the hairy-legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) is one of three extant species of vampire bats .

it mainly feeds on the blood of birds , but can also feed both on domestic birds and humans .

this vampire bat lives mainly in tropical and subtropical forestlands of south america , central america , and southern mexico .

it is the sole member of the genus diphylla .

hairy - legged vampire bat

hairy - legged vampire bats are the rarest of the three vampire bat species ( mccarthy 1987 ) .
the flying mammals are well known to feed on blood , however , the hairy - legged vampire bat and white - winged vampire bat subspecies predominantly feast on birds .
schutt , jr . , w . , j . altenbach . 1997 . a sixth digit in diphylla ecaudata , the hairy legged vampire bat .
hairy - legged vampire bats are nocturnal . they roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less . in one study ,
texas parks & wildlife , 1994 .
hairy legged vampire
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .
reddell , j . r . 1968 . the hairy - legged vampire , diphylla ecaudata , in texas . journal of mammalogy 49 : 769 .
vampire bats ( desmodus rotundus ) are bats that feed on blood . this particular habit in certain animals is known as ‘hematophagy’ . there are only three bat species that actually feed on blood : the common vampire bat ( desmodus rotundus ) , the hairy - legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) and the white - winged vampire bat ( diaemus youngi ) .
, commonly referred to as hairy - legged vampire bats , range from reddish brown to sooty brown in color . they have a narrow , hairy interfemoral membrane and a pug - nosed snout . hairy - legged vampire bats are distinguished by their typically smaller body and ears than other vampire bats . they also have a total of 26 teeth , more than other vampire bat species . hairy - legged vampire bats have highly modified upper incisors . these incisors are larger than the canines and occlude against each other so that they are continuously sharpened to a very fine edge . the outer incisors are much reduced ( carattini 2001 ; texas parks and wildlife 1994 ) .
vampire bats only come out to feed when it is fully dark . like fruit - eating bats and unlike insectivorous and fish - eating bats , they only emit low - energy sound pulses . the common vampire bat feeds mostly on the blood of mammals , whereas the hairy - legged vampire bat , and the white - winged vampire bat feed on the blood of birds .
none of these theories about the origins of vampire bats has been proved . evidence from proteins suggests that vampire bats have been around for 6 to 8 million years . these are the dates when the hairy - legged vampire bats separated from the white - winged vampire bats and the common vampire bats .
vampire bats are among the most fascination of mammals , although we know relatively little about the details of their lives . common vampire bats , as their name implies , are the most widespread of vampires . they adapt well to captivity and often are exhibited in zoos . these bats may be among the best studied in the world . hairy - legged vampire bats and white - winged vampire bats are less common and are less often caught by biologists . while common vampire bats may feed on the blood of mammals or birds , the white - winged vampire bat and the hairy - legged vampire bat are thought to prefer bird blood .
scientists in brazil have discovered that hairy - legged vampire bats have resorted to feeding on humans , sparking fears that the rabies and hantavirus - carrying creatures could cause an increase in disease in humans .
…or desmodus , youngi ) and the hairy - legged vampire bat ( diphylla ecaudata ) are the only sanguivorous ( blood - eating ) bats . the common vampire bat thrives in agricultural areas and feeds on livestock such as cattle , pigs , and chickens . the other two vampires are primarily restricted to intact forests , where they feed on birds , reptiles , …
vampire bat colonies appear to be naturally decimated by rabies virus infections and discrete colonies may fall to population densities incapable of maintaining transmission . the so - called ‘migration’ of vampire bat - associated rabies described from south america ( for detailed discussion of the epidemiology of vampire bat rabies , see
) , and wildlife rabies control programs are still nonexistent ( other than vampire bat control ) .
) . cyclic changes in vampire bat populations could drive cyclic and periodic epidemics of cattle rabies caused by vampire bat transmitted rabies . in regions of central and south america , areas affected by vampire rabies experience outbreaks every 2 to 3 years (
because hairy - legged vampire bats almost always feed by taking the blood of birds , they rarely attack humans . if they were to bite a human , the wounds would not be serious . however , it is possible for them to transmit rabies and other diseases through those wounds . because hairy - legged vampire bats may occasionally take blood from livestock and trasmit diseases , they are potentially economically important to cattlemen and sportsmen of texas as a reservoir of bovine paralytic rabies ( texas parks & wildlife 1994 ; carattini 2001 ; britannica 1999 - 2000 ) .
let ' s follow the process as a common vampire bat sets out for a night ' s foraging .
while in the wild , this species of vampire bat may live about 9 years . in captivity they may survive much longer (
vampire bats
2001 ) .
perhaps as a result of being so misunderstood , vampire bats and many other bat species are at risk of extinction .
does not eat for more than 2 nights in a row then it will die from starvation . it has been estimated that about 1 / 3 of hairy - legged vampire bats does not eat each night , they must then rely on shared food from roost mates ( schutt & altenbach 1997 ; tomlinson ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .
carattini , l . 2001 .
the vampire bat
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the vampire bat article in your website content , school work and other projects .
vampire bats tend to live in almost completely dark places , such as caves , old wells , hollow trees and buildings . colonies can range from a single individual to thousands . vampire bats often roost with other species of bat .
studies of common vampire bats in costa rica indicate that it is risky to depend upon blood as the only source of food . each adult common vampire bat has a 7 % chance of not feeding on any night . this means that about once every 25 nights the bat will miss its meal and go hungry . common vampire bats cannot survive two nights without meal , so fasting is dangerous . for young bats , the risk of not finding food is higher , 33 % . so , twice a week each young common vampire bat will probably miss a meal .
) . such areas have been associated with high incidences of vampire bat rabies transmission to both humans and herbivores and have identified the circulation of specific virus lineages within localized geographical locations . it is hypothesized that topological features such as dense jungle may restrict vampire bat movement and that this results in the generation of viral sublineages circulating within distinct regions (
further surveys are needed in the amazon region to confirm the species presence or absence . as for other vampire species , education programs about vampire and rabies control programs are required . the species should be excluded from vampire control programs .
there are no major threats throughout its range . there are vampire control programs .
once the common vampire bat locates a host , usually a sleeping mammal , they land and approach it on the ground . a recent study found that common vampire bats can , in addition to walking , run at speeds of up to 1 . 2 metres per second . vampire bats locate a suitable place to bite their victims using their infrared sensors .
shedding the plasma makes taking off from the ground easier . but the bat still has added almost 60 % of its body weight in blood . to take off from the ground the bat must generate lots of lift . common vampire bats have very long thumbs . as the bat prepares to take off it crouches close to the ground and then , by contracting its chest muscles , flings itself skyward . the thumbs provide extra leverage for takeoff . usually within two hours of setting out , the common vampire bat returns to its roost and settles down to spend the rest of the night digesting its blood meal .
the tank is the bat ' s stomach , and its lining rapidly absorbs the blood plasma . in turn , the circulatory system shunts the plasma to the kidneys . from there it passes to the bladder and out of the bat . within 2 minutes of beginning to feed , a common vampire bat begins to urinate . the urine is very dilute - - no wonder , it is the plasma from that blood meal . the plasma is heavy but contains no nutritive value , so the bat benefits from leaving it behind .
tropics . only one specimen of a vampire bat has ever been found in the united states , in texas in 1967 , and it probably had wandered some 700 km north from its breeding population . .
common vampire bats usually roost in hollows , so they may be found in caves , hollow trees and buildings . the bat leaves its roost just after dusk , setting out to find a meal . the relatively long and narrow wings - - providing a high aspect ration on high wing loading - - make it possible for the common vampire bat to fly rapidly and consume relatively little energy in doing so .
vampire bats are not an endangered species and have a conservation status of being ‘least concern’ .
) . alongside this , both deforestation and the introduction of prey species such as livestock into new areas provide a food source that will help increase populations of vampire bats . the white - winged vampire bat is found from mexico to southern argentina and is also present on the islands of trinidad and isla margarita . in trinidad , white - winged vampire bats have been found cohabiting roosts in caves with
is one of three species of vampire bats , all of which are found only in the new world tropics . only one specimen of a vampire bat has ever been found in the united states , in texas in 1967 , and it probably had wandered some 700 km north from its breeding population . .
vampire bats can live up to 9 years in the wild and up to 19 in captivity .
it sounds like the stuff of horror fiction , but scientists have raised health fears after a species of disease - carrying vampire bat , previously thought to mostly diet on birds , has been discovered feeding on human blood .
the feeding pattern of the vampire bat adds a layer of complexity to its anatomy . because they often do not find host organisms for many hours and may have to fly a long distance to do so , vampire bats usually feed in enormous quantities . this influx of proteins can however make the bat too heavy to fly . vampire bats have so much stealth that they can drink for 30 minutes without awakening the animal . if vampire bats do not get blood for two days , they will eventually die , but that is less likely to happen . female bats are generous and will give their blood to other bats who lack food .
unlike fruit - eating bats , the vampire bats have a short , conical muzzle without a nose leaf . instead they have naked pads with u - shaped grooves at the tip . the common vampire bat also has specialised infrared sensors on its nose , by which it perceives temperature . a nucleus has been found in the brain of vampire bats that has a similar position and has similar histology to the infrared nucleus of infrared sensitive snakes .
radio - tracking studies suggest that a foraging common vampire bat returns to a general area where it has found prey before . having reached its foraging area , the bat must find and select a victim . the fine details of its search and selection behaviour remain unknown . however , the inferior coliculus , part of the bat ' s brain thatt processes sound , is specialized for detecting the regular breathing sounds of a sleeping animal such as a cow . the bat lands on the ground near its intended victim and approaches on foot . among bats , common vampires are the most agile on the ground , hopping about like ballet dancers .
2001 .
vampire bats
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at urltoken .
, native to the tropics of central and south america . there are three recognised sub - species of vampire
the human population across central america and vast regions of south america remains at risk of rabv transmission from bats , in particular , hematophagous or vampire bats . there are only three species of hematophagous bat that consume blood exclusively as their diet : the
vampire bats have burnt amber coloured fur on their backside while soft and velvety light brown fur that covers their belly . vampire bats have a wingspan of about 8 inches and a body about the size of an adults thumb .
apparently , the bats urinary system accommodates this by releasing dilute urine consisting of a lot of water and fewer solutes . however , when the bat is resting , a new problem is faced . the large amounts of protein create excess urea and must be disposed of . the urinary system of the vampire bat then uses various hormones to make concentrated urine which consists of more urea and less water .
groom each other and help other bats in need . by learning to recognize other bats in a colony through voice and smell , bats can communicate with each other when necessary . a bat can beg for food and another bat who has built a strong bond with that bat will regurgitate blood for it to eat , demonstrating reciprocal social behavior . these bats are shy , quick to take flight , and seem to rapidly vacate roosts once they have been disturbed by humans (
vampire bats
2001 ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .
existing data on colonies of bats in the united states : summary and analysis of the u . s . geological survey ' s bat population database
) is compatible with a traveling wavefront of rabies propagating among neighboring vampire bat metapopulations , whereby populations are decimated in the trough behind the traveling wavefront and require time to recover above some critical population density to support rabies virus transmission . control of population densities below the
then crawls up to it ' s generally sleeping victim , before biting it and feeding on the flowing blood . vampire
is present across much of latin america . it has been postulated that the introduction of domesticated livestock to the americas has increased vampire bat densities considerably over the past 300 years through an increase in available prey species such as cattle , horses , goat , and sheep (
vampire bats are members of the new world leaf - nosed bats , the phyllostomidae . all three species of living vampire bats occur in south and central america . fossils of three other species reveal that several thousand years ago vampire bats were more widespread . they are known from cuba and from as far north as west virginia and the northern califfornia , places where they no longer occur . with the exception of captive amimals , vampire bats have never been found outside of the new world .
do not suck the blood of their victims , but inside lap it up using their grooved tongue as it flows out of the wound . chemicals in the vampire bat ' s saliva both stop the blood from clotting and numb the area of skin around the bite to prevent the
there is a heat ( infrared ) sensor on the nose - leaf of common vampire bats , permitting them to locate an area where the blood flows close to the skin . if there is fur on the skin , the common vampire bat uses its canine and cheek teeth like a barber ' s shears to clip away the hairs . the bat ' s razor - sharp upper incisor teeth are then used to make a quick cut , leaving the 5 - mm wound described above . the upper incisors lack enamel , making it easier to keep them razor sharp .
a vampire bat finds its prey with echolocation ( use of ultra - high frequency sounds for navigation ) , smell , and sound . they fly about one metre above the ground . then they use special heat sensors in their noses to find veins that are close to the skin .
sources : 1 . david burnie , dorling kindersley ( 2008 ) illustrated encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 2 . david burnie , kingfisher ( 2011 ) the kingfisher animal encyclopedia [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 3 . david w . macdonald , oxford university press ( 2010 ) the encyclopedia of mammals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 4 . dorling kindersley ( 2006 ) dorling kindersley encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 5 . richard mackay , university of california press ( 2009 ) the atlas of endangered species [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 6 . tom jackson , lorenz books ( 2007 ) the world encyclopedia of animals [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 7 . vampire bat behaviour ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 8 . vampire bat feeding ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 9 . vampire bat lifecycles ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 10 . vampire bat senses ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ] 11 . vampire bats ( date unknown ) available at : [ accessed at : 09 mar 2011 ]
the feeding process usually takes about a half an hour . an adult may consume about 5 teaspoons of blood , which is about half of its body weight . after the bat feeds , it urinates continuously until it is light enough to fly again . the longest this bat can go without eating is 2 nights . if
common vampire bats will almost always have only one offspring per breeding season . each colony will typically contain only one reproducing male , with around twenty females and their offspring . vampire bats need blood at least once every few days to survive . if they cannot get blood , they will approach another vampire bat whilst roosting , asking for a blood ‘transfusion’ . the blood is exchanged mouth - to - mouth in a motion that looks very much like kissing . their babies use tiny thumbs in the middle of the wing to cling on the mothers furry belly .
participate in altruistic feeding , whereby a bat that has fed will regurgitate blood for one that has not . this could provide a further opportunity for transmission of virus .
tomlinson , d .
natural history of the vampire
( on - line ) . accessed march 20 , 2001 at urltoken .
vampire bats have small ears and a short tail membrane . their front teeth are specialised for cutting and their back teeth are much smaller than in other bats . their digestive systems are also specialised for their liquid diet . the saliva of vampire bats contains the substance , ‘draculin’ , which prevents the victims blood from clotting . vampire bats therefore , lap blood rather than suck it as most people imagine .
vampire bats are amazingly well - equipped to live on a diet of blood and only blood - something no other mammal in the world does . its teeth are so razor - sharp that the bird or mammal it feeds on usually does not even feel the tiny bite it inflicts . the bat ' s saliva contains a chemical that keeps the blood flowing , and its tongue is grooved - the bat uses it almost like a straw . as soon as the bat feeds , it urinates . its body retains the nourishing part of the blood but gets rid of the water , so that it does not have to fly away carrying an extra load of weight .
encyclopaedia britannica , 1999 - 2000 .
vampire bat
( on - line ) . accessed march 21 , 2001 at wysiwyg : / / 42 / http : / / www . britannica . com / b . . . 1 + 1 + 74754 , 00 . html ? query = diaemus % 20youn .
vampire bats are amazingly well - equipped to live on a diet of blood and only blood - something no other mammal in the world does . its teeth are so razor - sharp that the bird or mammal it feeds on usually does not even feel the tiny bite it inflicts . the bat ' s saliva contains a chemical that keeps the blood flowing , and its tongue is grooved - the bat uses it almost like a straw . as soon as the bat feeds , it urinates . its body retains the nourishing part of the blood but gets rid of the water , so that it does not have to fly away carrying an extra load of weight .
when a common vampire bats rerturn to the roost , they often meet face - to - face and groom one another . a bat that fails to feed uses this face - to - face contact to beg blood from a roostmate . the successful bat may then regurgitate some blood to the unsuccessful one . the cost of the doner is relatively small , particularly since before the month is out it will need a donation itself . the benefit to the receiver is high , for it is survival .
other blood - feeding animals such as ticks , insects and leeches do not face the same problem as vampire bats because they can go for weeks , months or even years without a meal . vampire bats , however , are warm - blooded , and the cost of staying warm means that fasting is soon fatal . the costs of keeping warm account for the absence of vampire bats from cooler parts of north , central and south america .
5 . white - winged vampires will also take their meals in the trees instead of the barnyard . while a bird roosts on a branch , the bat sneaks up on it from below , crawling along the underside of the branch and staying out of sight . once it’s directly underneath its prey , the bat bites the bird’s big rear - pointing toe and drinks its fill .
vampire bats are the only known mammals that exist entirely on a diet of blood . their preferred prey are lareg birds , horses , cows and pigs .
genetic analyses have revealed that colonies of common vampire bats are mixtures of relatives and nonrelatives . this means that the social support provided by the colony transcends the business of helping relatives . cooperation may be one of the central keys to the success of common vampire bats . we would expect that common vampire bats that are not part of the colony would not get blood from the members of the group . giving blood appears to depend upon the prospect of a donation in return .
the bat then begins to use its tongue in the wound as well as its saliva . the action of he tongue keeps blood flowing , while grooves on the underside of the tongue draw blood toward the bat ' s mouth . meanwhile , the saliva has at least three active ingredientts that promote bleeding . one is an anticoagulant that counters the clotting defences . a second keeps red blood cells from sticking together and a third inhibits the constriction of veins near the wound . it may take the bat about 20 minutes to fill its tank ; then it is time to take off and return to its roost .
each vampire bat , whatever the species , needs about two tablespoonful of blood every day . this represents about 60 % of the bat ' s body weight , or 20 g of blood . the bats extract this blood through a wound they make with their front ( incisor ) teeth . the wounds are approximately 5 mm deep and 5 mm in diameter and do not cut arteries or veins . if you made a wound this size on your body , it would produce about one drop of blood or less than a gram . it appears that vampire bats are
one stop shoppers ,
feeding on one victim each night . getting 20 g of blood from a wound that normally produces just one drop is a specialized business .
7 . unlike its cousins , the common vampire bat eats solely on the ground , and it has evolved to be as nimble there as it is in flight . while most other bats are awkward crawlers , the common vampire can move with a quick run - like gait or hop along the ground , supporting its weight on its hind legs and using its wings and elongated thumbs to steer and push off of the ground . this comes in handy for chasing after prey on the move and for jumping out of the way if it needs to .
4 . white - winged vampires have a few tricks for feeding on domestic chickens without startling the birds . sometimes , they’ll approach a hen and mimic a chick by nuzzling up to her brood patch . this featherless section of skin on the hen’s underside is densely packed with blood vessels and is used to transfer heat to her eggs or chicks during nesting . the vessels make an easy target for the bat , and if the hen thinks it ' s her baby cuddling up to her , she’ll sit on the bat to give it access to drink . other times , the bats will climb up on a hen’s back , mimicking the touch and weight of a mounting rooster and sending the hen into the crouching stance they take before mating . the bat can then shimmy up to the hen’s neck for a bite and she’ll stay in that position until the bat hops off .
biologists have argued for years about whether vampire bats should be housed in their own family ( the desmodontidae ) or included among the new world leaf - nosed bats ( the phyllostomidae ) . people on both sides of this argument agree that the new world leaf - nosed bats are the vampire bats ' closest relatives . vampire bats are highly specialized for feeding on blood . this situation raises several questions : how did blood - feeding arise in bats ? why is it restricted to the new world tropics ? when did it appear ?
three theories account for the origin of vampire bats . the first proposes that vampire bats originated from fruit - eating bats . this theory suggests that large , strong upper incisor teeth would make fruit bats well suited to switching to blood . this theory does not explain why blood - feeding did not also appear among the old world fruit bats , the pteropodidae .
people are often surprised to learn that vampire bats are not found in central europe . it seems common to suppose that human myths about vampires and stories about dracula somehow involve vampire bats . the truth is that vampire bats got their names from human myths about vampires . in many human cultures , vampires are people who return from the dead to feed on the blood of living people . after the bats were discovered by european explorers , they were given the name vampire , denoting blood - feeding . the blood - feeding were well known to many human inhabitants of south and central america well before their discovery by europeans . bram stoker , intrigued by the publicity surrounding bats that fed on blood , included bats in his book dracula .
is so fast that they must feed every two days to ensure their survival ( blood is very nutritious containing high amounts of water ) . the nearly 20 teeth in the bat ' s mouth are mostly redundant due to their liquid
to hunt for food . despite being incredibly strong fliers , the design of their arms and legs means that they can also move about on the ground with surprising speed and agility . vampire
fears about vampire bats are fueled by a lot of misconceptions . a common one is that the bats bite the throats of their human victims . this is very far from the truth !
) of a vampire bat rabies virus isolate . as previously reported , a decrease in feeding was observed following the onset of clinical disease in those that succumbed leading to dehydration and reduced salivation . infected bats were swabbed prior to and following the onset of clinical disease . no viral material was detected in swabs from clinical animals ; however , virus isolation in tissue culture was successful from three bats that survived infection after 6 (
ellison , l . e . , t . j . o ' shea , m . a . bogan , a . l . everette , and d . m . schneider . 2003 . existing data on colonies of bats in the united states : summary and analysis of the u . s . geological survey ' s bat population database . monitoring trends in bat populations of the united states and territories : problems and prospects . u . s . geological survey 127 - 237 .
bats are firmly rooted in western vampire lore , but only three species , out of some 1100 in the order chiroptera , actually have a taste for blood . the vampire bats are the only mammals in the world that live on blood alone , and the unique challenges of that diet make them some of the most specialized , fascinating and downright weird animals that nature has to offer .
when you remember how much blood is available in different sized mammals and birds , it is obvious that one stop shopping for vampire bats will only work with large prey . the availability of large prey and the difficulty of obtaining large amounts of blood probably explains why vampire bats are no bigger than 40 g . fossil species that probably weighed about 60 g may have had more large mammals and birds to tap .
, it is the bite itself that can cause problems becoming infected or diseased . farmers have not only attempted to poison entire colonies but are also known to destroy their daytime lairs using dynamite , often eliminating thousands of vampire
) , but it is a solitary bat and does not form groups like desmodus . there are no lingual grooves under the tongue as in desmodus and diaemus , but it does have a groove along the roof of the mouth which may serve as a
blood gutter
.
description . a relatively large , sooty - brown bat with no tail ; a narrow , hairy interfemoral membrane ; short , rounded ears ; and a short , pug - nosed snout . the dentition is highly modified with the middle upper incisors larger than the canines ; the outer incisors very small and set so close to the canines that they are easily overlooked ; the crowns of the outer lower incisors seven - lobed , fan - shaped , and more than twice as wide as the inner lower incisors ; premolars and molars very small and probably non - functional . dental formula : i 2 / 2 , c 1 / 1 , pm 1 / 2 , m 2 / 2 x 2 = 26 . external measurements average : total length , 85 mm ; foot , 13 mm ; forearm , 53 mm . weight , 30 - 40 g .
) . cattle may also be infected from dogs or foxes , in areas where such rabies is endemic . in north america , predominant sources of infection are from wild carnivore species , such as from skunks in the midwest and raccoons in the east . in addition , cattle may infrequently become infected with insectivorous bat rabies virus variants . among 47 rabies - positive bovine samples provided to the centers for disease control and prevention from various state health departments within the us , 8 % ( 4 / 47 ) were bat - associated variants ( j . s . smith , personal communication ) .
produces an anticoagulant in their saliva that is about 20 times more powerful than any other anticoagulant known . the saliva has been used as a blood - thinning drug to treat heart attacks and strokes in humans (
vampire bats
2001 ) .
) include an alpha form that is more fibrin dependent than t - pa . its half - life is also longer than that of t - pa . experimental studies have shown that the recombinant alpha - 1 form and the bat plasminogen activator may be superior to t - pa in sustaining recanalization and may cause less fibrinogenolysis .
) include an alpha form that is more fibrin - dependent than t - pa . its half - life is also longer than that of t - pa . experimental studies have shown that the recombinant alpha - 1 form and the bat plasminogen activator may be superior to t - pa in sustaining recanalization and may cause less fibrinogenolysis .
in mammals and birds , which are thought to be the usual prey of vampire bats , blood amounts to 6 - 10 % of the animal ' s weight . this means that a 100 - kilogram person ( 220 pounds ) would have no more than 10 kilograms of blood , or a 1 , 000 - kilogram moose would have 100 kilograms of blood . a 450 - gram ( 1 - pound ) rat would have no more than 45 g of blood , and the vampire bats themselves have only 4 g of blood .
9 . vampires are known to share meals with each other . mother bats regurgitate previously - drunk blood for their offspring until the babies are old enough to hunt on their own . other related bats and even unrelated ones have also been observed puking blood up for one another in a reciprocal arrangement . if a bat can’t find a meal one night , one of its roost - mates may share some of its meal . in the future , the bat who was fed is highly likely to return the favor . if it cheats , or takes a blood donation without ever giving back , it may find that it gets the cold shoulder the next time it needs help .
but inside land on the ground close by and crawl up to it , where they are able to detect veins close to the skin ' s surface with precision , thanks to their heat - sensing nose . using it ' s set of sharp front teeth , the vampire
efforts to eradicate who colonies at a time however , have led to population declines in certain areas . scientists have also discovered though that the anti - coagulant found in the bat ' s saliva , proves to more effective at preventing blood clotting than any medicine , meaning that this could have significant positive implications for patients with strokes or heart attacks .
vampire bats very rarely bite people because they apparently dislike human blood . the three species of bats are quite different from each other and are therefore placed within different genera ( no other species are currently classified in any of the three genera concerned ) . but they are related .
is primarily an inhabitant of tropical and subtropical forestlands . they can be found in both mesic , forested and arid , open areas . during the daytime these bats roost in caves , mine tunnels , hollow trees , or abandoned buildings (
vampire bats
2001 ; texas parks & wildlife 1994 ) .
the food of diphylla is the blood of warm - blooded vertebrates , mainly birds , including domestic chickens . ernest walker reported that diphylla attacks the legs and cloacal region of chickens . one bat was
observed alighting on the tail of a chicken , hanging by its hind legs and biting the exposed skin in the cloacal region , and then lapping up the blood while in an upright position .
common vampire bats live together in structured societies that provide a network of social support . like other bats , common vampires are long - lived . banding studies suggest that some survive almost 20 years in the wild . banding studies also reveal that individuals remain in their roosting groups for at least three years and probably for their entire lives . colonies of common vampire bats usually include one adult male with several females and their young . the bats may not all roost together at any one time , for they move between several roosts within the home range of the colony . females that roost together often forage in the same general area , and several bats may line up , feeding in succession at a wound .
the third theory proposes that the ancestors of vampire bats began to feed on insects and insect larvae they found in wounds on large animals . this theory notes that insectivorous bats often feed where there are many insects and some of them adjust their hunting style according to the situation . throughout the tropics , flies known as screwworms lay their eggs in wounds and their larvae develop into large masses . this theory identifies strong , sharp upper incisor teeth as the key to why blood - feeding only appeared in new world bats . many new world leaf - nosed bats have large , strong upper incisors . these teeth are lacking from those old world bats with flexible foraging behaviour , namely the slit - faced bats and the false vampire bats .
feeding for common vampires is often risky , given that their preferred victim , the domestic cow , is several thousand times larger than they are . they usually bite cows on the area of the leg just above and behind the hoof , since the skin is relatively thin and the blood vessels run close to the surface . one step backwards , and a bat could be squashed if it hadn’t figured out how to run or make impressive three - foot leaps into the air .
) . this study corroborated earlier observations that are of general interest . first , the detection of early clinical signs was not possible merely through observation , and it was not until animals were separated and forced to move around that disease signs were evident . this suggests that bats that have become separated from a roost with clear clinical disease may be in a late stage of infection , although it remains unknown how clinical disease progression correlates with virus excretion . this may have significant consequences for contact and transmission rates within bat species . second , as reported previously (
vampire bats do not kill their prey . they only take about a teaspoon or two of blood at a feeding . since bats rarely carry rabies , there is little chance their victims will die from that disease . however , it has been said that some do carry the disease and it is not the blood - sucking that kills the victim , but the transfer of the rabies . i guess it depends upon species and whether that species has contracted the disease .
found in all types of forest , mainly at low elevations . roosts in caves and mines , rarely in hollow trees . individuals are well spaced in the roost , and group size is usually small , although a group of more than 500 was found in a cave in puebla , mexico , where numbers were much reduced in january , perhaps indicating seasonal movements or migration . avian blood may predominate in the diet of wild individuals , although cattle are occasionally exploited . unlike other vampires , this attractive bat is gentle and easy to handle . reproduction occurs year around ( reid 2009 ) . also occurs in open areas ( aguiar pers . comm . ) .
the second theory suggests that the ancestors of vampire bats acquired a taste for blood by feeding on ticks and other blood - feeding ectoparasites of large mammals . today in africa , birds known as ox - peckers make their living by feeding on ticks . it appears to be a viable life - style . but as the ox - peckers show , both ticks and blood - feeding ectoparasites and large mammals occur in africa . again we are left with the question , why did blood - feeding bats not appear in the old world tropics ?
8 . to meet their energy needs , vampire bats need to drink about an ounce of blood at every meal , meaning they consume half their body weight during each 20 to 30 minute feeding session . their bodies have adapted to lighten that load , and their stomach lining rapidly absorbs much of the blood’s water content and sends it to the kidneys so it can be excreted . the bats can process their meal so quickly that they may begin disposing of it before they’re even finished with it , and start urinating just a few minutes into the feeding .
blood - feeding is a risky business , particularly for a warm - blooded animal . among bats , the vampires are exceptional because they spend so much time caring for their young . young common vampires nurse for up to nine months , three months longer than flying foxes , which are many times their size , and at least six months longer than most other bats . female common vampire bats show no seasonal pattern of reproduction . but even though they may have young at any time of the year , the long period of nursing means that each female produces just one young a year .
3 . when the bats feed , they use their teeth to shear away hair or feathers from a small spot and then cut into their victim’s flesh with their sharp incisors . ( according to zoologists at chicago’s field museum , even the teeth on old , preserved bat skulls in museum collections are sharp enough to cut someone handling them carelessly . ) rather than actively suck the blood from the wound like their namesakes , the bats let the physics of capillary action do the work . they lap at the blood and specialized grooves on their lips , tongues , and / or roof or their mouths suction it up . a protein in the bats’ saliva called a plasminogen activator prevents the blood from clotting and keeps it flowing freely while they drink .
10 . vampire bats have a few different tools for finding their food . they have well - developed senses of smell and , despite bats’ reputation , keen eyesight . they’ve also got heat - seeking faces —their wrinkly , leaf shaped noses are loaded with nerves that are , in turn , loaded with proteins that are sensitive to the infrared radiation given off by warm - blooded animals . they also have finely - tuned hearing and specialized neurons that react only to the sound of breathing . they can even distinguish the breathing sounds made by different individuals , and may be able to remember the unique sonic components of an individual animal’s breathing , allowing them to return to the same reliable source of blood night after night .
2 . other bats with less grisly diets got a bad rap from european explorers in the americas . the europeans had heard stories about blood - drinking bats and encountered native people and livestock that had been bitten in the night and , without any real knowledge of the animals’ diets , began labeling different bats as vampires willy nilly , usually applying the term to bigger and / or uglier ones . bats that lived on insects or even fruit were assumed to be vampires thanks to their appearance , and the association stuck when they were scientifically described and saddled with names like vampyrum spectrum and pteropus vampyrus . meanwhile , when a naturalist finally got his hands on an actual vampire , d . rotundus , no one one believed his assertions that it drank blood , and he made no mention of it in his description .
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distribution in texas . from southern texas southward to eastern peru and brazil . known from texas on the basis of one female taken may 24 , 1967 from an abandoned railroad tunnel 19 km west of comstock , val verde county .
this species seems to be reproductively active throughout the year . pregnant females have been reported from mexico and central america in march , july , august , october , and november . the number of embryos per female is normally one , but one female captured july 8 in chiapas , mexico , contained two nearly full - term ( crown - rump length 34 mm ) embryos . the reproductive condition of the female captured in texas was not recorded .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is listed as least concern as it is widespread , relatively tolerant to a range of habitats , and is unlikely to be declining rapidly enough to qualify under a more threatened category .
this species ranges from southern tamaulipas ( mexico ) to colombia , venezuela , ecuador , peru , bolivia , and brazil ( except the central amazon basin ) ; a single vagrant individual has also been reported from southern texas , usa ( simmons 2005 ) . its altitudinal range goes from lowlands to 1 , 900 m ( reid 2009 ) .
this species is uncommon and local , but widespread ( emmons and feer 1997 ) . they roost either alone or in small groups of 12 or less , rarely numbering over 40 to 50 individuals ( uieda 1987 ) . in one study , d . ecaudata was observed to be more solitary and did not gather into groups when in the presence of other bats in a cave . they have a structured society in which they build strong social bonds with other bats in the colony . very rare in belize ( miller pers . comm . ) .
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salmo trutta morpha fario is the riverine form of the brown trout salmo trutta that spends its entire life cycle in running water .

while previously considered a distinct subspecies or even species , it is currently not considered to be taxonomically different from other ecological or migratory forms of the brown trout , i.e. the sea trout ( salmo trutta morpha trutta ) or the lacustrine brown trout ( salmo trutta morpha lacustris ) .

the fario morph is often referred to as river trout in europe .

riverine brown trout average 20 to 80 centimetres ( 7.9 to 31.5 in ) but can reach lengths of 1 metre ( 3.3 ft ) .

they usually attain a weight of up to 2 kilograms , but sometimes up to 13 kilograms ( 29 lb ) .

their back is olive-dark brown and silvery blue , red spots with light edges occur towards the belly , the belly itself is whitish yellow .

they can live for up to 18 years .

salmo trutta fario

vittorio genovese added the italian common name
trota fario
to
salmo trutta fario linnaeus , 1758
.
variety salmo fario var . forestensis bloch & schneider , 1801 accepted as salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758 ( synonym )
no one has contributed data records for salmo trutta fario yet . learn how to contribute .
high rate of deformed larvae among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) doubled haploids
high rate of deformed larvae among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) doubled haploids
brown trout salmo trutta f . fario liver ultrastructure as a biomarker for assessment of small stream pollution .
the reproductive traits of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) from the yadong river , tibet
the reproductive traits of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) from the yadong river , tibet | springerlink
parental genetic diversity of brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) brood stock affects offspring susceptibility to whirling disease
seasonal and morphological variations of brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) kidney peroxisomes : a stereological study .
brown trout salmo trutta f . fario liver ultrastructure as a biomarker for assessment of small stream pollution . - pubmed - ncbi
the hepatocytes of the brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : a quantitative study using design - based stereology .
seasonal and morphological variations of brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) kidney peroxisomes : a stereological study . - pubmed - ncbi
you selected salmo trutta lacustris linnaeus , 1758 . this is a synonym for :
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salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758
.
the hepatocytes of the brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : a quantitative study using design - based stereology . - pubmed - ncbi
global invasive species database , “salmo trutta ( fish ) ” urltoken accessed november 2006 .
figure 1 : body deformities among gynogenetic brown trout ( salmo trutta ) doubled haploids .
parental genetic diversity of brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) brood stock affects offspring susceptibility to whirling disease | parasites & vectors | full text
seasonal comparison of wild and farmed brown trout ( salmo trutta forma fario l . , 1758 ) : crude lipid , gonadosomatic index and fatty acids .
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a common trout , salmo trutta , of n european streams : introduced in north america .
illinois state department of natural resources , “illinois exotic species : salmo trutta” urltoken accessed november 2006 .
acyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 and 3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : can peroxisomal fatty acid β - oxidation be regulated by estrogen signaling ?
seasonal comparison of wild and farmed brown trout ( salmo trutta forma fario l . , 1758 ) : crude lipid , gonadosomatic index and fatty acids . - pubmed - ncbi
fishingnet , 2004 . brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . online at urltoken accessed 16 november 2004 .
united states geographical survey , “nonindigenous aquatic species : salmo trutta , ” urltoken = accessed november 2006 .
with parasitic larvae ( glochidia ) encysting on the gills of juvenile brown trout ( salmo trutta f .
informations on salmo trutta has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .
the brown trout is found throughout europe ; those that live in rivers which empty into the north sea and the baltic sea belong to the subspecies salmo trutta fario , those that live in rivers that empty into the black sea are of the subspecies salmo trutta labrax , and those in rivers emptying into the mediterranean belong to the subspecies s . t . macrostigma ( 2 ) . the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) is found throughout the british isles ( 3 ) .
animal diversity web , 2004 . salmo trutta ( brown trout ) . online at urltoken accessed 15 november 2004 .
effects of angling on population structure of brown trout , salmo trutta l . , in mountain streams of northern spain
age and growth of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the north branch of the au sable river , crawford county , michigan . ( fisheries research report : 1223 )
acyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 and 3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) : can peroxisomal fatty acid β - oxidation be regulated by estrogen signaling ? - pubmed - ncbi
by the genogenesis method of induction ( artifical ) through the thermal shocks , triple descendants ( 3n = 100 ) are obtained during the salmo gairdneri ( 2n = 58 ) and the salmo trutta fario ( 2n = 84 ) corss - breeding . the new triples possess higher growth rates than the descendants of salmo gairdneri
effects of angling on population structure of brown trout , salmo trutta l . , in mountain streams of northern spain | springerlink
billard , r . ( 1987 ) . the reproductive cycle of male and female brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) : a quantitative study . reproduction nutrition development , 27 ( 1a ) , 29 - 44 . urltoken
age and growth of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the north branch of the au sable river , crawford county , michigan . ( fisheries research report : 1223 ) tody , w . h .
the scientific name of the brown trout is salmo trutta . the specific epithet trutta derives from the latin trutta , meaning , literally ,
trout
. behnke ( 2007 ) relates that the brown trout was the first species of trout described in the 1758 edition of systema naturae by swedish zoologist carl linnaeus . systema naturae established the system of binomial nomenclature for animals . salmo trutta was used to describe anadromous or sea - run forms of brown trout . linnaeus also described two other brown trout species in 1758 . salmo fario was used for riverine forms . salmo lacustris was used for lake - dwelling forms . [ 5 ]
laikre et al , 1999 . conservation genetic management of brown trout ( salmo trutta ) in europe . report by the concerted action on identification , management and exploitation of genetic resources in the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) . troutconcert , eu fair ct97 - 3882 .
froese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2005 ) .
salmo trutta
in fishbase . 10 2005 version .
recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : salmo trutta . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .
although there are currently no recognized subspecies of brown trout , there are three basic morphs ( distinct behavioral populations within a species ) : those that in habit freshwater rivers ( salmo trutta morpha fario ) , lake populations ( salmo trutta morpha lacustrine ) , and anadromous forms ( salmo trutta morpha trutta ) . browns that spend their lives in the ocean before entering rivers to spawn are called sea trout . the species name means “salmon trout” and described the anadromous morph . resident and anadromous browns that inhabit the same river are genetically identical , and biologists do not yet understand why some migrate to the salt and some stay in the river .
the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) is a european species of salmonid fish that has been widely introduced into suitable environments globally . it includes both purely freshwater populations , referred to salmo trutta morpha fario and s . trutta morpha lacustris , and anadromous forms known as the sea trout , s . trutta morpha trutta . the latter migrates to the oceans for much of its life and returns to fresh water only to spawn . [ 3 ] sea trout in the uk and ireland have many regional names , including sewin ( wales ) , finnock ( scotland ) , peal ( west country ) , mort ( north west england ) , and white trout ( ireland ) .
a european freshwater game fish ( salmo trutta ) that is brownish or greenish with red and black spots on the sides . it is naturalized in north america .
table 2 : summary of the examination of the body morphology among gynogenetic doubled haploid ( dh ) and normal ( c ) brown trout ( salmo trutta ) .
czerniawski r . , pilecka - rapacz m . , domaga³a j . 2010 - growth and survival of brown trout fry ( salmo trutta m . fario l . ) in the wild , reared in the hatchery on different feed - ejpau , fisheries 13 ( 2 ) ; urltoken
( animals ) a common brownish variety of the trout salmo trutta that occurs in the rivers of n europe and has been successfully introduced in north america . compare sea trout 1
( of salmo fario linnaeus , 1758 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
czerniawski r . , domaga³a j . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2009 - rearing of sea trout fry ( salmo trutta m . trutta l . ) - as potential stocking material , with living zooplankton and dry prepared food - ejpau , fisheries 12 ( 4 ) ; urltoken
( of trutta fario ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
ferguson a , 1989 . genetic differences among brown trout ( salmo trutta ) stocks and their importance for the conservation and management of the species . freshwater biology , 21 : 35 - 46 .
testicular feed back on the hypothalamo - pituitary axis in rainbow trout ( salmo gairdneri r . )
department of fisheries , 2002 . the translocation of brown trout ( salmo trutta ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) . fisheries management paper no . 156 . western australia : department of fisheries .
elliott , j . m . ( 1967 ) . the food of trout ( salmo trutta ) in a dartmoor stream . journal of applied ecology , 4 ( 1 ) : 59 - 71 .
fauré , a . 1991 . la truite fario , une filière salmonicole marine à la française . aqua revue 35 : 7 - 13 .
czerniawski r . , domagala j . , krepski t . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2015 - impact of live food on survival and growth of hatchery - reared sea trout ( salmo trutta trutta l . ) parr in the wild - j . appl . ichthyol . 31 : 95 - 99 .
largiader , c . r . & scholl , a . 1996 . genetic introgression between native and introduced sea trout salmo trutta l . populations in the rhône river basin . molecular ecology 5 : 417 - 426 .
lack of genetic differentiation between anadromous and resident sympatric brown trout ( salmo trutta ) in a normandy population . . in aquatic living resources , volume 18 , n° 1 , january–march 2005 . pages 65 - 69 .
introduction of salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' ext . . .
bugeon , j . , lefevre , f . & fauconneau , b . 2003 . fillet texture and muscle structure in sea trout ( salmo trutta ) subjected to long - term exercise . aquaculture research 34 : 1287 - 1295 .
skaala o , j rstad ke , 1987 . fine spotted brown trout ( salmo trutta ) : its phenotypic description and biochemical genetic variation . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 44 ( 10 ) : 1775 - 1779 .
zimmerman , c . e . & mosegaard , h . ( 1992 ) . initial feeding in migratory brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) alevins . journal of fish biology , 40 ( 4 ) : 647 - 650 .
salmo trutta has been introduced around the world for aquaculture and stocked for sport fisheries . it is blamed for reducing native fish populations , especially other salmonids , through predation , displacement and food competition . it is a popular angling fish .
mambrini , m . , labbe , l . , randriamanantsoa , f . & boujard , t . 2006 . response of growth - selected sea trout ( salmo trutta ) to challenging feeding conditions . aquaculture 252 : 429 - 440 .
chevassus , b . , quillet , e . , krieg , f . , hollebecq , m . g . , mambrini , m . , faure , a . , labbe , l . , hiseux , j . p . & vandeputte , m . 2005 . improved mass selection for growth rate in sea trout ( salmo trutta fario ) : the
prosper
process . aquaculture 247 ; 8 .
arzel , j . , métailler , r . , kerleguer , c . , le delliou , h . & guillaume , j . 1997 . the protein requirement of sea trout ( salmo trutta ) fry . aquaculture 130 : 67 - 78 .
barbat - leterrier , a . , guyomard , r . & krieg , f . 1989 . introgression between introduced domesticated strains and mediterranean native populations of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) . aquatic living resources 2 : 215 - 223 .
quillet , e . , chevassus , b . , krieg , f . & burger , g . 1986 . données actuelles sur l ' élevage en mer de la truite commune ( salmo trutta ) . la pisciculture française 86 : 48 - 56 .
introduction of salmo trutta has caused both negative and positive impacts on biodiversity . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' extinction ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) .
in small streams , brown trout are important predators of macroinvertebrates , and declining brown trout populations in these specific areas affect the entire aquatic food web . [ 11 ] s . trutta morpha fario prefers well - oxygenated water in the temperature range of 60 to 65 °f ( 16 to 18 °c ) .
hansen , m . m . 2002 . estimating the long - term effects of stocking domesticated trout into wild sea trout ( salmo trutta ) populations : an approach using microsatellite dna analysis of historical and contemporary samples . molecular ecology 11 : 1003 - 1015 .
fjellheim a . , raddum g . g . , barlaup b . t . 1995 - dispersal , growth and mortality of brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) stocked in a regulated west norwegian river - regul . rivers 10 : 137 - 145 .
arzel , j . , metailler , r . , huelvan , c . , faure , a . & guillaume , j . 1992 . the specific nutritional requirements of sea trout ( salmo trutta ) . búvísindi , icelandic agricultural science 6 : 77 - 92 .
fishbase , 2003 . species profile salmo trutta trutta sea trout summary : fishbase is a global information system with all you ever wanted to know about fishes . fishbase on the web contains practically all fish species known to science . fishbase was developed at the worldfish center in collaboration with the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ) and many other partners , and with support from the european commission ( ec ) . since 2001 fishbase is supported by a consortium of seven research institutions . you can search on search fishbase this species profile is available from : urltoken ; = salmo & speciesname ; = trutta % 20trutta [ accessed 7 september , 2004 ]
the native range of salmo trutta includes europe , northern africa and western asia . the species is found in iceland and on the northwest coast of europe , along the mediterranean and south to india . s . trutta has been introduced to appropriate streams all over the world ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) and today is found in rivers , lakes and coastal areas ( nova scotia , 2004 ) .
the bow trout ( salmo gairdneri ) and the brook trout ( salvenilus ) with the same harvesting period , grayling ( thymalus ) .
champigneulle , a . & cachera , s . 2003 . evaluation of large - scale stocking of early stages of sea trout , salmo trutta , to angler catches in the french - swiss part of the river doubs . fisheries management & ecology 10 : 79 - 85 .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . salmo trutta linnaeus , 1758 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .
chevassus , b . , quillet , e . , krieg , f . , hollebecq , m . g . , mambrini , m . , faure , a . , labbe , l . , hiseux , j . p . & vandeputte , m . 2004 . enhanced individual selection for selecting fast growing fish : the
prosper
method , with application on sea trout ( salmo trutta fario ) . génétique , selection , evolution 36 : 643 - 661 .
itis ( integrated taxonomic information system ) , 2005 . online database salmo trutta summary : an online database that provides taxonomic information , common names , synonyms and geographical jurisdiction of a species . in addition links are provided to retrieve biological records and collection information from the global biodiversity information facility ( gbif ) data portal and bioscience articles from bioone journals . available from : urltoken ; _ action = containing & taxa ; = salmo + trutta & p ; _ format = & p ; _ ifx = plglt & p ; _ lang = [ accessed march 2005 ]
( of salmo fario linnaeus , 1758 ) linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
arzel , j . , metailler , r . , le gall , p . & guillaume , j . 1998 . relationship between ration size and dietary protein level varying at the expense of carbohydrate and lipid in triploid sea trout fry , salmo trutta . aquaculture 162 : 259 - 268 .
domagala j . , krepski t . , czerniawski r . , pilecka - rapacz m . 2015 - prey availability and selective feeding of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . , 1758 ) fry stocked in small forest streams - j . appl . ichthyol . 31 : 375 - 380 .
table 1 : survival ( % ± sd ) of the normal ( c ) and gynogenetic doubled haploid ( dh ) brown trout ( salmo trutta ) ( bt ) produced with the use of uv - inactivated homologous ( bt ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) ( rt ) sperm .
jensen , h . , kiljunen , m . & amundsen , p - a . ( 2012 ) . dietary ontogeny and niche shift to piscivory in lacustrine brown trout salmo trutta revealed by stomach content and stable isotope analyses . journal of fish biology , 80 ( 7 ) : 2448 - 2462 .
charles , k . , guyomard , r . , hoyheim , b . , ombredane , d . & bagliniere , j . l . 2005 . lack of genetic differentiation between anadromus and resident sympatric sea trout ( salmo trutta ) in a normandy population . aquatic living resources 18 : 65 - 69 .
salmo trutta has been implicated in reducing native fish populations ( especially other salmonids ) through predation , displacement , and food competition ( taylor et al . , 1984 ) . there are some negative effects from s . trutta since the species was introduced in america ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) . they compete with native trout and other fish species , but they are not known to have been the cause of any species ' extinction . in california , usa , competition and predation from s . trutta may have contributed to the decline of the dolly varden , salmo malma , in the mccloud river ( moyle , 1976 ) , and of the golden trout , oncorhynchus aguabonita , in the kern river ( courtenay and williams , 1992 ) . s . trutta may have also depleted the modoc sucker , catostomus microps , an endangered species , in rush creek , modoc county ( moyle and marciochi , 1975 ) . s . trutta have commonly replaced cutthroat trout , o . clarki , in large rivers ( behnke , 1992 ) . another negative effect is their contribution to the lamprey population in many rivers . the increased lamprey populations since s . trutta were introduced have been considered as a negative impact on biodiversity ( animal diversity web , 2004 ) . s . trutta introductions may have caused the decline of the tasmanian mountain shrimp , anaspides tasmaniae , and have eliminated or reduced several plecoptera and trichoptera species in streams in victoria , australia ( arthington , 1989 ) .
. . . however , very few of the inter - specific and inter - generic hybrids of salmonids and cyprinids have any farming or restocking potential because of their low viability or inferior performance with respect to the parental species ( purdom , 1993 ) . studies on the hybridization between rainbow trout ( oncorhunchus mykiss ) and brown trout ( salmo trutta ) found that the hybrids of these two species resulted in poor hatching rate and survival ( blanc , 2003 ; blanc and maunas , 2005 ) . brown trout ( salmo trutta macrostigma ) is a salmonid species occurring in inland water habitats of southern europe , western asia , northern africa , and anatolia ( geldiay and balik , 1988 ) . . . .
quillet , e . , faure , a . , chevassus , b . , krieg , f . , harache , y . , arzel , j . , metailler , r . & boeuf , g . 1992 . the potential of sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) for mariculture . búvísindi , icelandic agricultural science 6 : 63 - 76 .
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. found in 0 ms . translation memories are created by human , but computer aligned , which might cause mistakes . they come from many sources and are not checked . be warned .
hansen , m . m . , nielsen , e . e . , ruzzante , d . e . , bouza , c . & mensberg , k . l . d . 2000 . genetic monitoring of supportive breeding in sea trout ( salmo trutta l . ) , using microsatellite dna markers . canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 57 : 2130 - 2139 .
guyomard , r . & krieg , f . 1986 . mise en évidence d ' un flux génique entre populations naturelles de truite fario et souche de repeuplement dans deux rivières de corse . bulletin français de la pèche et de la pisciculture 303 : 134 - 140 .
salmo trutta is a common trout known by two different common names reflecting the alternative ecological strategies and associated morphological characteristics of this species . the freshwater morphs ( salmo trutta morpha fario and s . trutta morpha lacustris ) are known as brown trout . sea trout is the anadromous morph which migrates between the ocean , where it spends most of its life , and freshwater spawning grounds . the two morphs , which often share the same breeding grounds ( sympatric distribution ) , have in the past been classified as distinct species . the morphs do interbreed , but the extent of reproductive isolation between them varies by location and some studies have found genetic differentiation between morphs inhabiting the same territory . although native to europe , northern africa and western asia , s . trutta has been widely introduced for aquaculture and recreational fishing purposes and is found in streams , lakes , and coastal areas throughout the world . brown trout commonly mature at 13 - 16 inches long ( often longer in large streams ) ; sea - run morphs are larger and can be found up to 30 pounds and 3 feet long . an aggressive species , s . trutta has been responsible for declines in native fish populations , for example in the great lakes , where they displaced arctic greyling ( thymallus arcticus ) and in california , where they threaten native golden trout oncorhynchus mykiss aguabonita and dolly varden ( salvelinus malma ) . this species was nominated as one of the world’s 100 worst invasive species by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) . ( cabi 2010 ; charles et al 2005 ; fuller , larson and fusaro 2012 ; global invasive species database , invasive species specialist group ; idema 1999 ; wikipedia 2012 )
the covariation between diploid and triploid progenies from common breeders and the effect of triploidy on the parental variances were investigated in brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) using two progeny testing experiments , sampling , sires and dams respectively , from the same population . the traits studied were body weight , growth , condition factor and red spotting of the skin . triploidization . . . [ show full abstract ]
( of salmo faris ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
size , growth rate and fry mortality were compared for diploids and triploids of three genetic types , brook trout and the two reciprocal tiger trout hybrids ( salmo trutta × salvelinus fontinalis ) . fry mortality was higher for triploids of all three genetic types compared with the corresponding diploids . weights and fork lengths were recorded for three year classes at various times from 18 weeks . . . [ show full abstract ]
fishbase , 2004 . entry for salmo trutta . main ref . : svetovidov an , 1984 . salmonidae . in : whitehead pjp , bauchot m - l , hureau j - c , nielsen j , tortonese e , eds . fishes of the north - eastern atlantic and the mediterranean . unesco , paris . vol . 1 , 382 - 383 . online at www . fishbase . org . accessed 26 november 2004 .
this study was approved by the local committee on the ethics of animal experiments in gdansk , poland ( number 28 / 2015 ) . gamete donors came from broodstocks of the brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) and rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) kept in the department of salmonid research , inland fisheries institute in olsztyn , rutki , poland . eggs ( = c . 2150 ) from one brown trout female ( bt♀ ) were stripped , collected in the plastic bowl , and kept in 10°c pending activation . spermatozoa from one brown trout male ( bt ♂ ) and one rainbow trout male ( rt ♂ ) were collected to separate plastic containers . the motility of the collected sperm was checked under a microscope .
. . . ally in salmonids , has been studied for a long time with the aim of obtaining nonmaturing individuals for ¢sheries and aquaculture ( blanc & maunas 2005 ) . hybrid viability , which is often poor , could be improved through arti¢cial triploidization ( chevassus , guyomard , chourrout & quillet 1983 ; scheerer & thorgaard 1983 ; gray , evans & thorgaard 1993 ) . blanc and maunas ( 2005 ) reported a drastic increase in the survival rate in hybrids of rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss ) â brown trout ( salmo trutta m . fario ) after triploidization . diploid hybrids of these species show very high mortality within a month post hatch ( buss & wright 1956 ; blanc & chevassus 1982 ) , whereas triploidized hybrids survive better , an . . .
morrison b . r . s . 1983 - observations on the food of juvenile atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , reared in a scottish hill loch - j . fish biol . 23 : 305 - 313 .
s . trutta closely resemble atlantic salmon and rainbow trout , but salmon have no red coloration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail . young s . trutta ( parr ) have 9 - 14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line ( nova scotia , 2004 ) . s . trutta can grow to be quite large , especially sea - run fish . it can grow to a standard length of 140 cm ( muus and dahlström , 1967 ) . maximum published weight is 50 . 0 kg ( muus and dahlström , 1967 ) and maximum reported age is 38 years ( fishbase , 2004 ) .
the study has been carried in the year 2004 and describes fecundity , spawning season and sex ratio of brown trout , salmo trutta fario . a total of 121 brown trout ( 67 males and 54 females ) were captured by angling . gonad somatic index ( gsi ) confirmed that spawning lasted from october to december . the left ovary , with some exceptions , was found to be longer and heavier producing more eggs than the right one . the absolute fecundity of sampled population varied from 527 to 2445 and the relative fecundity had a mean value of 2 . 56 . fecundity was positively co - related with the total fish length ( r = 0 . 865 ) , fish weight ( r = 0 . 9426 ) ovary weight ( r = 0 . 952 ) and ovary length ( r = 0 . 845 ) .
muus , b . j . and p . dahlstrom 1967 guide des poissons d & quot ; eau douce et pãªche . gec gads forlag , copenhague . 242 p . muus , b . j . and p . dahlstrom 1967 guide des poissons d & quot ; eau douce et pãªche . gec gads forlag , copenhague . 242 p . svalastog , d . 1991 a note on maximum age of brown trout , salmo trutta l . j . fish biol . 38 ( 6 ) : 967 - 968 .
salmo trutta has a fusiform body with a small pointed head , large mouth , extending mostly after the eye ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . s . trutta or brown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies . body is grey - blue coloured with numerous spots , also below the lateral line ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . blackish coloured on upper part of body , usually orange on sides , surrounded by pale halos . adipose fin is with red margin ( fishbase , 2004 ) . sea - run s . trutta have a more silvery coloration and the spotting is less visible ( nova scotia , 2004 ) . it has 3 - 4 dorsal spines , 10 - 15 dorsal soft rays , 3 - 4 anal spines and 9 - 14 anal soft rays ( fishbase , 2004 ) . caudal fin has 18 - 19 rays ( spillman , 1961 ) . caudal peduncle is thick and rounded ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) . it has a few scales ( rochard and elie , 1994 ) .
whirling disease , caused by the myxozoan parasite myxobolus cerebralis , has high economical and ecological importance worldwide . susceptibility to the disease varies considerably among salmonid species . in brown trout ( salmo trutta ) the infection is usually subclinical with low mortality , which increases the risk of parasite dissemination , especially when farm fish are used for stocking natural habitats . the influence of intraspecific genetic differences ( especially the level of homozygosity ) on susceptibility is unknown . therefore , we examined the possible correlations between parental genetic diversity and offspring susceptibility of brown trout stocks to whirling disease .
climate change influences air temperature and precipitation , and as a direct consequence , the annual discharge pattern in rivers will change as climate warming continues . this has an impact on bedload transport and consequently on aquatic life , because coarse sediments in streams provide important habitat for many species . salmonids , for example , spawn in gravel , and during their early life stages live in or on top of the substrate . we used a multiple model approach to assess how predicted discharge changes affect bedload transport and the vulnerable early life stages of brown trout ( salmo trutta fario ) in a prealpine catchment in switzerland . in the study area , future discharge scenarios predict an increased frequency of flood occurrence in winter and long - lasting low - flow periods in summer . as a result , bed erosion will become more frequent during winter , leading to less stable spawning grounds and deeper scouring , but during summer , an improvement in habitat diversity can be expected , which is advantageous for young - of - the - year fish . to face the future challenges of climate change , we recommend widening of riverbeds and improvements in longitudinal connectivity .
t he effects of environmental pollutants from two small streams in south - west germany on the liver of brown trout ( s almo trutta f . fario ) were studied as biomarkers by means of quantitative and semi - quantitative electron microscopy , and quantitatively by morphometrical measurements . cellular damage was assessed semi - quantitatively based on a classification of ultrastructural responses . both methods revealed more severe cellular effects in the liver of trout which had been exposed to the highly polluted stream than in those exposed to the lightly polluted river . morphometrical studies showed a significant reduction of glycogen storage and a significant increase in number of mitochondria , peroxisomes and cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum . the biomarker responses of this study were correlated with the results obtained by limnological and analytical investigations , and reflect the levels of pollution in each stream .
long dashes down stream taxed my unsteady footing ; the sharp click and whirr of the reel resounded in desperate efforts to hold him somewhat in check ; another headlong dash , then a vicious bulldog shake of the head as he sawed back and forth across the rocks . every wile inherited from generations of wily ancestors was tried until , in a moment of exhaustion , the net was slipped under him . wading ashore with my prize , i had barely time to notice his size—a good four - pounder , and unusual markings , large yellow spots encircled by black , with great brilliancy of iridescent color—when back he flopped into the water and was gone . however , i took afterward several of the same variety , known in the park as the von baer [ sic ] trout , and which i have since found to be the salmo fario , the veritable trout of izaak walton .
the brown trout ( salmo trutta ) has earned a reputation as the wariest and wiliest opponent a river angler can face . whereas a brookie or a cutthroat will often attack flies with gullible abandon , browns are usually more discriminating . the larger specimens , especially , are often reclusive—hiding beneath a cutbank or hunkering near the bottom until darkness falls , and only then emerging to hunt baitfish . because of these sporting qualities , the species has been stocked in waters well outside its range , a result of the recreation craze and empire - building of the 19th century . in fact , the british were so determined to bring the brown trout to tasmania that they made three attempts to ship trout eggs around the african continent , finally succeeding in 1864 . fly fishers can now test their wits against browns on six continents .
throughout its native range , there are populations that are considered unique , even if science doesn’t treat them as such . for instance , the ferox trout inhabits nutrient - poor lakes in great britain and ireland , and the gillaroo is a snail - eating trout of ireland’s lough melvin . some scientists from northern ireland consider the gillaroo a separate species ( salmo stomachicus ) , while irish authorities do not .
letcher b . h . , dubreuil t . , o’donnell m . j . , obedzinski , m . , griswold k . , nislow k . h . 2004 - long - term consequences of variation in timing and manner of fry introduction on juvenile atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) growth , survival , and life - history expression - can . j . fish . aquat . sci . 61 : 2288 - 2301 .
triploid hybrids between female rainbow trout ( oncorhynchus mykiss walbaum ) and male brown trout ( salmo trutta l . ) were tested for farming performances , with reference to parental species . the main drawback of hybrids lay in embryonic and larval mortalities , amounting to 60 % on average , and displaying a large variability between spawns . further survival was inferior to that of diploid , but similar to that of triploid rainbow trout . hybrid body weight was intermediate between weights of rainbow and brown trout of the same age , mainly as a consequence of differences in precocious growth . analysis of relative growth rates from 6 to 18 months showed that hybrids were surpassed by rainbow controls in common rearing , but not in separate rearing . hybrid behaviour was similar to that of rainbow trout . these results are discussed in the scope of providing fisheries managers with original and sterile game fishes .
. . . where o indicates oncorhynchus mykiss , s indicates salmo labrax , c indicates unshocked control and t is shock - induced triploid . triploids were produced by a 26 . 5 1c thermal shock lasting 20 min and initiated 25 min after the fertilization of the eggs in each crossed groups ( blanc & maunas 2005 ) . fertilized eggs were incubated at 9 ^ 11 1c in spring water before and after shock treatment . . . .
genetic data indicate that s . trutta and some populations of hybrid origin are native in some rivers draining to the mediterranean , the black sea ( at least in upper danube drainage ) and the caspian sea ( at least in upper volga drainage ) . the present published data do not always enable to identify the head water populations of the different species on the basis of morphological characters ( they may be distinguishable , but this simply has not been investigated ) .
acyl - coenzyme a oxidases 1 ( acox1 ) and 3 ( acox3 ) are key enzymes in the regulation of lipid homeostasis . endogenous and exogenous factors can disrupt their normal expression / activity . this study presents for the first time the isolation and characterization of acox1 and acox3 in brown trout ( salmo trutta f . fario ) . additionally , as previous data point to the existence of a cross - talk between two nuclear receptors , namely peroxisome proliferator - activated receptors and estrogen receptors , it was here evaluated after in vitro exposures of trout hepatocytes the interference caused by ethynylestradiol in the mrna levels of an inducible ( by peroxisome proliferators ) and a non - inducible oxidase . the isolated acox1 and acox3 show high levels of sequence conservation compared to those of other teleosts . additionally , it was found that acox1 has two alternative splicing isoforms , corresponding to 3i and 3ii isoforms of exon 3 splicing variants . both isoforms display tissue specificity , with acox1 - 3ii presenting a more ubiquitous expression in comparison with acox1 - 3i . acox3 was expressed in almost all brown trout tissues . according to real - time pcr data , the highest estrogenic stimulus was able to cause a down - regulation of acox1 and an up - regulation of acox3 . so , for acox1 we found a negative association between an estrogenic input and a directly activated pparα target gene . in conclusion , changes in hormonal estrogenic stimulus may impact the mobilization of hepatic lipids to the gonads , with ultimate consequences in reproduction . further studies using in vivo assays will be fundamental to clarify these issues .
some key aspects of the reproductive strategy of the brown trout ( salmo trutta fario l . ) in the yadong river , tibet , including spawning season , age at sexual maturity , fecundity and egg size , have been studied . the majority of the samples were less than 215 mm and age ranged from 1 to 4 in both sexes , indicating that the majority of the fish were younger and the pressure by overfishing was high . the spawning periodicity was determined to be between the end of october and january , mainly in november and december . the ratio of male to female brown trout population ( 1 . 29 : 1 with p > 0 . 05 ) suggested no sex significant differences , although males were significantly more abundant than females in october ( p < 0 . 0001 ) on monthly basis . age and size of males and females at maturity was different and males matured earlier than females . fecundity was markedly correlated with their body weight ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9255 ) , standard length ( p < 0 . 01 , r = 0 . 8879 ) , and gonad weight ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9366 ) . the mean size of mature eggs in the spawning season was : 4 . 0 ± 0 . 45 mm and tended to increase along with the female spawners size ( p < 0 . 001 , r = 0 . 9641 ) . further researches about the brown trout population in the yadong river should be conducted on issues such as artificial reproduction , culture , conservation , management , and restocking .
cowx i . g . , o’grady k . t . , sväsand t . , skilbre o . t . , van der meeren g . i . , holm m . 1998 - review of morphological and behavioural differences between reared and wild individuals : implications for sea - ranching of atlantic salmon , salmo salar l . , atlantic cod , gadus morhua l . and european lobster , homarus gammarus l . - fish . manag . ecol . 5 : 1 - 18 .
sea trout is probably the first species of fish for which artificial reproduction was performed . this probably occurred in germany around 1739 and the first sea trout hatchery was established in 1841 in the uk . the technique of artificial fertilization was optimized in the 1850s . since then , sea trout has been produced extensively in europe and introduced to all continents as a sport fish . however , in north america sea trout is considered as invasive in many places as it can out - compete local species like brook trout ( salvelinus fontinalis ) . sea trout was never really domesticated for food fish production , as the principal aim of sea trout culture was always the restocking of natural waters . at the end of the 1980s the culture of sea trout in sea cages was seen as an alternative to salmon production in the french waters of brittany . this led to the development of sea trout strains selected for fast growth but the production of sea trout as a food fish never developed to a level other than for niche markets . fao statistics for ‘sea trout’ include the aquaculture production of salmo trutta in freshwater and sea water .
the aim of this study was to determine the best moment to stock trout , salmo trutta l . , larvae into the wild . this goal was accomplished by determining weekly changes in the growth parameters of larvae that were fed in seven variants : on the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the first week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the second week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the third week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the fourth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the fifth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption ; from the sixth week after the day of 2 / 3 yolk sac resorption . based on our results , we concluded the following : 1 ) trout larvae are ready to start eating at the time of the resorption of 2 / 3 of the yolk sac ; 2 ) trout larvae can live without food for three weeks following the resorption 2 / 3 of the yolk sac without any notable losses ; 3 ) the best moment to stock trout larvae into the wild is in the period from the resorption of 2 / 3 of the yolk sac to the third week after this resorption , so one week after full resorption . this is the optimal period to stock any waters with trout larvae .
on the other hand , some of the spinal deformities might be side effects of the physical treatments applied to the duplicate haploid genome in the gynogenesis process . crucian carp ( carassius auratus linnaeus 1758 ) eggs subjected to the hydrostatic pressure shock exhibited impaired embryonic development , including , for example , a delay of epiboly and suppression of the dorsoventral differentiation [ 36 ] . physical shock is also applied to newly fertilized eggs to produce polyploid fishes . triploid rainbow trout and atlantic salmon ( salmo salar ) usually show higher incidences of deformities than diploids [ 37 – 39 ] , but it is difficult to evaluate which part of the malformation results from the triploidy itself and the physical treatment . moreover , studies performed on triploid rainbow trout showed that temperature shock induced a higher rate of deformities than hydrostatic pressure shock [ 40 ] .
the first introductions into the u . s . started in 1883 when fred mather , a new york pisciculturist and angler , under the authority of the u . s . fish commissioner , spencer baird , obtained brown trout eggs from a baron lucius von behr , president of the german fishing society . the von behr brown trout came from both mountain streams and large lakes in the black forest region of baden - württemberg . [ 6 ] the original shipment of
von behr
brown trout eggs were handled by three hatcheries , one on long island , the cold spring hatchery operated by mather , one in caledonia , new york operated by pisciculturalist seth green , and other hatchery in northville , michigan . additional shipments of
von behr
brown trout eggs arrived in 1884 . in 1885 , brown trout eggs from loch leven , scotland , arrived in new york . these
loch leven
brown trout were distributed to the same hatcheries . over the next few years , additional eggs from scotland , england , and germany were shipped to u . s . hatcheries . behnke ( 2007 ) believed all life forms of brown trout—anadromous , riverine and lacustine—were imported into the u . s . and intermingled genetically to create what he calls the american generic brown trout and a single subspecies the north european brown trout ( s . t . trutta ) . [ 6 ]
found in streams , ponds , rivers and lakes ( ref . 5951 ) . individuals spend 1 to 5 years in fresh water and 6 months to 5 years in salt water ( ref . 51442 ) . juveniles mature in 3 - 4 years ( ref . 6885 ) . lacustrine populations undertake migration to tributaries and lake outlets to spawn , rarely spawning on stone , wave - washed lake shores . spawns in rivers and streams with swift current , usually characterized by downward movement of water intro gravel ( ref . 59043 ) . spawning takes place normally more than one time ( ref . 51442 ) . they prefer cold , well - oxygenated upland waters although their tolerance limits are lower than those of rainbow trout and favors large streams in the mountainous areas with adequate cover in the form of submerged rocks , undercut banks , and overhanging vegetation ( ref . 6465 ) . life history and spawning behavior is similar to the salmon salmo salar ( ref . 51442 ) . each female produces about 10 . 000 eggs ( ref . 35388 , ref . 51442 ) . mainly diurnal ( ref . 682 ) . sea and lake trouts forage in pelagic and littoral habitats , while sea trouts mainly close to coast , not very far from estuary of natal river ( ref . 59043 ) . juveniles feed mainly on aquatic and terrestrial insects ; adults on mollusks , crustaceans and small fish ( ref . 26523 , ref . 51442 ) . marketed fresh and smoked ; eaten fried , broiled , boiled , cooked in microwave , and baked ( ref . 9988 ) .
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a widespread species and overall least concern . however , anadromous part of populations ( sea trout ) and many lacustrine stocks have in many cases markedly declined because of pollution ( and possibly from impacts from salmon farming ) . the phylogeographic structure is almost destroyed by stocking .
atlantic , north , white and baltic sea basins , from spain to chosha bay ( russia ) . present in iceland and in northernmost rivers of great britain and scandinavia . in rhône drainage , native only to lake geneva basin , which it entered after last glaciation . native to upper danube and volga drainages . introduced throughout europe , north and south america , southern and montane eastern africa , pakistan , india , nepal , japan , new zealand and australia .
locally threatened by water pollution and impacts from salmon farming ( sea lice etc . )
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brown trout get their name from the brown or golden brown hue on their bodies . some of the other characteristics : their sides are silvery or yellow and bellies are white or yellowish ; dark spots , sometimes encircled by a pale halo , are plentiful on the back and sides ; spotting also can be found on the head and the fins along the back ; rusty - red spots also occur on the sides ; the small adipose ( or fatty ) fin in front of the tail has a reddish hue ; sea - run brown trout have a more silvery colouration and the spotting is less visible . brown trout closely resemble atlantic salmon and rainbow trout , but salmon have no red colouration on the adipose fin and rainbow trout have lines of black spots on the tail . young brown trout ( parr ) have 9 - 14 dark narrow parr marks along the sides and some red spotting along the lateral line . brown trout can grow to be quite large , especially sea - run fish . fish weighing up to 31kg ( 68 lb ) have been recorded in europe ( fisheries & oceans canada , 2004 ) . wild trout reach sizes of 9kg ( 20 lbs ) .
life history and spawning behaviour is similar to salmon , ( fishbase , 2003 ) . spawning takes place in shallow freshwater ( kroon , f . pers . comm , jan 2004 ) . \
female covers the eggs by restirring the sand and fine gravel . after hatching at 12mm , larval brown trout remain in the gravel for 2 - 3 weeks until they are about 25mm long , when they emerge to begin feeding in the water column . brown trout are territorial and begin establishing territories as juveniles . juvenile trout from lake populations move from their natal inlets to lakes during the first 2 years of life . \
( fishbase , 2003 ) . juvenile brown trout either migrate to the ocean or stay in freshwater ( kroon , f . pers . comm , jan 2004 ) .
fisheries : commercial , aquaculture : commercial , gamefish , aquarium . marketed fresh and smoked ; eaten fried , broiled , boiled , cooked in microwave , and baked ( fishbase , 2003 ) .
brown trout are primarily a freshwater species , but can spend time in the sea , they hide in shallow water weed beds and rocky , boulder - strewn areas , and prefer a water temperature of 18 - 23 degrees c ( 65 - 75 degrees f ) . brown trout prefer cold , well - oxygenated upland waters although their tolerance limits are lower than those of rainbow trout ( fishbase , 2003 ) .