the lamniformes ( from the greek word , lamna " fish of prey " ) are an order of sharks commonly known as mackerel sharks ( which may also refer specifically to the family lamnidae ) .

it includes some of the most familiar species of sharks , such as the great white shark and extinct megalodon , as well as more unusual representatives , such as the goblin shark and the megamouth shark .

members of the order are distinguished by possessing two dorsal fins , an anal fin , five gill slits , eyes without nictitating membranes , and a mouth extending behind the eyes .

also , unlike other sharks , they maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water .

lamniformes

( lamniformes : cretoxyrhinidae ) from the niobrara chalk of kansas . bulletin of the new mexico museum of natural history 35 : 185–192 .
fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 . hexanchiformes to lamniformes
the vertebrae had stacks of lines called lamellae around the outside , suggesting the bones once belonged to a broad scientific classification of sharks called lamniformes that includes sand tiger sharks , great white sharks , goblin sharks and others , frederickson said .
compagno , l j . v . 2001 . sharks of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date , volume 2 ; bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao . rome , italy .
hansen bb , cuny g , rasmussen bw , shimada k , jacobs p , heilmann - clausen c ( 2013 ) associated skeletal and dental remains of a fossil odontaspidid shark ( elasmobranchii : lamniformes ) from the middle eocene lillebælt clay formation in denmark . bulletin of the geological society of denmark 61 : 37–46 .
lamniformes have two dorsal fins , neither of which is spined . they also have an anal fin , five gill slits and small spiracles ( in most species ) , which are situated behind the eyes . the eyes have no nictitating membrane , and usually roll back in the case of frontal impact in order to protect them .
lamniformes mackerel sharks most mackerel sharks have long snouts and mouths that stretch behind the eyes . they also feature two dorsal fins and an anal fin . these species range from intertidal areas to open ocean at depths of nearly 4 , 000 ft . embryos of these sharks dine on their younger siblings and fertilized eggs in the womb .
interestingly , lamniformes have a special adaptation . this involves their circulatory system and allows them to retain heat generated by cellular metabolic processes . this is in contrast to other cold - blooded sharks and fish and allows them to spend energy on hunting and travelling rather than on trying to maintain a beable body temperature as the water temperature around them cools .
lamniformes are ovoviviparous . eggs are fertilised and hatched internally . however , this group also displays a phenomenon known as oophagy , which dictates that the first pup to hatch in the oviduct should devour the other unfertilised eggs in the oviduct . this pup is born strong , beable and with trained killer instincts in preparation for its independent life in the open waters .
compagno , l . j . v . , 1984 . fao species catalogue . vol . 4 . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . part 1 - hexanchiformes to lamniformes . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 4 / 1 ) : 1 - 249 . rome , fao . ( ref . 247 )
compagno , l . j . v . ( 2001 ) . sharks of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date . volume 2 . bullhead , mackerel and carpet sharks ( heterodontiformes , lamniformes and orectolobiformes ) . fao species catalogue for fishery purposes . no . 1 , vol . 2 . rome , fao . 269p . [ details ]
lamniformes , also known as mackerel sharks , is one of the most well - known groups as it includes famous species and feared hunters , like the great white shark , basking shark , mako ( shortfin and longfin ) and megamouth . this group has a particularly large mouth , ideal for seizing and immobilising large prey as well as for tearing off chunks of meat from hapless victims . the megalodon , now extinct , was also part of this fascinating group . other members include the goblin and thresher sharks .
lamniformes only live in saltwater , and cannot survive in freshwater rivers or lakes . different species are able to live in the shallower , warmer coastal areas or the deeper , colder waters of the open seas . they also withstand varying temperatures to make them one of the most prolific and abundant known shark groups . the smallest lamnoid is the crocodile shark , which reaches about 1 . 1 metres in length . the largest is the basking shark , growing to an impressive length of approximately 9 . 8 metres .
whether or not omnh 68860 belongs to leptostyrax remains unclear ; however , the unique vertebral morphology and gigantic size indicate the presence of a very large shark during the mid - cretaceous of north america . the mid - cretaceous is increasingly being recognized as an important time in shark evolutionary history , as the fossil record improves and increasingly reveals previously unknown diversity . although lamniformes likely evolved in the jurassic , it is not until the aptian when multiple genera appear together in a single assemblage . similarly , size increased for the entire order , with multiple families containing relatively large species by the late cretaceous [ 29 ] . this increase in size and diversity was likely influenced by the warming trend beginning in the mid - cretaceous ; where midocean temperatures at 30–35°n paleolatitude rise from 13–14°c in the early albian to 28–29°c in the cenomanian [ 30 ] . however , more research is needed to determine the cause of gigantism in lamniform sharks .
despite their rows of ragged teeth and vicious appearance , sand tiger sharks are actually rather docile , usually attacking humans only in self - defense .
sand tiger sharks , also known as gray nurse sharks , have a deceivingly ferocious look . they are large - bodied and display a mouthful of sharp teeth that protrude in all directions , even when the mouth is shut . despite this , they are a docile , non - aggressive species , known to attack humans only when bothered first .
sand tiger sharks are brownish - gray with rust - colored spots on top and white underneath . they have a flattened , cone - shaped snout and a distinctive , oblong tail with a notched , upper lobe that is significantly longer than the lobe below . individuals range in size from 6 . 5 to 10 . 5 feet in length .
their name comes from their tendency toward shoreline habitats , and they are often seen trolling the ocean floor in the surf zone , very close to shore . they are found in warm or temperate waters throughout the world ' s oceans , except the eastern pacific .
sand tigers are the only shark known to come to the surface and gulp air . they store the air in their stomachs , which allows them to float motionless in the water , seeking prey . they are voracious predators , feeding at night and generally staying close to the bottom . their staple is small fish , but they will eat crustaceans and squid as well . they occasionally hunt in groups , and have even been known to attack full fishing nets .
although this species is widespread and is not widely fished for food , it has one of the lowest reproduction rates of all sharks and is susceptible to even minimal population pressure . for this reason , it is listed as vulnerable and is protected in much of its range .
after keigo mitsukuri ; he worked in zoological names with y . iwasaki , 1896 ; imperial university
marine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 30 - 1300 m ( ref . 43278 ) , usually 270 - 960 m ( ref . 43278 ) . deep - water ; 48°n - 55°s , 180°w - 180°e
western atlantic : guyana ( ref . 6871 ) , suriname ( ref . 13608 , 11228 ) and french guiana . eastern atlantic : france ( bay of biscay ) , madeira , portugal , and south africa . western indian ocean : off south africa . western pacific : japan , australia ( south australia , new south wales ) , new zealand ( ref . 26346 ) . eastern pacific : usa ( southern california ) ( ref . 43278 ) .
maturity : l m ? , range 264 - 322 cm max length : 617 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 83323 ) ; common length : 200 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5217 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 0 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 0 . flat , bladelike , elongated snout , tiny eyes without nictitating eyelids , soft , flabby body , slender , very long cusped teeth in long , protrusible jaws , long caudal fin without a ventral lobe ( ref . 247 ) . pinkish - white with bluish fins , becoming brownish grey after death ( ref . 5578 , 11228 ) .
found on outer continental shelves and upper slopes , but rarely in shallow water close inshore ( ref . 247 , 43278 ) . jaws are highly specialized for rapid projection from the head to snap up small animals ( ref . 247 ) . feeds on jacopever , pelagic octopus and crabs ( ref . 5578 ) . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) . probably slow - moving and neutrally buoyant ( ref . 6871 ) . utilized dried salted ( ref . 247 )
exhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding on other ova produced by the mother ( oophagy ) after the yolk sac is absorbed ( ref . 247 , 50449 ) . distinct pairing with embrace ( ref . 205 ) .
) : 3 . 8 - 13 . 7 , mean 8 . 3 ( based on 1037 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00389 ( 0 . 00180 - 0 . 00842 ) , b = 3 . 12 ( 2 . 94 - 3 . 30 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 1 ±0 . 62 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 10 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : very high vulnerability ( 90 of 100 ) .
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three large lamniform shark vertebrae are described from the lower cretaceous of texas . we interpret these fossils as belonging to a single individual with a calculated total body length of 6 . 3 m . this large individual compares favorably to another shark specimen from the roughly contemporaneous kiowa shale of kansas . neither specimen was recovered with associated teeth , making confident identification of the species impossible . however , both formations share a similar shark fauna , with leptostyrax macrorhiza being the largest of the common lamniform sharks . regardless of its actual identification , this new specimen provides further evidence that large - bodied lamniform sharks had evolved prior to the late cretaceous .
citation : frederickson ja , schaefer sn , doucette - frederickson ja ( 2015 ) a gigantic shark from the lower cretaceous duck creek formation of texas . plos one 10 ( 6 ) : e0127162 . urltoken
copyright : © 2015 frederickson et al . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited
data availability : site data for omnh v1727 are available by request from the department of vert . paleontology at the ( sn ) omnh .
funding : this paper received funding from the open access fund from the university of oklahoma libraries . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
the specimens described herein , omnh 68860 , were collected in the duck creek formation of tarrant county , texas ( fig 1 ) . the duck creek is the second lowest formation of the lower cretaceous washita group ( albian ) [ 3 ] . underlying the duck creek is the basal kiamichi formation , which shares a contact with the duck creek defined lithologically by a transition from pebble - conglomerates and breccias to limestone , and faunally by a sharp decrease in gryphaea and schloenbachia [ 4 , 5 ] . the duck creek is conformably overlain by the fort worth formation ; the intervening contact is lithologically inconspicuous but is instead marked biostratigraphically by the appearance of holaster simplex , hemiaster elegans , and exogyra americana [ 5 ] .
a map of albian - age rocks in tarrant county , texas , showing the approximate location of omnh v1727 .
within tarrant county , the duck creek formation is approximately 13 m thick and is comprised of limestone , marl , and chalky marl deposits exposed in the western half of the county ( fig 1 ) [ 4 ] . the duck creek formation is subdivided into two primary units based on lithology , and four primary zones based on fauna . lithologically , the first 7 m above the base of the duck creek are dominated by limestone . above 7 m , limestone beds become increasingly indurated , decrease in thickness , and are further interlaminated by marl or marly limestone [ 4 , 6 ] . biostratigraphic zones consist of three ammonoid faunas including the basal desmoceras zone , followed by the schloenbachia zone and a scaphites zone ; the uppermost faunal zone is marked by the appearance of the brachiopod genus kingena [ 4 ] .
the base of a measured section at v1727 begins within the duck creek formation and correlates both lithologically and faunally with the ammonoid - rich limestone beds as described by winton and adkins [ 4 ] ( fig 2 ) . limestone dominates the measured section from the base to 6 m , where the first thinly - bedded marl deposits occur . despite significant portions of the section being covered by talus , the lithological transition to marl - dominated strata above 6 m is clearly defined and further supported by the appearance of kingena among the talus . the uppermost strata of the measured section consist of weathered , kingena - bearing marl with various echinoid fragments belonging to holaster simplex . these taxa imply the transition to the overlying fort worth formation ; however , no in situ bedforms were observed ; thus , at present , the contact can be inferred but not directly observed .
initially , the three vertebrae discussed herein were collected from a displaced block of limestone resting among marl debris situated above the lower limestone strata of the duck creek formation . further specimens bearing similar dimensions , taphonomic characteristics , and proximity to omnh 68860 were recovered in situ by a private collector within the indurated limestone beds lying just below the kingena - bearing marls approximately 11 . 5 m above the base of section ( fig 3 ; l . hall , personal communication ) . the lithology of the strata containing the shark vertebrae found in situ matches the remaining matrix from omnh 68860 . furthermore , taphonomic similarities shared among all vertebrae indicated that the specimens recovered by the private collector must indeed represent one individual ( discussed below ) . the stratigraphic origin of the shark vertebrae can therefore be confidently placed below the lower kingena - bearing marl and within the indurated limestone of the upper duck creek formation , approximately 10 . 5 m above the base of the section .
the surrounding lithology correlates with the indurated limestone bedforms 10 . 5 m above the base of the measured section ( photo courtesy of l . hall , 2013 ) .
in order to estimate the total body lengths from individual vertebra , we made comparisons with cretaceous sharks that possess a more robust postcranial fossil record . as it is impossible to determine vertebral position in a shark based on isolated vertebrae alone [ 1 ] , we conservatively regard the vertebra with the maximum centrum diameter as the largest vertebra in the entire individual . this ensures that the estimates achieved represent the smallest hypothetical length possible for this specimen . additionally , we assume that the relationship between vertebral size and total body length is consistent between well - represented species and omnh 68860 . this assumption is reasonable because most pelagic sharks have a consistent body form [ 2 ] .
similarly , gottfried et al . [ 7 ] used a different formula to calculate the total body length of individual vertebra in carcharocles megalodon using carcharodon carcharias as a proxy .
no permits were required for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .
omnh 68860 ; three vertebral centra , discovered by members of the paleontology club of the university of wisconsin - milwaukee , and prepared and curated at the sam noble oklahoma museum of natural history in norman , oklahoma . specimens were prepared by k . davies at snomnh using a 10 % buffered acetic acid bath for two of the three specimens . additional vertebrae have also been recovered from the same site , but these specimens were not collected by the authors and are currently in a private collection .
indurated limestone interval of the duck creek formation ( lower cretaceous : washita group ) of north - central texas .
the vertebrae were recovered at omnh locality v1727 , northwest of fort worth , tarrant county , texas ( fig 1 ) . locality data are on file at omnh and are available upon request from qualified investigators .
when discovered , all three vertebrae were disarticulated and were separated by a thin layer of limestone . the centra were recovered in a single vertical stack , with one vertebra situated perpendicular to the other two . all three are approximately the same size and proportions , implying that they represent vertebrae from the same area of the body . the largest , most - rostral vertebra measures approximately 110 mm in diameter , with a width of 34 mm ( fig 4 ) . all three are rostrocaudally biconcave ( amphicoelous ) and roughly spherical in outline , with little to no deformation as a result of crushing . both of the articular surfaces possess well - marked concentric lamellae on each vertebra . as in other lamniform sharks , all three vertebrae have multiple thin , radial lamellae circumventing at high densities around the outer surface of each centra . these lamellae measure up to 1 . 3 mm in diameter and run rostrocaudally with occasional bifurcations ( fig 4 right and left lateral view ) . both articular surfaces possess a well - developed corpus calcareum , with a thickness measuring approximately 6 mm each .
omnh 68860 in ( descending order ) rostral , caudal , ventral , right lateral , dorsal , and left lateral views .
each vertebra possesses readily distinguishable cartilage foramina on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces . the dorsal surface was identified using techniques described by shimada et al . [ 11 ] , where the midline foramina with the smallest inter - pit distance in each centrum are designated the basidorsal cartilage foramina . surprisingly , each of the two prepared vertebrae has multiple dorsal and ventral foramina ( five ventrals , seven dorsals each ) . the two foramina on the midline are generally the largest ; however , most do not extend to contact the corpus calcareum . all foramina are generally square with rounded corners and have a relatively smooth septum traveling into the vertebra . the additional foramina on the dorsal and ventral surface range in size , from 5 . 2–16 . 0 mm wide .
there were no other shark fossils associated with omnh 68860 . however , all three possessed traces of encrusting ostreids on the articular surfaces , indicating that these vertebrae were exposed at the surface for some period of time . further , pyrite has developed near the center of both articular surfaces on the largest vertebra . the smallest of the three vertebrae retains a cast of the next vertebra’s corresponding articular surface , giving this specimen a concavo - convex appearance in lateral view . the three centra also possess a single radial fracture ( 37 mm long in each vertebra ) . the common location of this fracture indicates that breakage occurred prior to the rearrangement of the vertebrae . although it cannot be completely determined whether omnh 68860 represents reworked material , abrasion is minimal , indicating that transportation was not extensive .
using the formulas of shimada [ 2 ] and gottfried et al . [ 7 ] , and the maximum vertebral diameter of 110 mm , the minimum total length of the individual represented by omnh 68860 is calculated to be 6 . 3 and 6 . 6 m respectively . according to these calculations , omnh 68860 would rival the largest cretoxyrhina mantelli specimens ( 6–7 m ) [ 2 ] in total length and approximately equal the length of the largest documented extant great white shark ( carcharodon carcharias ) ( 6 . 4 m ) [ 12 ] .
both omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 represent relatively large mesozoic lamniform sharks ; however neither specimen would be considered extraordinary compared to some cenozoic species . for example , an associated specimen of carcharocles angustidens from the late oligocene has an estimated total body length of 6 . 6 – 9 . 3 m [ 16 ] ; roughly matching that omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 . neither species , however , comes close to the maximum length estimates for the largest lamniform shark , carcharocles megalodon . total length estimates for this species vary depending on the method , but multiple techniques yield a gigantic size ranging from 9 . 2–16 m [ 3 ] .
morphological similarities between the kiowa and the duck creek sharks are further supported by the age of their respective assemblages . resemblances between the early cretaceous marine faunas of texas and kansas have long been recognized [ 17 ] , and more recent studies have indicated that the kiowa fauna correlates with that of the uppermost fredericksburg group and the lower washita group of texas [ 18 ] . the index fossil inoceramus comancheanus is found in the lower duck creek formation and the middle kiowa shale , demonstrating that at least some of the kiowa shale is equivalent in age to the duck creek formation . based on their stratigraphy , the kiowa shale and duck creek have both been placed in the upper albian stage of the lower cretaceous [ 19 ] .
of the two lamniform species found in both formations , leptostyrax macrorhiza tend to be larger . in fact , teeth of this species represent some of the largest known shark fossils from the albian of texas , making it the most appealing suspect for the identification of omnh 68860 . however , these teeth are still generally smaller than those of the late cretaceous cretoxyrhina mantelli , a species with known vertebral proportions similar to those of omnh 68860 [ 15 , 20 ] . however , biostratigraphic evidence suggests that the texas vertebrae are not from c . mantelli , as teeth from this species do not appear in texas until the cenomanian [ 15 ] . further comparisons of omnh 68860 to those vertebrae of c . mantelli from the niobrara formation demonstrate stark differences .
unlike most sharks , c . mantelli has a surprisingly complete fossil record , with multiple specimens preserving both teeth and postcranial material . vertebrae from this species tend to be large , exhibiting typical lamnoid - type centra , with a pair of cartilage foramina for both the neural and haemal arches ( personal observation ) . numerous radiating lamellae are also present that progressively decrease in number caudally down the vertebral column . these vertebrae differ from omnh 68860 in size , shape , and number of the cartilage foramina . specifically these foramina in omnh 68860 do not contact the corpus calcareum , are squarer , and are more numerous than in any published specimens of c . mantelli [ 11 , 20 ] .
another late cretaceous lamniform shark with known postcranial material is cardabiodon ricki . c . ricki was first described based on teeth and vertebrae from the cenomanian of australia [ 21 ] . subsequently , teeth were also described from the cenomanian of kansas [ 22 ] and the turonian of central montana [ 23 ] . superficially , vertebrae from c . ricki are more comparable to the texas specimens than any of c . mantelli ; for example , the vertebrae are more elongate , have a thick corpus calcareum , and small cartilage foramina . however , omnh 68860 can be differentiated in that they have thinner and less densely spaced radial lamellae , square cartilage foramina , and concentric lamellae . these features , plus the absence of cardabiodon teeth from the albian of north america , make it unlikely that the texas specimen belongs to this genus .
aside from leptostyrax macrorhiza , the only other lamniform shark known from both the kiowa shale and the duck creek formation is cretalamna appendiculata . the genus has a relatively long temporal range throughout the cretaceous , with a worldwide distribution [ 24 , 25 ] . in texas , there is an apparent size shift in teeth of c . appendiculata through the early to late cretaceous , where albian teeth tend to be relatively small , but gradually increase until reaching their largest sizes ( up to 30 mm ) in the maastrichtian . these larger late cretaceous specimens are considerably abundant in marine fossil sites [ 15 ] .
reconstruction of the large lamniform sharks from the duck creek formation and kiowa shale .
kuvp 16343 and omnh 68860 are both reconstructed as leptostyrax macrorhiza and modeled after an odontaspidid . this reconstruction was based on dental similarities shared between eoptolamnidae and odontaspididae [ 14 ] . both specimens represent the smallest calculated estimate based on the formula of shimada [ 2 ] . cretalamna appendiculata is reconstructed as a classic lamnid shark based on shared dental patterns between this genus and members of the family lamnidae [ 26 ] .
alternatively , a third lamniform species is recognized in the albian of texas and kansas . carcharias amonensis , an odontaspidid , has been reported from the upper albian paw paw formation and the lower kiowa shale [ 15 , 27 ] . although this species is not known from associated vertebral material , known teeth are relatively small ( 11 mm in maximum height [ 15 ] ) , making this species an unlikely candidate for the vertebrae . given the absolute size and distinct morphology of omnh 68860 , it is highly unlikely that these vertebrae belong to any commonly known shark from the duck creek formation , except possibly leptostyrax macrorhiza .
this discovery has further implications on the ecology of mesozoic oceans . in modern oceans , many large lamniform sharks are apex pelagic predators of marine and nearshore ecosystems . chondrichthyans the size of omnh 68860 would be among the largest predatory animals of the albian oceans , dwarfed only by some of the contemporaneous pliosaurs [ 31 , 32 ] . fossil tooth marks on dinosaurs [ 33 ] , mosasaurs [ 34 ] , plesiosaurs [ 35 ] , teleost fishes [ 36 ] , and turtles [ 37 ] , indicate that large lamniform sharks of the late cretaceous occupied the ecological position of generalist predator and scavenger , much as they do today . the discovery of omnh 68860 highlights an important ecological transition during the albian , where lamniform sharks begin to take on the massive sizes and trophic abilities seen most predominately in later occurring species . further , both omnh 68860 and kuvp 16343 represent albian species with minimum total lengths between 6 . 3–8 . 3 m . this suggests that the late early cretaceous was home to some of the largest mesozoic lamniform sharks of north america .
large shark vertebrae were recovered from the lower cretaceous duck creek formation of texas . these vertebrae represent a single animal of approximately 6 . 3 m in minimum total length , making this individual one of the largest documented sharks from the early cretaceous of n . america .
this specimen has unique morphology undocumented in any other cretaceous shark from north america , but shares large size with a contemporaneous vertebra from the kiowa shale of kansas .
we hypothesize that these vertebrae belong to leptostyrax macrorhiza based on their size and co - occurrence in both the duck creek formation and kiowa shale . however , without associated teeth , this identification cannot be confirmed .
the albian oceans contained some of the largest lamniform sharks of the mesozoic , which hypothetically represented an ecological precursor to the large sharks of the late cretaceous and cenozoic .
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distribution : marine ; all oceans . upper lobe of caudal fin greatly elongate , caudal fin almost one - half of total length ; third to fifth gill openings over origin of pectoral fin . ovoviviparous , embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother ( ref . 50449 ) .
the list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .
rather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .
but we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .
unless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .
this list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .
in the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .
when subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .
type genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .
type species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .
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) , about 40 inches long , cape cod ; and upper and lower teeth from front part of mouth of a larger specimen from new jersey , about natural size . from bigelow and schroeder . drawings by e . n . fischer .
the large size of the second dorsal fin , and of the anal as well ( which is about equal to the first dorsal instead of much smaller ) is of itself enough to distinguish this species from all other gulf of maine sharks . the fact that the first dorsal fin is located but little in front of the pelvics , and that the trunk seems crowded with fins of equal size , is a useful field mark . we may also point out that the pectoral fins are not much larger than the other fins—triangular rather than sickle - shaped ; that the upper lobe of the tail is nearly one - third as long as head and body together and notched near its tip , with the lower lobe about one - third as long as the upper lobe ; and that the head is flat above , the snout short , conical with rather sharp tip . the teeth also ( alike in the two jaws ) are diagnostic , being long , narrow , sharp - pointed , and smooth - edged , with one ( rarely two ) small spurs (
denticles
) on either side near the base .
most of the sand sharks that are caught in the northern part of their american range , from delaware bay to cape cod , are immature , of perhaps 4 to 6 feet . but adults up to 8 or 9 feet long are reported there from time to time , especially from the vicinity of nantucket , where a commercial shark fishery yielded many of them in
the early 1920 ' s . and large ones , alone , have been reported from north carolina , southward . the greatest recorded length is 10 feet 5 inches , from southwestern florida . and the sand shark does not mature sexually until perhaps 7 feet long , or more . a weight of 250 pounds is recorded for one 8 feet 10 inches long , showing how much lighter a fish this is , length for length , than various other sharks .
light gray - brown above , darkest along back , snout , and upper sides of pectorals , paling on the sides to grayish white on lower surface ; sides of trunk rearward from pectorals variously marked with roundish to oval spots , of which there may be upwards of 100 , varying in color from yellowish brown to ocher yellow . the rear margins of the fins are edged with black on some specimens , but not on others .
the eggs of the sand shark are hatched within the parent and are retained there until the resultant young are ready for independent existence , but there is no placental connection between mother and developing embryo . it has recently been discovered that while a ripe female contains a large number of eggs , only two embryos develop as a rule , one in each oviduct ; they are nourished ( at least largely ) by swallowing the unfertilized eggs [ 30 ] with which the stomach of the embryo becomes greatly distended . females with large embryos have so far been reported only from florida and from louisiana , whereas others taken near woods hole have contained eggs only , making it likely that the small specimens that are so common along southern new england have come from a more southerly birthplace .
coastal waters on both sides of the atlantic ; maine to florida and brazil in the west ; mediterranean , tropical west africa , canaries , and cape verdes in the east ; also south africa ; represented in argentine waters and in the indo - pacific by close relatives .
in august 1947 we saw a large one at the surface pursuing a striped bass , that was being hauled aboard a fishing boat on a hand line , in the eastern side of cape cod bay , where fishermen tell us that this is not an unusual happening . but this appears to be the northern boundary to their occurrence in any numbers , or with regularity . true , they are recorded at cohasset , on the southern shore of massachusetts bay , where we caught one about 4 feet long , years ago in boston bay , and at lynn , mass . but so rarely does it stray north of cape ann that it has been reported only
twice from casco bay , and once from st . andrews , new brunswick , near the mouth of the bay of fundy , its most northerly known outpost , where one was taken in a weir in 1913 .
in new england waters the sand shark occurs only as a summer visitor . the winter home of those that summer along the northeastern united states is not known , nor has any increase been noted in florida waters ( where they are taken at all times of year ) coincident with their winter disappearance from the northern part of their range . like various bony fishes they may move offshore , and perhaps southward , to escape winter chilling .
there were commercial fisheries for the sand shark around nantucket during the first quarter of the present century , but these were short lived , reputedly because of exhaustion of the local stock . and the sand shark is of no commercial importance on the new england coast at present . westward from cape cod it is of some interest to anglers , who catch considerable numbers , both as objects of special pursuit , for it takes almost any natural bait readily , or incidentally while surf casting for better fish . but it is not plentiful enough in the gulf of maine to be worth fishing for .
there is no record of attacks by sand sharks on human beings in north american waters , though bathers often come close to them . our own experience bears this out ; in fact , it is looked upon as a harmless nuisance on the new england coast wherever it is plentiful enough to be familiar . but its relative ( or relatives ) of east indian waters have a more sinister reputation .
[ 30 ] for an account of the embryos , see springer , copeia , 1948 , no . 3 , pp . 153 - 156 .
two dorsal fins , without spines ; anal fin present ; five gill slits , last two may be above pectoral fin ; spiracles usually present , small and behind eyes ; eyes without nictitating membrane ; mouth extending well behind eyes .
greek eulanein , elasmos = metal beaten out + greek brangchia = gills . ref . 45335 .
greek , lamna , - es = shark + latin , forma = shape ( ref . 45335 ) .
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carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .
carroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698
frickhinger , k . a . , 1995 : fossil atlas – fishes . –mergus – publishers for natural history and pet books , hans a . baensch , malle , germany , 1 - 1088 .
long , d . j . , 1992 : sharks from the la meseta formation ( eocene ) , seymour island , antarctic peninsula . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 12 , # 1 , pp . 11 - 32
long , j . a . , 1995 : the rise of fishes : 500 million years of evolution . –johns hopkins university press , baltimore & london , pp . 1 - 223
mould , b . , 1995 - 1997 : the nomenclature and distribution of the recent elasmobranchii . –inet : urltoken
nelson , j . s . , 1994 : fishes of the world . –john wiley & sons inc . , new york , 1994 , xx - 600
williams , g . s . , 1999 : a listing of fossil sharks and rays of the world . –inet : gainesville ' s creek fossils : urltoken
new fossils unearthed in texas suggests that sharks during the early cretaceous were much larger than previously thought . the top image shows the estimated body size of a shark fossil found in a 100 - million - year - old deposit in kansas . the middle shark ' s size . the bottom shark is another known shark species that trawled the ancient oceans .
a giant shark the size of a two - story building prowled the shallow seas 100 million years ago , new fossils reveal .
the massive fish , leptostyrax macrorhiza , would have been one of the largest predators of its day , and may push back scientists ' estimates of when such gigantic predatory sharks evolved , said study co - author joseph frederickson , a doctoral candidate in ecology and evolutionary biology at the university of oklahoma .
the ancient sea monster was discovered by accident . frederickson , who was then an undergraduate at the university of wisconsin - milwaukee , had started an amateur paleontology club to study novel fossil deposits . in 2009 , the club took a trip to the duck creek formation , just outside fort worth , texas , which contains myriad marine invertebrate fossils , such as the extinct squidlike creatures known as ammonites . about 100 million years ago the area was part of a shallow sea known as the western interior seaway that split north america in two and spanned from the gulf of mexico to the arctic , frederickson said .
while walking in the formation , frederickson ' s then - girlfriend ( now wife ) , university of oklahoma anthropology doctoral candidate janessa doucette - frederickson , tripped over a boulder and noticed a large vertebra sticking out of the ground . eventually , the team dug out three large vertebrae , each about 4 . 5 inches ( 11 . 4 centimeters ) in diameter . [ see images of ancient monsters of the sea ]
you can hold one in your hand ,
but then nothing else will fit , frederickson told live science .
after poring over the literature , frederickson found a description of a similar shark vertebra that was unearthed in 1997 in the kiowa shale in kansas , which also dates to about 100 million years ago . that vertebra came from a shark that was up to 32 feet ( 9 . 8 meters ) long .
by comparing the new vertebra with the one from kansas , the team concluded the texas shark was likely the same species as the kansas specimen . the texan could have been at least 20 . 3 feet ( 6 . 2 m ) long , though that is a conservative estimate , frederickson said . ( still , the texas shark would have been no match for the biggest shark that ever lived , the 60 - foot - long , or 18 m , megalodon . )
by analyzing similar ecosystems from the mesozoic era , the team concluded the sharks in both texas and kansas were probably leptostyrax macrorhiza . previously , the only fossils from leptostyrax thatpaleontologists had found were teeth , making it hard to gauge the shark ' s true size . the new study , which was published today ( june 3 ) in the journal plos one , suggests this creature was much bigger than previously thought , frederickson said .
still , it ' s not certain the new vertebrae belonged to leptostyrax , said kenshu shimada , a paleobiologist at depaul university in chicago , who unearthed the 1997 shark vertebra .
it is also entirely possible that they may belong to an extinct shark with very small teeth so far not recognized in the present fossil record ,
shimada , who was not involved in the current study , told live science .
for example , some of the largest modern - day sharks are plankton - feeding forms with minute teeth , such as the whale shark , basking shark and megamouth shark .
either way , the new finds change the picture of the early cretaceous seas .
previously , researchers thought the only truly massive predators of the day were the fearsome pliosaurs , long - necked , long - snouted relatives to modern - day lizards that could grow to nearly 40 feet ( 12 m ) in length . now , it seems the oceans were teeming with enough life to support at least two top predators , frederickson said .
as for the ancient shark ' s feeding habits , they might resemble those of modern great white sharks , who
eat whatever fits in their mouth ,
frederickson said . if these ancient sea monsters were similar , they might have fed on large fish , baby pliosaurs , marine reptiles and even full - grown pliosaurs that they scavenged , frederickson said .
follow tia ghose on twitter and google + . follow live science @ livescience , facebook & google + . originally published on live science .


the black-crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) is a species of hummingbird in the family trochilidae .

it is found in belize , costa rica , guatemala , honduras , mexico , and nicaragua .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and heavily degraded former forest .

black - crested coquette

nobody uploaded sound recordings for black - crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) yet .
the black - crested coquette is sedentary in its range . some irregular seasonal altitudinal movements can be observed .
range : the black - crested coquette is found in s mexico and s to e costa rica , but also in belize , guatemala , honduras and nicaragua .
the black - crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) is a central american hummingbird that occurs naturally in southern mexico ( veracruz , oaxaca , chiapas ) south to eastern costa rica .
diet : the black - crested coquette feeds on nectar from several flowers such as clusia , cordia , dipterix , hampea and others . it also consumes arthropods gleaned from foliage and twigs .
the black - crested coquette has a very short red bill with a black tip . the back is glossy green ; the rump is blackish - and a white band separates the green back from the black rump . the under plumage is greenish bronze spotted . its most distinctive feature is the white rump band .
behaviour : the black - crested coquette usually forages at canopy level . it feeds on nectar from flowers of several plant species . it also gleans arthropods from the vegetation , foliage and tiny branches .
habitat : the black - crested coquette frequents semi - open habitats . it also can be seen at forest edges , in second growth and plantations . this species occurs between 100 and 1200 metres of elevation .
the black - crested coquette adult male has bronze - green upperparts and white band across the rump , whereas the uppertail coverts are black . wings are dark olive - green . tail is slightly forked , with dark green central rectrices and other tail feathers are rufous with dusky green edges .
flight : the black - crested coquette performs active hovering to feed on nectar from flowers . it is able to fly forwards and backwards , and the wings draw flattened “8” . such active flight requires energy , and according to the temperature , the frequency of wing - beats changes , involving energy conservation .
the adult male has a long black and green crest . the throat is sparkling green with showy black - and - buff throat ( gorget ) feathers extending from his lower throat .
6·4–7 cm ; male and female 2·6–2·8 g . male has short straight bill , red , tipped black ; crown iridescent green , wispy crest hair - like , black , . . .
protection / threats / statuts : the black - crested coquette is uncommon , but the species is not threatened at this moment . this species frequents man - made habitats such as plantations , and the numbers of mature birds are relatively stable , in spite of some declines ( about 10 % ) in the last ten years .
reproduction : the nesting behaviour of the black - crested coquette is poorly known . nest has been found in march , placed at the end of a twig , at about 8 metres above the ground . the tiny nest is cup - shaped and made with fine plant materials . the nest - site is probably near the feeding areas .
throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
as other hummingbirds from small to large species , the black - crested coquette defends its feeding territory against intruders . even if many species are trap - line feeders on nectar sources too scattered to be defended , and do not establish true feeding territories , some intimidation behaviour occurs if two birds feed in close vicinity . they are mainly non - territorial but with limits , according to the situation .
description : all members of genus lophornis have a conspicuous crest often raised during the displays . the hummingbirds named “coquette” are among the tiniest birds .
züchner , t . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . black - crested coquette ( lophornis helenae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
voice : sounds by xeno - canto the black - crested coquette , as other trochilid species , utters high - pitched , short calls . these unmelodious sounds are heard when the birds are feeding “teek” , or as advertising calls when they defend a rich food source . but usually , singing activity is closely associated to breeding season during which they utter a repeated upslurred “tsuwee” , and also to defence behaviour . when fighting , they give a high - pitched twittering .
the female black - crested coquette is responsible for building the cup - shaped nest out of plant fibers woven together and green moss on the outside for camouflage in a protected location in a shrub , bush or tree . she lines the nest with soft plant fibers , animal hair and feather down , and strengthens the structure with spider webbing and other sticky material , giving it an elastic quality to allow it to stretch to double its size as the chicks grow and need more room . the nest is typically found on a low , skinny horizontal branch .
on the underparts , the throat is glossy green and the breast is black , bordered by bronze breast band . belly is white and shows conspicuous iridescent golden - bronze rounded spots . vent is white . undertail coverts are rufous .
the black - crested coquettes primarily feed on nectar taken from a variety of brightly colored , scented small flowers of trees , herbs , shrubs and epiphytes . they favor flowers with the highest sugar content ( often red - colored and tubular - shaped ) and seek out , and aggressively protect , those areas containing flowers with high energy nectar . they use their long , extendible , straw - like tongues to retrieve the nectar while hovering with their tails cocked upward as they are licking at the nectar up to 13 times per second . sometimes they may be seen hanging on the flower while feeding .
on the head , the crown is iridescent green and shows a wispy crest made with some elongated dark feathers . face is darker , rather glossy blackish - green according to the lighting . we can see some other elongated lateral feathers on the throat sides . these feathers are black , with pale buff inner web .
the thin , straight bill is red with black tip . eyes are dark brown . short legs and feet are pinkish - grey . feet are reduced because the hummingbirds do not use them for hopping , walking or climbing as numerous other birds’ species do . this criterion is common to all hummingbirds which spend most of the day hovering . such flight requires a lot of energy .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend is not known , but the population is not believed to be decreasing sufficiently rapidly to approach the thresholds under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
partners in flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) , thus it is placed in the band 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals here .
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authors : marîa del coro arizmendi , claudia i . rodríguez - flores , carlos a . soberanes - gonzález , guy m . kirwan , and thomas s . schulenberg
arizmendi , m . d . c . , c . i . rodríguez - flores , c . a . soberanes - gonzález , g . m . kirwan , and t . s . schulenberg ( 2013 ) .
) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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martin flack , claude king , jacqueserard , joseph c . boone , marc fasol , holger teichmann , david lingard , beat . r , ken havard , tadeusz rosinski , dusan m . brinkhuizen .
formerly placed , together with its sister - species l . adorabilis , in a separate genus , paphosia . monotypic .
s mexico ( veracruz , n oaxaca , chiapas ) s to ec costa rica .
mostly silent . presumed song a repeated clear , upslurred “tsuwee” . calls include a quiet , metallic . . .
semi - open habitats , forest edge , second growth , gaps and plantations at 100–1200 m . forages . . .
nest found in mar ; small , cup - shaped at end of twig 8 m above ground . no further information available .
not globally threatened . cites ii . generally uncommon . may accept man - made habitats like plantations to some extent . species has been recorded in sierra de los tuxtlas ( . . .
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recent molecular analysis found that most genera in the following linear sequence , from heliangelus to metallura , are members of a monophyletic group # r ; authors of that study also proposed that polyonymus , sappho and taphrolesbia ( not sampled in their analysis ) be included in same group .
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this map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
there are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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a guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124
l’encyclopedie mondiale des oiseaux - dr christopher m . perrins - bordas - isbn : 2040185607
female has whitish throat flecked dark . she has shorter crest , and the feathers of the throat sides are absent . tail is rounded . bill is blackish on the upper mandible .
immature male resembles female and shows vestige of crest . throat is whitish and upper breast is blackish .
this species feeds by “trap - lining” technique , as several species do according to the bill - shape . the members of genus lophornis take advantage of their very small size , resembling large insects , and do not hesitate to feed in areas within a territory which is not directly visible or guarded by the owner . they forage in trap - line , following a repeated foraging circuit .
during the courtship displays , the male expose its glossy plumage . the crest is also displayed , as the elongated feathers of the throat sides . displays are accompanied by vocalizations . the white rump is probably exposed too , the male raising the back feathers to show off the white area . males are usually polygamous .
their preferred habitats include subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests or moist montanes , as well as heavily degraded former forest .
juveniles and adult females lack the crest and throat patch of the adult male . he plumage is more brownish and generally duller .
hummingbirds are solitary in all aspects of life other than breeding ; and the male ' s only involvement in the reproductive process is the actual mating with the female . they neither live nor migrate in flocks ; and there is no pair bond for this species . males court females by flying in a u - shaped pattern in front of them . he will separate from the female immediately after copulation . one male may mate with several females . in all likelihood , the female will also mate with several males . the males do not participate in choosing the nest location , building the nest or raising the chicks .
the average clutch consists of two white eggs , which she incubates alone , while the male defends his territory and the flowers he feeds on . the young are born blind , immobile and without any down .
the female alone protects and feeds the chicks with regurgitated food ( mostly partially - digested insects since nectar is an insufficient source of protein for the growing chicks ) . the female pushes the food down the chicks ' throats with her long bill directly into their stomachs .
as is the case with other hummingbird species , the chicks are brooded only the first week or two , and left alone even on cooler nights after about 12 days - probably due to the small nest size . the chicks leave the nest when they are about 20 days old .
many native and cultivated plants on whose flowers these birds feed heavily rely on them for pollination . the mostly tubular - shaped flowers actually exclude most bees and butterflies from feeding on them and , subsequently , from pollinating the plants .
they may also visit local hummingbird feeders for some sugar water , or drink out of bird baths or water fountains where they will either hover and sip water as it runs over the edge ; or they will perch on the edge and drink - like all the other birds ; however , they only remain still for a short moment .
they also take some small spiders and insects - important sources of protein particularly needed during the breeding season to ensure the proper development of their young . insects are often caught in flight ( hawking ) ; snatched off leaves or branches , or are taken from spider webs . a nesting female can capture up to 2 , 000 insects a day .
males establish feeding territories , where they aggressively chase away other males as well as large insects - such as bumblebees and hawk moths - that want to feed in their territory . they use aerial flights and intimidating displays to defend their territories .
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natural vocalization ; calls and wing noise from a male bird visiting some porterweed at very close range . surrounding habitat was dense primary foothill forest . the bird was calling consistently , but this was all i could get due to very heavy traffic nearby .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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melanothrix nymphaliaria is a moth in the eupterotidae family .

it was described by walker in 1866 .

it is found on java , sumatra and borneo and possibly also in the philippines .

the habitat consists of lowland forests .

adult males have an almost triangular white patch on the forewing costa postmedially with a straight exterior margin .

females have a basal black patch on the forewings with a central extension that almost reaches the marginal black area .

melanothrix nymphaliaria

home » animalia - animals » lepidoptera - butterflies and moths » eupterotidae » melanothrix nymphaliaria albidior » 5 - 000 - 000 - 009 - 605 . jpg
select a genus & species eupterote hubner - eupterote multiarcuata holloway - eupterote naessigi sp . n . - eupterote obsolete talbot - eupterote niassana rothschild - eupterote asclepiades felder comb . n . - eupterote muluana sp . n . - eupterote harmani sp . n . ganisa walker - ganisa plana walker - ganisa similis moore pseudojana hampson - pseudojana perspicuifascia - pseudojana obscura sp . n . melanothrix felder - melanothrix nymphaliaria walker - melanothrix latevittata grunberg - melanothrix fumosa swinhoe - melanothrix alternans pagenstecher
melanothrix ( eupterotini ) ; forbes , 1955 , tijdschr . ent . 98 : 129
melanothrix felder , 1874 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 4 ) : pl . 94 , f . 2 ; ts : melanothrix pulchricolor felder
gnophos nymphaliaria walker , 1866 , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus . , 35 : 1598 melanothrix pulchricolor felder , 1874 , in felder & rogenhofer , reise oest . fregatte novara ( zool . ) 2 ( abt . 2 ) , p . 194 : 2 euterote coryna swinhoe , 1893 , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) , 12 : 211 . melanothrix albidior rothschild , 1910 melanothrix radiata grunberg , 1914 , ent . rundschau 31 : 21 , syn . n . melanothrix leucotrigona sundaensis holloway , 1976 : 54 , syn . n .
gnophos nymphaliaria waker , 1866 , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus . , 35 : 1598 . melanothrix pulchricolor felder , 1874 , in felder & rogenhofer , reise oest . fregatte novara ( zool . ) 2 ( abt . 2 ) , p . 194 : 2 . euterote ( sic ) coryna swinhoe , 1893 , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 7 ) , 12 : 211 . melanothrix atropurpurea aurivillius , 1894 , ent . tidskr . 15 : 172 . ssp . albidior rothschild . melanothrix albidior rothschild , 1910 , novit . zool . 17 : 463 . melanothrix radiata grunberg , 1914 , ent . rundschau 31 : 21 , syn . n . melanthrix leucotrigona sundaensis holloway , 1976 : 54 , syn . n .
melanothrix pulchricolor felder , 1874 ; reise fregatte novara , bd 2 ( abth . 2 ) ( 4 ) : pl . 94 , f . 2 , ( 5 ) ( erklärung ) 6 ; tl : java ; philippines
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association of males and females still unreconfirmed to wait for the barcode data ( w . f . nassig )
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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reise der österreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den behilfen des commodore b . von wüllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . band 2 . abtheilung 2 . lepidoptera . rhopalocera
- 120 , ( inhalts - verz . ) 1 - 9 ( pl . 1 - 74 ) , ( felder & rogenhofer , 1874 ) , ( 5 ) : pl .
walker , 1866 list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 31 : 1 - 322 ( [ 1865 ] ) , 32 : 323 - 706 ( 1865 ) , 33 : 707 - 1120 ( 1865 ) , 34 : 1121 - 1534 ( [ 1866 ] ) , 35 : 1535 - 2040 ( 1866 )
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do you know what is on photography ? add determination commentary near this photos .
podívejte se na meloidae namibie bologna . 2018 měl by to být hycleus brinski kaszab 1956 . také jsem ho měl zařazený u rodu ceroctis .
to me this looks like a typical specimen of kuschelina bergi ( harold , 1881 ) .