isthmohyla calypsa is a species of frog in the family hylidae .

it is known from the southern cordillera de talamanca in costa rica , cerro pando in costa rica and panama , and the pacific slope in southwestern panama .

it appears to have gone extinct in costa rica .

prior to its description in 1996 , this species was confused with isthmohyla lancasteri , a species now known from lower altitudes only .

isthmohyla calypsa

isthmohyla calypsa in the wild , photo ( c ) marcos guerra , smithsonian tropical research institute .
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isthmohyla calypsa — faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 103 .
isthmohyla calypsa was previously included in isthmohyla lancasteri , but it has been distinguished from that species based on adult and larval morphology , oviposition site ( leaves for i . calypsa vs . attached to submerged vegetation and debris in small pools of slow - flowing streams for i . lancasteri ) , egg and clutch characteristics ( 10 - 36 yellow eggs per clutch for i . calypsa , vs . 70 - 80 chocolate - brown eggs for i . lancasteri ) and vocalizations ( lips 1996 ) .
isthmohyla calypsa is a species of frog in the hylidae family . it is found in costa rica and panama . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers . it is threatened by habitat loss .
this species was previously included in the genus hyla but has recently been moved to the new genus isthmohyla ( faivovich et al . 2005 ) .
the specific epithet calypsa derives from the greek nymph calypso , who hid the hero ulysses . it refers both to the frog ' s camouflage and to the species having been hidden within h . lancasteri ( lips 1996 ) .
7 ) isthmohyla calypsa a treefrog frog covered with spiny tubercles found in a small mountainous area on the border of costa rica and panama where is used to be locally common . at las tablas in costa rica , the species experienced severe chytridiomycosis - related declines between 1993 and 1998 . despite extensive recent survey efforts in costa rica and panama , the species has not been seen recently and is possibly extinct . many other stream breeding species in this genus have also experienced dramatic declines and are now extremely rare frogs .
hyla calypsa lips , 1996 , copeia , 1996 : 617 . holotype : cre 5299 , by original designation , now in lacm . type locality :
finca jaguar ( 1900 m ) , approximately 18 km nne la lucha , coto brus , puntarenas province , costa rica , 8° 55′ n , 82° 44′ w
.
diagnosis : isthmohyla calypsa can be distinguished from all other congeners by the following character combination : highly tuberculate and spiny dorsal surfaces of head , body and limbs ; coloration in life bright metallic green with brown blotches ; dorsal thigh surfaces free of transverse bars ; lack of conspicuous markings on anterior and posterior thighs ; lack of tarsal fold ; chin and throat bright white with a few dark brown spots near the margins ; short , truncated snout ; male prepollex with numerous small black spines ; paired vocal slits in males ; call usually a single ascending note ( sometimes two notes ) ( lips 1996 ) ; male size 26 - 36 mm svl and female size 31 - 41 mm svl ( savage 2002 ) .
in life , the upper surfaces of isthmohyla calypsa are shining metallic green with a few large dark olive green to brown blotches in males . dark mottling is present in females . lips are striped with green and dark brown bars . groin is bright white with some black spots . irregular transverse dark bars are present on dorsal surfaces of limbs . anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh are gray to white , with tiny black spots . the venter is dirty white with numerous black flecks and some large black blotches . iris is cream - colored with irregular brown line around the margin . palms and soles vary from gray - white to pale lemon yellow ; in some individuals , numerous black dots are present on the palms . no other costa rican frog is covered by spines on the upper surfaces of head , body , and limbs ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .
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frost , d . r . 2013 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 6 ( 9 january 2013 ) . electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
justification : listed as critically endangered because of a drastic population decline , estimated to be more than 80 % over the last three generations , inferred from the apparent disappearance of most of the population , probably due to chytridiomycosis .
this species is known from the southern cordillera de talamanca , on cerro pando on the pacific slope in costa rica and atlantic versant in panama , and on the pacific slope in south - western panama , from 1 , 810 - 1 , 920m asl ( savage 2002 ) .
extensive monitoring has shown that this species has disappeared from its former range . it was formerly locally common in tablas , costa rica , but has disappeared from all known sites since the early 1990s . in 2006 , the costa rican portion of the species range was surveyed , however the species was not found ( joseph vargas pers . comm . 2007 ) . there is no information on the population size or abundance of this species in panama , though this population has probably also declined seriously .
it is found along torrential stream courses in primary humid lower montane forest throughout the year . males are strongly territorial , with small home ranges . eggs ( clutches of 10 - 36 ) are deposited on leaf surfaces of low vegetation above streams ; hatching tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below ( savage 2002 ) .
the observed population decline is likely to be due to chytridiomycosis , since it has taken place within pristine habitats . habitat loss as a result of smallholder livestock farming is also a threat .
this species has been recorded in parque internacional la amistad and might occur in parque nacional volcán barú . further survey work is required to determine the population status and trends of this species . in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis , ex - situ populations might need to be established .
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humid lower montane rainforest of the southern cordillera de talamanca , on cerro pando on the pacific slope in costa rica and atlantic versant in panama on the pacific slope in southwestern panama ( 1500–2100 m elevation ) .
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can be distinguished from all other congeners by the following character combination : highly tuberculate and spiny dorsal surfaces of head , body and limbs ; coloration in life bright metallic green with brown blotches ; dorsal thigh surfaces free of transverse bars ; lack of conspicuous markings on anterior and posterior thighs ; lack of tarsal fold ; chin and throat bright white with a few dark brown spots near the margins ; short , truncated snout ; male prepollex with numerous small black spines ; paired vocal slits in males ; call usually a single ascending note ( sometimes two notes ) ( lips 1996 ) ; male size 26 - 36 mm svl and female size 31 - 41 mm svl ( savage 2002 ) .
are shining metallic green with a few large dark olive green to brown blotches in males . dark mottling is present in females . lips are striped with green and dark brown bars . groin is bright white with some black spots . irregular transverse dark bars are present on dorsal surfaces of limbs . anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh are gray to white , with tiny black spots . the venter is dirty white with numerous black flecks and some large black blotches . iris is cream - colored with irregular brown line around the margin . palms and soles vary from gray - white to pale lemon yellow ; in some individuals , numerous black dots are present on the palms . no other costa rican frog is covered by spines on the upper surfaces of head , body , and limbs ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .
larvae are large , measuring 54 mm in total length at stage 37 . larval body is depressed . mouth ventral , nostrils dorsal , eyes dorsolateral . spiracle lateral and sinistral ; vent tube is dextral . tail is long , with low fins . tail tip is rounded . oral disc is small with tiny beaks and 2 / 3 rows of denticles ; a2 with narrow gap above mouth . beaks have medium - sized serrations . two or three rows of small papillae border the mouth , and many additional papillae are present in ventrolateral folds . series of large submarginal papillae present . larval body is olive brown suffused with orange . tail musculature is the same color as body , but with darker gray splotches at the midline and on anterior half of tail . posterior portion of tail has large black spots , especially in larger tadpoles . tail fin is translucent ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ; lips and savage 1996 ) .
) , and lack of transverse barring on dorsal and posterior thigh surfaces ( vs . dorsal and posterior thigh surfaces with transverse bars in
( more robust , rounded tadpole body ; rounded snout ; shorter tail ) . the call of
always has one and sometimes two harmonics , and males frequently overlap calls with neighbors ( lips 1996 ) .
occurs in costa rica and panama , at elevations from 1 , 810 - 1 , 920 m asl . this species is found in humid lower montane rainforests of the southern cordillera de talamanca in costa rica , on the pacific slope of cerro pando in costa rica , the atlantic versant of cerro pando in panama , and on the pacific slope in southwestern panama . it can be found in vegetation over torrential mountain streams ( savage 2002 ) .
is a nocturnal leaf - breeding treefrog that has a prolonged reproductive period from april to december . throughout the year , individuals are present along torrential stream courses . some males call during the dry season , between january to mid - april , though less frequently . males are very territorial and have great calling - site fidelity , often calling from the same spot over a span of years . home ranges are small , usually about 6 square meters . inter - male spacing averages about 1 . 9 m . calls are alternated with the nearest calling neighbor , and are usually made from vegetation 1 to 2 m directly above the stream . single - note calls are short , lasting from 110 to 330 ms , and consist of 11 - 12 pulses with a rise in frequency ( 997 hz on average ) towards the end of the note . dominant frequency for calls is about 2 . 9 khz , with no harmonics . sometimes two - note calls or three - note calls ( rare ) are produced ( lips 1996 ; savage 2002 ) .
most females return to the same general area to breed each year . like the males , females also show considerable site fidelity . females , juveniles , and many males all arrive at the breeding stream two weeks before the beginning of the rainy season . juveniles disappear after two days , and females mate only after the first rains . amplexus and oviposition take place near the male ' s calling sites but usually on lower vegetation ; females leave the area after oviposition ( lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .
females lay only one clutch per visit and up to three clutches during breeding season . earlier clutches have more eggs than clutches laid later in the season . clutches consist of 10 to 36 creamy yellow colored eggs . generally eggs are oviposited on the underside of leaf surfaces 130 - 170 cm above the water surface , with only a small percentage of clutches ( 6 % of clutches observed by lips 2001 ) deposited on the upper surfaces of leaves . lips ( 2001 ) also reported that about 22 % of clutches were deposited on vegetation over land rather than directly over water ; however , if the stream had flooded , most of these would have been over water . eggs are large , around 3 . 6 mm in diameter ( range 2 . 8 - 4 . 4 mm ) and are enclosed in jelly capsules of about 5 . 3 mm in diameter . early embryos are chocolate - gray in color and hatch 23 to 56 days after oviposition ( lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .
after hatching , tadpoles fall or are washed by rain into the stream below . tadpoles are classified as mountain brook ecomorphs ; they lack a specialized oral disc , and inhabit slow - moving portions of the stream and pools along the stream . tadpoles often hide among the rocks and leaves at the bottom of the stream . in the laboratory , tadpoles metamorphosed in around 270 days after oviposition . metamorphs are around 15 mm in standard length . based on recapture data , adults live at least four years ; sexual maturity is reached during the first year of life ( lips 1996 ; lips 1998 ; lips 2001 ) .
) , which lay eggs on new frog clutches ; the maggots generally consume the entire parasitized clutch . crickets or other orthopterans also prey on the eggs . of 618 clutches studied between 1991 and 1996 , 65 % did not hatch any tadpoles ; 35 % of those mortalities were due to fly parasitism . clutches laid later in the season suffered significantly higher mortality from fly parasitism ( 9 . 5 % for the earliest clutches , vs . 48 . 5 % for clutches laid in the middle of the season , and 52 . 25 % for those laid at the end of the season ) . desiccation was the most significant cause of mortality for earlier clutches ( lips 2001 ) .
this species appears to be extinct in costa rica but may still be present in panama ( stuart et al . 2008 ) . although relatively abundant in the early 1990s ,
underwent a drastic population decline from 1992 onwards ( lips 1998 ; lips et al . 2003b ) . in 1993 , a dead specimen was found during a survey of a 400 m transect along the headwaters of the río cotón in southwestern costa rica , along with six other species of amphibians ( lips 1998 ) ; chytrid was subsequently confirmed in some of the other dead amphibians from that survey ( lips et al . 2003a ) . over the past three generations , about 80 % of the total population has disappeared from pristine habitat , probably due to chytridiomycosis ( stuart et al . 2008 ) . species distribution modeling has predicted that 100 % of the range for
increased livestock farming may also present a threat to this species ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .
has been recorded from at least one protected area , parque internacional la amistad in costa rica , and it may also occur in parque nacional volcán barú , in panama ( stuart et al . 2008 ) .
derives from the greek nymph calypso , who hid the hero ulysses . it refers both to the frog ' s camouflage and to the species having been hidden within
lips , k . l . , and savage , j . m . ( 1996 ) . ' ' key to the known tadpoles ( amphibia : anura ) of costa rica . ' '
: - - a stream - breeding treefrog from lower central america . ph . d . dissertation .
lips , k . r . ( 1998 ) . ' ' decline of a tropical montane amphibian fauna . ' '
m . a . donnelly , b . i . crother , c . guyer , m . h . wake , and m . e . white , eds . , .
lips , k . r . , green , d . e . , and papendick , r . ( 2003 ) . ' ' chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern costa rica . ' '
lips , k . r . , reeve , j . d . , and witters , l . r . ( 2003 ) . ' ' ecological traits predicting amphibian population declines in central america . ' '
lötters , s . , kielgast , j . , bielby , j . , schmidtlein , s . , bosch , j . , veith , m . , walker , s . f . , fisher , m . c . , and rödder , d . ( 2010 ) . ' ' the link between rapid enigmatic amphibian decline and the globally emerging chytrid fungus . ' '
stuart , s . , hoffmann , m . , chanson , j . , cox , n . , berridge , r . , ramani , p . , and young , b . ( eds ) ( 2008 ) .
lynx edicions , iucn , and conservation international , barcelona , spain ; gland , switzerland ; and arlington , virginia , usa .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
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amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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species description based on lips ( 1996 ) and savage ( 2002 ) . a small treefrog ( males to 36 mm , females to 41 mm ) . females generally appear spinier than males .
the dorsal surface is metallic green mottled with darker drab green or brown blotches . the dorsum is covered in large spinous bumps .
the groin and front and rear surfaces of the thighs are bright white with scattered black spots .
the eye is cream - colored , darkening to brown around the outer edges .
breeding occurs from april to november ( lips 1996 ) . females may breed more than once in a single one reproductive season ( up to three times , lips 1996 ) .
clutches of 10 - 36 eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams ( lips 1996 ) . the eggs are yellow upon oviposition but turn darker as they age ( lips 1996 ) . embryos hatch in 23 - 56 days ( lips 1996 ) .
the tadpole body is oval - shaped with a rather long tail and shallow tail fins ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the coloration is brownish - orange ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the tail has large grey patches that turn smaller and darker towards the tip ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . tadpoles have a disc - shaped mouth that allows them to cling to rocks in streams ( lips 1996 ) .
lips ( 2001 ) characterized temporal variation in reproductive activity and the causes of egg - stage mortality in this species . drosophilid fly infestation was a significant source of egg death , particularly late in the breeding season ( lips 2001 ) .
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attributes / relations provided by ♦ 1 oliveira , brunno freire ; são - pedro , vinícius avelar ; santos - barrera , georgina ; penone , caterina ; c . costa , gabriel . ( 2017 ) amphibio , a global database for amphibian ecological traits . sci . data .
ecoregions provided by world wide fund for nature ( wwf ) . wildfinder : online database of species distributions , ver . 01 . 06 wwf wildfinder
protected areas provided by le saout , s . , hoffmann , m . , shi , y . , hughes , a . , bernard , c . , brooks , t . m . , bertzky , b . , butchart , s . h . m . , stuart , s . n . , badman , t . & rodrigues , a . s . l . ( 2013 ) protected areas and effective biodiversity conservation . science , 342 , 803–805
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adult : species description based on lips ( 1996 ) and savage ( 2002 ) . a small treefrog ( males to 36 mm , females to 41 mm ) . females generally appear spinier than males . dorsal : the dorsal surface is metallic green mottled with darker drab green or brown blotches . the dorsum is covered in large spinous bumps . ventral : the ventral surface is white with some scattered black blotches or smaller spots . concealed surfaces : the groin and front and rear surfaces of the thighs are bright white with scattered black spots . eye : the eye is cream - colored , darkening to brown around the outer edges .
breeding season : breeding occurs from april to november ( lips 1996 ) . females may breed more than once in a single one reproductive season ( up to three times , lips 1996 ) . egg : clutches of 10 - 36 eggs are laid on leaves overhanging streams ( lips 1996 ) . the eggs are yellow upon oviposition but turn darker as they age ( lips 1996 ) . embryos hatch in 23 - 56 days ( lips 1996 ) . tadpole : the tadpole body is oval - shaped with a rather long tail and shallow tail fins ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the coloration is brownish - orange ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . the tail has large grey patches that turn smaller and darker towards the tip ( lips 1996 , savage 2002 ) . tadpoles have a disc - shaped mouth that allows them to cling to rocks in streams ( lips 1996 ) .
habitat : lower montane forest from 1810 to 1920 m . ecology : lips ( 2001 ) characterized temporal variation in reproductive activity and the causes of egg - stage mortality in this species . drosophilid fly infestation was a significant source of egg death , particularly late in the breeding season ( lips 2001 ) . call : a short , single note ( lips 1996 ) . behavior and communication : males guard territories along stream margins ( lips 1996 ) . type locality : finca jaguar ( 1900 m ) , approximately 18 km nne la lucha , coto brus , puntarenas province , costa rica , 8° 55′ n , 82° 44′ w
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is a non - hyphal parasitic chytrid fungus that has been associated with population declines in endemic amphibian species in upland montane rain forests in australia and panama . it causes cutaneous mycosis ( fungal infection of the skin ) , or more specifically chytridiomycosis , in wild and captive amphibians . first described in 1998 , the fungus is the only chytrid known to parasitise vertebrates . b . dendrobatidis can remain viable in the environment ( especially aquatic environments ) for weeks on its own , and may persist in latent infections .
is a zoosporic chytrid fungus that causes chytridiomycosis ( a fungal infection of the skin ) in amphibians and grows solely within keratinised cells . diagnosis is by identification of characteristic intracellular flask - shaped sporangia ( spore containing bodies ) and septate thalli . the fungus grows in the superficial keratinised layers of the epidermis ( known as the stratum corneum and stratum granulosum ) . the normal thickness of the stratum corneum is between 2µm to 5µm , but a heavy infection by the chytrid parasite may cause it to thicken to up to 60 µm . the fungus also infects the mouthparts of tadpoles ( which are keratinised ) but does not infect the epidermis of tadpoles ( which lacks keratin ) .
the fungus produces inoperculate , smooth - walled zoosporangia ( zoospore containing bodies ) , which are spherical to subspherical in shape . each zoosporangium ( 10µm to 40µm in diameter ) produces a single discharge tube , which penetrates ( and protrudes out of ) the skin . eventually the plug that blocks the release of immature zoospores is shed and the mature zoospores are released . the zoospores ( 0 . 7µm to 6µm in diameter ) are elongate to ovoid in shape . each possesses a single posterior flagellum , rendering it motile in water ( mazzoni
pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis : authors of a recent study , voyles et al . ( 2009 ) have found that b . dendrobatidis , causes such severe electrolyte imbalances that the frog’s heart stops . the skin of amphibians maintain proper osmotic balance inside the animal and regulate respiration . the authors found that the skin of infected frogs was less adept at transporting sodium and chloride ions . sodium and potassium concentrations in the blood of infected frogs dropped , more so as the infection intensified and the animals’hearts began to beat irregularly and ultimately stopped .
salamanders can act as host reservoirs of chytrid infection in frogs , and vice versa ( davidson et al . 2003 ) .
chytridiomycosis has now been reported from 38 amphibian species in 12 families , including ranid and hylid frogs , bufonid toads , and plethodontid salamanders . although chytridiomycosis is found in a range of species and habitats ( including african frogs in lowland regions in africa ) it has caused population declines of amphibians species confined to montane rain forests ( weldon et al . 2004 ; daszak et al . 1999 ) . the fungus prefers lower temperatures which may explain the high precedence of the fungus in high elevations in the tropics . in culture conditions optimum growth occurred at 23°c , with slower growth occuring at 28°c and ( reversible ) cessation of growth occuring at 29°c ( longcore , pessier , nichols , 1999 , in daszak et al . 1999 ) .
batrachochytrium dendrobatidis is diploid and primarily reproduces asexually ( and clonally ) by producing aquatic uniflagellated zoospores in a zoosporangium ( johnson and speare , 2003 ) .
its occurrence solely in keratinised tissues suggests that it uses amphibian keratin as a nutrient . batrachochytrium dendrobatidis will grow for at least one generation on cleaned epidermal keratin or on amphibians that have died of the infection . the fungus may also be cultured in vitro on tryptone agar without the addition of keratin or its derivatives ( daszak et al . 1999 ; longcore , pessier and nichols , 1999 , pessier et al . 1999 , in daszak et al . 1999 ) .
principal source : berger et al . 1999 . chytrid fungi and amphibian declines : overview , implications and future directions . berger et al . 1998 . chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of australia and central america . daszak et al . 1999 . emerging infectious diseases and amphibian population declines
review : matthew j . parris assistant professor , department of biology university of memphis usa
recommended citation : global invasive species database ( 2018 ) species profile : batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . downloaded from urltoken on 09 - 07 - 2018 .
has been found to affect at least 93 amphibian species from the orders anura ( frogs and toads ) and caudata ( salamanders ) in all the continents except asia . it is thought to be one of the main causes of the global decline in frog populations since the 1960s , and the dramatic population crashes from the 1970s onwards ( parris and beaudoin , 2004 ) . the chytrid fungus kills frogs within 10 to 18 days ( michigan frog survey , 2003 ) , although it is not known how . it may be physical , affecting respiration by altering the frog’s skin , or the fungus may give off a toxin ( michigan frog survey , 2003 ) . tadpoles are not affected , although the fungus may infect the keratinised mouthparts ( berger
key findings of the the global amphibian assessment has revealed that one - third ( 32 % ) of the world’s amphibian species are threatened , representing 1 , 896 species . threats include viral diseases , habitat loss , drought , pollution , and hunting for food . the biggest single threat appears to be b . dendrobatidis . a search on the database using \
diseases \
as a keyword in \
all \
habitat types , biogeographic realm and countries results in a list of 547 species impacted by diseases ( iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 ) .
is relevant to all control strategies , particularly in the development of preventative measures . the infective unit of the fungus is the zoospore . infection by the fungus ( and thus spread of the disease ) requires water because the zoospore does not tolerate dehydration .
remains viable for up to 3 weeks in tap water , up to 4 weeks in deionised water and even longer in lake water . infection by an extremely small inoculum ( 100 zoospores ) is sufficient to cause a fatal infection ( berger
for a summary under the following headings : improving diagnostics and knowledge of epidemiology , developing trade and quarantine regulations , raising awareness and control options .
the amphibian conservation action plan ( acap ) is designed to provide guidance for implementing amphibian conservation and research initiatives at all scales from global down to local . chapter 4 outlines action steps relating to the detection and control of chytridiomycosis .
informations on batrachochytrium dendrobatidis has been recorded for the following locations . click on the name for additional informations .
australian department of the environment and heritage , 2004 . chytridiomycosis ( amphibian chytrid fungus disease ) . australia s natural heritage trust .
berger , lee , alex d . hyatt , veronica olsen , sandra g . hengstberger donna boyle , gerry marantelli , kaye humphreys , joyce e . longcore . , 2002 . production of polyclonal antibodies to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and their use in an immunoperoxidase test for chytridiomycosis in amphibians . diseases of aquatic organisms vol 48 213 - 220 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
berger , l . , hyatt , a . d . , olsen , v . , hengstberger , s . g . , boyle , d . , marantelli , g . , humphreys , k . , longcore , j . e . 2002 . production of polyclonal antibodies to batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and their use in an immunoperoxidase test for chytridiomycosis in amphibians , dis aquat organ . 48 ( 3 ) : 213 - 220 . ( abstract )
berger , l . , speare , r . , and hyatt . , a . d . 1999 . chytrid fungi and amphibian declines : overview , implications and future directions . declines and disappearances of australian frogs . 23 - 34 .
berger , l . , speare , r . , and kent , a . 1999 . diagnosis of chytridiomycosis in amphibians by histologic examination . summary : this paper outlines techniques for identifying the chytrid fungus . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
daszak , p . , a . strieby , a . a . cunningham , j . e . longcore , c . c . brown and d . porter . , 2004 . experimental evidence that the bullfrog ( rana catesbeiana ) is a potential carrier of chytridiomycosis , an emerging fungal disease of amphibians . herpetological journal , vol . 14 , pp . 201 - 207 ( 2004 ) summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
deweerdt , sarah . 2001 . coordinating an international monitoring program the declining amphibian populations task force . conservation in practice winter 2001 vol 2 no . 1
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gascon , c . , collins , j . p . , moore , r . d . , church , d . r . , mckay , j . e . and mendelson , j . r . iii ( eds ) . 2007 . amphibian conservation action plan . iucn / ssc amphibian specialist group . gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . 64pp . summary : the amphibian conservation action plan ( acap ) is designed to provide guidance for implementing amphibian conservation and research initiatives at all scales from global down to local . available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 june 2008 ]
johnson , megan l & richard speare , 2005 . possible modes of dissemination of the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in the environment . dis aquat org vol . 65 : 181�186 , 2005 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
johnson , m . l . and speare , r . 2003 . survival of batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in water : quarantine and disease control implications , emerging infectious diseases 9 ( 8 ) : 922 � 925 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]
johnson , m . l . , berger , l . , philips , l . and speare , r . 2003 . fungicidal effects of chemical disinfectants , uv light , desiccation and heat on the amphibian chytrid batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , diseases of aquatic organisms 57 ( 3 ) : 255 - 260 .
mazzoni , r . , cunningham , a . a . , daszak , p . , apolo , a . perdomo , p . and speranza . , g . 2003 . emerging pathogen of wild amphibians in frogs ( rana catesbeiana ) farmed for international trade , emerging infectious diseases 9 ( 8 ) : 995 - 998 .
michigan frog survey . 2003 . michigan frog survey update . michigan department of natural resources wildlife division natural heritage program .
parker , j . m . , mikaelian , i . , hahn , n . and diggs , h . e . 2002 . clinical diagnosis and treatment of epidermal chytridiomycosis in african clawed frogs ( xenopus tropicalis ) , comp med . 52 ( 3 ) : 265 � 268 . ( abstract )
rollins - smith , l . , reinert , l . k . , miera , v . and conlon , j . m . 2002 . antimicrobial peptide defenses of the tarahumara frog , rana tarahumarae , biochemical and biophysical research communications 297 ( 2 ) : 361 - 367 .
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speare r , berger l . global distribution of chytridiomycosis in amphibians . summary : this document gives details on the global distribution of the chytrid fungus , and was last updated in april 2004 . available from : urltoken [ accessed 11 november 2000 ] .
usdi ( united states department of the interior ) u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2003 . re : buck springs range management allotment plan
van - ells , t . , stanton , j . , strieby , a . , daszak , p . , hyatt , a . d . and brown , c . 2003 . use of immunohistochemistry to diagnose chytridiomycosis in dyeing poison dart frogs ( dendrobates tinctorius ) , journal of wildlife diseases 39 ( 3 ) : 742 - 745 .
bell , ben d . , scott carver , nicola j . mitchell , shirley pledger . , 2004 . the recent decline of a new zealand endemic : how and why did populations of archey�s frog leiopelma archeyi crash over 1996�2001 ? biological conservation 120 ( 2004 ) 189�199 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
berger , l , r speare , hb hines , g marantelli , ad hyatt , kr mcdonald , lf skerratt , v olsen , jm clarke , g gillespie , m mahony , n sheppard , c williams and mj tyler . , 2004 . effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis . australian veterinary journal volume 82 , no 7 , july 2004 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 september 2005 ]
berger , l . , speare , r . , daszak , p . , green , d . e . , cunningham , a . a . , goggin , c . l . , slocombe , r . , ragan , m . a . , hyatt , a . d . , mcdonald , k . r . , hines , h . b . , lips , k . r . , marantelli , g . and parkes , h . 1998 . chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of australia and central america , population biology ( proc natl acad sci u s a . ) 95 ( 15 ) : 9031 � 9036 . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 7 dec 2004 ]
berger , l . , speare , r . , hines , h . b . , marantelli , g . , hyatt , a . d . , mcdonald . , k . r . , skerratt , l . f . , olsen , v . , clarke , j . m . , gillespie , g . , mahony , m . , sheppard , n . williams , c . and tyler . m . j . 2004 . effect of season and temperature on mortality in amphibians due to chytridiomycosis , australian veterinary journal 82 ( 7 ) : 434 - 439 .
bosch , j . , martinez - solano , i . , and garcia - paris , m . 2000 . chytridiomycosis in spain : first european report of declines of wild amphibians associated with chytridiomycosis . summary : this article gives details about the first caseof chytrid fungus in spain . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
carey , c . , cohen , n . and rollins - smith , l . 1999 . amphibian declines : an immunological perspective . developmental and comparative immunology . 23 ( 6 ) : 459 - 472 . summary : this paper discusses the role of disease in amphibian decline , and the immunological response .
commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation ( csiro ) , 2003 . researching frog fungus .
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davidson , e . w . , parris , m . , collins , j . p . , longcore , j . e . , pessier , p . a . and brunner , j . 2003 . pathogenicity and transmission of chytridiomycosis in tiger salamanders ( ambystoma tigrinum ) ,
fellers , g . m . , green , d . e . and longcore , j . e . 2001 . oral chytridiomycosis in the mountain yellow - legged frog ( rana muscosa ) , copeia 4 : 945 - 953 .
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iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 . global amphibian assessment . downloaded on 4 may 2006 . summary : the global amphibian assessment ( gaa ) is the first - ever comprehensive assessment of the conservation status of the world s 5 , 918 known species of frogs , toads , salamanders , and caecilians . this website presents results of the assessments , including iucn red list threat category , range map , ecology information , and other data for every amphibian species . available from : urltoken [ accessed 5 november 2006 ] .
johnson , pieter . t . j . , 2006 . amphibian diversity : decimation by dusease . published online before print february 21 , 2006 , 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0600293103 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ]
kingsley d . environment news , 23 april 2002 . summary : this article gives details about the first reports of chytrid fungus in archey s frog . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
lips , karen . r , forrest brem , roberto brenes , john d . reeve , ross a . alford , jamie voyles , cynthia carey , lauren livo , allan p . pessier , and james p . collins . , 2006 . emerging infectious disease and the loss of biodiversity in a neotropical amphibian community . published online before print february 15 , 2006 , 10 . 1073 / pnas . 0506889103 summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ] available from : urltoken [ accessed 14 august 2006 ]
lips , k . r . , green , d . e . and papendick , r . 2003 . chytridiomycosis in wild frogs from southern costa rica , journal of herpetology 37 ( 1 ) : 215 - 218 .
lips , k . r . , mendelson , j . r . munoz - alonso , a . , canseco - marquez , l . and mulcahy , d . g . 2004 . amphibian population declines in montane southern mexico : resurveys of historical localities , biological - conservation 119 ( 4 ) : 555 - 564 .
morehouse , e . a . , james , t . y . , ganley , a . r . d . , vilgalys , r . , berger , l . , murphy , p . j . and longcore , j . e . 2003 . multilocus sequence typing suggests the chytrid pathogen of amphibians is a recently emerged clone , molecular ecology 12 ( 2 ) : 395 - 403 .
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norman , r . undated . chytrid fungus disease in new zealand . massey university institute of veterinary , animal and biomedical sciences . summary : article outlining the first case of chytrid fungus in new zealand . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
parris , m . j . 2004 . hybrid response to pathogen infection in interspecific crosses between two amphibian species ( anura : ranidae ) . evolutionary ecology research 6 : 457 - 471 . summary : b . dendrobatidis differentially affects genotypes between two species of hybridizing leopard frogs ( rana ) . hybrid genotypes are more susceptible to infection , and suffer greater reductions in growth and development from the fungus .
parris , m . j . and beaudoin , j . g . 2004 . chytridiomycosis impacts predator - prey interactions in larval amphibian communities , oceologia ( berlin ) 140 ( 4 ) : 626 - 632 . summary : b . dendrobatidis alters the outcome of natural predator - prey dynamics in a larval amphibian - predator system .
parris , m . j . and d . r . baud . 2004 . interactive effects of a heavy metal and chytridiomycosis on gray treefrog larvae ( hyla chrysoscelis ) . copeia 2004 : 343 - 349 . summary : b . dendrobatidis impacts on hyla larvae may be somewhat ameliorated in a heavy metal ( cu ) aquatic environment . thus , pathogenic effects may be a result of interactions with other aquatic contaminants .
parris , m . j . and t . o . cornelius . 2004 . fungal pathogen causes competitive and developmental stress in larval amphibian communities . ecology 85 : 3385 - 3395 . summary : this paper documents that b . dendrobatidis induces competitive effects in the larval environment between a toad ( bufo ) and treefrog ( hyla ) species .
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speare r , berger l . chytridiomycosis in amphibians in australia . summary : available from : urltoken [ accessed 9 october 2000 ] .
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waldman , b . , van de wolfshaar , k . e . , klena , j . d . , andjic , v . , bishop , p . , and norman , r . j . de b . 2001 . chytridiomycosis in new zealand frogs . surveillance . 28 ( 3 ) : 9 - 11 . summary : this article gives details about the first case of chytrid fungus in new zealand , including possible means of introduction and spread . available from : urltoken [ accessed 17 december 2004 ]
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young , b . e . , lips , k . r . , reaser , j . k . , ibanez , r . , salas , a . w . , rogelio cedeno , j . , coloma , l . a . , ron , s . , la marca , e . , meyer , j . r . , munoz , a . , bolanos , f . , chaves , g . and romo , d . 2001 . population declines and priorities for amphibian conservation in latin america . conservation biology . 15 ( 5 ) : 1213 - 1223 . summary : a discussion of the factors involved in the population declines of amphibians in latin america .
the global invasive species database was developed and is managed by the invasive species specialist group ( issg ) of the species survival commission ( ssc ) of the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) . it was developed as part of the global initiative on invasive species led by the erstwhile global invasive species programme ( gisp ) in 2000 . the gisd over the past two years and has been redesigned with support from the abu dhabi environment agency , the italian ministry of environment and ispra - the institute for environmental protection and research , italy . terms and conditions of use
next september , stri will join the international scientific community to celebrate a group of researchers who dedicated their careers to the study of the fungus and the preservation of panamanian amphibians , with hopes that soon we will also be able celebrate the successful reintroduction of these charismatic animals to their natural environment .
the panama - based smithsonian tropical research institute ( stri ) is the only dependency of the smithsonian institution located outside the united states and is dedicated to enriching knowledge about the biological diversity of the tropics ( www . stri . si . edu ) .
what began in 1923 as a small field station on isla barro colorado in the former panama canal zone , today represents one of the world’s leading research institutions . stri’s facilities provide a unique opportunity for long - term ecological studies in the tropics and are intensively used by more than 1400 scientists , including panamanians and visitors who come every year from academic and research institutions in the americas and around the world .
the global conservation movement has reached a turning point . we have documented the fast pace of habitat loss , the growing number of endangered and extinct species , and the increasing speed of global climate change . yet while the seriousness of these threats cannot be denied , there are a growing number of examples of improvements in the health of species and ecosystems , along with benefits to human well - being , thanks to our conservation actions . earth optimism is a global initiative that celebrates a change in focus from problem to solution , from a sense of loss to one of hope , in the dialogue about conservation and sustainability .
as human diseases become alarmingly antibiotic resistant , identification of new pharmaceuticals is critical . the cane toad and other members of the bufonidae family produce substances widely used in traditional folk medicine , but endangered family members , like panama’s golden frog , atelopus zeteki , may disappear before revealing their secrets . smithsonian scientists and colleagues catalog the known chemicals produced by this amphibian family in the journal of ethnopharmacology highlighting this largely - unexplored potential for discovery .


manoba major is a moth in the family nolidae .

it was described by hampson in 1891 .

it is found in india , taiwan , japan ( the ryukyu islands , burma , singapore , as well as on borneo , java , vanuatu and new caledonia . the habitat consists of coastal areas near mangroves . the wingspan is about 20 mm . the forewings are fawn with two darker smudges on the costa . the hindwings are fawn , fading to white at the base .

manoba major

wileman & west , 1929 , ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 10 ) , 3 : 190 ,
, but with the punctate fasciae much more clearly defined , and with blackish medial and subbasal shallowly triangular patches on the costa . the hindwings grade distinctly greyer towards the margin , and there is a grey discal mark . the antennae are very strongly bipectinate . the male genitalia resemble somewhat those of
hampson ( see above ) in having a rather robust uncus , narrow , slightly curved valves and a relatively basal harpe . the aedeagus is slender , rather bulbous basally and with a long , narrow vesica that terminates in a single , large cornutus . the species has been placed erroneously as a synonym of the lithosiine arctiid
indian subregion , taiwan , ryukyu is . , burma , singapore , borneo , ? java ( see below ) , vanuatu , new caledonia ( holloway , 1979 ) .
unusual for the genus , this species has been taken uniquely on the coast near mangrove in brunei .
if you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .
turner , a . j . 1944 ,
a revision of the australian nolidae ( lepidoptera )
, proceedings of the royal society of queensland , vol . 55 , pp . 13 - 50
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 04869551 - 6ed0 - 45d6 - 9fda - 7e2154bccc10
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 2a3f06a8 - 0c2d - 4bb9 - ab3f - 7b3648610d0b
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 4f876d59 - ec13 - 41dd - a4d2 - 6bcfffded472
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 92fcba19 - a305 - 46dd - 9646 - 6c452a99bd3f
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : e08fb699 - 543f - 4aee - bd5e - 5db7a9d16a00
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : fe614cda - c675 - 44cf - b380 - e40698349a63
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 525667
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[ south africa , kwazulu - natal ] , port natal [ durban ] , leg m . becker .
walker f . 1854b . list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum . part ii . – lepidoptera heterocera . - — 2 : i–iv , 279–581 .