aroga paulella is a moth of the family gelechiidae .

it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from arizona , california , colorado , kansas , new mexico , texas and wyoming .

the wingspan is 13 – 23 mm .

the forewings are shining dark blackish brown with white markings .

the entire dorsal edge is white , reaching up the fold except right at the base and slightly crossing the fold with an upward projection at the apical third of the wing .

beginning at the basal one-fourth of the costa and reaching the costal white part is a sharply defined outwardly directed white fascia .

at the apical fourth of the wing and nearly perpendicular on the costal edge is another narrower white fascia , somewhat dilated on the costal edge .

the hindwings are silvery pale grey .

aroga paulella

gelechia paulella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 865 ; tl : arizona ; colorado
aroga temporariella sattler , 1960 ; rev . fr . ent . 27 : 236
aroga mesostrota ; park , 1991 , ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 120
aroga argutiola hodges , 1974 ; can . ent . 106 ( 9 ) : 987 ; tl : michigan , alcona co .
aroga atraphaxi bidzilya , 2009 ; shilap revta lepid . 37 ( 147 ) : 301 ; tl : tadzhikistan , kondara , 1100m
aroga panchuli bidzilya , 2009 ; shilap revta lepid . 37 ( 147 ) : 302 ; tl : tadzhikistan , kondara , 1400m
aroga balcanicola huemer & karsholt , 1999 ; microlep . europe 3 : 160 , 32 ; tl : maced . occ . drenovo bei kavadar
aroga mesostrepta ; [ nhm card ] ; bae , lee & park , 2014 , ent . res . 44 : 19 ( list )
aroga alleriella busck , 1940 ; bull . s . calif . acad . sci . 39 ( 2 ) : 89 ; tl : alabama , mobile
aroga controvalva li & zheng , 1998 ; acta ent . sinica 41 ( 1 ) : 87 , 89 ; tl : chengcheng , shaanxi , 1000m
aroga danfengensis li & zheng , 1998 ; acta ent . sinica 41 ( 1 ) : 85 , 89 ; tl : danfeng , shaanxi , 680m
aroga gozmanyi park , 1991 ; ann . hist . - nat . mus . hung . 83 : 117 ; tl : mt kumgang , kangweon prov . , korea
aroga epigaeella ; [ nacl ] , # 2189 ( rev . stat . ) ; [ nhm card ] ; lee , hodges & brown , 2009 , zootaxa 2231 : 21
aroga flavicomella ; [ nhm card ] ; park & ponomarenko , 2006 , shilap revta . lepid . 34 ( 135 ) : 280 ; [ me3 ] , 157 , 32 ; [ fe ]
aroga websteri clarke , 1942 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 92 ( 3149 ) : 273 , pl . 29 , f . 5 - 5c , pl . 32 , f . 15 ; tl : pullman , washington
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powell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 9 . 34m ; p . 97 . book review and ordering
gelechia acharnaea meyrick , 1927 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 11 ) : 348 ; tl : texas , alpine , 7000ft
seu , turkey , urals , iran , turkmenia , . . . . see [ maps ]
larva on atraphaxis pyrifolia bidzilya , 2009 , shilap revta lepid . 37 ( 147 ) : 302
gelechia camptogramma meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 58
gelechia chlorocrana meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 11 ) : 348 ; tl : texas , forestburg
gelechia eldorada keifer , 1936 ; calif . dept . agric . , bull . 25 : 240
= gelechia trialbamaculella ; busck , 1903 , proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 858
gelechia eriogonella clarke , 1935 ; can . ent . 67 : 247 ; tl : washington , whitman co . , pullman
korea , seu , s . russia , irkutsk , buryatia , kazakhstan . see [ maps ]
larva on prunus spp . , p . spinosa , p . domestica , p . cerasus [ me3 ] , 158
gelechia leucanieella busck , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 4 ) : 180 ; tl : san diego , california
gelechia morenella busck , 1908 ; ent . news 19 ( 7 ) : 317 ; tl : morena and pine valley , san diego , california
larva on atraphaxis pyrifolia bidzilya , 2009 , shilap revta lepid . 37 ( 147 ) : 303
gelechia paraplutella busck , 1910 ; proc . ent . soc . wash . 11 ( 4 ) : 181 ; tl : san diego , california
gelechia rigidae clarke , 1935 ; can . ent . 67 : 249 ; tl : washington , whitman co . , rock lake
gelechia trialbamaculella chambers , 1875 ; cincinnati q . j . sci . 2 ( 3 ) : 250
gelechia unifasciella busck , 1903 ; proc . u . s . nat . mus . 25 ( 1304 ) : 865 ; tl : arizona , williams
gelechia xyloglypta meyrick , 1923 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 22 ; tl : california , venice
[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013
sangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
expedition of the california academy of sciences to the gulf of california in 1921 . the tineid moths
studien über die lepidopterenfauna der balkanländer . iii . teil . sammelergebnisse aus montenegro , albanien , mazedonien und thrazien
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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hodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .
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[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )
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gladiovalva aizpuruai is a moth of the gelechiidae family .

it was described by vives in 1990 .

it is found in the czech republic , slovakia , hungary and spain .

the larvae feed on rumex acetosa .

gladiovalva aizpuruai

gladiovalva aizpuruai ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 171 ; [ fe ]
gladiovalva ignorella ; bidzilya , 2009 , shilap revta lepid . 37 ( 147 ) : 303 ( note )
gladiovalva sattler , 1960 ; dt . ent . zs . 7 ( 1 - 2 ) : 16 - 17 [ key ] , 60 ; ts : gelechia rumicivorella millière
gladiovalva ignorella falkovitsh & bidzilya , 2003 ; proc . zool . mus . kiev nat . taras shevchenko univ . 1 ( 1 ) : ( 113 - 147 ) [ igorella ? ]
gelechia rumicivorella millière , 1881 ; lépidoptérologie 7 : 11 , pl . 10 , f . 13
spain , czech republic , hungary , greece , uralsk . see [ maps ]
gelechia badidorsella rebel , 1935 ; zs . öst . entver . 20 ( 2 ) : 11 ; tl : sierra de gredos
larva on atraphaxis spinosa bidzilya , 2009 , shilap revta lepid . 37 ( 147 ) : 303
pseudodorsella sattler , 1960 ; dt . ent . zs . 7 ( 1 - 2 ) : 61
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
sumpich & skyva , 2012 new faunistic records for a number of microlepidoptera , including description of three new taxa from agonoxenidae , depressariidae , and gelechiidae ( gelechioidea ) nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 161 - 179
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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piophila is a genus of small two-winged flies which includes the species known as the cheese fly .

as a whole , the genus is often called wine flies ; they prefer fermented foodstuffs to deposit their eggs .

piophila vulgaris visits arum maculatum flowers in england .

the genus is found in the palearctic .

piophila

piophila megastigmata ( diptera : piophilidae ) : first records on human corpses . - pubmed - ncbi
life fertility tables of piophila casei l . ( diptera : piophilidae ) reared at five different temperatures
limiti termici ed optimum di sviluppo degli stadi preimmaginali di piophila casei ( l . ) , ( diptera piophilidae )
figure 5 . larva of the cheese skipper , piophila casei linnaeus . photograph by caitlin lewis , university of florida .
ultrastructure of preimaginal stages of piophila megastigmata mcalpine , 1978 ( diptera , piophilidae ) : a fly of forensic importance .
figure 2 . dorsal view of adult cheese skipper , piophila casei linnaeus . photograph by caitlin lewis , university of florida .
figure 3 . lateral view of adult cheese skipper , piophila casei linnaeus . photograph by caitlin lewis , university of florida .
mote dc . 1914 . the cheese skipper ( piophila casei linne ) . the ohio naturalist 14 : 309 - 315 .
life fertility tables of piophila casei l . ( diptera : piophilidae ) reared at five different temperatures | environmental entomology | oxford academic
zuzka j . 1978 . autogeny in piophila casei ( diptera , piophilidae ) . folia parasitologica , prague 25 : 173 - 77 .
ultrastructure of preimaginal stages of piophila megastigmata mcalpine , 1978 ( diptera , piophilidae ) : a fly of forensic importance . - pubmed - ncbi
what made you want to look up piophila ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
piophila casei undergo complete metamorphosis . females mate almost immediately after adult emergence ( smith and whitman 2000 ) . although feeding on protein sources increases fecundity of the insects , piophila casei females are autogenous , able to produce eggs without a protein meal , in a laboratory setting ( zuzka 1978 ) .
figure 1 . adult cheese skippers , piophila casei linnaeus . photograph by susan ellis , united states department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service , plant protection and quarantine , urltoken .
crandell ha . 1939 . the biology of the pachycrepoideus dubius ashmead ( hymenoptera ) , a pteromalid parasite of piophila casei . annals of the entomological society of america 32 : 632 - 654 .
descriptions and illustrations of myiasis - producing larvae are very scanty in laboratory handbooks . we report herein a case of human intestinal infestation with larvae of piophila casei , the first one observed in our clinic .
sanitation is considered the most important aspect of management of cheese skippers . exclusion of piophila casei from all levels of food production ( processing , curing , and storage ) ranges from proper sanitation techniques to proper wrapping / protection of food products . light infestations of piophila casei larvae can be removed individually , but the judicious use of fumigation techniques if often required for more severe infestations ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
figure 6 . adult cheese skippers , piophila casei linnaeus , on meat . photograph by susan ellis , united states department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service , plant protection and quarantine , urltoken .
figure 7 . adult cheese skippers , piophila casei linnaeus , on cheese . photograph by susan ellis , united states department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service , plant protection and quarantine , urltoken .
figure 4 . anterior view of head of adult cheese skipper , piophila casei linnaeus . photograph by susan ellis , united states department of agriculture , animal and plant health inspection service , plant protection and quarantine , urltoken .
piophila casei are small metallic - colored flies , usually black / bluish - black with bronze - colored tints on the head , thorax , and abdomen , with reddish - brown eyes and iridescent wings ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
piophila casei are cited as pests of stored products ranging from salted meats to overripe cheeses . damage to the stored products can incur both pest management costs and possible medical costs from accidental ingestion of the fly larvae ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
peckenschneider le , pokorny c , hellwig ca . intestinal infestation with maggots of the
cheese fly
( piophila casei ) . jama . 1952 ; 149 ( 3 ) : 262–263 . doi : 10 . 1001 / jama . 1952 . 72930200005011b
a . russo , g . e . cocuzza , m . c . vasta , m . simola , g . virone ; life fertility tables of piophila casei l . ( diptera : piophilidae ) reared at five different temperatures , environmental entomology , volume 35 , issue 2 , 1 april 2006 , pages 194–200 , urltoken
the cheese skipper , piophila casei ( linnaeus ) , sometimes called the ham skipper , is a member of the
skipper fly
family ( piophilidae ) . these flies receive their name due to the unusual ability of the larvae to propel themselves through the air . the flies are detritivores , feeding on decaying matter , and even have been found on the exhumed remains of egyptian mummies ( cockburn et . al 1975 ) . because of their delayed infestation of decaying remains , piophila casei ( linnaeus ) have been implicated as useful in the forensic investigation of postmortem remains and the determination of
time since death
( triplehorn and johnson 2005 ) .
piophila casei usually feed on overripe ( three or more months old ) and moldy cheese , and slightly salted or putrid - smelling meats , such as ham , bacon , and beef . larvae are typically found on high - protein substrates ranging from salted beef to smoked fish and animal carcasses ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
when myiasis occurs , piophila casei larvae are usually found in the intestines , but larvae sometimes infest the chests and nasal passages of human patients . because of their filth - feeding lifestyles , the adults are believed to be able to act as mechanical vectors of disease pathogens , similar to house flies ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
intentional introduction of piophila casei larvae into pecorino cheese produces the famous , but illegally - produced , italian cheese known as
casu marzu ,
a delicacy desired for the famous pungent taste left behind when the larvae digest and ferment the cheese ( overstreet 2003 ) . individuals eat the goo - like paste as well as the living maggots .
in italy , piophila casei larvae are often introduced into pecorino cheese to promote fermentation as they feed and create a unique flavor in the cheese . though this
casu marzu
( cheese with worms ) is not produced commercially , the pungent / burning flavor created by the decomposing fats is considered a delicacy in italian areas ranging from piedmont and bergamo to sardinia ( overstreet 2003 ) .
forensic entomologists have used the presence of piophila casei larvae as a tool to assist in the estimation of time of death for human remains . though they can appear on remains less than two months old in geographic locations such as florida , the flies sometimes do not appear on an exposed corpse until three to six months postmortem ( after death ) , usually after the body has completed the
active decay
decomposition stage and is beginning to dry ( nanzi et al 2008 ) . entomologists utilize knowledge of the current instar of collected larvae , coupled with measurements of weather and temperature conditions , to provide an estimation of the postmortem interval ( benecke 1998 ) . furthermore , unlike some other insects used in forensic investigation , the presence of drugs such as heroin do not significantly alter the development of piophila casei larvae ( benecke 1998 ) .
signs of piophila casei in foods include the presence of whitish - colored eggshells as well as small grooves or creases found in the surface of cheeses made by first - instar larvae . infested cheeses will usually have soft or sunken areas , and meats may have a shiny grease - like liquid drip from infested areas ( smith and whitman 2000 ) . eggs , larvae , pupae , and adults are found near or on infested materials .
pupae : the dark brown pupae of the cheese skipper are formed approximately 32 hours after the larvae abandon the substrate on which they are feeding . though they prefer dry , dark locations , piophila casei larvae will pupate on open concrete floors if such spaces are not available . the oval puparium is typically 2 . 9 - 3 . 9 mm long and 1 - 1 . 7 mm wide ( lui and greenberg 1989 ) . adults emerge after approximately 12 days ( mote 1914 ) .
pachycrepoideus dubius ashmead , a small pteromalid wasp , is the primary parasite of the cheese skipper . the wasp attacks the pupal stage of piophila casei , as well as other cyclorrhaphan flies , including the mediterranean fruit fly ceratitis capitata ( wiedemann ) . pachycrepoideus dubius is reported to provide effective control of the cheese skipper , especially during summer months ( crandell 1939 ) . however , other research conducted at ohio state university states that pachycrepoideus dubius does not act as an economically viable method for natural control of the cheese skipper ( crandell 1939 ) . the small beetle necrobia rufipes de geer is also reported as a predator of cheese skipper larvae .
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often found as pests in meat and cheese , these small flies often are cited as a cause of accidental enteric ( intestinal ) myiasis , where the fly larvae invade the living tissue of animals including humans ( scott 1964 ) . researchers have reported cases of myiasis in red foxes in iowa ( smith 1943 ) .
insect groups similar to the cheese skippers include black scavenger flies ( sepsidae ) , eye gnats ( chloropidae ) , and small fruit flies ( drosophilidae ) ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
cheese skippers have a worldwide distribution , including the united states , and are not limited to any specific geographic location ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
adults : cheese skipper adults are usually about half the size of a common house fly . males are 4 . 4 - 4 . 5 mm from the tip of the head to the tip of the wings , whereas females are slightly larger , usually measuring 5 . 0 - 5 . 2 mm . the dominant color of both males and females is a metallic black - bronze ( triplehorn and johnson 2005 ) . the palps and proboscis are usually covered with bristles , and the antennae are short . the compound eyes found on both sexes are usually bare and red in color . the thorax has distinct rows of setae , and long setae are also found on the sides of the insect . the legs are covered with short spines and often have both yellow and brown colorations . the wings are iridescent and nearly overlap when resting . halteres , rudimentary second wings , are typically a pale yellow color ( mote 1914 ) . adults live for three to seven days ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
eggs : the eggs of the cheese skipper are 0 . 63 - 0 . 74 mm long ( lui and greenberg 1989 ) and 0 . 18 - 0 . 2 mm wide . a female usually deposits 140 - 500 eggs on meat or cheese ( smith and whitman 2000 ) . the chorion ( shell ) of each egg is oval / cylindrical and a smooth , pearly white color . eggs usually hatch between 23 and 54 hours in a temperature range of 15° to 27°c ( mote 1914 ) .
larvae : the larvae of the cheese skipper are active as soon as they hatch from the egg and appear fairly cylindrical and white , except for scleratized black mouthparts . oftentimes , the larvae can leap 4 to 5 inches through the air by using their mouth hooks as grapples and then flexing / jerking themselves forward , earning the flies the name
cheese skippers .
larvae tend to avoid light and congregate near each other on fairly lean portions of meat ( smith and whitman 2000 ) . the three larval instars typically last 14 days total and are found on substrates ranging from meats ( bacon , ham , beef ) to cheeses , fatty foods and decaying bodies . full - grown larvae are 13 - segmented , typically 9 - 10 mm long and approximately 1 mm wide , and appear white or yellowish - white to the unaided eye ( mote 1914 ) . larvae are fairly resistant to changes in heat and cold ( smith and whitman 2000 ) .
the complete life cycle of a cheese skipper in appropriate nourishment and temperature conditions can be as short as 12 days ( 1 day for egg development , 5 day larval maturation , 5 day pupal maturation , 1 day of adult feeding before reproduction ) . however , the typical life cycle is as follows ( mote 1914 ) : egg ~ 23 to 54 hours - larva ~ 14 days - pupa ~ 12 days - adult ~ 3 to 7 days .
cheese skippers are commonly cited as a cause of enteric ( intestinal ) myiasis in humans ( macgregor 1918 ) . once a female oviposits ( lays eggs ) on meats , cheese , and other surfaces , the larvae hatch and penetrate deeply into the substrate ( white et al . 2006 ) . unintentional human ingestion of cheese skipper larvae causes the maggots to pass through the human digestive system , often leading to serious intestinal lesions that result in diarrhea , pain , nausea , and other gastric symptoms . cheese skippers are cited as one of the most problematic fly species associated with accidental myiasis ( white et al . 2006 ) .
cockburn a , barraco ra , reyman ta , peck wh . 1975 . autopsy of an egyptian mummy . science , new series 187 : 1155 - 1160 .
benecke m . 1998 . six forensic entomology cases : description and commentary . journal of forensic science 43 : 797 - 80 .
lui d , greenberg b . 1989 . immature stages of some flies of forensic importance . annals of the entomological society of america 82 : 80 - 93 .
macgregor me . 1918 . insects as carriers of diseases . transactions of the american microscopical society 37 : 7 - 17 .
nanzi wa , jeffery j , sa ' diyah i , noorjuliana wm , chen cd , rohayu sa , hafizam ah , lee hl . 2008 . first report of maggots of family piophilidae recovered from human cadavers in malaysia . tropical biomedicine 25 : 173 - 175 .
overstreet rm . 2003 . presidential address : flavor buds and other delights . journal of parasitology 89 : 1093 - 1107 .
scott hg . ( 1964 ) . human myiasis in north america ( 1952 - 1962 inclusive ) . florida entomologist 47 . ( 23 april 2013 ) .
smith eh , whitman rc . 2003 . ham / cheese skipper . in national pest control association field guide to structural pests : stored product pests . fairfax , va .
smith lf . 1943 . internal parasites of the red fox in iowa . the journal of wildlife management 7 : 174 - 178 .
triplehorn ca , johnson nf . 2005 . borror and delong ' s introduction to the study of insects , 7th edition . thomson brooks / cole publishers . 864 pp .
white g , prendergast pf , rosales al , evans jr es , hogsette jr ja . ( 2006 ) . filth flies : significance , surveillance , and control in contingency operations . technical guide no . 30 . armed forces pest management board . ( 23 april 2013 ) .
state in their
handbook of medical entomology
that a multitude of cases of parasitism of dipterous larvae are on record . however , in
, we were able to find only one case of this kind reported in the last 25 years .
f . r . r . , a 44 - year - old contractor who had modern sanitary facilities in his home , was admitted to the hospital on july 30 . 1951 , with complaints of bowel disturbance . in 1944 he had attacks of severe pain in the abdomen , radiating to the back and downward to the left thigh . at this time he had noticed blood and mucus as well as small white
worms
in the stool .
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prado e castro c 1 , cunha e , serrano a , garcía md .
centre for environmental biology , department of animal biology , faculty of sciences , university of lisbon , lisbon , portugal . cbcastro @ urltoken
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a taxonomic genus within the family piophilidae – small two - winged flies including the cheese fly .
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: a genus of dipteran flies ( family piophilidae ) that include the cheese fly ( p . casei )
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dipartimento di scienze e tecnologie fitosanitarie , university of catania , via s . sofia 100 , catania 95123 , italy
this species is also of medical and veterinary interest because of the various myasies ( enteric , nasal , and urinal ) that it can cause ( zumpt 1965 , perez inigo 1971 , el serougi el 1991 , saleh and el sibae 1993 , passos et al . 2004 ) . moreover , p . casei is an important fly species in forensic entomology because is informative for the estimation of postmortem interval ( smith 1986 , early and goff 1986 , liu and greenberg 1989 , schoenly et al . 1996 , de jong and chadwick 1999 ) .
a colony of p . casei was established in the laboratory in 2001 from wild specimens collected in some ripening rooms of dairies located in ragusa , italy . colonies were reared for ≈1 yr before the experiments began in cages ( length 40 cm by width 50 cm by height 50 cm ) maintained in climatic chambers at a constant temperature of 27 ± 1°c , 70 ± 5 % rh , and a l8 : d16 photoperiod . this photoperiod was chosen because it is the standard regime maintained in dairies . the flies were fed with an artificial diet consisting of agar ( 20 g ) , powdered milk ( 80 g ) , dry yeast ( 50 g ) , nipagine ( 1 g ) , ethyl alcohol ( 10 ml ) , and water ( 1 , 000 ml ) ( sacchi et al . 1971 ) . fresh diet was provided every 2 d and was used as an oviposition substrate and moisture source .
the effects of temperature on developmental time , survival , and fecundity of p . casei were evaluated in growth chambers at constant temperatures of 15 , 19 , 25 , 28 , and 35 ± 1°c , 70 ± 5 % rh , and a l8 : d16 photoperiod . these temperatures were selected because they are similar to the range recorded in dairies in the periods of higher infestation level ( in autumn and summer ) .
to obtain synchronized eggs , adult females ( ≈200 for each temperature ) were incubated at 28°c for 5 h . the eggs of the flies ( < 2 h old ) were collected with a palette knife from stock colonies , put in groups of 10 into plastic petri dishes ( 9 cm in diameter by 2 cm high ) , and incubated at the five temperatures . the total number of eggs incubated at each temperature were 630 , 850 , 1 , 120 , 1 , 682 , and 1 , 810 at 15 , 19 , 25 , 28 , and 32°c , respectively . each petri dish containing 10 eggs was considered one replicate . to record developmental time and percentage of egg eclosion , progress in embryonic development was monitored twice a day with a stereoscopic microscope until hatching .
to determine juvenile developmental time , survival , and sex ratio of the larval stages at the five temperatures , all the newly hatched larvae ( with the exception of those maintained at 15°c , for which only 401 larvae were selected ) were collected and transferred in groups of 10 into bigger plastic petri dishes ( 12 cm in diameter by 2 . 5 cm high ) . development and mortality of larvae were recorded daily ( twice a day in trials at 28 and 32°c ) until they reached the pupal stage . the age of the larvae was determined on the basis of the different degrees of sclerotization of the cephalopharyngeal apparatus . food was replaced daily during the whole period of larval and pupae development to maintain a constant level of humidity .
are the natural logarithm of the number of larvae at the beginning and at the end of the stage , respectively , and δt is the developmental time .
to evaluate the number of eggs laid and adult longevity of the cheese skipper at the five temperatures , 40 male : female pairs of newly emerged adults ( < 1 h old ) were randomly chosen from those followed during larval development . pairs were confined in separate plexiglas containers ( 12 cm in diameter by 3 cm high ) , provided with vent holes on the lid and covered with a fine mesh nylon screen to allow ventilation . food was replaced daily , and temperature was checked daily by placing a thermometer inside containers without larvae . preoviposition ( the age , in days , before the first deposition of eggs ) , oviposition period ( days ) , number of eggs laid , and survival of adults were recorded daily until all adults had died .
the effects of treatments on eggs , larval developmental times , and adult life history ( i . e . , longevity , preoviposition , and oviposition period ) were determined using a one - way analysis of variance ( anova ) , and t - tests ( p = 0 . 05 ) were used for post hoc comparisons ( statsoft 1996 ) .
life and fertility tables were constructed on the basis of life history of immature stages and adults observed during the experiment . from previous laboratory results , we assumed a sex ratio of 1 : 1 in all treatments . for each temperature , daily age - specific survivorship ( l
are the proportion of surviving females at the age x and the number of female progeny produced per female in the age interval x , respectively . with a stable age distribution and under given climatic and food conditions , the intrinsic rate of natural increase is a useful comparative statistic of population growth potential (
mean developmental time ( days ± se ) of the inunature stages of p . casei at five constant temperatures
means within a row followed by the same letter are not significant different ( t - test , p > 0 . 05 ) .
relative mortality rate ( per day ) for the inunature stages of p . casei at five constant temperatures
survival rate ( l x ) and age - specific fecundity rate ( m x ) of p . casei at five constant temperatures .
adult longevity , preoviposition period , fecundity , and oviposition rate of p . casei at five different temperatures
differences in the flies ' temperature responses are further evidenced by their intrinsic rates of natural increase ( r m ; table 4 ) . based on the calculated r m values , the highest reproductive potential of p . casei was recorded at 32°c ( 0 . 1216 ) , and good performances were observed also at 25 and 28°c ( 0 . 0862 and 0 . 0955 , respectively ) . data on r m values at 15 and 19°c indicate a slow but considerable capacity to increase ( 0 . 0222 and 0 . 0278 , respectively ) , reflecting a certain difficulty of this fly to develop at low temperatures . the other parameters calculated show similar decreases with temperature . it is notable that the highest net reproductive rate ( r 0 ) was recorded at 25°c , reflecting essentially the better equilibrium between longevity and fecundity of females at this temperature . the lowest values were estimated at 15 and 19°c ( 4 . 50 and 4 . 13 , respectively ) . consistent with the pattern of longevity gross reproductive time , σm x was highest at 15°c ( 121 . 9 ) and lowest at 32°c ( 61 . 1 ) . the mean generation time ( t ) , doubling time ( d ) , and finite rate of increase ( λ ) were lowest at 32°c ( 18 . 2 , 5 . 7 , and 1 . 13 , respectively ) . conversely , at 15°c , the fly showed the worst performance . the slight augment of λ with increasing temperatures indicates , however , that , under most conditions , the populations are rather stable .
r 0 , net reproductive rate ; r m , intrinsic rate of natural increase ; t , mean generation time ; t c , cohort generation time ; 1 , finite capacity for increase ; d , doubling time ; s mx , gross reproductive time .
temperature is a key factor for the development , survival , and reproduction of poikilothermic organisms ( andrewartha and birch , 1954 , sharpe and demichele 1977 ) . this study is a complete report of the life cycle of p . casei at different temperatures . a partial study on the effects of temperature on larvae of p . casei was conducted by belcari and antonelli ( 1992 ) , who recorded the development between 9 and 45°c . they reported 10 - 36°c as a useful range for embryonic development . the authors observed that the eggs developed in 1 . 2 , 1 , and 0 . 9 d at 25 , 28 , and 33°c , respectively , whereas this took a noticeably shorter time at 13 and 18°c ( 4 . 7 and 2 . 9 d , respectively ) . our data agree also with hegazi et al . ( 1978 ) ( 1 . 02 d at 28°c ) and differ from those reported by costa et al . ( 1986 ) , who recorded 2 d at 27°c .
although slightly higher , the percentage of mortality on pupae recorded by belcari and antonelli ( 1992 ) was similar to the results obtained in this study . on the contrary , the times recorded by busvine ( 1980 ) and smart ( 1935 ) at 25°c ( 8 . 3 d ) were noticeably higher . hegazi et al . ( 1978 ) at 27°c found 6 . 4 and 7 . 3 d , depending on the food offered .
few data are available on longevity and survivorship of adults of p . casei . hegazi et al . ( 1978 ) reported a very short lifespan at 27°c compared with our results . depending on the protein contained in the food offered , females lived on average only 5 . 4 and 4 . 6 d and males lived 4 . 3 and 3 . 5 d . in this study , reduced longevity of both females and males at 32°c emphasizes the adverse effects of high temperatures on longevity and also on fecundity , considering that the best performance was observed at 25°c . at 15°c , even though females lived longer , they were less fecund . the fecundity curves indicate that the ovipositional peak was reached at the beginning of the reproductive cycle , confirming the hypothesis of sharpe and demichele ( 1977 ) , who associated this behavior with the increase in metabolic rate .
the biological data obtained in this study indicate that this species is well adapted to a wide range of thermic regimens , and this characteristic , together with its good reproductive potential at various conditions , can lead to a strong capacity to colonize different environments . when storage conditions are favorable to rapid development of flies , detection at an early stage can prevent serious levels of damage . data obtained through laboratory conditions could be useful for predicting the biotic potential under specific field conditions . moreover , further research on the role of quality of food on the developmental rate and fecundity of p . casei is needed .
the findings of this study could provide useful data for forensic entomology . for example , if a population reaches a stable age - stage distribution and the mortality factors are only the physiological ones , a p . casei population at 32°c can multiply 9 . 118 times in an average of 18 . 178 d , with an exponential rate of 0 . 236 / d . in a case reported by benecke ( 1998 ) , the presence of p . casei in a decayed human body was informative to date the death . nishida ( 1984 ) studied the growth rate of chrysomya megacephala ( f . ) ( diptera : calliphoridae ) at different temperatures and found that the data can be used successfully to estimate the postmortem interval .
because of the importance of p . casei as a food storage pest and in medical and forensic entomology , more attention should be addressed to the ecology of the fly .
the authors thank l . zappalà , k . johnson , and two anonymous reviewers for comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of the manuscript and help in improving the english language .
houseflies and blowflies . insect and hygiene . the biology and control of insect pests of medical and domestic importance
ricerche entomatiche e microbiologiche . agrobiotecnologie nei processi di valorizzazione dei prodotti e sottoprodotti agricoli
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