non-reproductive sexual behavior is sexual activities animals participate in that do not lead to the reproduction of the species .

although procreation continues to be the primary explanation for sexual behavior in animals , recent observations on animal behavior has given alternative reasons for the engagement in sexual activities by animals .

animals have been observed to engage in sex for social interaction , demonstration of dominance , aggression relief , exchange for significant materials , and sexual stimulation .

observed non-procreative sexual activities include non-copulatory mounting ( without penetration , or by the female ) , oral sex , genital stimulation , anal stimulation , interspecies mating , and acts of affection .

there have also been observations of animals engaging in homosexual behaviors , as well as sex with dead animals and sex involving juveniles .

non - reproductive sexual behavior in animals

why have animals evolved to have sex ? the obvious answer ,
for reproduction
, is at odds with the diversity of non - reproductive sexual behavior . some non - reproductive sexual behavior may exist merely by accident , but there ' s a variety of ways non - reproductive sexual behavior may otherwise benefit animals . there ' s no ready answer to the general question of why animals have sex .
ram mating behavior after long - term selection for reproductive rate in rambouillet ewes .
research on masturbatory practice by non - human animals almost exclusively focuses on male masturbation .
sexual behavior is an extremely significant aspect of the lives of all sexually reproductive animals , including humans . masturbation is an enigmatic yet highly ubiquitous practice , as it is a non - reproductive sexual behavior . understanding the origins of masturbation may shed light on its evolutionary function and its consequent conservation in human behavior , elucidating possible explanations for some of our most primal innate behaviors .
are used strictly in the reproductive sense to refer to animals that produce sperm or eggs , respectively ) .
why has natural selection allowed sexual affect and sexual behavior to flourish , particularly in humans ? the obvious answer is that sexual affect motivates sexual behavior , and sexual behavior is necessary for reproduction . but only a small subset of sexual behavior is actually capable of producing offspring . why has evolution preserved such things as masturbation , oral sex , homosexuality , and sex after menopause ?
regarding genetic influences on behavior : a single gene usually codes for complex behavior .
relationship of sex and number of siblings in utero with sexual behavior of mature rams .
in rats , a _ _ _ _ _ _ will display male sexual behavior in adulthood .
] . female animals treated with testosterone prenatally or neonatally subsequently show increased male - typical behavior and decreased female - typical behavior . similarly , male animals that have their testes removed early in development later show increased female - typical behavior and reduced male - typical behavior . these effects have been seen for sexual behaviors and for non - reproductive behaviors that differ by sex , such as aggression and juvenile rough - and - tumble play [
the most parsimonious explanation is that non - reproductive sexual behavior is a spandrel . that is , natural selection created a motivation to seek genital stimulation because this motivation makes animals more likely to reproduce , and it is merely an accident of evolution that this motivation also gets animals to do useless things like masturbate .
though most empirical research on the subject is heavily biased toward western sexual behavior .
a . expressing whether the behavior conforms to our culture ' s sexual norms .
altered adult sexual behavior in the male rat following chronic prenatal hypoxia . - pubmed - ncbi
wallen k , tannenbaum pl . hormonal modulation of sexual behavior and affiliation in rhesus monkeys .
stoinski ts , perdue bm , legg am . sexual behavior in female western lowland gorillas (
dolphins are known to display non - reproductive sexual behavior , engaging in masturbation , stimulation of the genital area of other individuals using the rostrum or flippers , and homosexual contact . [ 48 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ]
gordon t ( 1981 ) reproductive behavior in the rhesus monkeys : social and endocrine variables . am zool 21 : 185–195
which of the following phrases best defines sexual variations ? a . sexual activity that involves force or coercion b . sexual behaviors that are not socially approved c . sexual behavior that is not statistically typical d . sexual expression that is illegal
by separating capability from interest , sexual behavior became more sensitive to social context , and sex could easily be used for other than reproductive purposes . once the capacity to engage in sex was released from hormonal control , hormonal modulation of sexual motivation became the primary regulator of sexual behavior . however , unlike the physical adaptations described earlier , which completely prevent the occurrence of sexual behavior , hormonal regulation of sexual motivation only modulates the frequency or likelihood of occurrence of sexual behavior . this less strict control exerted by sexual motivation has been the source of much misunderstanding about hormonal regulation of sexual behavior in primates , including humans .
wallen k . desire and ability : hormones and the regulation of female sexual - behavior .
) : insights into pseudogene formation and evidence for functional degeneracy in non - human primates .
homosexuality is quite common in the animal kingdom , especially among herding animals . many animals solve conflicts by practicing same gender sex .
the coverage of # savebenjy opens a dialogue on homosexual activity in a landscape that survives and thrives on heterosexual reproductive non - human animal activity in a male - dominated landscape .
autoeroticism is a . sexual fantasy . b . sexual behavior with others . c . an intrapersonal activity . d . an unacceptable activity .
the utility of nature as a heteronormatizing force was influenced by two factors . the first was industrialization , which moved people away from nature and interactions with other animals . the second factor was that aspect of darwin’s theory that emphasized animals’ drive to reproduce and continue the species . this emphasis on heterosexual reproductive activity created a picture of the non - human animal as only engaging in sexual activity with the opposite sex , and inevitably has led to under - recording or - documenting of same - sex behavior in non - human animals .
diurnal , larger than nwp , most are partly terrestrial . non - prehensile tails
a female rate will show female sexual behavior in adulthood if it is _ _ _ _ _ _ .
le boeuf b , mesnick s . sexual - behavior of male northern elephant seals . i .
in his book , bagemihl describes homosexual activity in a broad spectrum of animals . he asserts that while same - sex behavior is sometimes found in captivity , it is actually seen more frequently in studies of animals in the wild .
you can view the lecture here . at about the 11 : 40 point the claim is made that humans are the only species that engage in non - reproductive sex .
intracerebral infusion of an aromatase inhibitor , sexual behavior and brain estrogen receptor - like immunoreactivity in intact male rats .
wallen k , winston la . social complexity and hormonal influences on sexual behavior in rhesus monkeys ( macaca mulatta )
dittmann rw , kappes me , kappes mh . sexual behavior in adolescent and adult females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia .
effect of vorozole , an aromatase enzyme inhibitor , on sexual behavior , aromatase activity and neural immunoreactivity .
wallen k . influence of female hormonal state on rhesus sexual behavior varies with space for social interaction .
according to the text , when we label a sexual behavior natural or unnatural , we are a . expressing whether the behavior conforms to our culture ' s sexual norms . b . expressing instinctive beliefs . c . using biological criteria for our judgment . d . using universal norms for human sexual behavior .
many acts that are considered to be sex crimes involve parties who participate in such acts willingly . these crimes relate to issues of marriage and infidelity , non - reproductive sexual activities , prostitution and pandering , and pornography and obscenity .
bruce bagemihl argues that any evidence of non - reproductive same - sex activity has been rationalized , in effect “explaining away” ( 122 ) any same - sex behaviors . published in 1999 , bagemihl’s biological exuberance offers both a “wondrous bestiary” ( 265 ) chronicling the myriad of same - sex activities exhibited by a wide range of species , and an exploration of how non - reproductive homosexual activity in non - human animals is treated in scientific discourse . the # savebenjy campaign was treated as an oddity , but bagemihl demonstrates that homosexuality in animals is not a new phenomenon . he finds that homosexual activity exhibited by non - human animals , unless it is explicit sexual intercourse , is either omitted from research findings or insufficiently documented , being wrongly categorized under a number of other behaviors such as affiliation or dominance ( 107 ) .
although no mark and recapture techniques were applied in the present study , the seasonal distribution of svls suggests that animals were sexually mature in the first reproductive season after hatching .
i ' ve heard this about many species , including aforementioned bonobos , dolphins and more . also homosexual behavior in animals is rather widespread , and i ' ll be damned if that ' s a reproductive sex .
madsen t , shine r ( 1993 ) temporal variability in sexual selection acting on reproductive tactics and body size in male snakes . american naturalist 141 : 167–171 .
the thing that particularly fascinated me about this book was the broad array of variations in physical gender found in animals . for many animals ( e . g .
) . i . specimens , procedures and behavioral characteristics of estrus ii . periodicity of estrus , homosexual , autoerotic , and non - conformist behavior .
furuichi t , connor r , hashimoto c . non - conceptive sexual interactions in monkeys , apes , and dolphins in : yamagiwa j , karczmarski l . , editors .
the masters and johnson ' s model of sexual response does not account for the physical changes that occur in the clitoris . role of desire in sexual arousal . physiological components of sexual arousal . role of the autonomic nervous system in sexual response .
the vehemence with which this prohibition [ against sex with other species ] continues to be held , its persistence while other non - reproductive sexual acts have become acceptable , suggests that there is [ a ] powerful force at work : our desire to differentiate ourselves , erotically and in every other way , from animals .
sdn - poa volume , sexual behavior , and partner preference of male rats affected by perinatal treatment with atd .
zhao qk ( 1993 ) sexual behavior of tibetan macaques at mt . emei , china . primates 34 : 431–444
while in adult females the relationship between circulating hormone levels and sexual behavior varies with social context , adolescent females could show one of two patterns . adolescent females may show a tight coupling of hormones and behavior in which adult flexibility in response to social context develops during puberty . alternatively , adolescent females may have a loose coupling between circulating hormones and sexual behavior in which social context overrides increased sexual motivation in response to circulating hormone levels . we investigated variability among adolescent females in the relationship between sexual behavior and circulating hormone levels to address these two alternatives .
seth genuinely cares about his animals , yet he derives sexual pleasure from having sexual contact with them . seth is practicing a . klismaphilia b . bestiality c . zoophilia d . kennelism
tan et al . ( 2009 ) observed female greater short - nosed fruit bats ( cynopterus sphinx ) licking the shaft and base of their mate ' s penis during coitus . ( so unlike the other non - reproductive sexual behaviors discussed in this chapter , this behavior occurs only in an apparently reproductive context . ) tan et al . make a similar suggestion : saliva may kill pathogens and thus reduce the spread of disease .
influence of castration and estrogen replacement on sexual behavior of female - oriented , male - oriented , and asexual rams .
bercovitch fb , strum sc . dominance rank , resource availability , and reproductive maturation in female savanna baboons .
plenty of academic research referenced in detail at the wikipedia article on homosexual behavior in animals . roughgarden and bagemihl have done extensive research . urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken urltoken
vasey pl . same - sex sexual partner preference in hormonally and neurologically unmanipulated animals . ann rev sex res . 2002 ; 13 : 141–79 .
ciaccio la , lisk rd , reuter la . prelordotic behavior in the hamster : a hormonally modulated transition from aggression to sexual receptivity .
goy , r . w . ( 1979 ) . sexual compatibility in rhesus monkeys : predicting sexual performance of oppositely sexed pairs of adults . in
) : androgens and behavior in a confined troop . horm behav 20 : 452–462
such studies have nonetheless observed autoerotic behavior in a diverse array of mammalian species .
there * have * been studies done on the reproductive success of homosexually paired birds . . .
bailey nw , zuk m . same - sex sexual behavior and evolution . trends in ecology and evolution . 2009 ; 24 : 439–46 .
taken together , these results suggest that in early adolescence , periovulatory increases in circulating estradiol increase female sexual initiation and female sexual motivation , as they do in adult females . in addition , these results suggest that social context can suppress female sexual behavior in early adolescent females , with one middle ranked female showing no sexual initiation at midcycle . in contrast , high social rank allows an uncoupling of circulating hormone levels and female sexual initiation behavior , since a high ranked female initiated interactions with males in the absence of periovulatory hormone levels .
benjy’s behavior challenged cultural perceptions of non - human animals as intrinsically heterosexual . his homosexual activity eluded normative sexual categories of ordering which are defined , discrete , and biologically determined . more importantly , benjy was no longer a charolais bull who engaged in homosexual activity ; he became a symbol , a representative for the naturalness of homosexuality .
4 . alfred c . kinsey et al . sexual behavior in the human female , w . b . saunders company , philadelphia , 1953 .
as one example , bottlenose dolphins routinely engage in non - reproductive intercourse - this can be when females are not in estrus ( i can ' t locate the reference though ) , and there is also a lot of non - intercourse sexual behaviour between individuals , even between males ( mann , j . 2006 . sociosexual behaviour among indian ocean bottle - nose dolphins and the development of male - male bonds .
while social rank affects the timing of the expression of sexual behavior within an adult female’s ovarian cycle , it rarely completely suppresses female sexual behavior ( wallen , 1990 ) . finally , adult males respond differently to sexual initiation by early adolescent and adult females ( zehr , 2002 ) . the increased aggression and decreased mounting by males toward adolescents also limits adolescent sexual behavior and further illustrates the special social status that adolescent females have within the social group .
sexual dimorphism in the coloration of the first and second rows of ventral longitudinal scales in the abdomen is probably associated with sexual maturation in males , since juveniles and females always presented white scales . feltrim ( 2002 ) suggested that sexual dimorphism in coloration could represent a social sign and could play an important role in sexual recognition .
beirne , p . ( in press ) . on the sexual assault of animals : a sociological view . in a . creager and b . jordan ( eds . ) ,
“a brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation . ”
studies of rhesus monkey behavioral endocrinology offer two different pictures of the role that hormones play in female sexual behavior . early studies of social groups of rhesus monkeys described discrete periods of sexual activity interspersed with longer periods of sexual inactivity ( carpenter , 1942 ) . in contrast , studies of male - female pairs of rhesus monkeys reported midcycle peaks in sexual behavior but some sexual activity throughout the female’s cycle ( goy , 1979 ; michael & zumpe , 1970 ) . these markedly different patterns of sexual activity reflected the hormonal emancipation of the ability to mate combined with a sensitivity of sexual behavior to social context . subsequent studies demonstrated that the amount of space ( wallen , 1982 ) and the presence of multiple females ( wallen & winston , 1984 ) affected the extent to which the female’s hormonal condition modulated the occurrence of sexual behavior .
many animals of the same sex touch each other in ways that are not overtly sexual ( they do not involve direct contact of the genitals ) but that do nevertheless haveclear sexual or erotic overtones . these are referred to as
huffman ma ( 1992 ) influence of female partner preference on potential reproductive outcome in japanese macaques . folia primatol 59 : 77–88
animals are those with two distinct sexes in which males always remain male and females always remain female .
so , if we bread animals specifically for fucking it is o . k . ?
meyer - bahlburg hfl , dolezal c , baker sw , new mi . sexual orientation in women with classical or non - classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a function of degree of prenatal androgen excess .
dittmann rw , kappes me , kappes mh . sexual behavior in adolescent and adult females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia . psychoneuroendocrinology . 1992 ; 17 : 153–70 .
a more widely known example of
prostitution
in animals is hunter and davis ' s ( 1998 ) observation of mated female adélie penguins copulating with males other than their mate in exchange for rocks on which to lay their eggs . but in this case , the harlotry could conceive , so it isn ' t a clear example of non - reproductive sex .
alexander gm , wilcox t , farmer me . hormone - behavior associations in early infancy .
effects of discrete lesions of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area or other medial preoptic regions on the sexual behavior of male rats .
giffney , noreen , and myna hird . queering the non / human . aldershot , uk : ashgate , 2008 .
weatherhead pj , prosser mr , gibbs hl , brown gp ( 2002 ) male reproductive success and sexual selection in northern water snakes determined by microsatellite dna analysis . behavioral ecology 13 : 808–815 .
on the other hand there are many ways in which we cannot help behaving just as animals do — or mammals , anyway — and sex is one of the most obvious ones . we copulate , as they do . they have penises and vaginas , as we do , and the fact that the vagina of a calf can be sexually satisfying to a man shows how similar these organs are . the taboo on sex with animals may , as i have already suggested , have originated as part of a broader rejection of non - reproductive sex . but the vehemence with which this prohibition continues to be held , its persistence while other non - reproductive sexual acts have become acceptable , suggests that there is another powerful force at work : our desire to differentiate ourselves , erotically and in every other way , from animals .
jones ba , shimell jj , watson nv . pre - and postnatal bisphenol a treatment results in persistent deficits in the sexual behavior of male rats , but not female rats , in adulthood .
when non - reproductive sex is more accessible than reproductive sex , animals might pursue it for practice . li et al . ( 2007 ) noticed that during the mating season , some male macaques wouldn ' t tolerate other males copulating with females , particularly if the copulating male was adolescent or ranked below the other male . the lower stakes outside of the mating season would probably be a better time for males to practice sex .
the changing aspects of an individual ' s sexual attitudes , behaviors , feelings , and roles can be described by the term ? psychophysiological development . sexual life cycle . psychosexual development . sexual maturation .
] . sexual orientation also has been reported for two male infants who were reassigned as girls because of severe penile damage in infancy . one of these individuals had primary sexual interest in women in adulthood , whereas the other had sexual interest in both women and men [
“a brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation . ” ― publishers weekly
a brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation .
publishers weekly
the dsm - 5 identifies sexual dysfunction as a . a diminution of sexual functioning in one of the four phases of sexual response . b . a pathological inability to regulate arousal states , to delay or achieve ejaculation , and / or to control orgasms . c . a disturbance in sexual desire and in the psychophysiological changes characterizing the sexual response cycle that causes marked distress and interpersonal difficulty . d . psychological or physical impairments to achieving sexual fulfillment .
in order to understand queer animals , alaimo employs haraway’s “naturecultures” as the environment within which fluidity and plurality of sexuality can be achieved . she shows how non - human animals are cultural beings entwined in social interactions . alaimo adopts a perspective similar to bagemihl’s , as she longs for a reconfiguration of the distinctions between nature and culture :
# savebenjy , as the campaign was called , captures a marked shift in cultural attitudes towards homosexuality in ireland . this essay considers the discourse of sexuality , both in the historical and irish cultural context . foucault’s the history of sexuality vol . 1 ( 1976 ) identified how sex was brought into biological discourses , where it could be studied and explained and , by the nineteenth century , how heterosexual reproductive sex was promoted as the norm . same - sex non - reproductive behavior was made “deviant” with strict laws and prohibitions . in ireland , the doctrine of the catholic church emphasized chastity and restraint , and sex was confined to the married heterosexual couple , while same - sex non - reproductive activity was a criminal offence .
lockhart ab , thrall ph , antonovics j . sexually transmitted diseases in animals : ecological and evolutionary implications .
nadler rd . homosexual behavior in nonhuman primates in : mcwhirter dp , sanders sa , reinisch jm , editors .
sexual differentiation of aromatase activity in the rat brain : effects of perinatal steroid exposure .
female sexual initiation in early and late adolescence in three females who first ovuluted during early adolescence , illustrating that the frequency of sexual initiation increased from early to late adolescence .
homosexuality is a social phenomenon and is most widespread among animals with a complex herd life .
animals are expected to defend feeding territories when food is widely distributed . true or false .
manson , j . h . , perry , s . , & parish , a . r . ( 1997 ) . nonconceptive sexual behavior in bonobos and capuchins .
a brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation .
- - publishers weekly
takahata y ( 1980 ) the reproductive biology of a free - ranging troop of japanese monkeys . primates 21 : 303–329
a . focused on biological function , behavior , body awareness , and acceptance .
further research on species in which sexual dimorphism is prominent but sexual segregation is absent ( watts 2005 ) or on species in which sexual segregation occurs in the absence of a sexual dimorphism in size ( such as in bats ) ( altringham and senior 2005 ; senior et al . 2005 ) would be extremely important for understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms of sexual segregation , not just in ungulates , but in all sexually segregating species . finally , the examples of sticklebacks and guppies show how powerful an experimental approach can be in elucidating proximate and ultimate causes of sexual segregation .
there are hundreds of examples of non - reproductive sex among animals , from albatrosses to koalas . but none of these examples can make people quite so uncomfortable as bonobos do . two bonobo females having sex looks very different than two female albatrosses sitting placidly on their nest . bonobo sex looks human . [ biologists : media sensationalizes animal sex ]
gavin l , mackay ap , brown k , et al . centers for disease control and prevention ( cdc ) sexual and reproductive health of persons aged 10–24 years – united states , 2002–2007 .
altered sexual partner preference in male ferrets given excitotoxic lesions of the preoptic area anterior hypothalamus .
shine r ( 1994 ) sexual size dimorphism in snakes revisited . copeia 1994 : 326–346 .
chadwick - jones jk . presenting and mounting in non - human primates : theoretical developments . j soc biol struct . 1989 ; 12 : 319–33 .
wallen k , winston la , gaventa s , davis - dasilva m , collins dc . periovulatory changes in female sexual behavior and pattern of ovarian steroid secretion in group - living rhesus monkeys .
. . . and animals don ' t live off 2000 year old books filled with bs .
your logic says that police dogs , service animals , and sporting animals are abused . some can be , but i believe a lot of them enjoy themselves . simple minds , simple lives .
bao am . , swaab df . sex differences in the brain , behavior , and neuropsychiatric disorders .
the development of brain circuitry controlling the sexual dimorphism in urination behavior is influenced by the levels of estrogen or testosterone that are circulating in the blood during the early postnatal period . estogren must prevent the development of the neuronal patterns of connectivity that are responsible for the male behavior .
) . thus , a female might have a stronger rank - related suppression of sexual behavior early in adolescence than late in adolescence . finally , the early adolescent females may be less sensitive to the effects of estradiol on sexual motivation than are late adolescent females . if this were true , follicular increases in estradiol , while sufficient to trigger ovulation , may be insufficient to increase sexual initiation . probably , age - related differences result from some combination of experiential differences , changes in social status , or sensitivity to hormones , with no single factor accounting for the differences . whatever the cause , this change in sexual behavior across development reinforces the notion that rhesus female sexual behavior is sensitive to both the hormonal and social environments .
a brilliant and important exercise in exposing the limitations of received opinion . . . an exhaustively argued case that animals have multiple shades of sexual orientation .
- -
publishers weekly
then in 1999 , bruce bagemihl published
biological exuberance : animal homosexuality and natural diversity
( st . martin ' s press ) , one of the first books of its kind to provide an overview of scholarly studies of same - sex behavior in animals . bagemihl said homosexual behavior had been documented in some 450 species .
it says sex between animals - as between humans - is often a matter of enjoyment , rather than procreation , and that this applies to animals of the same sex as well as opposite sexes .
discover new insights into neuroscience , human behavior and mental health with scientific american mind .
wallen , k . ( 1995 ) . the evolution of female sexual desire . in p . abramson and s . pinkerton ( eds . ) . sexual nature , sexual culture ( pp . 57–79 ) . chicago : university of chicago press .
this purification of sex manifested itself through catholic doctrine in ireland , and homosexual non - reproductive sexual behavior was now identified as deviant . queer theorist gayle rubin describes mistreatment of homosexuals in the us during the 1950s , from frequent police raids to queer bashing . the us gay rights movement in the 1970s led to a rethinking of what it meant to be gay or lesbian , and brought about a radical new era when sexual preferences could no longer be viewed as legitimate grounds for discrimination . ireland’s movement towards becoming a more tolerant country would take another 20 years .
vasey pl , sommer v . homosexual behaviour in animals : topics , hypotheses and research trajectories . in : sommer v , vasey pl , editors . homosexual behaviour in animals : an evolutionary perspective . cambridge : cambridge university press ; 2006 . p . 3–42 .
nottebohm f . , arnold ap . sexual dimorphism in vocal control areas of the songbird brain .
behavior . in j . e . reynolds iii & s . a . rommel ( eds . ) ,
other animals appear to go through a homosexual phase before they become fully mature . for instance , male dolphin calves often form temporary sexual partnerships , which scientists believe help to establish lifelong bonds . such sexual behavior has been documented only relatively recently . zoologists have been accused of skirting round the subject for fear of stepping into a political minefield .
see william simon and john h . gagnon , ‘sexual scripts : permanence and change’ , archives of sexual behavior , 15 / 2 ( 1986 ) , 97–120 ; william simon , postmodern sexualities ( london : routledge , 1999 ) , 40–58 .
demonstration of a sexual dimorphism in the distribution of serotonin - immunoreactive fibers in the medial preoptic nucleus of the rat .
clutton - brock th ( 1988 ) reproductive success : studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems . chicago , il : university of chicago press .
this is the first published article on the biology of c . vacariensis ; its main goal is to study the reproductive cycle and sexual dimorphism of the species . the following questions are addressed : ( 1 ) are the reproductive activity and cycles of stored fat seasonal or continuous ? ( 2 ) what is the reproductive cycle of males and females ? ( 3 ) at which snout - vent length ( svl ) do males and females reach sexual maturity ? ( 4 ) what is the effect of environmental factors ( temperature , photoperiod , precipitation ) on the reproductive activity and body fat cycles ? ( 5 ) what is the clutch size ? ( 6 ) does clutch size depend on female size ? ( 7 ) is there any sexual dimorphism in morphological characteristics and in the coloration pattern ?
human masturbation is typically coupled with imagined or observed sexual behavior ( e . g . pornography ) , while masturbation in other primates typically occurs in isolation or independent of the sexual behavior of others , and likely does not involve developed mental sexual imagery given the presumed human uniqueness of this capacity . human masturbation also seems to be more ubiquitous across individuals , and may display different patterns compared to other primates , though data on this subject is limited .
vasey pl , sommer v . homosexual behaviour in animals : topics , hypotheses and research trajectories in : sommer v , vasey pl , editors .
carothers , j . h . 1984 . sexual selection and sexual dimorphism in some herbivorous lizards . the american naturalist 124 ( 2 ) : 244 - 254 . [ links ]
female sexual initiation in high , middle , and low ranked females during late adolescence , illustrating that high ranked females had higher levels of sexual initiation and a less tight coupling of behavior with the periovulatory period of their ovarian cycles than did middle and low ranked females .
can refer either to a particular behavior when it occurs between two men or two women , or to an individual whose primary
identity
involves any or all of these activities . since the notion of identity is inappropriate to ascribe to animals , these terms will be reserved for the behaviors that animals engage in and , where relevant , to describe individuals whose primary
orientation
is toward animals of the same sex where courtship , sexual , and / or pair - bonding activities are concerned . in addition , because the terms
] , but this curvilinear relationship , as opposed to a linear relationship , had not been predicted . these studies were part of a larger project that also measured looking preferences for social / non - social stimuli , non - verbal communicative gestures , verbalizations , pretend play , and empathy [
altmann j ( 1974 ) observational study of behavior : sampling methods . behaviour 49 : 227–267
tutin ceg , mcgrew wc ( 1973 ) chimpanzee copulatory behavior . folia primatol 19 : 237–256
hormones , brain and behavior . vol 3 . san diego , ca : academic press .
jia zy , jiang zg , wang zw ( 2000 ) observation on the behaviors of masked palm civet in reproductive season . acta theriol 20 : 108–115 .
derickson , w . k . 1976b . ecological and physiological aspects of reproductive strategies in two lizards . ecology 57 : 445 - 458 . [ links ]
the relationship of male - male mounting to the sexual preferences of young rams .
bradbury jw ( 1977 ) lek mating behavior in the hammer - headed bat . z tierpsychol 45 : 225–255 .
one of the most important findings in kinsey ' s work was that a . children had sexual thoughts and experiences . b . few people understood or used contraceptive devices . c . there was extraordinary diversity in sexual behavior . d . a vast majority of women masturbated several times a day .
anate m . vaginal trauma at sexual intercourse in llorin , nigeria . an analysis of 36 cases .
by invoking examples of how we humans have decided that we do have an ethical obligation to the sentient animals in our care like neglect and abuse laws , i was using the above proposition to argue for the ethical treatment of animals .
homosexuality in its myriad forms has been scientifically documented in more than 450 species of mammals , birds , reptiles , insects , and other animals worldwide .
reeder dm ( 2003 ) the potential for cryptic female choice in primates : behavioral , anatomical , and physiological considerations . in : jones cb , editor . sexual selection and reproductive competition in primates : new perspectives and directions . norman : american society of primatologists . pp . 255–303 .
meyer - bahlburg hfl , dolezal c , baker sw , new mi . sexual orientation in women with classical or non - classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a function of degree of prenatal androgen excess . arch sex behav . 2008 ; 37 : 85–99 .
hines m , brook c , conway gs . androgen and psychosexual development : core gender identity , sexual orientation and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia ( cah )
mallard ducks are reported to both attempt to rape ducks of the same sex , as well as practice necrophilia . either of those should qualify on some level as non - reproductive sex , even if not consensual for the one in a pickle . this discovery earned kees moeliker the ig nobel prize in 2003 . the guardian reports :
in addition to physical injury and increased risk of disease , sexual intercourse and pregnancy increase opportunity for predation and use energy that could enhance survival . the occurrence of nocturnal mating , rapid sexual intercourse , and cryptic mating are all adaptations that counter this risky aspect of sexual intercourse . given the significant risks associated with sexual reproduction , why does it occur ?
reproductive cycle . the available data indicate that c . vacariensis has a seasonal and discontinuous reproductive cycle , as it has been found for other lizard species that inhabit regions with seasonal climatic factors ( precipitation and / or temperature ) ( e . g . magnusson , 1987 ) .
sex when the female is nonfertile would have little evolutionary consequence if sex also occurred during fertility . thus , the coupling of increased sexual motivation with peak fertility through changes in the same hormones increases reproductive success and still allows the occurrence of sexual behavior in nonreproductive contexts . a reliance upon sexual motivation as the mechanism coordinating fertility with sexual behavior produces a less tight coupling between hormonal and behavioral change in primates than that seen in nonprimate species ( wallen , 1990 ) . a loose coupling between hormonal changes and behavior would be at a selective disadvantage compared to a strict coupling if the loose coupling reduced the likelihood of mating when the female is fertile . however , if mating during peak fertility was the same , but additional mating occurred at nonfertile times , there would still be some selection against nonreproductive mating due to the risks posed by mating itself .
fleming a . s , vaccarino f , luebke c . amygdaloid inhibition of maternal behavior in the nulliparous female rat .
leckman j . f , et al . the role of central oxytocin in obsessive compulsive disorder and related normal behavior .
constantinescu m , hines m . relating prenatal testosterone exposure to postnatal behavior in typically developing children : methods and findings .
talmage - riggs g , anschel s . homosexual behavior and dominance hierarchy in a group of captive female squirrel monkeys (
yes , and nearly 100 % of animals with mate with their own offspring . many species eat their young .
curators say a norwegian exhibition on homosexuality among animals has been well received , despite initial indications of strong opposition .
pomerantz sm , goy rw . proceptive behavior of female rhesus monkeys during tests with tethered males .
sexual dimorphism in the preoptic / anterior hypothalamic area of ferrets : effects of adult exposure to sex steroids .
beach fa ( 1976 ) sexual attractivity , proceptivity and receptivity in female mammals . horm behav 7 : 105–138
) also showed a peak in female sexual initiation at midcycle , but showed much lower levels of sexual initiation than the higher ranked female . finally , the third female who ovulated ( ys5 ,
and those acts need to be discussed to have an accurate understanding of biology . the exhibit continuously states that non - reproductive sex acts form the foundation of many vertebrate social structures . without those social groups , the animals would perish . in that way , behavior that does not result in mating , and thus would otherwise be considered
evolutionarily useless
, proves its worth by increasing the survivability of the various members of the group by strengthening cohesion and diffusing tension . that argument about evolution underlies one of the two implicit messages of the exhibit .
norvell mk , benrubi gi , thompson rj . investigation of microtrauma after sexual intercourse .
andersson m ( 1994 ) sexual selection . princeton , nj : princeton university press .
d . sexual arousal by the real infliction of physical or psychological harm to another .
a . giving and receiving pleasure to each other without a sexual or coital goal .
palavras - chave : teiidae , cnemidophorus vacariensis , reprodução , dimorfismo sexual , conservação .
all the incidents recorded by harris and her coauthors took place in monterey bay . however , harris told discovery news ,
given that we documented interspecific sexual interactions involving at least three different male otters and that similar behavior has been described in many wildlife species , it is certainly possible that this behavior could be occurring elsewhere in the range .
yet scientists say we should be wary of referring to animals when considering what ' s acceptable in human society . for instance , infanticide , as practiced by lions and many other animals , isn ' t something people , gay or straight , generally approve of in humans .
) . these studies estimate from sequence disruptions that more than 30 % of olfactory receptor genes are non - functional pseudogenes in non - human primates , rising to more than 60 % in the human genome . coupled with these genetic changes , there has also been a dramatic reduction in the size of the olfactory cortex , from 65 % of total cortex in insectivorous mammals to less than 5 % in old world primates (
labad j , menchon j . m , alonso p , segalas c , jimenez s , vallejo j . female reproductive cycle and obsessive–compulsive disorder .
the counterexample would be that we ' re treating animals in all kinds of ways that are not in their interest or involve not
getting their consent
.
furuichi t , connor r , hashimoto c . non - conceptive sexual interactions in monkeys , apes , and dolphins . in : yamagiwa j , karczmarski l . , editors . primates and cetaceans : field research and conservation of complex mammalian societies . tokyo : springer . p . 385–408 .
anderson , r . a . & vitt , l . j . 1990 . sexual selection versus alternative causes of sexual dimorphism in teiid lizards . oecologia 84 : 145 - 157 . [ links ]
depicts the frequency of female sexual initiation in high , middle , and low ranked control females . the two high ranked females initiated sexual interactions with the highest frequency and for longer periods prior to ovulation . both middle and low ranked females had peaks in sexual initiation behavior at midcycle , but had lower levels than high ranked females during the follicular phase . thus , middle and low ranked late adolescent females demonstrated an adult - like pattern of a shorter period of follicular female initiation , lower levels of behavior , and a tighter coupling of behavior with the periovulatory period than that of high ranked late adolescent females .
bagemihl details how many ethologists and other researchers disregarded any same - sex behavior that is not overt sex , calling it imitation of heterosexuality ( pseudoheterosexuality ) , substitute activity in the absence of the opposite sex , a mistake , or a pathological condition , seeking to explain the behavior rather than understand it . bagemihl claims that the preconceived notions of heteronormative sexual activity in non - human animals are grounded in the traditional “noah’s ark view” of the animal kingdom , where “biology revolves around two sexes , male and female , with one of each to a pair” ( 36 ) . ecologist joan roughgarden equates the homophobia in science with a “cover up” ( 128 ) .
magnusson , w . e . 1987 . reproductive cycles of teiid lizards in amazonian savanna . journal of herpetology 21 ( 4 ) : 307 - 316 . [ links ]
several psychological adaptations crucial to sexual behavior parallel the physiological and behavioral adaptations controlled by gonadal hormones . successful reproduction requires intimate social contact , which provides the opportunity for the evolution of male selection based on physical and behavioral characteristics . it is beyond this review to cover this vast area . instead we focus on the psychological processes that regulate the occurrence of sexual behavior in females and coordinate mating with fertility .
nadler rd . homosexual behavior in nonhuman primates . in : mcwhirter dp , sanders sa , reinisch jm , editors . homosexuality / heterosexuality : consepts of sexual orientation . new york : oxford university press ; 1990 . p . 138–70 .
is it if you want to be dirty be dirty a freedom of practice ? there is a general opinion about animals ' behavior . they refer to a man who is dummy an ass , a coward a chicken , a dirty a pig or an ape . something is described as in human opposite savage . animals learning from humans in the circus have succeeded in teaching man how to behave like them .
barouki r , gluckman pd , grandjean p , hanson m , heindel jj . developmental origins of non - communicable disease : implications for research and public health .
unfortunately , the extant research doesn ' t clearly support any one explanation of all these behaviors across all these species . perhaps this shouldn ' t be a surprise . in this chapter , i enumerate some of the available explanations and the evidence for them . they aren ' t mutually exclusive , but nor are there any proposals of how to integrate them into a coherent theory of non - reproductive sexual behavior . therefore , the adaptive value of sexuality—the one domain of life that evolutionary psychology would presumably most easily explain—is in fact an open question .
wilson me , gordon tp , blank ms , collins dc . timing of sexual maturity in female rhesus monkeys (
could the indirect competition hypothesis explain inter - sexual site segregation in red deer ( cervus elaphus l . ) ?
altmann , j . , hausfater , g . , & altmann , s . a . ( 1998 ) . determinants of reproductive success in savannah baboons . papio cynocephalus in t . h . clutton - brock ( ed . ) . reproductive success : studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems ( pp . 403–418 ) . chicago : the university of chicago press .
janet mann , a professor of biology and psychology at georgetown university who has studied same - sex behavior in dolphin calves , says their homosexuality
is about bond formation , not about being sexual for life .
roy and silo are hardly unusual . indeed , scientists have found homosexual behavior throughout the animal world .
for intelligent species , the benefits are exactly the same as in intercourse with birth control - no offspring are produced , but people still seem to get something out of it . even for non - intelligent creatures , the usual non - procreative reasons still apply ( pleasure , dominance , social cohesion and conflict resolution , prostitution , etc . ) .
licht , p . & gorman , g . c . 1970 . reproductive and fat cycle in caribbean anolis lizards . university of california publications in zoology 95 : 1 - 52 . [ links ]
sexual health is a . focused on biological function , behavior , body awareness , and acceptance . b . focused on our mental health and our attitudes toward sexuality . c . primarily focused on our physical well - being . d . focused on sexual function and sexually transmitted diseases .
] . the effects of early androgen exposure on both the brain and behavior are often described as organizational , and early androgen exposure is thought to produce enduring changes in behavior by altering the development and organization of underlying brain circuits .
] . both outcomes are consistent with an influence of early androgen exposure on sexual orientation .
there were annual reproductive cycles in the study period ( fig . 1 ) . the peak of the reproductive cycle of males coincided with the peak of the female reproductive cycle . the testicular volume was highest in october / november ( = 72 . 2 ± 29 . 6 mm 3 ; n = 17 ) , and lowest in february ( = 8 . 9 ± 2 . 1 mm 3 ; n = 6 ) ; females were able to reproduce between october and december , and they were nonreproductive between january and september .
by the fall breeding season around 3 . 5 years of age , all adolescent females have ovulatory menstrual cycles , and most conceive ( wilson et al . , 1982 ; wilson et al . , 1983 ; zehr , 2002 ) . in general , late adolescent females engage in sexual behavior for longer periods than do adults , due to increased estradiol earlier in the follicular phase ( wilson et al . , 1982 ) . in adult females , social rank modulates the length of behavioral estrus , with high ranked females mating for longer periods of time prior to ovulation than lowed rank females ( wallen , 1990 ) . this section describes female sexual initiation in late adolescent females of high , medium , and low rank to determine if late adolescent females have rank - related modulation of female sexual behavior similar to that seen in adult females . in addition , this section explores age - related differences in female sexual initiation by comparing sexual behavior in early and late adolescence for those females who ovulated in early adolescence .
the existence of sexual contact between humans and animals , and the potency of the taboo against it , displays the ambivalence of our relationship with animals . on the one hand , especially in the judeo - christian tradition — less so in the east — we have always seen ourselves as distinct from animals , and imagined that a wide , unbridgeable gulf separates us from them . humans alone are made in the image of god . only human beings have an immortal soul . in genesis , god gives humans dominion over the animals . in the renaissance idea of the great chain of being , humans are halfway between the beasts and the angels . we are spiritual beings as well as physical beings . for kant , humans have an inherent dignity that makes them ends in themselves , whereas animals are mere means to our ends . today the language of human rights — rights that we attribute to all human beings but deny to all nonhuman animals — maintains this separation .
females begin to engage in sexual behavior during the breeding season around 2 . 5 years of age . however , since few females are likely to ovulate or conceive around 2 . 5 years of age ( wilson & gordon , 1989 ; wilson , gordon , blank , & collins , 1984 ; wilson et al . , 1986 ; wilson et al . , 1983 ) , studies of adolescent sexual behavior have primarily focused on females 3 . 5 years of age or older ( pope , gordon , & wilson , 1986 ; wilson & gordon , 1980 ; wilson , gordon , et al . , 1984 ; wilson , et al . , 1982 ) . this section describes sexual initiation behavior in both ovulating and nonovulating early adolescent females . if circulating hormones and sexual initiation are tightly coupled in early adolescence , all ovulating females would display sexual initiation behavior and only ovulating females would be sexually active . our data suggest comparable flexibility in the sexuality of adolescent females to that seen in adult females .
is the first comprehensive account of the subject , bringing together accurate , accessible , and nonsensationalized information . drawing upon a rich body of zoological research spanning more than two centuries , bruce bagemihl shows that animals engage in all types of nonreproductive sexual behavior . sexual and gender expression in the animal world displays exuberant variety , including same - sex courtship , pair - bonding , sex , and co - parentingeven instances of lifelong homosexual bonding in species that do not have lifelong heterosexual bonding .


the mexican gray squirrel ( or red-bellied squirrel ) ( sciurus aureogaster ) is a tree squirrel in the genus sciurus native to guatemala and eastern and southern mexico .

it has been introduced in the florida keys .

the alternate name of this squirrel ( red-bellied squirrel ) should not be confused with the indonesian red-bellied squirrel ( rubrisciurus rubriventer ) or the asian red-bellied tree squirrel ( callosciurus erythraeus ) .

the two subspecies each have many synonyms associated with them : the subspecies s. a. aureogaster was also known as s. a. chrysogaster , s. a. ferruginiventris , s. a. hypopyrrhus , s. a. hypoxanthus , s. a. leucogaster , s. a. maurus , s. a. morio , s. a. mustelinus , s. a. raviventer and s. a. rufiventris .

the subspecies s. a. nigrescens was also known as s. a. affinis , s. a. albipes , s. a. cervicalis , s. a. chiapensis , s. a. cocos , s. a. colimensis , s. a. effugius , s. a. frumentor , s. a. griseoflavus , s. a. hernandezi , s. a. hirtus , s. a. leucops , s. a. littoralis , s. a. nelsoni , s. a. nemoralis , s. a. perigrinator , s. a. poliopus , s. a. quercinus , s. a. rufipes , s. a. senex , s. a. socialis , s. a. tepicanus , s. a. varius and s. a. wagneri .

mexican gray squirrel

a systematic study of the mexican and guatemalan gray squirrel , sciurus aureogaster f . cuvier ( rodentia : sciuridae ) .
mcguire , r . 1975 . field ecology of the exotic mexican red - bellied squirrel in florida .
pack , j . , h . mosby , p . siegel . 1967 . influence of social hierarchy on gray squirrel behavior .
ramos - lara , n . , f . cervantes . 2011 . ecology of mexican red - bellied squirrel (
brown , l . , r . mcguire . 1975 . field ecology of the exotic mexican red - bellied squirrel in florida .
ramos - lara , n . , f . cervantes . 2007 . nest - site selection by the mexican red - bellied squirrel (
to celebrate the world cup , i’m drawing one mammal from each of the 32 competing countries . today’s is the mexican gray squirrel , also called the mexican red - bellied squirrel , a busy little guy who is native to the treetops of both mexico and guatemala . ( guatemala’s national soccer team has never qualified for the world cup . ) the mexican gray squirrel , like all other squirrels , i imagine , likes to eat nuts and seeds , but it also occasionally treats itself to a raid on a mango or cacao plantation . the species is widespread and not threatened ( hooray ! cue vuvuzelas ! ) .
author : vassia atanassova - spiritia license : attribution 3 . 0 unported ( cc by 3 . 0 ) urltoken description : english : mexican gray squirrel ( sciurus aureogaster ) seen in chapultepec park , mexico city български : мексиканска сива катерица ( sciurus aureogaster ) , заснета в парка чапултепек , град мексико link : urltoken title : mexican gray squirrel ( sciurus aureogaster ) in chapultepec park , mexico city - 1 . webm details of the licenses can be found on this channel ' s
about
page . in this video , no changes or modifications have been made to the original material . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
there is little available information on longevity in mexican red - bellied squirrels . readers should refer to information on the family sciuridae .
sharp , w . 1959 . a commentary on the behavior of free running gray squirrels . proceedings of the southeastern association game and fish commissioners , 13 : 382 - 387 .
there is little available information on parental investment in mexican red - bellied squirrels . readers should refer to information on the family sciuridae .
mcguire , r . , l . brown . 1973 . coconut feeding behavior of the red - bellied squirrel on elliot key , dade co . , florida .
mexico is the usa’s major rival in soccer / fútbol , which makes life hard for some mexican - americans at world cup time . mexico has hosted the world cup twice , and both times the team made it to the quarterfinals , but el tri has never made it any further than that .
this squirrel occurs in most forested habitats including thorn scrub , deciduous and evergreen forest , dry pine - oak woodland , secondary forest , and plantations . in dry woodlands or forest it is most common , especially in those bordering agricultural areas ( reid 1997 ) . it also occurs in urban areas . this squirrel is diurnal and usually solitary . individuals occupy distinct territories and may occur at densities of 0 . 7 individuals / ha ( coates - estrada and estrada 1986 ) . it is mainly arboreal , but will come to the ground to feed or travel from tree to tree . leaf nests are built on tree branches , 5 to 15 m above ground . in the lowlands , it feeds fruits and seeds of ficus spp . , cecropia spp . , poulsenia armata , brosimum alicastrum , and astrocaryum mexicanum . acorns and pine nuts are the staple foods of highland populations . plantations of corn , mango , cacao , and tamarind are sometimes raided . it is usually silent , but sometimes makes raspy trills and harsh chatters . females give birth to 2 to 4 young during the dry season ; black and gray individuals may be born in the same litter ( reid 1997 ) .
this is a fantastic squirrel , jennifer ! your color is so very bold , while still being true to the animal , and your texture work is impressive ! some of your best , in fact . the feel of the fur and the contrast between body and tail really come through here . and as someone who used to have backyard squirrels sitting on his shoulder as a kid , i know what i’m talking about !
mexican red - bellied squirrels make leaf nests built on tree branches approximately 5 - 15m above ground . these leaf nests consist of a base of interwoven twigs containing an inner cup of tightly packed singular leaves and covered by a dome of interlaced leaves and small twigs . it is thought the twigs and leaves are taken from the immediate area surrounding the nest and consist of the inhabited tree species . in mexico ,
has an average of 1 - 2 offspring per litter and food availability appears to be the limiting factor in their reproduction . in a study by brown and mcguire ( 1975 ) , 70 - 90 % of adult males captured in florida exhibited signs of breeding condition year round . in the same region , lactating females varied from 50 % of adult females in february and over 40 % in the may - august period , to a low of 12 . 5 % in november . in general , little is known about reproduction in this squirrel species .
little is known about the home range sizes of mexican red - bellied squirrels in their native range . in their introduced range in florida , home range sizes for females are smaller than those of their male counterparts , with the average home range size for adult males is 2 . 3 hectares and for females it is 0 . 9 hectare . home range size of breeding males are highly variable and may indicate some type of social hierarchy where certain males dominate in mating with females , while some individuals may range farther to breed with receptive females .
red - bellied squirrels are found in a variety of forests ranging from tropical scrub and broadleaf forests of the hot lowlands to the cold and wet temperate cloud forests of oak and conifer in the highlands . they are found at up to 3 , 800 meters in elevation . they are most commonly found in dry woodlands and generally occur in forested habitats including thorn scrub , deciduous and evergreen forest , dry pine - oak woodland , secondary forest , and plantations . mexican red - bellied squirrels also inhabit areas bordering agricultural and urban areas . introduced populations in the florida keys are abundant in dense , subtropical hammock - forest .
mexican red - bellied squirrels are diurnal with most movements starting one - half hour after sunrise until about an hour before noon , and then beginning again in the early evening hours . even after long exposure to humans , s . aureogaster is shy and elusive . in areas where the species was introduced it rarely comes to the ground and spends most of its time on the limbs of tree canopy . in mexico , however , squirrels can be observed using the forest floor year round , especially during the dry season . high winds , days with high ambient temperature , and cloudy and / or rainy weather inhibits normal activity . when an intruder approaches , s . aureogaster shows occasional aggressive behaviors such as emitting barks and moving its tail forward and backward rapidly . chasing behaviors have been observed between individuals of s . aureogaster and may be involved with reproduction . the chasing behavior consists of multiple individuals chasing a single individual and producing numerous squeaking and clicking sounds over a small area of the forest .
adult males weigh an average of 591 . 7 g amd adult females weigh an average of 562 . 5 g . hayssen et al . 1993 report an average body mass of 505 g . head and body length ranges from 232 to 310 mm , with tail length ranging from 215 to 284 mm . dorsal pelage consists of salt - and - pepper coloration combined with a bright rufous belly and flank . the rufous color of the flank is spread dorsally over the area of the forelimbs and shoulder to form an hour - glass shaped marking over the back . these main pelage features are best developed and least variable in populations of the northern ( tamaulipas and eastern san luis potosi ) and southeastern ( northeastern oaxaca , eastern veracruz , tabasco , and northeastern chiapas ) segments of the range . red - bellied squirrels are one of the most variable western hemisphere tree squirrels in terms and color and pattern . they can have grayish upper parts that may be broken or un - patterned by nape or rump patches , a shoulder and costal patch , or combinations of those patterns . the underparts may vary from white to orange to deep chestnut . in a study area in michoacan , squirrels were grey with white underparts . in certain segments of the range , populations exhibit melanism . in northern populations , a melanistic phase is common ; about 40 % of specimens sampled from tamaulipas and eastern san luis potosi have high degrees of black coloration . furthermore , introduced populations in the florida keys have either totally black or gray dorsal pelage with a red belly color phase in a 50 % ratio . most melanistic squirrels have a reddish tinge to the underfur on the back and rump . reid ( 1997 ) defines four distinct color forms ( although there is variation in each form ) .
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urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , and because it does not appear to be under threat and is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
this species occurs from southwest and central guatemala to guanajuato , nayarit and nuevo leon , mexico ( thorington and hoffmann 2005 ) . it has been introduced to elliot key , florida ( reid 1997 ) . it occurs from lowlands to 3 , 800 m ( reid 1997 ) .
no major threats known . although not considered a major threat , in some areas this species is hunted for food or to prevent damage to corn and other crops ( reid 1997 ) .
there are no known conservation measures specific to this species . however , there are several protected areas within its range .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
the range of red - bellied squirrels extends northward from southwest and central guatemala to guanajuato , nayarit , and nuevo leon , mexico . two pairs were introduced to elliott key island in the florida keys in 1938 by a resident of the island and now a population is established there . they have also been documented on adams key , sands key , and old rhodes key , indicating that they may be expanding their introduced range . in one study conducted , a density of 2 . 47 squirrels were calculated per hectare in elliot key . across the range , two subspecies have been identified :
inhabiting the rest of the geographic range . according to morphological characteristics of the baculum , red - bellied squirrels are closely related to other neotropical squirrels :
( brown and mcguire , 1969 ; brown , 1969 ; koprowski , et al . , 2005 ; layne , 1997 ; mcguire , 1975 ; palmer , et al . , 2014 ; reid , 1997 ; tilmant , 1980 ; villalobos and cervantes - reza , 2007 ; wilson and reeder , 2005 )
( hayssen , 2008 ; hayssen , et al . , 1996 ; mcguire , 1975 ; musser , 1968 ; ramos - lara and cervantes , 2011 ; reid , 1997 )
exhibits year round breeding activity . mating system is unknown , but is most likely polygynandrous as for most members of the family
females give birth to 2 - 4 offspring during the dry season across their normal distribution . for florida populations ,
breeding interval sciurus aureogaster exhibit year round breeding activity . gestation period is unknown .
. the squirrels build nests in forks of trees or in branches of oak and pine . individuals constructing nests bite off leafy branches 20 - 30cm long and interweave them into a spherical shape . during the wet season
is most commonly used during the dry season . this preference , however , may be due to seasonal tree mast production . when available , artificial nest boxes are utilized . however , unlike their natural form , the artificial nest boxes are exposed and uncovered . in a study conducted on introduced populations in the florida keys , brown and mcguire ( 1975 ) discovered
uses nest boxes in tropical habitat characterized by a few natural tree hollows . eight different tree species were used , although the west indian mahogany (
( brown and mcguire , 1975 ; mcguire , 1975 ; musser , 1968 ; pack , et al . , 1967 ; ramos - lara and cervantes , 2007 ; ramos - lara and cervantes , 2011 ; reid , 1997 )
four different vocalizations have been outlined by brown and mcguire ( 1975 ) using sharp ' s ( 1959 ) terminology : 1 . the call of apprehension ; a low - pitched barking call when squirrels are at a safe distance but within sight of an intruder . 2 . the call of danger ; high - pitched barking call and a faster note . 3 . the mating call ; numerous rapid squeaking and clucking sounds . 4 . the squeal of death ; sharp , piercing high - pitched squeals . during apprehensive and danger calls , the tail is held forward over the back in an “s” position and rapidly moved forward and backward .
red - bellied squirrels are primarily frugivorous . in the lowlands of its native range , seeds and fruits of
are commonly eaten . in the highlands , acorns and pine nuts are common food staples . in mexico , red - bellied squirrels are observed feeding on seeds of pines (
) . however , field observations indicate that use of food items may be based on seasonality . red - bellied squirrels use the fruit or seeds of many different species of tropical trees and shrubs including wild mastic (
) , and sea grape . when seeds are unavailable , squirrels clip branches and consume the phloem of wild mastic .
) , which provide rich and constant food supply throughout the year along marine shorelines .
( brown and mcguire , 1969 ; hall and kelson , 1959 ; mcguire , 1975 ; palmer , et al . , 2007 ; ramos - lara and cervantes , 2011 ; reid , 1997 )
in native populations , red - bellied squirrels are hunted as food for human consumption and makes up 4 . 9 % of the bobcat (
) diet . in introduced populations , there is little predation pressure . rather , competition for food and denning sites with native fox squirrels , black rats , raccoons , frugivorous birds , owls , and other species appears to be the limiting factor on population density .
( aranda , et al . , 2002 ; mcguire , 1975 ; reid , 1997 )
) due to an overlap in territory and shared resources . where introduced , red - bellied squirrels can affect native fauna , such as the threatened white - crowned pigeons (
) , a state species of special concern . additionally , the dispersal and establishment of white oak trees can be decreased due to predation on acorns by red - bellied squirrels . possible commensal relationships occur between red - bellied squirrels and invertebrate taxa such as ants , paper wasps , and scorpions as they were found inside man - made nest boxes with these squirrels . screech owls (
) may use nest boxes for temporary shelter and rearing young . red - bellied squirrels are host to a recently described species of nematode ,
(
florida’s endangered species , threatened species , and species of special concern
, 2004 ; bancroft and bowman , 1994 ; falcon - ordaz and lamothe - argumedo , 2006 ; mcguire , 1975 ; musser , 1968 ; palmer , et al . , 2007 ; steele , et al . , 2001 )
red - bellied squirrels sometimes cause damage to cornfields by consuming fruiting ears in mexico .
alicia byers ( author ) , texas a & m university , jessica light ( author , editor ) , texas a & m university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .
living in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
having markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
forest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range , usually through human action .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males , each of which also pairs with several different females .
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .
living in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . florida’s endangered species , threatened species , and species of special concern . gainesville , tallahassee : florida fish and wildlife conservation commission . 2004 . accessed august 20 , 2014 at urltoken .
bancroft , g . , r . bowman . 1994 . temporal patterns in diet of nestling white - crowned pigeons : implications for conservation of frugivorous columbids .
ceballos , g . , c . galindo . 1984 . mamíferos silvestres de la cuenca de méxico .
falcon - ordaz , j . , m . lamothe - argumedo . 2006 . a new species of
hayssen , v . 2008 . reproductive effort in squirrels : ecological , phylogeneitc , allometric , and latitudinal patterns .
hayssen , v . , a . van tienhoven , a . van tienhoven . 1996 .
koprowski , j . , l . roth , f . reid , n . woodman , r . timm , l . emmons . 2013 .
sciurus aureogaster
( on - line ) . iucn redlist . accessed april 20 , 2014 at urltoken .
layne , j . 1997 . nonindigenous mammals . pp . 157 - 186 in d simberloff , d schmitz , brown , t . , eds .
palmer , g . , j . koprowski , t . pernas . 2007 . tree squirrels as invasive species : conservation and management implications . managing vertebrate invasive species , 36 : 273 - 282 .
f . cuvier , 1829 ) from biscayne national park , florida , usa . pp . 222 - 224 in c veitch , m clout , d towns , eds .
romero - balderas , k . , e . naranjo , h . morales , r . nigh . 2006 . damages caused by wild vertebrate species in corn crops at the lacandon forest , chiapas , mexico .
steele , m . , g . turner , p . smallwood , j . wolff , j . radillo . 2001 . cache management by small mammals : experimental evidence for the significance of acorn - embryo excision .
to cite this page : byers , a . and j . light 2015 .
sciurus aureogaster
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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mexico , whose national team is nicknamed el tri for the country’s tricolor flag , is in the world cup’s group a , a tough bunch of contenders , as we discussed yesterday . in friday’s opening game of the tournament , mexico just managed to tie south africa 1–1 . of course a win would have made either team happy , but the level of competition in their group is such that neither is out of the running yet . ( if you missed the game , here’s the guardian’ s live blog of it . ) next , south africa takes on uruguay on wednesday and mexico faces france on thursday .
also , nice world cup info as well . thanks for helping me get into the fifa spirit ! indeed , let the vuvuzelas sound ! ( but only for a brief while — they give me a headache ! )
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use these links to obtain additional detailed information and research . life history information is invaluable because it provides diet and habitat info that can be used to formulate diets as well as identify release environments
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saphenista paraconsona is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in minas gerais , brazil .

the wingspan is about 10 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is glossy creamy with pinkish dots .

the base of the wing is suffused with pale brownish olive , the termen is more pinkish .

the hindwings are grey brown .

saphenista paraconsona

this is the place for paraconsona definition . you find here paraconsona meaning , synonyms of paraconsona and images for paraconsona copyright 2017 © urltoken
here you will find one or more explanations in english for the word paraconsona . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word paraconsona and , of course , paraconsona synonyms and on the right images related to the word paraconsona .
paraconsona razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 296 tl : brazil , minas gerais , nova lima . holotype : vbc . female .
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burreus razowski , in heppner , 1995 ( saphenista ) , atlas neotropical lepid . checklist 2 : 140 . no type
milicha razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 211 tl : mexico , veracruz , banderilla . holotype : eme . female .
mira razowski , 1989 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 17 : 206 . tl : guatemala , volcn santa maria . holotype : usnm . female .
dexia razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 454 tl : costa rica , volcn turrialba . holotype : mnrj . female .
novaelimae razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 104 . tl : brazil , nova lima . holotype : vbc . male .
perlaria razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 442 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
teopiscana razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 450 tl : mexico , chiapas , teopisca . holotype : mnrj . male .
alpha razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 101 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
beta razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 102 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
brunneomaculata razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 503 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , pululahua , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .
carchiana razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 299 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
chiriboga razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 502 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , chiriboga , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . female .
chlorfascia razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 103 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
contermina razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 298 tl : ecuador , tungurahua province , patate . holotype : vbc . male .
cryptogramma razowski & becker , 1994 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 28 . tl : brazil , par , belm . holotype : mnrj . female .
fluida razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 402 tl : mexico , veracruz , fortn de las flores . holotype : eme . female .
lineata razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 300 tl : ecuador , azuay province , cajas . holotype : vbc . male .
livida razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 402 tl : mexico , durango , 11 mi e revolcaderos . holotype : eme . male .
merana razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 299 tl : ecuador , pastaza province , mera . holotype : vbc . male .
nauphraga razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 422 tl : brazil , santa catarina , brusque . holotype : mnrj . male .
nongrata razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 397 tl : mexico , veracruz , fortn de las flores . holotype : eme . female .
nuda razowski & becker , 1999 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 323 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : mrsn . male .
ochraurea razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 296 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . female .
pululahuana razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 503 . tl : ecuador , province pichincha , chiriboga , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .
rufozodion razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 297 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
scalena razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 103 . tl : ecuador , carchi , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .
subsphragidias razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 298 tl : ecuador , tunggurahua province , patate . holotype : vbc . female .
turguinoa razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 69 . tl : cuba , santiago , turguino . holotype : vbc . male .
absidata razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 216 tl : mexico , sinaloa , 8 mi w el palmito . holotype : eme . female .
ceteora razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 297 tl : brazil , minas gerais , nova lima . holotype : vbc . female .
cnemiodota razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 214 tl : mexico , mexico , 10 air km se amecameca . holotype : eme . female .
cyphoma razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 220 tl : mexico , mexico , 10 air km se amecameca . holotype : eme . female .
delapsa razowski , 1990 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 18 : 340 . tl : mexico , guerrero , 16 km nw iguala . holotype : eme . female .
embolina razowski , 1984 ( saphenista ) , ann . zool . 38 : 277 . tl : venezuela , merida , 4 km s santo domingo . holotype : usnm . female .
gilva razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 453 tl : costa rica , cartago province , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
glorianda razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 401 tl : mexico , nuevo leon , 4 mi w iturbide . holotype : eme . male .
illimis razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 400 tl : mexico , sinaloa , 8 mi w el palmito . holotype : eme . male .
imaginaria razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 452 tl : costa rica , cartago province , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
mediocris razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 398 tl : mexico , nuevo leon , 4 mi w iturbide . holotype : eme . female .
ochrapex razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 443 . tl : ecuador , napo prov . , baeza . holotype : vbc . female .
parabeta razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 441 . tl : ecuador , loja prov . , loja . holotype : vbc . male .
ryrsiloba razowski , 1990 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 18 : 339 . tl : mexico , mexico , chilpango de los bravos . holotype : eme . female .
saragurae razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 8 . tl : ecuador , province loja , saraguro . holotype : mzuj . female .
solisae razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 104 . tl : mexico , tamaulipas , gomez farias . holotype : vbc . male .
subperlaria razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 443 . tl : ecuador , loja prov . , loja . holotype : vbc . male .
temperata razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 399 tl : mexico , tamaulipas , 12 mi sw ciudad victoria . holotype : eme . female .
tufinoa razowski , 1999 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 323 tl : ecuador , carchi province , 35 km w tufino . holotype : cmnh . male .
amusa razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 170 tl : peru , dept . puno , 5 km w limbani . holotype : zmuc . female .
chasia razowski & becker , 2010 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 444 . tl : brazil , rio de janeiro , nova friburgo . holotype : vbc . female .
consona razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 423 tl : brazil , paran , banhado , quatro barras . holotype : mnrj . male .
endomycha razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 96 . tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , monteverde . holotype : eme . female .
euprepia razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 171 tl : peru , dept . cajamarca , 10 km w huambos . holotype : zmuc . male .
juvenca razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 455 tl : costa rica , cartago province , volcn turrialba . holotype : mnrj . female .
lathridia razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 457 tl : costa rica , cartago province , volcn turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
orescia razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 456 tl : mexico , distrito federal , parque nacional zoquiapan . holotype : mnrj . female .
pyrczi razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 123 . tl : ecuador , prov . napo , papallacta . holotype : mzuj . male .
rosariana razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 70 . tl : cuba , pinar rio , sierra rosario . holotype : vbc . male .
runtuna razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 124 . tl : ecuador , tungurahua , banos , runtun . holotype : mzuj . male .
sclerorhaphia razowski & becker , 1994 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 29 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , so joaquin . holotype : mnrj . female .
solda razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 212 tl : mexico , veracruz , 22 rd km w ciudad mendoza . holotype : eme . male .
splendida razowski & becker , 2002 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 297 tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , indanza . holotype : vbc . female .
allasia razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 205 tl : ecuador , napo province , via santa barbara - la bonita . holotype : eme . female .
consectaria razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , polskie pismo ent . 62 : 118 . tl : mexico , sonora , cuchujaqui , 8 rd mi e alamos . holotype : lacm . male .
consulta razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 400 tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , 6 km s san vito . holotype : eme . male .
leuconigra razowski & wojtusiak , 2008 ( saphenista ) , genus 19 : 502 . tl : ecuador , province carchi , res . forest golondrinas , west cordillera . holotype : mzuj . male .
multistrigata walsingham , 1914 ( saphenista ) , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 296 . tl : mexico , veracruz , atoyac . holotype : bmnh . male .
oreada razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 456 tl : mexico , chiapas , san cristobal de las casas . holotype : mnrj . female .
praia razowski , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 399 tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , 6 km s san vito . holotype : eme . male .
ambidextria razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 222 tl : mexico , veracruz , caon las minas , 13 km ne perote . holotype : eme . female .
burrens razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 169 tl : peru , huanuco , 25 km ne huanuco , cordillera carpish pattytrail . holotype : zmuc . female .
constipata razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 216 tl : mexico , veracruz , caon las minas , 13 km ne perote . holotype : eme . female .
cubana razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 71 . tl : cuba , santiago , sierra maestra p . cuba . holotype : vbc . male .
incauta razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 456 tl : costa rica , cartago province , santa cruz , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .
onychina razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 452 tl : costa rica , cartago province , santa cruz , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . female .
rafaeliana razowski , 1989 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 17 : 206 . tl : colombia , cauca , paramo de parace , lake san rafael . holotype : usnm . male .
rawlinsiana razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 211 tl : ecuador , azuay province , azuay pass , 8 km ne giron . holotype : cmnh . male .
simillima razowski & becker , 2007 ( saphenista ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 71 . tl : cuba , santiago , sierra maestra p . cuba . holotype : vbc . male .
cuscana razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 78 . tl : peru , prov . cusco , cordillera vilcanota , marcapata . holotype : mzuj . male .
eranna razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 453 tl : costa rica , san jos province , parque nacional braulio carrillo . holotype : mnrj . female .
erasmia razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 92 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , 7 km se caon . holotype : eme . male .
omoea razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 169 tl : peru , dept . puno , 15 km e ayaviri , laguna huascacocha . holotype : zmuc . male .
orichalcana razowski & becker , 1986 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 451 tl : costa rica , san jos province , parque nacional braulio carrillo . holotype : mnrj . male .
peruviana razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 170 tl : peru , dept . apurimac , 12 km n abancay , cerro turonmocco . holotype : zmuc . male .
epiera razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 96 . tl : costa rica , alajeula province , n slope volcn de rincon . holotype : eme . male .
phenax razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 198 tl : costa rica , san jos province , estacin carrillo , parque nacional braulio carrillo . holotype : eme . male .
semistrigata forbes , 1931 ( saphenista ) , j . dep . agric . p . r . 15 ( 4 ) : 355 . tl : puerto rico , luquillo mountains . holotype : cuic . female .
xysta razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 202 tl : costa rica , alajuela province , ro sarapiqui , 6 air km san miguel . holotype : eme . male .
campalita razowski , 1993 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 171 tl : peru , dept . lima , 10 km n oyn , quabrada quichas , pueblo quichas . holotype : zmuc . male .
discrepans razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 196 tl : costa rica , alajuela province , ne slope volcn pos , 8 km n vara blanca . holotype : eme . male .
rufoscripta razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 78 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . male .
chloromixta razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 93 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . female .
eneilema razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 90 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
ephimera razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 88 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
epipolea razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 92 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
ereba razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 94 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
gnathmocera razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 92 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
melema razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 94 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . female .
storthingoloba razowski , 1992 ( saphenista ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 93 . tl : costa rica , cartago province , cerro de la muerte , pension la georgina . holotype : eme . male .
pascana razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 78 . tl : peru , dept . pasco , p . n . yanachaga chemillen , refugio el cedro . holotype : mzuj . male .
peraviae razowski , 1994 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 202 tl : dominican republic , dominican republic ( peravia , 3 km sw la nuez , tributary ro las cuevas ) . holotype : cmnh . female .
bimaculata nishida & adamski , 2004 ( saphenista ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 106 : 136 . tl : costa rica , san jos province , cerro de la muerte , villa mills . holotype : inbio . male .
muerta nishida & adamski , 2004 ( saphenista ) , proc . ent . soc . wash . 106 : 135 . tl : costa rica , san jos province , cerro de la muerte , villa mills . holotype : inbio . male .
chanostium razowski & wojtusiak , 2009 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 51b : 124 . tl : ecuador , prov . napo , morona - santiago , n . p . sangay , via guamote - macas . holotype : mzuj . female .
rivadeneirai razowski & pelz , 2001 ( saphenista ) , nachrbl . ent . ver . apollo ( n . f . ) 22 : 23 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago province , macas , proao , alshi , 5 km sw alshi . holotype : vpc . male .
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aculeata razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 171 tl : ecuador , chimborazo province , huigra . holotype : bmnh . male .
aeraria razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 170 tl : peru , cuzco mountains . holotype : bmnh . male .
anaxia clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 32 . tl : guatemala , volcn santa mara . holotype : usnm . female .
cinigmula razowski & becker , 1986 ( lasiothyris ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 462 tl : mexico , veracruz , estacin biologica las tuxtlas . holotype : mnrj . female .
cordifera meyrick , 1932 ( phtheochroa ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 267 . tl : bolivia , ro songo . holotype : nhmv . unknown .
delicatulana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 137 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .
deliphrobursa razowski , 1992 ( phalonidia ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1900 ) : 97 . tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , monteverde . holotype : eme . female .
domna clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 34 . tl : colombia , nario , volcn galeras . holotype : usnm . male .
frangula clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 30 . tl : venezuela , aragua , rancho grande . holotype : usnm . female .
lacteipalpis walsingham , 1891 ( conchylis ) , proc . zool . soc . london 1891 : 500 . tl : west indies , st . vincent ( westward side ) . holotype : bmnh . male .
lactaipalpis razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 175 no type
lassa razowski , 1986 ( aethes ) , ann . zool . 40 : 390 . tl : mexico , sinaloa , 8 mi w el palmito . holotype : eme . female .
nephelodes clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 27 . tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca , tropical cloud area . holotype : usnm . male .
nomonana kearfott , 1907 ( phalonia ) , can . ent . 39 : 84 . tl : usa , california , carmel . holotype : amnh . male .
voluntaria meyrick , 1912 ( phalonia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type
parvimaculana walsingham , 1879 ( cochylis ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 30 . tl : usa , california , shasta co . , hatchet creek . holotype : bmnh . male .
penai clarke , 1968 ( amallectis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 28 . tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca , tropical cloud area . holotype : usnm . female .
praefasciata meyrick , 1932 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 266 . tl : costa rica , irazu . holotype : nhmv . male .
pruinosana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 129 . tl : colombia , bogot . syntypes : bmnh . male , female .
saxicolana walsingham , 1879 ( cochylis ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 29 . tl : usa , south oregon . lectotype : bmnh . male .
sphragidias meyrick , 1932 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 265 . tl : bolivia , andes . holotype : nhmv . female .
substructa meyrick , 1927 ( phtheochroa ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 367 . tl : colombia , mt . tolima . holotype : bmnh . female .
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* walsingham , 1914 , biol . centr . - am . lepid . heterocera 4 : 296 * brown , john w . , 2005 , world catalogue of insects 5 * razowski , józef & janusz wojtusiak , 2008 : tortricidae from the mountains of ecuador . part iii . western cordillera ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . genus 19 ( 3 ) : 497 - 575 . full article : [ 1 ] * razowski , józef & janusz wojtusiak , 2009 : tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) from the mountains of ecuador and remarks on their geographical distribution . part iv . eastern cordillera . acta zoologica cracoviensia 51b ( 1 - 2 ) : 119 - 187 . doi : 10 . 3409 / azc . 52b _ 1 - 2 . 119 - 187 . full article : [ 2 ] .