the eugeneodontida are an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre cartilaginous fishes .

they possessed a unique " tooth-whorl " on the symphysis of the lower jaw and pectoral fins supported by long radials .

now determined to be within the holocephali , their closest living relatives are ratfish .

the meaning of the name eugeneodont correlates to " true origin teeth " , and comes from the greek eu ( good/true ) , geneos ( race , kind , origin ) , and odon ( tooth ) .

members of the eugeneodontida are further classified into different families , the most well-preserved members that have been discovered are commonly placed within the families helicoprionidae ( " spiral saws " ) , and edestidae ( " those which devour " ) , the former containing the genera helicoprion , sarcoprion , and parahelicoprion , and the latter containing the genera edestus , listracanthus , and metaxyacanthus .

all eugeneodonts are thought to be obligate carnivores , with each genus having specialized feeding behaviors , territory ranges , and specific prey .

eugeneodontida

no one has contributed data records for eugeneodontida yet . learn how to contribute .
before we talk about eugeneodontida as a whole , let’s talk about their most famous member .
helicoprion belonged to an order of cartilaginous fish called eugeneodontida . while originally thought of as sharks , more recent anatomical discoveries place them closer to chimeridae , commonly known as chimeras , rabbitfish , or ratfish , a more obscure family of cartilaginous fish .
eugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre sharks . they possessed a unique
tooth - whorl
on the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced . it is possible that they may belong to holocephali .
eugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre sharks . they possessed a unique
tooth - worl
on the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced . it is possible that they may belong to holocephali .
members of eugeneodontida are further classified into different families , the most well - preserved members that have been discovered are commonly placed within the families helicoprionidae (
spiral saws
) , and edestidae (
those which devour
) , the former containing the genera helicoprion , sarcoprion and parahelicoprion , and the latter containing the genera edestus , listracanthus and metaxyacanthus . all eugeneodonts are thought to be obligate carnivores , with each genera having specialized feeding behaviors , territory ranges and specific prey .
the chondrichthyes are characterized by a special type of hard tissue lining the cartilages of the endoskeleton : the prismatic calcified cartilage . another chondrichthyan characteristic is the pelvic clasper , as special copulatory organ derived from the metapterygium , i . e . the posterior part of the pelvic fin . a pelvic clasper may , however , be present in the fossil placodermi . chondrichthyans include two major extant clades , the elasmobranchii and the holocephali , and a number of fossil clades ( cladoselachidae , symmoriida , xenacanthiformes , iniopterygia , eugeneodontida ) which may fall outside these two clades .
eugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre cartilaginous fishes . they possessed a unique
tooth - whorl
on the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced . now determined to be within holocephali , their closest living relatives are ratfish . the meaning of the name eugeneodont correlates to
true origin teeth
, and comes from the greek words eu ( good / true ) , geneos ( race , kind , origin ) and odon ( tooth . )
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full reference : r . zangerl . 1981 . chondrichthyes i : paleozoic elasmobranchii . handbook of paleoichthyology 3a
see also cappetta 1987 , ginter et al . 2010 , goto and okura 2004 , nelson 2006 , sepkoski 2002 and zangerl 1981
catherine sutera added the english common name
shark
to
helicoprion karpinsky 1899
.
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of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the
were discovered . the first specimen suggests an animal that reached 10 meters in length , while the second specimen , nicknamed
bois
, suggests an animal that exceed 12 meters . this suggests that this species of
tapanila l . ; pruitt j . ; pradel a . ; wilga c . ; ramsay j . ; schlader r . ; didier d . ( 2013 ) .
jaws for a spiral - tooth whorl : ct images reveal novel adaptation and phylogeny in fossil helicoprion
.
jstor : journal of paleontology vol . 70 , no . 1 ( jan . , 1996 ) , pp . 162 - 165
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jstor : journal of paleontologyvol . 70 , no . 1 ( jan . , 1996 ) , pp . 162 - 165
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the tooth system of the eugeneodontids varies widely , however , most have a parasymphysial tooth whorl . the upper maxillary teeth are displaced to the lower surface of the jaw . the body is spindle - shaped , with the sufficiently long tail section .
lateral teeth usually pressing , polyconic , in the form transverse numbers , different size for the elongation of jaw ( for example , caseodus and fadenia have the largest according to the sizes teeth they are located approximately in the middle the branch of lower jaw ) . sometimes , apparently , lateral teeth can be lost , as evidenced by the presence of individual fossil teeth being recovered .
the position of the spiral tooth - whorl on symphysis is disputed by some scientists ( there is , for example , the opinion that the spiral was fastened by some means in the region of throat , being the derivative of throaty teeth - it is more accurate , the kinks of the mucous membrane of throat , similar structures exist in bony fishes and primitive sharks ) . at the same time , fossilized skulls are known with the symphysial teeth clearly preserved in the same position that they would be when the creature was still alive . in some forms , probably , there are large symphysial arcs in both jaws .
gill arcs are located behind the cerebral box , as in sharks , but their number is relatively small , five . probably , in life , there were separate gill slots , however the presence of gill covers is not proven .
the postcranial skeleton is known mostly by fossilized remains of fadenia ( permian of greenland ) , the exterior view of other representatives of group could be different . the free part of the metapterigiya goes all the way back to the limits of fin ( structure as in many paleozoic sharks ) .
there is one dorsal fin , located directly above the shoulder girdle . there are no abdominal and anal fins . the skeleton of caseodus , a more poorly understood genus , is very similar in structure .
caseodontoidea : caseodontoidea includes the families of eugeneodontidae and caseodontidae . they are characterized by the transverse - comb - like or inflated symphyseal teeth . a well - preserved fossil specimen , fadenia from the carboniferous and permian of greenland and north america , was a relatively middle - sized ( about 1 . 5 meters in length ) fish .
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…a species of eugenodontid holocephalid cartilaginous fish that lived in what would be greenland during the permian period . like other agassizodontids sarcoprion had a unique “tooth - whorl” on its lower jaw , the function of this whorl is still largely unknown .
has there been any
discourse
on the identification of eugenodonts ? because , i mean - they just look so impractical .
in 1899 , the above fossil was discovered in the ural mountains of russia , depicting a spiral - shaped whorl of teeth resembling a circular saw . the teeth resembled those of a shark , but paleontologists were uncertain of how this tooth - whorl would operate , or how it would fit into the animal’s anatomy . they named it helicoprion ( ”spiral saw” ) , and began working on a century - long puzzle as to its true shape .
the animal had an extended lower jaw shaped like a pizza cutter , used to “saw” flesh off of much larger prey .
the animal’s lower jaw was a coiled - up tentacle - like structure , capable of lashing out at prey like a whip .
the animal was actually more ray - like than shark - like , with a spiral - shaped tooth - lined throat used to grind up small prey .
it wasn’t until the discovery of a more completely preserved specimen of one of helicoprion ’s relatives that the true nature of the animal was revealed . the “tooth - whorl” was actually a preserved growth ring ; the large , exterior teeth would gradually be worn down and replaced by the smaller , still - growing inner teeth . the top of this ring protruded at the front of the lower jaw .
the purpose of the “tooth - whorl” is still not entirely known . it’s possible that it was used to snag soft - bodied animals , like jellyfish or cephalopods . it might also have been used to slice small bits of flesh off of larger , slow - moving prey .
the eugeneodonts had a near - global distribution from the early carboniferous to the late triassic periods , with fossils known from russia , greenland , china , and the americas . they were united by the presence of “tooth - whorls” , but these whorls looked quite different from species to species .
parahelicoprion had sharp - edged , protruding teeth that may have been used to wound fast - moving prey .
sarcoprion had a row of teeth on its snout running parallel to its tooth - whorl , said to have been used to snatch up small prey and grind them to death - something that strikes me as needlessly sensationalist . i personally believe that it “ratcheted” small animals into its mouth with a series of rapid jaw movements , like the modern nemichthydae .
one of the largest eugeneodonts was the late carboniferous species edestus , which grew to the same size as a modern great white shark . it lacked a tooth - whorl , instead possessing twin rows of teeth that have drawn frequent comparisons to pinking shears . like helicoprion , only its teeth have been found , so much of its appearance is unknown ; the shark - like reconstruction above is highly speculative .
the eugeneodonts are believed to have been the dominant marine predators during the early triassic , until the rise and diversification of the ichthyosaurs drove them to extinction . their living relatives have a worldwide distribution , including the deep - sea abyss , but have never been as well - known or popular as the other members of the class chondrichthyes - the sharks , rays , skates , and sawfish .
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taxon name is the
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the
data
that is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .
taxon term is the data value of either a classification term (
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the gnathostomata , or gnathostomes , are the majority of the middle devonian ( - 380 million years ago ) to recent vertebrates . they differ from all other craniates or vertebrates in having a vertically biting device , the jaws , which consist of an endoskeletal mandibular arch and a variety of exoskeletal grasping , crushing , or shearing organs , i . e . the teeth , and jaw bones . among recent vertebrates , the gnathostomes include sharks , rays , chimaeras , ray - finned fishes , lobe - finned fishes and land vertebrates .
extant gnathostomes fall into two major clades , the chondrichthyes and osteichthyes . in addition , there are two extinct major gnathostome clades , the placodermi ( early silurian - late devonian ) and the acanthodii ( latest ordovician or earliest silurian - early permian ) . there may be other fossil gnathostome taxa which fall outside of these four taxa . this could be the case for the mongolepida , only known from isolated scales from the early silurian , and which are provisionally assigned to the chondrichthyans , yet with great reservations .
the osteichthyes are characterized by endochondral (
spongy
) bone in the endoskeleton , dermal fin rays made up by lepidotrichiae ( modified , tile - shaped scales ) , and three pairs of tooth - bearing dermal bones lining the jaws ( dentary , premaxillary and maxillary ) . the osteichthyes include two major clades , the actinopterygii and the sarcopterygii .
the placodermi are characterized by a dermal armor consisting of a head armor and a thoracic armor . in the thoracic armor , the foremost dermal plates form a complete
ring
around the body and always include at least one median dorsal plate .
the acanthodii are characterized by dermal spines inserted in front of all fins but the caudal one . they also possess minute , growing scales which have a special onion - like structure , i . e . the crown consists of overlying layers of dentine or mesodentine .
superclass agnatha ( the jawless fish that excludes the gnathostomata ) class hyperoartia : a group of vertebrates that comprises modern lampreys and close fossil relatives .
( cartilaginous fishes ) , actinopterygii ( ray - finned fishes ) , and sarcopterygii ( lobe - finned fishes ) .
( the jawed cartilaginous fishes including subclass elasmobranchii ( sharks , rays and skates ) and subclass holocephali ( chimaeras , sometimes called ghost sharks ) .
superclass osteichthyes : the group of fishes that includes both ray - finned fish ( actinopterygii ) and lobe - finned fish ( sarcopterygii ) .
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hi , i ' m andrew and i’m just a simple zoology student and crustacean researcher from ohio . this blog centers around animal ids so feel free to send me any unknown species ( and its location ) that you have and i will take my best shot at iding it ! i also occasionally post random zoology / animal factoid things . disclamer : none of the pictures are mine unless stated
ideally this will one day go up to order / suborder / superfamily and encompass extinct and extant taxa… . hopefully
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how helicoprion used its whorl has also been another matter of debate with a variety of theories ranging from the whorl being used as a lash against fish ,  to a rasp that cut its way through the shells of ammonites with a sawing motion .  however even a casual look at the fossil tooth whorls reveals that the teeth have a surprising little amount of wear ,  and since helicoprion and relative genera are not thought to have had such a fast replacement of teeth modern day sharks ,  there is now new speculation that helicoprion were predators of soft bodied organisms such as molluscs ,  especially cephalopods such as octopuses . it may now only be a matter of time before more cartilaginous remains of helicoprion are discovered , as other creatures with cartilaginous remains from genera such as cladoselache , fadenia and stethacanthus amongst a growing number of many others are being found .
further reading - ueber die reste von edestiden und die neue gattung helicoprion . - verhandlungen der kaiserlichen russischen mineralogischen gesellschaft zu st . petersburg , zweite series 36 : 1 - 111 - a . karpinsky - 1899 . - a new genus and species of fossil shark related to edestus leidy . - science 26 ( 653 ) : 22 - 24 - o . p . hay - 1907 . - helicoprion ivanovi , n . sp . bulletin de l ' academie des sciences de russie 16 : 369 - 378 - a . karpinsky - 1922 . - helicoprion in the anthracolithic ( late paleozoic ) of nevada and california , and its stratigraphic significance . - journal of paleontology 13 ( 1 ) : 103 - 114 - harry e . wheeler - 1939 . - helicoprion from elko county , nevada . - journal of paleontology 29 ( 5 ) : 918–919 . - e . r . larson & j . b . scott - 1955 . - new investigations on helicoprion from the phosphoria formation of south - east idaho , usa . - kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab , biologiske skrifter 14 ( 5 ) : 1 - 54 - s . e . bendix - almgreen - 1966 . - the first record of helicoprion karpinsky ( helicoprionidae ) from china . - chinese science bulletin 52 ( 16 ) : 2246–2251 . - xiao - hong chen , long cheng , kai - guo yin - 2007 . - the orthodonty of helicoprion . - national museum of natural history . smithsonian institution . p . 1 . - robert w . purdy - 2008 . - a new specimen of helicoprion karpinsky , 1899 from kazakhstanian cisurals and a new reconstruction of its tooth whorl position and function . - acta zoologica 90 : 171–182 . - o . a . lebedev - 2009 . - jaws for a spiral - tooth whorl : ct images reveal novel adaptation and phylogeny in fossil helicoprion . - biology letters 9 ( 2 ) : 20130057 - l . tapanila , j . pruitt , a . pradel , c . d . wilga , j . b . ramsay , r . schlader & d . a . didier - 2013 .
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sapphirina , also called the sea sapphires , is a genus of parasitic copepod , containing the following species : sapphirina angusta dana , 1849 sapphirina aureofurca giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina auronitens claus , 1863 sapphirina bella dana , 1849 sapphirina bicuspidata giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina clausii ( haeckel , 1864 ) sapphirina coruscans dana , 1849 sapphirina cylindrica lubbock , 1860 sapphirina danae lubbock , 1856 sapphirina darwinii haeckel , 1864 sapphirina detonsa dana , 1849 sapphirina edwardsii ( haeckel , 1864 ) sapphirina elegans lubbock , 1860 sapphirina fulgens templeton , 1836 sapphirina gastrica giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina gegenbauri ( haeckel , 1864 ) sapphirina gemma dana , 1852 sapphirina gibba rose , 1929 sapphirina granulosa giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina inaequalis dana , 1852 sapphirina indicator j. v. thompson , 1829 sapphirina indigotica dana , 1849 sapphirina intestinata giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina iris dana , 1849 sapphirina lactens giesbrecht , 1893 sapphirina lomae esterly , 1905 sapphirina longifurca a. scott , 1909 sapphirina maculosa giesbrecht , 1893 sapphirina metallina dana , 1849 sapphirina nigromaculata claus , 1863 sapphirina nitens lubbock , 1860 sapphirina obesa dana , 1849 sapphirina obtusa dana , 1849 sapphirina opaca lubbock , 1856 sapphirina opalina dana , 1849 sapphirina opalina-darwini lehnhofer , 1929 sapphirina orientalis dana , 1849 sapphirina ovalis dana , 1849 sapphirina ovata dana , 1849 sapphirina ovatolanceolata dana , 1849 sapphirina ovatolanceolata-gemma lehnhofer , 1929 sapphirina pachygaster claus , 1863 sapphirina parva lubbock , 1860 sapphirina pseudolactens lehnhofer , 1929 sapphirina pyrosomatis giesbrecht , 1893 sapphirina reticulata brady , 1883 sapphirina sali farran , 1929 sapphirina salpae claus , 1859 sapphirina scalaris fischer , 1860 sapphirina scarlata giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina serrata brady , 1883 sapphirina sinuicauda brady , 1883 sapphirina splendens dana , 1852 sapphirina stellata giesbrecht , 1891 sapphirina stylifera lubbock , 1856 sapphirina tenella dana , 1849 sapphirina thomsoni lubbock , 1860 sapphirina uncinata leuckart , 1853 sapphirina versicolor dana , 1849 sapphirina vorax giesbrecht , 1891 various species of male sapphirina shine in different hues , from bright gold to deep blue .

this is partially due to structural coloration in which microscopic layers of crystal plates inside their cells which are separated by minute distances , and these distances equal the same wavelength of the corresponding color of their " shine " .

the females are translucent , as are the males when they are not shining .

sapphirina

species sapphirina longifurca scott a . , 1909 accepted as sapphirina iris dana , 1849 ( listed as synonym by lehnhofer , 1929 )
sapphirina longifurca scott a . , 1909 ( listed as synonym by lehnhofer , 1929 )
table of key features separating adult u . sapphirina and lowii ( u . of florida )
( of sapphirina salpae claus , 1859 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of sapphirina scalaris fischer , 1860 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of sapphirina aureofurca giesbrecht , 1891 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of sapphirina lomae esterly , 1905 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
marine planktonic copepods ( banyuls / oob / upmc / cnrs ) note : including taxonomic identification plates , remarks , geographic distribution , ecological information & reference list to biodiversity heritage library ( 16 publications ) ( from synonym sapphirina salpae claus , 1859 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 25 publications ) to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym sapphirina longifurca scott a . , 1909 ) to encyclopedia of life to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym sapphirina salpae claus , 1859 ) to encyclopedia of life ( from synonym sapphirina scalaris fischer , 1860 ) to marine species identification portal to pesi to usnm invertebrate zoology arthropoda collection ( 2 records ) ( from synonym sapphirina longifurca scott a . , 1909 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology arthropoda collection ( 3 records ) ( from synonym sapphirina salpae claus , 1859 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology arthropoda collection ( 4 records ) to itis
( of sapphirina longifurca scott a . , 1909 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
saphirina pachygaster claus , 1863 ( p . 152 , fig . f ) ; haeckel , 1864 ( p . 107 ) ; ? sapphirina darwini haeckel , 1864 [ see to the species and remarks below ] ; sapphirina opalina - darwini lehnhofer , 1929 p . 295 , figs . f , m rem . ) [ see remarks below ] .
validity lehnhofer ( 1929 , p . 295 ) considers this form as a variation of sapphirina opalina , position followed by boxshall & halsey ( 2004 , p . 653 ) . [ details ]
sapphirina : el zafiro marino que desaparece . the secret to the sea sapphire’s colors and invisibility : urltoken copepodo en micro acuario : urltoken estrategias adaptativas : hipótesis de la
alarma contra ladrones
: urltoken
the small creature is a sapphirina copepod ( or , in short , a sea sapphire ) . copepods are the rice of the sea – tiny shrimp - like animals at the base of the ocean food chain . and like rice , they are generally not known for their charisma .
3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - carcinium ( from synonym carcinium meyen , 1834 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - cyanomma ( from synonym cyanomma haeckel , 1864 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - edwardsia ( from synonym edwardsia costa o . g . , 1838 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - pyromma ( from synonym pyromma haeckel , 1864 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - sapphiridina ( from synonym sapphiridina haeckel , 1864 ) 3x5 c . b . wilson taxonomic card - sapphirina 3x5 j . s . ho taxonomic card - sapphirina to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to genbank to itis
( of sapphirina longifurca scott a . , 1909 ) scott , a . ( 1909 ) . the copepoda of the siboga expedition . part i . free - swimming , littoral and semi - parasitic copepoda . siboga expeditie , monograph , leiden 29a : 1 - 323 , pls . 1 - 69 . ( ix - 1909 ) [ details ]
overall depth range in sargasso sea : 0 - 500 m ( deevey & brooks , 1977 , station
s
) ; sapphirina opalina - darwini lehnhofer , 1929 ( f , m ) syn . : ? sapphirina darwinii haeckel , 1864 ( p . 105 ) ref . : lehnhofer , 1929 ( p . 295 , rem . , figs . f , m ) ; rose , 1933 a ( p . 316 , rem . f , m ) ; giron - reguer , 1963 ( p . 59 ) ; björnberg , 1963 ( p . 88 , rem . ) ; sewell , 1947 ( p . 267 ) ; 1948 ( p . 462 ) ; marques , 1958 a ( p . 138 ) ; björnberg , 1981 ( p . 671 , figs . f , m ) ; bradford - grieve & al . , 1999 ( p . 887 , 972 , figs . f , m ) ; ref . compl . : mazza , 1966 ( p . 74 ) ; binet & al . , 1972 ( p . 71 ) ; björnberg , 1973 ( p . 370 , 389 ) loc . : angola , ivorian shelf , rio de janeiro , médit . , arabian sea , laquedives is . , maldives is . , nicobar is . ( nankauri harbour ) , chili n n : 9 lg . : ( 618 ) f : 2 , 64 - 2 ; m : 3 , 98 - 2 , 55 ; { f : 2 , 00 - 2 , 64 ; m : 2 , 55 - 3 , 98 } . lehnhofer ( 1929 ) considers that sapphirina opalina and sapphirina darwini correspond to variations in the same species . position followed by boxshall & halsey ( 2004 , p . 653 ) who only hold the designation of sapphirina opalina . see in dvp conway & al . , 2003 ( version 1 )
ssued from : d . gur , b . leshem , v . farstey , d . oron , l . addadi & s . weiner in adv . funct . mater . , 2016 , 26 [ p . 1394 , fig . 1 , a , b ) . optical response ( reflection mode ) of sapphirinid male of sapphirina metallina to either dark or light conditions . a : dark - adapted ; b : light - adapted .
( of sapphirina darwini haeckel , 1864 ) boxshall , g . ( 2001 ) . copepoda ( excl . harpacticoida ) , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 252 - 268 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
sapphirina , or sea sapphire , has been called “the most beautiful animal you’ve never seen , ” and it could be one of the most magical . some of the tiny , little - known copepods appear to flash in and out of brilliantly colored blue , violet or red existence . now scientists are figuring out the trick to their hues and their invisibility . the findings appear in the journal of the american chemical society and could inspire the next generation of optical technologies .
the researchers measured the light reflectance — which determines color — of live sapphirina males and the spacing between crystal layers . they found that changes of reflectance depended on the thickness of the spacing . and for at least one particular species , when light hits an animal at a 45 - degree angle , reflectance shifts out of the visible light range and into the ultraviolet , and it practically disappears . their results could help inform the design of artificial photonic crystal structures , which have many potential uses in reflective coatings , optical mirrors and optical displays .
copepods are tiny aquatic crustaceans that live in both fresh and salt water . some males of the ocean - dwelling sapphirina genus display striking , iridescent colors that scientists think play a role in communication and mate recognition . the shimmering animals’ colors result when light bounces off of the thin , hexagonal crystal plates that cover their backs . these plates also help them vanish , if only fleetingly . scientists didn’t know specifically what factors contributed to creating different shades . scientists at the weizmann institute and the interuniversity institute for marine sciences in eilat wanted to investigate the matter .
thompson , j . v . ( 1829 ) . on the luminosity of the ocean , with descriptions of some remarkable species of luminous animals ( pyrosoma pigmaea and sapphirina indicator ) and particularly of the four new genera , nocticula , cynthia , lucifer and podopsis , of the shizopodae , in : thompson , j . v . ( 1828 - 1834 ) . zoological researches , and illustrations ; or , natural history of nondescript or imperfectly known animals , in a series of memoirs , illustrated by numerous figures . pp . 37 - 61 , plates v - viii ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
the small creature i’d found was a sapphirina copepod , or as i like to call it , a sea sapphire . copepods are the rice of the sea , tiny shrimp - like animals at the base of the ocean food chain . and like rice , they are generally not known for their charisma . sea sapphires are an exception . though they are often small , a few millimeters , they are stunningly beautiful . like their namesake gem , different species of sea sapphire shine in different hues , from bright gold to deep blue . africa isn’t the only place they can be found . i’ve since seen them off the coasts of rhode island and california . when they’re abundant near the water’s surface the sea shimmers like diamonds falling from the sky . japanese fisherman of old had a name for this kind of water , “tama - mizu” , jeweled water .
issued from : d . gur , b . leshem , m . pierantoni , v . farstey , d . oron , s . weiner & l . addadi in j . am . chem . soc . , 2015 , 137 . [ p . 8409 , fig . 1 ] ultrastructure of sapphirina metallina . ( a ) light microscope image viewed through the dorsal surface showing an array of tightly packed hexagonal crystals . inset : fourier transform of the image demonstrating the regular packing . ( b , c ) cryo - sem micrographs of a high - pressure - frozen , freeze - fractured s . metallina copepod : ( b ) transverse view showing the guanine crystals aligned perpendicular to the dorsal surface of the animal . the iridophores ( ir ) are located just beneath the animal chitin procutile ( pc ) . inset : schematic representation of the position of the crystal - containing cells ( ir ) relative to the copepod anatomy . the copepod is presented in dorsal view . the right - hand side is a schematic representation of the cross section of the region indicated , which corresponds to the cryo - sem micrograph . ( c ) dorsal view showing the tightly packed perfectly hexagonal crystals and the alternating layers of guanine crystals and cytoplasm beneath the procuticle .
issued from : d . gur , b . leshem , m . pierantoni , v . farstey , d . oron , s . weiner & l . addadi in j . am . chem . soc . , 2015 , 137 . [ p . 8410 , fig . 2 , a - d ] . reflectance and structural properties of individual copepods : ( a - d ) sapphirina metallina column 1 ( left ) shows light microscope images of representative sapphitinid male specimens and column 2 their measured reflectances . column 4 shows representative cryo - sem images of the crystal - cytoplasm layer arrays and column 3 the simulated reflectance spectra . the simulated reflectance was calculated on the basis of thecytoplasm ( cy ) and crystal ( cr ) thicknesses measured in cryo - sem images from many differently colored specimens . the results of these measurements are shown in column 3 for each color . the measured reflectance en each spectrum is normalized to a silver mirror ; the measured reflectance of ( d ) was also normalized to the crystal coverage area because of the lack of uniformity of the specimen . the seeming disagreement between the measured and calculated reflectance spectra at short wavelengths in ( c ) and ( d ) is due to the short - wavelength edge of the light source
issued from : j . chae & s . nishida in mar . biol . , 1994 ( 119 ) . [ p . 209 , fig . 4 ) . schematic representation of the structure of the dorsal integument male in sapphirinidae . membrane structures supporting the platelets not shown . bl = basal lamina ; cm = cell membrane ; d , platelet diameter ; e , epicuticule ; m = mitochondrion ; mls = multilayer structure ; n , nucleus ; p , procuticle ; t = platelet thicness nota : multilayered , hexagonal platelets exist in the dorsal epidermal cells of the male sapphirinids . the absence of platelets in the female is consistent with the fact that iridescence is observed only in the male and confirms that this structure is responsible for generating the iridescence . iridescent , integumental structures with multilayered crystals have been well known in various animal taxa , such fishes , amphibians and reptiles , but we know of no other litterature referring to any such structures in the integument of crustacea , although multilayer structures have been found in the nauplius eyse of copepods ( land , 1984 , etc . ) including sapphirina sp . itself ( elofsson , 1969 ) . the causal mechanism of structural colors in animals is explained by the theory of multiple thin - layer interfernce ( for explanation p . 209 - 210 in chae & nishida , 1994 ) . the fact that only males iridesce , the specific differences in iridescent colors , and the well - developed eyes all suggests that iridescence of sapphirinids has a important role in mate finding , prsumably by the female ( heron , 1973 ) .
when i first saw a sea sapphire i thought i was hallucinating . the day had been anything but normal , but this part will always stand out . i’d spent the afternoon on a small dingy off the coast of durban , south africa . it was muggy , and i’d been working for hours– - throwing a small net out , and pulling in tiny hauls of plankton that i’d then collect in jars . as i looked through one jar , the boat rocking up and down , i saw for an instant a bright blue flash . gone . then again in a different place . an incredible shade of blue . maybe i’d been in the sun too long ? maybe i was seeing things ? it wasn’t until i got back to the lab that i discovered the true beauty and mystery of these radiant flashes .
the reason for their shimmering beauty is both complex and mysterious , relating to their unique social behavior and strange crystalline skin .
a key clue : this sparkle is only seen in males . males live free in the water column , but females make their home in the crystal palaces of a strange , barrel - shaped jellies called salps . and though they’re not flashy , these parasitic princesses have huge eyes relative to males . perhaps female sea sapphires look out upon an endless expanse of ocean sparkling with blue and gold , searching for the a particularly luminous shine . or it could be that males use their shimmer to compete with one another , like jousting knights in shining armor , while the females watch on . about the social life of sea sapphires , we know very little . but how do they shine in the first place ?
the secret to the sea sapphire’s shine is in microscopic layers of crystal plates inside their cells . in the case of blue sea sapphires , these crystal layers are separated by only about four ten thousandths of a millimeter ; about the same distance as a wavelength of blue light . when blue light bounces off these crystal layers , it is perfectly preserved and reflected . but for other colors of light , these small differences in distance interfere , causing the colors to cancel out . so while white light is composed of all colors , only blue light is reflected back . this type of coloration is known as structural coloration , and though resembling a gem in hue , a sea sapphire’s color has more in common with an oil sheen than a pigmented jewel . combine this nifty trick with the sea sapphire’s impressively transparent body , and you have an animal as radiant as a star in one moment , and invisible in the next .
i was lucky to find one , but sometimes they are found in astonishing numbers . my friend and colleague erik thuesen once told me about his work on an rov , as the submersible was coming to the surface , “it passed through this amazingly sparkling layer of iridescent sapphrina” . a rare sight to see ; not , perhaps , due to the rarity of these ocean gems , but the rarity at which we enter their world . even as you read this , wherever you are and whatever you’re doing , they’re out there right now . quietly shining in their own private universe of stars .
yuval baar , joseph rosen , nadav shashar ( 2014 ) . circular polarization of transmitted light by sapphirinidae copepods . plos one . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0086131
rr helm is a postdoc studying sea anemones and jellyfish at woods hole oceanographic institution .
i have seen these on safety stops diving in the tortugas , fl keys . they were not uncommon when oceanic water was inshore ( if i remember correctly ) , some dives you could see around 80 - 100 while going down and while at the safety stop on the way back up . this was most often when looking down ( reflected light ) and often flashing and disappearing fooling us as well as their predators . for a small size they are very conspicuous for that second .
just a note that your caption for the side by side images is reversed .
what an amazing creature ! i wonder if the cause for the coloring is similar to the iridescence in beetles and butterfly wings . i did a story about this for the nsf image gallery ( see urltoken ) .
great story ! i’ve never heard the term “liquid crystal” before , but it’s awesome ! i bet it’s the same phenomenon as what we’re seeing here . the technical term is thin film interference , and this type of structural coloration can be found in a variety of iridescent animals .
oohhhh we had lots of salp around our lab in the earlier part of summer at goat island ( new zealand ) , and there was also iredecent blue flecks in the water… . could this be it ? so stunning ! i wish i brought some to have a look under a microscope but we were just enjoying being in the water… .
great story and spectacular movie . do you know the nature of that cristalline structure ? is is calcite ? or something else ? thanks !
i’m not sure , and i’m not sure the authors are either . here’s what the paper said : “this structure consists of 10 to 14 pairs of closely spaced membranes , lying parallel to each other and to the cuticular plane ( fig . 1b ) …the spaces between the laminated membranes of the thin sections often had gaps of various sizes , suggesting that some hard materials originally present at the gap sites were lost during sectioning”
when a teacher & i saw the picture of this magnificent creature , the character , rainbow fish , was the thing that kept popping into our minds . rainbow dash was the second character that popped into my head . funny , in a way…
walter , t . c . & boxshall , g . ( 2018 ) . world of copepods database .
boxshall , g . ( 2001 ) . copepoda ( excl . harpacticoida ) , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 252 - 268 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of carcinium meyen , 1834 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of cyanomma haeckel , 1864 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of edwardsia costa o . g . , 1838 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of edwardsia costa o . g . , 1838 ) cairns , s . d . ; gershwin , l . ; brook , f . j . ; pugh , p . ; dawson , e . w . ; ocaña o . v . ; vervoort , w . ; williams , g . ; watson , j . e . ; opresko , d . m . ; schuchert , p . ; hine , p . m . ; gordon , d . p . ; campbell , h . j . ; wright , a . j . ; sánchez , j . a . ; fautin , d . g . ( 2009 ) . phylum cnidaria : corals , medusae , hydroids , myxozoans . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2009 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 1 . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . pp . 59 - 101 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
( of pyromma haeckel , 1864 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of sapphiridina haeckel , 1864 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
rebecca helm does not work for , consult , own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article , and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment .
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when i first saw a sea sapphire i thought i was hallucinating . the day had been anything but normal , but this part will always stand out . i had spent the afternoon on a small dingy off the coast of durban , south africa . it was muggy , and i had been working for hours – throwing a small net out , and pulling in tiny hauls of plankton to put in jars .
as i looked through one jar , the boat rocking up and down , i saw a bright blue flash . it lasted for an instant and then it was gone . then i saw another one in a different place . it was an incredible shade of blue . maybe i had been in the sun too long ? maybe i was seeing things ? it wasn’t until i got back to the lab that i discovered the true beauty and mystery of these radiant flashes .
sea sapphires are an exception among copepods . though they are often small , a few millimeters , they are stunningly beautiful . like their namesake gem , different species of sea sapphire shine in different hues , from bright gold to deep blue . africa isn’t the only place they can be found . i have since seen them off the coasts of rhode island and california in the us . when they are abundant near the water’s surface the sea shimmers like diamonds falling from the sky . japanese fishermen of old had a name for this kind of water , “tama - mizu” , jewelled water .
the reason for their shimmering beauty is both complex and mysterious , relating to their unique social behaviour and strange crystalline skin . a key clue is that these flashes are only seen in males .
males live free in the water column , but females make their home in the crystal palaces of strange , barrel - shaped jellies called salps . and though they are not flashy , these parasitic princesses have huge eyes relative to males .
perhaps female sea sapphires look out upon an endless expanse of ocean sparkling with blue and gold , searching for a particularly luminous shine . or it could be that males use their shimmer to compete with one another , like jousting knights in shining armor , while the females watch on . but how do they shine in the first place ?
the secret to the sea sapphire’s shine is in microscopic layers of crystal plates inside their cells . in the case of blue sea sapphires , these crystal layers are separated by only about four ten thousandths of a millimetre – about the same distance as the wavelength of blue light .
left : a single layer of hexagonal plates in the sea sapphire’s skin , as viewed from above . right : layers of plates as viewed from the side .
when blue light bounces off these crystal layers , it is perfectly preserved and reflected . but for other colors of light , these small differences in distance interfere , causing the colors to cancel out . so while white light is composed of all colors , only blue light is reflected back . this type of coloration is known as structural coloration , and though resembling a gem in hue , a sea sapphire’s color has more in common with an oil sheen than a pigmented jewel . combine this nifty trick with the sea sapphire’s impressively transparent body , and you have an animal as radiant as a star in one moment , and invisible in the next .
i was lucky to find one , but sometimes they are found in astonishing numbers . my friend and colleague erik thuesen once told me about his work on an underwater vessel . as the submersible was coming to the surface , he said , “it passed through this amazingly sparkling layer of iridescent sapphrina” . a rare sight to see ; not , perhaps , due to the rarity of these ocean gems , but the rarity at which we enter their world .
this is an edited version of an article that was first published in deepseanews . lead picture by stefan siebert .
where all the water in the ocean came from is a very good question . scientists have been wondering about it for a long time .
we estimate china only makes $ 8 . 46 from an iphone – and that’s why trump’s trade war is futile
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dana , j . d . ( 1849 ) . conspectus crustaceorum quae in orbis terrarum circumnavigatione , carolo wilkes e classe reipublicae foederatae duce , lexit et descripsit . the american journal of science and arts . series 2 , 8 : 424 - 428 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
webber , w . r . ; fenwick , g . d . ; bradford - grieve , j . m . ; eagar s . g . ; buckeridge , j . s . ; poore , g . c . b . ; dawson , e . w . ; watling , l . ; jones , j . b . ; wells , j . b . j . ; bruce , n . l . ; ahyong , s . t . ; larsen , k . ; chapman , m . a . ; olesen , j . ; ho , j . ; green , j . d . ; shiel , r . j . ; rocha , c . e . f . ; lörz , a . ; bird , g . j . ; charleston , w . a . ( 2010 ) . phylum arthropoda subphylum crustacea : shrimps , crabs , lobsters , barnacles , slaters , and kin , in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) ( 2010 ) . new zealand inventory of biodiversity : 2 . kingdom animalia : chaetognatha , ecdysozoa , ichnofossils . pp . 98 - 232 . [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of sapphiridina darwinii ( haeckel , 1864 ) ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of cyanomma darwinii haeckel , 1864 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
revis , n . & e . n . okemwa ( 1988 ) . additional records of species of copepods and their distribution in the coastal and inshore waters of kenya . kenya journal of sciences series b 9 : 123 - 127 . [ details ]
suárez - morales , e . , j . w . fleeger , and p . a . montagna . ( 2009 ) . free - living copepoda ( crustacea ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 841–869 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college statio [ details ]
( of sapphiridina nigromaculata claus , 1885 ) walter , chad . the world of copepods . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
lee cnw . ( 2002 ) . the ecology of planktonic copepods and hyperbenthic communities in the cape ' d aguilar marine reserve , hong kong . phd thesis . the university of hong kong . [ details ]
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the authors acknowledge funding from the israel science foundation , the crown center of photonics and the icore : the israel excellence center “circle of light” and the interuniversity institute for marine sciences in eilat ( israel ) .
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saphirina metallina : brady , 1883 ( p . 128 , figs . f , m ) ; t . scott , 1894 b ( p . 125 , fig . m )
issued from : f . c . ramirez in contr . inst . biol . mar . , buenos aires , 1969 , 98 . [ p . 94 , lam . xix , figs . 159 , 163 ] . male ( from off mar del plata ) : 159 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 163 , a2 . scale bars in mm : 0 . 6 ( 159 ) ; 0 . 3 ( 163 ) .
issued from : p . crisafi & j . mazza in atti soc . pelorit . sci . fis . mat . nat . , 1966 , xii ( 3 / 4 ) . [ p . 612 , fig . 32 ] . male ( from strait of messina ) : habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : p . crisafi & j . mazza in atti soc . pelorit . sci . fis . mat . nat . , 1966 , xii ( 3 / 4 ) . [ p . 612 , fig . 33 ] . female : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , a2 .
issued from : z . zheng , s . li , s . j . li & b . chen in marine planktonic copepods in chinese waters . shanghai sc . techn . press , 1982 [ p . 116 , fig . 71 ] . female : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , caudal rami ( dorsal ) ; c , a2 ; d , p2 ; e , endopodal segment 3 of p2 ; f , p4 . male : g , habitus ( dorsal ) ; h , caudal rami ( dorsal ) ; i , a2 ; j , p2 ; k , endopodal segment 3 of p2 ; l , p4 . scale bars in mm .
issued from : j . chae & s . nishida in mar . biol . , 1994 ( 119 ) . [ p . 208 , table 2 , c ) . specific color for the male observed with reflected and transmitted light . nota : color observed with reflected ( r ) and transmitted light ( t ) : metallic gold or silver , strong reflexion , rapidly changing ( r ) ; gold at pigment sites , broad spectrum , red , yellow , blue , magenta and violet where cuticles overlap ( t ) .
issued from : j . chae & s . nishida in mar . biol . , 1994 ( 119 ) . [ p . 208 , table 2 , e - h ) . specific color for the male observed with reflected and transmitted light . e - h , the same individual as in ( c ) , showing color change due to the specimen ' s slight movement .
issued from : t . mori in the pelagic copepoda from the neighbouring waters of japan , 1937 ( 1964 ) . [ pl . 67 , figs . 14 - 18 ] . female : 14 , a2 ; 15 , p2 ; 16 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 17 , p4 ; 18 , p1 .
issued from : c . lehnhofer in wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . ' ' valdivia ' ' , 1929 , 22 ( 5 ) . [ p . 285 , fig . 18 ] . female : 3 , a2 . male : 1 , caudal ramus ( dorsal ) ; 2 , a1 . hy = hyaline margin .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 52 ] . male : 52 , habirus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 48 ] . male : 48 , abdomen ( dorsal ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 47 ] . male : 47 , a1 .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , figs . 49 , 50 , 51 ] . male : 49 , p1 ( endopod ) ; 50 , p4 ; 51 , p3 ( endopod ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , figs . 53 , 54 , 55 ] . male : 53 , mx1 ; 54 , mxp ; 55 , a2 .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 56 ] . male : 56 , p2 ( endopod ) .
issued from : p . e . lapernat & c . razouls in vie milieu , 2002 , 52 ( 1 ) . [ p . 27 , pl . v , fig . 2 ] . female ( from off malta , mediterranean sea ) : 2 , md .
issued from : d . gur , b . leshem , v . farstey , d . oron , l . addadi & s . weiner in adv . funct . mater . , 2016 , 26 . [ p . 1396 , fig . 3 , a , b ) . the reflectance and structural properties that accompany the male sapphirinid color change . c : dark - adapted ; d , light - adapted . column i : light microscope images of the specimens ; column ii : measured reflectance ; column iii : simulated reflectance spectrum . the simulated reflectance was calculed based on the cytoplasm ( cy ) and the crystal ( cr ) thickness measured in cryo - sem images : dark - adaptated cy : 190 ± 8 nm , cr : 72 ± 4 nm . light - adaptated cy : 135 ± 5 nm , cr : 69 nm ± 5 nm . column iv : representative cryo - sem images of the crystal - cytoplasm layer arrays .
issued from : c . lehnhofer in wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . ' ' valdivia ' ' , 1929 , 22 ( 5 ) . [ p . 327 , fig . 58 ] . zoogeographical distribution of s . metallina .
issued from : h . b . owre & m . foyo in fauna caribaea , 1 , crustacea , 1 : copepoda . copepods of the florida current . 1967 . [ p . 116 , table 57 ] . vertical distribution of sappjirina metallina at the ' ' 40 - mile station ' ' in the florida current ( e miami : ± 25°35 ' n , 79°27 ' w ; depth 738 m ) . sl 55 : 21 vii 1958 . b : during midnight .
antarct . ( indian : continent , very rare ) ( in wolfenden , 1911 ) , south africa ( e ) , angola , congo , off st . helena is . ( n & se ) , off trindade is . , off ascension is . , g . of guinea , ivorian shelf , dakar , off cape verde is . ( s , n & nw ) , off mauritania , canary is . , off madeira , lisboa , rio de janeiro , guadeloupe , caribbean sea , caribbean colombia , yucatan , venezuela , g . of mexico , cuba , florida , sargasso sea , off bermuda ( station
s
) , off sw azores , medit . ( algiers bay , ligurian sea , napoli , strait of messina , off malta , n & s adriatic sea , ionian sea , aegean sea , w egyptian coast , iskenderun bay , lebanon basin ) , red sea , g . of aden , off socotra , arabian sea , maldive is . , madagascar ( nosy bé ) , indian , india ( lawson ' s bay ) , bay of bengal , nicobar is . ( nankaurie harbour ) , w australia , straits of malacca , indonesia - malaysia , philippines , g . of thailand , viet - nam , china seas ( yellow sea , east china sea , taiwan strait , south china sea ) , taiwan ( e , nw , n : mienhua canyon ) , s . japan ( kuchinoerabu is . ) , japan , off kamtchatka , pacif . ( w equatorial ) , pacific ( central gyres : n & s ) , australia ( great barrier ) , new zealand , gilbert is . , hawaii , off s hawaii , california , w baja california , w mexico , g . of tehuantepec , clipperton is . , galapagos , peru , n chile
epi - mesopelagic , ( off malta : 2000 - 3000 m ) . sampling depth ( antarct . ) : 1200 m . overall depth range : 0 - 500 m ( deevey & brooks , 1977 , station
s
) . 0 - 217 m at station t - 1 ( e tori is . , e middle japan ) from furuhashi ( 1966 a ) . see in dvp conway & al . , 2003 ( version 1 )
razouls c . , de bovée f . , kouwenberg j . et desreumaux n . , 2005 - 2018 . - diversity and geographic distribution of marine planktonic copepods . sorbonne université , cnrs . available at urltoken [ accessed july 09 , 2018 ]
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
u . anhydor syntheta same as u . anhydor anhydor except lateral iridescent stripe continuous from anterior promontory to wing base , and range includes texas , oklahoma , new mexico , southern kansas , and parts of arkansas
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aparecieron estos bichos en mi acuario de camarones cherry . . . que son ? ?
brady , 1883 ( p . 126 , figs . f ) ; giesbrecht , 1892 ( p . 620 , 644 , 775 , figs . f , m ) ; t . scott , 1894 b ( p . 123 ) ; a . scott , 1909 ( p . 257 , rem . ) ; wolfenden , 1911 ( p . 360 ) ; pesta , 1920 ( p . 642 , fig . ) ; farran , 1929 ( p . 290 ) ; lehnhofer , 1929 ( p . 296 , rem . ) ; farran , 1929 ( p . 210 , 290 ) ; rose , 1929 ( p . 60 ) ; 1933 a ( p . 317 , figs . f , m ) ; dakin & colefax , 1933 ( p . 210 ) ; farran , 1936 a ( p . 131 ) ; mori , 1937 ( 1964 ) ( p . 126 , figs . f ) ; dakin & colefax , 1940 ( p . 109 , figs . f , m ) ; wilson , 1942 a ( p . 206 , fig . f ) ; chiba & al . , 1957 a ( p . 12 ) ; crisafi & mazza , 1966 ( p . 566 , 569 , 584 , figs . f , m , rem . ) ; crisafi , 1966 ( p . 658 , figs . juv . ) ; saraswathy , 1966 ( 1967 ) ( p . 103 ) ; owre & foyo , 1967 ( p . 116 , figs . f , m ) ; corral estrada , 1970 ( p . 231 , rem . ) ; ramirez , 1971 ( p . 90 , fig . m ) ; chen & al . , 1974 ( p . 48 , figs . f , m ) ; marques , 1976 ( p . 1004 , fig . f ) ; 1982 ( p . 774 ) ; zheng & al . , 1982 ( p . 123 , figs . f , m ) ; baessa de aguiar , 1986 ( 1989 ) ( p . 63 , figs . f , m ) ; chae & nishida , 1994 ( p . 205 , 208 , integumental structure , pattern color ) ; chihara & murano , 1997 ( p . 990 , pl . 230 : f , m ) ; boxshall , 1998 ( p . 230 ) ; hure & krsinic , 1998 ( p . 104 ) ; conway & al . , 2003 ( p . 240 , figs . f , m , rem . ) ; boxshall & halsey , 2004 ( p . 655 ) ; vives & shmeleva , 2010 ( p . 381 , figs . f , m , rem . )
issued from : f . c . ramirez in revta mus . la plata , seccion zool . , 1971 , xi . [ lam . iii , fig . 2 ] . male ( from off mar del plata ) : 2 , habitus ( dorsal ) . scale bar in mm : 1 .
issued from : q . - c chen & s . - z . zhang & c . - s . zhu in studia marina sinica , 1974 , 9 . [ pl . 12 , figs . 1 - 4 ] . female ( from china seas ) : 1 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 2 , a2 . male : 3 , posterior part of body ; 4 , terminal spines of endopodite segment 3 of p2 .
issued from : p . crisafi & j . mazza in atti soc . pelorit . sci . fis . mat . nat . , 1966 , xii ( 3 / 4 ) . [ p . 586 , fig . 11 ] . female ( from strait of messina ) : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , distal portion of a1 .
issued from : p . crisafi & j . mazza in atti soc . pelorit . sci . fis . mat . nat . , 1966 , xii ( 3 / 4 ) . [ p . 587 , fig . 12 ] . male : habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : z . zheng , s . li , s . j . li & b . chen in marine planktonic copepods in chinese waters . shanghai sc . techn . press , 1982 [ p . 125 , fig . 77 ] . female : a , habitus ( dorsal ) ; b , caudal rami ( dorsal ) ; c , a1 ; d , a2 ; e , p2 ; f , endopod of p2 ; g , p4 . male : h , habitus ( dorsal ) ; i , caudal rami ( dorsal ) ; j , a1 ; k , a2 ; l , p2 ; m , endopod of p2 ; n , p4 . scale bars in mm .
issued from : j . chae & s . nishida in mar . biol . , 1994 ( 119 ) . [ p . 206 , fig . 1 ] . male : transmission electron microscopy photographs . a , sagittal section of dorsal integument , gaps of different sizes shown ( arroheads ) b , sagittal section of dorsal integument at high magnification , showing multilayered - membrane structure . c , frontal section of integument , showing honeycomb arrangement of dorso - ventrally oriented membrane and gaps ( arrowheads ) . d , frontal section of integument , showing honeycomb structure and borders of epidermal cells ( arrowheads . bl = basal lamina ; c = cuticle ; m = mitochondrion ; n , nucleus . nota : color observed with reflected ( r ) and transmitted light ( t ) : monotonic violet , occasionally green / orange caudal rami ( r ) ; yellow , occasionally brown and orange ( t ) .
issued from : t . mori in zool . mag . tokyo , 1929 , 41 ( 486 - 487 ) . [ pl . ix , fig . 2 ] . female ( from chosen strait , korea - japan ) : 2 , habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : t . mori in zool . mag . tokyo , 1929 , 41 ( 486 - 487 ) . [ pl . ix , fig . 10 - 12 ] . female : 10 , p4 ; 11 , a1 ; 12 , a2 .
issued from : t . mori in the pelagic copepoda from the neighbouring waters of japan , 1937 ( 1964 ) . [ pl . 69 , figs . 1 - 5 ] . female : 1 , a2 ; 2 , endopodite of p2 ; 3 , habitus ( dorsal ) ; 4 , a1 ; 5 , p4 .
issued from : c . lehnhofer in wiss . ergebn . dt . tiefsee - exped . ' ' valdivia ' ' , 1929 , 22 ( 5 ) . [ p . 295 , fig . 29 , 3b ] . male : 3b , caudal ramus . l = length ; w = width
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 52 , fig . 46 ] . female : 46 , habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 52 , figs . 52 , 54 ] . female : 52 , posterior body ( dorsal ) ; 54 , mx2 ( posterior view ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 53 , figs . 4 , 22 ] . female : 4 , a1 ; 22 , md ( posterior view ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 53 , fig . 34 ] . female : 34 , a2 .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 53 , fig . 56 ] . female : 56 , p4 .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 34 ] . female : 34 , mxp .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 64 ] . female : 64 , mx1 .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 52 , fig . 44 ] . male : 44 , habitus ( dorsal ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , fig . 3 ] . male : 3 , p2 ( endopod ) .
issued from : w . giesbrecht in systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des golfes von neapel und der angrenzenden meeres - abschnitte . – fauna flora golf . neapel , 19 , 1892 . atlas von 54 tafeln . [ taf . 54 , figs . 32 - 33 ] . male : 32 - 33 , mxp .
south africa ( e ) , namibia , angola , off trindade is . , off s ascension is . , g . of guinea , cape verde is . , off nw cape verde , off mauritania , cap ghir ( morocco ) , canary is . , off madeira , azores , argentina , s brazil , barbados is . , caribbean sea , jamaica , caribbean colombia , yucatan , g . of mexico , florida , sargasso sea , off bermuda ( station
s
) , medit . ( alboran sea , gulf of annaba , g . of lion , ligurian sea , napoli , messina , malta , n & s adriatic sea , ionian sea , w egyptian coast , lebanon basin , bardawill lagoon ) , red sea , madagascar ( nosy bé ) , seychelles , indian , india ( lawson ' s bay ) , bay of bengal , w australia , indonesia - malaysia , philippines , china seas ( yellow sea , east china sea , south china sea ) , taiwan , mienhua canyon , japan , kuchinoerabu is . , tanabe bay , kamchatka , bering sea , pacif . ( w equatorial ) , australia ( g . of carpentaria , great barrier , new south wales ) , new zealand , bikini is . , hawaii , gulf of california , w costa rica , central america , g . of panama , bahia cupica ( colombia ) , galapagos - ecuador , peru , chili ( n , concepcion )
( 34 ) f : 3 , 3 ; m : 3 , 9 ; ( 35 ) [ atlant . ] f : 2 , 45 - 2 , 35 ; m : 2 , 64 - 2 , 45 ; [ n - z ] f : 3 , 9 - 2 , 94 ; m : 3 , 9 - 2 , 55 ; ( 46 ) f : 3 , 5 - 3 ; m : 3 , 35 - 3 , 15 ; ( 91 ) f : ± 3 ; ( 104 ) f : 3 , 25 ; m : 2 , 9 ; ( 109 ) f : 2 , 25 - 2 , 12 ; m : 2 , 85 - 2 , 7 ; ( 180 ) f : 2 , 59 - 2 , 5 ; m : 2 , 87 ; ( 332 ) f : 2 , 83 ; m : 2 , 96 - 2 , 33 ; ( 333 ) f : 2 , 62 - 1 , 61 ; ( 449 ) f : 3 , 5 - 2 , 2 ; m : 3 , 35 - 3 , 15 ; ( 458 ) f : 2 , 74 ; 2 , 64 ; m : 3 , 5 - 2 , 64 ; ( 530 ) f : 2 ; ( 705 ) f : 4 , 054 - 2 , 866 ; m : 4 , 337 - 3 , 3 ; ( 805 ) f : 3 , 59 - 1 , 2 ; m : 3 , 39 - 1 , 4 ; ( 866 ) f : 3 , 52 - 2 , 02 ; m : 4 , 04 - 2 , 68 ; ( 991 ) f : 1 , 4 - 3 , 39 ; m : 1 , 2 - 3 , 59 ; ( 1023 ) f : 2 , 3 - 3 , 26 ; m : 2 , 9 - 3 , 2 ; { f : 1 , 200 - 4 , 054 ; m : 1 , 200 - 4 , 340 }


carcineretidae is a prehistoric family of heterotrematan crustaceans .

they are only known from cretaceous fossils .

these crabs are tentatively placed in the superfamily portunoidea and resemble the swimming crabs ( portunidae ) in having some paddle-shaped pereiopods .

but it is not certain that this placement is correct , as the carcineretidae also show some similarities to the matutidae of superfamily leucosioidea and the goneplacidae of superfamily xanthoidea .

carcineretidae

a new species of late cretaceous crab ( brachyura : carcineretidae ) from albion island , belize ) .
a new species of late cretaceous crab ( brachyura : carcineretidae ) from albion island , belize ) . - pubmed - ncbi
vega fj , feldmann rm , ocampo ac , pope ko . 1997 . a new species of late cretaceous crab ( brachyura : carcineretidae ) from albion island , belize . jour . paleo . 71 : 615 - 620 .
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parent taxon : portunoidea according to c . e . schweitzer et al . 2010
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this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .
luque , javier schweitzer , carrie e . santana , william portell , roger w . vega , francisco j . and klompmaker , adiël a . 2017 . checklist of fossil decapod crustaceans from tropical america . part i : anomura and brachyura . nauplius , vol . 25 , issue . 0 ,
vajda , vivi ocampo , adriana ferrow , embaie and koch , christian bender 2015 . nano particles as the primary cause for long - term sunlight suppression at high southern latitudes following the chicxulub impact — evidence from ejecta deposits in belize and mexico . gondwana research , vol . 27 , issue . 3 , p . 1079 .
phillips , george e . nyborg , torrey and vega , francisco j . 2014 . icriocarcinidae : a family of portunoid crabs from the upper cretaceous of north america . paläontologische zeitschrift , vol . 88 , issue . 2 , p . 139 .
feldmann , rodney m . karasawa , hiroaki and schweitzer , carrie e . 2008 . revision of portunoidea rafinesque , 1815 ( decapoda : brachyura ) with emphasis on the fossil genera and families . journal of crustacean biology , vol . 28 , issue . 1 , p . 82 .
wigforss - lange , jane vajda , vivi and ocampo , adriana 2007 . trace element concentrations in the mexico - belize ejecta layer : a link between the chicxulub impact and the global cretaceous - paleogene boundary . meteoritics & planetary science , vol . 42 , issue . 11 , p . 1871 .
fouke , bruce w . zerkle , aubrey l . alvarez , walter pope , kevin o . ocampo , adriana c . wachtman , richard j . grajales nishimura , jose manuel claeys , phillipe and fischer , alfred g . 2002 . cathodoluminescence petrography and isotope geochemistry of kt impact ejecta deposited 360km from the chicxulub crater , at albion island , belize . sedimentology , vol . 49 , issue . 1 , p . 117 .
vega , francisco j . feldmann , rodney m . garcía - barrera , pedro filkorn , harry pimentel , francis and avendaño , javier 2001 . maastrichtian crustacea ( brachyura : decapoda ) from the ocozocuautla formation in chiapas , southeast mexico . journal of paleontology , vol . 75 , issue . 02 , p . 319 .
schweitzer , carrie e . and feldmann , rodney m . 2000 . new fossil portunids from washington , usa , and argentina , and a re - evaluation of generic and family relationships within the portunoidea rafinesque , 1815 ( decapoda : brachyura ) . journal of paleontology , vol . 74 , issue . 04 , p . 636 .
pope , kevin o ocampo , adriana c fischer , alfred g alvarez , walter fouke , bruce w webster , clyde l vega , francisco j smit , jan fritsche , a . eugene and claeys , philippe 1999 . chicxulub impact ejecta from albion island , belize . earth and planetary science letters , vol . 170 , issue . 4 , p . 351 .
instituto de geología , unam , ciudad universitaria , méxico , d . f . 04510
jet propulsion laboratory , california institute of technology , ms 183 - 601 , 4800 oak grove dr . , pasadena , california 91009
geo eco arch research , 2222 foothill blvd . , suite e - 272 , la cañada , california 91011
two crabs , xandarus sternbergi ( rathbun 1926 ) n . gen . , and icriocarcinus xestos n . gen . , n . sp . , from the late cretaceous of san diego county , california , usa , and baja california norte , mexico
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hiroaki karasawa , carrie e . schweitzer , and rodney m . feldmann . 2008 . revision of portunoidea rafinesque , 1815 ( decapoda : brachyura ) with emphasis on the fossil genera and families . journal of crustacean biology , 28 ( 1 ) : 82–127 ,
fabricius , j . c . , 1798 . , supplementatione entomologiae systematicae : i - iv , 1 - 572 . ( c . g . proft et storch , hafniae [ = copenhagen ] ) .
portunidae , portuninae - beaumont clay fm . ( pleistocene ) - galveston county , tx , usa
smith , a . i . 1869 . , notice of the crustacea collected by prof . c . f . hart on the coast of brazil in 1867 , list of the described species of brazilian podophthalmia . transactions of the connecticut academy of arts and sciences 2 : 1 - 41 .
see also : collins , j . s . h . , garvie , c . l . & mellish , c . j . t . 2014 . ,
lörenthey , e . , 1898 . , . beiträge zur decapodenfauna der ungarischen tertiärs . természetrajzi füzetek , 21 : 1 - 133 , figs . 1 - 9 .
rathbun , m . j . 1935a , fossil crustacea of the atlantic and gulf coastal plain . geological society of america , ( special paper ) 2 : i - viii , 1 - 160 .
portunidae , portuninae - collbàs fm . , bartonian ( upper eocene ) - anoia , catalonia .
via , l . , 1941 . , los cangrejos fósiles de cataluña . boletín del insituto geológico y minero de españa , 55 : 3 - 73 , pls . 1 - 11 .
portunidae , portuninae - oligocene - grancona , melledo , vicenza region , italy .
bittner , a . , 1893 . , decapoden des pannonischen tertiäre . sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften in wien , 102 : 10 - 37 , pls . 1 , 2
milne - edwards , a . , 1860 , histoire des crustacés podophthalmaires fossils et monographie des décapodes macroures de la famille des thalassiens fossiles . annales des sciences naturelles , ( zoologie ) ( 4 ) 14 : 129 - 293 , pls . 1 - 10 .
bittner a . , 1875 , die brachyuren des vicentinischen tertiärgerbirges . denkschr . k . akad . wiss . , wien , 34 : 63 - 106 .
portunidae , thalamitinae - ? pleistocene - mtwapa creek , near mombasa , kenya .
de haan , w . , 1833 - 1850 . crustacea . in : p . f . von siebold ( ed . ) , fauna japonica sive descriptio animalium , quae in itinere per japoniam , jussu et auspiciis superiorum , qui summum in india batava imperium tenent , suscepto , annis 1823 - 1830 collegit , notis , observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit : i - xvii , i - xxxi , ix - xvi , 1 - 243 , pls . a - j , l - q , 1 - 55 , circ . table 2 . ( j . müller et co . , lugduni batavorum [ = leyden ] ) .
wee , d . p . c . & ng , p . k . l . , 1995 . swimming crabs of the genera charybdis de haan , 1835 and thalamita latreille , 1829 ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : portunidae ) from peninsular malaysia and singapore . the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement no . 1 31st december 1995
de haan , w . , 1833 - 1850 . crustacea . in : p . f . von siebold ( ed . ) , fauna japonica sive descriptio animalium , quae in itinere per japoniam , jussu et auspiciis superiorum , qui summum in india batava imperium tenent , suscepto , annis 1823 - 1830 collegit , notis , observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit : i - xvii , i - xxxi , ix - xvi , 1 - 243 , pls . a - j , l - q , 1 - 55 , circ . table 2 . ( j . müller et co . , lugduni batavorum [ = leyden ] )
fabricius , j . c . , 1798 . supplementum entomologiae systematicae , hafniae , 572 pp .
portunidae , thalamitinae - lutetian ( middle eocene ) - chiampo valley , vicenza region , italy .
beschin , c . , busulini , a . , de angeli , a . , tessier , g . , 2002 , aggiornamento ai crostacei di cava “main” di arzignano ( vicenza – italia settentrionale ) ( crustacea , decapoda ) . studi e ricerche . studi e richerche , pp . 7 - 28 ,
uncertain family - ? campanian ( late cretaceous ) - moyenne moulouya , morocco .
secretan , s . ( 1961 ) , une nouvelle espèce de xanthidés au maroc : titanocarcinus meridionalis nov . sp . notes de service géologique de maroc , 20 ( 152 ) , 39–50 , pls . 1–3 . schweitzer , c . e . & feldmann , r . m . , 2012 , bulletin of the mizunami fossil museum , no . 38 . ossó , à . , 2016 . , eogeryon elegius n . gen . and n . sp . boletin de la sociedad geologica mexicana 68 ( 2 ) : 231 - 246
torrey g . nyborg ; francisco j . vega ; harry f . filkorn : new late cretaceous and early cenozoic decapod crustaceans from california , usa : implications for the origination of taxa in the eastern north pacific
the first is raninoides n . sp . , representing the earliest occurrence of the genus both in california and worldwide . the shape of the dorsal carapace , including the placement and lengths of the frontal spines , clearly justifies assignment to raninoides . well - preserved fossil material will allow a complete description of this new species and provide further insight into the evolution of the family raninidae ;
the second is archaeopus n . sp . , the second report of the genus from upper cretaceous rocks of california . the subquadrate carapace , long down turned front , relatively large orbits , and overall carapace shape allow confident assignment of this species to archaeopus . another species , a . antennatus , has been previously reported from an unnamed formation in the upper cretaceous of california ( rathbun , 1926 ) . the new taxon differs in having a less subquadrate carapace and better defined regions than a . antennatus .
barry w . m . van bakel , john w . m . jagt , rené h . b . fraaije , yvonne coole
natuurhistorisch museum maastricht , de bosquetplein 6 - 7 , p . o . box 882 , nl - 6200 aw maastricht
carcinologists dealing with fossil crabs are often faced with difficulties in classifying their material . with only a single or a handful of specimens available , more often than not consisting of only ( partial ) carapaces , dorsal carapace characters are the sole features to go on . classification of extant crabs mostly cannot be applied , since ventral morphology is here of prime importance ( guinot , 1977 , 1978 ) . having come to realize that carapace characters may overlap in representatives of unrelated families , in the past decade paleontologists have used the few cases in which crabs are preserved with well - preserved ventral parts with much success ( karasawa , 2003 , guinot & tavares , 2001 ) .
fig . 1 . binkhorstia ubaghsii ( van binkhorst , 1857 ) ; upper nekum member ( maastricht formation , late maastrichtian ) of cbr - romontbos quarry , eben emael ( ne belgium ) . 1 , right cheliped . 2 , left cheliped of the same specimen . 3 , dorsal view of this specimen , showing complete carapace , both claws and limb fragments . 4 , dorsal view . 5 , ventral view , showing the delicate preservation .
fig . 2 . binkhorstia ubaghsii ( van binkhorst , 1857 ) and binkhorstia euglypha collins , fraaye & jagt , 1995 . 1 , ventral view , with details of the sternum of b . ubaghsii . 2 , orbital view of this specimen , showing the unique spatulated rostrum . 3 , binkhorstia euglypha collins , fraaye & jagt , 1995 , ventral view of holotype ( mab . k . 1033 ) from the upper part of the meerssen member ( latest maastricht formation ) of the former blom quarry , berg en terblijt ( se netherlands ) . 4 , dorsal view of the holotype . 5 , dorsal view of assumed molt , b . ubaghsii , showing the left - hand claw , and flattened pereiopods .
the holotype of binkhorstia euglypha collins et al . , 1995 from the upper meerssen member at the former blom quarry ( berg en terblijt , se netherlands ) , shows details of the ventral parts as well , though not described in detail in the original description . a re - examination of the original material , together with the new data on b . ubaghsii , should provide more information on this little known genus .
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guinot d , tavares m . 2001 . une nouvelle famille de crabes du crétacé , et la notion de podotremata guinot , 1977 ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) . zoosystema 23 : 507 - 546 .
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we thank rudi w . dortangs ( amstenrade ) for taking photographs , robert pieters ( geel ) for donation of material .
suggests that it was a back - burrower , rather than an active swimmer .
two crabs , xandarus sternbergi ( rathbun , 1926 ) n . gen . , and icriocarcinus xestos n . gen . , n . sp . , from the late cretaceous of san diego county , california , usa , and baja california norte , mexico
die decapoden - krebse des strassburger museums . v . theil . die abteilungen hippidae , dromiidae , und oxystomata