brown , aside from the white that covers their bellies and feet . they are fast . and they are small , with tails as long as their bodies .
sacher ga , hart rw . longevity , aging and comparative cellular and molecular biology of the house mouse ,
davis , d . e . 1956 . a comparison of natality rates in white - footed mice for four years . j . mamm . , 37 : 513 - 516 .
white - footed mice are abundant throughout north america , but they are especially pervasive on the eastern coast of the u . s . they prefer heavily wooded or brushy areas as these offer the most cover , which protects them from predators . however , the white - footed mouse has become the most numerous mammal in pennsylvania because of its adaptability . this species can make a home for itself in virtually any habitat . white - footed mice always hide their nests carefully . old logs and tree stumps frequently are used in the wild . members of the species may make use of nests that have been abandoned by other rodents or birds . the nest typically is lined with found objects that may include feathers , hair , fur , grasses and leaves . white - footed mice will collect fabrics , pillow batting and insulation fibers to line their nests . when a family establishes a nest in a human habitation , it generally is well concealed in a wall void , basement or attic . kitchen cupboards , the space between major appliances and walls and pantries are other likely places to find a white - footed mouse nest .
choate , j . r . 1973 . identification and recent distribution of white - footed mice ( peromyscus ) in new england . journal of mammalogy , 54 : 41 - 49 .
the hudson river valley experienced a mouse plague during the summer of 2016 . the critters were everywhere . for most people , it was just a nuisance . but for keesing and ostfeld , the mouse plague signaled something foreboding .
anderson jf , johnson rc , magnarelli la ( 1987 ) seasonal prevalence of borrelia burgdorferi in natural populations of white - footed mice , peromyscus leucopus . j clin microbiol ; 25 : 1564–1566
choate , j . r . 1973 . identification and recent distribution of white - footed mice ( peromyscus ) in new england . j . mamm . , 54 : 41 - 49 .
although white - footed mice prefer acorns , they will eat other things . still , it ' s the acorns that play a big part in their ability to thrive , scientists say .
all of the peromyscus species have white feet , usually white undersides , and brownish upper surfaces . their tails are relatively long , sometimes as long as the head and body . the deer mouse and some other species have a distinct separation between the brownish back and white belly . their tails are also sharply bicolored . it is difficult even for an expert to tell all of the species apart .
a wood mouse spends a good amount of its time in trees and shrubs , so it is a good climber .
although previous studies have found that white - footed mice consume honeysuckle seeds removed from their pericarp ( mattos et al . 2013 ) , our findings suggest that whole honeysuckle fruits are not generally consumed by small mammals despite their high water content . however , small granivores may occupy honeysuckle - invaded areas because of the cover provided by shrub understories ( dutra et al . 2011 ) , which likely increased white - footed mouse foraging activity by improving protection from predators ( mccormick and meiners 2000 ) . furthermore , use of microhabitats that improve foraging opportunities is nonrandom ( edalgo et al . 2009 ) ; that is , white - footed mice actively select trails that include dense woody vegetation such as honeysuckle shrubs .
the main source of health concerns connected to white - footed mice is the transmission of lyme disease . like other rodents , white - footed mice carry specific bacteria that are responsible for the disease . deer ticks bite the rodent , which transmits the bacteria to them . then , the deer ticks bite humans or animals , possibly causing a case of lyme disease . on a less frequent basis , white - footed mice may be responsible for the spread of hantavirus . transmission of this illness occurs through the urine , saliva or droppings of an infected mouse . simply inhaling the air where these waste products have been left may be enough to trigger an infection . these serious illnesses require immediate medical attention .
a distinctive behavior of white - footed mice is drumming on a hollow reed or a dry leaf with its fore paws . this produces a prolonged musical buzzing , the meaning of which is unclear .
white - footed mice are active primarily at night and are secretive and alert , thus avoiding many predators . they are abundant in many habitats and are the major diet item of many small predators .
in addition , white - footed mice have bloodstreams that ostfeld calls “a breeding ground for all kinds of infectious agents , ” including pathogens that cause babesiosis and anaplasmosis , other tick - borne diseases .
anita rogic , nathalie tessier , pierre legendre , françois - joseph lapointe , virginie millien ( 2013 ) genetic structure of the white - footed mouse in the context of the emergence of lyme disease in southern québec . ecology and evolution 3 : 7 , 2075 - 2088 , mis en ligne 1er juillet 2013 ( résumé )
size : the total length of the white footed mouse is around 6 . 8 inches ( 173mm ) . the tail has a length of 3 . 1 inches ( 78mm ) and their hind foot is around 0 . 83 inches ( 21mm ) . the weight of the mouse ranges from 0 . 03 - 0 . 06 pounds ( 15 - 25g ) , with an average of 0 . 05 pounds ( 23g ) . [ 1 ]
‘mouse house’ in what is now referred to as sumner canyon at the scripps institution in la jolla , california . when his
macmanes md , eisen mb . characterization of the transcriptome , nucleotide sequence polymorphism , and natural selection in the desert adapted mouse
white - footed mice are known for a unique practice of drumming on hollow reads or a dry leafe with their front paws producing a musical buzzing sound , through it is unclear why they do this .
martin lb , weil zm , kuhlman jr & nelson rj ( 2006 ) trade - offs within the immune systems of female white - footed mice , peromyscus leucopus . funct ecol ; 20 : 630–636 .
ostfeld rs , miller mc & hazler kr ( 1996 ) causes and consequences of tick ( ixodes scapularis ) burdens on white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j mammal ; 77 : 266–273 .
while ticks that spread lyme disease are commonly thought of in connection with deer , it is from infected white - footed mice that these ticks usually acquire borrelia burgdorferi , the bacteria responsible for the disease .
while ticks that spread lyme disease are commonly thought of in connection with deer , it is from infected white - footed mice that these ticks usually acquire borrelia burgdorferi , the bacteria responsible for the disease .
dragoo jw , lackey ja , moore ke , lessa ep , cook ja , yates tl . phylogeography of the deer mouse (
white - footed mice range from 150 to 205 mm in total length and tail length from 65 to 95 mm . they weigh 15 to 25 g . the upperparts of the body are pale to rich reddish brown and the belly and feet are white . in some parts of the range it is difficult to distinguish
the other species of peromyscus have somewhat more specialized habitat preferences . for example , the cactus mouse occurs in low deserts with sandy soil and scattered vegetation and on rocky outcrops . the brush mouse lives in chaparral areas of semidesert regions , often in rocky habitats .
) , first demonstrated the feasibility of the deer mouse as a laboratory organism in the 1910s and 20s . he famously built the first
white - footed mice help spread various kinds of fungi by eating the sporing bodies and excreting spores . forest trees ' ability to take up nutrients is enhanced by the
mycorrhizal
associations formed by these fungi . for many temperate forest trees , these fungi have been shown to be an essential element in order for trees to prosper . white - footed mice also help control populations of some harmful insect pests , such as gypsy moths .
the two species of peromyscus inhabiting the adirondacks are similar in appearance , and are not always distinguishable from external characters . the deer mouse usually differs from the white - footed mouse ( p . leucopus ) in having : ( 1 ) soft , luxuriant fur that is gray on the upper parts of the body , ( 2 ) a uniformly colored back or a faint darker stripe along the middle , and ( 3 ) a tail that is dark above and white below ( bicolored ) and is as long of longer than the combined lengths of the head and body , with a tuft of white hairs at the tip . the lower parts of the body and feet of both species are white , and both have prominent , scantily - furred , thin ears , coarse whiskers , and black , bulging eyes . an average sized deer mouse is 184 mm ( 7 . 2 in ) in total length , and weighs 21 g ( 0 . 7 oz ) .
scientists say white - footed mice , which are primary carriers of the lyme bacterium borrelia burgdorferi , are a highly popular host of black - legged ticks — which consequently makes them a key culprit in the spread of lyme disease .
white - footed mice in howard county , maryland are being collared as part of a study to improve control of the ticks that spread lyme disease . the mouse collaring research , never before done in maryland , is a partnership of the agricultural research service ( ars ) , howard county department of recreation & parks ( hcrp ) , and university of maryland ( umd ) .
white - footed mice in howard county , maryland are being collared as part of a study to improve control of the ticks that spread lyme disease . the mouse collaring research , never before done in maryland , is a partnership of the agricultural research service ( ars ) , howard county department of recreation & parks ( hcrp ) , and university of maryland ( umd ) .
there are no methods known for successfully keeping white - footed or deer mice out of structures by means of sound . ultrasonic devices that are commercially sold and advertised to control rodents and other pests have not proven to give satisfactory control .
natarajan c , inoguchi n , weber re , fago a , moriyama h , storz jf . epistasis among adaptive mutations in deer mouse hemoglobin .
sheppe , w . 1966 . exploration by the deer mouse , peromyscus leucopus . amer . midland nat . , 76 : 257 - 276 .
young white - footed mice are born blind , naked , and helpless . their eyes open at about 12 days of age , and their ears open at about 10 days . females care for and nurse their young in the nest until they are weaned . soon after that , the young disperse from their mother ' s range . if the young or the nest are in danger , female white - footed mice carry their young one at a time to a safer location .
white - footed mice play a role in the transmission of lyme disease . they carry the bacteria that causes the disease and pass it to larval deer ticks when they are bitten . these deer ticks can then pass the disease to humans or other mammals . they also may be carriers of hantavirus , or four corners disease , through their feces . where they are abundant white - footed mice may limit the soread of trees such as acorns and pines , whose seeds they eat .
most white - footed mice live for one year in the wild . this means that there is an almost complete replacement of all mice in the population from one year to the next . most mortality occurs in the spring and early summer .
schwan tg , kime kk , schrumpf me , coe je et al ( 1989 ) antibody response in white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) experimental infected with the lyme disease spirochete ( borrelia burgdorferi ) . infect immunol ; 57 : 3445–3451
that said , predators of white - footed mice , such as owls , hawks , bobcats , foxes and weasels , won ' t get lyme disease by eating an infected rodent because the bacteria cannot survive digestive tracts of birds or mammals .
this species of mouse is very adaptable , abundant and an important source of food for a variety of bird and mammal predators in the food chain .
pederson ab , grieves tj ( 2008 ) the interaction of parasites and resource cause crashes in wild mouse population . j anim ecol ; 77 : 370–377
hoekstra he , hirschmann rj , bundey ra , insel pa , crossland jp . a single amino acid mutation contributes to adaptive beach mouse color pattern .
the documented allelopathic properties of honeysuckle shrubs ( dorning and cipollini 2006 ) prevent the growth of other vegetation species , further supporting honeysuckle monoculture establishment . in these monocultures , small mammals may be forced to consume and cache honeysuckle fruits ( dutra et al . 2011 ) . white - footed mice are known scatter - hoarders ( vander wall et al . 2001 ) , a behavior that can serve to disperse seeds to new and potentially favorable microhabitats . indeed , small - mammal seed caches are frequently located in areas highly suitable for germination ( abbott and quink 1970 ) . therefore , white - footed mouse caching behavior may contribute to honeysuckle dispersal .
white - footed and deer mice are considered native , nongame mammals and receive whatever protection may be afforded such species under state or local laws . it is usually permissible to control them when necessary , but first check with your state wildlife agency .
goodwin bj , ostfeld rs & schauber em ( 2001 ) spatiotemporal variation in a lyme disease host and vector : black - legged ticks on white - footed mice . vector borne and zoonotic diseases , 1 ( 2 ) , 129 - 138 .
white - footed mice — known for their wide eyes and ears , long tails and snow - white bellies and the feet from which they get their name — are often overlooked by humans , hiding out by the billions in u . s . forests , shrubby thickets and even wooded wetlands . but there ' s one creature that knows them well : the tick .
donahue jg , piesman j , spielman a ( january 1987 ) .
reservoir competence of white - footed mice for lyme disease spirochetes
. am . j . trop . med . hyg . 36 ( 1 ) : 92–6 . pmid 3812887 .
entomologist andrew li , with the ars invasive insect biocontrol & behavior laboratory in beltsville , maryland , who coordinates the tick management project wants the data to better understand how white - footed mice respond to bait boxes that include tick treatments like topical insecticides .
entomologist andrew li , with the ars invasive insect biocontrol & behavior laboratory in beltsville , maryland , who coordinates the tick management project wants the data to better understand how white - footed mice respond to bait boxes that include tick treatments like topical insecticides .
the principal problem caused by white - footed and deer mice is their tendency to enter homes , cabins , and other structures that are not rodent - proof . here they build nests , store food , and can cause considerable damage to upholstered furniture , mattresses , clothing , paper , or other materials that they find suitable for their nest - building activities . nests , droppings , and other signs left by these mice are similar to those of house mice . white - footed and deer mice have a greater tendency to cache food supplies , such as acorns , seeds , or nuts , than do house mice . white - footed and deer mice are uncommon in urban or suburban residential areas unless there is considerable open space ( fields , parks ) nearby .
ordinary mouse snap traps , sold in most grocery and hardware stores , are effective in catching white - footed and deer mice . bait traps with peanut butter , sunflower seed , or moistened rolled oats . for best results , use several traps even if only a single mouse is believed to be present . set traps as you would for house mice : against walls , along likely travel routes , and behind objects . automatic traps designed to live - capture several house mice in a single setting also are effective against white - footed and deer mice . they should be checked frequently to dispose of captured mice in an appropriate manner : euthanize them with carbon dioxide gas in a closed container , or release them alive into an appropriate location where they won’t cause future problems . for further details on trapping , see house mice .
( a ) the forest - dwelling deer mouse , p . maniculatus nubiterrae , perches high on a tree branch in southwestern pennsylvania . ( b ) the beach mouse , p . polionotus phasma , takes shelter among the dune grasses on florida ' s atlantic coast . ( c ) its mainland counterpart , the oldfield mouse , p . polionotus sumneri , is typically found in fallow fields and is sympatric with the cotton mouse , p . gossypinus ( d ) , which occupies adjacent stands of long leaf pine . image credits : a , evan p kingsley ; b , jb miller ; c , d , nicole bedford .
diet : the white footed mice are omnivores . their diet include seeds , berries , nuts , insects , grains , fruits , and fungi . they do not hibernate in winter so they tend to collect seeds and nuts during the fall . [ 1 ]
the brush mouse is found from southwestern missouri and northwestern arkansas through oklahoma , central and western texas , new mexico , southwestern colorado , utah , arizona , and california . the cactus mouse is limited to western texas , southern new mexico , arizona ( except the northeast portion ) , and southern california . the canyon mouse occurs in western colorado , northwestern new mexico , northern and western arizona , utah , nevada , southern california , southeast oregon , and southwestern idaho .
white - footed mice live are most commonly found in warm , dry forests and brushlands at low to mid - elevations . the can survive in a wide variety of habitats , including higher elevation forests and semi - deseart . because they are so adaptable , they also do well in suburban and agricultural settings . white - footed mice are the most abundant small rodent in mixed forests in the eastern united states . in the southern and western portions of their range , they are more restricted in habitat and are mostly found in wooded areas and semi - desert scrub near waterways . in southern mexico , they occur mainly in agricultural areas . white - footed mice build nests in places that are warm and dry , such as a hollow tree or vacated bird ' s nest .
the wood mouse stores seeds such as black cherry pits ( one of its favorite foods ) and acorns under logs and in trees , nests are constructed out of grass , leaves , hair , moss , and bark in a hidden location in its habitat . the wood mouse will also use an abandoned bird nest .
white - footed mice are efficient transmitters of lyme disease in the northeast . they infect up to 95 percent of the ticks that feed on them . but it ' s people who create the conditions for lyme outbreaks by building homes in the animals ' habitat .
what is their habitat ? white - footed mice reside in a wide variety of areas but tend to favor warm , dry forests or brushlands at middle elevations . these mice can often be found around old stone works and fallen trees as they make good dry homes . this species of mouse is the most abundant in mixed hard woods along the eastern coast . four to twelve individuals can be found per acre of woodland .
fifteen species of native mice of the genus peromyscus may be found in the united states . the two most common and widely distributed species are the deer mouse (
white - footed mice spend a great deal of time in trees . they may use aban - locating and digging up buried seed . formerly , much reforestation was attempted by direct seeding of clear - cut areas , but seed predation by deer mice and white - footed mice , and by other rodents and birds , caused frequent failure in the regeneration . for this reason , to reestablish douglas fir and other commercial timber species today , it is often necessary to hand - plant seedlings , despite the increased expense of this method .
white - footed mice are capable of extremely fast reproduction , which means that a small problem becomes a major headache in surprisingly little time . if conditions are especially attractive to these rodents , then it is natural for even more families to be drawn to the structure . while property owners can take important steps like quickly cleaning up crumbs and any remains of food and sealing off potential entrances , it is nearly always necessary to seek professional rodent control to eradicate an infestation . having an inspection by an experienced professional is the best way to protect against a white - footed mouse infestation of your home or business . call newtown today to schedule a free rodent inspection ( 215 ) 579 - 7378 .
white - footed mice also were the dominant species observed through camera monitoring ( 80 . 30 % of 66 identifiable observations ) . examination of historical trapping data ( edalgo and anderson 2007 ; edalgo et al . 2009 ) suggested that deer mice ( peromyscus maniculatus ) were uncommon at the study site ; therefore , all peromyscus observed were recorded as white - footed mice . additional species included masked shrews ( 6 . 06 % ) , meadow voles ( 4 . 55 % ) , and eastern chipmunks ( 4 . 55 % ) .
white - footed mice live are most abundant in warm , dry forests and brushlands at low to mid - elevations . they do , however , occur in a wide variety of habitats , from higher elevation forests to semi - desert . due to this adaptability , they also do well in suburban and agricultural settings . white - footed mice are the most abundant small rodent in mixed forests in the eastern united states and in brushy areas bordering agricultural lands . in the southern and western portions of their range , they are more restricted in distribution , occurring mainly in wooded areas and semi - desert scrub near waterways . in southern mexico , they occur mainly in agricultural areas . white - footed mice build nests in places that are warm and dry , such as a hollow tree or vacated bird ' s nest .
the deer mouse occupies nearly every type of habitat within its range , from forests to grasslands . it is the most widely distributed and abundant mammal in north america .
white - footed mice range from 150 to 205 mm in total length , with their tail making up about one - third of that length . they weigh from 15 to 25 g . the fur on their back ranges from light brown to a more reddish brown , while the fur on their stomach and feet is white . their tails tend to be darker on the top and lighter on the bottom .
anticoagulants . anticoagulant baits such as warfarin , diphacinone , chlorophacinone , brodifacoum , and bromadiolone are all quite effective on white - footed and deer mice , although they are not specifically registered for use on these species . brodifacoum and bromadiolone , unlike the other anticoagulants , may be effective in a single feeding . if baiting in and around structures is done for house mice in accordance with label directions , white - footed and deer mice usually will be controlled . no violation of pesticide laws should be involved since the “site” of bait application is the same .
scientists say that white - footed mice are posing a particularly high risk to humans this year . a bountiful acorn harvest a couple of years ago gave them the sustenance needed to reproduce in greater numbers and climate change may be pushing them to expand their range toward the north .
more interestingly , scientists discovered a connection among acorn production , mouse population size and the number of blacklegged ticks infected with borrelia burgdorferi , the bacterium that causes lyme disease .
white - footed and deer mice are mostly nocturnal with a home range of 1 / 3 acre to 4 acres ( 0 . 1 to 1 . 6 ha ) or larger . a summer population density may reach a high of about 15 mice per acre ( 37 / ha ) .
home ranges of white - footed mice vary from 0 . 5 to 1 . 5 acres . density ranges from 4 to 12 mice per acre . the home range of males overlap with those of many females , providing access to potential mates . females are territorial during the breeding season .
lackey , j . a . 1978b . geographic variation in habitat use by the whitefooted mouse , peromyscus leucopus . amer . midland nat . , 100 : 171 - 177 .
white - footed mice are omnivorous . diet varies seasonally as well as geographically and may include seeds , berries , nuts , insects , grains , fruits , and fungi . because they do not hibernate , even in cold weather , in the fall they store seeds and nuts for the winter .
schwan , tg , burgdorfer , w , schrumpf , me , karstens , rh . ( 1988 ) the urinary bladder , a consistent source of borrelia burgdorferi in experimentally infected white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) . j clin microbiol ; 26 : 893–895 ( pdf , 4 pp ) .
white - footed mice are efficient transmitters of lyme disease in the northeast . they infect up to 95 percent of the ticks that feed on them . but it ' s people who create the conditions for lyme outbreaks by building homes in the animals ' habitat . stephen reiss for npr hide caption
both white - footed and deer mice occasionally dig up and consume newly planted seeds in gardens , flowerbeds , and field borders . their excellent sense of smell makes them highly efficient at locating and digging up buried seed . formerly , much reforestation was attempted by direct seeding of clearcut areas , but seed predation by deer mice and white - footed mice , and by other rodents and birds , caused frequent failure in the regeneration . for this reason , to reestablish douglas fir and other commercial timber species today , it is often necessary to handplant seedlings , despite the increased expense of this method .
here ' s how it works : adult ticks , which mostly feed upon white - tailed deer , drop off and lay their eggs on the forest floor , jones said . the eggs hatch out the next year into larvae , which at that point are generally not infected by the bacteria that causes lyme disease . the larvae get infected when they feed on an animal that carries the bacteria , which is most often white - footed mice .
charneé l . rose , philip j . turk , stephen m . selego , james t . anderson ; white - footed mice ( peromyscus leucopus ) select fruits of native species over invasive honeysuckle fruits , journal of mammalogy , volume 95 , issue 1 , 19 february 2014 , pages 108–116 , urltoken
peromyscus leucopus responds strongly to new objects placed within a familiar area , which may facilitate learning of new escape routes , feeding sites , nests , potential mates , and home - range areas . white - footed mice show weak neophobia , followed by neophilia that declines progressively ( sheppe , 1966 ) .