the south american pilchard ( sardinops sagax ) is a sardine of the family clupeidae , the only member of the genus sardinops .

it is found in the indo-pacific and east pacific oceans .

its length is up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) .

it has other names , some of which more appropriately refer to subspecies , including blue pilchard , australian pilchard ( s. s. neopilchardus ) , blue-bait , californian pilchard ( s. s. caeruleus ) , chilean sardine ( s. s. sagax ) , japanese pilchard ( s. s. melanostictus ) , pacific sardine , and southern african pilchard ( s. s. ocellatus ) .

south american pilchard

south american pilchard sardinops sagax - / animals / aquatic / fish / p / south _ american _ pilchard _ _ sardinops _ sagax . png . html
home » sardinops sagax ssp . sagax ( australian pilchard , blue - bait , blue pilchard , californian pilchard , california pilchard , california sardine , chilean pilchard , chilean sardine , japanese pilchard , mulies , pacific american sardine , pacific sardine , picton herring , pilchard , sardina , smig , south american pilchard , spotlined sardine )
also known as spotlined sardine , smig , sardina , pilchard , picton herring , pacific sardine , pacific american sardine , mulies , japanese pilchard , chilean sardine , california sardine , chilean pilchard , california pilchard , blue pilchard , blue - bait , australian pilchard , south american pilchard and many other different names in different parts of the world .
sardine , chilean pilchard , south american pilchard . vector illustration with refined details and optimized stroke that allows the image to be used in small sizes .
the south american pilchard fish is a commercially important fish species . the south australian sardine fishery targets this fish and it is the highest yielding single species fishery in
the south american pilchard fish oviparous fish species , with pelagic eggs and larvae . they are pretty long lived fish species with up to 25 years of average lifespan . however , review full breed profile of the south american pilchard fish in the table below .
“south american pilchard—northern ( cold ) stock : fish source scores . ” fish source . sustainable fisheries partnership , 2016 . web .
the south american pilchard fish is mainly used for making fishmeal . but it is also used for human consumption and eaten fried and broiled .
the south american pilchard fish is a sardine which is the only member of the genus sardinops . it is mainly found in the indo - pacific and east pacific oceans . it is also called by many other names such as spotlined sardine , smig , sardina , pilchard , picton herring , pacific sardine , pacific american sardine , mulies , japanese pilchard , chilean sardine , california sardine , chilean pilchard , california pilchard , blue pilchard , blue - bait , australian pilchard , south american pilchard and many other different names in different parts of the world .
the south american pilchard fish are mainly feed on planktonic crustaceans . the young fish feed on zooplankton such as copepod , and the adults are feed on phytoplankton .
pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) also known as the california pilchard or australian or south - american pilchard , blue sardine , chilean sardine or japanese pilchard . it lives throughout the indo - pacific basin and its length varies from 12–40 cm .
total landings of south african small pelagic fish , 1950–2000 , showing the contributions of anchovy , pilchard , and round herring .
currently the south american pilchard fish has no major threats , and is widely distributed . and currently it is listed as least concern . generally it occurs in several marine protected areas . however , read some more information about this
the south american pilchard fish are oviparous fish species . some individuals spawn in their first year in the gulf of california , but most in their second year . they breed in spring in australia . generally the females can lay between 10 , 000 and 45 , 000 eggs per spawning depending on their size .
the pilchard bycatch taken when anchovy is targeted comprises juvenile fish , and must therefore depend on the size of pilchard recruitment – the fixed ratio ( used to calculate the january / february pilchard bycatch allowance linked to anchovy ) is adjusted to reflect this 1 .
there is a newer version of this dataset available . take a look at total fishery production - south - east pacific .
the south australian industry has launched a new management plan to keep the $ 20 million fishery sustainable , which includes catching more fish .
unpublished report , sea fisheries research institute , south africa , wg / jan98 / pel / 3 : 4 pp . + 8 figures
proportion of the first anchovy tac used to calculate the first pilchard tab ( set at 0 . 1 )
the body of the south american pilchard fish is cylindrical and elongate . their belly is rounded with ventral scutes . their back is of blue green color , flanks are white , with 1 to 3 series of dark spots along the middle . average body length of this fish is around 20 cm , with a maximum recorded body length of 39 . 5 cm . maximum recorded live body weight of this fish is 486 grams . photo and info from
the typical annual cycle of events for management of the pilchard and anchovy fisheries in south africa . successive tacs and tabs are essentially revisions of their forerunners ( i . e . the second tac / b is a revision of the first , etc . ) . tabs incorporate pilchard bycatch with both anchovy and round herring . ( note that because the additional sub - season is separate from the normal season for anchovy , the tac / bs actually applied in the sub - season are : anchovy 3 rd tac less anchovy 2 nd tac , and pilchard 3 rd tab less pilchard 2 nd tab . )
juvenile pilchard and anchovy , which appear first in mixed shoals of fish of similar size when they recruit to the fishery , tend to separate later in the season , because the anchovy growth rate starts to slow before that of pilchard .
the earlier mps used only the survey - based pilchard recruit estimate to adjust the fixed ratio , but later mps incorporated the pilchard : anchovy ratio , as estimated from both the recruit survey and the industry ' s catches in may .
november acoustic survey estimates ( barange , 1998 , 1999 ; coetzee , 2001 ) of spawner biomass for pilchard and anchovy , together with values of the pilchard bycatch when anchovy are targeted , expressed as a percentage of the corresponding anchovy catch .
. these modifications essentially mean that , for β choices reflecting a desired low pilchard catch to allow for high anchovy catches , the minimum pilchard tac is reduced proportional to β once β drops below 0 . 1 . a similar adjustment is made to α
( panel a ) increases pilchard catches , but reduces anchovy catch on average . however , reducing δ from 0 . 85 to 0 . 7 for a greater buffer against poor anchovy recruitment ( panel d ) appears to have little effect on average catches , except for improving anchovy catches when an option reflecting low pilchard catches is selected . decreasing the maximum downward adjustment constraint for pilchard
the south australian sardine fishery is a significant fishery in australian waters . the fishery consistently harvests the highest volume single species yields in comparison to any other australian fishery .
in terms of average catch with that for ten other mp candidates . for the same value of β , increasing the maximum pilchard tac constraint
atlantic sardine ( sardina pilchardus pilchardus ) also called sardine of brittany or pilchard ( especially when canned ) : bigger , it measures 20–25 cm .
naturally , these general objectives are in conflict , so trade - off choices are needed . in particular , it is not possible simultaneously to maximize the average directed pilchard and anchovy tacs to be expected , because of the juvenile pilchard bycatch with anchovy . a plot of average directed pilchard against average anchovy catches expected under a candidate mp is referenced below as a “trade - off” curve ( see , for example , figures 5–8 ) .
even though the additional sub - season was predicated on the basis of near - pure anchovy catches , a modest pilchard tab was nevertheless set for the additional sub - season ( a fixed amount of 2000 t ) in order to facilitate harvesting of the additional anchovy tac . the anchovy tac and associated pilchard tab for the additional sub - season were clearly separated from the normal season , with observer coverage mandatory in the additional sub - season , to offset any incentive to discard catches with high levels of bycatch . the additional sub - season applied only to anchovy and any associated pilchard bycatch , whereas the pilchard - directed fishery and the pilchard bycatch associated with catches of round herring applied to the whole year . figure 4 illustrates this typical annual cycle of events for the management of pilchard and anchovy , including this relatively recent modification of the additional sub - season for anchovy .
calculation of the pilchard bycatch allowance ( associated with the anchovy tac ) includes a component related to round herring ( a fixed tonnage of pilchard is set aside for this ) , and another linked to the size of the anchovy tac . the latter is a fixed proportion of this anchovy tac , and is revised following the recruit survey because :
the harvest from the south australian sardine fishery supplies diverse markets . currently 94 % of the harvest is used as a high quality feed in tuna ranching operations located off port lincoln , south australia . the remaining 6 % of the catch is supplies a growing human consumption demand , as well as a recreational fishing bait market and premium brands of pet food . the sardine is a versatile species suitable for a range of products and applications .
conceptual map of the distribution and movement of pilchard and anchovy ( after coetzee , 2001 ) , showing also the location of processing facilities and field stations used to sample landings .
one of the consequences of the introduction of the trade - off concept in omp99 was that , if a viable pilchard fishery was to be guaranteed , limitations on juvenile pilchard bycatch , necessary to protect the directed pilchard fishery , would lead to smaller anchovy catches than that resource could actually sustain . in order to address this concern , the concept of a sub - season later in the year to target “clean” anchovy shoals was introduced . there are a few reasons why such an additional sub - season provides a practical basis to enhance anchovy catches .
figure 6 is a plot of the m 1 trade - off curve along with that associated with omp99 . the data updates and additional features now incorporated ( m 1 ) lead to a considerable improvement in the average catches possible from the fishery . the bars around the β = 0 . 1 point on the m 1 curve emphasize the considerable variation in annual catches associated with such mps . figure 7 illustrates the improvement in performance in terms of average catches over that of omp99 as successive changes were introduced when developing the mps presented in this paper . the additional sub - season allows further utilization of anchovy . it may lead to less anchovy , and hence less pilchard bycatch , being taken in the normal season , which allows for higher pilchard - directed catches , and thus improved utilization of the pilchard resource . a further general improvement in the utilization of both species is evident when account is taken of implementation error ( allowing for the possibility that the pilchard tab may not be fully utilized ) . the consequence of this is either to allow for more pilchard - directed catch ( because in many years , not all the pilchard tab will be used ) , or alternatively to take more anchovy catch ( hence using a greater proportion of the pilchard tab on average ) .
pilchard and anchovy form the mainstay of the south african pelagic fishery , and together with round herring ( etrumeus whiteheadi ) have accounted for more than 90 % of the mass of all small pelagic fish landed annually since the mid - 1970s ( figure 1 ) . the rapid rise of the pilchard fishery in the mid - to late 1950s , targeting mainly adult fish for canning , was followed by a collapse by the mid - 1960s , and a move to anchovy through the introduction of nets with smaller mesh ( crawford et al . , 1980 ) . the anchovy fishery targeted mainly juveniles , which were processed in reduction plants ( to provide fishmeal , oil , and fertilizer ) . pilchard and anchovy are the only small pelagic species currently managed by a tac , with separate tacs set for each .
j . a . a . de oliveira , d . s . butterworth ; developing and refining a joint management procedure for the multispecies south african pelagic fishery , ices journal of marine science , volume 61 , issue 8 , 1 january 2004 , pages 1432–1442 , urltoken
by volume . and the industry commenced in south australia in 1991 with an annual catch quota of 1 , 000 tones . the fishery’s annual quota was set at 36 , 000 tonnes in 2003 . and the annual quota had increased to 36 , 000 tonnes by 2014 .
increases ( reflecting better utilization of the anchovy resource , which is possible because bycatch of juvenile pilchard is limited to a maximum of 2000 t in the additional sub - season ) . therefore , even though β , α
, the trade - off curves are mainly determined by the pilchard risk constraint coming into operation , except for the vertical segment on the right side , which is a reflection of the anchovy risk threshold coming into play .
pilchard–anchovy ( denoted p or a , respectively ) trade - off curves were constructed by varying β from 0 to 0 . 6 in steps of 0 . 01 . for each value of β , the procedure was tuned by alternately varying α
we thank south africa ' s department of environmental affairs and tourism , marine and coastal management , for their support of the first author while he was employed there , specifically including making freely available all the data on which this paper is based , and two anonymous reviewers for valued comments on an earlier draft .
this trend of increasing separation is evidenced by an examination of pilchard bycatch : anchovy ratios in the commercial catches , which show that , by august , these ratios have typically reduced to half their levels in may ( de oliveira , 2003 ) .
improvements in the performance of omp99 in terms of average catch as various changes were successively introduced when developing the mps presented in this paper . curve ( a ) is the curve associated with omp99 ; curve ( b ) incorporates new / updated data and consequent bootstrap parameter distributions used in testing ; curve ( c ) incorporates the additional anchovy sub - season ; and curve ( d ) incorporates the fact that the pilchard bycatch declines between may and august , so the pilchard tab may not be fully utilized . ( note ,
omp99 has since been refined and implemented as omp02 in 2002 . refinements were necessary to permit the enhanced utilization of both resources ( as demonstrated below ) . the associated analyses took account of a further 3 years of data , an additional within - season adjustment of the anchovy tac ( although implemented in practice , this had not formally been incorporated into omp99 ) , implementation error ( necessary to address the fact that the pilchard tab had not always been filled in practice , allowance for which could admit larger tacs for the directed pilchard fishery – the development of the omp99 formulae had assumed that the pilchard tab was always fully caught ) , and the introduction of a scheme whereby rights - holders in the pelagic fishery could each select their own preferred pilchard–anchovy trade - off . this paper provides a brief background to the pelagic fishery , and a description of omp02 , which explains the refinements introduced to allow enhanced utilization of both resources . particular focus is given to the construction of trade - off curves , with details of some of the problems encountered and how they were addressed .
the south australian sardine industry is utilises a method of fishing known as purse seining . sardines are a schooling species , that when located the net ( purse seine ) is deployed around the school of fish and the catch is pumped on board into refrigerated holds , at below zero temperatures , to ensure the quality of the catch is maximized .
management of pilchard and anchovy relies heavily on the results of two acoustic surveys held annually , one in november to survey the adult stocks , and one in may / june to survey recruitment for the year ( hampton , 1987 , 1992 ) . prior to the implementation of omp99 , the typical management cycle for pilchard and anchovy would commence with tacs and tabs set at the start of the fishing season ( january / february ) , on the basis of the results of the preceding november survey ( provisional tac / bs were set before this , but they were minima , corresponding to fractions of the previous year ' s tacs and not based on any new data , and were over - ridden by the january / february tac / bs ) . the pilchard tac remained in force ( without alteration ) for the remainder of the fishing season ( officially ending in october , though usually extended to december ) , but the anchovy tac was revised within the year for the following reasons :
subspecies sardinops sagax sagax is not universally recognized . a recent genetic analysis ( grant et al . 1998 ) of the status of sardinops populations indicates that there are three subspecies : s . s . ocellatus from south africa , australia and new zealand , s . s . sagax from the southeastern and northeastern pacific , and s . s . melanostictus from the northwest pacific . other authors consider each subspecies as a valid species .
the value of output generated directly in south australia and the eyre and western region by sardine fishing enterprises summed to $ 21 . 0 million in 2012 / 13 . flow - ons to other sectors of the state economy added another $ 31 . 6 million in output ( $ 14 . 7 million in the regional economy ) . the total output impact in sa ( direct plus indirect ) was estimated to be $ 58 . 8 million in 2012 / 13 ( $ 40 . 1 million in the regional economy ) .
the management features described in the previous section and summarized in figure 4 necessarily dictate the structure and form of mps for the south african pelagic fishery . the tac / b equations and constraints given in table 1 constitute the set of rules for omp02 . the simulation - testing framework ( for details of this application , see de oliveira , 2003 ) forms a key part of the development of a mp , and allows the performance of alternative mps to be compared on the basis of summary performance statistics ( described in table 2 ) .
management procedure rules in the form of tac / b equations and constraints . definitions of all symbols are provided in table 2 . note that “exceptional circumstances” provisions exist , so the tac and associated constraint calculations are adjusted downwards if the november survey results for pilchard or anchovy ( when calculating first - stage tacs ) , or if the projected survey result for anchovy ( when calculating second - and third - stage tacs for anchovy ) are below certain threshold levels ( 150 000 t for the pilchard survey result , and 400 000 t for both the actual and projected anchovy survey results ) . de oliveira ( 2003 ) provides more details of the meta - rules for “exceptional circumstances” , which have been omitted from the equations below for simplicity . adjustments in tacs during the year , if applicable , may only be upwards , not downwards , because by the time the 2 nd tac is set , the 1 st tac could have been fully caught .
this framework essentially consists of an operating model to simulate the “true” dynamics of the resource , an assessment procedure used to estimate the parameters of this operating model , the mp rules ( which include the tac / b equations and constraints ) , and the summary performance statistics . in this case , 500 simulations of 20 - year projection periods were carried out , each simulation representing a plausible “state of nature” ( computationally , for each simulation , parameters of the operating model take on values from a single realization of the joint probability distribution given by the assessment procedure ) . data typical of the type required by the mp rules in practice ( and subject to the same error structure ) were generated from the operating model and passed to the mp rules , which advised the tacs and passed them back to the operating model . at this stage , implementation error can be taken into account . for example , in this case the operating model generated future juvenile pilchard : anchovy catch ratios , to simulate the pilchard bycatch actually taken , which could turn out to be less than the tab .
neritic ( ref . 11230 ) . a coastal species that forms large schools ( ref . 188 ) . occur at temperatures ranging from 16° to 23°c in summer and from 10° to 18°c in winter . feed mainly on planktonic crustaceans . young fish feed on zooplankton such as copepod and adults on phytoplankton ( ref . 39882 ) . oviparous , with pelagic eggs , and pelagic larvae ( ref . 265 ) . possibly can live up to 25 years ( ref . 265 ) . in the california region , pilchards make northward migrations early in summer and travel back south again in autumn . with each year of life , the migration becomes farther ( ref . 6885 ) . marketed fresh , frozen or canned . utilized mainly for fish meal ; but also eaten fried and broiled ( ref . 9988 ) . main source of landing : ne pacific : mexico ( ref . 4931 ) .
in the us , the pacific sardine is currently a limited entry fishery with a total allowable catch ( quotas ) , however the limited entry permit covers all pelagic finfish , not just sardines . there are 65 permit holders , but it is unclear how many boats target which species ( pfmc 2011 ) . sardines are typically caught with purse seines , though some vessels are transitioning to drum seines ( pfmc 2011 ) . the historical hubs are still in southern california and monterey bay , but astoria has recently supported a major fishery . about 85 % of the catch is processed and shipped to china , japan and south korea ( caopc 2013 ) . the other 15 % typically composes the bait fishery . bycatch is negligible ( less than 1 % ) , though there may be impacts on california sea lions that have come to rely on sardines as an important food source ( hill et al . 2015 ) .
a further feature that also formed part of omp02 , but was beyond the scope of this paper to consider , was a change in the way the trade - off decision ( i . e . the point on the m 1 trade - off curve eventually selected and implemented as omp02 ) was made : from “externally” ( as was done in the past for the fishery as a whole by the responsible government minister ) to “internally” ( separately by each individual rights - holder , based on their own preferences ) . in a highly divergent industry , with some participants having sole interests in either canning ( pilchard ) or reduction ( anchovy ) operations , this was seen as a powerful tool to accommodate such differing interests in the two resources .
, so points on the trade - off curve are determined by either the pilchard or the anchovy ( or both ) depletion risk constraints being met . the specific choices of 0 . 1 and 0 . 3 duplicated levels considered appropriate in the formulation of previous omps . the associated abundance threshold for anchovy was , however , moved lower ( from 0 . 2 k to 0 . 15 k ) to allow for the fact that the extent of natural fluctuations in anchovy abundance had been estimated to be higher than previously believed ( which meant in turn that the resource is robust to fluctuations down to lower levels of abundance than had previously been thought ) . the effect of this tuning is that , as β is increased ( moving from the bottom right to the top left of the trade - off curves in
comparing the omp99 pilchard–anchovy trade - off curve with the base - case mp ( m 1 ) curve . the solid diamonds are points on each curve associated with β = 0 . 1 , and the open squares with β = 0 . 15 . the bars around the β = 0 . 1 point on the m 1 curve are to indicate that 50 and 90 % of all simulated tac values fall within the inner and outer limits , respectively . points on each curve are obtained by varying β from 0 ( bottom right ) to 0 . 6 ( top left ) in steps of 0 . 01 . ( note , however , that the curves intersect the vertical axis long before β = 0 . 6 , the exact value of β for which this happens varying from procedure to procedure . )
for the purpose of this paper , management procedures can differ in the choice of constraint values and δ , and also in the choice of the control parameters α ns , α ads , and β ( table 1 ) . the former ( constraints and δ ) reflect different pilchard–anchovy trade - off curves , whereas the latter correspond to different points on the same trade - off curve ( see later discussion , and figure 8 ) . therefore , one can speak of the m 1 trade - off curve , which refers to the suite of management procedures with the same choice of constraints and δ as m 1 , or one can refer to m 1 as the point on the m 1 curve with the particular choice of control parameters associated with m 1 . the choice of constraint values and δ associated with the m 1 curve are shown in table 2 . where other candidate management procedures ( or curves ) are compared with m 1 ( or the m 1 curve ) , only the constraint whose value has changed is shown , in figure 8 and table 3 .
table 3 repeats the results of figure 8 , showing the values for all summary performance statistics , but only for β = 0 . 1375 , which was the value of β used for omp99 . these results are shown to provide some indication of the values of the summary statistics not shown in figure 8 . of particular interest is that , under β = 0 . 1375 , smaller anchovy catches are obtained on average in the normal season ( lasting roughly 8 months ) than when there is also an additional season ( lasting no longer than 4 months ) , for almost all mp variants . decreasing the maximum percentage by which the pilchard tac may drop from one year to the next ( variant 3 ) also has a severe impact on anchovy catches and associated interannual variability in the normal season . however , all depletion statistics are fairly insensitive to the different mp variants considered . after joint consideration of such results by scientists and industry ( including results from the robustness tests , which are not presented here ) , m 1 was considered to reflect the best choice of operational constraints .
the total employment impact in sa was estimated to be 171 fte jobs ( 105 fte jobs regionally ) .
sardines might be one of the smallest fish caught , but the industry is the largest single species commercial fishery by volume in australia , and it ' s getting bigger .
ninety - five per cent of the sardine catch is fed to port lincoln ' s southern blue fin tuna farms , but the industry wants to harness the human consumption potential by increasing demand , both domestically and in india and china .
sa sardine industry association executive officer paul watson says the quota has been increased from 34 , 000 to 38 , 000 tonnes .
the spawning biomass estimate seems like the highest egg count that we ' ve seen in the fishery in the time that the daily egg production model surveys have been conducted .
mr watson says pelagic , or small fish , fisheries do a have a history of fluctuating up and down with stock numbers .
in 2004 - 2005 , it had a peak catch of 57 , 000 tonnes .
to date , it ' s been quite stable and with this management plan industry and government are confident that the harvest strategy and harvest rates are sufficiently conservative to ensure the long - term sustainability of the stock .
the industry has already come a long way . when it started in 1991 , the catch was 1 , 000 tonnes .
sa fisheries minister leon bignell says the management plan includes harvest strategies , stock assesment , compliance and regulations for the next five years .
reduced catches and a fall in the price of sardines have impacted on the industry during the past few years .
however , with co - operation between primary industries and regions sa and the industry , the development of this new management plan is set to deliver sustainable growth for the our sardine fishers .
scientists and commercial fishermen say australia ' s rollout of a carp virus is being rushed through , risking relationships with international trading partners .
the late harry m . miller ' s work in the cattle arena contributed to the legendary music promoter ' s reputation in rural australia .
it ' s the iron ore mine that has spent more time under water than in production . now there ' s new hope for wa ' s cockatoo island mine .
coles will no longer sell controversial allowrie branded honey , which contains 70 per cent imported product from countries including china , argentina and mexico .
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latin and greek , sarda = sardine ; name related to the island of sardinia + greek , ops = appearance ( ref . 45335 )
from the latin word ' sagax ' which means of quick perception , acute , or alert ( ref . 6885 )
marine ; pelagic - neritic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 200 m ( ref . 188 ) . subtropical ; 9°c - 21°c ( ref . 6390 ) ; 61°n - 47°s , 145°w - 180°e ( ref . 36641 )
indo - pacific : southern africa to the eastern pacific ( ref . 27267 ) . three lineages were confirmed through cluster and parsimony analyses of haplotypic divergences : southern africa ( ocellatus ) and australia ( neopilchardus ) ; chile ( sagax ) and california ( caeruleus ) ; and , japan ( melanostictus ) ( ref . 36641 ) .
maturity : l m 9 . 0 range ? - ? cm max length : 39 . 5 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9291 ) ; common length : 20 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 188 ) ; max . published weight : 486 . 00 g ( ref . 6885 ) ; max . reported age : 25 years ( ref . 188 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 13 - 21 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 12 - 23 ; vertebrae : 48 - 54 . body cylindrical and elongate ; ventral part of operculum with clear cut bony striae radiating downwards ; belly rounded with ventral scutes ; back blue green ; flanks white , with 1 to 3 series of dark spots along the middle ( ref . 55763 ) . the radiating bony striae on the operculum distinguish this species from all other clupeids in the area . the radiating bony striae on the operculum distinguish this fish from all other clupeids in the area . in new zealand the species appears to grow larger ( 21 . 3 cm standard length ; cf . 19 . 7 cm ) , has slightly larger eggs and a higher mean number of vertebrae ( 50 . 52 ; cf . 49 to 50 . 08 in various samples ) ( ref . 859 ) .
oviparous ( ref . 265 ) . in the gulf of california , some individuals spawn in their first year , but most in their second ( ref . 188 ) . in australia ( as s . neopilchardus ) , this species breeds in spring and summer in southern part of range , and in summer and autumn in northern part , apparently related to seasonal movement of the limiting 14°c and 21°c isotherms , then autumn to early spring ( ref . 6390 ) . it was believed that individual australian pilchards only spawn once or twice in a season ( ref . 26422 , 26424 ) , but research on related species suggests that they may spawn a number of times ( ref . 6882 ) . batch fecundities range from about 10 , 000 eggs in 13 cm long females to about 45 , 000 eggs in females of about 18 cm ( ref . 26420 ) .
whitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )
) : 9 . 5 - 25 . 2 , mean 17 . 9 ( based on 938 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00871 ( 0 . 00713 - 0 . 01064 ) , b = 3 . 06 ( 3 . 01 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 ±0 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 45 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 13 - 25 ; fec = 10 , 000 ) .
prior r = 0 . 56 , 2 sd range = 0 . 3 - 1 . 07 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 58 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 32 , based on : 1 m , 3 k , 9 tgen , 1 tmax , 4 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 34 of 100 ) .
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justification : this subspecies has a wide distribution in the eastern pacific , has no major threats , and occurs in several marine protected areas . therefore , it is listed as least concern . however , further studies are needed to determine current population trends as some catch statistics indicate that it may be declining .
this subspecies is found from primarily in temperate waters throughout the entire eastern pacific ( parrish et al . 1989 ) .
there are no known conservation measures for this subspecies . however , its distribution includes a number of marine protected areas in the central tropical eastern pacific region .
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catches of fish , crustaceans , molluscs and other aquatic organisms by species and fishing area for eu and associated countries ( in live weight equivalent of the landings ) .
the concepts and definitions used in the compilation of catch statistics are those laid down by the coordinating working party on fishery statistics ( cwp ) , of which eurostat is one of the member organizations . these concepts and definitions have been in force since the late 1950 ' s and are applied uniformly worldwide by the cwp and by the national authorities reporting to its member organizations . therefore , though the quality of the data varies from country to country ( being in many cases a function of the general characteristics of the national fishing industry ) , there is a high degree of comparability between countries and over time .
the data refer to the catch of freshwater , brackish water and marine species of fish , crustaceans , molluscs and other aquatic animals and plants , killed , caught , trapped or collected for all commercial , industrial , recreational and subsistence purposes .
in view of the importance of recreational fishing regarding some stocks and for certain countries , as well as the difficulty of distinguishing between recreational and subsistence fishing , the data should include the catches from recreational fisheries as well . however , it is recognised that certain countries are unable to supply the data for recreational fisheries .
the catches are expressed in the live weight equivalent of the landings . as such they exclude all quantities caught but not landed ( for example : discarded fish , fish consumed on board ) . the unit used is generally the metric ton . data for marine mammals ( e . g . whales ) and certain other animals ( e . g . crocodiles ) are expressed in the number caught .
the nominal catch data are normally derived from the landed quantities of the fishery products . for this purpose , the landed weight is converted to the live weight equivalent ( nominal catch ) by the application of factors .
species : all species for which catches are reported to international organizations are included in the eurostat ' s database . they are identified by the internationally assigned three letter identifier ( e . g . cod = atlantic cod , ple = european plaice ) according to the fao asfis ( aquatic sciences and fishery information system ) list of species for fishery statistics purposes .
fishing areas / regions : the catches are sub - divided by the area in which they occur .
the methodologies vary from country to country depending on the nature of their fishing industries . basic documentation used in collecting the data from eu fisheries are fishing log - books , landings declarations and sales notes used in the management of catch quota and market management systems within the common fisheries policy . the methodologies used by eea member countries have been described in the eurostat publication
fisheries : the collection and compilation of fish catch and landing statistics in member countries of the european economic area
. those used by the new member states are described in a working document
fisheries : the collection and compilation of fishery statistics in european union candidate countries
( c ) harum . koh , some rights reserved ( cc by - sa ) , uploaded by harum . koh , urltoken
you can copy this taxon into another guide . if you are one of the editors of this guide it should copy everything , but if you ' re not , it will only copy the licensed content .
it was sardinia , the mediterranean island , which gave its name to the sardine in the 13 th century . however , long before this , it was already widely fished , as it was always abundant and easy to catch . the phoenicians preserved it in salt and it was pressed to extract the oil , which was used as a fuel to make light .
alongside herring , with which it was often confused , sardines fed whole populations for many centuries .
the idea of sardines in cans was dreamt up in 1820 by joseph colin of nantes . inspired by the invention of sterilization ( nicolas appert ) ten years previously , he had the great idea of putting sardines in a tin can , thereby sterilizing them . at the time this was a luxury product , but then canned sardines gradually became more accessible during the 20 th century , especially after world war i , when they were given to soldiers to meet their protein needs .
perhaps because of their fairly strong flavor and smell , or perhaps because they were , and still are , a cheap fish , or maybe because they are difficult to work with , sardines have never really found a place in michelin - starred kitchens .
a very fragile fish , sardines must have an intact stomach , no trace of blood on the head , a shiny firm body , and a pleasant sea smell .
an open belly means that it has been handled carelessly , and / or that it is no longer fresh .
in france , canned sardines are classified into three categories : extra ( 1 st category ) , choix ( 2 nd category ) and 3 rd category . there is a wide range of options : in oil ( olive or another type ) , in tomato sauce , with herbs , lemon , mustard , or spices , etc . the various added ingredients must be shown on the label . the date of canning is also given and , for some , the vintage ( millésime ) .
they are also sold frozen , either whole ( usually from china ) or in double fillets with their skin .
the scales are removed from sardines , except when they are small and are going to be broiled : the scales protect their particularly vulnerable flesh , which cooks very quickly .
they are cleaned ( and the gills are removed at the same time ) and served whole or filleted .
the head is removed by pulling on the backbone : the two fillets remain attached by the tail and can be folded on top of one another .
sardines can be breaded and deep fried , shallow fried , made into a gratin , or cooked en papillote . they can be cooked in an escabeche or stuffed , added to a fish soup or tagine , or marinated raw when extremely fresh . in japan , they are used to make sashimi and tsumire ( dumplings ) .
canned sardines can be used to make rillettes or a stuffing for baby tomatoes or raw zucchini .
fresh sardines will keep for up to 24 hours in the refrigerator or cold room between 2 and 4°c in their ice .
canned sardines are stored at room temperature : sardines in oil must be turned over from time to time .
the sardine is an oily fish . its fat mainly comprises unsaturated fatty acids ( mono and polyunsaturated ) . it therefore contains omega 3 , especially when canned in oil .
mediterranean sardine ( sardina pilchardus sardina ) . the smallest and the least oily . the smallest ones , called italian sardines , are generally 12–15 cm long , but they can sometimes grow up to 20 cm .
22 march 2015 ( desdemona despair ) – you may have noticed the ongoing mass - starvation event among california sea lions . ( “ why are california sea lion pups starving ? ” ; “ sick sea lions flood shelters in california – pups wash ashore all along the coast amid what scientists say are strains on the ocean ” )
the sea lions are starving because humans have fished out one of their main forage fish , sardines . desdemona wanted to check the claim that “any fishing on sardines right now is overfishing” , so des downloaded the latest data from the united nations food and agricultural organization ( fao ) . fao maintains a huge trove of data on world food production , including annual catches of many fish . fao tracks four sardinops species :
fao doesn’t aggregate the data , but it was an easy matter to compute the total catch and graph it . and indeed , it’s clear that as of 2012 , sardinops populations worldwide have crashed . the peak catch was in 1985 , at 11 , 690 , 299 tons , and the annual catch has since plummeted to less than 800 , 000 tons per year .
this is a classic resource depletion curve that follows logistic growth and decline ( hubbert curve ) . it confirms that the sardinops resource is depleted , and “any fishing on sardines right now is overfishing” .
you can get the data and related graphs here : sardine ( sardinops ) landings fao . xlsx .
in our first installment in a series of fisheries “classics” we discuss the pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) . the us west coast sardine fishery made headlines last year when the pacific fishery management council completely closed the commercial fishing seasons for washington , oregon and california . the sardine fishery has been quite important in understanding the biology of exploited fishes and is justly deserving of being our first “classic” fisheries story .
pacific sardines once supported the largest fishery in the california current , off the west coast of north america from canada to baja california . the fishery developed at the beginning of the great depression as pacific sardines were processed for food and oil as well as for fish meal used by the expanding poultry industry . at its peak , the fishery yielded 600 , 000mt annually ( maccall 2015 ) . cannery row , in monterey , ca ( made famous by john steinbeck’s novel of the same name ) was named for the sardine processors that lined the main street .
in the 1950s , the stock collapsed—culminating in a california - legislated moratorium on commercial sardine harvests from 1967 - 1986 , closing even the small bait fishery ( figure 1 ) . this collapse initiated the first assertions from the scientific community that overfishing was the root cause of the problem ( maccall 2011 ) . by 1972 fishing effort in the california current had shifted to northern anchovies ( engraulis mordax ) , which had become abundant .
through the 1980’s and 1990’s pacific sardine abundance began to recover . this period was marked by a notable el niño year in 1992 when pacific sardines were dispersed as far north as british columbia where they had not been seen in over 40 years ( maccall 2015 ) . in the early 2000’s pacific sardine biomass levels reached 1 million mt , but with a series of poor recruitments declined to the low levels reported last year .
see figures 2 , 3 , 4a and 4b for biomass , catch and total allowable catch ( tac ) , and fishing mortality rate of pacific sardines .
figure 1 . california sardine landings during the early years of the california cooperative oceanic fisheries investigations ( calcofi ) ( maccall 2011 ) .
figure 2 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) biomass ( hill 2015 ) .
figure 3 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) northern stock total allowable catch and landings for the us ( hill 2015 ) .
figure 4 . pacific sardine ( sardinops sagax ) northern stock fishing mortality rate ( fishsource . com 2016 ) .
in 1965 garth murphy conducted a comprehensive study of sardine demography in the california current and concluded that intense fishing effort was the primary cause for the stock’s collapse ( maccall 2011 ) . it was precipitated by poor recruitment in the early 1950’s , but overfishing was considered the main catalyst . murphy also suggested that the surging populations of northern anchovy had ecologically replaced pacific sardines ( maccall 2011 ) . specific environmental influences were not identified .
figure 5 . a depiction of pacific sardine scale deposition rates taken from the santa barbara basin and adapted as originally presented in baumgartner et al . ( 1992 ) . this data illustrates the 50 to 100 year cyclical boom and bust nature of pacific sardines in the california current system .
while populations did increase according to baumgartner et al’s 50 - year theory in the 1990’s , they were still well below the high levels of the 1940’s . similar to patterns of fluctuations seen in the santa barbara sediments , pacific sardine biomass dropped sharply from 1 million mt in 2006 to an estimated 97 , 000 mt in 2015 , causing the abrupt closing of the commercial fishery , in accordance with the biomass - dependent harvest plan
figure 6 . pacific sardine science and management timeline . adapted from a personal interview with alec maccall ( 2015 ) .
baumgartner , t . r . , a . soutar , and v . ferreira - bartrina . 1992 . reconstruction of the history of pacific sardine and northern anchovy populations over the past two millenia from sediments of the santa barbara basin , california . calcofi reports 33 : 24–40 .


scopula virgulata , the streaked wave , is a moth of the family geometridae .

it is found from most of europe to central asia and northern mongolia .

the wingspan is 20 – 22 millimetres ( 0.79 – 0.87 in ) .

adults are on wing from late july to august in one generation per year .

the larvae feed on carex and inula species .

larvae can be found from august to june .

it overwinters in the larval stage .

scopula virgulata

scopula ( scopula ) virgulata ( denis & schiffermuller , 1775 ) = geometra virgulata denis & schiffermüller , 1775 = geometra strigaria hübner , [ 1799 ] .
recently recorded for southern spain : j . gastón , f . morente & v . redondo : scopula donovani ( distant , 1892 ) , un nuevo geométrido para europa continental , descubierto en andalucía ( espana ) ( lepidoptera : geometridae : sterrhinae , scopulini ) . boletín de la sociedad entomológica aragonesa ( s . e . a . ) , nº 53 ( 31 / 12 / 2013 ) : 289–291 .
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museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken
there is some doubt as to the authenticity of this species as a british moth . there is a record of two individuals from kent in the late 19th century that some believe to be erroneous .
the species is distributed from france into eastern europe and beyond , where it occurs sparingly in open habitats .
there is a single generation , from june to august , and the larvae feed on a range of grasses and low plants .
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2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by
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austria , belgium , france , germany , spain , italy , latvia , lithuania , poland , portugal , romania , slovakia and the soviet union - the european part , finland , france , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .
regions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , gorno - altaisk , the european north - west , the european central black earth , the european central european south taiga , transbaikalia , western caucasus , kaliningrad , karelia , krasnoyarsk , nizhny - amur , prealtay , of baikal , pribaikalskiy , seaside , sakhalin , amur medium , medium - volzhsky , mid - ural , sredneobskaya , tuva , south west siberian , south ural , south yakutia .
austria , belarus , belgium , france , germany , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , latvia , lithuania , poland , portugal ( mainland ) , russia , romania , slovakia , slovenia , ukraine , finland , france ( mainland ) , croatia , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia .
[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )
[ 28 ] moths and butterflies of europe and north africa ( leps . it ) , 2012
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .
the name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .
the author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by
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and the number of omitted authors .
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all diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .
created by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .
- azores , balearic is . , british i . , bulgaria , canary is , channel is . , corsica , crete , croatia , cyprus ,
the final instar larva is light brown with wide darker dorsal line and thinner subdorsal lines . spriracles show up as small black dots .
this moth is an appendix a moth and as such is an adventive species added to british list based on the record of two alleged individuals caught in gravesend kent back in 1870 . as such occurrence in the british isles is unconfirmed .
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page where other butterflies & moths using the plants below are listed .
- austria - near vienna - s . v . rossica djakonov , 1926 - population of st petersburg area - greyer , with quite strong contrast s . v . virgata
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joint project of the zoologische staatssammlung münchen ( dr . axel hausmann ) and apollo books , stenstrup ( peder skou )
this website aims to present an actual update to the book series
the geometrid moths of europe
( a hausmann ed . ) . so far four volumes have been published , two are in preparation :
gme5 ( ennominae i ) , skou & sihvonen ( in prep . 2014 ) : 144 species
gme6 ( ennominae ii ) , müller & erlacher ( in prep . 2015 ) : 172 species
( highres photo , labels : amur ; photo : i . kostjuk , university kiev )
recorded in the polar urals ( # pers . comm . ) , new for the fauna of europe . locus typicus in eastern siberia .
recorded in central spain ( exposito 2006 ) , new for the fauna of europe . locus typicus in eastern algeria .
was described as separate species from central spain ( exposito 2006 ) , quoting slight differences in male genitalia ( saccus ) . molecular data ( coi barcoding ) show these minor differences to fall under the variation of
recorded in astrachan desert , southern european russia ( anikin pers . comm . ) , new for the fauna of europe . locus typicus in southern caucasus .
recorded on samos island ( fritsch & skou pers . comm . ) , new for the fauna of europe . locus typicus in turkey .
( 2013 ; alexanor , 25 ( 6 ) , 2012 ( 2013 ) : 361 - 384 ) . recorded in northern portugal ( locus typicus ) and possibly in adjacent regions of spain .
from southern spain ( gaston & redondo 2005 ) . the justification of the species right for these sierra nevada populations merits further attention and analysis .
recorded in southern spain ( müller 2010 : shilap 38 ( 150 ) : 159 - 163 ) , new for the fauna of europe . locus typicus in morocco .
recorded on lampedusa island ( fiumi & guidi 2011 : quad . stud . not . stor . nat . romagna 32 : 199 - 205 ) , new for the fauna of europe . locus typicus in north africa .
upgraded from synonymy to species rank by can ( 2009 : zootaxa 2314 ) , based on correlated differences in male genitalia and dna barcodes . distribution : bulgaria to turkey . locus typicus in bulgaria .
perizoma barrassoi , holotype , italy , majella , leg . n . zahm )
newly described from central italy , majella mountains . male genitalia see zahm , cieslak & hausmann ( 2006 : mitt . münchn . ent . ges . 95 : 31 - 35 ) . so far , only the male holotype is known . the female paratype , mentioned in the original description , is misidentified and is an unusually small specimen of colostygia aquaeata .
one specimen collected in bashkiria ( southern urals ) : mironov , v . g . , trofimova , t . a . 2007 . new species of eupithecia curtis , 1825 ( lepidoptera : geometridae ) for the fauna of southern urals . - eversmannia , 10 : 39 - 41 . urltoken
upgraded from synonymy of e . absinthiata to species rank in : hausmann a , haszprunar g , hebert pdn ( 2011 ) : dna barcoding the geometrid fauna of bavaria ( lepidoptera ) : successes , surprises , and questions . plos one 6 ( 2 ) : e17134 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0017134 .
described from greece ( pindos ) , sister species of e . conterminata : w eidlich , m . ( 2008 ) : beitrag zur lepidopteren - fauna des notia pindos ( tringia - massiv , lakmos - gebirge und athamano - gebirge ) in griechenland mit beschreibung von zwei neuen arten sowie angaben zur kocherfliegen - ( trichoptera ) und schnakenfauna ( diptera : tipulidae ) — entomofauna , zeitschrift für entomologie , bd . 29 , heft 27 , 469 - 504 .
described from southern spain , to be synonymized with e . dodoneata ( v . mironov ) : weisert , f . 2005 . eine neue art fur europa : eupithecia andrea sp . n . ( lepidoptera : geometridae : larentiinae ) . - z . arb . gem . ost . ent . 57 : 47 - 49 .
patrice leraut ( 2009 ) : moths of europe , vol . 2 : geometrid moths . - n . a . p . editions , 808 pp .
cf comprehensive book reviews in nota lepid . 32 ( 2 ) : 158 - 162 and r . a . r . e . xix ( 1 ) : 34 - 39
( leraut 2008 ) surprised the scientific community by the interesting discovery that this genus splits into several species , such as by the fact that the study was not based on type studies , neither on sufficient material ( strongly biased towards france ) and furthermore draws wrong nomenclatorial conclusions . as a consequence the paper caused additional work to rectify the taxonomy of the group (
) . such kind of scientific replication / rectification is not the way one likes to do , and it could have been avoided through contact and correspondence . the new book on european geometrids ( leraut 2009 ) , extends the same methodology to the whole family geometridae at a european scale . the following explanations may be helpful as immediate information to the whole community and will soon be published in a journal in order to recieve validity through a nomenclatural act .
the book has its strengths in its conception as richly illustrated identification guide in small pocket format , but nevertheless covering most european taxa of geometrids . preparing such a book costs a lot of time , which has to be acknowledged ,
see preface for some scientific shortcomings , e . g . insufficiently studied type specimens and collections ( just basing on material from mnhn / paris and a few french collections ) such as poor contact to the international scientific community of geometridologists , as e . g . organized in the forum herbulot and its periodical meetings ,
the description of infrasubspecific forms is not conform with the code ( iczn ) of zoological nomenclature . all the presented ' names ' are unavailable and need to be ignored in nomenclature ,
many species are stated as being ' closely related ' but without close relationship in the phylogenetic sense . a few examples , standing for many more :
many of the proposed taxonomical and nomenclatural changes are proposed without justification or explanation , basing on personal opinion ( ' is in my view a separate species ' , ' does not appear to me an authentic species ' ) and without presenting a clear statement of differential or common traits . in some cases just the formal change is done without any comment at all , e . g .
( lucas , 1937 ) , bona sp . , stat . rev . ( p . 776 ) . hopefully all this lacking information will be published elsewhere in the near future . the book does not have a synopsis with all taxonomical changes , therefore all these changes are addressed and briefly discussed here on this website .
furthermore there are many apparent taxonomical and methodological errors , partly corrected here , partly requiring further study .
( p . 34 , pl 1 fig 13 and index ) : incorrect subsequent spelling . correct :
. genus can be accepted , cf . revision of leraut ( 2002 ) .
not justified with facts , subjectively presented (
it is clear
) without indication of characters or synapomorphies . in contrast to leraut ' s opinion , the shape of uncus and the much shorter terminal process of valva distinguish
species , thus the arrow on fig . 21b does not indicate a differential feature . study of the fine revision in inoue ( 1943 ) would have given a correct view on the things and on
rungs , 1950
which is not in conformity with the code ( iczn ) concerning authorship . no justification , diagnosis or geographical background given , thus not acceptable .
appear weak and require confirmation by morphology of other material and dna barcoding . preliminarily to be accepted .
without examining material ( not figured ) and ignoring differential anylsis in gme1 . to be maintained at species rank .
without justifying or presenting arguments for this view . to be maintained at species rank .
: downgraded to synonymy , justified only by the statement that such habitus forms
are found elsewhere as isolated individuals
. though this is no reason to draw into question a subspecific taxon , that change may be preliminarily accepted until detailed examination about gene - flow is available .
: downgraded to synonymy , justified only by the statement that such habitus forms are found also in morocco . reputely ,
is founded only on characters of wing pattern , but hausmann ( 2004 ) presents also differences in male pectination and female genitalia , ignored by leraut ( 2009 ) . to be raised again to subspecies rank ( stat . n . ) .
despite citation of differential characters but without bringing arguments for synonymy (
to me does not appear an authentic species
) . to be raised to species rank again ( stat . n . ) .
: raised from synonymy to subspecies rank , vaguely stating some differences in male genitalia , but without describing these differences and without examining the possibility of clinous distribution of characters . still awaiting a thorough analysis and well - done differential analysis , downgraded again to synonymy .
: fig . 32 : the differential feature of valva costa is almost inexistent on the left valva , but dramatically overdrawn on the right side . the indicated structure on the aedeagus of
, though mentioning differential features in habitus and genitalia . to be raised again to species rank ( stat . n . ) .
as separate taxon 1 . 5 % genetical distance ( coi , pairwise distance , k2 ) from populations of nominate subspecies in italy . differences in habitus ( near to constant ) slight differences and male and female genitalia are outlined in hausmann ( 2004 ) . therefore better to be raised again to subspecies rank ( stat . n . ) .
: new evidence ( ounap et al . 2008 ) from a well done revision revealing this genus to be a sterrhine genus , not a larentiine .
: distribution in france ( correctly ) drawn into doubt in the text , but occurrence in south - eastern france marked on the map .
to species rank vaguely stating differences in male genitalia , but without describing these differences and without examining the possibility of clinous distribution of characters . (
genitalia are different
) . still awaiting a thorough analysis and well - done differential analysis , downgraded again to synonymy . furthermore on the map the distribution of
to species rank vaguely stating differences in genitalia , but without describing these differences (
genitalia are different
) . downgraded again to the above mentioned synonymy basing on the analysis presented in hausmann ( 2004 ) . furthermore , inconsistently , on the map
on p . 741 is erroneous , because basing on the misidentified specimen on pl . 134 fig 7 .
could be a separate species
. own research on such individual forms with forewing tip pointed and postmedial line clearly visible not revealing any constant difference in genitalia and neither genetically different ( coi barcode fragment , n = 25 ) from the other forms . therefore to be downgraded to synonymy .
* the ' vernacular ' name
libyan wave
( pl . 135 fig . 18 ) for
( guenée , 1858 ) is misleading , because that species is definitely not distributed in libya , but in the lebanon and nearby countries .
without presenting facts ( e . g . figures of the examined material ) , basing on the erroneous opinion to have examined
the type
and completely ignoring the recently published comprehensive revision of the species group ( hausmann 2005 ) with lectotype designation . taxonomic change not acceptable .
to synonymy . to be maintained at subspecies rank ( cf hausmann 2004 ) .
with statement to have
examined the type
, referring , however , to a paralectotype of mnhn , paris . examination ( brushing of male abdomen and control of the particular shape of valva costa ) of the lectotype in coll herbulot / zsm confirming the proposed synonymy .
: pl . 141 fig 14 : very untypical , without dissection misidentification not excluded .
: pl . 142 , fig . 18 : misidentification not excluded in specimens from southern france without dissection .
. the type has been
examined
but it remains unclear whether it was dissected . the figure of the
type
( which kind of type ? ) shows a specimen which is more reminiscent of
the taxon remains unclear until the genitalia of the name bearing type specimen will be controlled . until then it should be kept in synonymy of
to species rank without any comment . in fact this is a possible view , considering the different length of cerata , but the situation is not that easy when considering also the populations of
the length of cerata underlies a complicated pattern of variation and polymorphisms . requiring a detailed integrated revision including molecular and morphological data .
glossotrophia confinaria , g . alba , g . mentzeri , g . rufomixtaria , g . sacraria , g . asellaria
. such taxonomic position confirmed by own molecular research ( hausmann unpublished data ; hausmann & hebert 2009 ) .
: ( p . 786 and pl . 153 fig 15 ) : possibly misidentified . the species - group around
needs thorough analysis and revision , which is in progress ( r . trusch , karlsruhe ) .
- lythria : positioned between ennominae and larentiinae , though belonging to sterrhinae ( cf ounap et al . 2008 ) .
- lythria plumularia : reported from pyrenees but these old data are doubtful . the species is not mentioned by redondo et al . ( 2009 ) . in collections some very old specimens from
hisp . m .
[ southern spain ] may be mislabelled , perhaps .
- lythria sanguinaria numantaria herrich schäffer , 1852 raised to subspecies rank by leraut ( 2009 ) , reputedly due to ‘differences in genitalia’ herewith downgraded to synonymy ( stat . n . ) , because of the lack of such constant differential features
- cataclysme riguata : wrong map : no occurrence in scandinavia and england ( cf text ) ! but present on sicily .
- cataclysme festivata “from central asia” raised to species rank by leraut . cidaria riguata var . festivata , however , was described basing on syntypes from central asia across altai , saisan to amur ! since leraut did not check the type material , the drawn conclusions are obsolete .
- pl . 77 , fig . 15 cataclysme festivata from “alexander gebirge” ( not “gebiets” ) probably referring to c . shirniensis ebert , 1965 or c . plurilinearia leech , 1897 .
- cataclysme uniformata : raised to species rank earlier by viidalepp ( 7 march 2009 ; cf . mazel 2010 ) , accepted .
- scotopteryx subvicinaria : reputedly recorded in europe , but basing on erroneous data , this is not a european element . the presented ‘differential feature ( postmedial dent ) ’ is not valid for discrimination , neither significant nor constant .
- pl . 78 , fig . 18 ( macedonia ) : misidentified : s . vicinaria rather than s . subvicinaria .
- scotopteryx bipunctaria : records for morocco ( rungs 1981 ) erroneous according to leraut 2009 and attributed to s octodurensis . evidence not presented .
- scotopteryx aelptes : reputedly recorded in south - east europe together with s . olympia , but european ‘records’ of scotopteryx aelptes referring to s . olympia .
- plates 78 - 81 : several specimens of scotopteryx sister species complexes may merit dissection to verify their species identity .
- three species , xanthorhoe uralensis choi , 2003 , x . pseudannotinata vasilenko , 2007 and x . pseudomajorata vasilenko , 2002 not mentioned at all , but x . derzhavini and x . majorata erroneously listed under x . spadicearia , though all five being closely related to the incursata species - group and partly synonym to each other .
- xanthorhoe decoloraria : map with distribution all over germany wrong , the species is restricted here to the southernmost parts in the alps . similarly the distribution in south - eastern europe is drawn far too wide .
- xanthorhoe quadrifasiata : map with distribution all over spain and italy wrong , the species is restricted here to the pyrenees resp . the alps . occurrence in sicily erroneous .
- ‘genus’ odonthorhoe ( with mentioned species alexandraria , tauaria , fidonaria , tianschanica ) validated at genus rank without analysis , just stating it to be ‘distinct’ , though retained as synonym in scoble ( 1999 ) and other recent revisions . herewith again downgraded to synonym of xanthorhoe .
- pl . 85 , fig . 9 : “turkish raker” ( o . alexandraria ) is a misleading name for a species definitely not distributed in turkey , but in turkestan .
- catarhoe basochesiata : existence of a second , allopatric vicariant species , c . hortulanaria in the eastern mediterranean ignored here ( cf . hausmann 1995 ; 1997 ) , greece records on the map and in the text have to be assigned to c . hortulanaria . the species is later ( under c . permixtaria ) mentioned as unknown to the author .
- catarhoe mazeli viidalepp , 2008 regarded as synonym of c . putridaria ( light coloured form ) without basing on a morphological analysis . herewith raised again to species rank , quoting differences in genitalia of both sexes ( see original description ) ( cf mazel 2010 ) .
- pl . 85 , fig . 5 misidentified , referring to c . mazeli rather than to c . putridaria
- epirrhoe pupillata : on the map the distributions throughout scandinavia and germany are wrong , in both regions it is restricted to the southernmost parts .
- epirrhoe latevittata : mentioned , under e . timozzaria , as unknown to the author . better to be compared with e . alternata where is should be subordinated as subspecies or synonym ( cf . gme3 ; foeu database ) .
- camptogramma bilineata bistrigata : downgraded from species rank to subspecies of c . bilineata . acceptable .
- entephria byssata : validated at species rank by leraut , without mentioning the senior synonym and valid name entephria punctipes . herewith downgraded again to synonymy of entephria punctipes ( synonymy previously established in hausmann et al . 2004 fauna of europe ) .
- entephria cyanata : map misleading , occurrence in germany and poland restricted to southernmost mountains ( alps , tatra ) , not distributed in the netherlands .
- entephria nobiliaria vs . flavata pl . 87 figs 16 - 18 : the figured moths would merit control of identification ( e . g . by dna ) , because presenting untypical differences in habitus .
- coenotephria salicata vs . “salicata ablutaria” pl . 90 figs 12 - 13 : the figured moths would merit control of identification ( e . g . by dna ) , because presenting untypical habitus features .
- coenotephria salicata ablutaria : downgraded from species rank to subspecies of salicata by leraut , ignoring extensive studies with rearings , larval morphology , long series of dissections ( e . g . published by rezbanyai - reser in several articles , e . g . 2008 ) . large genetical distance ( e . g . salicata from slowenja highland versus ablutaria from slowenja lowland 5 . 8 % ; salicata from switzerland highland versus ablutaria from north italian lowland 5 . 4 % ) supporting and confirming separate species status , therefore ( again ) raised to species rank herewith ( stat . n . ) .
- two different ( female ) genitalia figs 157b and 158c both reputedly showing “ coenotephria salicata ” .
- nebula nebulata : map misleading , occurrence in germany and poland restricted to southernmost mountains ( alps , tatra ) .
- nebula achromaria : map misleading , occurrence in germany and poland restricted to southernmost mountains ( alps , tatra ) .
- nebula ibericata : the species is common in early spring and in autumn , not in july . distribution ( text and map ) in sicily erroneous , in morocco replaced by nebula numidiata ( mentioned in leraut under n . nebulata ) .
- eulithis pyropata : map misleading , occurrence in germany and poland restricted to north - easternmost mountains of both countries , in sweden only in the south - easternmost part .
- chloroclysta miata : flight period is ususally from september to may , not from “april to october” .
- dysstroma latefasciata : flight period later , from mid - july to september rather than “june - july” .
- cidaria distinctata staudinger , 1892 : no parentheses required around author and year .
- cidaria ochracearia leech , 1897 : no parentheses required around author and year .
- plemyria rubiginata : bivoltinism suggested ( “may , july - august” ) , but the species is univoltine , usually from early june to early august .
- thera firmata : distribution on corsica ( subsp . tyrrhenica tautel & billi , 2009 ) not mentioned in text and on map .
- thera firmata tavoilloti : reputedly only
weakly differentiated
, suggesting it to be an altitudinal form . raised again to subspecies rank by mazel 2010 .
- thera ulicata : reputedly occurring on corsica ( text ) , but not figured on map . probably referring to subsp . tyrrhenica tautel & billi , 2009 ( see under t . firmata ) . map indicating occurrence all over italy and on balkan peninsula , referring to t . firmata , too .
- thera obeliscata : reputedly occurring in north africa ( map ) , data probably erroneous .
- “ thera variata cembrae” : cembrae downgraded from species rank to subspecies of variata without presenting any reason or analysis for that nor quoting several recent analyses in literature . herewith raised again to species rank , quoting striking genetical distance ( detailed analysis in gme3 ) to t . variata which is about 6fold the distance between variata and britannica .
- fig . 165 / 166 : the illustration of genitalia of a “ thera sp . nov . ( in press ) ” without any corresponding reference in the text and without any geographical indication is not very helpful . given the variability of thera genitalia , the indicated “differences” do not represent valuable differential features .
- thera callidaria ( p . 629 ) and pl . 95 , fig . 18 ( type ) : the taxon callidaria was so far retained to be valid at species rank in the genus antilurga ( scoble 1999 ) . leraut transfers it to thera without giving any reason or analysis . the photograph of the type , grace to its publication by leraut , however , clearly allows to put it in ( senior ! ) synonymy with mattia adlata . therefore , this species should be cited as “ mattia callidaria ( joannis , 1891 ) ( syn . mattia adlata syn . n . ) .
- pl . 96 fig . 4 , “singular spanish carpet” ( polythrena coloraria ) is a misleading english vernacular name for a species definitely not distributed in spain , but in north - eastern russia .
- pl . 96 fig . 9 , possibly misidentified and referring to lampropteryx suffumata rather than to electrophaes corylata . awaiting dissection or dna barcoding .
- eustroma reticulata : map misleading , occurrence in spain and italy restricted to northernmost mountains ( alps , pyrenees ) .
- electrophaes corylata : map misleading , occurrence in spain and italy restricted to northernmost mountains ( alps , pyrenees ) .
- colostygia aptata : ' occurrence ' on sicily ( however erroneous ) mentioned in the text but lacking on map .
- colostygia austriacaria : ' occurrence ' in bulgaria ( however erroneous ) mentioned in the text but lacking on map .
- colostygia sericeata : mentioned under c . tempestaria though ( very ) closely related to c . multistrigata .
- colostygia wolfschlaegerae and c . fitzi : mentioned under c . tempestaria though ( very ) closely related to c . olivata .
- colostygia corydalaria : mentioned as bona species on p . 631 under c . tempestaria ignoring its identity as pseudobaptria bogumilaria ( rebel 1904 ) ( cf mironov 2003 ; hausmann et al in fauna of europe 2004 ) . the same taxon is again mentioned on p . 655 as pseudobaptria corydalaria separately from p . bogumilaria .
- colostygia ‘larentiaria’ ( laetaria ) : the name larentiaria is introduced by leraut as ( reputed ) senior synonym for the name colostygia laetaria which was in continuous use for more than 100 years . apparently the type specimen has not been examined . without such an accurate and documented examination of the type specimen the taxonomical change cannot be accepted and the taxon larentiaria must be treated as junior synonym to c . kollariaria ( cf . analysis in gme3 ) despite its erroneous subordination under laetaria in scoble ( 1999 ) .
- colostygia laetaria ( ‘larentiaria’ ) : occurrence in carpathians ( mentioned in text but lacking on map ) erroneous .
- coenocalpe millierata erroneously subordinated as subspecies under c . lapidata , stating their genitalia as being identical with those of c . lapidata , ignoring several constant differential features , e . g . basal lobe of sacculus larger than in c . lapidata , sacculus projection stronger curved , costal projection shorter ( detailed analysis in gme3 ) . herewith raised again to species rank ( stat . n . ) .
- horisme radicaria ; sister species of h . tersata , position of horisme scorteata rather aside h . predotai than between both sister species tersata and radicaria . fig 168 : size of corpus bursae is not a valuable differential feature . figs 169a and 169b : shown differential features invalid , the identification of the illustrated genitalia seems doubtful , possibly they are even inversed .
- horisme vitalbata staudingeri : locus typicus in amur region , thus easternmost asia , not central asia .
- melanthia procellata : map and text misleading , occurrence in spain and italy restricted to northernmost mountains ( alps , northern apennines , pyrenees , asturia ) .
- pareulype “lasithiotica nevadensis” : combined with p . lasithiotica ( nominate subspecies unknown to leraut , or both ) ignoring müller ( 1996 ) , hausmann & aistleitner ( 1998 ) , and redondo ( 2009 ) where treated as subspecies of berberata quoting absence of constant differences in genitalia and genetical identity , detailed analysis in gme3 . to be re - combined with p . berberata .
- spargania luctuata : map and text misleading , no occurrence in spain and italy south of alps and pyrenees .
- rheumaptera hastata : map and text misleading , no occurrence in spain and italy south of alps and pyrenees .
- synonymy of genera hydria and rheumaptera stated without any analysis of characters ; there are also arguments for separating both lineages , e . g . coremata , shape of juxta , sternum a8 a . s . o . .
- rheumaptera cervinalis : flight period indicated as “april - june ( after wintering ) , july - september” . this species , however , overwinters as pupa and a summer generation occurs very rarely .
- rheumaptera montivagata incertata ( mentioned both under r . cervinalis and r . montivagata ) : downgraded to subspecies of r . montivagata , ignoring constant structural differences in genitalia and male hindleg ( cf gme3 ) . to be raised again to species rank ( as e . g . in scoble 1999 ; hausmann et al . 2004 ) .
- rheumaptera gudarica : so far known only from eastern spain , teruel . occurrence in morocco ( leraut 2009 ; figured under pl . 104 , fig 8 from ifrane ) requiring confirmation , exact data should be published , e . g . whether the figured genitalia on fig . 173b are from that specimen from morocco .
- triphosa tauteli : the presented differential features in male genitalia underly artificial variation due to pressure on the genitalia when being embedded . according to redondo ( 2009 ) and hausmann et al . ( 2004 ) , t . dyriata is distributed also in spain . spanish populations should be analyzed in detail ( integrative taxonomic analysis ) to check if there are clinous character transitions between t . dyriata and t . tauteli . the taxon “ herzeti ” ( “ lot” and “jura” according to leraut 2009 ) must sink to synonymy , or the description of a large number of “subspecies” would be necessary from other regions when applying the same criteria .
- triphosa “sabaudiata agnata” : downgraded from species rank ( scoble 1999 ) to subspecies of t . sabaudiata without presenting reasons , analyses or statistical details . to be maintained at species rank until detailed analysis is performed .
- philereme transversata : flight period indicated as “may - july” . this species , however , usually flies from mid - june to mid - august , sometimes until early september .
- euphyia frustata : the taxa griseoviridis ( corsica ) and fulvocinctata ( spain ) are said to be “definitely not a separate subspecies” . however , because of the existence of several differential features in male and female genitalia ( shape of uncus , valva and antrum ) , both taxa should be maintained at subspecies rank .
- euphyia maximiliana : erroneously suggested to be a synonym of e . frustata .
- epirrita christyi : author and year stated as “prout , 1899” though “allen , 1906” is generally accepted as valid reference . text states absence from corsica , map erroneously shows occurrence on corsica .
- solitanea mariae : flight period stated as “july - august” . in italy , however , the species is bivoltine : early may to mid - june ; late july to mid - september , in the lowlands until late october . distribution in the text stated as “corsica : calabria” , despite wide distribution on apennine peninsula .
- chesias capriata : formally treated at species rank , following hausmann et al . ( 2004 ) , but expressing certains doubts about the rank . morphology , habitus and genetics confirming species rank .
- chesias plumbeata : raise from subspecies of ch . rufata to species rank without analysis and without mentioning any differential feature . to be maintained at subspecies rank of ch . rufata until not submitted to a sound morphological or integrative analysis .
- chesias linogrisearia : rank is confusingly presented as “form or species” , possibly a senior synonym of ch . rufata cinereata . species rank earlier postulated by scoble ( 1999 ) , now confirmed by a large genetical distance from ch . rufata by > 5 % .
- the taxa pinkeri and zuellichi are suggested to be synonyms of ch . angeri without giving any detail or argument . to be maintained in the systematic position as presented by hausmann et al . ( 2004 ) : ch . rufata pinkeri with zuellichi as synonym .
- carsia sororiata : map misleading , occurrence in germany and poland restricted to southernmost mountains .
- aplocera fraudulentata : downgraded from species rank to subspecies of a . plagiata without analysis and without discussing the existing differential features . examined specimens , however revealing strongly different genitalia and strongly differing dna barcodes ( coll . gelbrecht , coll . herbulot ; gelbrecht pers . comm . , own data ) . to be maintained at species rank .
- aplocera cretica ( “wingspan 27 - 28 mm” ) is said to distinctly smaller than a . plagiata but , largest a . cretica of first generation reach 38 mm wingspan . for flight time only october is mentioned , but the species is bivoltine , april to october .
- ‘ aplocera ’ fulgurata ( india ) : transferred from genus docirava to aplocera without morphological analysis and without discussing any differential feature . in gme3 a differential analysis between docirava and aplocera will be given . to be maintained in genus docirava .
- aplocera columbata : map misleading , occurrence in greece restricted to north - easternmost part , in ukraine restricted to crimea ( outside the map ) .
- docirava dervenaria and d . mundulata : generic systematics questioned under the species aplocera columbata without morphological analysis and without discussing any differential feature . in gme3 a differential analysis between docirava and aplocera will be given . both species to be maintained in genus docirava .
- docirava erubescens ( staudinger , 1892 ) ( turkey , armenia ) : reputedly with palumbata mentzer , 1981 as a new synonym . the former described from northern turkey ( amasia ) and figured in leraut from ‘ middle east’ ( ? ) . the latter described from northern iran ( elburs ) and so far retained as falling under d . mundulata . awaiting verification , examination of types still pending .
- schistostege nubilaria : map misleading , occurrence in poland ( if any ) restricted to south - easternmost part .
- lithostege duponcheli : on map ( not in text ) erroneously reported from central pyrenees . on peninsular italy restricted to the north - westernmost parts , and a very few localities in tuscany and southern italy .
- lithostege cinerata : no occurrence in europe , data referring to l . clarae : presented by hausmann et al . 2004 ( faeu database ) under the name ‘ cinerata ’ before the description of clarae .
- pl . 126 , figs 13 - 15 ( lithostege cinerata ) : 13 - 14 probably not conspecific with 15 , awaiting verification by dissection and / or dna barcoding .
- lithostege odessaria : distribution stated as “ ukraine , middle east” , the former probably wrong ( type locality odessa probably referring to an old name of a caucasian village ) , the latter misleading , as the species may be restricted to caucasus and transcaucasus .
- lithostege fissurata ( mentioned under l . odessaria ) : occurrence in europe ( malta : hausmann & seguna 2005 ) neglected .
- venusia cambrica : map and text misleading , no occurrence in spain and italy south of alps and pyrenees .
- hydrelia flammeolaria : map erroneously suggests occurrence on ireland , and iberian peninsula south of pyrenees .
- pterapherapteryx sexalata : map and text misleading , no occurrence in spain and italy south of alps and pyrenees .
- venusia cambrica : map and text misleading , no occurrence in italy north of central apennines .
- trichopteryx polycommata : map and text misleading , no occurrence in spain and italy south of alps and pyrenees .
- acasis viretata : map and text misleading , absent from southern half of iberian peninsula .
acknowledgements : we are deeply grateful to paul hebert and his competent team for offering us the possibility to integrate molecular data ( coi barcodes ) into our morphological analyses . these analyses are performed in the framework of the international ibol program ( campaigns geometridae , lepidoptera global and fauna of europe ) .
and allies : cf remarks to the presented , confusing data in mazel 2010 .
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