hippelates is a genus of flies in the family chloropidae and are often referred to as eye gnats or eye flies ( the name is also used for members of the old world genus siphunculina ) .

they are very small ( 1.5 – 2.5 millimetres or 0.06 – 0.10 inches long ) flies that frequently congregate around the eyes to lap at the fluids .

they are primarily a nuisance pest , and do not bite .

they have been linked with the spread of bovine mastitis in north america , and in certain tropical regions , they are capable of vectoring disease-causing bacteria ( e.g. , yaws ) .

hippelates pusio is considered to be the vector for anaplasmosis , bovine mastitis , and haemophilus spp. which cause bacterial conjunctivitis or ' pinkeye ' .

hippelates

lioppelates pusio was first named hippelates pusio by loew in 1872 , and liohippelates bishoppi was described by sabrosky as hippelates bishoppi in 1941 . in 1929 , duda described the genus liohippelates , which now contains the most important common species of eye gnats in the southeastern united states including what was hippelates pusio and hippelates bishoppi .
taplin d , zaias n , rebell g . 1967 . infection by hippelates flies . lancet 2 : 472 .
sabrosky cw . 1941 . the hippelates flies or eye gnats : preliminary notes . canadian entomologist 73 : 23 - 27 .
mulla ms . 1962 . the breeding niches of hippelates gnats . annals of the entomological society of america 55 : 389 - 393 .
bigham jt . 1941 . hippelates ( eye gnats ) investigations in the southeastern states . journal of economic entomology 34 : 439 - 444 .
what made you want to look up hippelates ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
liohippelates bishoppi is found from february through september and liohippelates pusio year round . liohippelates pusio can be found from washington to north dakota , south to pennsylvania , as well as california south to mexico and east to the southeastern united states and bermuda ( gni 2010 ) . liohippelates bishoppi is found from saskatchewan to quebec , south to colorado , texas and florida . other liohippelates species found in the southeastern and eastern u . s . are liohippelates bicolor ( coquillett ) and liohippelates pallipes ( loew ) , whereas hippelates species found in the same area include hippelates nobilis loew , hippelates plebejus loew , and hippelates dorsalis loew ( sabrosky 1941 ) .
sanders da . 1940 . hippelates flies as vectors of bovine mastitis ( preliminary report ) . journal of the american veterinary medical association 97 : 306 - 308 .
kumm hw . 1935 . the natural infection of hippelates pallipes loew with the spirochete of yaws . royal society of tropical medicine and hygiene 29 : 265 - 272 .
observations on predation of hippelates collusor and distribution in southern california of associated fauna < legner , e . f . , l . moore and r . a . medved
kumm hw , turner tb . 1936 . the transmission of yaws from man to rabbits by an insect vector , hippelates pallipes loew . american journal of tropical medicine 16 : 1 - 16
herms wb , burgess , rw . 1930 . a description of the immature stages of hippelates pusio loew and a brief account of its life history . journal of economic entomology 23 : 600 - 603 .
during 1961–62 four hymenopterous parasites of the eye gnat , hippelates collusor ( townsend ) , were discovered in the semiarid agricultural regions of southern california . these parasites were found by field - exposing host hippelates pupae for several days between discs of nylon bolting cloth for predator protection . three of the parasites , phaenopria occidentalis fouts , spalangia drosophilae ashmead , and eupteromalus nidulans thomson , were successfully cultured in the laboratory and also studied in field releases . the fourth , trichopria n . sp . , died before propagation could be attempted . in field releases of parasites s . drosophilae was the most efficient species in seeking hippelates pupae in the environments studied .
hall jr . dg . 1932 . some studies on the breeding media , development , and stages of the eye gnat hippelates pusio loew ( diptera : chloropidae ) . american journal of epidemiology 16 : 854 - 864 .
dow rp , bigham jt , sabrosky cw . 1951 . sequel to
hippelates ( eye gnat ) investigations in the southeastern states
by john t . bigham . proceedings of the entomological society of washington 53 : 263 - 271 .
hippelates probably contribute to the rapid spread of streptococci throughout the island , and to the frequency of infection with more than one serotype ; they may also contribute to the high incidence of streptococcal skin infection , but this requires further evidence .
will fly predators work for hippelates species , i . e . eye gnats ? these are flies , and they breed in rotting organic matter . but elsewhere in your q & r section it is said that fly predators do not work for any kind of gnat .
tondella mlc , paganelli ch , bortoloho im , tankano oa , trino k and brandileone mcc . 1994 . isolamento de harmophilus aegyptius associado a febre purpurica brasileira de cloropideos ( diptera ) dos generous hippelates e liohippelates . revista do instituto de medicina tropical de são paulo 36 : 105 - 109 .
an epidemic of acute glomerulonephritis in trinidad led to an investigation into streptococcal skin infection , as most nephritis cases were associated with this . hippelates in this region commonly feed on skin lesions , infected or otherwise . some of these flies captured in the vicinity of infected children were found to be contaminated with streptococcus pyogenes ; 3 species were involved , h . peruanus , h . flavipes and h . currani . the naturally - acquired infection lasted for 28 hours or more , and the flies would return to human bait while still infectious . the hippelates population and the streptococcal skin infection rate at one school showed similar changes .
the eye gnats , a genus of flies in the family chloropidae ( fruit flies ) that are attracted to the bodily secretions and fluids of animals and humans , particularly those in the eyes . hippelates is suspected of transmitting certain types of conjunctivitis ( such as pinkeye ) , bovine mastitis , and yaws ( frambesia tropica ) .
unfortunately the fly predators do not work on hippelates . primarily the fly predators are for flies in the muscidae family , though they will occasionally parasitize those in the calliphoridae and sarcophagidae families . their very limited host range makes them ideal for biological control as they do not pose a risk to non - pest species ; unfortunately , it also means they are unable to control every pest species of fly .
predatory and scavenger arthropods were surveyed in hippelates collusor ( townsend ) breeding habitats in southern california by using 3 collection methods . a total of 117 different species was collected . the importance of potential predatory species is discussed , and various intensities of natural predation are recorded . there was considerable heterogeneity in predatory activity as influenced by locality , habitat , and seasonal and hourly differences . eggs and 1st - stage larvae sustained the highest predation , with a substantial amount being associated with teneral adults after pupal eclosion .
both liohippelates spp . and closely related hippelates spp . occur throughout much of north america ( sabrosky 1941 ) and 270 species have been described ( sabrosky 1987 ) . bingham ( 1941 ) determined during his investigations of liohippelates in the southeastern u . s . that liohippelates pusio was the most common pest of this genus . later that year , sabrosky ( 1941 ) found and described a new species , liohippelates bishoppi , misidentified by bingham as liohippelates pusio , which made up a moderate portion of the southeastern liohippelates .
physical barriers , such as screened porches and windows on houses and fly masks or fly sheets ( which resemble a fine cloth mesh , largely impenetrable by even the smallest pests ) on livestock , can provide some relief from annoyance and protection from possible pathogen transmission . sanitation methods to eliminate potential breeding sites , such as reducing manure and organic matter in soil and reducing loose soil matter , may reduce breeding at the location . however , often reducing liohippelates and hippelates breeding sites is nearly impossible in livestock facilities as manure , moisture and soil disturbance are inseparable from animals .
members of the genus liohippelates , formerly hippelates , are very small true flies and a common occurrence in much of north and south america ( sabrosky 1980 , kumm 1935 ) . these non - biting pests are attracted to fluids secreted by the eyes , nose and ears on both humans and animals . some species are attracted to discharge from open wounds and excrement ( goddard 2007 ) . because of their propensity for hovering around the eyes , this genus has been referred to commonly as eye gnats , but are also known as grass flies , eye flies , and fruit flies .
in 2006 114 people were examined in santa catalina and san joaquin ; 21 patients were clinically diagnosed with trachoma ( 18 . 4 % ) , 15 ( 13 . 2 % ) of them children under 15 years old . all trachoma phases were observed . three women had corneal opacity with poor vision . in the remaining three communities , three women with advanced trachoma with corneal opacity and blindness were detected . the poor quality of living conditions without fresh water and adequate sanitary disposal systems , and the abundance of flies identified as hippelates sp . , are risk factors for the transmission of the disease .
advisories are not working correctly for plymouth . the next closest stations are rocky mount , williamston and buckland . begin sprays …
from cotton – july 2 , 2018 , 03 : 12 pm please consider attending a scouting school this summer . we will post as they become …
earworm populations ( known as bollworm in cotton ) were relatively low in our system from 2011 to 2016 . arguably , at …
this week i have noticed damage on many pin oaks ( quercus falcata ) by oak spider mites ( oligonychus bicolor ) . oak …
recent news stories about giant hogweed have raised awareness of this nasty invader . yes , we have giant hogweed in …
when cotton blooms , it’s time to switch sampling and thresholds for plant bugs . this previous article covered management of …
we received a confirmed report of basil downy mildew in north carolina . growers are advised to actively scout for …
corn is susceptible to damage at three stages ( roughly ) : v1 to v6 , v14 to vt and r1 to r4 . …
nc state extension is the largest outreach program at nc state university . based in the college of agriculture and life sciences , we reach millions of north carolina citizens each year through local centers in the state ' s 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .
we have several topic based e - mail newsletters that are sent out periodically when we have new information to share . want to see which lists are available ?
integrated pest management ( ipm ) is a sustainable approach to managing pests that combines multiple approaches including prevention , avoidance , pest monitoring and suppression in a manner that minimizes public health , economic , and environmental risk . ipm serves as a framework to provide an effective , comprehensive , low - risk approach to protect people and resources from pests .
ultimately , the goal with an ipm program is to help stakeholders deal with pests—insects , plant diseases , weeds , and more—with methods that reduce risks to public health and the environmental while saving money .
the north carolina extension ipm program serves as a focal point for team building , communication and stakeholder participation in integrated pest management ( ipm ) within the state . program goals include promoting effective and economical management of pests , reducing risks to human health from pests and pest management practices , and minimizing environmental effects through the adoption of ipm on a variety of crops and settings in north carolina . these goals are achieved by the timely delivery of ipm technology and research information to stakeholders in all regions of the state .
leadership of the extension ipm program in north carolina is provided by an ipm coordinator ( designated by the director of the north carolina cooperative extension service ) , an established advisory board , and working groups . dr . danesha seth carley , the current ipm coordinator , accepted the nc ipm coordinator position in 2013 .
the extension ipm coordinator involves faculty and staff from north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university in ipm activities across the state , communicates program successes , and maintains stakeholder input via the advisory board and the ipm portal , as well as multiple training sessions and meetings .
the advisory board provides advice to the extension ipm coordinator regarding the direction of the ipm program in the state . it is composed of a wide variety of ipm stakeholders , including north carolina state university and north carolina a & t state university faculty , non - governmental agencies , environmentalists , north carolina department of agriculture & consumer services personnel , farmers and agricultural consultants .
the north carolina extension ipm program focuses on delivering ipm content to our stakeholders and community members through a variety of activities . the primary activities include information delivery , pest monitoring and data managment , evaluation and needs assessment tools development , and programs to magnify statewide ipm impacts .
the extension ipm program is a cooperative effort of the usda nifa , north carolina cooperative extension service , north carolina state university , and north carolina a & t state university . it also works in partnership with the southern ipm center , located at north carolina state university in raleigh , and acts to promote ipm in north carolina and the southern united states .
funding for the north carolina extension ipm program is provided by competitive grants from the u . s . department of agriculture’s national institute of food and agriculture ( nifa ) .
nc state university and n . c . a & t state university work in tandem , along with federal , state and local governments , to form a strategic partnership called n . c . cooperative extension , which staffs local offices in all 100 counties and with the eastern band of cherokee indians .
nc state university and n . c . a & t state university are collectively committed to positive action to secure equal opportunity and prohibit discrimination and harassment regardless of race , color , national origin , religion , political beliefs , family and marital status , sex , age , veteran status , sexual identity , sexual orientation , genetic information , or disability .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
moved from frit flies . id ' d from specimen , now a photo - voucher . thanks john .
select your preferred way to display the comments and click ' save settings ' to activate your changes .
pusio has been evaluated , showing that it is able to transmit the rickettsia up to three days after ingestion of infected erythrocytes [ 23 ] .
( diptera : chloropidae ) and tabanidae on cattle : its possible role in transmission of anaplasmosis .
en publicaciones anteriores ) ( mulla 1962 , legner y bay 1965 , legner et al .
all content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en
urltoken
common name : eye gnats , grass flies , eye flies , fruit flies scientific name : liohippelates spp . ( insecta : diptera : chloropidae )
figure 1 . lateral view of an adult liohippelates sp . , from a horse farm in north central florida . photograph by lyle j . buss , university of florida .
extremely large aggregations of eye gnats are common in areas that have loose sandy soils , especially in the southern united states . these high concentrations of flies are a great nuisance to humans and animals in rural towns as well as agricultural , recreational and tourist areas . while they do not bite , liohippelates spp . have been implicated in the transmission of several diseases to humans and livestock including human acute conjunctivitis ( pink eye ) . due to the increase of transmission of pink eye and the reduction in labor efficiency caused by extreme numbers of eye gnats in the coachella valley , california , a control project was initiated by the bureau of entomology in the 1920s to focus on the life history and possible control measures for this pest . hall ( 1932 ) subsequently implicated liohippelates pusio ( loew ) as one of the limiting factors in the development of the coachella valley .
the majority of the flies encountered in the southeastern region of the united states are liohippelates pusio and liohippelates bishoppi ( sabrosky ) , and as a result the biological information below will focus broadly on these two species .
adults : adult liohippelates are true flies ( bearing only two wings ) and are very small , approximately 1 . 5 to 2 mm long , and shiny black or grayish in color with clear wings . some species have reddish or yellowish heads . legs tend to be reddish - yellow to brown with brown bands ( hall 1932 ) .
figure 2 . lateral view of an adult liohippelates , unknown species . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .
eggs : the eggs of liohippelates flies are a pearlescent white and approximately 0 . 5 mm long . they are half as wide ( 0 . 25 mm ) as long , resembling a banana with one side curved and one nearly straight ( hall 1932 ) . eggs are deposited below the surface of loose soils .
larvae : the larvae hatch in seven to 11 days and feed on organic matter ( kahn 2008 ) . the larvae average 3 mm in length and are a whitish color ( hermes and burgess 1930 ) . larvae are pointed towards the anterior end and rounded towards the posterior . the mouth hook is darker than the rest of the body and curved gently downward .
pupae : the pupae are approximately 2 . 25 mm in length , depending on the media in which larvae developed and grew ( hall 1932 ) , and a reddish - brown color , turning darker as they age . liohippelates pupate in or around sand mixed with organic matter , such as manure , hay and remaining harvested crop debris .
figure 3 . primary liohippelates breeding sites in florida include loose soils with organic matter and moisture , as is found on many livestock facilities throughout the state . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .
liohippelates spp . are holometabolous , meaning they have four distinct life stages ; egg , larvae , pupa and adult . the life cycle of liohippelates can range from 11 days to three months depending on development conditions such as temperature and moisture ( hall 1932 ) . development from egg emergence to the adult is completed in approximately three weeks during the summer in florida ( bigham 1941 ) and multiple generations can occur each year . breeding sites are primarily those with freshly disturbed soil mixed with organic matter , such as cut grass and hay , and moisture . disturbances can be caused by digging , plowing , harrowing , or even by livestock activities ( bigham 1941 , mulla 1962 ) .
liohippelates are not host specific and will feed on the fluid from wounds , eyes , nose , and other areas on humans as well as livestock and domestic pets in a variety of situations . while they do not bite , due to their persistent feeding behavior this group of insects is responsible for extreme annoyance to people and animals when they occur in large numbers . in livestock , it has been suggested that high numbers of liohippelates can cause losses in condition , such as weight , due to continuous and unrelieved attack ( hinkle et al . 2001 ) .
figure 5 . congregation of adult liohippelates spp . around the eye of a horse . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .
many species of liohippelates have been implicated in the mechanical transmission of several diseases and conditions in humans and livestock . mechanical transmission of pathogens causing disease from liohippelates to humans or livestock occurs when a fly comes in contact with a pathogen , such as a bacterium or virus , and subsequently feeds or rests on a human or animal , transmitting the pathogen from one location to another by contact . as feeding occurs on the blood , mucus , and other fluids around natural orifices of mammals , pathogens can be carried easily into the body .
human acute conjunctivitis , also known as
pink eye
or
sore eyes ,
is caused by one or more bacteria that can be mechanically transmitted by liohippelates . pink eye causes pain , swelling , changes in vision and extreme sensitivity to light ( mideha 2010 ) . incidents of conjunctivitis have been shown to increase during liohippelates outbreaks ( dow and hines 1957 , greenberg 1973 ) . in california , hall ( 1926 ) correlated pink eye to high populations of lioppelates flavipes ( loew ) .
liohippelates flavipes and liohippelates pallipes have been shown to mechanically transmit the spirochete treponema pertenue , the causative agent of yaws , in jamaica and parts of south america ( kumm 1935 , kumm and turner 1936 , saunders et al . 1936 ) . yaws is a skin infection that causes ulceration and , in severe cases , can affect bone and cartilage . yaws occurs mainly in warm and humid regions of the world , including much of south america , and primarily affects children under the age of 15 . yaws is especially common in poor communities and those in crowded conditions ( dnz 2010 ) .
figure 6 . this person has yaws with 8 month - old juxta - articular nodules on the left elbow . photograph by peter perine , cdc .
liohippelates has been implicated in mechanical transmission of pathogens between animals as well . in cattle , liohippelates can transmit the causative agents of acute bovine mastitis ( sanders 1940 ) and vesicular stomatitis ( taplin et al . 1967 ) . acute bovine mastitis is inflammation of the mammary glands , primarily caused by bacterial infection , which can be extremely painful and compromise milk quality . mastitis may also cause death in extreme cases ( bradley 2002 ) . treatment for mastitis includes the use of antibiotics , which has possible implications in public health as resistant bacterial strains may not respond to treatment ( bradley 2002 ) and milk from treated cattle cannot be sold for human consumption until the required withholding time has elapsed .
vesicular stomatitis is a reemerging viral disease that presents as lesions on the tongue , coronary bands and other body regions of cattle as well as horses , sheep , goats and pigs ( usda 2007 ) . this disease is remarkably similar in presentation to the deadly foot - and - mouth disease , which was eradicated from the united states in 1929 ( usda 2007 ) and infection can transfer to people who handle infected animals .
figure 7 . congregation of adult liohippelates around the puncture wound of a horse . photograph by erika t . machtinger , university of florida .
currently , there is no effective area - wide control . various insecticides , fogs , and soil treatments have been tested , but due to the incredible numbers of flies produced in the soil , area - wide treatment is nearly impossible . insecticides applied on a community level for mosquito control may reduce attack , but development sites quickly repopulate as the insecticide dissipates ( kahn 2008 ) .
repellents containing diethyl toluamide ( deet ) provide temporary protection from eye gnats ( hall and gerhardt 2009 ) , and many commercial livestock insecticides that contain pyrethrins , piperonyl butoxide or other common ingredients may provide some relief to animals .
( bpfsg ) the brazilian purpuric fever study group . 1992 . brazilian purpuric fever identified in a new region of brazil . journal of infectious disease 163 : 516 - 519 .
bradley a . 2002 . bovine mastitis : an evolving disease . the veterinary journal 164 : 116 - 128 .
( dnz ) dermnet nz . ( january 2010 ) . yaws . dermnet nz : the dermatology resource . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .
dow rp , hines jd . 1957 . conjunctivitis in southwest georgia . public heath reports 72 : 441 - 448 .
francy db , moore lg , smith gc , jakob wl , taylor sa , calisher ch . 1988 . epizootic vesicular stomatitis in colorado , 1982 : isolation of virus from insects collected along the northern colorado rocky mountain front range . journal of medical entomology 25 : 343 - 347 .
( gni ) global names index . ( 2010 ) . global names index - index of scientific names . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .
goddard j . 2007 . non - biting flies . pp . 191 - 200 . in physicians guide to arthropods of medical importance , 5th edition . crc press , boca raton , fl . 480 pp .
greenberg b . 1973 . flies and disease . vol . 2 . biology and disease transmission . princeton university press , princeton , nj . 856 pp .
hall rd , gerhardt rr . 2009 . flies ( diptera ) . in mullen gr , durden la ( editors ) , medical and veterinary entomology , second edition . elsevier , burlington , ma . 637 pp .
harrison ih , da silva ga , pitman m , fleming dw , vranjac a , broome cv . 1989 . epidemiology and clinical spectrum of brazilian purpuric fever . journal of clinical microbiology 27 : 599 - 604 .
hinkle nc , scholl pj , mock de and warner wb . 2001 . research and extension needs for integrated pest management for arthropods of veterinary importance . pp . 261 - 262 . in geden cj , hogsette ja ( editors ) , proceedings of a workshop in lincoln , nebraska . second edition . 328 pp .
( itis ) ( 2010 ) . liohippelates . integrated taxanomic information system . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .
kahn c ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . eye gnats . the merck veterinary manual . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .
looper m , stokes sr , waldner dn , and jordan er . ( 2001 ) . feeding waste milk to dairy calves . new mexico state university college of agricultural , consumer and environmental sciences . urltoken ( 28 february 2011 ) .
( mideha ) infectious disease and environmental health administration . ( 2010 ) . conjunctivitis (
pink eye
) . maryland department of health & mental hygiene . urltoken ( 05 may 2011 ) .
sabrosky cw . 1987 . chloropidae . pp . 1049 - 1067 . in mcalpine jf , et al . ( editors ) , manual of nearctic . diptera . volume 2 . research branch agriculture . canada monograph 28 : 675 - 1332 .
saunders gm , kumm hw , rerrie ji . 1936 . the relationship of certain environmental factors to the distribution of yaws in jamaica . american journal of hygiene 23 : 558 - 579 .
( usda ) united states department of agriculture . ( march 2007 ) . information about vesicular stomatitis for the beef producer . urltoken ( 06 may 2011 ) .
publication date : april 2011 . latest revision : may 2011 . reviewed : october 2015 .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
the story of an imaginary word that managed to sneak past our editors and enter the dictionary .
take this quiz and discover 12 words for things you didn ' t know had words .
we use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .
i agree to the terms and conditions . you must accept the terms and conditions .
thank you for submitting a comment on this article . your comment will be reviewed and published at the journal ' s discretion . please check for further notifications by email .
you could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .
most users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .
to purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .
natural infection of nyssomyia neivai ( pinto , 1926 ) ( diptera : psychodidae , phlebotominae ) by leishmania ( viannia ) spp . in brazil
analysis of covalent modifications of amyloidogenic proteins using two - dimensional electrophoresis : prion protein and its sialylation .
open repair of mycotic abdominal aortic aneurysms with biological grafts : an international multicenter study .
oxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide
for full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .
female eye gnats maintained on honey in the laboratory retained more than half their original radioactivity 5 days after being tagged with p 32 . when tagged gnats were released at the center of three concentric circles of traps on a windy day , some moved 25 feet directly upwind but an equally large number was caught 75 feet downwind in traps on the outermost circle , on both sides of the mean downwind direction . releases of tagged gnats ½ and 1 mile from a rural population center in southwestern georgia resulted in almost complete penetration of the small town on the day of release . in one test , traps more than a mile from the release box caught 15 gnats in less than 3½ hours after it was opened . chi - square analysis was used to test the hypothesis that tagged gnats are distributed like the wild ones . local departures from an overall equilibrium between tagged and untagged gnats could be recognized , and progress of the dispersal could be followed by comparing successive collections .
we use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites . close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings .
this article has been cited by the following publications . this list is generated based on data provided by crossref .
vet , louise e . m . and lenteren , j . c . 2009 . the parasite - host relationship between encarsia formosa gah . ( hymenoptera : aphelinidae ) and trialeurodes vaporariorum ( westw . ) ( homoptera : aleyrodidae ) . zeitschrift für angewandte entomologie , vol . 91 , issue . 1 - 5 , p . 327 .
gordh , g . legner , e . f . and caltagirone , l . e . 1999 . handbook of biological control . p . 355 .
mann , j . a . stinner , r . e . and axtell , r . c . 1990 . parasitism of house fly ( musca domestica ) pupae by four species of pteromalidae ( hymenoptera ) : effects of host–parasitoid densities and host distribution . medical and veterinary entomology , vol . 4 , issue . 3 , p . 235 .
hammond , w . n . o . and neuenschwander , p . 1990 . sustained biological control of the cassava mealybugphenacoccus manihoti [ hom . : pseudococcidae ] byepidinocarsis lopezi [ hym . : encyrtidae ] in nigeria . entomophaga , vol . 35 , issue . 4 , p . 515 .
hammond , w . n . o . neuenschwander , p . and herren , h . r . 1987 . impact of the exotic parasitoid epidinocarsis lopezi on cassava mealybug ( phenacoccus manihoti ) populations . international journal of tropical insect science , vol . 8 , issue . 4 - 5 - 6 , p . 887 .
debach , paul huffaker , c . b . and macphee , a . w . 1976 . theory and practice of biological control . p . 255 .
legner , e . f . sjogren , r . d . hall , i . m . and washino , r . k . 1974 . the biological control of medically important arthropods . c r c critical reviews in environmental control , vol . 4 , issue . 1 - 4 , p . 85 .
horn , david j . 1971 . the relationship between a parasite , tetrastichus incertus ( hymenoptera : eulophidae ) , and its host , the alfalfa weevil , hypera postica ( coleoptera : curculionidae ) , in new york . the canadian entomologist , vol . 103 , issue . 01 , p . 83 .
( townsend ) , arranged in clumped or linear distributions , oviposited randomly producing equal numbers of progeny from cither host arrangement . mixed groups of linear and clumped puparia caused changes in behavioral patterns that resulted in reduced progeny production , thus showing parasitization to be nonrandom . host destruction was , nevertheless , greater in an all - clumped distribution , tile greater acceptance of clumped groups resulting in a greater number of progeny . mixed groups involving a choice between linear or clumped distributions demonstrated the greater acceptance of clumped groups . direct observation showed that the all - dumped distribution elicited the greatest overall initial attraction for hosts and subsequent movement to other areas . it was concluded that maximum host destruction resulted when completely random behavior was involved . a recognition of this , however , required a knowledge of behavior , host condition , and progeny production . the question of evaluating an exotic parasite’s effectiveness before introduction is discussed .
behavior changes the reproduction of spalangia cameroni , s . endius , muscidifurax raptor , and nasonia vitripennis ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) at increasing fly host densities
some mechanisms that affect the sex ratio of nasonia vitripennis ( walk . ) ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) reared from superparasitized house - fly pupae
email your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation ' s collection .
[ clinical evidence of trachoma in colombian amerindians of the vaupés province ] . - pubmed - ncbi
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
programa de enfermedades transmitidas por vectores , secretaría departamental de salud , mitú , vaupés , colombia .
trachoma is the leading cause of infectious blindness in the world . in 2008 there were 1 , 300 , 000 persons with blindness caused by trachoma and 8 million with trichiasis , which might eventually lead to blindness . in latin america it has been documented in brazil , guatemala and méxico .
to inform the presence of trachoma for the first time in colombia , amongst amerindians of the department of vaupés .
in 2003 and 2006 the amerindian makú communities of san joaquín and santa catalina , located 5 km from the border with brazil , were visited . from 2007 to 2009 , san gerardo , san gabriel and nuevo pueblo , at a 35 km distance from san joaquín were visited .
trachoma exists in colombia , and it is frequent among the studied communities . its focalized distribution makes it amenable to elimination . it is advisable to search for trachoma in other indigenous communities in vaupés with similar living conditions .
doctype html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en
ask us a question and a member of our support staff will respond as soon as possible .
the checklists are descriptive documents of the species that are part of a concrete taxonomic group or a group of species that are part of an specific analysis .
these documents have a structure that includes a list of the authors , a description of the taxonomic group or subject , and a list of the species that are part of the list .
the checklists aren ' t updated regularly , since they require revisions from groups of authors before their publication .
a complete set of a checklist include a pdf document and a table in csv format .
gustavo jiménez - uzcátegui , david a . wiedenfeld , f . hernán vargas , howard l . snell .
nathalia tirado - sanchez , john mccosker , diego ruiz , angel chiriboga , stuart banks .
yves finet , nathalia tirado - sanchez , angel chiriboga , diego ruiz , stuart banks .
frank bungartz , frauke ziemmeck , alba yánez ayabaca , fredy nugra , andré aptroot .
anne guézou , susana chamorro , paola pozo , ana mireya guerrero , rachel atkinson , chris buddenhagen , patricia jaramillo díaz , mark gardener .
gustavo jiménez - uzcátegui , javier zabala , brian milstead , howard l . snell .
to get up - to - date information about our work , please subscribe to our e - newsletter or follow us on our social media platforms .
every single donation we receive , no matter how small , counts as we are completely dependent on the generosity of others to carry out our scientific projects . we need your passion , loyalty and continual support .
the “charles darwin foundation for the galapagos islands” , in french “fondation charles darwin pour les îles galapagos” , association international sans but lucratif ( “aisbl” ) , has its registered office located at drève du pieuré 19 , 1160 brussels , and is registered under the trade registry of brussels under the number 0409 . 359 . 103 .


betta albimarginata is a species of betta endemic to the island of borneo , where it is only found in the indonesian province of kalimantan timur .

it inhabits the shallows ( 5 to 10 cm ( 2.0 to 3.9 in ) ) of forest streams amongst vegetation and debris along the shores .

this species grows to a length of 2.8 cm ( 1.1 in ) .

it is a mouthbrooding species .

betta albimarginata

maggie whitson marked
file : betta albimarginata 060311 . jpg
as trusted on the
betta albimarginata kottelat & ng , 1994
page .
maggie whitson marked
file : betta albimarginata maennchen . jpg
as trusted on the
betta albimarginata kottelat & ng , 1994
page .
maggie whitson marked
file : betta albimarginata 060311 7 . jpg
as trusted on the
betta albimarginata kottelat & ng , 1994
page .
maggie whitson marked
file : betta albimarginata 060311 8 . jpg
as trusted on the
betta albimarginata kottelat & ng , 1994
page .
maggie whitson marked
file : betta albimarginata 060311 1 . jpg
as trusted on the
betta albimarginata kottelat & ng , 1994
page .
this forum is for all discussions of betta fish . let ' s see some pictures of your beautiful betta . be sure to tell us your betta ' s name and talk about it ' s personality . our friendly betta keepers are always eager to see new threads about bettas . so don ' t be shy , start a new thread about your betta , with your betta questions , betta breeding , and other betta stories .
i’ve got a new mouthbrooding betta – now what ? michael hellweg . 2003 .
original wild betta imbellis premium quality for sell now . if interesting , please pm
how to build infusoria free cultre , easy ,
for baby fries .
betta fries
similar species would be channoides . note , there has been discussion about breaking albimarginata into 3 species based upon their local data .
albimarginata males normally are more intensely colored then females . females tend to have a washed out male look . females ovaries might be visible via spotlighting .
betta albimarginata can be housed in pairs , species tanks , and community tanks . pairs can be housed in a 10 gallon tank , groups should be housed in a 20 gallon tank or larger . pairs should be given cover such as caves and plants . in a pair or species situation it is possible that fry could be discovered in the tanks . for best results remove a brooding male .
albimarginata is a paternal mouthbrooder and the male incubates from 10 to 15 days with 12 days being very consistent . incubation time can vary with water temperature . females normally initiate spawning . normally between 3 to 40 fry are released .
not critical , albimarginata is very tolerant of water chemistry and thrives in almost any type of water as long as it is clean and well filtered however soft acidic water is best . they should be kept at cool to mid 70s f .
current grow out / breed tanks waiting to cycle . i will wait a good two to three weeks before adding any betta . right now all of my stock are in a ten gallon , and two three gallons .
copyright ©2004 - 2007 international betta congress inc . all rights reserved . the ibc & ibc - smp logo used on these pages are the registered property of the ibc inc . and can not be used without permission . for questions in regards to this website , contact the smp chairperson last update :
i just happened to be near my lfs and thought i ' d drop in . they ' ve had a pair of wild caught betta albimarginata that i ' ve had my eye on for a month , but i couldn ' t bring myself to pay 80 bucks for this pair ( they weren ' t the greatest ) . when i went in today the rotting corpse of the female was on the bottom of the 2 gallon tank they were in ( she must have been dead at least three days ) and the male was next . he is painfully thin ( they were trying to feed just flake ) . so although i shouldn ' t have i paid 30 bucks to take the male . i hope some live blackworms and some time in a good sized tank ( the ten gallon ) will whip him back into shape and i can add a touch more wild genes to my stock . i think he was way too expensive for a dying fish ( talked down from 40 ) , but i couldn ' t just leave him there to die . i love these guys too much .
here are some questions i ' ve gotten along the way and my answers . q : how long from when the eggs hatch to the point the male spits out the babies ? i ' m asking because i ' m at the point where i can see the babies wiggling through his gills . a : if you see wriggling when it first starts you ' ve got two to three days till he spits them out . the moment i spot eyeballs i move my male into a breeder net ( not a box , the slots in the boxes are too big and the babies slip out ) . once they are spat out the male will only remember them for a day or so . . . and then they will become lunch . so if you want high yield you need to keep babies and parents apart . i had one male spit out too early and all the babies had egg yolk sacs ( it was his second batch ) so i placed them in a cup of water with java moss and they just laid in the moss , three days later they were free swimming ! if you catch them mating or you notice that one day he eats and the next day he doesn ' t , mark that date on the calandar since that they tend to hold for 12 - 15 days ( although i had one dad hold on for 22 days ) and that way you don ' t have worry about spotting wriggling you can just place them in the breeder net on the 11th day . q : what is their adult size ? a : a little over two inches . q : are these passive betta ? a : yes , in fact they do best in schools . they are peaceful to community fish although a regular betta splendid may beat up on them . q : what is the smallest take size ? a : i have heard of people keeping them in two gallons , i suggest at least 10 for adults . q : do they jump ? a : yup . q : how much do you sell them for ? a : i sell full adult sexed pairs for 45 $ . single adult female for 25 . single adult male for 30 ( so just buy the pair . . . giggle ) . sub - adult unsexed single for 20 $ with discounts on schools of 4 or more . 4 unsexed for 75 , 6 unsexed for 100 .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en
kottelat , m . and ng , p . k . l . 1994 . [ 56 ]
sungei sanul , trib . of sungei tikung , sungei sebuku basin , kalimantan timur , borneo .
cmk 9549 ( 4 ) , mzb 5897 ( 1 ) , rom uncat . ( 1 ) , zrc 35121 - 22 ( 2 )
occurs in forest streams with moderate current , in shallow water ( 5 - 10 cm deep ) in plant roots and leaf litter along the shores . [ 126 ]
latin ; albus meaning white and margo meaning margin in allusion to the white margin on the fins .
last modification submitted by gerald griffin 02 . 10 . 08 ( mm . dd . yy )
eitjes overgeven schitterend , beetje lang maar aan het eind komt er een ander mannetje ff buurten dat is ook mooi om te zien wat er dan gebeurt .
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en
urltoken
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
help pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .
you are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .
< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the ‘basket’ to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the ‘correct annotation’ for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the ‘protein existence’ evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
component of the ubiquinol - cytochrome c reductase complex ( complex iii or cytochrome b - c1 complex ) that is part of the mitochondrial respiratory chain . the b - c1 complex mediates electron transfer from ubiquinol to cytochrome c . contributes to the generation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane that is then used for atp synthesis .
< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘function’ section provides information relevant to cofactors . a cofactor is any non - protein substance required for a protein to be catalytically active . some cofactors are inorganic , such as the metal atoms zinc , iron , and copper in various oxidation states . others , such as most vitamins , are organic . < p > < a href = ' / help / cofactor ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the < a href =
urltoken
> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =
urltoken
> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : ‘name’ , ‘synonyms’ , ‘ordered locus names’ and ‘orf names’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the ‘taxonomic identifier’ or ‘taxid’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘family and domains’ section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =
urltoken
> length < / a > and < a href =
urltoken
> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =
urltoken
> canonical sequence < / a > displayed by default in the entry is complete or not . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the checksum is a form of redundancy check that is calculated from the sequence . it is useful for tracking sequence updates . < / p > < p > it should be noted that while , in theory , two different sequences could have the same checksum value , the likelihood that this would happen is extremely low . < / p > < p > however uniprotkb may contain entries with identical sequences in case of multiple genes ( paralogs ) . < / p > < p > the checksum is computed as the sequence 64 - bit cyclic redundancy check value ( crc64 ) using the generator polynomial : x < sup > 64 < / sup > + x < sup > 4 < / sup > + x < sup > 3 < / sup > + x + 1 . the algorithm is described in the iso 3309 standard . < / p > < p class =
publication
> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =
urltoken
> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘sequence’ section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides links to proteins that are similar to the protein sequence ( s ) described in this entry at different levels of sequence identity thresholds ( 100 % , 90 % and 50 % ) based on their membership in uniprot reference clusters ( < a href =
urltoken
> uniref < / a > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / similar _ proteins _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section is used to point to information related to entries and found in data collections other than uniprotkb . < p > < a href = ' / help / cross _ references _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides general information on the entry . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ information _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides a mnemonic identifier for a uniprotkb entry , but it is not a stable identifier . each reviewed entry is assigned a unique entry name upon integration into uniprotkb / swiss - prot . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section provides one or more accession number ( s ) . these are stable identifiers and should be used to cite uniprotkb entries . upon integration into uniprotkb , each entry is assigned a unique accession number , which is called ‘primary ( citable ) accession number’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / accession _ numbers ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section shows the date of integration of the entry into uniprotkb , the date of the last sequence update and the date of the last annotation modification ( ‘last modified’ ) . the version number for both the entry and the < a href =
urltoken
> canonical sequence < / a > are also displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ history ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘entry information’ section indicates whether the entry has been manually annotated and reviewed by uniprotkb curators or not , in other words , if the entry belongs to the swiss - prot section of uniprotkb ( < strong > reviewed < / strong > ) or to the computer - annotated trembl section ( < strong > unreviewed < / strong > ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / entry _ status ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =
/ help / sequence - searches
> more . . < / a > < / p >
we ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe’s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .
to view links or images in signatures your post count must be 10 or greater . you currently have 0 posts .
fry care : albi fry are fairly hardy . however , there are a few things they hate . number one : large water changes . never change more than 10 % of their water , and don ' t change their water for the first month . when i move them from the breeder net to the fry tank i take an airline hose and drip acclimate them to the fry tank for over an hour , after that i float them for fifteen minutes to make sure the temp is the same before moving them . in a perfect world the male would be in the fry tank and you ' d move him and not them . . . but i don ' t have enough tanks to do this . do not use breeding boxes , the slits are too large . use a breeding net . do not raise them in the net , there is not enough circulation and they get caught under the plastic frame and die . my first batch of f1 day one ( note the box . . . i lost nearly this whole batch into the tank ) f1 one week later ( belly full of food ) : f1 three weeks later ( albi grow slow , 4 - 6 months to reach adult ) : f1 five weeks old : f1 two months old : f1 two months old showing male colours :
fry food : i feed live micro / walter / banana worms that i have in one big culture . easy to care for worms , just place them in a container ( with lid ) with some wet oatmeal and a sprinkle of yeast . to collect the worms spray water onto of the oatmeal and sides of container the night before , next morning they will be up on the sides and you can rub them off with a q - tip . i also feed fresh hatched brine shrimp . all live food for a few weeks then i start introducting frozen daphina , and cyclopseze . later crushed micro wafers by hikari . adults / sub - adults get frozen , hikari , and live blackworms . i feed small amounts twice a day .
fry tank : my current fry tank is a bare bottom picotope stuffed with pellia with a few pieces of slate ( they like to hang out on the slate ) . there is a small hob filter with a sponge over the intake .
new born f1 i lost this whole batch to a 50 % water change . learned a hard lesson with that one .
this is what happens if you have too much space for your fry tank . these two are the same age . these guys were in a ten gallon and since these are wait and grab predators they tend to stay in once place and wait for food to come to them . which is why i now raise them in a three gallon till they are 1 / 2 inch .
f2 in a row ! i ' ve since removed the sand . i ' ve made a lot of mistakes along the way , but i ' ve finally gotten to a point where i seem to sort of know what i ' m doing . i currently have 18 fry . five adults . eight sub - adults . i have seven diffrent blood lines from swaping albi with other breeders . in about six months i should be a fully established breeder . i welcome questions ! i spent nearly an hour on the phone with a guy who had just brought home a pair only to find that the male was already holding .
speedie 408 just sent me a pic of a pair of albi that they are breeding . . . that just happen to be my babies ! ebichua let them borrow them for breeding . i ' m so proud .
looks like you ' re getting a really nice setup going ! congrats on all the fry ! and best of luck with that rescued male . . . hopefully he pulls through . i ' d pp any equipment that you put in that tank with him , though . it ' d be horrible if he brought something in that took out any of the rest of your stock .
in order to be able to post messages on the the planted tank forum forums , you must first register . please enter your desired user name , your email address and other required details in the form below .
please enter a password for your user account . note that passwords are case - sensitive .
occurs in forest streams with moderate current , in shallow water ( 5 - 10 cm deep ) in plant roots and leaf litter along the shores .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
the most chatters online in one day was 17 , 09 - 12 - 2012 . no one is currently using the chat .
i ' ve macrostoma tastes on a veiltail budget .
if i drew it it ' d look like a monkey eating a horsradish on the moon or something
you need camera help ! ! ! ! they aren ' t much in the looks department .
hahaha , yes i do . but in my defense , they moved . alot . and the fry were sooooo tiny .
it is hard to see , but i love that picture of the two looking out from the cleft in the rocks . their little faces look like turtles !
haha , they are hard to see . very small fish , crappy camera . i do however have a few new shots of some . here is a male showing off . i believe he was flaring or possibly brooding . i cannot remember . two males , establishing dominancy .
lol photographing wild bettas of any species seems nearly impossible . i can never seem to get decent shots of mine . i take 50 pictures and i get two where you can actually see the fish .
in order to be able to post messages on the aquarium forum forums , you must first register . please enter your desired user name , your email address and other required details in the form below .


lachesis acrochorda is a venomous pitviper species found in panama , colombia , ecuador .

it was formerly considered synonym of lachesis stenophrys .

its common name is chocoan bushmaster .

lachesis acrochorda

key words : snake venom , lachesis , lachesis acrochorda , enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay .
snake venomics across genus lachesis . ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of lachesis stenophrys and comparative proteomics of the venoms of adult lachesis melanocephala and lachesis acrochorda .
no one has contributed data records for lachesis acrochorda yet . learn how to contribute .
affinity purification of rabbit igg anti - l . acrochorda without anti - b . asper crossreactivity
the authors thank prof . bruno lomonte ( instituto clodomiro picado , costa rica ) for identification of peaks of lachesis acrochorda venom ( la sf ) .
snake venomics across genus lachesis . ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of lachesis stenophrys and comparative proteomics of the venoms . . . - pubmed - ncbi
the anti - l . acrochorda igg purified by several affinity chromatography steps was highly specific . the sandwich elisa reactivities for known concentrations of l . acrochorda , b . asper , b . schlegelii and p . nasutum whole venoms are shown in figure 1 . concentrations of 2 . 0 ng / ml of l . acrochorda venom gave measurable absorbance signals . no cross - reactivity was observed with other venoms evaluated in the concentration range of 3 . 9 to 1000 ng / ml . ( p < 0 . 01 ) . similar results were observed using b . atrox and c . d . cumanensis venoms ( data not shown ) . higher quantities of l . acrochorda venoms produced dose - dependent absorbance values . similar results were obtained when known concentrations of lachesis venom were put in pooled human serum from healthy individuals ( data not shown ) .
in the present work the specific igg used in the elisa was employed in affinity chromatography to isolate a specific fraction of lachesis acrochorda venom that did not cross - react with b . asper venom ( i . e . la sf ) . the main components present in this fraction were identified as a lectin and a metalloproteinase .
geographical variation in the venom composition of the different lachesis species may explain differences in the frequency and type of clinical features observed ( 8 ) . lachesis genera are frequently distributed in the same regions inhabited by bothrops genus ( 3 ) . the lack of treatment for lachesis bites is still a health problem in some regions , since some clinical observations suggest that bothrops antivenoms are not efficacious at neutralizing lachesis toxins ( 9 ) . thus , as reported by jorge et al . ( 4 ) , patients bitten by lachesis muta muta snakes may die or have persistently incoagulable blood after being treated with bothropic / crotalic antivenoms .
hohmeister , a . ( 2004 ) der zentralamerikanische buschmeister ( lachesis stenophrys cope 1876 ) im terrarium . : reptilia ( münster ) 9 ( 50 ) : 56 - 62
distinguishing between bothrops and lachesis bites depends on the identification of the snake or on enzyme immunoassay diagnosis . enzyme linked immunosorbent assay ( elisa ) is a method that has been demonstrated to be efficient for the detection of snake venom ( 10 , 11 ) . thus , the aim of the present study was to develop an enzymatic immunoassay as a basis for immunodiagnostic envenomations caused by lachesis .
5 . silva j . accidentes humanos por las serpientes de los géneros b othrops y lachesis . mem inst butantan . 1980 / 81 ; 44 - 5 : 403 - 23 . [ links ]
24 . heneine lg , catty d . species - specific detection of venom from snakes of the bothrops and lachesis genera . toxicon . 1993 ; 31 ( 5 ) : 591 - 603 . [ links ]
16 . diniz mr , oliveira eb . purification and properties of a kininogenin from the venom of lachesis muta ( bushmaster ) . toxicon . 1992 ; 30 ( 3 ) : 247 - 58 . [ links ]
envenomations by lachesis spp . are characterized by severe coagulopathy with fibrinogen depletion , edema , hemorrhaging , pain and necrosis which may result in permanent sequelae or even death ( 4 ) . these symptoms are very similar to those of bothrops asper and b . atrox , whereas such distinctive symptoms as profuse sweating , nausea , vomiting , abdominal cramps , diarrhea and hypotension may not be manifested by all victims of lachesis bites ( 4 - 7 ) .
the data were subject to non - parametric statistical analysis . results are presented as mean ± standard error . significant differences between observed absorbance values of l . acrochorda and other venoms were determined by the kruskal - wallis test . a mann - whitney u test was used to determine the detection limit by comparing absorbances at each concentration of all venoms . differences were considered significant at p < 0 . 05 .
15 . aragón - ortíz f , brenes - brenes jr , gubensek f . characterization of a lectin - like protein isolated from lachesis muta snake venom . rev biol trop . 1989 ; 37 ( 1 ) : 79 - 83 . [ links ]
19 . fuly al , de miranda al , zingali rb , guimarães ja . purification and characterization of a phospholipase a 2 isoenzyme isolated from lachesis muta snake venoms . biochem pharmacol . 2002 ; 63 ( 9 ) : 1589 - 97 . [ links ]
colombini et al . ( 14 ) showed considerable antigenic cross - reactivity between b . asper / atrox and lachesi s venoms . however , they showed by using species - specific monoclonal antibodies that some molecules were particular to l . m . muta venom in some regions . several proteins had been reported from lachesis species such as a lectin - like dimer protein , with molecular mass of 28 kda , isolated from l . muta venom ( 15 ) . an acidic kininogenin from lachesis muta venom was purified and shown to be a highly stable serine protease with a molecular mass of 27 . 9 kda , and capable of releasing bradykinin from bovine kininogen ( 16 ) . giovanni - de - simone et al . ( 17 ) isolated a kalikrein - like protein from lachesis muta rhombeata from brazil with a molecular mass of 32 kda . several reports about phospholipases a 2 have been published ( 18 - 20 ) . sanchez et al . ( 21 ) identified a serine proteinase of 33 kda , denoted lv - pa , from lachesis muta muta venom ; this toxin selectively converts plasminogen into plasmin in vitro . lv - pa , detected at the rate of 1 . 5 ng of venom per assay , was used to develop a specific elisa to detect lachesis muta muta venom ( 13 ) .
13 . felicori lf , chavez - olortegui c , sánchez ef . specific identification of lachesis muta muta snake venom using antibodies against the plasminogen activator enzyme , lv - pa . toxicon . 2005 ; 45 ( 6 ) : 803 - 06 . [ links ]
6 . bolaños r , rojas o , ulloa flores ce . biomedical aspects of 4 cases of snake bites by lachesis muta ( ophidia : viperidae ) in costa rica . rev biol trop . 1982 ; 30 ( 1 ) : 53 - 8 . [ links ]
7 . otero r , tobón gs , gómez lf , osorio rg , valderrama r . bites from the bushmaster ( lachesis muta ) in antioquia and chocó , colombia . report of five accidents . toxicon . 1993 ; 31 ( 2 ) : 158 - 9 . [ links ]
14 . colombini m , fernandes i , cardoso df , moura - da - silva am . lachesis muta muta venom : immunological differences compared with bothrops atrox venom and importance of specific antivenom therapy . toxicon . 2001 ; 39 ( 5 ) : 711 - 9 . [ links ]
18 . fuly al , machado ol , alves ew , carlini cr . mechanism of inhibitory action on platelet activation of a phospholipase a 2 isolated from lachesis muta ( bushmaster ) snake venom . thromb haemost . 1997 ; 78 ( 5 ) : 1372 - 80 . [ links ]
11 . chavez - olortegui c , lopes cs , cordeiro fd , granier c , diniz cr . an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay ( elisa ) that discriminates between bothrops atrox and lachesis muta muta venoms . toxicon . 1993 ; 31 ( 4 ) : 417 - 5 . [ links ]
purified igg anti - l . acrochorda - not b . asper was labeled with biotin according to the instructions of the manufacturer ( sigma - aldrich , usa ) . briefly , 2 mg of igg was diluted in 1 ml of carbonate buffer , ph 9 . 6 , and mixed with 100 µl of biotin ( 2 . 2 mg / 1 ml dmso ) . the mixture was incubated at room temperature for four hours . biotin - igg conjugate was separated from free biotin by dialysis against pbs .
plates of 96 wells ( nunc inc . , usa ) were coated overnight at 4ºc with 100 µl of igg per well at 100 µg / ml . the anti - l . acrochorda - not b . asper was diluted in 50 mm carbonate / bicarbonate buffer , ph 9 . 6 . the plates were then washed five times with washing buffer ( pbs ph 7 . 2 : 0 . 12 m nacl , 0 . 04 m sodium phosphate and 0 . 05 % tween 20 ) . the remaining binding sites were blocked with pbs ph 7 . 2 , containing bovine serum albumin 1 % for two hours at 37ºc ( 100 µl / well ) . afterwards , the plates were washed again five times with washing buffer . next , different concentrations ( 2 up to 1000 ng / ml ) of l . acrochorda , b . asper , b . schlegelii and p . nasutum venoms in sample buffer ( pbs and bovine serum albumin 1 % ) were added to the plates ( 100 µl / well ) and incubated for one hour at 37ºc .
4 . jorge mt , sano - martins is , tomy sc , castro sc , ferrari ra , ribeiro la , et al . snakebite by the bushmaster ( lachesis muta ) in brazil : case report and review of the literature . toxicon . 1997 ; 35 ( 4 ) : 545 - 54 . [ links ]
21 . sanchez ef , santos ci , magalhaes a , diniz cr , figueiredo s , gilroy j , et al . isolation of a proteinase with plasminogen - activating activity from lachesis muta muta ( bushmaster ) snake venom . arch biochem biophys . 2000 ; 378 ( 1 ) : 131 - 41 . [ links ]
22 . otero r , furtado mf , gonçalves c , núñez v , garcía me , osorio rg , et al . comparative study of the venoms of three subspecies of lachesis muta ( bushmaster ) from brazil , colombia and costa rica . toxicon . 1998 ; 36 ( 12 ) : 2021 - 7 . [ links ]
snakebite is a common and frequently devastating environmental and occupational pathology , especially in rural areas of tropical developing countries ( 1 ) . according to the national health institute of colombia , 3405 snakebite cases occurred in the country during 2009 , of which 3 . 2 % were induced by verrugoso ( lachesis spp . ) ( 2 ) .
8 . pardal pp , sousa sm , monteiro mr , fan hw , cardoso jl , frança fo , et al . clinical trial of two antivenoms for treatment of bothrops and lachesis bites in the north eastern amazon region of brazil . trans r soc trop med hyg . 2004 ; 98 ( 1 ) : 28 - 42 . [ links ]
20 . damico dc , lilla s , de nucci g , ponce - soto la , winck fv , novello jc , et al . biochemical and enzymatic characterization of two basic asp49 phospholipase a 2 isoforms from lachesis muta muta ( surucucu ) venom . biochim biophys acta . 2005 ; 1726 ( 1 ) : 75 - 86 . [ links ]
23 . sanz l , escolano j , ferretti m , biscoglio mj , rivera e , crescenti ej , et al . snake venomics of the south and central american bushmasters . comparison of the toxin composition of lachesis muta gathered from proteomic versus transcriptomic analysis . j proteomics . 2008 ; 71 ( 1 ) : 46 - 60 . [ links ]
cnbr - activated sepharose 4b was incubated overnight at 4ºc with l . acrochorda venom ( 5 mg / ml gel ) dissolved in 1 ml 0 . 1 m nahco 3 , and 0 . 5 m nacl , ph 8 . 3 ( binding buffer ) . the gel was later treated with 0 . 2 m glycine and incubated at room temperature for two hours . the gel was washed sequentially with binding buffer and 0 . 1 m acetate buffer , ph 4 . 0 . ten milliliters of the prepared affinity matrix was suspended in pbs , ph 7 . 2 , and later packed in a chromatography column ( 12 x 1 . 5 cm ) . previously obtained unbound protein solution was loaded into the column and washed with pbs . the proteins bound to the column were eluted with 0 . 1 m glycine - hcl buffer , ph 3 . 0 . the bound fraction was collected into tubes containing 0 . 5 m tris , ph 8 . 8 ( 0 . 5 ml tris / 4 ml solution ) . the fraction was dialyzed against distilled water , lyophilized , and conserved at - 20ºc until use . this fraction was denominated
igg anti - l . acrochorda - not b . asper
.
9 . bard r , de lima jc , de sa neto rp , de oliveira sg , dos santos mc . inefficacy of bothropic antivenin in the neutralization of the coagulation activity of lachesis muta muta venom . report of a case and experimental confirmation . rev inst med trop são paulo . 1994 ; 36 ( 1 ) : 77 - 81 . [ links ]
17 . giovanni - de - simone s , aguiar as , gimenez ar , novellino k , de moura rs . purification , properties , and n - terminal amino acid sequence of a kallikrein - like enzyme from the venom of lachesis muta rhombeata ( bushmaster ) . j protein chem . 1997 ; 16 ( 8 ) : 809 - 18 . [ links ]
cnbr - activated sepharose 4b was incubated overnight at 4ºc with igg anti - l . acrochorda - not b . asper ( 5 mg / ml gel ) dissolved in 1 ml 0 . 1 m nahco 3 , and 0 . 5 m nacl , ph 8 . 3 ( binding buffer ) . the gel was later treated with 0 . 2 m glycine and incubated at room temperature for two hours . the gel was washed sequentially with binding buffer and 0 . 1 m acetate buffer , ph 4 . 0 . ten milliliters of the prepared affinity matrix was suspended in phosphate buffer ( 0 . 02 m pbs ph 7 . 2 ) and later packed in a chromatography column ( 12 x 1 . 5 cm ) . the venom of l . acrochorda ( 20 mg / 2 ml ) was loaded in the column and washed with pbs . proteins bound to column were eluted with of 0 . 1 m glycine - hcl , buffer ph 3 . 0 . the bound fraction was collected into tubes containing 0 . 5 m tris ph 8 . 8 ( 0 . 5 ml tris / 4 ml solution ) . the fraction was dialyzed against distillated water , lyophilized , and conserved at - 20ºc until use . this fraction was denominated
l . achrochorda specific fraction
( la sf ) .
one rabbit ( female 1 . 8 to 2 kg body mass ) was subcutaneously ( sc ) immunized with 1 ml containing 0 . 5 mg / ml of the l . acrochorda venom emulsified in complete freund ' s adjuvant . after 20 days , the animal was sc injected with 1 . 0 mg / ml of venom in incomplete freund ' s adjuvant . two venom boosters of 2 . 0 and 3 . 0 mg , each diluted in incomplete freund ' s adjuvant , were injected at 20 - day intervals . blood was collected from the rabbit one day before immunization ( preimmune sera ) and ten days after the last booster dose . the serum was separated and stored at - 20ºc until use .
hyperimmune sera produced against l . acrochorda venom were used for the purification of rabbit igg by means of a protein a sepharose column ( amersham biosciences ab , sweden ) . three milliliters of rabbit hyperimmunized sera was loaded into the column . the column was washed with 0 . 12 m nacl , 0 . 04 m sodium phosphate and ph 7 . 2 buffer ( pbs ) . the bound protein was eluted with 0 . 1 m glycine - hcl buffer , ph 3 . 0 . the fraction containing total igg was collected into tubes containing 0 . 5 m tris , ph 8 . 8 ( 0 . 5 ml tris / 4 ml solution ) . the fraction was dialyzed against pbs , and conserved at 4ºc until use .
plates were washed five times with washing buffer , and then 100 µl / well of biotinylated ig g anti - l . acrochorda - not b . asper ( diluted in sample buffer 1 : 100 ) was added and incubated for one hour at 37ºc . after washing , streptavidine ( sigma , usa ) diluted in sample buffer ( 1 : 1000 ) was added and incubated for one hour at 37ºc . immediately after washing , 100 µl / well of abts ( sigma , usa ) diluted in citrate 0 . 1 m , ph 5 . 0 , containing 30 % hydrogen peroxide was added and incubated for 30 minutes at 37ºc while protected from light . subsequently , the absorbance was obtained at 405 nm in an elisa plate reader ( awareness technology , usa ) . serum samples from people not bitten were included as controls . the assay was repeated six times in duplicate .
the number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .
over the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .
the number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .
overall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .
the reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .
currently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .
the reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .
the reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
html public
- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en
urltoken
warning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .
madrigal m 1 , sanz l , flores - díaz m , sasa m , núñez v , alape - girón a , calvete jj .
instituto clodomiro picado , facultad de microbiología , universidad de costa rica , san josé , costa rica .
format summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3
finds sub - sequences or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching regions . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .
finds sub - sequence or patterns in the sequence and highlights the matching region . the tool works with standard single letter nucleotide or protein codes including ambiguities and can match prosite patterns in protein sequences . more . . .
< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
help pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .
you are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .
< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the ‘basket’ to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =
/ help / sequence - searches
> more . . < / a > < / p >
we ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe’s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .
b . asper venom was coupled to cnbr activated sepharose 4b . for this , cnbr - activated sepharose 4b ( amersham biosciences ab , sweden ) was incubated overnight at 4ºc with b . asper venom ( 5 mg / ml gel ) dissolved in 1 ml 0 . 1 m nahco 3 , and 0 . 5 m nacl , ph 8 . 3 ( binding buffer ) . the gel was later treated with 0 . 2 m glycine and incubated at room temperature for two hours . the gel was washed sequentially with binding buffer and 0 . 1 m acetate buffer , ph 4 . 0 . ten milliliters of the prepared affinity matrix was suspended in pbs , ph 7 . 2 , and later packed in a chromatography column ( 12 x 1 . 5 cm ) . the fraction of total igg was loaded into the column and washed with pbs . unbound protein was collected with pbs , ph 7 . 2 . the fraction was dialyzed against pbs , and conserved at 4ºc until use .
the whole venoms or the fraction la sf was analyzed by sds - polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis ( sds - page ) using 12 % acrylamide gels ( 12 ) . respective samples of 40 µg were separated under non - reducing conditions and the gels were stained with coomassie brilliant blue r - 250 . molecular weight markers were run in parallel .
two milligrams of the fraction la - sf was dissolved in 200 µl of 0 . 1 % trifluoroacetic acid ( tfa ) , centrifuged for five minutes at 13 , 000 rpm , and loaded into a c 18 column ( 250 x 4 . 6 mm , 5 µm particle ; teknokroma , spain ) using an agilent 1200 chromatograph ( usa ) . elution was performed at 1 ml / minute by applying a gradient towards solution b ( acetonitrile , containing 0 . 1 % tfa ) as follows : 5 % b for five minutes , 5 - 15 % b for ten minutes , 15 - 45 % for 60 minutes , and 4570 % b for 12 minutes . absorbance was monitored at 215 nm , and fractions were manually collected and dried in a vacuum centrifuge ( savant , usa ) for subsequent characterization .
the major fractions obtained were separated by sds - page under reducing conditions , using 12 % gels . protein bands were excised from coomassie blue r - 250 - stained gels and subjected to reduction with dithiothreitol and alkylation with iodoacetamide . this was followed by in - gel digestion with sequencing grade bovine trypsin on an automated processor ( progest digilab , usa ) , according to the manufacturer ' s instructions . the resulting peptide mixtures were analyzed by maldi - tof - tof mass spectrometry on an applied biosystems 4800 - plus instrument ( usa ) . the resulting spectra were analyzed using proteinpilot v . 4 ( absciex , usa ) to identify proteins using the uniprot / swissprot database ( 20100622 ) and the paragon ® algorithm method , at a confidence level of 99 % .
2 . heredia m . informe anual de accidente ofídico . instituto nacional de salud . colombia : sivigila - subdirección de vigilancia y control en salud pública ; 2009 . [ links ]
3 . campbell ja , lamar ww . the venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere . ithaca , ny : cornell university press ; 2004 . 436 - 47 p . [ links ]
10 . theakston rd . the application of immunoassay techniques , including enzyme - linked immunosorbent assay ( elisa ) , to snake venom research . toxicon . 1983 ; 21 ( 3 ) : 341 - 52 . [ links ]
12 . laemmli uk . cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage t4 . nature . 1970 ; 227 ( 5259 ) : 680 - 5 . [ links ]
25 . brunda g , sashidhar rb , sarin rk . use of egg yolk antibody ( igy ) as an immunoanalytical tool in the detection of indian cobra ( naja naja naja ) venom in biological samples of forensic origin . toxicon . 2006 ; 48 ( 2 ) : 183 - 94 . [ links ]
correspondence to : vitelbina nuñez rangel programa de ofidismo / escorpionismo , universidad de antioquia medellín , colombia phone : 574 219 65 35 email : vitelbina . nunez @ urltoken .
received : september 8 , 2011 . accepted : december 20 , 2011 . abstract published online : january 25 , 2012 . full paper published online : may 31 , 2012 . conflicts of interest : the authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest . financial source : universidad de antioquia ( codi project ) , and colciencias ( project 1115 - 459 - 21441 and programa de jóvenes investigadores ) provided the financial grants for this project . ethics committee approval : the present study was approved by the ethics committee of antioquia university , medellin , colombia .
caixa postal 577 18618 - 000 botucatu sp brazil tel . / fax : + 55 14 3814 - 5555 | 3814 - 5446 | 3811 - 7241 jvat @ urltoken
our website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .
campbell , jonathan a . and william w . lamar ( 2004 ) the venomous reptiles of the western hemisphere , 2 vols . : comstock ( cornell university press ) , ithaca , ny , 962 pp . [ review in science 305 : 182 ]
carrera , c . et al . ( 2009 ) guía de campo de los pequeños vertebrados del distrito metropolitano de quito ( dmq ) . : publicación miscelánea n° 5 . serie de publicaciones del museo ecuatoriano de ciencias naturales ( mecn ) – fondo ambiental del mdmq . 1 - 89 pp . imprenta nuevo arte . quito - ecuador .
castro , f . ; ayerbe , s . ; calderón , j . j . & cepeda , b . ( 2005 ) nuevo registro para colombia de bothrocophias campbelli y notas sobre b . colombianus y b . myersi ( serpentes : viperidae ) . : novedades colombianas 8 ( 1 ) : 57 - 64
castro - herrera , f . & vargas - salinas , f . ( 2008 ) anfibios y reptiles en el departamento del valle del cauca , colombia . : biota colombiana 9 ( 2 ) : 251 - 277
garcia , e . ( 1896 ) los ofidios venenosos del cauca . métodos empíricos y racionales empleados contra los accidentes producidos por la mordedura de esos reptiles . : cali : librería colombiana , xv + 102 pp .
general shape very large in length , moderately stout bodied snake with a short tail and laterally compressed tail spine . can grow to a maximum of over 3 . 00 metres . head is somewhat broad and elliptical when viewed from above and distinct from neck . eyes are moderately small with vertically elliptical pupils . snout not elevated . dorsal scales are broad with rounded apices and lack apical pits . mid dorsals have prominent knob - like keels , the height of these keels decrease laterally with the first 3 to 5 scale rows being smooth . distal 13 to 18 subcaudals finely divided into 4 or 5 rows of spine - like scales .
habitat elevations up to about 1600 metres in tropical moist to tropical wet forest .
description : first aid for bites by viperid snakes likely to cause significant local injury at the bite site ( see listing in comments section ) .
treatment summary bites likely to cause major local & systemic effects , require urgent assessment & treatment . admit all cases . antivenom important therapy . iv fluids important , avoid hypovolaemic shock .
general approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .
antivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .
address : calzada de tlalpan no . 4687 toriello guerra c . p . 14050 mexico , d . f . ,
( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike
( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike
( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .
copyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .