the four-eyed fishes are a genus , anableps , of fishes in the family anablepidae .

they have eyes raised above the top of the head and divided in two different parts , so that they can see below and above the water surface at the same time .

like their relatives , the onesided livebearers , four-eyed fishes only mate on one side , right - " handed " males with left - " handed " females and vice versa .

these fish inhabit freshwater and brackishwater and are only rarely coastal marine .

they originate from lowlands in southern mexico to honduras and northern south america .

four - eyed fish

a
four - eyed
fish swims along the surface with eyes appearing both in and out of the water .
eye development in the four - eyed fish anableps anableps : cranial and retinal adaptations to simultaneous aerial and aquatic vision .
eye development in the four - eyed fish anableps anableps : cranial and retinal adaptations to simultaneous aerial and aquatic vision . - pubmed - ncbi
in the case of the
four - eyed fish ,
or anableps , and its sister species a . microlepis and a . dowei , the fish have two large eyes .
brenner , m . and u . krumme . 2007 - j . fish biol . 70 ( 2 ) : 406 - 427 . tidal migration and patterns in feeding of the four - eyed fish anableps anableps l . in a north brazilian mangrove .
the four - eyed name derives from the fact that it divides each pupil into two , one above the water and one below ,
lead author gregory owens told discovery news .
an anableps ' eye at the water surface . the fish actually has only two eyes , and the four - eyed name
derives from the fact that it divides each pupil into two , one above the water and one below ,
researcher gregory owens explained .
to compensate for this problem , certain other marine dwellers , such as archerfish , have to mentally calculate refraction to find the true position of objects they encounter . the
four eyed
anableps instead sees a broader angle .
one of the strangest fish in the world is anableps anableps , commonly called the ‘four - eyed fish’ because of the unique configuration of its eyes . 1 these are large and bulging , like those of a frog , and are located on the top of its head so that it swims with its eyes half in and half out of the water .
…“four - eyed fish” of the genus anableps , which cruises the surface meniscus with the upper part of the eye looking into air and the lower part looking into water . it makes use of an elliptical lens , with the relatively flat sides adding little to the power of the cornea and the…
kanungo , j . , s . k . swamynathan and j . piatigorsky . 2004 - exp . eye res . 79 ( 6 ) : 949 - 956 . abundant corneal gelsolin in zebrafish and the ' four - eyed ' fish , anableps anableps : possible analogy with multifunctional lens crystallins .
…the eye of anableps , the four - eyed fish , so named because each eye is a double structure . the eye is set high on the head and the upper part projects above the water . the cornea is divided by a horizontal band of pigment , separating an upper , strongly convex part from a…
new research explains how the fish simultaneously sees in these two very different environments .
does this fish really have four eyes ? the generic name
anableps
is derived from the greek for
up - looking .
as you can see from the picture at the left , the fish appears to be gazing meditatively upward , as though it were trying to remember how to multiply 9 x 16 .
during neap tides the fish were observed feeding on exposed areas of mud in the furo do meio .
( family anablepidae , order atheriniformes ) . four - eyed fishes are surface dwellers and have eyes adapted for seeing both above and below the water surface . the eyes are on top of the head , and each is divided into two parts , an upper half for vision in air , and a lower half for vision in water ; hence , the common name . the
the fish literally ' surf ' the peak of the flood tide into temporarily - inundated zones . . .
spiny - finned fish , any member of the superorder acanthopterygii , including four orders of marine and freshwater fishes having fins with some spiny ( as opposed to soft ) rays—atheriniformes , beryciformes , zeiformes , and lampridiformes . the atheriniform is the best known of the spiny - finned group , …
the vision system and associated over water and under water lifestyle comes at a price , though . as one might imagine , it ' s not hard for predators to miss a bug - eyed fish skimming along the surface . but anableps is forever on the lookout , with large areas of its brain devoted to vision .
homepage : urltoken facebook : urltoken twitter : urltoken + + + this is none of my own tanks . in this video you can see a fish tank of a zoo aquarium called
allwetterzoo münster
. we have videos of many tanks of this zoo . + + + the population of this tank : - largescale four - eyed fish / vierauge ( anableps anableps ) - more coming soon ( if you are intrested in helping me classifying the other species in this tank , post your suggestions ) + + + intro : 5xlmusic weitere informationen unter urltoken + + + veröffentlichung des videomaterials mit der freundlichen genehmigung des allwetterzoos münster . weitere informationen unter urltoken
four - eyed fishes are classified as order atheriniformes , suborder cyprinodontoidei , family anablepidae , genus anableps . they live in shallow , muddy freshwater streams in central america and mexico , are born live , and grow from 4–6 cm ( 1 . 5–2 . 5 inches ) at birth to 15–30 cm ( 6–12 inches ) . they usually travel in schools , cruising the surface to feed on insects and other small invertebrates . return to text .
the red and green algae upon which the fish feed during high tide is clearly visible on these mangrove stilt roots in the high inter - tidal zone .
in nature it has a diverse , but highly adapted , feeding strategy dependant on environmental conditions . at low tide it seldom forages at all except during neap tides when fish carcasses or small quantities of mud are consumed . terrestrial insects along the shoreline may also be attacked with the fish leaping onto the exposed banks .
at the waterline , the eyes are divided by a band of epithelium ( tissue ) into upper and lower parts , with separate corneas and retinas , which function for aerial and underwater vision respectively . 2 , 3 the lens is more egg - shaped than convex and can focus two images simultaneously , one from above the water and the other from below ( see diagram ) . this means that the fish’s two eyes actually function as four eyes ; hence its name .
terrestrial insects and small crabs of the family grapsidae are the other main sources of food ; these are captured by jumping attacks or the fish leaping onto the stilt roots themselves . the above water eye is actually thought to have evolved to allow the fish to exploit such high protein food sources ; for example , small crabs climb down the stilt roots to moisten their gills and the fish is able to sneak up on them before using its elongated body to launch a powerful leap . gammarid amphipods , snails , mussels and worms are also eaten in smaller amounts .
during high tides , when the fish move into inundated first order channels to feed , the majority of the diet is composed of red macroalgae ( catanella and bostrychia spp . ) which grows on the exposed mangrove stilt roots at around the average high water level . this activity is thought to be mutually beneficial as the fish perform a cleaning function which is useful to the trees in terms of growth and productivity . the water in the temporary channels is very clear compared to the turbid main channel so the fish also use the below water part of the eye to search for submerged algae and other items .
the fish does not actually have four eyes , but the eye is divided to allow the fish to see both above and below the waterline . a narrow band of epithelium divides the upper and lower halves of the eye . each half of the eye has a separate pupil , iris and cornea , but the retina is divided . both halves of the eye use the same lens , with the upper light path traveling through the short axis of the lens , while the lower light path travels through the long axis . this dual use of the lens corrects for the different behavior of light in air and in water , with the underwater lens face more strongly curved . the underwater half of the eye projects an image to the upper half of the retina , while the part of the eye above water projects to the lower retina .
the upper eye must be occasionally wetted to prevent dehydration , but when the fish is completely submerged , the image from the upper half of the eye is out of focus . click here for more information about the anableps eye .
when anableps is looking out into the air , the light rays pass through the shorter width of the lens , which gives good distance vision for locating its prey of insects ; it also means that the fish is difficult to catch , as it can see fishermen approaching ! from under the water , the light rays pass through the full length of the lens , so that the fish is near - sighted under water . 4 one is reminded of a bifocal lens in spectacles .
the researchers suspect that anableps used to just have eyes suitable for the aerial environment . over time , they think the fish lost green sensitivity in the lower eye halves , gaining yellow sensitivity there for better aquatic vision , particularly in muddy yellow water .
he said several fish , amphibians , pigeons , other birds and certain primates , including humans , all possess what is known as
intraretinal variability ,
meaning that variations in spectral sensitivity exist across the retina , which is a delicate , light - sensitive membrane lining the inner eyeball .
fish , any of more than 30 , 000 species of vertebrate animals ( phylum chordata ) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world . living species range from the primitive , jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks , skates , and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes . most…
development is viviparous , with the young nourished by nutrient diffusion across the reproductive tract of the female . the fry are retained until they reach a length of about 45 mm . probably because of the size of the young fish at
birth
only 14 to 20 embryos develop from a brood . sexual maturity occurs at about 9 months .
there are three species in the genus anableps . the species found in the james r . record aquarium is anableps anableps . the genus belongs to the order cyprinodontes , small , often colorful livebearing fish with complex behaviors . the famous desert pupfish is also in this order . anableps is found in coastal waters from the yucatan peninsula to the equator .
two horizontal flaps of the iris are thought to reduce glare from the water surface . these adaptations allow the fish to see above and below the water simultaneously , and because there exists no predator which specialises on anableps the split eye is thought to have evolved specifically in order to allow exploitation of the narrow ecological niche between aquatic and terrestrial habitats .
we used in situ hybridization with opsin riboprobes to map cone opsin expression in the retina of a . anableps . this was repeated for jenynsia onca , a species with normal eye morphology in the sister genus to anableps . recently , both species have had their cone opsin repertoires characterized , revealing nine genes in a . anableps , ( one sws1 , two sws2 , two rh2 and four lws genes ) , and eight in j . onca ( one less lws gene ) [ 9 , 10 ] . by studying j . onca , we have inferred ancestral expression patterns and identified changes that have evolved in concert with the unique eye morphology of a . anableps .
inhabits brackish - water rhizophora mangrove forests where it has come to forge an extraordinary existence at the water’s edge of inter - tidal zones . these constantly fluctuating habitats are subjected to at least one , usually two , daily tidal movements and this fish has evolved to move with the water , inhabiting the shallow margins of permanent water channels during low tide and moving into inundated zones to forage when the water level rises .
for the study , owens , a university of victoria biologist , and his colleagues analyzed the eyes of the fish , focusing on light - sensitive proteins called visual opsins . each is most sensitive to a particular wavelength of light . humans , for example , have three visual opsins sensitive to blue , green and red light . they absorb light at slightly different wavelengths , enabling us to see those three colors and others .
the unique visual system allows the fish to avoid a problematic phenomenon
snell ' s window ,
which occurs when you are underwater while looking up out of the water . due to the refraction of light at the water ' s surface , after a certain angle you no longer see out of the water , and instead see a reflection on the water ' s surface . thus , your field of vision is limited to about 96 degrees .
this is supposed to mean that ‘right - sided’ males are only able to copulate with ‘left - sided’ females and vice versa . however sf members who have kept this species found that the gonopodium is flexible to a certain degree meaning it’s possible that males can mate with any partner . certainly if the former theory is true then the fish have 50 % less chance of finding a suitable partner compared with other livebearers , though perhaps they occupy such a unique ecological niche that no evolutionary bottleneck has occurred .
it’s exposed to highly variable salinity levels between 5 - 30‰ in the wild so water chemistry isn’t too much of a concern ; for ease of maintenance a specific gravity between 1 . 005 - 1 . 015 is normally recommended . apart from this the most important provision is shallow water with a depth of 15cm / 6″ or so being more than adequate ; the fish will spend almost all their time at the water surface and actually bob back up to the surface in a cork - like fashion if submerged for too long .
during low water the fish congregated in marginal zones of the main channel ( usually < 1 m away from the bank ) and the authors hypothesised that this allows them to maximise foraging time by always being close to the mouths of the temporary channels , as well as providing protection against potential predators and preventing them being swept away by strong currents in the central , deeper section . large areas of mud and sand banks are exposed during these periods and some individuals were observed to leap out of the water to lay in the sun , often for minutes at a time .
the best conditions for foraging were found to be at spring tide during daylight hours when the water level is highest and the fish are able to take full advantage of the above water eye ( see ‘notes’ ) , whereas when high tide occurred during the night less individuals were found to migrate . there is an initial rapid rise in water levels as the tide comes in and young specimens were observed swimming at the peak of the first wave to enter the marginal creeks , with adults behind . this ‘first flood rise’ was the trigger for the “virtual disappearance of a . anableps from the main channel” .
the encyclopaedia britannica describes anableps as ‘an extreme example of adaptation to life near the air - water interface’ . 5 if this is the case , how did it develop its multi - functional eyes , beginning as an ordinary fish with normal , single - function eyes ? it is extremely difficult to see how something as complex as this could develop by gradual stages , and the more parts that have to develop , the greater the difficulty . this includes the complex brain setup needed to simultaneously decode the double images being received by the two retinas . how did all this evolve until it was fully functional ?
archerfish ( toxotes chatareus ) experience a similar light environment to a . anableps and have had their vision studied using msp [ 4 ] . they were found to have double cones in the dorsal retina that were most sensitive to the most prevalent wavelengths of upwelling light . however , unlike a . anableps , double cones in the ventro - nasal retina in archerfish were shifted to even longer wavelengths , suggesting that the ventral exclusion of lws opsin expression seen in three surface - dwelling , cyprinodontiformes fish has not occurred . this implies that other features beyond light environment , such as phylogeny or the visual tasks required , may affect opsin expression .
fieldwork by brenner and krumme ( 2007 ) in the furo do meio , a tidally - influenced tributary of the caeté mangrove estuary located to the north of bragança city , 200 km south of the amazon delta , revealed that these daily migrations are entirely related to feeding ( see ‘diet’ ) . at low tide the permanent channel of the tributary measures just 30 m across , but during high water this increases to between 50 m in its upper reaches and 400 m near its mouth . smaller channels around its margins therefore become temporarily flooded and the fish move into these to forage , sometimes up to 1 km away from the main tributary .
in situ hybridization was used to characterize the topography of cone photoreceptor subtypes . anableps anableps and j . onca exhibited uniform distributions of cones expressing sws1 , sws2b and rh2 - 2 ( figure 2 and figures in the electronic supplementary material ) . neither species exhibited detectable sws2a expression in the retina . species - specific differences were noted for the rh2 - 1 - expressing cones . in j . onca , rh2 - 1 had uniform expression across the retina in all sections , whereas adult a . anableps had rh2 - 1 in a large number of ventral cone cells and in a small patch of cones at the dorsal tip of the retina . this pattern was observed in all adults . in juveniles , rh2 - 1 expression was confined to a smaller number of cells in the ventral half of the eye , or was entirely absent . the lws riboprobe , which was designed to bind all lws paralogues , revealed inter - individual and interspecific differences in lws cone photoreceptor distributions . in j . onca , lws - expressing cones were limited to the dorsal retina in two fish ( a male and a female ) and to a transverse streak in the middle of the eye in one male . in a . anableps , lws cones were detected only in the dorsal half of the retina . this pattern appears to be the inverse of the rh2 - 1 cone distribution ( figure 1 ) .
[ hd ] tank of the giants : 13200 us gallon / 50 . 000 liter landschafts - aquarium @ aquazoo [ 7 / 52 ]
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the findings , published in the latest royal society biology letters , help to explain how animal visual systems , including human ones , evolve in response to different light environments .
the scientists determined that the top part of anableps ' eyes , the set that sticks out of the water , possess opsins sensitive to green . the bottom half of the eyes , actually in the water , are sensitive to yellow . the entire eye has genes sensitive to ultraviolet , violet and blue light .
this tells us that anableps is more sensitive to yellow light from the water and green light from the air ,
owens said .
we hypothesize that this functions to match their sensitivity with the light available . the water anableps lives in is generally muddy ( mangrove forests of northern south america ) and in this muddy water yellow light transmits best .
all lightning on earth may have its roots in space , new research suggests .
karen carleton , an assistant professor in the university of maryland ' s department of biology , told discovery news that
what dr . owens and his colleagues are seeing is quite reasonable .
she said
it seems probable that anableps has
fine tuned
its eyes
for its two visual tasks .
shelby temple of the university of bristol ' s visual ecology group also supports the new findings , saying that they have
added yet another example of a vertebrate that has the potential to have different spectral sensitivity in different parts of its field of view .
temple concluded ,
now we just need to try and understand why so many animals may be sensitive to different wavelengths of light in different directions .
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anableps seems to be designed for asymmetrical mating . in females , a single large scale covers the cloaca and opens either to the left or to the right . in males , the anal fin is adapted as a funnel for sperm transfer , and similarly extends either to the right or the left of the body .
fertilization is internal , and males and females have to be appropriately matched . right - handed males outnumber left - handed males about 60 : 40 with about the same proportion of the appropriately structured females .
anableps is primarily a surface feeder and its view of surface activity makes it difficult to catch , except with long - handled nets .
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( ed . ali , m . a . ) 609–617 ( plenum , new york , 1975 ) .
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comparison of anablepid eye morphology . ( a ) a . anableps eye at the water surface . the dorsal cornea receives light from the aerial environment , while the ventral cornea receives light from the aquatic environment . dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea . photo by andreas werth . ( b ) jenynsia onca female . the eye is morphologically normal in this species . photo by leo van der meer . ( c ) a schematic of a sagittal section of an a . anableps eye . light paths are indicated . green and yellow dots indicate rh2 - 1 and lws gene expression , respectively . ael , aerial line - of - sight ; aql , aquatic line - of - sight ; l , lens ; on , optic nerve ; dt , dorsal tip of the retina ; d , dorsal retina ; m , medial retina ; v , ventral retina . ( d ) in situ hybridization images of adult a . anableps labelled with the rh2 - 1 or lws riboprobe . cone cells expressing the gene of interest are purple . the brown area is retinal pigment epithelium .
summary of expression domains for each gene tested in a . anableps and j . onca . ( a ) the visual spectrum as seen by humans with putative spectral sensitivity for each opsin tested . numbers are in nanometres . ( b ) schematic of eyes with dorsal on top , ventral on bottom . coloured areas indicated expression , while dotted bars indicated areas of polymorphic expression . cropped microscope images are retinal sections probed using each riboprobe . cone cells expressing the gene of interest are purple .
anableps anableps ' remarkable eyes simultaneously sample photons from terrestrial and aquatic habitats . in situ hybridization with six riboprobes demonstrated that a . anableps and the closely related j . onca express at least five cone opsins ( sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 1 , rh2 - 2 and lws ) , possibly more given the redundancy of our lws probe .
the wavelength of maximal sensitivity for a visual pigment ( and consequently the photoreceptor expressing it ) can be determined by microspectrophotometry ( msp ) or in vitro protein reconstitution [ 13 , 14 ] . by comparing maximal sensitivity data from a . anableps and its relatives obtained using these techniques , we have endeavoured to assign specific opsin genes to cone cell spectral sensitivities : sws1 ( 356–365 nm , uv ) , sws2b ( 405–425 nm , violet ) , rh2 - 2 ( 452–472 nm , blue ) , rh2 - 1 ( 492–539 nm , green ) and lws ( 543–576 nm , yellow ) ( figure 2 a and discussed in supplementary materials ) . while these represent the value for individual opsin proteins , multiple proteins may be found co - expressed in a single cone , causing intermediate sensitivity values for the photoreceptor .
early msp work showed no difference in the prevalence of different cone cells between retinal halves [ 15 ] . however , our in situ hybridization experiments , which are better suited to assess photoreceptor distributions because they sampled more photoreceptors by several orders of magnitude , did detect differences : the dorsal retina , used for aquatic vision , has cone photoreceptors that express sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 2 and lws , while the ventral retina , used for aerial vision , expresses sws1 , sws2b , rh2 - 2 and rh2 - 1 ( figure 2 ) . from these observations , we predict that wavelength sensitivity differs in the dorsal and ventral regions of the retina .
the reduction of rh2 - 1 expression and retention of lws expression in the dorsal retina suggest that a . anableps has enhanced sensitivity to long wavelength light ( 543–576 nm ) in the aquatic field of view . this enhanced sensitivity could be advantageous in the brackish waters of the mangrove forests and river deltas that a . anableps inhabits , as these often contain dissolved organic matter that shifts light abundance to longer wavelengths [ 17 ] . light measurements taken in similar mangrove habitat showed that downwelling light is most prevalent at approximately 500 nm , while upwelling light peaks at approximately 580 nm [ 4 ] . we propose that , by the differential expression of rh2 - 1 and lws , a . anableps is better able to match its double cones to the background light in each field of view .
we thank three anonymous reviewers for helpful suggestions . we were supported by nserc discovery grants ( j . s . t . ) and graduate scholarship ( g . l . o . ) , as well as university of victoria graduate fellowships ( g . l . o . and d . j . r ) . we thank the university of victoria advanced imaging centre for their assistance .
switch in rod opsin gene expression in the european eel , anguilla anguilla ( l . )
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this configuration of the eyes enables anableps to search for food in one habitat ( air ) and at the same time watch out for predators in another habitat ( water ) . when it sees a predator approaching through the water , it escapes by leaping out of it , which is a reason why this species is not very suitable for keeping in a small home aquarium . another unusual habit is that when swimming it continually ducks its head under the water . this is because , unlike most land animals , it does not have a tear duct to keep the eye moist and so must duck to prevent its eyes from drying out .
) . this accounts for the formation of all the parts of the eyes and the needed complementary parts of the brain , with everything functional from the beginning .
‘the cornea is divided by a horizontal band of pigment , separating an upper , strongly convex part from a lower , flatter division . the iris has a pair of projections , partially dividing the pupil into two . ’ encyclopaedia britannica , 19 : 252 , 1992 . see also ibid 1 : 668 . return to text .
using a camera as a rough analogy , we can think of the cornea as the ‘window’ in front of the lens , and the retina as the surface on which the image is focused , somewhat like the film in a camera . from there , electrical signals send this visual information to the brain , where the signals are processed into mental images . return to text .
edward migdalski and george fichter , the fresh and salt water fishes of the world , bay books , sydney , australia , 1976 , p . 186 . return to text .
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atheriniform , any member of the order atheriniformes , containing 15 families of marine and freshwater spiny - finned fishes , including the flying fishes ( see photograph ) , needlefishes , silversides , and cyprinodonts . the last group , the cyprinodontidae , is an abundant tropical and subtropical family…
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perez ln 1 , lorena j 1 , costa cm 1 , araujo ms 1 , frota - lima gn 1 , matos - rodrigues ge 2 , martins ra 2 , mattox gm 3 , schneider pn 4 .
instituto de ciências biológicas , universidade federal do pará , belém , pará , brazil .
instituto de ciências biomédicas , universidade federal do rio de janeiro , rio de janeiro , brazil .
departamento de biologia , universidade federal de são carlos , campus sorocaba , são paulo , brazil .
instituto de ciências biológicas , universidade federal do pará , belém , pará , brazil schneider @ ufpa . br .
pmid : 28381624 pmcid : pmc5394668 doi : 10 . 1098 / rspb . 2017 . 0157
the anableps eye . ( a ) anableps anableps adult female specimen . ( b ) close - up view of the a . anableps eye ; dorsal and ventral corneas and pupils are visible . ( c ) schematic of the visual aerial and aquatic inputs ( sagittal view of the eye ) . rpe , retinal pigmented epithelium ; onl , outer nuclear layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer ; on , optic nerve ; dr , dorsal retina ; dp , dorsal pupil ; vr , ventral retina ; vp , ventral pupil ; ch , choroid ; l , lens ; ir , iris ; ps , pigmented strip ; dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea ; do , dorsal ; ve , ventral ; di , distal ; pr , proximal . scale bars : 1 cm ( a ) , 0 . 5 cm ( b ) .
eye development during larval stages . anableps anableps larvae at stage 1 ( a , b ) , stage 2 ( c , d ) , stage 3 ( e , f ) , stage 4 ( g , h ) , stage 5 ( i , j ) and stage 6 ( k , l ) . figures to the right are higher magnification images of ocular region . scale bars : 5 mm ( a , c , e , g , i , k ) , 500 µm ( b , d , f , h , j , l ) .
neurocranium ontogeny . anableps anableps neurocranium at stage 3 ( a , b ) , stage 4 ( c , d ) , stage 5 ( e , f ) stage 6 ( g , h ) and in the adult ( i , j ) . panels show dorsal ( left ) and lateral ( right ) views . boc , basioccipital ; epbar , epiphyseal bar ; epo , epiotic ; epopr , epiotic process ; ethpla , ethmoid plate ; exoc , exoccipital ; fro , frontal ; intsp , interorbital septum ; lamorb , lamina orbitonasalis ; let , lateral ethmoid ; mfl , membranous flap ; otcap , otic capsule ; par , parietal ; pro , prootic ; pto , pterotic ; psph , parasphenoid ; soc , supraoccipital ; sph , sphenotic ; tm , taenia marginalis ; trcom , trabecula communis ; the frontal and the interorbital septum are denoted in bold . scale bars : 1 mm .
= 5 , mean and standard deviation were calculated for a total of 27 eye sections ) . (
= 2 ; biological replicates for each larval stage of development ) . dr , dorsal retina ; vr , ventral retina ; l , lens ; ir , iris ; ps , pigmented strip ; dc , dorsal cornea ; vc , ventral cornea ; rpe , retinal pigmented epithelium ; is , inner segments ; os , outer segments ; onl , outer nuclear layer ; opl , outer plexiform layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; ipl , inner plexiform layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer . scale bar : 200 µm .
asymmetric opsin gene expression in the larval retina . ( a ) analysis of the pattern of expression of five visual opsins in ventral retina , relative to the dorsal retina , as determined by qpcr . the relative expression values were determined using the 2 −δδct method . bars represent mean in log 2 scale ±standard deviation of biological and technical replicates ( n = 9 ; three biological and three technical replicates ) . student ' s t - test was used to assess statistical significance between samples ( * * p < 0 . 01 and * * * p < 0 . 001 ) . ( b – k ) in situ hybridizations of visual opsins in eye sections of larvae of a . anableps : rh1 ( b , c ) , rh2 - 1 ( d , e ) , rh2 - 2 ( f , g ) , sws2b ( h , i ) and lws ( j , k ) . left column shows expression pattern in portions of the dorsal retina , as well right column in the ventral retina . scale bars : 0 . 05 mm . ( l – o ) immunofluorescence assay showing opsin expression on the dorsal and ventral retina in a . anableps at stage 6 . ( l , m ) immunostaining showed that rhodopsin is expressed equally in the dorsal and ventral retina . ( n ) opsin l / m monoclonal is only expressed in the dorsal retina . ( o ) opsin l / m monoclonal expression is not detected on the ventral retina . onl , outer nuclear layer ; inl , inner nuclear layer ; gcl , ganglion cell layer . cryosections are 20 µm thick . scale bars : 50 µm ( b – k ) and 200 µm ( l – o ) .
female of a . anableps . the pale stripe running down the dorsal surface is an identifying feature for this species .
the furo do meio is a tidal tributary of caeté bay , brazil and a typical habitat of this species .
. . . whereas during low tide they typically congregate in large groups . this and the previous image were taken off the coast of suriname .
a . anableps during low tide in the main channel of the furo do meio .
occurs along much of the north - east south american coastline from the gulf of paria ( the shallow , brackish inland sea which separates trinidad and tobago from venezuela ) through guyana , suriname and french guiana and past the amazon delta in brazil as far as the parnaíba river estuary at the border between the states of maranhão and piauí .
sympatric species in the furo do meio included colomesus psittacus , sciades herzbergii , pseudauchenipterus nodosus and hyporhamphus roberti .
surface area is far more important than height but this species is unsuitable for all but the largest aquaria ; a tank with base dimensions of 150 cm x 45 cm should be the minimum considered , and even this could only house half a dozen adults at most . given that it’s known to congregate in large groups at low tide , often comprising several hundred individuals , it’s clearly more suited to public than private aquaria .
temperature : strictly a tropical species ; the temperature should be maintained between 25 – 31 °c .
in captivity most dried foods are accepted but should not form the principal component of the diet , and it’s best to use a product with added spirulina or similar . gut - loaded drosophila fruit flies , bloodworm , artemia and chopped earthworms are excellent treats and good results have been reported using a home - made , gel - based recipe containing a mixture of seafood and fresh vegetables . feed twice daily to mimic its natural feeding cycle and note that a poor diet may be associated with reproductive problems ( see ‘breeding’ ) .
best kept in a species - only display and may predate on much smaller fishes but in very large tanks can be combined with peaceful estuarine fishes . some poecilia spp . are suitable and if geography is ignored monodactylus and bottom - dwelling gobies such as stigmatogobius sadanundio are possibilities . avoid vigorous surface - dwellers such as toxotes spp . or voracious feeders like scatophagus as this species has no natural competitors .
it should be maintained in a group of at least six , preferably a dozen or more as it can behave nervously in the absence of conspecifics . aggression is rare except in gravid females ( see ‘breeding’ ) .
females grow considerably larger than males and the latter possess a prominent gonopodium . this has a different structure to that seen in poeciliid livebearers having a scaled , tubular structure .
anableps species are viviparous and mating usually presents few problems provided you have a mixed - sex group . the genital opening of the female is covered by a hinged flap of skin known as the foricula , and most aquarium literature suggests that both this and the gonopodium of the male are naturally - orientated to the left or right depending on the individual .
gestation takes around 12 weeks and the female’s appetite increases significantly during this period . just before giving birth she becomes hostile towards any other tankmates and will attempt to find a quiet spot to release the young . these are fully - formed , measure around 40 - 50mm and are able to accept quite large morsels of food immediately .
many breeders have experienced problems with young being born prematurely , often with sections of the gut protruding through an opening in the abdomen . this leaves them susceptible to infection but in some cases they can be saved via removal them to a separate tank containing sterile water . it’s unknown whether such issues relate to water quality , diet , sexual maturity or stress but we’d suggest isolating gravid specimens and offering a varied diet containing both high protein items and algae .
the eye of anableps species is split horizontally by a band of epithelial tissue . it has two corneas , two pupils , a single , egg - shaped lens and one retina that’s also split into two sections . the lens is oval and asymmetric with the upper part flattened as in the human eye and the lower section curved as in most other fishes . the upper cornea is thicker and enriched with glycogen which possibly helps to protect it from drying and uv irradiation .
the family anablepidae also includes the genera oxyzygonectes ( monotypic ) and jenynsia ( 13 species ) . they’re members of the order cyprinodontiformes so are related to killifish , goodeids and poeciliid livebearers . anableps is the only genus to have developed specialised eye morphology and but jenynsia species are also viviparous .
ghedotti , m . j . and e . o . wiley . 2003 - in : carpenter ( 2003 ) . the living marine resources of the western central atlantic . v . 2 . anablepidae .


the yellow-bellied bulbul ( alophoixus phaeocephalus ) is a species of songbird in the bulbul family , pycnonotidae .

it is found on the malay peninsula , sumatra and borneo .

its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests .

yellow - bellied bulbul

select an image : 1 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 2 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 3 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > sonogram 4 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 5 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult and juvenile 6 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult and juvenile 7 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > juvenile 8 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > sonogram 9 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 10 . yellow - bellied bulbul 11 . yellow - bellied bulbul 12 . yellow - bellied bulbul 13 . yellow - bellied bulbul 14 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 15 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 16 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 17 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 18 . yellow - bellied bulbul 19 . yellow - bellied bulbul 20 . yellow - bellied bulbul 21 . yellow - bellied bulbul 22 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 23 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > preening 24 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 25 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 26 . yellow - bellied bulbul 27 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 28 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 29 . yellow - bellied bulbul 30 . yellow - bellied bulbul 31 . yellow - bellied bulbul 32 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult feeding 33 . yellow - bellied bulbul > > adult 34 . yellow - bellied bulbul 35 . yellow - bellied bulbul 36 . yellow - bellied bulbul 37 . yellow - bellied bulbul 38 . yellow - bellied bulbul 39 . yellow - bellied bulbul 40 . yellow - bellied bulbul
yellow - bellied bulbul ( alophoixus phaeocephalus ) is a species of bird in the pycnonotidae family .
other synonyms german : schwefelbülbül english : yellow - bellied bulbul , yellow - bellied bulbul ( nominate ) spanish : bulbul barbudo de cabeza gris french : bulbul à calotte grise , bulbul à calotte grise ( nominal ) , bulbul à calotte grise ( nominale ) , bulbul à calotte grise ( race nominale ) italian : bulbul barbuto testagrigia latin : alophoixus phaeocephalus phaeocephalus , criniger phaeocephalus phaeocephalus , ixos ( trichixos , less . ) phaeocephalus
streak - eared bulbul pycnonotus blanfordi is split into two monotypic species , ayeyarwady bulbul pycnonotus blanfordi , and streak - eared bulbul pycnonotus conradi ( garg et al . 2016 ) . note that the english name “streak - eared bulbul” now is applied to a different scientific name ( conradi , not blanfordi ) .
olive bulbul contains three subspecies : viridescens , and two subspecies that previously were classified under gray - eyed bulbul ( iole propinqua ) , lekhakuni and cinnamomeoventris .
from
black - crested bulbul
to
black - capped bulbul , with split of multiple species . ( rasmussen & anderton 2005 , fishpool & tobias 2005 )
the prigogine ' s greenbul has olive - green upperparts ; yellow throat ; gray lores .
tuesday , 19th april 2011 , congkak recreation forest , selangor another bird that i was waiting for , now months passed , is this yellow - bellied bulbul . got the bird alright . a few position too - but , the bird just refused to show to me the belly ! what can i do ?
olive bulbul iole virescens is split into two species , following manawatthana et al . ( 2017 ) : a monotypic cachar bulbul iole cacharensis ; and olive bulbul iole viridescens . revise the range of cachar bulbul from “northeastern india ( assam ) ; population in eastern bangladesh possibly also this subspecies ( or is nominate virescens ? ) ” to “northeastern india ( assam ) and eastern bangladesh” .
the mauritius bulbul has mainly gray plumage ; black crown , eye - line ; orange bill ; pink legs .
fishpool , l . & tobias , j . ( 2018 ) . yellow - bellied bulbul ( alophoixus phaeocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
criniger is a genus of songbirds in the bulbul family , pycnonotidae . the species of criniger are found in western and central africa .
the rare blue - wattled bulbul may be a hybrid ( williams 2002 ) , but more evidence needed ( dickinson and dekker 2002 ) .
the little greenbul has mainly green upperparts with brown wings , upper - tail ; pale grayish - green underparts ; brown bill ; light yellow - brown feet .
the red - billed bristlebill has brown - olive upperparts ; rufous tail ; yellow underparts ; grayish - blue orbital skin . male has red eyes ; female brown eyes .
20–20·5 cm ; 23–40 g . large , brightly coloured , relatively retiring bulbul , eyes contrasting sharply with pale face , elongated chin and throat often puffed . . .
a deeper forest bulbul , often alone ; here seen feeding and singing . the subspecies a . p . diardi has a clear / noticeable yellow tip to the tail . although described as having no crest , davison ( 1999 ) describes is as “absence of a crest is diagnostic” , this is not that precise . they have the ability to raise crest feathers , and often do so . - amar
pieplow , n . d . , and c . d . francis . 2011 . song differences among subspecies of yellow - eyed juncos ( junco phaeonotus ) . wilson journal of ornithology 123 : 464 - 471 .
this bulbul is found in broad - leaved forests , cultivation and gardens mainly in hilly areas , but himalayan populations are known to sometimes descend into the adjoining plains in winter . the western ghats birds may make movements related to rain .
milá , b . , p . aleixandre , s . alvarez - nordström , and j . mccormack . 2016 . more than meets the eye : lineage diversity and evolutionary history of dark - eyed and yellow - eyed juncos . pages 179 - 198 in e . d . ketterson and j . w . atwell ( editors ) , snowbird . university of chicago press , chicago .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , yellow - breasted chat ( icteria virens ) is removed from parulidae ( new world warblers ) and is placed in a new monotypic family , icteriidae ( yellow - breasted chat ) , following barker et al . ( 2013 , 2015 ) . aos - nacc also revised the linear sequence of families in the nine - primaried oscines ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , but we defer completely following the new sequence until our next release ( august 2018 ) . in the interim , position icteriidae to follow emberizidae ( old world buntings ) , calyptophilidae ( chat - tanagers ) , phaenicophilidae ( hispaniolan tanagers ) , nesospingidae ( puerto rican tanager ) , spindalidae ( spindalises ) , zeledoniidae ( wrenthrush ) , and teretistridae ( cuban warblers ) .
the taxonomy is complex with this and several other currently recognized species earlier treated as subspecies of hypsipetes madagascariensis . within asia , h . ganeesa has often been listed as a subspecies of h . leucocephalus , but is increasingly treated as a separate species restricted to the western ghats ( south of somewhere near bombay ) and sri lanka , the square - tailed black bulbul . the subspecies from sri lanka humii is then placed under this species .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , the monotypic group yellow - eyed junco ( baird’s ) junco phaeonotus bairdi is elevated to species rank as baird’s junco junco bairdi . this split is based on “morphology ( miller 1941 ) , vocalizations ( howell and webb 1995 , pieplow and francis 2011 ) , and genetics ( mccormack et al . 2012 , friis et al . 2016 , milá et al . 2016 ) ” ( chesser et al . 2017 ) .
the black bulbul is 24–25 cm in length , with a long tail . the body plumage ranges from slate grey to shimmering black , depending on the race . the beak , legs , and feet are all red and the head has a black fluffy crest . sexes are similar in plumage , but young birds lack the crest , have whitish underparts with a grey breast band , and have a brown tint to the upperparts . they have a black streak behind the eye and on the ear coverts .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , the genus mitrospingus is removed from thraupidae ( tanagers and allies ) and is placed in a new family , mitrospingidae ( mitrospingid tanagers ) , following barker et al . ( 2013 , 2015 ) . aos - nacc also revised the linear sequence of families in the nine - primaried oscines ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , but we defer completely following the new sequence until our next release ( august 2018 ) . in the interim , position icteriidae to follow emberizidae ( old world buntings ) , calyptophilidae ( chat - tanagers ) , phaenicophilidae ( hispaniolan tanagers ) , nesospingidae ( puerto rican tanager ) , spindalidae ( spindalises ) , zeledoniidae ( wrenthrush ) , teretistridae ( cuban warblers ) , and icteriidae ( yellow - breasted chat ) .
bulbuls are short - necked and slender . the tails are long and the wings short and rounded . in almost all species the bill is slightly elongated and slightly hooked at the end . they vary in length from 13 cm to 29 cm . overall the sexes are alike , although the females tend to be slightly smaller . the soft plumage of some species is colourful with yellow , red or orange vents , cheeks , throat or supercilia , but most are drab , with uniform olive brown to black plumage . species with dull coloured eyes often sport contrasting eyerings . some have very distinct crests . bulbuls are highly vocal , with the calls of most species being described as nasal or gravelly . bulbuls eat a wide range of different foods , ranging from fruit to seeds , nectar , small insects and other arthropods and even small vertebrates . the bulbuls are generally monogamous .
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ioc _ names _ file _ plus - 8 . 2g : 8 . 2
is a recently described species ( woxvold et al . 2009 ) . it is sister to
is in prevailing usage . based on
turdoïde de gourdin
of homblon & jacquinot , 1844 referenced in gray , 1847 . see mayr & greenway , 1960 ( peters checklist , ix )
nigeria to s sudan , w kenya . s drcongo , nw zambia and n angola
now considered to be a plumage variant of icterine greenbul ( collinson et al . 2017 )
rwenzori mts , itombwe and mt . kabobo ( e drcongo ) , w uganda , w rwanda and n burundi
montane tiny greenbul is split from { lowland ] tiny greenbul [ fuchs et al . 2011a ]
based on genetic studies . but genetic divergence may support species status . manawatthana et al . 2017
as a junior synonym . fishpool & tobias , 2005 . the population from sabah is vocally and genetically distinct and likely represents an unnamed taxon . the subspecies epithet
( type speciemen from e kalimantan ) has been erroneously applied to this population . eaton et al 2016 , rheindt in . litt . ( see manawatthana et al . 2017 ) .
kuroda , 1922 as a synonym . permanently invalid . dickinson & christidis , 2014 .
dalupiri , calayan and fuga is . ( n of luzon in n philippines )
is a member of the afrotropical clade of bulbuls ( pycnonotidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , zuccon & ericson 2010 )
cheke & hume 2008 , bli . conspecific with the extinct reunion form whose scientific name has priority .
manchurian bush warbler is restricted to borealis ; ssp canturians is treated here as a subspecies of h . diphone . an alternative treatment would be to lump borealis with diphone until relationships of the members of this complex are sorted out genetically ( alström et al . 2011b ) . see rasmussen & anderton 2005 , bli re original split of cettia canturians , including borealis from c . diphone .
iczn opinion 2215 . bulletin of zoological nomenclature 65 : 327 - 328 , 2008 .
correct gender agreement ; original specific epithet albicapillus is invariable . ( n david , h & m corrigenda 2 . 1 )
genetically embedded in monticola ; move before m . rupestris ( zuccon & ericson 2010a )
frith and frith 1998 , christidis and boles 2008 , slikas unpub . , t . pratt comm .
frith and frith 1998 , christidis and boles 2008 , slikas unpub . , t . pratt comm .
restore inland plover to peltohyas ; relative of wrybill and red - kneed dotterel ; resequence following lapwings , their sister group ( baker et al . 2007 ; fjeldsa comm )
fuchs et al 2008 ; correct error in v2 . 5 ; correct gender agreement
correct gender agreement ; “we are speaking here of hydrornis blyth 1843 in jasb 12 ( 2 ) : 960 , indeed masculine . in turdus guajanus by statius müller , guajanus is adjectival ( much [ too ] long to explain ) ; thus hydrornis guayanus is ok . ” ( n . david 7 / 9 / 2010 )
chlorophoneus viridis , c . dohertyi , c . quadricolor form a separate clade with telophorus , rhodophoneus , all merged into telophorus ( fuchs et al 2004 , fjeldsa comm )
malcorus belongs with hypergerus and eminia in cisticolidae ( johansson et al . 2008 , tif , fjeldsa comm )
“ lopesi ” is an unjustified emmendation . fide alan peterson , peter ryan ( hbw 11 )
pnoepyga wren - babblers are not babblers and elevated to their own family ( gelang et al . 2009 )
correct spreadsheet re 2 . 0 change of genus ( p . kovalik 7 / 2010 )
new family includes melocichla , sphenoeacus , achaetops , macrosphenus , sylvietta , cryptillas , and possibly graueria and hemitesia ( johansson et al . 2007 , 2008 , tif ) . move up in sequence as old branch of sylvioid passerines .
move dohm’s thrush - babbler to sylviidae as sister to pseudoalcippe [ abyssinica ] ( voelker et al . 2009 )
bush blackcap is a member of the sylviidae closer to pseudoalcippe than to sylvia ( johansson et al . 2008 , tif )
separate fulvetta species from alcippe fulvettas and move to sylviidae ( pasquet et al . 2006 , collar & robson 2007 , gelang et al . 2009 )
move yuhina species to zosteropidae from timaliidae ( cibois et al 2003 , moyle et al 2009 ) ; recognition of subclades under review .
richmond ( 1917 ) , fide alan peterson . ichthyophaga is an unjustified emendation of original spelling .
recording modified with audacity 2 . 2 . 0 : - normalized ( - 0 . 50 db ) - high pass filter ( 2000 hz / rolloff 48 db ) - low pass filter ( 5500 hz / rolloff 48 db ) - fade in / fade out
[ id . ? does not match other recordings : nk ] ref . : borneo2 : 0 : 35 - 1 : 08
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
according to some recent authors # r , deep mtdna divergences and clear plumage differences suggest that nominate race and connectens may represent two separate species , with sulphuratus and diardi together constituting a third species ; delimitation of races in borneo is complex , variation appearing clinal , and perhaps only extremes merit recognition ; further study required , including investigation of vocal differences and identification of exact areas of overlap of taxa in borneo ( where species probably present throughout ) . three putative races ( caniceps , rufocaudatus , cantori ) merged with nominate ; medius ( long petah , in e borneo ) indistinguishable from sulphuratus . four subspecies recognized .
( hartlaub , 1844 ) – extreme s myanmar ( extreme s tenasserim ) , s thailand , peninsular malaysia , sumatra ( including bintang , lingga , bangka , belitung , siberut and sipura ) and n natuna is .
( bonaparte , 1850 ) – c borneo ( e sarawak and w sabah s to se kalimantan ) .
( finsch , 1867 ) – w borneo ( s from r baram ) .
calls with subdued harsh , slightly buzzy “whi’ee whi’ee whi’ee” , or ( . . .
broadleaf evergreen forest , well - developed secondary growth ( having relatively closed canopy , and . . .
a generalist , eating both fruit and insects . at kerau , in peninsular malaysia , parties visiting fig (
breeds apr–aug . rate of retrapping in lowland forest in peninsular malaysia suggests that pair probably territorial . clutch 2 eggs . . . .
not globally threatened . generally fairly common to common throughout much of range . extinct in singapore for at least five decades , following deforestation . in mature . . .
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often merged into african criniger , but molecular study # r indicates that african and asian members of this family are only distantly related . phylogeographical study # r reveals apparent presence of a ring species complex in indomalayan region , and this is supported by analytical study # r .
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an adult singing / calling while perched on a tree ( approx . 3 - 4m in height ) .
david cooper , jmittermeier , holger teichmann , marco valentini , ken havard , manakincarmelo , chairunas adha putra , paul van giersbergen , markus lilje , pedroyayadrums .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as generally fairly common to common throughout its range ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
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alophoixus phaeocephalus phaeocephalus : malay pen . , sumatra , bangka , belitung and north natuna is .
howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : alophoixus phaeocephalus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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established by coenraad jacob temminck in 1820 , the name criniger is latin for
long - haired
( from crinis , meaning
hair
and gerere , meaning
to carry
) . [ 1 ]
catalogue of the birds in the british museum : passeriformes , or perching birds . cichlomorphœ : pt . iii - iv , containing the . . . family timeliidœ ( babbling - thrushes ) by r . b . sharpe
huntley , jerry w . ; harvey , johanna a . ; pavia , marco ; boano , giovanni ; voelker , gary ( 2017 ) .
the systematics and biogeography of the bearded greenbuls ( aves :
) reveals the impact of plio - pleistocene forest fragmentation on afro - tropical avian diversity
.
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black bulbuls feed mainly on seeds and insects , and they are often seen in small groups , either roosting or flying about in search of food . they are particularly fond of berries . they are known to feed on a wide range of berries including celtis , rosa , melia and ehretia in the himalayas . the feed on the nectar of salmalia , erythrina , rhododendron and other species . they make aerial sallies for insects . they can be quite noisy , making various loud cheeping , mewing and grating calls . the himalayan form has been reported to make a call resembling a goat kid , throwing back its neck when calling .
it builds its nest in a tree or bush ; the nest is a cup placed in a fork and made from grasses , dry leaves , mosses , lichens and cobwebs . the lining is made up of ferns , rootlets and other soft material . both sexes participate in nest construction . two or three eggs form the usual clutch . in southern india , nesting activity begins from february and rises to a peak in may . the eggs hatch after an incubation period of 12 to 13 days and the chicks fledge after about 11 or 12 days . nest predators include birds of prey ( black - winged kite ) , snakes ( ptyas mucosus ) . adults of h . ganeesa have been known to be preyed on by the crested goshawk .
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please note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .
important note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .
© thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )
the updates and corrections are grouped into four sections . within each section , items are listed in the order in which they are encountered in the ebird / clements checklistv2017 spreadsheet , although we also continue to reference by page number the relevant entry in the last published edition of the clements checklist ( 6th , 2007 ) .
gray - breasted partrige arborophila orientalis is split into four monotypic species , following mees ( 1996 ) : malaysian partridge arborophila campbelli ; roll’s partridge arborophila rolli ; sumatran partridge arborophila sumatrana ; and gray - breasted partridge arborophila orientalis .
mees , g . f . 1996 . geographical variation in birds of java . publications of the nuttall ornithological club number 26 . cambridge , massachusetts .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , northern harrier circus cyaneus is split into two monotypic species : hen harrier circus cyaneus , of the old world , and northern harrier circus hudsonius , of north america . this split is based on “differences in morphology , plumage , and breeding habitat ( grant 1983 , thorpe 1988 , dobson and clarke 2011 , etherington and mobley 2016 ) commensurate with differences between other recognized species of circus ” ( chesser et al . 2017 ) .
chesser , r . t . , k . j . burns , c . cicero , j . l . dunn , a . w . kratter , i . j . lovette , p . c . rasmussen , j . v . remsen , jr . , j . d . rising , d . f . stotz , and k . winker . 2017 . fifty - eighth supplement to the american ornithological society’s check - list of north american birds . auk 134 : 751 - 773 .
dobson , a . d . m . , and m . l . clarke . 2011 . inconsistency in the taxonomy of hen and northern harriers : causes and consequences . british birds 104 : 192–201 .
etherington , g . j . , and j . a . mobley . 2016 . molecular phylogeny , morphology and life - history comparisons within circus cyaneus reveal the presence of two distinct evolutionary lineages . avian research 7 : 17 .
thorpe , j . p . 1988 . juvenile hen harriers showing ‘marsh hawk” characters . british birds 81 : 377–382 .
the validity of tanna ground - dove alopecoenas ferrugineus formerly was questioned ( peters 1937 ) , but this species now is widely accepted ( stresemann 1950 , greenway 1958 , dutson 2011 ) . insert this species , with range “formerly tanna island ( vanuatu ) . extinct ; not reported since 1774” , immediately following thick - billed ground - dove alopecoenas salamonis .
dutson , g . 2011 . birds of melanesia . the bismarcks , solomons , vanuatu and new caledonia . christopher helm , london .
greenway , j . c . , jr . 1958 . extinct and vanishing birds of the world . special publication number 13 . american committee for international wild life protection , new york , new york .
peters , j . l . 1937 . check - list of birds of the world . volume iii . harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts .
stresemann , e . 1950 . birds collected during capt . james cook’s last expedition ( 1776 - 1780 ) . auk 67 : 66 - 88 .
the status of norfolk ground - dove alopecoenas norfolkensis formerly was confused ( peters 1937 ) , but this species now is widely accepted as valid ( goodwin 1970 , gill et al . 2010 , forshaw 2015 ) . insert this species , with range “formerly norfolk island ( australia ) . extinct since ca 1800” , immediately following white - throated ground - dove alopecoenas xanthonurus .
forshaw , j . m . 2015 . pigeons and doves in australia . csiro publishing , clayton south , victoria , australia .
gill , b . j . , b . d . bell , c . k . chambers , d . g . medway , r . l . palma , r . p . scofield , a . j . d . tennyson , and t . h . worthy ( checklist committee , ornithological society of new zealand ) . 2010 . checklist of the birds of new zealand . te papa press and the ornithological society of new zealand , wellington , new zealand .
goodwin , d . 1970 . pigeons and doves of the world . second edition . british museum ( natural history ) , london and cornell university press , ithaca , new york .
glossy swiftlet collocalia esculenta is split into multiple species , and the sequence of species of collocalia swiftlets is revised . following rheindt et al . ( 2017 ) :
subspecies collocalia esculenta natalis is elevated to species rank as a monotypic christmas island swiftlet collocalia natalis .
subspecies affinis , elachyptera , cyanoptila , vanderbilti , and oberholseri are removed from glossy swiftlet and are recognized as plume - toed swiftlet collocalia affinis .
subspecies marginata and septentrionalis are removed from glossy swiftlet and are recognized as gray - rumped swiftlet collocalia marginata .
subspecies isonota and bagobo are removed from glossy swiftlet , and are recognized as ridgetop swiftlet collocalia isonota .
we recognize tenggara swiftlet collocalia sumbawae , which includes subspecies sumbawae and a newly described subspecies , sumbae . revise the range description of nominate sumbawae from “w lesser sundas ( sumbawa , sumba , flores and besar ) ” to “western lesser sundas ( sumbawa ; population on flores and besar possibly also this subspecies ) ” . following sumbawae , insert newly described sumbae schodde , rheindt , and christidis 2017 , with range “western lesser sundas ( sumba ) ” .
subspecies neglecta and perneglecta are removed from glossy swiftlet , and are recognized as drab swiftlet collocalia neglecta . revise the range description of nominate neglecta from “e lesser sundas ( roti , dao , semau , timor and jaco ) ” to “lesser sundas ( sawu , roti , semau , and timor ) ” . revise the range description of subspecies perneglecta from “alor , sawu , wetar , kisar , romang , damar and tanimbar is . ” to “lesser sundas ( alor , wetar , and kisar ) ; populations on romang , damar and tanimbar possibly introgressant with glossy swiftlet” .
subspecies uropygialis and albidior are removed from glossy swiftlet , and are recognized as satin swiftlet collocalia uropygialis .
beehler , b . m . , and t . k . pratt . 2016 . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics . princeton university press , princeton , new jersey .
dickinson , e . c . , and j . v . remsen , jr . ( editors ) . 2013 . the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . fourth edition . volume 1 . aves press , eastbourne , united kingdom .
peters , j . l . 1940 . check - list of birds of the world . volume iv . harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts .
rheindt , f . e . , l . christidis , j . a . norman , j . a . eaton , k . r . sadanandan , and r . schodde . 2017 . speciation in indo - pacific swiftlets ( aves : apodidae ) : integrating molecular and phenotypic data for a new provisional taxonomy of the collocalia esculenta complex . zootaxa 4250 : 401 - 433 .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , magnificent hummingbird eugenes fulgens is split into two species : rivoli’s hummingbird eugenes fulgens , and talamanca hummingbird eugenes spectabilis . this action is based on an assessment of the degree of plumage differences between them . a phylogenetic survey by zamudio - beltrán and hernández - baños ( 2015 ) also revealed a genetic divergence between rivoli’s and talamanca hummingbirds .
zamudio - beltrán , l . e . , and b . e . hernández - baños . 2015 . a multilocus analysis provides evidence for more than one species within eugenes fulgens ( aves : trochilidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 90 : 80 - 84 .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , emerald toucanet aulacorhynchus prasinus is split into two species : northern emerald - toucanet aulacorhynchus prasinus , which includes subspecies wagleri , prasinus , warneri , virescens , volcanius , maxillaris , caeruleogularis , and cognatus ; and southern emerald - toucanet aulacorhynchus albivitta , which includes subspecies lautus , griseigularis , albivitta , phaeolaemus , dimidiatus , and cyanolaemus . this split is based on “differences in phenotype and genetic results consistent with those differences ( puebla - olivares et al . 2008 , bonaccorso et al . 2011 , winker 2016 ) ” ( chesser et al . 2017 ) .
within northern emerald - toucanet , change the english name of the monotypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus wagleri from emerald toucanet ( wagler’s ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( wagler’s ) . change the english name of the polytypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus [ prasinus group ] from emerald toucanet ( emerald ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( emerald ) . subspecies stenorhabdus , with range “subtropical s mexico to w guatemala and n el salvador” , and subspecies chiapensis , with range “mts . of extreme s mexico ( mt . ovando , chiapas ) ” , both are considered to be junior synonyms of virescens ( peters 1948 , monroe 1968 ) , and are deleted . revise the range description of virescens from “se mexico ( chiapas ) to honduras and nicaragua” to “southeastern mexico , guatemala , belize , western el salvador , honduras , and northern nicaragua” . change the english name of the polytypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus caeruleogularis / maxillaris from emerald toucanet ( blue - throated ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( blue - throated ) . change the english name of the monotypic group aulacorhynchus prasinus cognatus from emerald toucanet ( violet - throated ) to northern emerald - toucanet ( violet - throated ) .
within southern emerald - toucanet , change the names of the monotypic group emerald toucanet ( santa marta ) aulacorhynchus prasinus lautus to southern emerald - toucanet ( santa marta ) aulacorhynchus albivitta lautus . change the names of the monotypic group emerald toucanet ( gray - throated ) aulacorhynchus prasinus griseigularis to southern emerald - toucanet ( gray - throated ) aulacorhynchus albivitta griseigularis . change the names of the polytypic group emerald toucanet ( andean ) aulacorhynchus prasinus albivitta / phaeolaemus to southern emerald - toucanet ( andean ) aulacorhynchus albivitta albivitta / phaeolaemus . change the names of the polytypic group emerald toucanet ( black - throated ) aulacorhynchus prasinus [ atrogularis group ] to southern emerald - toucanet ( black - throated ) aulacorhynchus albivitta [ atrogularis group ] .
bonaccorso , e . , j . m . guayasamin , a . t . peterson , and a . g . navarro - sigüenza . 2011 . molecular phylogeny and systematics of neotropical toucanets in the genus aulacorhynchus ( aves , ramphastidae ) . zoologica scripta 40 : 336 - 349 .
monroe , b . l . , jr . 1968 . a distributional survey of the birds of honduras . ornithological monographs number 7 . american ornithologists’ union .
peters , j . l . 1948 . check - list of birds of the world . volume vi . harvard university press , cambridge , massachusetts .
puebla - olivares , f . , e . bonaccorso , a . espinosa de los monteros , k . e . omland , j . e . llorente - bousquets , a . t . peterson , and a . g . navarro - sigüenza . 2008 . speciation in the emerald toucanet ( aulacorhynchus prasinus ) complex . auk 125 : 39 - 50 .
winker , k . 2016 . an examination of species limits in the aulacorhynchus “ prasinus ” toucanet complex ( aves : ramphastidae ) . peerj 4 : e2381 .
each of the two monotypic groups of horned parakeet is recognized as a separate species , following juniper and parr ( 1998 ) and boon et al . ( 2014 ) : horned parakeet ( horned ) eunymphicus cornutus cornutus becomes horned parakeet eunymphicus cornutus , and horned parakeet ( ouvea ) eunymphicus cornutus uvaeensis becomes ouvea parakeet eunymphicus uvaeensis .
boon , w . - m . , o . robinet , n . rawlence , v . bretagnolle , j . a . norman , l . christidis , and g . k . chambers . 2008 . morphological , behavioural , and genetic differentiation within the horned parakeet ( eunymphicus cornutus ) and its affinities to cyanoramphus and prosopeia . emu 108 : 251 - 260 .
juniper , t . , and m . parr . 1998 . parrots : a guide to parrots of the world . yale university press , new haven , connecticut .
we add a new species , the recently described tatama tapaculo scytalopus alvarezlopezi ( stiles et al . 2017 ) , with range “pacific slope of colombian andes ( western antioquia south to southwestern valle del cauca ) ” . position tatama tapaculo to immediately follow ecuadorian tapaculo scytalopus robbinsi . tatama tapaculo is the species that long has been known to birders as “alto pisones tapaculo” ; alto de pisones is a site at the edge of tamatá national park . please note that the validity of this new species has not yet been reviewed by aos - sacc .
stiles , f . g . , o . laverde - r . , and c . d . cadena . 2017 . a new species of tapaculo ( rhinocryptidae : scytalopus ) from the western andes of colombia . auk 134 : 377 - 392 .
the monotypic group cardinal myzomela ( samoan ) myzomela cardinalis nigriventris is elevated to species rank as samoan myzomela myzomela nigriventris , following pratt and mittermeier ( 2016 ) .
pratt , h . d . , and j . c . mittermeier . 2016 . notes on the natural history , taxonomy , and conservation of the endemic avifaua of the samoan archipelago . wilson journal of ornithology 128 : 217 - 241 .
in accord with aos - nacc ( chesser et al . 2017 ) , northern shrike lanius excubitor is split into two species : great gray shrike lanius excubitor , with subspecies excubitor , homeyeri , and leucopterus ; and northern shrike lanius borealis , with subspecies sibiricus , bianchii , mollis , funereus , and borealis . this split is based on “differences in plumage and mtdna ( johnsen et al . 2010 , olsson et al . 2010 , peer et al . 2011 ) ” ( chesser et al . 2017 ) ; in particular , northern shrike is more closely related to other species than it is to great gray shrike ( olsson et al . 2010 ) .
johnsen , a . , e . rindal , p . g . p . ericson , d . zuccon , k . c . r . kerr , m . y . stoeckle , and j . t . lifjeld . 2010 . dna barcoding of scandinavian birds reveals divergent lineages in trans - atlantic species . journal of ornithology 151 : 565–578 .
olsson , u . , p . alström , l . svensson , m . aliabadian , and p . sundberg . 2010 . the lanius excubitor ( aves , passeriformes ) conundrum—taxonomic dilemma when molecular and non - molecular data tell different stories . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 55 : 347–357 .
peer , b . d . , c . e . mcintosh , m . j . kuehn , s . i . rothstein , and r . c . fleischer . 2011 . complex biogeographic history of lanius shrikes and its implications for the evolution of defenses against avian brood parasitism . condor 113 : 385–394 .
the extinct genus turnagra , which we previously treated as a single , monotypic species , piopio turnagra capensis , is split into two species , following oliver ( 1955 ) , holdaway et al . ( 2001 ) , and gill et al . ( 2010 ) : a monotypic north island piopio turnagra tanagra , with range “formerly new zealand ( north island ) . extinct ; last confirmed report in 1902” ; and a polytypic south island piopio turnagra capensis , with subspecies minor and capensis .
add a previously overlooked subspecies , turnagra capensis minor , with range “formerly new zealand ( stephens island ) . extinct ; last reported 1897” ( gill et al . 2010 ) .
with the split of turnagra into two species , and the addition of subspecies minor , revise the range description of nominate capensis from “formerly new zealand . extinct ; last reported 1963” to “formerly new zealand ( south island ) . extinct ; last confirmed report in 1905” .
holdaway , r . n . , t . h . worthy , and a . j . d . tennyson . 2001 . a working list of breeding bird species of the new zealand region at first human contact . new zealand journal of zoology 28 :
oliver , w . r . b . 1955 . new zealand birds . a . h . & a . w . reed , wellington , new zealand .
silktail lamprolia victoriae is split into monotypic species , following andersen et al . ( 2015b , 2017 ) : taveuni silktail lamprolia victoriae , and natewa silktail lamprolia klinesmithi .
andersen , m . j . , p . a . hosner , c . e filardi , and r . g . moyle . 2015b . phylogeny of the monarch flycatchers reveals extensive paraphyly and novel relationships within a major australo - pacific radiation . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 67 : 336–347 .
andersen , m . j . , j . d . manthey , a . naikatini , and r . g . moyle . 2017 . conservation genomics of the silktail ( aves : lamprolia victoriae ) suggests the need for increased protection of native forest on the natewa peninsula , fiji . conservation genetics in press : doi : 10 . 1007 / s10592 - 017 - 0979 - x .
superb bird - of - paradise is split into three species , following irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) . confusingly , the name superba also is transferred from one population to another ( irestedt et al . 2017 ) . the resulting species are vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise lophorina niedda , with subspecies niedda and the newly described subspecies inopinata ; greater superb bird - of - paradise lophorina superba , with subspecies superba , addenda , and latipennis ; and a monotypic lesser superb bird - of - paradise lophorina minor .
under vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise ( lophorina niedda ) , add a newly described subspecies , lophorina niedda inopinata irestedt et al . 2017 , with range “mountains of the bird’s head peninsula , west papua , new guinea” . insert this subspecies immediately following the entry for the species vogelkop superb bird - of - paradise lophorina niedda . note that the range attributed to this subspecies corresponds to the range formerly attributed to subspecies superba , a name that now is applied to a population in the western highlands of new guinea , and which represents a different species , greater superb bird - of - paradise .
revise the range description of subspecies niedda from “w new guinea ( mt . wondiwoi in wandammen peninsula ) ” to “mountains of the wandammen peninsula , bird’s neck , west papua , new guinea” .
regarding greater superb bird - of - paradise ( lophorina superba ) , irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) conclude that the name superba , previously applied to the population in the mountains of the bird’s head peninsula , instead should refer to the population of the central highlands of new guinea . also , subspecies feminina , with range “w new guinea ( weyland mts . to hindenberg mts . ) ” , is considered to be a junior synonym of superba ( irestedt et al . 2017 ) . revise the range description of superba from “w new guinea ( arfak and tamrau mountains ) ” to “montane western new guinea , from the kobowre mountains ( west papua , indonesia ) to the sepik - strickland river divide ( western papua new guinea ) ” .
following irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) , resurrect subspecies addenda iredale 1948 , previously considered to be a synomym of feminina ( mayr 1962 ) , with range “eastern ranges of new guinea , from the yuat - strickland river divide and the base of the southeastern peninsula , papua new guinea” . insert subspecies addenda immediately following subspecies superba .
revise the range description of subspecies latipennis from “e new guinea ( central and e highlands to mts . of huon pen . ) ” to “eastern new guinea ( mountains of the huon peninsula , and presumably also the herzog and adelbert ranges ) ” .
lesser superb bird - of - paradise ( lophorina minor ) is monotypic . subspecies sphinx , known from a single specimen , with range “mountains of extreme se new guinea” , is considered to be a junior synonym of minor ( irestedt et al . 2017 ) , and is deleted . revise the range description of minor from “mountains of se papua new guinea” to “southeastern papua new guinea ( mountains of the papuan peninsula , west at least to the wharton range ) ” .
irestedt , m . , h . batalha - filho , c . s . roselaar , p . g . p . ericson , l . christidis , and r . schodde . 2017 . phylogeny , biogeography and taxonomic consequences in a bird - of - paradise species complex , lophorina - ptiloris ( aves : paradisaeidae ) . zoological journal of the linnean society in press .
mayr , e . 1962 . family paradisaeidae , birds of paradise . pages 181 - 204 in e . mayr and j . c . greenway , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of the birds of the world . volume xv . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .
each of the two groups in magnifcent riflebird is recognized as a separate species , following beehler and swaby ( 1991 ) , beehler and pratt ( 2016 ) , and irestedt et al . ( 2017 ) : a polytypic magnificent riflebird ptiloris magnificus , including subspecies magnificus and alberti ; and a monotypic growling riflebird ptiloris intercedens .
beehler , b . m . , and r . j . swaby . 1991 . phylogeny and biogeography of the ptiloris riflebirds ( aves : paradisaeidae ) . condor 93 : 738 - 745 .
garg , k . m . , r . tizard , n . s . r . ng , e . cros , a . dejtaradol , b . chattopadhyay , n . pwint , m . päckert , and f . e . rheindt . 2016 . genome - wide data help identify an avian species - level lineage that is morphologically and vocally cryptic . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 102 : 97 - 103 .
dickinson , e . c . , and l . christidis . 2014 . the howard & moore complete checklist of the birds of the world . fourth edition . volume 2 . aves press , eastbourne , united kingdom .
manawatthana , s . , p . laosinchai , n . onparn , w . y . brockleman , and p . d . round . 2017 . phylogeography of bulbuls in the genus iole ( aves : pycnonotidae ) . biological journal of the linnean society 120 : 931 - 944 .
rand , a . l . , and h . g . deignan . 1960 . family pycnonotidae . pages 221 - 300 in e . mayr and j . c . greenway , jr . ( editors ) , check - list of birds of the world . volume ix . museum of comparative zoology , cambridge , massachusetts .
gray - brown white - eye zosterops cinereus is split into two species , following hayes et al . ( 2016 ) : pohnpei white - eye zosterops ponapensis , and kosrae white - eye zosterops cinereus .
hayes , f . e . , h . d . pratt , and c . j . cianchini . 2016 . the avifauna of kosrae , micronesia : history , status , and taxonomy . pacific science 70 : 91–127 .
black - chinned laughingthrush trochalopteron cachinnans does not belong in the genus trochalopteron , but instead is placed in the newly described genus montecincla ( robin et al . 2017 ) . position montecincla immediately following red - tailed laughingthrush trochalopteron milnei . each of the two monotypic groups of black - chinned laughingthrush is elevated to species rank ( praveen and nameer 2012 , robin et al . 2017 ) : black - chinned laughingthrush ( banasura ) trochalopteron cachinnans jerdoni becomes banasura laughingthrush montecincla jerdoni ; and black - chinned laughingthrush ( nilgiri ) trochalopteron cachinnans cachinnans
praveen , j . , and p . o . nameer . 2012 . strophocincla laughingthrushes of south india : a case for allopatric speciation and impact on their conservation . journal of the bombay natural history society 109 : 46 - 52 .
robin , v . v . , c . k . vishnudas , p . gupta , f . e . rheindt , d . h . hooper , u . ramakrishnan , and s . reddy . 2017 . two new genera of songbirds represent endemic radiations from the shola sky islands of the western ghats , india . bmc evolutionary biology 17 : 31 .
kerala laughingthrush trochalopteron fairbanki does not belong in the genus trochalopteron , but instead is placed in the newly described genus montecincla ( robin et al . 2017 ) . position montecincla immediately following red - tailed laughingthrush trochalopteron milnei . each of the two monotypic groups of kerala laughingthrush is elevated to species rank ( praveen and nameer 2012 , robin et al . 2017 ) : kerala laughingthrush ( palani ) trochalopteron fairbanki fairbanki becomes palani laughingthrush montecincla fairbanki ; and kerala laughingthrush ( travancore ) trochalopteron fairbanki meridionale becomes ashambu laughingthrush montecincla meridionale .
the monotypic group blue - throated flycatcher ( chinese ) cyornis rubeculoides glaucicomans is elevated to species rank as chinese blue flycatcher cyornis glaucicomans ( zhang et al . 2015 ) . revise the range description from “s china ( sichuan , guizhou , w hubei and shaanxi ) ” to “breeds southern china ( southern shaanxi and western hubei to sichuan and guizhou ) ; winters southwestern thailand and the thai - malay peninsula” .
zhang , z . , x . wang , y . huang , u . olsson , j . martinez , p . alström , and f . lei . 2015 . unexpected divergence and lack of divergence revealed in continental asian cyornis flycatchers ( aves : muscicapidae ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 94 : 232 - 241 .
white - tailed rubythroat calliope pectoralis is split into two species , based on liu et al . ( 2016 ) : a polytypic himalayan rubythroat calliope pectoralis , including subspecies pectoralis , confusa , and ballioni ; and a monotypic chinese rubythroat calliope tschebaiewi .
liu , y . , g . chen , q . huang , c . jia , g . carey , p . leader , y . li , f . zou , x . yang , u . olsson , and p . alström . 2016 . species delimitation of the white - tailed rubythroat calliope pectoralis complex ( aves , muscicapidae ) using an integrative taxonomic approach . journal of avian biology 47 : 899 - 910 .
in accord with aos - sacc ( proposal 676 ) , sharp - beaked ground - finch geospiza difficilis is split into three monotypic species , based on lamicchaney et al . ( 2015 ) . aos - sacc has not yet determined english names for these species ; provisionally we use the following nomenclature : vampire ground - finch geospiza septentrionalis ; genovesa ground - finch geospiza acutirostris ; and sharp - beaked ground - finch geospiza difficilis .
lamichhaney , s . , j . berglund , m . sällman almén , k . maqbool , m . grabherr , a . martinez - barrio , m . promerová , c . - j . rubin , c . wang , c . , n . zamani , b . r . grant , p . r . , grant , m . t . webster , and l . andersson . 2015 . evolution of darwin’s finches and their beaks revealed by genome sequencing . nature 518 : 371–375 .
in accord with aos - sacc ( proposal 676 ) , large cactus - finch geospiza conirostris is split into two species , based on lamicchaney et al . ( 2015 ) . aos - sacc has not yet determined english names for these species ; provisionally we use the following nomenclature : española cactus - finch geospiza conirostris , which is monotypic ; and genovesa cactus - finch geospiza propinqua , which includes subspecies propinqua and darwini .
friis , g . , p . aleixandre , r . rodriguez - estrella , a . g . navarro - sigüenza , and b . milá . 2016 . rapid postglacial diversification and long - term stasis within the songbird genus junco : phylogeographic and phylogenomic evidence . molecular ecology 25 : 6175–6195 .