causus defilippii is a venomous viper species found in east africa .

its common name is snouted night adder .

causus defilippii

heterodon de filippi jan 1863 : 225 heterodon de - filippii — jan 1865 causus defilippii — auerbach 1987 : 205 causus defilippii — welch 1994 : 41 causus defilippii — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 231 causus defilippii — dobiey & vogel 2007 causus defilippii — wallach et al . 2014 : 150 causus defilippii — spawls et al . 2018 : 570
relationship between maternal body size and total clutch size in six species of night adders . cama , causus maculatus ; care , causus resimus ; cade , causus defilippii ; carh , causus rhombeatus ; cali , causus lichtensteinii ; casp , causus sp .
reproductive frequencies in causus species . the upper graph shows the proportion of adult female snakes with vitellogenic follicles or oviductal eggs , whereas the lower graph shows the proportions of adult male snakes with convoluted epididymial ducts . grey bars indicate taxa with small sample sizes . cama , causus maculatus ; cali , causus lichtensteinii ; care , causus resimus ; casp , causus sp . ; cade , causus defilippii ; carh , causus rhombeatus .
snouted night adder causus defilippii comments : occurs in the lowveld and lubombo regions , absent from the highveld and middleveld .
relationship between prey size and snake jaw size ( upper graph ) or snake body diameter ( lower graph ) . the dotted line indicates equality , where the prey dimension equals the snake dimension . cama , causus maculatus ; care , causus resimus ; cade , causus defilippii ; cali , causus lichtensteinii ; casp , causus sp .
proportion of snakes found with an indication of a recent meal ( combined information from frog , insects , or faeces ) and proportion of snakes with a frog in the stomach ( black bars ) . numbers provide sample sizes . grey bars indicate small sample sizes . cama , causus maculatus ; cali , causus lichtensteinii ; care , causus resimus ; casp , causus sp . ; cade , causus defilippii ; carh , causus rhombeatus .
predators of this species in kruger national park include the snouted night adder causus defilippii and herald snake crotaphopeltis hotamboeia ( pienaar et al . 1976 ) .
seasonal patterns of reproduction in causus species . females were classified as vitellogenic if they contained vitellogenic ( > 10 mm diameter ) . ‘o’ refers to females with oviductal eggs . males with convoluted epididymial ducts were considered as potentially sexually active . cama , causus maculatus ; cali , causus lichtensteinii ; care , causus resimus ; casp , causus sp .
verspreiding en biometrische studie van causus maculatus ( hallowell ) en causus rhombeatus ( lichtenstein ) uit c . africa ( serpentes , viperidae ) .
kento furui added the japanese common name
ナイトアダー属
to
causus
.
botha , a . s . 1984 . hatching of snouted night adder , causus defilippii . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 30 ) : 21 - 21 - get paper here
haagner , g . v . 1986 . life history note : causus defilippii : reproduction . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 32 ) : 38 - 38 - get paper here
creighton , d . ; haagner , g . 1986 . venoms and snakebite : causus defilippii : envenomation . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 32 ) : 31 - 31 - get paper here
causus rhombeatus is a venomous viper species endemic to subsaharan africa . no subspecies are currently recognized .
the only prey remains found in causus guts were anurans and insect fragments ( table 7 ) . several of the prey taxa that we found had not previously been recorded from these snakes ( table 7 ) .
the ecological distribution of causus wagler 1830 ( viperidae ) in nigeria , with special reference to c . resimus ( peters 1862 ) and c . lichtensteini ( jan 1859 ) , two species rarely recorded from this country
recent phylogenetic reconstructions agree that causus should be included within the viperidae ( cadle , 1992 ; underwood , 1999 ; lenk et al . , 2001 ; parkinson , campbell & chippindale , 2003 ; nagy et al . , 2005 ) . the genus causus , as presently considered , comprises six recognized species and at least one undescribed species ( pitman , 1974 ; audiens , 1978 ; branch , 1998 ; de massary , 1993 ; chippaux , 2001 ) :
the causinae , commonly known as the
night adders
, are a monotypic subfamily of venomous vipers found in sub - saharan africa . this group was made for the genus
causus
. there are currently six species found .
in all of these respects , night adders differ significantly from the cool - climate ( european and north american ) viperid species that have been the focus of previous study . below , we compare our data on causus with previously published data on other viperid taxa .
preferred prey are frogs or toads , and thus night adders are confined to mesic habitats ( not rainforest areas ) . c . lichtensteini often found in wooded swamps . c . rhombeatus not seen in primary forests . c . resimus is best adapted to drier habitats and is therefore found in separate environments to c . defilippii in east africa .
with an average total length ( body + tail ) of 60 cm ( 24 in ) , this is the largest member of the genus causus . the longest individual ever recorded was a male , 93 cm ( 37 in ) in total length , collected in eastern zimbabwe .
relative short , triangular to oval head , covered in large shields . with a length of 2–3 mm , the fangs are very short . in contrast , the venom glands are very large , and may even extend into the first third of the body as far as the level of the heart . from a side view , the tip of the snout is pointed , protruding over the lower jaw . in c . defilippii the snout is slightly upturned . round pupils . short , sturdy body , slightly flattened .
the longest species of the genus reaches 83 cm svl ( branch , 1998 ) and occupies mesic savannas . it appaers to be found only in the eastern regions of southern africa but its northern limit is unclear . reports from western , central , and eastern africa correspond to another species that , here , we call causus sp . , which is easily distinguished from c . rhombeatus by its higher number of ventral scales .
this species is clearly related to causus rhombeatus and , until recently , was considered as one of its subspecies . its limited distribution includes the democratic republic of congo , rwanda , angola , and zambia ( david & ineich , 1999 ) . growing to 65 cm in snout–vent length ( svl ) , this taxon appears to be restricted to moist savannah habitats at elevations from 800 to 1800 m asl ( spawls et al . , 2001 ) .
causus often contained large prey . in many cases , the diameter of a prey item ( n = 63 ) exceeded the jaw length and / or body diameter of the snake that had ingested it ( fig . 6 ) . for 11 frogs for which we could confidently measure or estimate prey mass prior to ingestion , the ratio of prey mass to predator mass was in the range 7–150 % ( mean = 51 % , sd = 44 % ) .
the degree of sexual size dimorphism ( ssd ) varied among species [ analysis of variance ( anova ) with sex and species as the factors and svl as the dependent variable ; interaction between species and sex : f 5 , 481 = 4 . 16 , p < 0 . 0001 ; table 5 ] . three of the species ( c . lichtensteinii , c . resimus , c . sp . ) displayed similar mean adult body sizes in males and females ; one species ( c . maculatus ) had females larger than males , and two ( c . defilippii , c . rhombeatus ) had males growing significantly larger than females ( table 5 ) .
‘others’ represents localities where less than ten specimens were collected ( kenya : eight c . sp . ; republic of south africa : seven c . rhombeatus ; gaboon : six c . lichtensteinii ; mali : five c . maculatus ; tanganyika : five c . defilippii ; ethiopa : four c . sp . ; east africa : three c . defilippi ; mozambique : three c . defilippi ; burkina : two c . maculatus ; guinea : one c . lichtensteinii and one c . sp . ; liberia : two c . lichtensteinii ; benin : one c . maculatus ; chad : one c . maculatus ; great lakes : one c . defilippi ; mauritania : one c . maculatus ; togo : one c . maculatus ; zambezi : one c . defilippi ; zanzibar : one c . defilippi ) .
prey items found in the digestive tract of six species of causus . on the x - axis , each number corresponds to one of three stages in digestion : 1 , snakes that contained recently ingested ( hence undigested ) anuran prey in the stomach rarely also had insect fragments in the stomach , but a few had small quantities of faeces in the hindgut ; 2 , of the snakes without identifiable anurans in the stomach , many had many insects fragments that presumably had been part of the stomach contents of digested anurans ; 3 , snakes that abundant faecal material in the hindgut often lacked any identifiable prey items in the stomach .
causus also display significant sexual divergence in body proportions ; males of all species have longer tails and smaller heads than females of the same svl , although the magnitude of this sex disparity varies among species ( table 3 ) . increased tail length in male snakes relative to females has been attributed to several selective forces , including sexual selection on males and fecundity selection on females ( king , 1989 ; shine & shetty , 2001 ) . the sex - based divergence in head sizes is more likely to involve food habits , especially prey size : a larger head enables these gape - limited predators to ingest larger prey ( shine , 1991 ; pearson et al . , 2002a , 2002b ) . in some intensively studied species of snakes from other lineages , the sex with the larger relative head size ( generally the female ) does indeed consume larger prey ( houston & shine , 1993 ) .
males tended to have longer tails than same - sized females in all species ( sex f 1 , 473 = 54 . 52 , p < 0 . 0001 ; table 5 ) , although the degree of this sex divergence varied interspecifically ( interaction between sex and species ; f 5 , 473 = 4 . 42 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . at the same body length , female causus resimus had wider heads than did conspecific males ( sex effect : f 1 , 420 = 19 . 08 , p < 0 . 0001 , see table 5 ) and in three species ( c . maculatus , c . lichtensteinii , c . sp . , table 5 ) , females had longer jaws than did conspecific males at the same svl . however , the degree of sexual dimorphism in this latter trait also varied among species ( interaction between sex and species ; f 5 , 420 = 2 . 60 , p < 0 . 02 ) . no significant sexual dimorphism was apparent for any of the other traits ( all p > 0 . 05 ) .
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uetz , p . & jirí hosek ( eds . ) , the reptile database , ( http : / / www . reptile - database . org )
mcdiarmid , roy w . , jonathan a . campbell , and t ' shaka a . touré
snake species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , vol . 1
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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auerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .
bates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .
beolens , bo ; michael watkins , and michael grayson 2011 . the eponym dictionary of reptiles . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , usa - get paper here
boycott , r . c . 1992 . an annotated checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of swaziland . the conservation trust of swaziland - get paper here
branch , w . r . ; rödel , m . - o . & marais , j . 2005 . herpetological survey of the niassa game reserve , northern mozambique - part i : reptiles . salamandra 41 ( 4 ) : 195 - 214 - get paper here
branch , william r . 1993 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . cape town : struik publishers , 144 s .
broadley , d . & blaylock 2013 . the snakes of zimbabwe and botswana . chimaira , frankfurt , 387 pp . [ book review in sauria 35 ( 2 ) : 59 and copeia 2014 : 388 ] - get paper here
broadley , d . g . 1959 . the herpetology of southern rhodesia . part i - - the snakes . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 120 ( 1 ) : 1 - 100 [ reprint 1972 ] - get paper here
broadley , d . g . 1962 . on some reptile collections from the north - western and north - eastern districts of southern rhodesia 1958 - 1961 , with descriptions of four new lizards . occ . pap . nat . mus . south . rhodesia 26 ( b ) : 787 - 843
broadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]
chifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .
conradie , werner ; gabriela b . bittencourt - silva , hanlie m . engelbrecht , simon p . loader , michele menegon , cristóvão nanvonamuquitxo , michael scott , krystal a . tolley , 2016 . exploration into the hidden world of mozambique’s sky island forests : new discoveries of reptiles and amphibians . zoosyst . evol . 92 ( 2 ) : 163–180 , doi 10 . 3897 / zse . 92 . 9948 - get paper here
dobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here
jan , g . 1863 . enumerazione sistematica degli ofidi appartenenti al gruppo coronellidae . arch . zool . anat . fisiol . 2 ( 2 ) : 213 - 330 [ 1862 ] - get paper here
jan , g . 1865 . iconographie générale des ophidiens . 11 . livraison . j . b . bailière et fils , paris - get paper here
loveridge , arthur 1929 . east african reptiles and amphibians in the united states national museum . bull . us natl . mus . ( 151 ) : 1 - 135 - get paper here
lyakurwa , john valentine 2017 . the reptiles of the uzungwa scarp forest reserve ( usfr ) : an updated checklist with notes on dagger - tooth vine snake xyelodontophis uluguruensis . journal of east african natural history 106 ( 2 ) : 57 - 65 . - get paper here
mallow , d . ludwig , d . & nilson , g . 2003 . true vipers : natural history and toxinology of old world vipers . krieger , malabar , florida , 410 pp . [ review in hr 35 : 200 , reptilia 35 : 74 ]
mcdiarmid , r . w . ; campbell , j . a . & touré , t . a . 1999 . snake species of the world . vol . 1 . herpetologists’ league , 511 pp .
phelps , t . 2010 . old world vipers . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 558 pp . [ critical review in sauria 33 ( 3 ) : 19 and hr 43 : 503 ]
phelps , tony 2002 . a study of the black mamba ( dendroaspis polylepis ) in kwazulu - natal , south africa , with particular reference to long - term - refugia . herpetological bulletin ( 80 ) : 7 - 19 - get paper here
spawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here
spawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here
wallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .
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olive - grey to pinkish - brown coloured viper with series of pale - edged blotches along the back , invariably has a dark v - shaped mark on the head . length up to 1 m .
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small , stout terrestrial vipers , never growing larger than 1 m in length . they are made distinct from other adders due to their round pupils and large scales on the top of their heads ( most vipers have small scales ) .
katja schulz marked
file : noimage . svg
as hidden on the
diploprora championii ( lindl . ) hook . f . ( 1890 )
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katja schulz marked
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as hidden on the
orthoceras novae - zeelandiae ( a . rich . ) m . a . clem . , d . l . jones & molloy ( 1989 )
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katja schulz marked
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ophrys omegaifera ( c . alibertis , a . alibertis & h . r . reinhard ) faurh . ( 2002 )
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katja schulz marked
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halleorchis szlach . & olszewski ( 1998 )
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small snakes , less than 1 metre , small head , thick neck , quite stout . dark pattern on paler background or an unmarked velvety green . may be found under logs by firewood collectors who may be bitten on hand , otherwise bites to the foot or ankle .
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many major biological radiations have resulted in numerous species that are now distributed widely across the planet . however , for historical reasons , universities and research centres have been based in a highly nonrandom subset of countries , notably in relatively cool - climate northern lands in europe and north america . accordingly , intensive ecological research has been conducted primarily in those countries . an inevitable result has been that , for many biological lineages , our knowledge is based upon a small and potentially nonrepresentative sample of taxa . this limitation of available information severely compromises our ability to make valid generalizations about major adaptive radiations .
with an average svl of approximately 40 cm ( branch , 1998 , spawls et al . , 2001 ) , this small species occupies moist and dry savannas from sea level to approximately 1800 m in eastern and southern africa from tanzania and kenya to the republic of south africa .
this medium - sized ( up to 70 cm svl ) species occurs in forest habitats from guinea through cameroon , gaboon , the democratic republic of congo and east to uganda , kenya , zambia , and angola ( david & ineich , 1999 ) . the species lives in dense evergreen forests as well as mosaic forest - savannas ( recently deforested areas ) from sea level to approximately 2100 m asl .
with a mean svl of approximately 40 cm , this is the most widespread and abundant species within the genus . it is present in most of subtropical africa from mauritania in the west through ethiopia and as far south as the democratic republic of congo , angola , and uganda ( hughes , 1977 ; david & ineich , 1999 ) . the species lives in forested areas and agricultural areas as well as in savannas , and from around sea level to nearly 2000 m asl .
this taxon ( approximately 50 cm in mean adult length ) occurs in two disjunct populations , which our unpublished data ( i . ineich , x . bonnet , r . shine , t . shine , f . brischoux , m . lebreton & l . chirio , unpubl . data ) suggest may belong to two different species . the eastern populations live in humid mountains of east africa ( uganda , rwanda , burundi , democratic republic of congo , and ethiopia ) and their coloration in life is light green ( david & ineich , 1999 ) . the western populations inhabit savanna regions of western and central africa from nigeria and cameroon through the central african republic ( car ) , chad , and sudan ; their coloration in life is light brown . they are found at elevations of 150–500 m asl .
this as yet undescribed taxon ( i . ineich , x . bonnet , r . shine , t . shine , f . brischoux , m . lebreton & l . chirio , unpubl . data ) is endemic to high - elevation savannas of central cameroon and the western car . another population related to this species occurs in the kerouane area of south - eastern guinea . although eastern african populations clearly do not belong to the ‘true’ c . rhombeatus , whether or not they are conspecific with the western and central african populations has yet to be assessed . for the present study , we treat all those populations ( except ‘true’ c . rhombeatus from southern africa ) as conspecific . this species is found in humid lowlands and small rivers , at elevations of 700–1950 m asl in cameroon .
our sample sizes are highest for four taxa from cameroon ; one of these species ( c . maculatus ) was obtained in reasonable numbers in the central african republic as well ( table 1 ) . although we had very small samples for two taxa , we report these data because they are among the first for these poorly - known animals . because some specimens were damaged during collection , our data sets are incomplete for some variables for some animals .
data are the mean values with the associated standard errors , and sample size in parentheses . statistical results are derived from one - way analysis of variance with species as the factor . d . f . , degrees of freedom .
data for snakes of all age classes were included in these calculations . data are adjusted means [
relative to head width ] with standard errors and sample size . statistical analysis : results are derived from analysis of variance with species as the factor , the trait under focus as the dependent variable , and svl ( * ) or head width as a covariate . d . f . , degrees of freedom .
sex ratios were similar among species ( χ 2 = 5 . 52 , d . f . = 5 , p = 0 . 36 ; table 4 ) . approximately two - thirds of the collected snakes were adults , but the exact proportions differed among species ( comparing the species : χ 2 = 27 . 9 , d . f . = 5 , p < 0 . 001 ; table 4 ) .
relative to head width . data are means with standard errors ( n ) . data for the larger sex are indicated by an asterisk ( * ) if the difference in mean values between the sexes was statistically significant ( p < 0 . 05 ) . f , female ; m , male .
vitellogenesis was observed all year round ( comparing among months , χ 2 = 49 . 5 , d . f . = 55 , p = 0 . 68 ) , and ovulation was not limited to a single period ( fig . 2 ) . similarly , males with convoluted ducts were observed at most times of the year ( χ 2 = 69 . 6 , d . f . = 55 , p = 0 . 09 ) . overall , no clear seasonal pattern was apparent for either male or female reproductive cycles ( fig . 2 ) . one female c . maculatus ( 545 cm svl ) contained both oviductal eggs ( n = 12 , mean diameter 13 mm ) and enlarged vitellogenic ovarian follicles ( n = 8 , mean diameter 4 mm ) , indicating rapid production of successive clutches .
mean clutch size and relative clutch size ( adjusted to snout–vent length using analysis of covariance ) in the six species are shown . data are means with standard errors ( n ) .
we found prey or evidence of a recent meal ( frogs , insect fragments or faeces ) in most of the snakes that we examined ( fig . 4 ) . the proportion of snakes containing prey varied from 67–86 % ( comparing among species , χ 2 = 14 . 0 , d . f . = 5 , p = 0 . 016 ) . even if the analysis is restricted to freshly ingested prey ( relatively undigested anuran remains ) , the proportion of recently fed snakes averaged 34 % ( fig . 4 ) . females containing oviductal eggs also frequently contained prey ( 79 of 108 specimens ; 68 % ) ; thus , analysis did not reveal any significant decrease in feeding rate associated with reproduction ( χ 2 = 0 . 45 , d . f . = 2 , p = 0 . 80 ) . we rarely found undigested frogs and insect fragments in the gut simultaneously , and snakes with insect fragments in the stomach rarely contained faeces in the hindgut . however , intact prey items were often found in the stomachs of snakes whose hindguts contained faeces ( χ 2 = 27 . 00 , d . f . = 1 , p < 0 . 001 ; fig . 5 ) . these patterns suggest frequent feeding and rapid passage of prey items through the digestive tract .
larger snakes consumed larger prey items ( ancova with prey diameter as the dependent variable , species as the factor and jaw length as the covariate ; effect of jaw size : f 1 , 52 = 24 . 1 , p < 0 . 0001 ; fig . 6 ) . larger snakes not only took larger prey , but also ceased feeding upon small prey ( note the absence of records of small prey items in large snakes in fig . 6 ) . prey sizes relative to predator size differed significantly among species ( ancovas with prey diameter as the dependent variable , species as the factor : f 4 , 57 = 5 . 83 , p < 0 . 001 with svl as the covariate ; f 4 , 52 = 2 . 73 , p = 0 . 04 with jaw length as the covariate ; and f 4 , 57 = 2 . 38 , p = 0 . 06 with body diameter as the covariate ) .
we thank sara forniasero , jean marie balouard , loïc chaigneau , and mac and ben shine for help with dissections , and all the anonymous collectors , especially in rca and cameroon . p . golay provided useful comments . we warmly thank rex cambag for livening up the atmosphere during dissections . the australian research council , and the european community ( programme marie curie ) supported the work financially .
le cycle sexuel chez vipera aspis ( l . ) dans l ' ouest de la . france
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the head has a snout that is relatively blunt ( i . e . , more rounded than in other members of this genus ) , on the sides of which the nostrils are positioned . the circumorbital ring consists of 2 - 3 preoculars , 1 - 2 postoculars , and 1 - 2 suboculars that separate the eye from the supralabials . the temporal scales usually number 2 + 3 , sometimes 2 + 4 , but very rarely 2 + 2 or 3 + 3 . there are 6 supralabial scales , very rarely 7 . the sublabial scales usually number 7 or 10 , rarely 8 , and very rarely 11 , 12 or 13 . the first 3 - 4 sublabials are in contact with the anterior chin shields . the posterior chin shields are small and often indistinguishable from the gulars .
at midbody there are 15 - 21 rows of dorsal scales that are moderately keeled and have a satiny texture . the ventral scales number 120 - 166 , the subcaudals , most of which are divided , 15 - 36 .
the color pattern consists of a ground color that is usually some shade of brown ( possibly pinkish or grayish - brown ) , but occasionally olive green . this is overlaid with a pattern of 20 - 30 rhombic blotches that have pale edges , as well as a sprinkling of black scales and oblique black bars on the sides . each oblique black bar is topped by one or two black spots , each with a pale centre , and strongly resembling an eye . northern populations may be patternless , making them difficult to identify , while in others the pale edges may be missing , the rhombic blotches may be a darker color , or there may even be a dark brown vertebral stripe . the head has a characteristic v - shaped mark that may be solid black , or brown with a black outline .
rhombic night adder , demon night adder , cape night adder , african night adder , cape viper .
savannas of subsaharan africa from nigeria east to sudan , ethiopia , somalia and kenya , south through tanzania , uganda , rwanda , burundi , dr congo , angola , zambia , malawi , zimbabwe , northern botswana , mozambique , swaziland , and eastern south africa to riverdale in the western cape province . no type locality is listed .
this is an active species that can often move relatively quickly—up to an estimated speed of 92 cm per second ( 3 feet per second ) . they are usually found on the ground , but have no trouble climbing or swimming . they are largely nocturnal , but are often seen basking in the early morning or late afternoon . however , harper ( 1963 ) reported collecting a dozen specimens that were all active during the heat of the day .
most specimens are docile , seldom attempting to bite unless severely provoked . fitzsimons is quoted in pitman ( 1938 ) as saying that , in captivity , they
become so tame that you may allow them to creep , climb and slither round your neck and inside your garments .
others , however , are more temperamental .
when seriously disturbed , they will put on a
ferocious
threat display that includes coiling up , inflating the body ( making the dark markings stand out ) , hissing and puffing loudly , flattening the anterior portion of the body , and striking frantically . they may also flatten the neck and move forward with the tongue extended , much like a small cobra . striking is done with such vigor that small specimens may lift themselves off the ground entirely .
the diet consists mainly of toads , but it also includes frogs and small mammals .
females produce an average clutch of two dozen eggs that require a lengthy incubation period of approximately four months . the hatchlings are 10 - 12 . 5 cm ( 4 - 5 inches ) in total length and feed on tiny frogs and toads .
rhombic night adder bites can be very serious and in at least one bite a child had to have a fasciotomy . we see a number of small dogs dying and having limbs amputated . a bite from a large individual on a small child could potentially be fatal - please do not underestimate the venom of this snake .
the few documented bites involved pain and minor swelling with minimal necrosis . these symptoms usually disappear within 2–3 days . there have been no modern well - documented cases to back up earlier claims of fatalities due to bites from this species . venom yield has varied from 20–30 mg to 300 mg , but the venom toxicity is low with ld 50 values of 10 . 8 , 14 . 6 , > 16 . 0 mg / kg iv and 15 mg / kg sc being reported .
photo by coetzer a ; m . viljoen ; a . van der merwe , 2014 . url : frogmap : 1722
b . fenoulheti occurs from zeerust ( 2526ca ) in north west province , eastward through limpopo province and northern gauteng to northern and eastern mpumalanga , and extends southward through the northeastern parts of swaziland and kwazulu - natal to st lucia ( 2832ad ) . it also occurs north of the atlas region in zimbabwe and adjacent parts of eastern botswana , southern zambia and namibia’s caprivi strip , as well as the higher - lying parts of southern mozambique ( channing 2001 ) . a population on the western chimanimani mountains of zimbabwe is treated as a distinct subspecies : b . fenoulheti grindleyi poynton 1963 . b . fenoulheti occurs at altitudes ranging from sea level to about 1700 m .
b . fenoulheti was treated as a subspecies of b . verte bralis by poynton ( 1964 ) , but was later elevated to full species on the basis of differences in its advertisement call ( poynton and broadley 1988 ) . although previously considered to be allopatric , the ranges of these two species are now known to overlap in the north west and extreme western limpopo provinces ( bates 1995 ; jacobsen 1989 ; this atlas ) . a recent study of the mitochondrial dna of bufonids confirmed the species status of b . fenoulheti ( cunningham and cherry 2000 ) .
the atlas data are reliable , but there are large gaps in the coverage of this species’ distribution . it is something of a mystery why this species should have been so poorly recorded in large parts of its range ; further surveys are recommended .
b . fenoulheti inhabits a variety of bushveld vegetation types in the savanna biome and is occasionally found in adjacent grassland . its distribution lies within the summer - rainfall region .
although occasionally found in sandy areas , these frogs usually occupy rocky outcrops , taking refuge between rocks or on soil under stones . in these situations they occur singly or in small groups of 5–6 ( or as many as nine ) individuals , often together with scorpions and lizards ( jacobsen 1989 ) . in zimbabwe , they have also been found sheltering under shallow , loose , matted layers of sand and roots overlying rocks ( lambiris 1989b ) . breeding usually takes place in temporary pools , such as those on flat rocky outcrops or shallow rain ponds , sometimes in barren areas .
breeding occurs october–february in the kruger national park , but only after heavy rain ( h . braack pers . obs . ) . during the breeding season , males have bright yellow throats and call from exposed positions near the edges of rain pools or while partly submerged near the edge ( lambiris 1989a ; passmore and carruthers 1995 ) . jacobsen ( 1989 ) noted that several frogs appeared on the day after an afternoon rain shower , and some of them were found in amplexus after being placed in bottles . he observed that strings of eggs were abundant at the edge of rain - filled depressions and hatched after about 24 hours .
the following observations refer to a population of b . fenoulheti from lobatse , botswana ( power 1927b ) . the species breeds from late november to late january , at which time the males congregate in shallow rock pools . an axillary clasp is used during amplexus . females produce strings of 2000 eggs that are entwined among stones and vegetation . tadpoles feed on algae on the bottom and sides of the pools and take c . 19 days to complete their development and undergo metamorphosis . according to channing ( 2001 ) , strings of eggs are 200 mm long and one clutch consisted of only 245 eggs .
adults feed on soft - bodied arthropods taken on largely sand - free rock surfaces . frogs kept in sandy terraria often die after ingesting sand particles which apparently cause internal injury ( lambiris 1989a ) .
b . fenoulheti occurs in several provincial and private nature reserves in limpopo , mpumalanga and kwazulu - natal provinces , as well as in kruger national park . the species is widespread and common within its range and is not considered to be at risk because its habitat is generally well protected .
web : frogmap . 2018 . bufo fenoulheti hewitt and methuen , 1913 . animal demography unit . accessed from urltoken ; on 2018 - 07 - 09 09 : 07 : 17 .
book : minter l . r . , burger m . , harrison j . a . , braack h . h . , bishop p . j . & kloepfer d . ( eds ) . 2004 . atlas and red data book of the frogs of south africa , lesotho and swaziland . si / mab series no . 9 . smithsonian institution , washington , d . c . published by the smithsonian institution and the avian demography unit ( now animal demography unit ) .
frogmap is a citizen science project which aims to determine the distribution and conservation priorities of frogs on the african continent . frogmap is building the 21st century distribution maps for africa ' s amphibians . it is a partnership between the . . . . . and the animal demography unit at the university of cape town .
the purpose of the animal demography unit ( adu ) is to contribute to the understanding of biodiversity , and thus provide input to biodiversity conservation . we achieve this through programmes that involve citizen scientists , long - term monitoring , research and innovative statistical modelling . read more . . .
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the night adders can grow to around 60 to 90 centimeters ( 24 to 36 in ) long . they are usually dark gray , light gray , light brown , or black in color with gray or black blotches .
even though they are called the
night adders
, they are usually active at day , but some are active at night . when they are attacked or disturbed , they usually coil up and start hissing at their enemy to scare it off . some may raise their head and neck off the ground , and with their tongue sticking out , move froward like a the cobra does .
they eat mainly toads and frogs , but there are reports of some night adders eating almost everything they can find until they are completely unable to swallow any more food .
all night adders are oviparous , which means they lay eggs . this is unusual for most vipers , because most vipers are viviparous , they give live birth . they lay around 2 dozen eggs at a time . these eggs take around 4 months to hatch , when they hatch the hatchlings are 4 - 5 inches ( 10 - 12 . 5 cm ) long .
the night adders have very big venom glands , which are around 10 centimeters long . but even though the venom glands are very big night adders don ' t always use their venom on their prey . the venom would kill the prey fast enough , but night adders usually seize their prey and swallow it . when someone is bitten by a night adders venom the venom does not spread around the body , and only causes swelling in the place of the bite . there have been no reports of deaths by night adder venom .
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well finally i am back…i have been in the field for the last 3 months working on a few projects . filming , collecting dna for mine and some others work and collecting data for a book i am co - writing .
we have done over 22000 miles by car . some crazy places , crazy roads , crazy people and some crazy fun . it has been amazing . seen some herps i have always dreamed about…and seen some possibly new species ! also saw my dream find for sa herps , less than 30 ever seen
made tons of distribution extensions and documented new behavior on a few species that has never been documented .
ok here are some pics…a very small preview , an extremely small taste of whet we saw and what happened . busy working on the footage , video should be premiered soon ( about a month )
very happy devon . thanks for posting . i just have to remember to shrinkwrap my keyboard to protect it from the drool , when you post pics . wow some amazing species you saw . that ' s a sign you don ' t want to see when you ' re walking or cycling - - beware of lions
i would give a kidney to shoot the stuff that you see on a regular basis .
just make sure it is on ice . . . i ' ll pm shipping address , please make sure it is not damaged . lol but seriously . . . . this stuff doesn ' t just get found on a regular basis ! work my but off ! ! ! but ah it is fun
if i ' m giving you a kidney i ' m going to come with it , once i get my shots then you get the kidney .
those are absolutely stunning ! i don ' t mind saying that i ' m more than a little bit jealous that you get to be out there doing that - and i don ' t .
oh , and funny . . . even though you posted
these are frogs
very clearly , i started out by staring at the first frog photo wondering what kind of snake that was .
awesome pics , , beware of lions ? ? ? lol . i dont think i would be walking on the road , lol
those are fabulous photos devon ! if angie and i decide to come to africa for our honeymoon , you gonna be our tour guide ? ( so i can see some of what you were seeing .
“if we save our wild places , we will ultimately save ourselves . ” ~ steve irwin
general shape very small , cylindrical to slightly depressed , relatively stout , thick bodied snake with a very short tail . can grow to a maximum of about 0 . 45 metres . head is moderate in size and distinct from neck . canthus is obtuse . snout is short , pointed and distinctly upturned . eyes are small to medium in size with round pupils . dorsal scales are soft and feebly keeled with apical pits . dorsal scale count usually 17 - 17 - 12 .
habitat elevations up to about 1800 metres but mainly lowland dry to moist savanna , coastal thicket and forest but extending into more arid savanna regions .
habits terrestrial , slow moving and mainly nocturnal . in spite of the common name , it is often active during the day . when inactive tends to hide in holes , under bush or fallen logs etc . if disturbed and angered will inflate its body with air and hiss and puff . if provoked it will raise the anterior of the body off the ground , into a coil with the head tilted back and strike , tending to lash rather than stab . males are known to engage in combat during the mating season .
general : dangerousness unknown , but unlikely to cause significant envenoming , most unlikely to be dangerous .
description : first aid for bites by viperid snakes likely to cause significant local injury at the bite site ( see listing in comments section ) .
treatment summary most cases will be minor , requiring observation , symptomatic treatment only . no antivenom available .
general approach to management it is possible that most cases will be minor , but some cases may be more severe , requiring admission and treatment , so assess carefully before discharge .
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copyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .
update 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !
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? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )
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out of the more than 2 , 900 species of snakes in the world about 600 species only are known to be venomous . venomous snakes have highly specialized teeth such as hollow fangs , through which they deliver venom to immobilize prey , or for self - defense . a venomous snake bite quickly affects different organs including the lungs , heart , central nervous system , red blood cells and muscles . venom can be neurotoxic , haemotoxic or myotoxic .
though australia is known to be home to the majority of the world ' s most venomous snakes , africa has its share of potentially highly dangerous species : here are the main ones .


eisenia andrei is a close relative of the ' brandling ' or ' tiger ' worm , eisenia fetida .

like its sibling species , it is epigeic , i.e. it prefers to live in compost or leaf litter rather than mineral soils .

it can be distinguished from e. fetida as it is darker in colour , and the characteristic stripes are less pronounced .

although its status as a separate species was fully confirmed in the mid-1980s by molecular analyses ( based on electrophoresis of protein isoforms ) , e. andrei is still often misidentified and confused with e. fetida .

eisenia andrei

oecd ilibrary | test no . 222 : earthworm reproduction test ( eisenia fetida / eisenia andrei )
histopathological and molecular effects of microplastics in eisenia andrei bouché . - pubmed - ncbi
identification and cloning of an invertebrate - type lysozyme from eisenia andrei . - pubmed - ncbi
this test guideline is designed to be used for assessing the effects of chemicals in soil on the reproductive output ( and other sub - lethal end points ) of the earthworm species eisenia fetida or eisenia andrei .
sensitivity of eisenia andrei ( annelida , oligochaeta ) to a commercial formulation of abamectin in avoidance tests with artificial substrate and natural soil under tropical conditions .
a vermelha - da - califórnia ( eisenia andrei ) é a espécie de minhoca mais adotada em todo o mundo para reciclar resíduos orgânicos . mais informações em urltoken
sensitivity of eisenia andrei ( annelida , oligochaeta ) to a commercial formulation of abamectin in avoidance tests with artificial substrate and nat . . . - pubmed - ncbi
this is interesting reading : eisenias . pdf ( from urltoken ) the difference between eisenia fetida and eisenia andrei . now i ' m wondering if i ' ve got ef , ea , or both ! i ' m * really * going to have to examine them carefully : - )
sri sai farm development services offers healthy adult composting earthworms - eisenia andrei - commonly nown as ' red wrigglers ] - in safe packing for domestic and export markets . the eisenia species of earthworms are the best composting earthworms . these earthworms are now highly regarded - as a rich biological resource with a multitude of uses having commercial and environmental applications . the species eisenia andrei in vermiculture or vermicomposting is more recommended since its growth and reproduction rates are higher - it produces more cocoons than other species , and the number of hatchlings per cocoon is also higher .
here ' s some of the best articles i found based on their titles , along with the urls to find them . i haven ' t had a chance to read any of them yet but i wanted to get the most interesting ones out to you all . jorge domínguez ( 2004 ) state of the art and new perspectives on vermicomposting research . in ca edwards ( ed ) earthworm ecology ( 2nd edition ) . crc press llc . pp 401 - 424 . urltoken jorge domínguez , maria j . briones , salustiano mato ( 1997 ) effect of the diet on growth and reproduction of eisenia andrei ( oligochaeta , lumbricidae ) . pedobiologia 41 , 566 - 576 urltoken jorge domínguez , clive a . edwards ( 1997 ) effects of stocking rate and moisture content on the growth and maturation of eisenia andrei ( oligochaeta ) in pig manure . soil biology and biochemistry 29 , 743 - 746 urltoken
sigh , i have both . in short the eisenia fetida are the striped or banded worms , the tiger worms . eisenia andrei are the solid red worms without stripes . e . andrie are the more productive worms laying more cocoons . the two species are very closely related and can mate but the cocoons from such crosses aren ' t viable . so if you have a mix of worms you get low , slow reproduction rates . sounds right i have always had slow reproduction in my bin . also i have noticed that i get the banded e . fetida worms coming out of the bottom of my flow through when i harvest and i always see the red e . andrei on the top when i feed . when i harvest i always put the worms back into the bin . and after not too long the banded ones are no longer on top . perhaps they like to stay a bit deeper in the bin .
i had always heard that they looked so much alike that it would take lab tests to tell them apart . but this article spells out just how easy it can be . well for wormaholics anyway . i did know i had two different kinds of worms and wondered . well at one point i had euro ' s too but the cold weather power outages took them out . but to be honest i had the species backwards , nice to get it straitened out . i been thinking of building a smaller version of larry d ' s flow through maybe 3 by 5 . now i am wondering how i will get the red e andrei i want without the risk of getting e fetida too .
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the two species are very closely related and can mate but the cocoons from such crosses aren ' t viable .
that ' s the first time i heard that . i also thought they were much more difficult to differentiate , requiring something like protein analysis to tell them apart . oh well , just one more variable . i ' m shooting for as many species as possible in my outdoor bins , so no worries for me .
and i was joking about sortin ' them suckers .
steamy , we all know you never joke around . larry , you know i agree with you about the mixed species bin , but if ef & ea can mate and produce dud cocoons . . . that could really mess up the rates of reproduction . lots of mating and cocoons without many babies is not too good for a worm farmer .
does anyone know how early you can tell ef and ea apart ? i was just about to get just efs out of my mixed bin and start a single species bin . i ' m sure glad i read this first ! ! i can ' t tell my pes from my esenia of either type when they ' re young ( as in before they are sexually mature . ) i guess i ' ll have 1 bin that ' s 3 species and have 2 smaller pure ef and pure ea bins where i ' ve taken only obvious adults out of the mixed bin . this is , of course , just for the fun of it . as with steamyb ,
i really don ' t care who or what ' s in that box o ' rot as long as they
the community
eat that garbage .
also , one of the ways i was distinguishing my efs from the pes was the yellow tail on the efs . i haven ' t looked at my herd yet , but does anyone know if both have the yellowish tails ?
i was looking to see if i could find other interesting articles by the same authors . i loved the title of this one , though it won ' t effect our vermicomposting . velando , a . , eiroa , j . & domínguez j . 2008 . brainless but not clueless : earthworms boost their ejaculates when they detect fecund nonvirgin partners . proceedings of the royal society london b 275 : 1067 - 72
susan , if you look at these photo ' s , even the small ef ' s have yellow tails , while the pe ' s do not .
some of my juvenile e . hortensis look like the
tiger worm
.
peter , thanks for the photos ! very helpful . now the challenge is to tell juvenile efs from eas . i think when i sort ( if i ever get around to it ) , i ' d be safer to sort obvious mature adults and leave everything else in the mixed bin . two mistakes would ruin the effort to get just efs in one bin and just eas in another . i don ' t know if avoiding the decrease in fertility with a mixed ef / ea bin will be worth the effort , but i ' ll have some time in december to give it a try .
adult worms are exposed to a range of concentrations of the test substance either mixed into the soil or applied to the soil surface . the range of test concentrations is selected to encompass those likely to cause both sub - lethal and lethal effects over a period of eight weeks . the limit test corresponds to one dose level of 1000 mg / kg . this study includes the observation of unusual behaviour and morphology , the counting and weighing of the adult worms after the four primary weeks , the number of juveniles hatched at the end of the second 4 - week period . the reproductive output of the worms exposed to the test substance is compared to that of the control ( s ) in order to determine the no observed effect concentration ( noec ) and / or ecx by using a regression model to estimate the concentration that would cause a x % reduction in reproductive output . the test concentrations should bracket the ecx so that the ecx then comes from interpolation rather than extrapolation .
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núcleo de estudos em ecossistemas aquáticos , departamento de hidráulica e saneamento , escola de engenharia de são carlos , universidade de são paulo , são carlos , sp , brazil . metnunes @ urltoken
department of immunology , institute of microbiology , academy of sciences of the czech republic , prague , czech republic .
environ pollut . 2017 jan ; 220 ( pt a ) : 495 - 503 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . envpol . 2016 . 09 . 092 . epub 2016 oct 13 .
rodriguez - seijo a 1 , lourenço j 2 , rocha - santos tap 3 , da costa j 3 , duarte ac 3 , vala h 4 , pereira r 5 .
department of plant biology and soil science , universidade de vigo , as lagoas , marcosende , 36310 vigo , spain .
department of biology & cesam , university of aveiro , 3810 - 193 aveiro , portugal .
department of chemistry & cesam , university of aveiro , 3810 - 193 aveiro , portugal .
agrarian school of viseu , polytechnic institute of viseu . viseu , portugal ; centre for the research and technology of agro - environmental and biological sciences ( citab and centre for studies in education , and health technologies ( ci & dets ) , portugal .
department of biology , faculty of sciences of the university of porto & ciimar - interdisciplinary centre of marine and environmental research & greenup / citab - up , porto , portugal . electronic address : ruth . pereira @ fc . up . pt .
sri sai farm development services was established in the year 2009 to promote promote environmentally sustainable agribusiness and green businesses . our motto is restore soil , protect environment and support the farmer . we manufacture and supply high quality , pure unadulterated vermicompost made purely from cattle manure and agriculture waste . we also supply organic basmati rice organic wheat and pulses . our farm location is close to new delhi . we offer a fair deal , prompt and qualitative services and timely delivery of consignments .
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epiphthora nivea is a moth of the gelechiidae family .

it was described by philpott in 1930 .

it is found in new zealand , where it has only been recorded from the waitakere ranges .

the larvae feed on collospermum hastatum .

epiphthora nivea

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lower , o . b . 1901 ,
descriptons of new genera and species of australian lepidoptera
, transactions of the royal society of south australia , vol . 25 , pp . 63 - 98
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the marquesan kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) is a species of bird in the family alcedinidae .

it is endemic to french polynesia .

it is threatened by habitat loss and predation by introduced species , and is currently classified as critically endangered , with less than 500 individuals left in the wild .

marquesan kingfisher

marquesan kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) is a species of bird in the alcedinidae family .
survival , territory resources , and population persistence in the critically endangered tuamotu kingfisher .
adamson , a . m . 1936 . marquesan insects : environment . bernice p . bishop museum bulletin 139 : 1 - 73 .
rolett , b . v . 1993 . marquesan prehistory and the origins of east polynesian culture . jounral de la societe des oceanisttes 96 : 29 - 47 .
the marquesan kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) , one of the most endangered kingfishers , faces a different suite of threats . once found on a handful of islands in the marquesas chain , the species is now limited to only one , tahuata . the bird’s decline has been attributed to habitat degradation…
this article is part of project alcedinidae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each kingfisher , including made - up species .
this article is part of project halcyoninae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each tree kingfisher , including made - up species .
i did two internships back in french polynesia , with the ornithological society of french polynesia ( sop manu ) . my first three - month internship was working on a conservation project funded by the clp ( conservation leadership program ) . the project’s goal was to update the population number of the endangered species marquesan kingfisher ( only population on tahuata island , marquesas archipelago )
the rufous - collared kingfisher is categorised as near - threatened due to the rapid loss of its rainforest habitat . a number of species are considered threatened by human activities and are in danger of extinction . the majority of these are forest species with limited distribution , particularly insular species . they are threatened by habitat loss caused by forest clearance or degradation and in some cases by introduced species . the marquesan kingfisher of french polynesia is listed as critically endangered due to a combination of habitat loss and degradation caused by introduced cattle , and possibly due to predation by introduced species .
i studied factors influencing territory configuration in the tuamotu kingfisher ( todiramphus gambieri ) . radiotelemetry data were used to define territory boundaries , and i tested for effects on territory size and shape of landscape habitat composition and foraging patch configuration . tuamotu kingfisher territories were larger in areas with reduced densities of coconut plantation foraging . . . [ show full abstract ]
. . . future research should analyze habitat preferences of mo ' orean kingfishers in greater detail . closely related kingfisher species have been seen habituating coconut trees in managed and unmanaged coconut farms ( coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . studies of the mo ' orean kingfisher should be conducted in coconut farms to support or refute this idea . . . .
wagner , w . l . 1991 . evolution of waif floras : a comparison of the hawaiian and marquesan archipelagos . pages 267 - 284 in e . dudley , editor . the unity of evolutionary biology . the proceedings of the 4th international congress of systematics and evolutionary biology . dioscorides press , portland , oregon .
22 cm . distinctive kingfisher with buff triangle on upper back . totally white crown , forehead , mantle and centre of upper back . blue eye - stripe ending as broken line behind head . white underparts . blue - green lower back , rump , tail and wings .
a wide range of threats affect populations of pacific island birds and conservationists have been challenged to identify factors upon which to focus management . the tuamotu kingfisher ( todiramphus gambieri ) is one of the most endangered vertebrate species in the world , yet little has been published about basic biology or causes of the population decline . we used 4 years of mark - resight and . . . [ show full abstract ]
woodall , p . f . , sharpe , c . j . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . marquesas kingfisher ( todiramphus godeffroyi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 10 july 2018 ) .
. . . there was a notable gap in occupancy in a large agricultural area on the lagoon side of the western - central section of niau ( 16° 08′ 34 . 26″ s , 146° 23′ 28 . 68″ w ) . active and mixed fallow coconut agriculture , wetlands , and feo forests characterized the gap region . agricultural coconut groves are open , and similar to those described previously as suitable habitat for the tuamotu kingfisher ( see coulombe et al . 2011 ) . although it was not clear why the birds did not occur in the release location , disturbances for airport construction is likely cause of extirpation . . . .
. . . point - transect surveys were conducted annually from 2006 through 2009 at stations spaced by approximately 300 m along the island ' s ocean and lagoon coasts . results showed regular kingfisher occurrence around the eastern half of the island , with occasional detections along the western oceanic coast ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . there was a notable gap in occupancy in a large agricultural area on the lagoon side of the western - central section of niau ( 16° 08′ 34 . 26″ s , 146° 23′ 28 . 68″ w ) . active and mixed fallow coconut agriculture , wetlands , and feo forests characterized the gap region . . . .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
critically endangered b1ab ( i , ii , iii , iv , v ) ver 3 . 1
derhé , m . , mahood , s . , o ' brien , a . , shutes , s . , stattersfield , a . , symes , a . , ashpole , j , north , a .
this species is listed as critically endangered as , following its extinction on hiva oa , it is now found on only a single small island on which it is suspected to be declining owing to habitat deterioration and predation .
and was last seen in february 1997 in the atuona valley . searches in 2001 , 2004 and 2006 failed to find the species and it is considered extinct on the island ( j . - c . thibault
ghestemme and timau ( 2014 ) estimated the population to be approximately 350 mature individuals .
2012 ] ) may have contributed to the decline ( gouni and zysman 2007 ) . on tahuata , black rats , polynesian rats
2012 , ghestemme and timau 2014 ) . mynas are currently absent on the island and local inhabitants are aware of the risk of their introduction to tahuata island ( withers
2012 ) , and 2013 - 2014 ( ghestemme and timau 2014 ) investigating the distribution , species ' s behaviour and nesting and territory requirements . public awareness - raising was implemented with positive results , as inhabitants were previously unaware of the species ' s endemic status .
regularly resurvey the species to determine trends . investigate threats , including feral cat impact and species distribution knowledge . work with local stakeholders to protect remaining forest and retain dead trees in plantations , especially in coconut plantations . take all measures possible to ensure that
does not colonise tahutua . exclude livestock from the remaining intact forest . consider the possibility of translocation to a nearby island . produce a species recovery plan and develop captive breeding populations .
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traditionally thought to form a species - group with several other australasian and polynesian species ( see t . sanctus ) . monotypic .
hiva oa and tahuata ( probably extinct in the former ) # r , in marquesas is ; reports from other islands in marquesas ( ua pou , mohotani and fatu hiva ) are apparently erroneous .
21 cm . both sexes white crown , neck and underparts , dark mask through eye continuing as blue - black stripe and as thin band across nape ; upper mantle with characteristic buffy . . .
short , deep , repeated “kiau” , which can accelerate into chatter ; also soft “treeet - tee - tee” .
primary forest , preferring dense humid forest along mountain streams and in remote valleys ; . . .
insects , mainly beetles ( coleoptera ) and large grasshoppers ( orthoptera ) , and small lizards ; possibly some fish . takes prey in the foliage . . .
lays in sept–jan on hiva oa . nest found in hole of old mango tree , another in hollow with 2 entrances dug into decayed screw - pine ( . . .
critically endangered . restricted - range species : present in marquesas islands eba . population in 1970s 300–500 pairs on tahuata and under 50 pairs on hiva oa . on latter . . .
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recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : todiramphus godeffroyi . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
the treeet - tee - tee call described in pratt , et al . listen for it at 30 to 31 sec . sadly , a very rare bird now . confined to tahuata . seen in coconut plantation understory .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
2012 ) . it formerly occurred on hiva oa , where there were fewer than 50 pairs in 1971 and 1973 ; it was exceedingly rare on the island in 1990 ( seitre and seitre 1991 ) and was last seen in february 1997 in the atuona valley . searches in 2001 , 2004 and 2006 failed to find the species and it is considered extinct on the island ( j . - c . thibault
2009 ) . records from fatu hiva , mohotani and ua pou are apparently erroneous ( holyoak and thibault 1984 , thibault 1988 ) .
kari pihlaviita marked the finnish common name
marquesasinkalastaja
from
todiramphus godeffroyi ( finsch , 1877 )
as trusted .
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like the hawaiian islands , the tropical marquesas islands are extremely isolated and all flora and fauna present are the result of long - distance colonization and in situ evolution for thousands to millions of years . forty - two percent of the 320 native vascular plants are endemic . the terrestrial snail community is quite diverse , with at least 78 species represented . ten endemic birds occur here . unfortunately , this biodiversity has been exposed to almost two millennia of human disturbance . several species have gone extinct in known history and much of the flora and fauna is critically endangered .
the protection and management of upper - elevation forests on ua pou , nuku hiva , fatu hika , ua huku , and fatu hiva islands would serve to protect large numbers of endemic plant species and the unique communities they form ( dahl 1980 , montgomery et al . 1980 , thibault 1988 , seitre & seitre 1992 , florence & lorence 1997 ) .
justification of ecoregion delineation this ecoregion consists of the relatively discrete marquesas islands group . allison treats the cooks , societies , tuamotus , and marquesas as a unit herpetologically as they share a similar reptile assemblage . van balgooy ( 1996 ) similarly lumps the cooks , niue , societies , tuamotus , tubaui , and marquesas based on floristic affinities . however , birdlife international ( stattersfield et al . 1998 ) separates the marquesas from surrounding island groups due to the presence of 10 endemic bird species , and based on this consideration we have delineated the marquesas as a separate ecoregion .
references adamson , a . m . 1935 . affinities and origins of the fauna of the marquesas islands . phd dissertation university of california , berkeley . 205 pp .
brown , f . b . h . 1931 . flora of southeastern polynesia . i . monocotyledons . bernice p . bishop museum bulletin 84 : 1 - 194 .
brown , f . b . h . 1935 . flora of southeastern polynesia . iii . dicotyledons . bernice p . bishop museum bulletin 130 : 1 - 386 .
dahl , a . l . 1980 . regional ecosystems survey of the south pacific area . south pacific commission , noumea , new caledonia .
dekker , b . g . 1992 . secondary plant cover on upland slopes : marquesas islands , french polynesia . atoll research bulletin 363 : 1 - 36 .
florence , j . and d . h . lorence . 1997 introduction to the flora and vegetation of the marquesas islands . allertonia 7 : 226 - 237 .
kuehler , c . , a . lieberman , a . varney , p . unitt , r . m . sulpice , j . azua , and b . tehevini . 1997 . translocation of ultramarine lories , vini ultramarina , in the marquesas islands : ua huka to fatu hiva . bird conservation international 7 : 69 - 79 .
montgomery , s . l . , w . c . gagne , and b . h . gagne . 1980 . notes on birdlife and nature conservation in the marquesas and society islands . ‘elepaio 40 : 152 - 156 .
mueller - dombois , d . and f . r . fosberg . 1998 . vegetation of the tropical pacific islands . springer press , new york .
seitre , r . and j . seitre . 1992 . causes of land - bird extinctions in french polynesia . oryx 26 : 215 - 222 .
stattersfield , a . j . , m . j . crosby , a . j . long , and d . c . wege . 1998 . endemic bird areas of the world : priorities for biodiversity conservation . birdlife conservation series no . 7 , birdlife international , cambridge , uk . 846 pp .
steadman , d . w . 1995 . prehistoric extinctions of pacific island birds : biodiversity meets zooarchaeology . science 267 : 1123 - 1130 .
steadman , d . w . and b . rolett . 1996 . a chronostratigraphic analysis of landbird extinction on tahuata , marquesas islands . journal of archaeological science 23 : 81 - 94 .
thibualt , j . - c . 1988 . menacés et conservation des oiseaux de polynésie française . pages 87 - 124 in j . - c . thibualt and i . guyot , eds . livre rouge des oiseaux menacés des régions françaises d’outre - mer . conseil internatioal pur la protection des oiseaux ( monograph 5 ) , saint - cloud .
van balgooy , p . h . hovenkamp , and p . c . van welzen . 1996 . phytogeography of the pacific – floristic and historical distribution patterns in plants . pages 191 - 213 in keast , a . and s . e . miller , editors . the origin and evolution of pacific island biotas , new guinea to eastern polynesia : patterns and processes . spb academic publishing , amsterdam .
wwf and iucn . 1995 . centres of plant diversity . a guide and strategy for their conservation . vol . 2 . asia , australasia and the pacific . iucn publication unit , cambridge , uk .
world wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037
locally called
pahi
. this is one of the world ' s rarest kingfishers . currently assessed as critically endangered due to its sole distribution on only one single island and it is already extinct on the other .
although not so extremely rare on its now sole surviving home - tahuata island , it is still not easy to locate them reliably unless an active nest is located . we were lucky to locate a pair and a dependent juvenile at an uninhabited beach .
i later found out that this is a parent perching on its favourite vantage point for catching prey on the ground , which it flew to feed its young nearby .
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les effets de la modification anthropique de l ' habitat sont évidents sur les îles tropicales du pacifique où les forêts ont été extensivement converties en plantations de cocos nucifera . nous avons évalué la sélection des ressources chez todiramphus gambieri gertrudae , une espèce en danger critique d ' extinction limitée à une seule population sur l ' île à basse altitude de niau atoll , en polynésie française . nos analyses indiquent que les ressources associées à la quête de nourriture sont à la base de l ' utilisation de l ' espace et de la sélection de l ' habitat par cette espèce à plusieurs échelles spatiales . à l ' échelle de l ' île , les caractéristiques de l ' habitat associées à des opportunités d ' alimentation , telles que les plantations de cocotiers avec un sous - étage ouvert , des perchoirs de chasse et un sol exposé , sont les facteurs qui permettent le mieux de prédire la présence de l ' espèce . à l ' inverse , la répartition de l ' espèce était négativement associée à une végétation non perturbée , telle que les forêts primaires et les plantations de cocotiers en jachère . à l ' échelle du domaine vital , la répartition des individus munis d ' émetteurs a également indiqué que les oiseaux ont sélectionné les forêts agricoles de cocotiers et ont moins préféré les forêts primaires . les observations ont de plus indiqué que les oiseaux en quête alimentaire ont sélectionné les plantations de cocotiers gérées à l ' aide du brûlage dirigé pour la chasse . t . gambieri gertrudae constitue un exemple rare d ' une espèce tropicale menacée susceptible de bénéficier de la gestion agricole . nos résultats soutiennent les stratégies de conservation basées sur l ' établissement de populations de sauvetage sur d ' autres îles possédant des plantations de cocotiers . nous suggérons que le fait d ' incorporer les forêts agricoles de cocotiers dans la planification de la conservation peut aider à prévenir l ' extinction de plusieurs espèces de martins - pêcheurs qui dépendaient par ie passé des habitats naturels de feuillus qui sont désormais pratiquement absents des îles d ' océanie , dans le pacifique .
l , adapted with permission from butaud ( 2007 ) . locations and results of tu
e ar ea wa s act ively used to pro duce c oconu ts .
is akaike weight ( i . e . , model probability given the set of
25 , 25 , and 75 m ( e . g . , unﬁlled points ) ; ground cover bet
 .   ( m a na g ed c oc o nu t f o re s t ) –  .   ( m ea n
t t o  % in man ag ed c oco nut for es t . p ar am
lo ca tio ns ( fi g .  ) f rom vi sua l o bs er vat io ns (  % ) , tr ia ng ul at ion (  % ;
, e d . ) . pa peet e , fre nch po lyne sia .
ar e ac ute ly s usc ept ibl e to glo ba l ch ang e . b iod ive rsi ty a nd c on ser
rces ( m . l . reaka - kudla , d . e . wi
. . . common myna removal projects may prove to be more effective if conducted in agricultural areas as well as forests , based on our findings that common mynas were less frequently detected in forests . there is very little information about the habitat requirements , calling activity , and natural history of native avifauna in french polynesia ( coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . mo ' orean kingfishers were shown in this study to have low call counts , low detection probability , and a negative correlation with non - native calling activity in all of the habitats studied . . . .
. . . not all avian species will decline with human disturbance , and some may even benefit from resource subsidies and increases in open and edge habitats , including those within anthropogenic areas ( werner , hejl & brush , 2007 ; kamp et al . , 2009 ; coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . the bahama oriole uses anthropogenic areas during the breeding season , where it selects nest sites in the tallest available palm trees ( price , lee & hayes , 2011 ) . . . .
. . . synanthropic species , which cohabit with humans and benefit from resources and modifications that exist in anthropogenic landscapes , present unique challenges for conservation management . today , at least 14 highly endangered birds are recognized as synanthropic , including the bahama oriole ( coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ; price , lee & hayes , 2011 ; wright , lake & dolman , 2012 ) . the extent to which synanthropy affects gene flow among populations remains unclear , but rapid cultural and evolutionary changes may be associated with landscape modification ( johnston , 2001 ; boardman , 2006 ; jiménez et al . , 2013 ) . . . .
. . . we removed locations with an estimated error ellipse greater than 2 ha in size to reduce the potential effects of inaccurate locations ( e . g . kesler & haig , 2007 ; coulombe , kesler & gouni , 2011 ) . together , excluded bearing groups represented less than 5 % of the total dataset . . . .
. . . the climate was tropical oceanic without pronounced seasons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) . we conducted our research during 2006– 2010 on 2 study areas situated on the east side of the island , 1 on the ocean coast and 1 near the lagoon ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . coconut plantations on the 2 study areas were managed by farmers using hand tools and prescribed burns to clear understory vegetation . . . .
. . . we estimated both apparent survival ð ^ fþ and the probability of resight ð ^ pþ to account for individuals that might have been present on study areas but were missed when resighting color bands ( lebreton et al . 1992 , anders and marshall 2005 ) . we incorporated island and territory resource metrics into the analysis of adult survival ( f ahy ) using previously published results of resource use , wherein we defined home range area ( ha ) by the 95 % isopleth constructed with a kernel density analysis of radio - marked individuals ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . we intersected home range polygons with vegetation cover maps for niau ( butaud 2007 ) to identify the area of each habitat within home ranges , including atoll forest , mixed coconut and atoll forest , agricultural coconut plantation , littoral zone , urbanized , and wetland . . . .
. . . we used a mean of 0 . 95 ( sd 0 . 02 ) for f , a mean of 1 . 7 ( sd 0 . 15 ) for n , and a mean of 0 . 534 ( sd 0 . 105 ) for f nestling . we selected simulation input values for effects of territory size on adult female survival from a normally distributed set of values centered on the mean home range size of birds used in our survival analysis ( 4 . 2 ha , sd 0 . 1 ; coulombe et al . 2011 ) . we simulated 1 , 000 value combinations for matrix variables and derived l i for each . . . .
. . . the climate was tropical oceanic without pronounced seasons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) . we conducted our research during 20062010 on 2 study areas situated on the east side of the island , 1 on the ocean coast and 1 near the lagoon ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . coconut plantations on the 2 study areas were managed by farmers using hand tools and prescribed burns to clear understory vegetation . . . .
. . . we estimated both apparent survival ð ^ fþ and the probability of resight ð ^ pþ to account for individuals that might have been present on study areas but were missed when resighting color bands ( lebreton et al . 1992 , anders andmarshall 2005 ) . we incorporated island and territory resource metrics into the analysis of adult survival ( f ahy ) using previously published results of resource use , wherein we defined home range area ( ha ) by the 95 % isopleth constructed with a kernel density analysis of radio - marked individuals ( coulombe et al . 2011 ) . we intersected home range polygons with vegetation cover maps for niau ( butaud 2007 ) to identify the area of each habitat within home ranges , including atoll forest , mixed coconut and atoll forest , agricultural coconut plantation , littoral zone , urbanized , and wetland . . . .
. . . we used a mean of 0 . 95 ( sd 0 . 02 ) for f , a mean of 1 . 7 ( sd 0 . 15 ) for n , and a mean of 0 . 534 ( sd 0 . 105 ) for f nestling . we selected simulation input values for effects of territory size on adult female survival from a normally distributed set of values centered on the mean home range size of birds used in our survival analysis ( 4 . 2 ha , sd 0 . 1 ; coulombe et al . 2011 ) . . . .
. . . the climate is tropical oceanic without pronounced seasons ( mueller - dombois and fosberg 1998 ) . from 2006 to 2010 donor population research ( coulombe 2010 , coulombe et al . 2011 ) was conducted primarily on two study areas situated on the east side of the island : one on the ocean coast and one near the lagoon . coconut forests on the two study areas are managed by the farmers using hand tools and prescribed burns to clear understory vegetation . . . .
survival , territory resources , and population persistence in the critically endangered tuamotu kingf . . .
translocation of tuamotu kingfishers , postrelease exploratory behavior , and harvest effects on the d . . .
conservationists previously described the need for research into using translocation to rescue threatened populations . we conducted an experimental translocation of tuamotu kingfishers ( todiramphus gambieri gertrudae ) to pro - vide foundational information about movement ecology and inform conserva - tion planning for the critically endangered bird . we captured and radio - marked mated pairs of . . . [ show full abstract ]
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as her career takes flight , master of science graduate tehani withers still remains grounded . currently employed as a project manager for sop manu / birdlife international , she tells us about her deep connection to waikato university and the benefits of studying her bsc tech degree in nz , a home away from home .
what made you decide waikato ? mainly because of the bsc tech degree , which had a specialisation in restoration ecology and an internship component . at that time , the upf ( université de polynésie francaise ) did not have many options in biology studies . another motivator was that my parents attended waikato previously , along with other family members and friends , so i was not completely alone when i moved to nz .
tell us about growing up i grew up in tahiti ( french polynesia ) . my parents moved there after working a couple of years in singapore , where i was born , to be closer to my father’s family . they actually met at waikato university where they completed their masters’ degrees . they found jobs pretty quickly back in singapore , my mother as a biology teacher and my father as a french teacher in the alliance française . we then moved to tahiti where my little sister was born . she got leukaemia when she was around 5 years old and as there were no hospitals to treat cancer in tahiti , we had to live part - time in auckland at the ronald mcdonald house . when she got better , we moved back to tahiti and after completing high school in tahiti , i decided to move to nz to complete my tertiary studies ; at the same university as my parents .
the sop manu took me back for another internship , to work on the tahiti fly - catcher ( critically endangered bird species : 50 individuals ) . i monitored nests and population , and i worked on monitoring the number of invasive introduced birds and conducted a survey on a little fire ant colony next to the tahiti fly - catcher habitat .
finally , for the department of conservation ( on motutapu island , hauraki gulf ) and the meit ( maungatautari ecological island trust ) , i conducted a research on another nz endangered species , the takahe . my thesis title : foraging behaviours of translocated takahē ( porphyrio hochstetteri ) at two contrasting sites , new zealand .
were you involved in any extra - curricular activities / clubs etc ? i lived in college hall during my 3 year bsc tech degree and i used to participate in all pacific cultural nights by performing tahitian dance shows . i tried to start a club to teach students tahitian dance , but became too busy during my third year . i was also a student ambassador during 2014 , which was quite a nice casual job to do while in university .
did you have any outstanding mentors / lecturers during your time here ? any particular papers / courses you enjoyed ? the college hall staff were the best support i could have while i was studying . it was very hard to be away from my family and tahiti at first , and they really helped me get used to nz cultural differences . teachers were mostly understanding of my problems with writing in english , since french was my first language .
during my masters , i was lucky to be supervised by dr . chrissen gemmill , mr . john innes ( landcare research ) and dr . steven miller ( statistics department ) . many other waikato staff in the research department really guided me too and really inspired me to work in ecology : dr bruce clarkson , dr daniel laughlin , dr mike clearwater , kiri cutting , rebecca bylsma , catherine kirby , toni cornes , etc . they are the best at what they do and the most enthusiastic people i have met .
finishing my 6 yearlong studies ! while i was searching for a job , i was also very happy to work on different projects ( with doc , bream head trust , project tongariro trust , etc . ) . i was very lucky to meet new people & travel across nz while participating in different conservation projects . i felt that completing a few weeks at a time of volunteer work was very meaningful ( and also helped my professional career ) .
my biggest achievement right now is to have been recruited as a project manager for sop manu / birdlife international . although i am qualified , this job required many years of experience , and i was very lucky to have been chosen .
outside of your career , what do you enjoy doing ? since i came back to tahiti , i’ve gone back to tahitian dance , and managed to participate in two dance shows , which was great . i also enjoy running when i can , and hiking .
what do you see yourself doing over the next five years ? life is full of endless possibilities . the conservation projects that i am working now will take at least 5 years to be completed . for now , this job is being funded for 2 years . if they are funded again i might renew my contract and i could then continue as a manager for a different conservation project , or find a steadier job in a private or government firm . i might also try to become a private consultant for different conservation projects across the pacific . i may eventually come back to nz , as there is not much future in conservation here in french polynesia ( ideology of conservation / preserving the environment is still a work in progress ) . i might try to get back into research and obtain a doctorate degree .
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evaluates the conservation status of plant and animal species . the list is based on scientific assessment of an organism ' s status by experts .
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