allomerus decemarticulatus is an amazonian ant species found in the tropics of south america .

this species is most notable for the workers ’ complex and extreme predatory behavior , which involves a symbiosis with both a plant and fungal species .

they live in leaf pockets of a host plant species , hirtella physophora .

these leaf pockets are areas inside of the plant between the leaves and the stem .

each colony , which consists of about 1,200 workers , inhabits a single tree ; however , the ants are spread among the leaf pockets , with typically 40 workers per pocket .

their diet primarily consists of large insects that are captured on the plant , but they also eat some kinds of food bodies produced by the plant as well as its nectar .

they are able to capture their prey , which is much larger than themselves , by constructing a platform that acts as a trap for the unsuspecting prey .

the ants hide in the trap and attack when any insect lands on it .

this technique is an example of ambush predation .

allomerus decemarticulatus

the above specimen data are provided by antweb . please see allomerus decemarticulatus for further details
allomerus mayr , 1878 : 873 . type - species : allomerus decemarticulatus , by subsequent designation of wheeler , w . m . 1911f : 158 .
allomerus mayr , 1878 : 873 . type species : allomerus decemarticulatus mayr , by subsequent designation of wheeler , w . m . 1911 : 158 .
the workers of allomerus decemarticulatus construct a trap for capturing prey that is built from plant material and fungi .
palabras clave . allomerus , hormigas , formicidae , américa del sur , taxonomía .
table 1 . list of the allomerus species here recognized and their plant records .
allomerus septemarticulatus mayr stat . rev . ( fig . 5 a , b )
allomerus octoarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; forel , 1904 : 679 ( q , m ) ; wheeler g . c . & wheeler j . , 1955 : 125 ( l ) ; kempf 1972 : 19 ( revised status as species ) ; bolton 1995 : 61 ( catalogue ) . allomerus tuberculatus forel , 1912 : 2 ( w , m ) ; allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . tuberculatus : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus : wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 . allomerus octoarticulatus var . demerarae wheeler , w . m . in wheeler , g . c . , 1935 : 92 ( w , q , m ) ; allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . demerarae : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus novemarticulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann in wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 ( w ) . n . syn . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . exanguis wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 [ unavailable name ] . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . angulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 [ unavailable name ] . allomerus decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . melanoticus : wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 202 [ unavailable name ] .
allomerus octoarticulatus mayr ( figs . 4 a , b , c , d , e )
allomerus septemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; forel , 1904 : 680 ( q ) ; allomerus octoarticulatus var . septemarticulatus : forel , 1904 : 680 ; allomerus octoarticulatus septemarticulatus : wheeler w . m . , 1942 : 203 ; bolton 1995 : 61 .
the resident allomerus decemarticulatus colonies were over - provisioned ( experimental trees ; open circles ; n = 31 ) or not ( control trees ; filled circles ; n = 41 ) ( means ± se ) .
wheeler ( 1942 ) reports an a . decemarticulatus collection made on expanded hirtella peduncles and another ( probably ) on tococa or duroia , both from brazil . dejean et al . ( 2001 ) cite monogynous colonies of a . decemarticulatus in hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , with populations of more than 1 . 000 workers , which patrol leaves during the day , searching for prey . the allomerus material reported by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) as a . decemarticulatus could be allomerus brevipilosus , if there is species fidelity to the associated plants .
allomerus vogeli kempf , 1975 : 348 ( w , m ) ; bolton 1995 : 61 .
one amazon species ( allomerus decemarticulatus ) cooperatively builds extensive traps from plant fiber . these traps have many holes and , when an insect steps on one , hundreds of ants inside use the openings to seize it with their jaws .
relative operational taxonomic unit ( otu ) richness of bacterial phyla in cuticular microbiomes of allomerus and tetraponera ants . for allomerus , two proteobacteria otus that could not be assigned to a class were omitted from the analysis .
wheeler ( 1942 ) reports an a . decemarticulatus collection made on expanded hirtella peduncles and another ( probably ) on tococa or duroia , both from brazil . dejean et al . ( 2001 ) cite monogynous colonies of a . decemarticulatus in hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , with populations of more than 1 . 000 workers , which patrol leaves during the day , searching for prey . the allomerus material reported by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) as a . decemarticulatus could be a . brevipilosus , if there is species fidelity to the associated plants .
fernández , f . 2007a . the myrmicine ant genus allomerus mayr . caldasia . 29 : 159 - 175 . pdf
top image : a wasp tries to steal from an allomerus trap ( photo from de jean et al 2012 ) .
. . . in the study area , plant individuals are mostly inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single mature colony per plant ( solano et al . , 2003 ) , although another allomerus species , a . octoarticulatus , can compete for the same host plant in a few locations . allomerus decemarticulatus is a strictly monogynous ant species ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . reproductive individuals are produced throughout the year , since there is no massive mating swarm ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . . . .
figure 5 . allomerus septemarticulatus . a , worker in lateral view ; b , queen in lateral view , wings omitted .
3 . corbara b . 2005 . les piéges des fourmis allomerus . insectes 138 ( 3 ) : 15 - 17 .
dejean et al . ( 2001 ) studied predatory behavior in allomerus decemarticulatus . more recently dejean et al . ( 2005 ) registered trap building behavior for the first time in this species . these structures seem to help ants catch prey , and was an unknown behavior in ants .
dejean et al . ( 2001 ) studied predatory behavior in allomerus decemarticulatus . more recently dejean et al . ( 2005 ) registered trap building behavior for the first time in this species . these structures seem to help ants catch prey , and was an unknown behavior in ants .
6 . dejean a . , p . j . solano , m . belin - depoux , p . cerdan & b . corbara . 2001 . predatory behavior of patrolling allomerus decemarticulatus workers ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) on their host plant . sociobiology 37 : 571 - 577 .
. . . in the study area , plant individuals are almost exclusively inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single colony per plant ( solano et al . 2003 ) . moreover , a . decemarticulatus has never been found in association with another myrmecophyte ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . as in any other protective mutualism between ants and plants , a . decemarticulatus workers protect their host plant from defoliators , thus favouring its vegetative growth ( grangier et al . 2008 ; orivel et al . 2011 ) . . . .
to summarize , we found z . annulosus only on pubescent plants , including the myrmecophyte h . physophora whether or not the plant was sheltering a mutualistic a . decemarticulatus colony . the plant is slightly protected from defoliators , while z . annulosus is aided throughout its entire development . the relationship between z . annulosus and a . decemarticulatus corresponds to the simple coexistence of two competitors sharing hunting areas , with z . annulosus individuals benefiting from enemy - free space thanks to the presence of plant trichomes protecting them from a . decemarticulatus attacks .
. . . plant individuals are almost exclusively inhabited by the arboreal ant a . decemarticulatus with a single colony per plant ( solano et al . 2003 ) . moreover , a . decemarticulatus has never been found in association with another myrmecophyte species in the study area ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . as in any other protective mutualism between ants and plants , a . decemarticulatus workers protect their host plant from defoliators through their predatory behaviour ( dejean et al . 2001dejean et al . , 2005 grangier et al . 2008 ) . . . .
the ants , called allomerus decemarticulatus , live in trees in the amazon . their trap is made of natural plant hairs , some regurgitated goo , and a binding fungus that the ants , amazingly , appear to farm . it allows the ants to snag a meal , such as a large flying insect , that they otherwise could not handle .
. . . allomerus decemarticulatus is a strictly monogynous ant species ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . reproductive individuals are produced throughout the year , since there is no massive mating swarm ( grangier et al . , 2009 ) . founding queens disperse by flying from their mother colony to search for an available host plant . . . .
allomerus decemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w ) ; kempf , 1975 : 347 ( q ) . worker measurements ( n = 1 ) : hw 0 . 55 hl 0 . 58 , 0 . 60 sl 0 . 33 0 . 55 wl 0 . 58 gl 0 . 54 tl 2 . 20 ci 94 si 60 .
when prey were placed on the stems , a . decemarticulatus workers were always the first to find and spread - eagle them ; z . annulosus nymphs never tried to feed on these prey .
. . . ( chrysobalanaceae ) , and its obligatory ant partner , allomerus decemarticulatus mayr ( myrmicinae ) ( grangier et al . 2009 ) . previous studies on this association demonstrated a conflict between ant behaviour and host plant reproduction , resulting in very low fruit production ( orivel et al . 2011 ; malé et al . 2012 ) . . . .
five polymorphic microsatellite loci of the arboreal ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) were isolated and characterized . the amplification and polymorphism of seven additional microsatellite loci , previously developed for the ant species a . octoarticulatus and wasmannia auropunctata , were also tested and the amplification conditions necessary for genotyping the complete set of 12 multiplexed markers in a . decemarticulatus determined . the number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and observed heterozygosity varied from 0 . 09 to 0 . 95 . cross - species amplification of these loci was also successfully achieved in additional species of the same ant subfamily , myrmicinae . this set of microsatellite markers will be used in studies on the mating system and population genetic structure of myrmicinae in general and a . decemarticulatus in particular .
five polymorphic microsatellite loci of the arboreal ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) were isolated and characterized . the amplification and polymorphism of seven additional microsatellite loci , previously developed for the ant species a . octoarticulatus and wasmannia auropunctata , were also tested and the amplification conditions necessary for genotyping the complete set of 12 multiplexed markers in a . decemarticulatus determined . the number of alleles per locus ranged from three to 15 and observed heterozygosity varied from 0 . 09 to 0 . 95 . cross - species amplification of these loci was also successfully achieved in additional species of the same ant subfamily , myrmicinae . this set of microsatellite markers will be used in studies on the mating system and population genetic structure of myrmicinae in general and a . decemarticulatus in particular .
16 . wheeler g . c . 1935 . the larva of allomerus ( hym . : formicidae ) . psyche 42 ( 2 ) : 92 - 98 .
although associations between myrmecophytes and their plant ants are recognized as a particularly effective form of protective mutualism , their functioning remains incompletely understood . this field study examined the ant - plant hirtella physophora and its obligate ant associate allomerus decemarticulatus . we formulated two hypotheses on the highly specific nature of this association : ( 1 ) ant . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . all allomerus species are specialist plant - ants inhabiting a variety of myrmecophytic hosts ( fernandez 2007 ) . in the study area , the plants are mostly inhabited by a . decemarticulatus with a single mature colony per plant ( grangier et al . 2009 ) , although another allomerus species , a . octoarticulatus , can compete for the same host plant in a few sites . the ants provide their host plant with protection from phytophagous insects , thus favouring its vegetative growth ( grangier et al . 2008a ; orivel et al . 2011 ) . . . .
bolton , b . 2003 . synopsis and classification of formicidae . mem . am . entomol . inst . 71 : 370pp ( page 208 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
the tree is home to ants called allomerus decemarticulatus , which defend it from hungry insects . in return , the tree provides the ants with leaf pouches and swollen thorns as shelter , and feeds them with nectar and sugary nodules . these food sources are rich in carbohydrates but low in proteins . to supplement their diets , the ants need flesh , and they get it by shaping the tree into traps .
the trap ant , allomerus decemarticulatus , is a small , unassuming south american insect , staying out of sight much of the time in nest pouches among the branches of the tree , hirtella physophora . in this arboreal environment animal prey can be hard to come by . any substantial insect the ants would dearly love to get their mandibles into can simply relinquish its grip on the tree and fall or fly to safety .
background and aims : the plant hirtella physophora , the ant allomerus decemarticulatus and a fungus , trimmatostroma sp . , form a tripartite association . the ants manipulate both the plant trichomes and the fungus to build galleries under the stems of their host plant used to capture prey . in addition to its structural role , the fungus also improves nutrient uptake by the host plant . but it . . . [ show full abstract ]
allomerus decemarticulatus - trap - making . . . actual production of the trap occurs by first cutting plant hairs ( trichomes ) from a narrow vertical stretch of the stem outside of the domatia . . . and regurgitate the mold that acts as a paste and holds the trichomes together . . . this mold will continue to grow in between the trichomes and around the holes to fill out and reinforce the structure . . .
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otus comprise pyrotags sharing ≥97 % nucleotide identity . hpad , hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus ; cnao , cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; hpao , hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; avg , average ; sterr , standard error .
figure s1 . rarefaction curves ( 97 % shared identity ) for allomerus ( hpao station , hpad station , cnao station ) and tetraponera ( ngong hills , kitengela , mpala road ) ant samples .
bolton , b . 1994 . identification guide to the ant genera of the world . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , 222 pp . ( page 106 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
jaffe , k . 1993 . el mundo de las hormigas . baruta , venezuela : equinoccio ( ediciones de la universidad simón bolívar ) , 188 pp . ( page 10 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
wheeler , w . m . 1910b . ants : their structure , development and behavior . new york : columbia university press , xxv + 663 pp . ( page 140 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( w ) brazil . a . decemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q ) brazil , french guiana . a . dentatus n . sp . ( w ) venezuela . a . maietae n . sp . ( w ) brazil . a . octoarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q , m ) brazil , bolivia , colombia , french guiana , perú . = a . tuberculatus forel , 1912 : 2 ( w , m ) . n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae wheeler , w . m . in wheeler , g . c . , 1935 : 92 ( w , q , m ) . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . demerarae : wheeler , 1942 : 200 . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann in wheeler , w . m . , 1942 : 199 ( w ) . n . syn . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . exanguis wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 200 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . angulatus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . tuberculatus : wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 201 . = a . decemarticulatus octoarticulatus var . melanoticus wheeler , w . m . & mann , in wheeler , w . m . 1942 : 202 . a . septemarticulatus mayr , 1878 : 874 ( w , q ) brazil . status rev . a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( w ) venezuela . a . vogeli kempf , 1975 : 348 ( w , m ) . venezuela , brazil .
this specimen is very similar to what is here described as an a . decemarticulatus queen , although the virtual lack of erect pilosity raises attention . there are short hairs on the head , propodeum and ventral surface of the gaster , but the rest of the body can be considered as glabrous . taking into account both queens ( one described above ) which were seen and referred to this species , plus the data provided by kempf ( 1975 : 347 ) , it can certainly be established that the a . decemarticulatus queen has moderate to dense pilosity . the glabrous queen collected in an a . decemarticulatus nest provides the bases to speculate about polygyny or symbiotic processes ( parasitism ) mentioned by hölldobler and wilson ( 1990 ) . this interesting finding will be explored in further publications .
malé , p . g . , loiseau , a . , estoup , a . , quilichini , a . , & orivel , j . ( 2010 ) . characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci in the neotropical plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) and multiplexing with other microsatellites from the ant subfamily myrmicinae . eur . j . entomol . , 107 ( 4 ) , 673 - 675 . doi : 10 . 14411 / eje . 2010 . 074 .
forel , a . 1895b . a fauna das formigas do brazil . bol . mus . para . hist . nat . ethnogr . 1 : 89 - 139 ( page 125 , allomerus in myrmicinae , myrmicini )
forel , a . 1917 . cadre synoptique actuel de la faune universelle des fourmis . bull . soc . vaudoise sci . nat . 51 : 229 - 253 ( page 243 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
hölldobler , b . ; wilson , e . o . 1990 . the ants . cambridge , mass . : harvard university press , xii + 732 pp . ( page 16 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
illustration of the presence of z . annulosus as a function of the presence of allomerus decemarticulatus and the mean number of leaves ( ±se ) of h . physophora . presence of z . annulosus ( filled circle ) , absence ( empty circle ) . glm : factors ants : ns ; size : ns ; leaves : p < 0 . 01 ; ants - size interaction : ns ; leaves - size interaction : ns ; ants - leaves interaction : p < 0 . 01 .
in the understory of pristine guianese forests , the myrmecophyte hirtella physophora almost exclusively shelters colonies of the plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus in its leaf pouches . we experimentally tested three non - mutually exclusive hypotheses concerning phenomena that can determine the species specificity of this association throughout the foundation stage of the colonies : ( 1 ) interspecific competition results in the overwhelming presence of a . decemarticulatus queens or incipient colonies ; ( 2 ) exclusion filters prevent other ant species from entering the leaf pouches ; and ( 3 ) host - recognition influences the choice of founding queens , especially a . decemarticulatus . neither interspecific competition , nor the purported exclusion filters that we examined play a major role in maintaining the specificity of this association . unexpectedly , the plant trichomes lining the domatia appear to serve as construction material during claustral foundation rather than as a filter . finally , a . decemarticulatus queens are able to identify their host plant from a distance through chemical and / or visual cues , which is rarely demonstrated in studies on obligatory ant–plant associations . we discuss the possibility that this specific host - recognition ability could participate in shaping a compartmentalized plant - ant community where direct competition between ant symbionts is limited . © 2009 the linnean society of london , biological journal of the linnean society , 2009 , 97 , 90–97 .
allomerus samples were collected in french guiana from three inland sites , basevie , area 9 , and area 24 , which all are close to the field station at barrage de petit saut . hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus colonies ( hpad ) were sampled as well as cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus colonies ( cnao ) and hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus ( hpao ) colonies . five worker ants from each of the hpad , cnao , and hpao samples were pooled and stored in 1 ml of 20 % glycerol at −20°c , until processing . allomerus decemarticulatus and a . octoarticulatus ants were distinguished morphologically by counting the number of antennal segments of representative worker ants under a stereomicroscope , 10 for a . decemarticulatus and eight for a . octoarticulatus . tetraponera penzigi workers were provided by naomi e . pierce ( harvard , u . s . a . ) and were sampled from kitengela ( s1 o 23′526′′ e36 o 49′108′′ ) and ngong hills ( s1 o 26′946′′ e36 o 38′358′′ ) from southern kenya ( near nairobi ) , as well as mpala road ( n0 o 32′ e36 o 42′ ) from central kenya ( laikipia district ) . an average of five worker ants were collected from each colony and were preserved in 1 ml of 20 % glycerol .
. . . this third partner , an ascomycota from the order chaetothyriales , therefore serves a structural purpose . allomerus decemarticulatus also supply their host tree with nutrients via the walls of the domatia and the fungus with wastes , whilst the fungus , in turn , also provides the host plant with nutrients [ 19 , 26 ] . finally , the workers partially castrate their host plant by cutting and chewing both the sterile and fertile parts of the flower buds [ 24 , 27 ] . . . .
comments . although there are no phylogenetic studies for tribe solenopsidini , allomerus seems to be a monophyletic genus . the clypeal configuretion and the constriction in the proximal base of each antennal club segment seem to be unique characteristics within the solenopsidini ( bolton 1987 ) . the clypeus , which is broadly inserted between the frontal antennal lobes , contradicts the tribal characterization ( except for diplomorium and allomerus , the remaining tribe members possess a narrow insertion , making the carinae close together ) . as bolton ( 1987 ) points out , the clypeal configuretion in allomerus can be a plesiomorphic condition or a secondary broadening . for now , neither of the explanations can be stated as more valid than the other .
mayr , g . 1878 [ 1877 ] . formiciden gesammelt in brasilien von professor trail . verh . k - k . zool . - bot . ges . wien 27 : 867 - 878 ( page 873 , allomerus as genus )
dalla torre , k . w . von . 1893 . catalogus hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus . vol . 7 . formicidae ( heterogyna ) . leipzig : w . engelmann , 289 pp . ( page 78 , allomerus in myrmicinae )
we also noted what kinds of interactions occurred between z . annulosus and a . decemarticulatus workers . during observations conducted prior to this study , we verified if one of the species preyed on the other . we then verified if they competed for prey by conducting experiments where we placed live nasutitermes sp . termite workers at three different places on a plant sheltering both an a . decemarticulatus colony and z . annulosus second or third instar nymphs . ( 1 ) we dropped a termite from ca . 5 cm in height onto the centre of the upper surface of the leaves where a z . annulosus was hunting . ( 2 ) we then dropped a termite near the domatia where workers were much more numerous . ( 3 ) finally , using forceps and selecting an internode situated above a leaf on which a z . annulosus was hunting , we placed the prey on the side of the stem without the trap built by a . decemarticulatus workers . each time we noted whether a z . annulosus or an a . decemarticulatus worker caught the prey first and verified if the other tried to rob the prey , or if they shared it . fifty replicates were conducted in each case .
when prey were dropped near the domatia , a . decemarticulatus and z . annulosus caught them first 20 and 30 times , respectively ( fisher ' s exact - test : p = 0 . 07 ) . when the ants caught the prey first , z . annulosus nymphs approached the domatia in five cases out of 20 , extending their rosters toward the prey , but finally gave up and moved further away . the a . decemarticulatus workers never reacted when the z . annulosus nymphs caught the prey first , allowing the nymphs to move slowly toward the centre of the leaves to eat the prey .
the allomerus decemarticulatus species is native to the tropics of south america . they are featured on this list because of their unique way of ambushing unwary giant insects . amazonian ants use a particular kind of fungus that they grow themselves – it’s never present in stems that weren’t touched by these ants . when the unsuspecting insect lands on a stem full of those trap holes , the predator insects swoop in and catch it with their mandibles . then , they slowly drag the captive to a leaf pouch , where they tear their prey apart . ouch .
the neotropical myrmicine ant genus allomerus mayr is revised . the genus is apparently monophyletic based on the antennal club configuretion . i recognize 8 species ( 4 described as new ) : allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( brazil ) , a . decemarticulatus mayr ( brazil , french guiana ) , a . dentatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) , a . maietae n . sp . ( brazil ) , a . octoarticulatus mayr ( = a . tuberculatus forel n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae w . m . wheeler n . syn . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler & mann n . syn . [ brazil , bolivia , colombia , french guiana , peru ] ) , a . septemarticulatus mayr status rev . ( brazil ) , a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) and a . vogeli kempf ( venezuela , brazil ) . better knowledge of the taxonomy of allomerus is needed to understand the apparently sporadic differences in antennal flagellomere number and speciation processes that are probably linked to plant cavity colonization .
emery , c . 1895l . die gattung dorylus fab . und die systematische eintheilung der formiciden . zool . jahrb . abt . syst . geogr . biol . tiere 8 : 685 - 778 ( page 769 , allomerus in myrmicinae , myrmicini )
the plant hirtella physophora , the ant allomerus decemarticulatus and a fungus , trimmatostroma sp . , form a tripartite association . the ants manipulate both the plant trichomes and the fungus to build galleries under the stems of their host plant used to capture prey . in addition to its structural role , the fungus also improves nutrient uptake by the host plant . but it still remains unclear whether the fungus plays an indirect or a direct role in transferring nutrients to the plant . this study aimed to trace the transfer of n from the fungus to the plant ' s stem tissue .
among those plants on which we observed z . annulosus was hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , a myrmecophyte that specifically houses colonies of the plant - ant allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) in pouches situated at the base of the leaf lamina , and provides them with extrafloral nectar . the workers of this species forage for prey on the host plant foliage and build gallery - shaped traps to capture large insects [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] . therefore , in the case of h . physophora , two predators seem to share a limited territory represented by the plant ' s foliage .
figure 7 . allomerus vogeli . a , worker in lateral view ; b , worker head in full face view ; c , male head in full face view ; d , male front wing . redrawn from kempf 1975 : 349 , figures 1 - 4 .
se ofrece una revisión de las hormigas myrmicinae del género allomerus mayr . este es un género aparentemente monofilético debido a la configureción de la maza antenal . se reconocen ocho species ( cuatro nuevas ) : allomerus brevipilosus n . sp . ( brasil ) , a . decemarticulatus mayr ( brasil , guayana francesa ) , a . dentatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) , a . maietae n . sp . ( brasil ) , a . octoarticulatus mayr ( = a . tuberculatus forel n . syn . = a . octoarticulatus var . demerarae w . m . wheeler n . syn . = a . novemarticulatus wheeler & mann n . syn . [ brasil , bolivia , colombia , guayana francesa , perú ] ) , a . septemarticulatus mayr status rev . ( brasil ) , a . undecemarticulatus n . sp . ( venezuela ) y a . vogeli kempf ( venezuela , brasil ) . se necesita saber más de la taxonomía y la biología de allomerus para entender las diferencias aparentemente esporádicas en el número de segmentos de las antenas y los procesos de especiación ligados a la colonización de partes internas de las plantas .
we focused this study on hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) that houses colonies of allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) in pouches situated at the base of the leaf lamina ( fig . 1 ) and provides them with extrafloral nectar . workers build galleries under the stems of their host - plants that serve as traps to capture insects of up to 1800 times the weight of a worker ( fig . 1 ; [ 25 ] ) . to build these galleries , the workers first cut plant trichomes along the stems , clearing a path ; then , using uncut trichomes as pillars , they build the vault of the galleries by binding together the cut trichomes with the mycelium of a fungus that they manipulate [ 25 ] . this third partner , an ascomycota from the order chaetothyriales , therefore serves a structural purpose . allomerus decemarticulatus also supply their host tree with nutrients via the walls of the domatia and the fungus with wastes , whilst the fungus , in turn , also provides the host plant with nutrients [ 19 ] , [ 26 ] . finally , the workers partially castrate their host plant by cutting and chewing both the sterile and fertile parts of the flower buds [ 24 ] , [ 27 ] .
comments . allomerus maietae is distinguished from the rest of the species by the shape of the mesosomal profile in lateral view ( fig . 3 ) , where the weakly convex promesonotum passes smoothly into the propodeum , which is slightly concave . the propodeal spiracle is very high . the body hairs are longer than in any other allomerus species , as well as the clypeal hairs , where the medial hair reaches half of the mandibularl length . the intermediate antennal flagelomeres are relatively slender . the type specimen was captured in maieta neblinensis in the amazon .
ashmead , w . h . 1905c . a skeleton of a new arrangement of the families , subfamilies , tribes and genera of the ants , or the superfamily formicoidea . can . entomol . 37 : 381 - 384 ( page 383 , allomerus in myrmicinae , stenammini )
insect fungiculture is practiced by ants , termites , beetles , and gall midges and it has been suggested to be widespread among plant–ants . some of the insects engaged in fungiculture , including attine ants and bark beetles , are known to use symbiotic antibiotic - producing actinobacteria to protect themselves and their fungal cultivars against infection . in this study , we analyze the bacterial communities on the cuticles of the plant–ant genera allomerus and tetraponera using deep sequencing of 16s rrna . allomerus ants cultivate fungus as a building material to strengthen traps for prey , while tetraponera ants cultivate fungus as a food source . we report that allomerus and tetraponera microbiomes contain > 75 % proteobacteria and remarkably the bacterial phyla that dominate their cuticular microbiomes are very similar despite their geographic separation ( south america and africa , respectively ) . notably , antibiotic - producing actinomycete bacteria represent a tiny fraction of the cuticular microbiomes of both allomerus and tetraponera spp . and instead they are dominated by γ - proteobacteria erwinia and serratia spp . both these phyla are known to contain antibiotic - producing species which might therefore play a protective role in these ant–plant systems .
wheeler , w . m . 1911g . a list of the type species of the genera and subgenera of formicidae . ann . n . y . acad . sci . 21 : 157 - 175 ( page 158 , type - species : allomerus decearticulatus ; by subsequent designation )
ettershank , g . 1966 . a generic revision of the world myrmicinae related to solenopsis and pheidologeton ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . aust . j . zool . 14 : 73 - 171 ( page 111 , review of genus ; page 81 , allomerus in myrmicinae , megalomyrmex genus group )
. . . these treelets have longlived leaves that bear a pair of leaf - domatia at the base of each lamina . the domatia differ both morphologically and anatomically from the lamina ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . in the study area , h . physophora is strictly associated with the plant–ant a . decemarticulatus ( myrmici - nae ) . . . .
5 . debout g . , r . pereyra , b . c . emerson y d . w . yu . 2005 . characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in the castration parasite plant - ant allomerus octoarticulatus cf . demerarae ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) . molecular ecology notes 6 : 182 - 184 .
emery , c . 1914e . intorno alla classificazione dei myrmicinae . rend . sess . r . accad . sci . ist . bologna cl . sci . fis . ( n . s . ) 18 : 29 - 42 ( page 41 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini [ subtribe monomoriini ] )
several allomerus specimens with new name labels were found in the mzsp , but it was impossible to establish the origin of these names , as no one else is actually working on the revision of the genus ( brandão , personal communication ) ; some of these names are used in the present paper .
although most classifications place allomerus in the tribe solenopsidini ( hölldobler & wilson 1990 , bolton 1987 , 2003 ) , this genus ( and the old world diplomorium ) do not fit the tribal diagnosis offered by bolton ( 1987 , 2003 ) . bolton ( 1987 ) suggests diplomorium ( monotypic genus known from south africa ) as the genus closest to allomerus , especially based on its clypeal configuretion . if this sister group relation is shown to be true , it might be a biogeographical distribution to be studied carefully , because no known group of sister ant taxa possesses such distribution that joins the amazon valley with south africa .
allomerus octoarticulatus may be a species complex . it is not possible to be sure as no types of the subspecies or varieties linked to this named were seen except for those of allomerus demerarae . i decided that the subspecies or varieties should be placed as octoarticulatus synonyms , due to the following reasons : the observation of allomerus demerarae cotypes ( lacm ) and the a . tuberculatus forel paratype picture ( mcz webpage ) shows that the only difference between these ants and the a . octoarticulatus concept is based upon differences in the propodeum . in a . demerarae the propodeum is slightly longer , and in a . angulatus and a . tuberculatus it is slightly angulate . the allomerus tuberculatus paratype photograph ( mcz webpage ) shows no signs of the tubercles mentioned by wheeler ( 1942 ) when referring to this variety . from the observed material it can be said that a gradation exists in terms of propodeal shape , from convex without angles and teeth , to highly angulate ( in lateral view ) . on the other hand the posterior and basal propodeal faces can be simple or with a pair of lateral carinae . in the few observed females and the observations made by wheeler ( 1942 ) , it seems that the propodeum is also variable , from rounded and continuous to toothed , with the female in an intermediate condition . i prefer to interpret these observations in the sense of allomerus octoarticulatus as a variable species . it is possible that it is really a complex with several species , but this can only be determined with more material and the observation of types .
little is known about the aggressiveness of plant - ants typically living in isolated trees nor about how that aggressiveness varies based on this isolation . here , we examine intra - and interspecific aggressiveness between workers of two allomerus species associated with two different myrmecophytes . in both cases , the level of intraspecific aggressiveness is very low whatever the distance separating the tested nests , while interspecific conflicts are always violent . similar patterns of aggressiveness have been reported in various ant species , but the strictly arboreal life of allomerus ants associated with the isolation of their adult colonies highlight different ecological conditions that might explain the lack of aggressiveness between conspecifics .
it is something manufactured by the ants from elements coming from the plant and the environment ,
he said in an email interview .
contrary to social spiders which are also collectively building a trap ( their web ) from the silk they produce , the trap of allomerus is made from external products .
wheeler , w . m . 1922i . ants of the american museum congo expedition . a contribution to the myrmecology of africa . vii . keys to the genera and subgenera of ants . bull . am . mus . nat . hist . 45 : 631 - 710 ( page 663 , allomerus in myrmicinae , solenopsidini )
when z . annulosus nymphs moved from one leaf to another they walked on the upper part of the stems , avoiding putting their legs on the trap where a . decemarticulatus workers ambushed in a group . nevertheless , there were exceptions as five first and second instar nymphs were captured , meaning that exceptionally small z . annulosus nymphs can be caught despite the care they take to avoid the traps .
only otus comprising ≥1 % relative pyrotag abundance are shown . also shown is the average percent abundance ( avg ) and standard error ( sterr ) of taxa . taxonomy at the level of class is shown for proteobacteria . otu , operational taxonomic unit ; hpad , hirtella - hosted a . decemarticulatus ; cnao , cordia - hosted a . octoarticulatus ; hpao , hirtella - hosted a . octoarticulatus .
figure s1 . photographs of the reproductive parts of hirtella physophora during the different stages of anthesis and fruiting . ( a ) flower buds are segregated on fasciculate racemous inflorescences ; ( b ) as the flower opens , the stamens and the style progressively uncoil ; ( c ) flowers are characterized by a pentamerous perianth with five pale pink to white petals alternating with the sepal . allomerus decemarticulatus workers can be observed foraging at the mouth of the floral cup ; ( d ) once the flowers are completely open , the stigma from one flower is several centimetres away from that flower’s anthers , but can be very close to the anthers of another flower ; ( e - f ) the fruit is a fleshy drupe . ( jpeg 4670 kb )
figure 4 . allomerus octoarticulatus . a , worker in lateral view ; b , worker head in full face view ; c , queen in lateral view , wings omitted ; d , queen head in full face view ; e , male head in full face view . fig . 4e redrawn from kempf 1975 : 349 , figure 5 .
this species has been collected on hirtella myrmecophila ( mzsp ) , leaf cavities in remijia physophora , beneath leaves and caulinar cavities in tocota setifera pilger in brazil , and caulinar cavities in cordia hispidissima in bolivia ( wheeler 1942 ) . debout et al . ( 2005 ) isolated 15 a . octoarticulatus ( cf . demerarae ) microsatelites , obtaining high intrapopulation variation , results that are also likely for a . decemarticulatus .
debout g . d . g . , pereyra r . , emerson b . c . & yu d . w . 2006 : characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in the castration parasite plant - ant allomerus octoarticulatus cf . demerarae ( formicidae : myrmicinae ) . mol . ecol . notes 6 : 182 - 184 go to original source . . .
the diversity of proteobacteria within allomerus and tetraponera cuticular microbiomes . ( a and c ) relative abundance of pyrotags from proteobacterial classes ; ( b and d ) relative abundance of operational taxonomic units ( otus ) ( 97 % identity ) from proteobacterial classes . the distribution and average relative abundance of proteobacteria pyrotags and otus is enumerated in table s1 .
. . . hirtella physophora is an understorey myrmecophytic shrub whose ant - domatia consist of two leaf pouches situated at the base of the leaf blade , on both sides of the petiole . the leaf blades bear extra - floral nectaries on their abaxial surface ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . in french guiana , h . physophora is specifically associated with the plant ant a . decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) . . . .
bolton , b . 1987 . a review of the solenopsis genus - group and revision of afrotropical monomorium mayr ( hymenoptera : formicidae ) . bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) entomol . 54 : 263 - 452 ( page 282 , review of genus ; page 271 , allomerus in myrmicinae , in solenopsis genus group )
dlussky , g . m . ; fedoseeva , e . b . 1988 . origin and early stages of evolution in ants . pp . 70 - 144 in : ponomarenko , a . g . ( ed . ) cretaceous biocenotic crisis and insect evolution . moskva : nauka , 232 pp . ( page 80 , allomerus in myrmicinae , megalomyrmecini )
in the case of allomerus novemarticulatus , it has been synonymized with a . octoarticulatus for many reasons . in the first place , no 9 - segmented antennae have been seen in workers . there is an a . octoarticulatus worker in which the left antennae seems to be 9 - segmented , but the specimen’s level of conservation does not permit verification . on the other hand , wheeler ( 1942 : 199 ) observed that a . novemarticulatus is almost identical to a . octoarticulatus , except for the 9 antennal segments . it is better to leave this species as conspecific with a . octoarticulatus until better material is available and ensures the existence of an independent allomerus species that actually possesses 9 antennal segments .
when termite prey were experimentally placed onto the centre of the leaves , z . annulosus nymphs always detected them first , captured them and fed on them , while a . decemarticulatus workers never tried to rob these prey . if a patrolling worker arrived by chance , the z . annulosus only lifted the prey with its rostrum , avoiding any contact between the prey and the ant ( n = 17 cases out of 50 ) .
. . . these treelets have long - lived leaves that bear extraxoral nectaries and a pair of pouches at the base of each lamina . the leaf pouches that shelter ant colonies , diver both morphologically and anatomically from the lamina ( leroy et al . 2008 ) . each h . physophora is almost always associated with a . decemarticulatus ( 99 % of the inhabited plants , the remaining being inhabited by crematogaster sp . . . .
relative pyrotag abundance of phyla in cuticular microbiomes of allomerus and tetraponera ants . the cuticles of both ant genera are dominated by proteobacteria . we also report the average relative abundance ± the standard error for each phyla observed . for the tetraponera graph , cyanobacteria and candidate phylum tm7 are not shown but are present in average abundances of < 0 . 01 % .
allomerus samples were collected in french guiana and tetraponera samples were collected in kenya ( see materials and methods ) . bacteria were washed off from ant cuticles using sterile 20 % glycerol and bacterial dna was extracted and used as template for pcr with universal primers gray28f and gray519r ( materials and methods ) . the 16s amplicons that resulted were 454 - pyrosequenced with a gs flx sequencer ( roche ) using the gs flx titanium series chemistry kit . sequence data were quality filtered and taxonomy was assigned using the quantitative insights into microbial ecology ( qiime ) software package ( caporaso et al . 2010b ) . in total , 16 , 427 pyrotags ( allomerus ) and 8388 pyrotags ( tetraponera ) passed quality filtering and were assigned taxonomy .
there is another queen from french guiana , petit - saut collected by b . corbara and coworkers in june 9th , 2000 ( no . 5299 , deposited in ceplac ) and with a label that states “dans nid allomerus 10 - articulatus / hirtella 4” . it is a dealate female and was collected in an apparently normal nest in terms of the population , including the queen itself .
proportion of trees bearing zelus annulosus in each category . n = number of plants observed ; different letters indicate significant differences at p < 0 . 01 ( fisher’s exact - tests and the sequential bonferroni procedure ) . the four cordia nodosa and the tococa guianensis sheltering z . annulosus were occupied by allomerus octoarticulatus and crematogaster laevis , respectively , while the other treelets sheltered azteca spp . colonies .
( a ) leaves bear leaf pouches ( left arrow ) at the base of their laminas . allomerus decemarticulatus workers capture a green locust thanks to their trap : a gallery made using severed host plant trichomes and the mycelium of an astomycota fungus that the ants manipulate to create a composite material pierced by numerous holes ( from under which the workers ambush prey ) . a wasp is seen robbing a piece of the locust abdomen ; the wasp was also captured in turn as was the red reduviid ( right arrow ) . ( b ) at the distal position of the branch , flowers are segregated on racemous inflorescences at different stages of maturation from flower buds to fully open flowers . ( c ) development of young , green ( i . e . unripe ) drupes . ( d ) a dark purple ( i . e . ripe ) drupe . scale bars represent 1 cm .
given that we previously isolated six actinobacterial species from allomerus ants ( one amycolatopsis spp . and five streptomyces spp . ) and four of the isolates produced antifungal compounds ( seipke et al . 2012c ) , it is somewhat surprising that antibiotic - producing actinobacteria are not abundant on allomerus ants . additionally , even though our sampling suggested the absence of antibiotic - producing actinobacteria within the cuticular microbiome of tetraponera ants , we could readily isolate antibiotic - producing actinobacteria from the ants used in this study , including three streptomyces spp . and three saccharopolyspora spp , five of which have antifungal activity ( table s2 ) . in fact , this highlights the caution with which culture - dependent studies should be treated as our own approach was biased toward the selective isolation of actinomycetes , which have a “hairy” colony morphology due to their filamentous growth and are easy to identify by eye on agar plates . the culture - independent data suggests that filamentous actinomycete bacteria have a rare abundance on allomerus and tetraponera spp . as most of the species observed in culturing studies were not detected by deep sequencing the same samples ( materials and methods ) . as noted above , however , it is likely we under - sampled rare bacterial genera .
the assumption that z . annulosus is able to coexist with a . decemarticulatus raises questions about the nature of the biological interactions between z . annulosus , understory plants and ants patrolling their foliage for prey [ 26 ] . in general , these plants benefit from the presence of ants that patrol their foliage , and prey on herbivorous insects . the relationship is mutualistic when the plants reward the ants with sugary substances and / or shelter for the colony ( as is the case for myrmecophytes ) .
allomerus workers hide in the galleries with their heads just under the holes , mandibles wide open , seemingly waiting for an insect to land ,
the scientists write .
to kill the insect , they grasp its free legs , antennae or wings , and move in and out of holes in opposite directions until the prey is progressively stretched against the gallery and swarms of workers can sting it .
published information on the maximum size and weight of the prey captured by arboreal ants is sparse . oecophylla longinoda workers can capture large insects 20 to 50 times their weight , with this ratio exceptionally reaching 580 for a small bird captured and transported after it had fallen to the ground [ 22 ] . allomerus workers use their gallery - shaped trap to capture insects up to 1800 times their weight [ 16 ] .
in the original description , kempf ( 1975 ) mentions that the a . vogeli worker possesses 9 flagelomeres , sometimes 10 due to the division of segments 2 or 3 , the worker ( figure 1 in kempf 1975 ) has 11 segments as a total . allomerus vogeli , a . dentatus and a . maietae share in the possession of a propodeal tooth or spine , which separates them from the rest of the species that belong to the genus . allomerus vogeli is distinguished from a . dentatus ( the closest related species according to morphological traits ) because of the position of the propodeal spiracle that in a . dentatus is closer to the propodeal spine than in a . vogeli . this species is known from mercés , rio negro , amazonas , brazil ; the type material was collected in myrmidone macrosperma ( kempf 1975 ) .
ant - fungus associations are well known from attine ants , whose nutrition is based on a symbiosis with basidiomycete fungi . otherwise , only a few non - nutritional ant - fungus associations have been recorded to date . here we focus on one of these associations involving allomerus plant - ants that build galleried structures on their myrmecophytic hosts in order to ambush prey . we show that this . . . [ show full abstract ]
allomerus plant associations are of high biological interest . table 1 shows the species list and associated plants based on literature and specimen labels . surely , more field collections will be needed before establishing the exclusiveness of some ants to certain plants . additional information and taxonomically well defined species will result in further symbiosis and coevolutionary studies , as those dealing with the crematogaster and macaranga association in asia ( itino et al . 2001 ) .
myrmecophytism occurs in plants that offer ants a nesting space and , often , food rewards in exchange for protection from predators and competitors . such biotic protection by ants can , however , interfere with the activity of pollinators leading to potential negative consequences for the plant’s reproduction . in this study , we focused on the association between the understory myrmecophyte , hirtella physophora ( chrysobalanaceae ) , and its obligate ant partner , allomerus decemarticulatus ( myrmicinae ) . we investigated the reproductive biology of h . physophora and the putative mechanisms that may limit ant–pollinator conflict . our results show that h . physophora is an obligate outcrosser , self - incompatible , and potentially insect - pollinated species . the reproduction of h . physophora relies entirely on pollen transfer by pollinators that are likely quite specific . potential interference between flower - visiting insects during pollination may also be lessened by a spatial and temporal segregation of ant and pollinator activities , thus enabling pollen transfer and fruit production .


the cuban funnel-eared bat ( chilonatalus micropus ) is a species of bat in the family natalidae .

it is one of two species within the genus chilonatalus .

it is found in colombia , cuba , the dominican republic , haiti , and jamaica .

cuban funnel - eared bat

, cuban funnel - eared bats . however , bahaman funnel - eared bats are slightly larger than
the expedition gave a great insight into techniques used to study the cuban greater funnel - eared bat and also shaped invaluable relationships with local collaborators and helped to identify new prospective edge fellows .
the mexican funnel - eared bat is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
nothing is known of the longevity / lifespan of bahaman funnel - eared bats .
this cave provides the hot , humid conditions apparently needed for breeding and is 40°c in the deepest chamber ! it’s home to cuban boas , giant crabs and 13 species of bat , but the cuban greater funnel - eared bat is special as it’s only found in this one cave , it’s evolutionarily unique and is also threatened .
“there is a consortium of cuban bat researchers who are working together to increase knowledge about threatened cuban bat species more broadly . we [ the edge of existence programme ( edge ) at zsl ] are also hoping to develop a conservation project on this species in the near future with cuban experts , so watch this space ! ”
like most species of bat , the cuban greater funnel - eared has a diet which consists largely of moths , crickets and beetles , as well as any small insects scaling the cave walls ( mancina 2016 ) .
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little information is available on the general reproductive behavior of bahaman funnel - eared bats . members of the family
bahaman funnel - eared bats are listed as
vulnerable
under the iucn ' s standards for threatened species .
their most prominent feature , as their name suggests , is their ears which are akin to funnels . the cuban greater funnel - eared bat is quite small , ranging between 3 . 5 to 5 . 5 centimetres in length , most commonly of a brown , grey or reddish fur .
natalus primus , or the cuban greater funnel - eared bat , has only recently been rediscovered after previously having been thought to be extinct . the species is endemic to cuba and is currently known from just a single cave – cueva la barca on the far western tip of the country . from the order
nothing is known of the reproduction or mating systems of bahaman funnel - eared bats , but they are most likely polygynous .
bahamian funnel - eared bats are nocturnal . generally colonies of bahaman funnel - eared bats leave their roost 30 minutes after sundown . agile flyers , they are able to forage among dense foliage for their insect prey . the most intense foraging activity among
a priority for zsl’s edge of existence programme that is found solely on the island is the cuban greater funnel - eared bat , but very little is known about it . in fact , it was thought to be extinct until a population was found in a remote underground cave , cueva la barca , in 1992 .
with necessary roosting habitat . during their active hours bahaman funnel - eared bats forage for insects in the dense understory of surrounding forests .
nothing is specifically known about the home range of bahaman funnel - eared bats . their home ranges are likely centered around their roosting caves .
, meaning “funnel - eared” , the bats are known for their slender bodies , as well as their unusually long tails ( mancina 2016 ) .
roosting in dark , humid caves , the mexican funnel - eared bat typically inhabits the most remote parts of the cave system , and forages within dry forest scrub , from sea level up to mid - elevations ( 1 ) .
insectivorous bat species , such as bahaman funnel - eared bats , can have an enormous effect on insect populations in the vicinity of their colonies . many insects that bats prey on are agricultural pests , making them highly beneficial to agriculture .
no predators of bahaman funnel - eared bats have been recorded . being active at night reduces their exposure to diurnal predators . as with most bat species , owls and climbing snakes may pose a threat to adults in flight and roosting animals , respectively .
in the absence of any significant threats to the species’ survival , the mexican funnel - eared bat is not thought to be the target of any specific conservation measures . however , a future conservation priority for this species , and perhaps many other bat species with which it shares its habitat , would be to protect its roosting caves ( 1 ) .
the mexican funnel - eared bat inhabits islands in the lesser antilles north of the st lucia channel , including anguilla , antigua , barbuda , dominica , guadeloupe , martinique , marie galante , martinique , montserrat , nevis and saba , and perhaps also saint maarten ( 1 ) .
as dusk approaches , small squeaks echo through dark , hollow caves and out towards the setting sun . the inside so dark that human eyes could not adjust , the high - pitched noise of the small mammals are the only indication of life underground in cuba . hanging from the roof , delicately , the cuban greater funnel - eared bat prepares itself to leave in flocks from the cave , beginning its nightly ritual to gather and hunt .
characteristically give birth to a single young towards the end of the dry season . females gather in maternity colonies to give birth to and raise their young . offspring are relatively large , often close to 50 % of their mothers’ weight . the closely related mexican funnel - eared bat (
captions and credits for images , from top - down : – feature image : dr oliver wearn , 2017 for zoological society of london – close - up : [ edited ] – dr oliver wearn , 2017 for zoological society of london reference list : – mancina , c . 2016 . natalus primus . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t136777a22032828 . urltoken downloaded on 05 march 2017 – zsl’s edge species description : cuban greater funnel - eared bat .
occurs about two hours after leaving the roost . bahaman funnel - eared bats are such agile flyers that they are rarely caught in mist nets . for this reason , little is know about their natural history .
as the mexican funnel - eared bat is believed to have a fairly large population , being locally common on at least four islands , and its habitat is not thought to be declining at a significant rate , it is not presently considered threatened with extinction . this bat’s cave habitat is however threatened by both mining and tourism activities and , like many other island inhabitants in the caribbean , this species is vulnerable to the destructive effects of hurricanes and volcanic eruptions ( 1 ) .
this bat is frequent to locally common ( genoways et al . , 2005 ) . not so abundant in dominican republic ( inchaustegui pers . comm . ) .
female bahaman funnel - eared bats form maternity colonies in which they give birth to and care for their young . females are completely responsible for the care of their young . giving birth to just one offspring per event means that females allocate all of their efforts to the single young .
. the fur is reddish to chestnut brown dorsally and pale yellow on the ventral surface . there is no evidence of sexual dimorphism in bahaman funnel - eared bats . the wings are relatively long and narrow , their thumbs are short , and almost completely enveloped in the skin of the wing .
bahaman funnel - eared bats are found exclusively in bahamian dry - deciduous forests . the forest found on great abaco is more lush and has a taller over story than the low scrubby forest type which dominates much of watling . deep caves , where hot and moist conditions are maintained continuously , are the single most important habitat requirement . these caves provide
the timing of breeding in the mexican funnel - eared bat is unknown , but the finding of a pregnant female in august in guadeloupe suggests it is around this time . a single young is born each year after a relatively long gestation period of around eight to ten months , and for the first few months after birth the different sexes of juveniles may be segregated within the cave . these bats have a relatively slow reproduction rate , but this is offset by the fact that they live much longer than most mammals of a similar size ( 4 ) .
“from fossils , we know it was previously found in lots of other places in cuba , but has undergone a massive decline more recently . we know that this happened for lots of other bat species in cuba and the caribbean as well , with many faring even worse and going completely extinct ( ~ 20 % of bat species ) . this still remains a big mystery for the caribbean region . through clearing habitat , there is no doubt that humans have had a large negative impact on the species . ”
it is assumed that habitat clearance has driven this decline , due to the caves they previously inhabited having conditions change to that in which the bat cannot survive . additionally , says dr wearn , the repeated and natural changes in sea level and climate have potentially played a part in the decline .
this bat is an obligate cave roosting species . its biology is poorly known . it is insectivorous . a female with an embryo was caught in december ; and two lactating females were found in july ( genoways et al . , 2005 ) . 15 to 17 caves used by the species in cuba .
“the high humidity and temperature is partly maintained by the heat of the bats themselves , but also the decomposing guano [ bat droppings ] on the cave floor ! we don’t know why they need these conditions , but it could be something to do with their breeding biology and the conditions needed by the newborn bats . there is still lots to discover about this unique species ! ”
have , as the name suggests , very large , funnel - shaped ears . these allow them to detect faint sounds and return echoes from their echolocation pulses . the ears of these bats are covered in small papillae , which may increase auditory sensitivity . like other mammals , they are likely to use olfactory and tactile cues in communication as well .
using sound recording devices , it was possible to listen for and record the ultrasonic call of the bat to find out where it goes each night , and how far away from the cave it ventures . camera trap surveys were also used to find out which holes it was using to exit the cave , and then assess the surrounding forest for invasive species , such as feral pigs and black rats . carolina also trialled 3d mapping of the cave through photogrammetry – using photography to survey the area .
species in the family natalidae are named for their characteristic large , funnel - like ears . the external ear is covered in small glandular papillae . a special characteristic of male natalids is known as the “natalid organ” . located near the base of the muzzle , it is a rounded projection made up of sensory cells . the exact function of the organ is unknown , but it is specific to natalids . the tip of the nose is capped with a small , fleshy tragus that is not considered a true noseleaf . the fragile skull is elongate , with a swollen braincase and a narrow , tubular rostrum .
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iucn 2003 and iucn / ssc action plan ( 2001 ) – lower risk ( lc ) as natalus micropus .
includes brevimanus and macer ; see varona ( 1974 ) and timm and genoways ( 2003 ) . formerly included tumidifrons ; but see ottenwalder and genoways ( 1982 ) who revised both species ; also see hall ( 1981 ) . kerridge and baker ( 1978 ) treated only the nominate subspecies .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
includes brevimanus and macer ; see timm and genoways ( 2003 ) . formerly included tumidifrons see hall ( 1981 ) .
medellín , r . ( chiroptera red list authority ) & schipper , j . ( global mammal assessment team )
justification : listed as near threatened because historically only 15 caves ( locations ) are used by the species , and there is great pressure on them which is causing a population decline but at a rate of less than 30 % over the past 10 years . almost qualifies as threatened under criterion a2c .
this species is known from cuba , jamaica , hispaniola , and providencia islands ( colombia ) ( simmons , 2005 ) .
colombia ( colombian caribbean is . ) ; cuba ; dominican republic ; haiti ; jamaica
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this species was formerly included in n . stramineus , but is clearly distinct from that species ; see morgan ( 1989 ) , morgan and czaplewski ( 2003 ) and simmons ( 2005 ) .
justification : this species is listed as vulnerable because it is only known from a single cave ( and therefore , one location ) , with an area of occupancy ( aoo ) under 20 km 2 , and with a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat that might result in the taxon becoming critically endangered or extinct in a very short time .
rediscovered in 1992 , this species was previously thought to be extinct . a recent subpopulation of this species is known from one cave on the western tip of cuba ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) , but fossils occur at several sites on cuba and the isla de pinos ( silva taboada 1979 ) .
this species is known from a single cave , probably including a few thousand individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . fossil remains suggest a former wider distribution throughout cuba and isla de pinos ( silva - taboada 1979 ) , the bahamas and cayman islands ( tejedor 2011 ) .
this species roosts in caves . it is known from a single cave ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . this species is moderately to highly gregarious with cave colonies estimated at fewer than 100 individuals ( tejedor et al . 2005 ) . copulation in n . primus has been observed to take place in april , and pregnant females of this species have been captured in may ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) . it has been found to feed mostly on moths , crickets and beetles , and less frequently on other insect orders : hymenoptera ( formicidae ) , neuroptera , diptera , homoptera and hemiptera ( tejedor et al . 2004 ) .
habitat loss and human intrusion in the cave are the main threats ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) . in addition the ongoing collapse of the roof of the cave can upset the thermal balance in this hot cave . climatic changes could also interrupt the thermal cave balance and result in extinction of this species ( l . dávalos pers . comm . )
protecting the cave is the most important priority , this must include limitation of access by non - authorized personnel ( tejedor et al . 2004 , mancina 2012 ) .
experts across the globe have assessed over 79 , 800 species on the iucn red list - but more needs to be done . our goal is to assess 160 , 000 species by 2020 to guide vital conservation .
this species is known to exist in one , solitary ‘hot cave’ in remote cuba .
no direct conservation projects are currently under way , but education programmes have begun .
the bats’ chosen caves are known as ‘hot caves’ with near 100 % humidity and temperatures sitting around 40 - degrees celsius . dr oliver wearn , a conservation scientist who works on zsl’s edge of existence ( evolutionarily distinct & globally endangered ) programme ( of which this species is one part ) elaborated on this point :
this species is unique from the natalids family , evolving independently on the tree of life for approximately 50 million years according to dr wearn . however , the species’ numbers have been declining dramatically , for reasons which can be assumed – though not proven – to be primarily due to their limited extent of occurrence to a singular cave , as well as their restricted numbers .
dr wearn says that most of cuba’s lowland forests ( where the bats endemic to the caves habituate ) have been cleared for agriculture , and this clearance continues to this day .
tobacco and sugarcane growth are the two largest contributors to the loss of natural land in the region , but the newest threat to the species is , perhaps , tourism . the us and cuba have created many relationships in the past few years that have encouraged tourism in the country – particularly cuba’s natural landmarks and caves . considering the only known location for natalus primus lies about 500m from the coast , it is fortunate that the area resides in a national park . however , risks do include changes in the structure of the forests around the cave , perhaps due to logging , and simply its small population size which creates an inherent vulnerability .
because numbers are so low in the wild , and there is much still undiscovered about the species , there are no real rehabilitation or conservation efforts currently underway . however , dr wearn says that the edge of existence programme at zsl is hoping to develop this at some stage .
“nothing is currently being done to actively rehabilitate this species , ” he says . “whilst this will no doubt be essential in the future , we still don’t know enough about the species to even know how to go about this . we need to understand how large the population is , what it requires and aspects of its breeding biology and ecology in order to devise something that will be really effective . ”
dr wearn points out that whilst this is the case , some conservation education programmes do exist .
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zsl’s dr oliver wearn and dr carolina soto navarro are working to conserve the world’s most evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered ( edge ) species . joined by two erasmus darwin barlow expedition attendants , josh blackman and katia sanchez ortiz , they embarked on an exhibition to cuba to do just that .
its inherent vulnerability due to its small population size is a threat to the species , but there is also another concern . the cave lies a mere 250 metres inside the boundary of the guanahacabibes national park , and if the bats are foraging outside of the park , they could be vulnerable to future threats such as habitat destruction due to logging . so it was important for the team to learn more about this species and its distribution patterns to protect the population .
the hope is that the findings will help to shape future conservation efforts to protect this important edge species and its habitat .
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echolocation detecting objects by reflected sound . used by bats and odontocete cetaceans ( toothed whales , dolphins and porpoises ) for orientation and to detect and locate prey . genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below ‘family’ and above ‘species’ . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a ‘binomial’ latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth . taxonomy the science of classifying organisms , grouping together animals which share common features and are thought to have a common ancestor . tragus a soft cartilaginous projection extending in front of the external opening of the ear . in bats , it plays an important role in filtering returning echoes in echolocation .
tjedor , a . ( 2006 ) the type locality of natalus stramineus ( chiroptera : natalidae ) : implications for the taxonomy and biogeography of the genus natalus . acta chiropterologica , 8 : 361 - 380 .
wilson , d . e . and reeder , m . d . ( 2005 ) mammal species of the world . a taxonomic and geographic reference . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .
nowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker’s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore .
macdonald , d . w . ( 2006 ) the encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .
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( dalquest , 1950 ; grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 ; koopman , et al . , 1957 )
) breeds during the late dry season and has a gestation period of about 10 months .
( grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 ; koopman , et al . , 1957 )
breeding season birth occur in the late dry season , suggesting that mating occurs after the late dry season .
echolocate using high frequency pulses , up to 170 khz . this gives them a detailed picture of their environment . whether
( dalquest , 1950 ; grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 ; koopman , et al . , 1957 ; miller , 1903 )
steven burns ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , chris yahnke ( editor , instructor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .
living in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies . more specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits ( a continuous , modular society ) - as in clonal organisms .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
the process by which an animal locates itself with respect to other animals and objects by emitting sound waves and sensing the pattern of the reflected sound waves .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment ; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
international union for conservation of nature and natural resources . 1995 .
iucn the world conservation union
( on - line ) . accessed november 26 , 2006 at urltoken .
buden , d . 1987 . a guide to the identification of the bats of the bahamas .
grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , 2005 .
urltoken
( on - line ) . accessed october 22 , 2006 at urltoken .
koopman , k . , m . hecht , e . lidecky - janecek . 1957 . notes on the mammals of the bahamas with special reference to bats .
miller , g . 1903 . the mammals of the andaman and nicobar islands .
to cite this page : burns , s . 2006 .
chilonatalus tumidifrons
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
this species is known from cuba , isle of pines ( simmons 2005 ) . known from one cave ( turvey pers . comm . )
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