scotinomys is a genus of rodent , the singing mice , in the family cricetidae .

together with baiomys , it forms the tribe baiomyini .

it contains the following species : alston 's brown mouse ( scotinomys teguina ) chiriqui brown mouse ( scotinomys xerampelinus ) they are found in mountainous areas in central america , at altitudes of 1000 m to at least 3500 m .

as their common name indicates , they are notable for their acoustic communication .

they are insectivorous .

the two species show substantial divergence in behaviour and reproduction , with s. xerampelinus generally dominant over s. teguina where the species occur together .

scotinomys

kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
guatemalanruskohiiru
to
scotinomys teguina ( alston , 1877 )
.
reproduction , growth and development in two contiguously allopatric rodent species , genus scotinomys . misc . publ . mus . zool . univ . mich
citation : campbell p , pasch b , warren al , phelps sm ( 2014 ) vocal ontogeny in neotropical singing mice ( scotinomys ) . plos one 9 ( 12 ) : e113628 . urltoken
neotropical singing mice ( scotinomys ) are diurnal , insectivorous rodents that inhabit the cloud - cloaked mountains of middle america . males commonly emit elaborate vocalizations to attract mates & repel rivals . please visit urltoken for more information on current research
dimitri v . blondel , jorge pino , steven m . phelps ; space use and social structure of long - tailed singing mice ( scotinomys xerampelinus ) , journal of mammalogy , volume 90 , issue 3 , 2 june 2009 , pages 715–723 , urltoken
comparisons of mean home - range sizes of scotinomys xerampelinus across seasons for a , c ) 85 % minimum convex polygon and b , d ) 100 % minimum convex polygon . data shown are means ± 1 se . all comparisons are not statistically significant ( p > 0 . 05 ) .
home ranges for individual scotinomys xerampelinus located ( captured or fixed via telemetry ) on the study grid ≥4 times for ( a ) 2003 , 85 % mcp home ranges , ( b ) 2003 , 100 % mcp home ranges , ( c ) 2004 , 85 % mcp home ranges , and ( d ) 2004 , 100 % mcp home ranges . home ranges are calculated using the arithmetic mean method . home ranges for males ( solid lines ) and females ( dashed lines ) are shown ; 10 - m scale lines are indicated .
here , we characterize the vocal development of two sister species of neotropical mice in which vocal communication plays a major role in adult social behavior . commonly referred to as singing mice , scotinomys teguina and s . xerampelinus are small ( 10–15 g ) diurnal , insectivorous muroid rodents . both species are restricted to cool , montane habitats in middle america ; s . teguina ranges from southern méxico to panamá at 1000–2930 m , whereas s . xerampelinus occurs only in costa rica and panamá where it replaces s . teguina at altitudes between 2200 and 2900 m [ 31 ] .
comparison of expected versus observed areas of home - range overlap of scotinomys xerampelinus . analyses are based on 85 % minimum convex polygons calculated with the arithmetic mean method . comparisons of expected and observed values were according to batzli and henttonen ( 1993 ) . obs . overlap = observed home - range overlap on the study grid . exp . overlap = expected area of home - range overlap based on random placement of home ranges on the study grid . means are given ± 1 se . ♂♂ = males overlapped by males ; ♂♀ = males overlapped by females ; ♀♀ = females overlapped by females ; ♀♂ = females overlapped by males .
mean ± 1 se expected ( random ) and observed areas of home - range overlap of scotinomys xerampelinus . analyses are based on 85 % minimum convex polygons ; data from 2003 and 2004 were pooled . observed = observed average area of home - range overlap on the study grid . expected = average area of home - range overlap predicted from random placement of home ranges on the study grid . an asterisk ( * ) indicates p < 0 . 05 , wilcoxon sign rank comparisons of observed and expected areas of overlap . n = 10 males and 10 females . ♂♂ = males overlapped by males ; ♂♀ = males overlapped by females ; ♀♀ = females overlapped by females ; ♀♂ = females overlapped by males .
during the 1st field season , both livetrapping ( “trapping localities” ) and radiotracking ( “fixes” ) data were used to characterize individual home ranges . these data were collected over a period of 18 days , from 19 august to 5 september 2003 . because of technical problems , including receiver failure , we were unable to collect telemetry data during the 2nd field season , which continued over a period of 35 days , from 24 may to 27 june 2004 . thus , only livetrapping data were used for the 2nd field season . this difference in data sets should not have affected our statistical comparisons of home - range attributes , because our method of overlap analysis generated both expected and observed values from the same data set ( 2003 : livetrapping and radiotelemetry ; 2004 : livetrapping only ) . although our data collection was limited to may , june , august , and september , the mountainous regions of western panama have consistently wet weather throughout the year and scotinomys reproduces aseasonally ( hooper and carleton 1976 ) , suggesting that space use by members of the study population should not vary greatly over the course of the year .
study population attributes . —in 2003 , 24 adults ( 9 males and 15 females , sex ratio = 0 . 6 : 1 ) were trapped on the study grid . in 2004 , 20 adults ( 9 males and 11 females , sex ratio = 0 . 8 : 1 ) were trapped on the study grid . the density of residents ( i . e . , animals captured ≥4 times on the study grid ) in 2003 , when vegetation was overgrown , was 62 mice / ha ; in 2004 , when vegetation was grazed , density was 28 mice / ha . females were found to be pregnant or lactating or both from june to september 2003 and may to august 2004 ; this represents the entire study period as well as some pre - and poststudy trapping of animals on the site . this finding is consistent with the data of hooper and carleton ' s ( 1976 ) indicating that reproduction by scotinomys is aseasonal . the ratio of scrotal males to perforate , pregnant , or lactating females was 9 to 13 ( 0 . 7 : 1 ) in 2003 and 8 to 10 ( 0 . 8 : 1 ) in 2004 .
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baiomyini . until diagnosed by thomas , species associated here had been affiliated with akodon ( e . g . , bangs , 1902 ) and later the genus with akodontines ( vorontsov , 1959 ) . common ancestry with baiomys inferred on the basis of shared morphological traits ( carleton , 1980 ; carleton et al . , 1975 ; hooper , 1960 ; hooper and musser , 1964 b ) and phylogenetic evaluation of mitochondrial and nuclear genes ( d’elía , 2003 ; engel et al . , 1998 ) , a relationship weakened by karyological banding data ( rogers and heske , 1984 ) . also see comments under baiomys . revised by hooper ( 1972 ) ; for other aspects of biology and systematics , see carleton et al . ( 1975 ) , hooper and carleton ( 1976 ) , and rogers and heske ( 1984 ) .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352
wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of
information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all
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wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .
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editor : brenton g . cooper , texas christian university , united states of america
copyright : © 2014 campbell et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
data availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the paper and its supporting information files .
funding : the research was funded by grants from the national science foundation to smp ( ios 0548404 , career 0845455 ) . pc was supported by a national institutes of health nrsa fellowship from the national institute on deafness and other communication disorders ( f32 dc008269 ) . bp was supported by a national science foundation ddig ( 0909769 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
offspring - to - parent signaling is among the most fundamental forms of communication [ 1 ] . for nocturnal mammals with altricial young ( e . g . , rodents , bats ) , acoustic signals produced by neonates ( isolation calls ) are integral to maternal localization and retrieval [ 2 ] , [ 3 ] , and can promote maternal behaviors such as grooming and nursing . thus , across distantly related mammalian orders , both the intended receiver and the function of isolation calls seem to be conserved , and are unique to the period of maternal dependence . while vocal communication remains important to the adult social behavior of many species , the receivers and functions of acoustic signals are diverse and context - dependent , ranging from alarm calling , territorial advertisement and mate attraction , to courtship songs that encode individual identity [ 4 ] , [ 5 ] , [ 6 ] . the functional disconnect between neonate and adult vocal behavior raises several interesting questions . for example , are the acoustic properties of isolation calls unique or are elements retained as the animal matures and the social context and function of vocal behavior changes ? conversely , what is the developmental time course of adult vocal communication ? are adult vocalizations produced de novo post - weaning or can the trajectory of vocal development be traced back to isolation calls ?
breeding pairs were housed in polycarbonate cages bedded with wood chips . the mice were provided with sphagnum moss and a pvc tunnel for nesting ; water and food ( kitten chow , seeds , dried beans and peanuts ) were given ad lib . pups were housed with both parents until weaning and litter sizes were not manipulated . a total of 30 s . teguina from 27 litters were recorded for this study ; 16 of these were the offspring of wild - caught parents , captured in cartago , costa rica , and 14 were the progeny of either first generation or wild - caught individuals from boquete , panamá . s . xerampelinus ( n = 15 pups , 9 litters ) were the offspring of first , second or third generation lab - reared individuals , derived from mice captured in parque internacional la amistad , panamá . all mice were housed in the same room . all animal protocols were approved by the institutional animal care and use committee at university of florida ( no . e436 ) .
mice were recorded between 9 : 00 am and 6 : 00 pm in a room acoustically isolated from the rest of the colony . the recording chamber was a polycarbonate cage bedded with clean wood chips inside a 42×42×39 cm opaque plexiglas cube lined with anechoic foam . one side of the cube was left open to allow behavioral observations and a microphone was fitted through a small opening in the ceiling , 25 cm above the cage floor . calls were sampled at a rate of 195 khz , 16 bits with an aco pacific microphone and tucker - davis hardware . file sizes were set to 15 s . fifteen seconds is > 2× the average duration of adult advertisement songs [ 29 ] , and reliably captured pup calling bouts in preliminary recording trials .
species , sex ( f / m ) and population means ( sd ) for litter size and developmental landmarks in singing mice .
we use “isolation call” to refer to any vocalization produced by a pre - weaning pup that does not comprise the rapidly articulated series of fm sweeps characteristic of the adult advertisement song . we delineated the end of the isolation calling period for each individual as the last day on which an isolation call was produced . we define a note as a continuous sound , and a calling bout as a series of three or more notes occurring with an inter - note interval of less than 2 s . notes were classified manually according to quantitative differences in duration , bandwidth , number of changes in direction of frequency ( 0 , 1 or ≧2 ) , and the presence / absence of nonlinear elements ( e . g . , deterministic chaos and bifurcations ; [ 37 ] ) .
all measurements were made in raven pro 1 . 3 ( bioacoustics research program 2008 ) . we analyzed a maximum of three files / individual / day and took the average of all variables . when more than three files were available we used the first three good quality files ( i . e . , high signal : noise ) from that recording session . in each 15 s file we measured overall maximum , minimum and dominant frequency , and bandwidth . when harmonics were present , maximum and minimum frequency were always measured from the fundamental frequency ( i . e . , the lowest frequency in the harmonic series ) . we manually counted the total number of notes in each file , the number of notes in the first calling bout , and the number of notes of each type . in addition , note duration , bandwidth , and maximum , minimum and dominant frequency were measured for each of three notes in the first calling bout in the file . to avoid bias in note choice we measured bout duration , divided by three , and took measurements from notes that fell in the middle of each third ( i . e . , for a 6 s bout we measured the notes closest to 1 . 5 , 3 . 5 and 5 . 5 s ) . internote interval was measured from end of each focal note to the beginning of the next note in the file .
principle components analysis ( pca ) was used to visualize the distribution of age - and species - specific vocal parameters in acoustic space . because the same mice were recorded at multiple ages , call data for a given individual were statistically non - independent . we controlled for non - independence in several ways . to test for age - specific differences within and between species , we binned recordings into age classes ( postnatal days 1–3 , 4–6 , 7–9 , 10–12 , 13–15 , 30 + ) , and analyzed vocalizations from a single recording session for each individual within each age class . for the three - day age classes , we retained data for all individuals that were recorded in the middle of each age range ( e . g . , day 2 for days 1–3 ) , and otherwise picked one representative day / individual / age class at random . adult songs were analyzed from a single recording session / individual ( mean age , sd : 40 . 2 , 6 . 1 days ) .
repeated measures analysis of variance ( anova ) was used to test the effect of age on vocal development over time . in this case , only individuals that were represented in each age class were included in the analysis . to test for correlations between body mass and frequency measures from birth to maturity , we randomly assigned each individual to a focal age , such that total age range was maximized and each individual was used only once in the analysis .
we used the coefficient of variation ( defined as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean ) to describe change in vocal stereotypy across age classes . within each age class we took the average of the coefficient of variation for seven descriptors of frequency and timing ( maximum , minimum and dominant frequency , number of notes / bout , bout duration , note duration for a randomly selected note in the middle third of a bout , and internote interval to the next note ) from three different call files recorded from the same individual during a maximum time interval of three days ( birth to 15 days ) or 5 days ( > 30 days ) . in most cases , we were able to use calls captured during the same recording session . we used one - way anovas to test for species and sex differences in the coefficient of variation within each age class . the α value for all statistical analyses was set to 0 . 05 , with correction for multiple testing as appropriate .
in most individuals of both species , vocal behavior was developmentally disjunct with a non - vocal period separating the last recorded isolation call and the first production of the adult advertisement song ( table 1 ) . of the 30 s . teguina pups recorded in this study , 27 produced isolation calls when removed from the nest . the three pups that never called were males derived from the boquete population and were all from single pup litters . all 23 s . teguina that were recorded from birth to maturity produced adult songs , including the three males that did not call at earlier stages . of the 15 s . xerampelinus pups used in the study , one female from a single pup litter did not produce isolation calls . of the 11 individuals ( 5 females , 6 males ) recorded to maturity , three females and one male were never observed singing as adults .
unexpectedly , the largest differences in the duration of isolation calling and the timing of first adult song production were within s . teguina . on average , pups derived from the cartago population stopped producing isolation calls almost a week later than those from boquete ( mean , sd : 13 . 0 , 2 . 3 days vs . 7 . 5 , 1 . 7 days ; f 1 , 23 35 . 5 , p < 0 . 0001 ) and produced their first adult song over a week later than boquete mice ( 35 . 5 , 6 . 2 days vs . 26 . 7 , 9 . 7 days ; f 1 , 21 6 . 7 , p = 0 . 02 ) , whereas the duration of the non - vocal period did not differ between populations ( 22 . 1 , 6 . 5 days vs . 21 . 5 , 9 . 0 days ; f 1 , 18 0 . 03 , p = 0 . 9 ) ( table 1 ) . we asked whether these population differences in vocal development might be a secondary consequence of different rates of growth and development , or an artifact of social or sex - specific biases in our sample .
boquete litter sizes were smaller ( f 1 , 26 21 . 6 , p < 0 . 0001 ) and boquete pups ' eyes opened earlier ( f 1 , 39 167 . 0 , p < 0 . 0001 ) ( table 1 ) . therefore , between - population differences in vocal behavior could be explained by overall slower development in cartago mice due to proportionally less maternal resource allocation / pup . however , there was no effect of population on body mass for any age class ( all p ≧0 . 2 ) . likewise , the end of isolation calling was three days prior to when boquete pups opened their eyes , whereas these events were approximately coincident in cartago pups ( table 1 ) . we also considered that there might be an effect of litter size on motivation to vocalize ; pups in this study that did not vocalize had no siblings and a similar relationship between small litter size and low isolation call production was reported in microtus [ 22 ] . we could not test this hypothesis statistically since only one cartago single - pup litter was included in the study . however , this female produced isolation calls , albeit for a period less than the population mean ( 8 vs . 13 . 0 days ) . finally , the boquete sample was strongly female - biased for all pup age classes . therefore , if female s . teguina stop producing isolation calls earlier and start producing adult song later than males , population effects on vocal behavior might be an artifact of sex differences . within the cartago sample , however , there was no sex difference in the duration of the isolation calling period or age at first adult song production ( both p > 0 . 1 ) .
these results , together with population differentiation in acoustic properties of vocalizations ( [ 29 ] ; described below ) , suggest that this bimodal pattern of vocal behavior within s . teguina reflects population differences in nature , which persist across several generations of lab - rearing in a common environment . to avoid confounding intraspecific variation with interspecific divergence , we carried out between - species analyses both with and without the boquete samples . we report results for the full dataset unless exclusion of boquete mice changed significance .
there was no difference between s . xerampelinus and s . teguina in the duration of the isolation calling period ( f 1 , 37 2 . 4 , p = 0 . 1 ) , the duration of the non - vocal period ( f 1 , 25 0 . 9 , p = 0 . 4 ) , or the age at which the first adult song was recorded ( f 1 , 28 0 . 4 , p = 0 . 6 ) ( table 1 ) . with the boquete samples excluded , however , the isolation calling period was significantly longer in s . teguina ( f 1 , 30 9 . 4 , p = 0 . 005 ) .
adult s . teguina sing longer songs and are typically more vocal than adult s . xerampelinus , and males of both species sing longer songs and sing more often than females [ 32 ] , [ 35 ] . therefore , we asked whether species and sex differences in vocal production are established at earlier stages . s . teguina pups that produced isolation calls did so on a significantly higher proportion of days than s . xerampelinus pups ( f 1 , 36 12 . 0 , p = 0 . 001 ) ( table 1 ) . there was no species difference in bout length for any pup age class ( all p ≧0 . 3 ) , but 1–3 day old s . teguina pups from cartago tended to produce more notes / 15 s than age - matched s . xerampelinus ( f 1 , 22 4 . 0 , p = 0 . 06 ) .
within s . xerampelinus , there was no sex difference in pup vocal production ( proportion of days with isolation calls , bout length , note rate , all p ≧0 . 1 ) , but male pups stopped producing isolation calls significantly later than females ( f 1 , 13 13 . 9 , p = 0 . 003 ; table 1 ) . the small sample size for adult s . xerampelinus females that sang precluded tests for sex differences in the duration of the non - vocal period , or the first production of adult song . while there was no effect of sex on the proportion of days that s . teguina pups produced isolation calls , 4–6 and 7–9 day old s . teguina males produced more notes / 15 s ( f 1 , 18 4 . 5 , p = 0 . 05 and f 1 , 18 5 . 6 , p = 0 . 004 , respectively ) and produced longer bouts ( f 1 , 18 4 . 4 , p = 0 . 051 and f 1 , 18 8 . 9 , p = 0 . 008 , respectively ) .
we identified six distinct note types . representative spectrograms of isolation calling bouts are shown in figure 2 ; the five most common note types are shown in figure 3 .
notes a - e are indicated to the right of the first note of that type in each spectrogram .
change in the proportional abundances of common notes types during vocal development in singing mice .
representative examples of notes a–e ( dominant frequency only ; see fig . 2 for harmonics ) are shown on the x - axis . black ( s . teguina ) and white ( s . xerampelinus ) bars are species means for notes in each age class . error bars are + 1 se . sample sizes by age class are 20 ( 1–3 and 30 + days ) , 19 ( 4–6 and 7–9 days ) and 13 ( 10–12 days ) for s . teguina , and 9 ( 1–3 days ) , 11 ( 4–6 days ) , 7 ( 7–9 days ) , 4 ( 10–12 days ) and 8 ( 30 + days ) for s . xerampelinus . species differences in the proportional abundances of note types within age class were tested with one - way anova , * p < 0 . 05 , * * p < 0 . 01 .
a . long fm downward sweep with harmonics and ≧10 khz bandwidth . note a is the main component of the adult advertisement song of both species .
b . short fm downward sweep with < 10 khz bandwidth and no harmonics .
c . notes with nonlinear components , typically an fm downward sweep combined with one or more complex elements , all with multiple harmonics and deterministic chaos .
d . complex fm warble with harmonics and two or more directional changes in frequency ≧2 khz .
e . complex fm with harmonics and one directional change in frequency ≧2 khz .
we used pca to visualize age , species and population differences in frequency and timing . variables and loadings for the first two components are provided in table s2 , mean scores are plotted in figure 4 , species means for selected variables are in table s1 . all measures of frequency loaded strongly on the first axis , which accounted for 34 . 5 % of the total variance . this axis provided strong separation between s . teguina and s . xerampelinus , and between younger pup age classes within species , with positive scores for higher frequencies . there was a clear reduction in frequency with age in both species , with the largest change over time in s . xerampelinus , and a striking convergence in 10–12 day old pups of both species . this axis also provided minor separation between age - matched boquete - and cartago - derived s . teguina , with higher frequencies in boquete pups , but lower frequencies in boquete adults . the second axis ( 19 . 6 % total variance ) defined differences in bandwidth and note duration with positive scores reflecting larger bandwidth and longer notes . s . xerampelinus age classes were largely indistinguishable along this axis , whereas there was strong separation between boquete and cartago s . teguina , with cartago pups falling closer to age - matched s . xerampelinus than to boquete conspecifics . strikingly , while bandwidth and note duration in cartago mice increased from 4–6 day old pups to adults , boquete mice exhibited the opposite pattern , with a sharp decrease between 7–9 day old pups and adults . the third axis ( 8 . 2 % total variance , data not shown ) described among individual differences in timing and did not provide separation between species , populations or age classes .
plot of mean scores from the first ( pc1 ) and second ( pc2 ) principle components axes for age classes in s . xerampelinus ( white ) , and in s . teguina split by population ( cartago , black ; boquete , gray ) . age classes are indicated next to each point . pc1 explains 35 % of the total variance with higher scores corresponding to higher frequency . pc2 explains 20 % of the total variance with higher scores corresponding to larger bandwidth and longer notes . error bars are + / −1 se .
black ( s . teguina ) and white ( s . xerampelinus ) circles are species means for maximum ( max , dashes ) , dominant ( dom , dots ) , and minimum ( min , dots and dashes ) frequency in each age class . error bars are + / −1 se . sample size for s . teguina in the 13–15 day age class is 9 ; no calls were recorded for s . xerampelinus in this age class . see figure 3 caption for all other sample sizes .
interspecific differences in frequency across vocal development were generally larger than population differences within s . teguina . with boquete mice excluded , s . xerampelinus pup dominant and maximum frequencies were marginally higher at days 4–6 ( p = 0 . 03 ) and 7–9 ( p = 0 . 02 ) , respectively , but overall patterns were unchanged .
there were several marginal age - specific differences between s . teguina males and females ( table s3 ) , but these were not consistent either within or across age groups . this general lack of sex differences in spectral measures of pup isolation calls is consistent with the sexually monomorphic spectral features of adult song in both species . however , we cannot exclude the possibility of detecting sex differences with larger sample sizes , particularly for s . xerampelinus .
in both species , there was a significant negative relationship between body mass and all whole call frequency measures ( fig . s1 ) . in s . teguina ( n = 24 ) , the effect of body mass on dominant frequency was marginal ( f 1 , 23 4 . 7 , p = 0 . 04 ) , but highly significant for minimum frequency ( f 1 , 23 37 . 1 , p < 0 . 0001 ) and maximum frequency ( f 1 , 23 16 . 3 , p = 0 . 0006 ) . similarly , in s . xerampelinus ( n = 13 ) , the negative effect of body mass was weaker for dominant frequency ( f 1 , 12 6 . 3 , p = 0 . 03 ) than for minimum or maximum frequency ( f 1 , 12 15 . 5 , p = 0 . 002 and f 1 , 12 16 . 0 , p = 0 . 002 , respectively ) .
the advertisement songs of adult singing mice are highly stereotyped . therefore , we were interested in whether stereotypy increases with age as pups acquire greater motor control , or whether stereotypy is a unique feature of the adult song . for each age class , we used the coefficient of variation ( cv ) to summarize the within - individual repeatability of seven descriptors of frequency and timing . species means for each age class are shown in figure 6 . because the composition of pup vocal repertoires was heterogeneous relative to that of adults , our analysis was biased toward detecting lower stereotypy ( higher cv ) in pups vs . adults . nonetheless , if increase in stereotypy were an important component of pup vocal development , we would expect to observe a reduction in intra - individual variation across pup age classes .
black ( s . teguina ) and white ( s . xerampelinus ) cicles are species means for the coefficient of variation in each age class . error bars are + / −1 se . sample sizes by age class are 15 ( 1–3 days ) , 16 ( 4–6 days ) , 14 ( 7–9 days ) , 11 ( 10–12 days ) , 6 ( 13–15 days ) and 18 ( 30 + days ) for s . teguina , and 7 ( 1–3 days ) , 8 ( 4–6 days ) , 5 ( 7–9 days ) and 6 ( 30 + days ) for s . xerampelinus . there were insufficient data for s . xerampelinus in the 10–12 age class and no calls were recorded for the 13–15 age class .
contrary to this expectation , intra - individual variation increased from birth to the end of the isolation calling period in both species . however , the reduction in stereotypy with age was minor in s . teguina but pronounced in s . xerampelinus . the stereotypical properties of the adult song , evidenced by low cv , were present from the first song recorded in young adult mice ( fig . 6 , 30 + days ) . in the subset of individuals for which we had a second series of adult songs , captured at least 10 days after the first songs we recorded , there was no evidence for an increase in stereotypy with age ( n = 7 , paired t - test , p = 0 . 3 ) . there were no species differences in adult vocal stereotypy .
there was no effect of sex on stereotypy for any age class in either species . there was , however a species difference in age - matched pups , with higher repeatability in s . teguina . this difference was significant for age classes 1–3 ( f 1 , 21 8 . 01 , p = 0 . 01 ) and 7–9 ( f 1 , 18 22 . 01 , p = 0 . 0002 ) .
the survival of altricial neonates that are displaced from their nest depends on rapid maternal retrieval . therefore , selection should favor isolation calls that are localizable and readily detected by adult females . in general , frequency modulated sounds are easier to localize than constant frequency sounds : directional changes in frequency enhance detectability [ 38 ] , [ 39 ] , and nonlinearities ( e . g . , noise or biphonation ) are thought to prevent receiver habituation [ 37 ] , [ 40 ] . in keeping with these signal design rules , most singing mouse pup vocalizations are frequency modulated and , while the unidirectional fm sweep is the most common note type in both pup isolation calls and adult advertisement song , the vocal repertoire of pups includes notes with multiple directional changes in frequency and notes with nonlinear elements , which are rare or absent in adult songs .
singing mice are unusual among muroid rodents in that long distance acoustic communication is an important modulator of adult social interactions . this motivated our focus on the ontogeny of the spectral and stereotypic properties of the adult advertisement song . however , like many species of social mammals , including other rodents , adult singing mice vocalize during close - range interactions [ 32 ] . interestingly , complex fm warbles that resemble an elaborated version of notes d and e in young pups are the most common note type produced by adult s . teguina in close - range social interactions ( warren , campbell , pasch and phelps unpublished data ) . this suggests that the distinct vocal repertoires used by adults in long - distance vs . close - range communication arise from the same source during early development . similar patterns of vocal development , in which the heterogeneous repertoire of dependent young is modified and used in discrete contexts by adults , are reported in shrews , echolocating bats , and lab mice [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 13 ] .
female s . teguina produced their first advertisement song ( 34 . 3±8 . 2 d ) coincident with the onset of sexual receptivity indicated by vulval opening ( 33 . 8 d ; range 28–39 d ; [ 31 ] ) . this pattern suggests that steroid hormones associated with the estrous cycle activate female vocalizations . androgen manipulations indicate that dht , which cannot be aromatized to estrogen , is sufficient to activate male s . teguina vocalizations , suggesting that estrogens are not necessary for song production . interestingly , the minority of males who continued to sing following castration were those castrates with the highest levels of circulating testosterone , indicating that extra - gonadal androgens may influence song output [ 33 ] . periovulatory androgen release from the adrenals is associated with female sexual behavior in several mammalian species [ 43 ] , and may activate female vocal behavior [ 44 ] .
from an ultimate perspective , the non - vocal period corresponds to the span of time when pups of both species become ambulatory , are weaned , and initiate dispersal [ 31 ] . initially , silence reflects emancipation from immobility and the ability to actively suckle by day 12 [ 31 ] . subsequent silence in subadults likely facilitates competitor avoidance as individuals disperse in search of unoccupied habitat . because adult vocalizations advertise signaler presence to potential rivals , remaining silent reduces the probability of escalation of costly antagonistic encounters [ 35 ] . indeed , immigrant s . teguina males ( who were smaller and younger ) counter - sang less in response to playback of a conspecific male song compared to larger and older residents ( pasch and phelps , unpublished data ) . together , the data suggest that the emergence of adult vocalizations represents a compromise between proximate mechanisms that promote advertisement of the onset of sexual maturity , and selection that suppresses advertisement until the social environment is opportune .
the capacity for vocal learning is rare in non - human mammals . traditionally , rodents are classified as vocal non - learners , and recent studies using approaches such as deafening and cross - fostering indicate that the courtship songs of adult male lab mice require no auditory input for normal development and are invariant relative to the vocal environment in which animals are reared [ 45 ] , [ 46 ] , [ 47 ] . however , patterns of forebrain activation associated with lab mouse courtship song production , pitch convergence in songs of co - housed males from vocally distinct strains , and song degradation following deafening , suggest that the basic neural substrates and the capacity for vocal imitation ( plasticity ) may be present in some rodents ( [ 48 ] ; see also ref . 12 ) . arriaga and jarvis [ 49 ] proposed that these conflicting results could be reconciled if vocal learning is treated as a continuum , placing taxa like mice with a modest capacity for vocal plasticity at one end of the spectrum , and taxa like humans and song birds with the capacity to learn and subsequently modify complex vocal output at the other .
taken together , these observations suggest that singing mouse advertisement songs do not require extensive learning . testing this hypothesis awaits manipulation of early acoustic environments or auditory function . finally , given the evidence for pitch convergence in the close - range courtship songs of adult male lab mice [ 48 ] , it will be of particular interest to determine whether the close - range vocal repertoires of adult singing mice are similarly sensitive to auditory feedback .
the results of this study demonstrate that vocal development in sister species of singing mice follows the same basic trajectory as that described in other mammalian orders ( i . e . , chiroptera and soricomorpha ; [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] ) , and in laboratory mice [ 12 ] . while the acoustic structure , mechanistic basis , and social context of singing mouse vocalizations all undergo major shifts in the transition from isolation calls to adult advertisement songs , the basic elements of adult song are present from birth . likewise , spectral components of isolation calls that are rare or absent in adult long distance signals are common in adult close - range interactions . this suggests that the acoustic signals of need produced by altricial mammalian neonates provide the raw material for diverse forms of adult vocal behavior and communication .
the relationship between body mass and maximum ( black triangles ) , dominant ( open diamonds ) , and minimum ( gray squares ) frequency in a ) s . teguina , and b ) s . xerampelinus .
age - specific means ( sd ) for selected measures of frequency , timing , and vocal behavior in s . teguina ( st ) and s . xerampelinus ( sx ) .
principle component ( pc ) axis loadings for 25 acoustic variables measured from the isolation calls and adult songs of singing mice .
we are very grateful to amanda arner and molly phillips for their assistance with data collection ; we thank andreas george for his help with animal care . an earlier version of the manuscript was improved by comments from monica guerra .
conceived and designed the experiments : pc bp smp . performed the experiments : pc bp alw . analyzed the data : pc alw . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : smp . wrote the paper : pc bp .
haak b , markl h , ehret g ( 1983 ) sound communication between parents and offspring . in : willot jfeditor . the auditory psychobiology of the mouse . springfield : c . thomas . pp . 57–97 .
smith jc ( 1976 ) responses of adult mice to models of infant calls . j . comp . physiol . psychol 90 : 1105–1115 .
gaub s , ehret g ( 2005 ) grouping in auditory temporal perception and vocal production is mutually adapted : the case of wriggling calls of mice . journal of comparative physiology 191 : 1131–1135 .
blumstein dt , armitage kb ( 1997 ) does sociality drive the evolution of communicative complexity ? a comparative test with ground - dwelling sciurid alarm calls . american naturalist 150 : 179–200 .
hoffmann f , musolf k , penn dj ( 2012 ) spectrographic analyses reveal signals of individuality and kinship in the ultrasonic courtship vocalizations of wild house mice . physiology and behavior 105 : 266–771 .
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mouse model displays quantitative and structural abnormalities in ultrasonic vocalizations . behavioural brain research 256 : 677–689 .
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pasch b , george as , campbell p , phelps sm ( 2011 ) androgen - dependent male vocal performance influences female preference in neotropical singing mice . animal behaviour 82 : 177–183 .
pasch b , bolker bm , phelps sm ( 2013 ) interspecific dominance via vocal interactions mediates altitudinal zonation in neotropical singing mice . american naturalist 182 : e161–173 .
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expression . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america 111 : 3008–3013 .
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eagle rescue 101 . . . . the basics . . . . thumbs and all . . . águila de rescate 101 / sauvetage aigle 101
frontal view , showing head and feet , july 15 , 2010 . n ordonez - garza
distribution : intermediate elevations of middle america from e oaxaca , méxico , to w panamá .
this species occurs in intermediate elevations from eastern oaxaca , mxico to western panam ( musser and carleton 2005 ) . it occurs from 900 to 2 , 900 m ( reid 1997 ) .
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musser , guy g . , and michael d . carleton / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
with contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer
comments : level of differentiation and status of populations north ( teguina ) and south ( irazu ) of the nicaraguan depression merit reconsideration . hooper ( 1972 ) recognized four subspecies
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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the spatial distribution of individuals may be strongly influenced by social processes and thus patterns of space use are often used to infer the mating and social systems of a population ( gaulin and fitzgerald 1988 ; shier and randall 2004 ; steinmann et al . 2005 ) . in particular , sex - specific differences in home - range use can yield insights into the mating system and can improve understanding of the behavior of little - studied species ( reviewed in clutton - brock 1989 , 1991 ; gaulin and fitzgerald 1988 ; heske and ostfeld 1990 ; ostfeld 1985 ; reichard 2003 ; schradin and pillay 2005 ; shier and randall 2004 ; steinmann et al . 2005 ) . for example , in polygynous mating systems , home ranges of males tend to overlap less than those of females , and a given female typically overlaps with only 1 male . in contrast , in promiscuous mating systems , home - range use by males and females is expected to be more equitable , with each individual ' s home range overlapping those of several members of the opposite sex . finally , socially monogamous systems should be characterized by exclusive ( nonoverlapping ) home ranges , each of which is shared by a male–female pair ( clutton - brock 1989 ; ophir et al . 2008 ; ostfeld 1985 ; shier and randall 2004 ) .


calliprora sexstrigella is a moth of the family gelechiidae .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california , new mexico and texas .

the wingspan is about 8 mm .

the forewings are dark grey , the basal third light grey and a rather oblique white spot from the middle of the costa , triangularly expanded beneath , sending from the posterior angle a brown subcostal streak to join the next marking , beneath this spot an elongate white mark in the middle of the disc .

there is an angulated white streak from the costa at three-fourths to the tornus , brown on the median third , the lower portion ochreous-tinged and confluent with extremities of a v-shaped white mark preceding it , preceded also by a small whitish dorsal spot .

there is a sinuate brown line from the costa at four-fifths to the apex , and a brown terminal line .

beyond this two pairs of small white black-edged wedge-shaped costal spots mostly in the cilia , the costal cilia otherwise pale grey , at the apex with a black projecting hook , on the termen with dark fuscous subbasal line and suffused dark fuscous on the outer half .

the hindwings are grey , with a streak of pale suffusion in the middle of the disc .

calliprora sexstrigella

this is the same as a moth identified as calliprora sp . ( gelechiidae ) by sangmi lee , here ( additional photos of it appear on the bugguide page for c . sexstrigella here ) . i don ' t believe that it is the same as the moth identified ( correctly , i believe , in that it agrees with chambers ' s description ) as c . sexstrigella here .
calliprora meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 242 ; ts : calliprora pentagramma meyrick
calliprora centrocrossa meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 67 ; tl : brazil , parintins
calliprora clistogramma meyrick , 1926 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 9 ) : 281 ; tl : brazil , sao paulo
calliprora erethistis meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 70 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas
calliprora eurydelta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 69 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas
calliprora peritura meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 70 ; tl : brazil , para
calliprora tetraplecta meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 68 ; tl : peru , iquitos
calliprora trigramma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 243 ; tl : british guiana , bartica
calliprora platyxipha meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 69 ; tl : brazil , para , parintins
calliprora rhodogramma meyrick , 1922 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1922 : 67 ; tl : brazil , manaos , teffé
calliprora pentagramma meyrick , 1914 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1914 : 243 ; tl : british guiana , bartica ; mallali
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
sattler , 1973 a catalogue of the family - group and genus - group names of the gelechiidae , holcopogonidae , lecithoceridae and symmocidae ( lepidoptera ) bull . br . mus . nat . hist . ( ent . ) 28 ( 4 ) : 153 - 282
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
chambers , v . t . 1874 . tineina from texas . the canadian entomologist 6 ( 12 ) : 248
bold - barcode of life data systems - species account with collection map and photos of pinned adults .
dictionary of word roots and combining forms donald j . borror . 1960 . mayfield publishing company .
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the gelechiid moths are one of the major families of micromoths , especially in the temperate latitudes . more than 4 , 500 species have been named and placed in more than 500 genera , and unknown numbers of undescribed species exist . members of the superfamily gelechioidea , these moths are tiny to small ( wingspan 0 . 7 - 2 . 5 cm , mostly 1 - 2 cm ) , mostly nocturnal , somber colored , brown , gray or black , but some are colorfully patterned , especially in tropical regions . hindwings of most species are trapezoidal in shape , with the outer margin concave below the apex . larvae are concealed feeders , usually leaf tiers , forming shelters in new growing tips of trees and shrubs , but many are leaf miners or stem , root , or seed borers .


protopelicanus cuvierii is a putative fossil waterbird of uncertain affinities .

it was briefly described and figured by georges cuvier in 1822 from late eocene material from montmartre , france , though not formally described and named until 1852 by german botanist and ornithologist ludwig reichenbach as an early pelecanid .

the original material comprised the cranial part of a left scapula and a nearly complete left femur .

the lectotype femur was thought by michel brunet in 1970 to be typical of a pelican .

however , colin harrison in 1979 considered that it belonged to the sulidae , and storrs olson in 1995 thought it might be a pelagornithid .

the femur is held by the muséum national d'histoire naturelle in paris ( no. 7978 ) ; the location of the scapular fragment is unknown .

protopelicanus

from the fossil record , it is known that pelicans have been around for over 40 million years , the earliest fossil pelecanus being found in early miocene deposits in france . prehistoric genera have been named protopelicanus and miopelecanus . the supposed miocene pelican liptornis from argentina is a nomen dubium , being based on hitherto indeterminable fragments .
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where : ile - de - france region , france ( 48 . 9° n , 2 . 3° e : paleocoordinates 47 . 4° n , 1 . 6° w )
when : montmartre reference level zone , priabonian ( 38 . 0 - 33 . 9 ma )
primary reference : g . cuvier . 1804 . memoire sur le squelette presque entier d ' un petit quadrupede du genre des sarigues , trouvé dans la pierre a platre des environs de paris .
paleodb collection 31739 : authorized by emmanuel fara , entered by emmanuel fara on 24 . 05 . 2003 , edited by john alroy , mark uhen , patricia holroyd , philip mannion , matthew carrano and evangelos vlachos
page 73 and 74 : ^ ^ 2 stores l . olson ( 1983b ) include
page 77 and 78 : 156 storrs l . olson ( 1978 ) have rec
page 87 and 88 : 166 stoers l . olson ( ypresian ) of e
page 89 and 90 : 1 ^ ^ storrs l . olson miocene ( probab
page 137 and 138 : 2 . the fossil record of birds j . sp
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feduccia , a . , 1980 : the age of birds . –harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts & london , england , 1980 , ix - 196
feduccia , a . , 1997 : the origin and evolution of birds . –yale university press , new haven , 1996 , x - 420
olson , s . l . , 1975 : paleornithology of st . helena island , south atlantic ocean . –smithsonian contributions to baleobiology : vol . 23 , pp . iv - 49
olson , s . l . , 1985 : the fossil record of birds . 79 - 239 . in farner , d . , king , j . & parkes , k . ( eds . ) , 1985 : avian biology . vol viii . –academic press , new york . 1985 .
olson , s . l . & rasmussen , p . d . , 2001 : miocene and pliocene birds from the lee creek mine , north carolina . 233 - 365 in ray , c . e . & bohaska , d . j . , ( eds . ) 2001 : geology and paleontology of the lee creek mine , north carolina , iii . –smithsonian contributions to paleobiology : nr . 90 , iii - 365
sibley , c . g . & monroe , j . b . l . , 1990 : distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . –yale university press , new haven & london , 1990 . xxiv - 1111 .
peterson , a . p . , 2002 - 2004 : zoonomen nomenclatural data of birds . ( updated : 2004 - 12 - 24 ) –inet : zoonomen nomenclatural data : urltoken ; [ visited : 2005 - 01 - 21 ]
sibley , c . g . & monroe , b . l . , 1990 : distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . –yale university press , new haven & london , 1990 . xxiv - 1111 .
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a pelican is any of several very large water bird s with a distinctive pouch under the beak belonging to the bird family pelecanidae .
along with the darter s , cormorant s , gannet s , boobie s , frigatebird s , and tropicbird s , pelicans make up the order pelecaniformes . modern pelicans are found on all continents except antarctica . they occur mostly in warm regions , though breeding ranges reach 45° south ( australian pelican , p . conspicillatus ) and 60° north ( american white pelican s , p . erythrorhynchos , in western canada ) . birds of inland and coastal waters , they are absent from polar regions , the deep ocean , oceanic islands , and inland south america .
( p . occidentalis ) , small individuals of which can be as little as 2 . 75 kg ( 6 lb ) , 106 cm ( 42 in ) long and can have a wingspan of as little as 1 . 83 m ( 6 ft ) . the largest is believed to be the
( p . crispus ) , at up to 15 kg ( 33 lb ) , 183 cm ( 72 in ) long , with a maximum wingspan of nearly 3 . 5 m ( 11 . 5 ft ) . the australian pelican has the longest bill of any bird they often catch fish by expanding the throat pouch . then they must drain the pouch above the surface before they can swallow . this operation takes up to a minute , during which time other seabirds are particularly likely to
the fish . pelicans in their turn sometimes pirate prey from other seabirds . and that of the latter at 13 , 000 to 18 , 000 . the most common is believed to be the australian pelican ( though some estimates have placed the white pelican at a higher population ) .
, the pelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young , to the point of providing her own blood when no other food was available . as a result , the pelican became a symbol of the
(
a pelican in her piety
or
a pelican vulning ( wounding ) herself
) . another version of this is that the pelican used to kill its young and then resurrect them with its blood , this being analogous to the sacrifice of jesus . thus the symbol of the
( ibts ) is a pelican , and for most of its existence the headquarters of the service was located at pelican house in dublin , ireland .
for example , the emblems of both corpus christi college , cambridge and corpus christi college , oxford are pelicans , showing its use as a medieval christian symbol ( ' corpus christi ' means ' body of christ ' ) .
likewise a folktale from india says that a pelican killed her young by rough treatment but was then so contrite that she resurrected them with her own blood . they placed emphasis on animals and often depicted pelicans in their art .
in october 2006 . according to tourists watching , the pelican strolled to the pigeon and grabbed it into its beak , a 20 minute struggle ensued , which ended with pigeon being swallowed
head first down while flapping all the way down
.
in may 2008 , a woman bore 20 stitches after a pelican rammed into her face and died . the pelican was believed to be diving for fish in the sea off florida .
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