the threadfin shad ( dorosoma petenense ) is a small pelagic fish common in rivers , large streams , and reservoirs of the southeastern united states .

like the american gizzard shad , the threadfin shad has an elongated dorsal ray , but unlike the gizzard shad its mouth is more terminal without projecting upper jaw .

the fins of threadfin shad often have a yellowish color , especially the caudal fin .

the back is grey to blue with a dark spot on the shoulder .

d. petenense is more often found in moving water , and is rarely found deep in the water column .

it occur in large schools , sometimes with gizzard shad , and can be seen on the surface at dawn and dusk .

the threadfin shad may reach lengths of 8 inches , but only rarely .

this fish is very sensitive to changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen , and die-offs are frequent in late summer and fall , especially when water temperature reaches 42 °f .

the threadfin shad is a favorite food for many game fishes including striped bass , largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , and catfishes .

this fish is widely introduced throughout the united states as a forage for game fish .

threadfin shad

like gizzard shad , threadfin shad are most commonly found in large rivers and reservoirs .
threadfin shad grow quickly and do not get as large as gizzard shad . average length is 4 inches .
often used as a bait fish . threadfin shad almost never bite on a hook .
threadfin shad spawn on the surface shortly after dawn along a weedy shoreline or in open water around rafts of driftwood and debris .
threadfin shad are a good baitfish for most game species and have been stocked in many lakes to provide more food for game fish .
unfortunately , the scientific community knows little about habitat use or movement patterns of gizzard and threadfin shad . as you might expect , shad are highly mobile and tend to school in very large abundance during the day , likely for protection from predators . however , at night shad tend to break from tightly packed schools and scatter . generally , smaller shad orient near the water surface , while adult shad tend to be evenly distributed from top to bottom .
spawn : threadfin shad spawn on hard surfaces near deep water but right on the surface . it occurs when water temperatures reach about 60° , usually during a full moon . the shad spawn is a prime time to fish for bass .
problems ? since threadfin shad are so sensitive to cold and don ' t grow to large sizes , they are not much of a problem for other gamefish , although the young shad do compete with young fish of other species for food .
strawn , k . 1965 . resistance of threadfin shad to low temperatures . proc . annual conf . southeastern assoc . game and fish comm . 17 : 290–293 .
haskell , w . l . 1959 . diet of the mississippi threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense atchafalayae , in arizona . copeia 1959 ( 4 ) : 298 - 302 .
lambou , v . w . , 1965 . observations on size distribution and spawning behavior of threadfin shad . trans . amer . fish . soc . 94 : 385–386 .
growth rates for threadfin are different than gizzard shad . most of the yearly spawn are 2 inches by late summer . they will reach 3 to 4 inches by october in most of the southern impoundments . threadfin will remain a potential bass food its entire life , particularly where fish in the 7 - pound - plus category cruise . shad are a barometer of water quality and bass populations . parallels are just beginning to show bass numbers and growth , relating to threadfin reproduction . when the shad numbers are strong , the bass are thriving . when the shad crash , the bass numbers fall .
threadfin shad , shown beside a golden shiner , mississippi ( inland ) silverside , sacramento pikeminnow , and wakasagi . photo by robert vincik , california department of fish and game .
threadfin shad , captured in rotary screw trap on the sacramento river at knight ' s landing on 11 / 23 / 2008 . photo by nicholas miguel , california department of fish and game .
lambou , v . w . 1965 . observations on size distribution and spawning behavior of threadfin shad . trans . amer . fish . soc . 94 ( 4 ) : 385 - 386 .
irwin - larrimore , e . r . 1989 . alewife and threadfin shad ecology in dale hollow reservoir , tennessee . m . sc . thesis , tennessee technological university , cookeville 66 pp .
threadfin shad naturally occur in waters west of the appalachian mountains , north to kentucky , west to east texas , south to the rio grande drainage , and east to florida . the species has been widely introduced in california and arizona , as well as appalachian and southern atlantic states . threadfin shad are common in all east texas streams and have been introduced as forage fish in many reservoirs statewide .
burns , j . w . 1966 . threadfin shad . pp . 481–488 . in : a . calhoun ( ed . ) inland fisheries management , california department of fish and game , sacramento .
parsons , j . w . and j . b . kimsey . 1954 . a report on the mississippi threadfin shad . prog . fish - cult . 16 ( 4 ) : 179 - 181 .
mclean , r . b . , p . t . singley , d . m . lodge & r . a . wallace . 1982 . synchronous spawning of threadfin shad . copeia 1982 : 952–955 .
the threadfin shad ( dorosoma petenense , shown in photo ) is an important baitfish in many lakes . they are small and provide high protein food for bass , crappie , stripers , hybrids and other fish .
gizzard and threadfin shad are closely related species . both are planktivores ( filter - feed microscopic , free - floating plants and animals with closely spaced gill rakers ) , grow rapidly , have short life spans , and associate in large schools . unique characteristics include an elongated , back dorsal fin ray and keeled midline from the throat to the anal fin . under 4 inches in length , both species are similar in appearance with blue or gray backs and silver sides , but are discernable by the shape of the snout and color of the tail . the gizzard shad has a rounded snout with a subterminal mouth , whereas threadfin shad have a pointed snout and terminal mouth ( i . e . , can open lower jaw by sliding finger off snout ) . threadfin also have a yellow - colored tail . however , gizzard shad reach much larger sizes ( > 10 inches ) than threadfin shad ( 4 inches = average adult size ) .
miller , r . v . 1967 . food of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense , in lake chicot , arkansas . trans . amer . fish . soc . 96 ( 3 ) : 243 - 246 .
griffith , j . s . 1978 . effects of low temperature on the survival and behavior of threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense . trans . amer . fish . soc . 107 ( 1 ) : 63 - 70 .
miller , r . r . 1963 . genus dorosoma rafinesque 1820 , gizzard shad , threadfin shad , 99 . 443 - 451 . in : family clupeidae . vol . 1 , pt . 3 . s . f . hildebrand , ed . memoir , sears foundation of marine research , yale university , new haven , connecticut .
schools of threadfin shad seek shoreline cover each night . this cover can take the form of grass , moss beds , logjams , standing timber or brushpiles . early in the morning , generally shortly after dawn , the threadfin leave this shallow water cover for deeper areas where they may disperse slightly for the balance of the midday period and early afternoon hours .
dorosoma is greek for
lance body
, referring to the lance - like shape of young shad . the word petenense refers to lake peten in the yucatan , the species type locality . threadfin shad are usually easily distinguished from gizzard shad by the fact that the upper jaw does not project beyond the lower jaw . the anal fin usually has 20 - 25 rays , as opposed to 29 - 35 rays found in gizzard shad . the upper surface is silver - blue and grades to nearly white on the sides and belly . all fins have yellow tint except the dorsal . in this species , unlike gizzard shad , the chin and floor of the mouth is speckled with black pigment . adults are considerably smaller than gizzard shad adults , rarely exceeding 6 inches in length .
berry , f . h . , m . t . huish , and h . moody . 1959 . spawning mortality of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense ( günther ) , in florida . copeia 1959 ( 3 ) : 192 .
johnson , j . e . 1971 . maturity and fecundity of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense ( günther ) , in central arizona reservoirs . trans . amer . fish . soc . 100 ( 1 ) : 74 - 85 .
gizzard shad spawning habits are similar to that of threadfin , but spawning is more likely to occur throughout the day . although gizzard shad can tolerate water temperatures near freezing , die - offs can occur due to sudden temperature changes resulting from severe cold fronts . gizzard shad seem to prefer plankton and typically grow very fast ( 4 - 7 inches within the first year ) . they also reach much larger sizes than threadfin shad , as adults exceed 10 inches and maximum size is 20 inches . this can be problematic in some reservoirs , as adults get too large to be eaten by bass and other predators and can comprise over half of the total fish biomass . in turbid reservoirs that have limited abundance of plankton , gizzard shad can adapt and feed on detritus ( decaying organic matter typically found on the bottom ) .
threadfin shad are the more abundant species in both sam rayburn and toledo bend reservoirs . threadfin shad are very prolific . spawning begins in the spring when water temperatures reach 70 degrees and continues through fall until temperatures drop below 70 degrees . some fish that were spawned in the spring will reach sexual maturity and spawn in the fall . spawning usually occurs in large groups along the shoreline or vegetation edges , as eggs are adhesive and sink . spawning is typically restricted to the first several hours of daylight . threadfin shad are not tolerant of cold water temperatures , as die - offs occur if water temperatures fall to below 45 - 50 degrees . young and adult threadfin eat phytoplankton and zooplankton , and primarily feed near the water surface . average lifespan is 2 - 4 years . average adults are 3 - 5 inches long and maximum length is 8 inches .
johnson , j . e . 1970 . age , growth , and population dynamics of threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense ( günther ) in central arizona reservoirs . trans . amer . fish . soc . 99 ( 4 ) : 739 - 753 .
native range of the threadfin shad is somewhat debated . before 1945 , the threadfin shad was found only in rivers and streams flowing into the gulf of mexico , from florida to mexico ( forbes and richardson , 1920 ; smith , 1979 ) . later , its range expanded northward ( trautman , 1981 ) . in 1948 , thread - fin shad were discovered in impoundments of the tennessee river ( tennessee valley authority , 1954 ) , and in 1957 the first illinois specimens were collected from tributaries of the ohio river ( minckley and krumholz , 1960 ) . an alternative opinion is that the threadfin shad was originally found as far south as belize and was distributed northward into gulf states as well as states bordering the lower mississippi and ohio rivers , including illinois and missouri ( page and burr , 1991 ) [ quoted from irons et al . 2009 ] .
feeding habits : plankton is the main food source for threadfin shad . they run in schools of similar size fish and you often see them feeding right on the surface late in the day when photosensitive plankton rises to the top as the sun sets .
lake and reservoir populations use both the shoreline and open water areas . essentially it is an open water species , living at or near the surface , however , they have been collected at depths of up to 100 feet . they will hybridize with the threadfin shad .
threadfin shad live primarily on microscopic plant and animal life , phytoplankton and zooplankton , which is why they are often found around rock riprap , bridge and dock pilings , and areas with gentle current where algae grows or is washed into the system . they are more surface - oriented than gizzard shad , and frequently move in huge schools just under the surface , sometimes migrating for miles each day .
kilambi , r . v . , and r . e . baglin , jr . 1969 . fecundity of the threadfin shad , dorosoma petenense , in beaver and bull shoals reservoirs . trans . amer . fish . soc . 98 ( 2 ) : 320 - 322 .
santucci , v . j . , jr . , and r . c . heidinger . 1986 . use of total myomere numbers to differentiate larvae of threadfin and gizzard shad . transactions of the illinois academy of science 79 ( 3 / 4 ) : 197 - 202 .
the threadfin then re - group and return to the shallow water cover late in the afternoon , frequently by reversing the same exit route they used that morning .
however , i suggest that anglers can take advantage of three predictable patterns of shad movement . 1 ) as stated above , when water temperatures are above 70 degrees , threadfin shad spawn in the early morning around cover , especially on vegetation edges . it is common for largemouth bass to pattern feeding around these morning spawns , which can pay big dividends to anglers . 2 ) it is common sense to assume that shad distribution , like bass , is primarily controlled by their prey ( plankton ) . because of this , wind blown points and banks can concentrate free - floating plankton . plankton attracts shad , which draws feeding bass . many anglers get discouraged with high winds , but controlled drifts with the waves on wind - blown areas can put fish in the boat on an otherwise slow day . 3 ) i could find only one scientific study that examined seasonal movements of shad . during the summer , shad were primarily off - shore in open water . however , in the fall the majority of shad left the open water and hit the banks , both during the day and night . shad tended to be uniformly scattered in shallow water , both in main lake areas and in coves . therefore , beating the banks and covering a lot of water may be the most productive fall bass fishing pattern .
burgess , g . h . 1980 . dorosoma petenense ( günther ) , threadfin shad . pp . 70 in d . s . lee , et al . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . n . c . state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , i - r + 854 pp .
gizzard shad grow quickly and attain a much larger size than threadfins . some adults can reach over 18 inches long and weigh over 2 - pounds .
distribution : native to the u . s . west of the appalachian mountains , north to kentucky , west to east texas , south to the rio grande drainage , and east to floridian rivers , the threadfin shad have been transplanted to waters all over the u . s . they do best in large rivers and lakes
threadfin shad school along the shoreline , with small groups of 1 - 2 females and 3 - 15 males breaking away and moving toward shore ; the groups swim erratically near surface , then move quickly toward a log , vegetation or other submerged object while releasing eggs and milt ( lambou 1965 ; wallus et al . 1990 ) .
baker , c . d . and e . h . schmitz . 1971 . food habits of adult gizzard and threadfin shad in two ozark reservoirs , pp . 3 - 11 . in : reservoir fisheries and limnology . g . e . hall , ed , spec . publ . , no8 , american fisheries society , washington d . c .
gizzard shad are omnivorous filter feeder taking both phytoplankton and zoo plankton . the adults have more than 400 , fine gill rakers that can catch minute plankton . gizzard shad have an unusual digestion process for fish . the vegetable material they eat is ground in a gizzard like stomach . some bottom material is often ingested while feeding .
threadfin shad can spawn by the end of their first summer but will usually wait until their second summer to mate . this occurs between april and august and peaks in june or july when temperatures are greater than 20°c although spawning between 14°c and 18°c has been seen . at dawn threadfin shad will gather near a submerged or floating object and will begin charging at it , turning away at the last instant . at this point of turning , eggs or sperm are released and thrown so that they stick to the object or fertilize eggs that are already stuck . females will release 900 - 21 , 000 eggs in a season depending on their size . these eggs will hatch 3 - 6 days later into
diet includes phytoplankton such as blue - green bacteria , diatoms , and green algae ; dipteran larvae ; water mites ; invertebrate eggs ; and fish larvae ( haskell 1959 ; miller 1967 ; baker and schmitz 1971 ; goldstein and simon 1999 ) . baker and schmitz ( 1971 ) noted that threadfin shad feed more in the water column than does the similar species
attraction to light : threadfin are attracted to light , and at night they can be found around lighted docks . many fishermen put out lights to attract them and the game fish that follow .
found in the backwaters of sluggish rivers and the deep , slow pools of smaller streams . gizzard shad become more abundant as a lake gains fertility through natural aging or added pollutants . they are often found over a mucky bottom , which they filter when feeding . unlike many other herrings , gizzard shad are non - migratory and stay near their home areas .
threadfin shad are more likely to be found in waters with a noticeable current and are usually in the upper five feet of water . they are quite temperature sensitive , with die - offs reported at temperatures below 45°f . spawning begins in the spring when water temperatures reach approximately 70°f , and may continue into the summer . during spawning , one or more females are accompanied by several males .
concern exists regarding possible impacts on other fish species with planktonic larvae , such as minnows and suckers , and on young centrarchids . dill and cordone ( 1997 ) stated that threadfin compete with young centrarchids for food and that they have destroyed kokanee fishing in some areas . population increases and crashes of threadfin shad caused diet shifts from zooplankton to zoobenthos , as well as an increase in tissue mercury content due to benthic foraging , in several species of zooplanktivorous fishes ( inland silverside ; young - of - year largemouth bass and bluegill ) in clear lake , california ( eagles - smith et al . 2008 ) .
factors contributing to this problem are the gizzard shad ' s high reproductive capacity , rapid growth rate , and efficient and direct use of plankton ( hubbs 1934 ; miller 1960 ; bodola 1965 ) .
shelton , w . l . , c . d . riggs & l . g . hill . 1982 . comparative reproductive biology of the threadfin and gizzard shad in lake texoma , oklahoma - texas . pp . 47–51 . in : c . f . bryan , j . v . connor & f . m . truesdale ( ed . ) the fifth annual larval fish conference , louisiana cooperative fisheries research unit , baton rouge .
tisa , m . s . & j . j . ney . 1991 . compatibility of alewives and gizzard shad as reservoir forage fish . trans . amer . fish . soc . 120 : 157–165 .
conditions for gizzard shad populations are optimal in warm , fertile , shallow bodies of water with soft mud bottoms , high turbidity , and relatively few predators ( miller 1960 ; zeller and wyatt 1967 ) .
down - looking echogram of data collected in a mobile survey in j . strom thurmond reservoir on the savannah river , georgia . the layer of small fish above the thermocline ( here approximately the top quarter of the water column ) are mostly threadfin shad . the layer of medium - sized fish below the thermocline is mostly blueback herring . the few individual large fish distributed between the layers and among the blueback herring are most likely striped bass .
the gizzard shad spawns in spring , may to june , when water temperatures reach the mid 60s to mid 70s . will start at 50 degrees . usually has a six week spawning period . the gizzard shad spawn begins at night in shallow water . as early as age two they gather in large schools to broadcast their eggs and milt in shoreline shallows . females produce up to 400 , 000 eggs that are randomly scattered adhere to plants , rocks or firm substrate . when conditions are perfect , gizzard shad can actually spawn a second time . eggs hatch in two to three days . no nesting behavior or parental care is shown by adults .
moderate to heavy predation by large game species , fluctuating water levels , deep clear water , and steep shorelines ( factors that are less than optimal for many species ) tend to be associated with lower gizzard shad populations .
the gizzard shad has the typical herring family shape , but with a distinctive dorsal fin . its short , soft - rayed dorsal fin is located at the center of its back . it has a long , trailing filament as the rear ray , longer than any of the other rays . the gizzard shad ' s back is silvery blue - green to gray . the sides are silvery or reflect blue , green , brassy or reddish tints . there is no lateral line . the tail is deeply forked , and the lower jaw is slightly shorter than the upper jaw . the snout is blunt . the mouth is small , and there is a deep notch in the center of the upper jaw . the gizzard shad ' s eye is large . there is a big , purplish - blue spot near the edge of the upper gill in young gizzard shad and small adults . this spot is faint or disappears completely in larger , older fish . the fins are dusky and there are the usual herring sawtooth - edged belly scales . gizzard shad grow rapidly and can reach a maximum size of about 18 inches .
gizzard shad are filter feeders straining small organisms particularly from organic deposits . adults have fine gill rakers to strain these minute plant plankton ; the food is ground and digested in their gizzard - like stomach , hence the name .
latitudinal trends in reproductive characteristics are evident for some species of clupeidae . however , selection for life history styles may operate at the population level . the reproductive cycles of alewife alosa pseudoharengus and threadfin shad dorosoma petenense in dale hollow reservoir , tennessee , were monitored over two spawning seasons on the basis of a gonadosomatic index ( gsi ) . inshore movements normally associated with spawning migrations were monitored using gill nets in spring 1989 . gsi values peaked for both species at least one month earlier in 1989 than in 1988 due to warmer water temperatures earlier in the year . highest gsi values for female alewife occurred each year when surface water temperatures were about 20° c ; threadfin shad gsi values peaked at temperatures of 22°–26° c . trends in male gsi values in both species were similar to those in females . alewives were not abundant in warm ( > 22° c ) , shallow water after 1 may 1989 , but alewife gsi values remained high after this date , suggesting that elevated inshore temperatures limited alewife reproduction . all aspects of alewife reproduction were comparable to other populations of alewife but did not follow latitudinal trends . threadfin shad reproductive characteristics were similar to other published accounts . we suggest that thermal regimes and reservoir trophic status are important factors for clupeid reproduction and population - level analysis is suggested when considering reproductive styles . further , our ability to predict the ecology of introduced species in freshwater systems is impaired when species considered have not coevolved or evolved in marine environments .
threadfin shad can be found in the open waters of sluggish backwaters , large ponds , and reservoirs where they stay close to the inlets of small streams or along the surfaces of dams . they are dependent on light for foraging and will generally stay high in the water column , rarely dropping deeper than 18 m . they are warm water fish that prefer summer temperatures between 22°c and 24°c and will die if the water drops below 6°c . they are very tolerant of salinity and can even live in salt water although it seems to lead to problems with reproduction . they are most often found in schools organized by size with smaller groups tending to be deeper in the water column , especially at night . it is not uncommon to see these schools very close to the surface as they are chased by fish below and by birds from above . threadfin shad feed exclusively on plankton but have two methods of catching it , resulting in a broad diet of the available invertebrates . small zooplankton , phytoplankton , and detritus are filtered through their gill
texas distribution : eastern half of the state ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) . warren et al . ( 2000 ) listed the following drainage units for distribution of threadfin shad in the state : red river ( from the mouth upstream to and including the kiamichi river ) , sabine lake ( including minor coastal drainages west to galveston bay ) , galveston bay ( including minor coastal drainages west to mouth of brazos river ) , brazos river , colorado river , san antonio bay ( including minor coastal drainages west of mouth of colorado river to mouth of nueces river ) , nueces river .
size : adults may reach five to seven inches but most are one to two inches long . many shad die off each winter due to cold water - - they can not live in water colder than 35° and start dying off at 45° - - so not many reach a big size .
life cycle : females lay eggs on hard surfaces in shallow water and males fertilize them from first light to sunrise when the water temperature reaches the high 60° range . eggs hatch and the tiny shad school up and eat plankton , gradually moving to deeper water . they stay in the open deep water until time to spawn the next spring .
life span 3 - 11 years , few live beyond age 3 . in general , short life spans are correlated with rapid growth rates in the first year of life . in more northern parts of its range , gizzard shad typically live to ages 5 to 7 and may live to ages 10 or 11 ( miller 1960 ; jester 1962 ) .
larvae that stay near the surface during the day and fall deeper into the water column at night . they will mature into juveniles when they are 2 cm in length , approximately 2 - 3 weeks later depending on the water temperature . in optimal conditions they will grow 1 - 3 cm per month for the first summer but usually reach only 4 - 6 cm by end of their first year . few live to be older than 2 years or grow to over 10 cm long . the largest threadfin shad found in california was a 22 cm long individual from the salton sea where the salt water decreases reproduction , and thus competition , allowing each individual a larger amount of prey than they would find in a freshwater lake of the same size .
growth is rapid , up to seven inches in the first year have been recorded . their rapid growth means that largemouth and smallmouth bass are able to eat them for only a short time each spring . after the spawn , the gizzard fry just explode in growth . they will be 1 1 / 2 to 2 inches in midsummer , but by late fall , they ' re often 5 inches long and a little large for the majority of largemouth bass . shad school up as juveniles in quiet surface waters , adults near bottom . striped bass are the dominant predator for the large gizzards and keep them under control so that young largemouth bass and large shad don ' t have to compete for the same limited planktonic food allowing the fingerling black bass to grow quicker .
like many other anglers , i am always researching ways to catch more largemouth bass . while watching a fishing show featuring rick clunn , a legendary tournament angler known for his intellectual out - of - the - box approach , a point he made really struck home with me . that is , far too many anglers spend all their time researching the habits and behavior of largemouth bass . time may be better spent researching habits and life histories of their prey species . why ? because with the exception of the largemouth bass spring spawning period , prey species habits and movement control a majority of largemouth bass location and behavior ( i . e . , find the bait and you find the bass ) . this article focuses on the life history of the primary prey species at sam rayburn and toledo bend reservoirs : gizzard and threadfin shad .
description : the elongated fin on the dorsal fins gives the threadfin its name . the mouth is terminal and the lower part of the upper jaw is not notched . the anal fin has 20 to 28 rays ; the dorsal , 10 to 13 rays . color is bluish gray on the back with a persistent black or purple spot just behind the head . the lower side is silver to creamy white . the fins have a yellow tint , which gives it the local name of “yellowtails” ) .
gizzard shad of all ages are extremely fragile , and handling them or keeping them in captivity for controlled laboratory testing is difficult even under the best of circumstances ( shoemaker 1942 ; bodola 1965 ; reutter and herdendorf 1974 ) ; consequently , many specific habitat requirements can only be assumed from field observations , and few or no quantitative data are available for most habitat variables . comprehensive life history and habitat information was given by bodola ( 1965 ) , jester and jensen ( 1972 ) , and miller ( 1960 ) .
we analyzed data on spring and summertime larval and juvenile fish distribution and abundance in the upper san francisco estuary ( sfe ) , california between 1995 and 2001 . the upper sfe includes the tidal freshwater areas of the sacramento - san joaquin delta downstream to the euryhaline environment of san pablo bay . the sampling period included years with a variety of outflow conditions . fifty taxa were collected using a larval tow net . two common native species , delta smelt hypomesus transpacifucus and longfin smelt spirinchus thaleichthys , and four common alien taxa , striped bass morone saxatilis , threadfin shad dorosoma petenense , gobies of the genus tridentiger , and yellowfin goby acanthogobins flavimanus , were selected for detailed analysis . outflow conditions had a strong influence on the geographic distribution of most of the species , but distribution with respect to the 2 psu isohaline ( x2 ) was not affected . the distribution patterns of delta smelt , longfin smelt , and striped bass were consistent with larvae moving from upstream freshwater spawning areas to down - stream estuarine rearing areas . there were no obvious relationships of outflow with annual abundance indices . our results support the idea of using x2 as an organizing principle in understanding the ecology of larval fishes in the upper sfe . additional years of sampling will likely lead to additional insights into the early life history of upper sfe fishes . ? ? copyright by the american fisheries society 2004 .
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greek , doris = lance + greek , soma = body ( ref . 45335 )
doro = meaning lanceolate ; soma = body ( referring to the body shape of the young ) , and petenense , for the type locality lake petén , guatemala ( ref . 79012 )
marine ; freshwater ; brackish ; pelagic - neritic ; anadromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 39049 ) . subtropical ; 20°c - 30°c ( ref . 115833 ) ; 42°n - 15°n , 159°w - 81°w ( ref . 188 )
north and central america : gulf of mexico drainage , mississippi system , from the ohio river of kentucky and southern indiana southwest to oklahoma , and south to texas and florida , also rivers around the gulf to northern guatemala ; also belize river , british honduras . introduced in hawaiian waters ( ref . 188 ) and in chesapeake bay tributaries ( ref . 93252 ) .
maturity : l m ? , range 5 - 5 . 5 cm max length : 33 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 96339 ) ; common length : 10 . 0 cm sl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9291 ) ; max . reported age : 4 years ( ref . 12193 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 0 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 11 - 15 ; anal spines : 0 ; anal soft rays : 17 - 27 ; vertebrae : 43 - 44 . body moderately deep ; belly with 15 to 18 + 8 to 12 scutes . mouth small . last dorsal fin ray long , about equal to distance from snout tip to mid - pectoral fin or beyond ; anal fin relatively short . scales relatively large , regularly arranged . a dark spot behind gill opening . gill rakers fine and numerous ( ref . 188 ) . body bright silvery , especially on sides , opercles and underparts . back and upper sides bluish black or dark olivaceous ( ref . 37032 ) .
often schooling , occurring mainly in freshwater ( in large rivers , reservoirs , lakes , and swamps ) . prefer the presence of smooth , steep - sided surfaces such as dams , cement - lined pools and rip rapped streams ( ref . 39049 ) . but adults are also found in brackish or saline water of estuaries and bays ( up to 32 . 3 ppt salinity ( ref . 39050 ) ; juveniles to about 15 ppt ) . larvae are pelagic probably found only in freshwater ( ref . 39046 ) . filter - feeders , but not entirely herbivorous since recorded food items include copepods , cladocerans and fish fry . also feed on organic material of sand and detritus bottoms ( ref . 9114 ) . breed in the spring and in autumn , in freshwater , near or over plants or other objects . eggs adhere to aquatic vegetation ( ref . 4639 ) . caught exclusively in fresh waters and sometimes in mouths of rivers ( ref . 9291 ) . also ref . 58302 .
breed in spring and again in autumn , in open waters near or over plants or other objects ; eggs slightly adhesive ( ref . 188 ) . females can produce 5 , 000 to 20 , 000 eggs depending upon their size ( ref . 44091 ) .
whitehead , p . j . p . , 1985 . fao species catalogue . vol . 7 . clupeoid fishes of the world ( suborder clupeoidei ) . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of the herrings , sardines , pilchards , sprats , shads , anchovies and wolf - herrings . fao fish . synop . 125 ( 7 / 1 ) : 1 - 303 . rome : fao . ( ref . 188 )
) : 23 . 3 - 28 . 1 , mean 25 . 5 ( based on 182 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5312 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00560 - 0 . 01485 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 83 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 2 . 8 ±0 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tm = 1 - 2 ; tmax = 4 ; fec = 800 ) .
prior r = 0 . 59 , 2 sd range = 0 . 26 - 1 . 34 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 53 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 41 , based on : 4 tgen , 1 tmax , 3 fec records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low to moderate vulnerability ( 31 of 100 ) .
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the nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .
etnier and starnes ( 1993 ) ; moyle ( 1976a ) ; whitehead ( 1985 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) .
given the fact that they were stocked in the tennessee river and were able to migrate from there , and the fact that there are no early records , we consider it not - native to areas upstream of the lower tennessee river ( on both the tennessee and the mississippi and ohio rivers ) . many of the areas of arkansas are also questionable . the earliest record for the state is 1955 despite a fair amount of sampling in the state ( as depicted by fishnet2 . net ) .
table 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations† . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of dorosoma petenense are found here .
alafia ; apalachicola ; apalachicola bay ; aucilla ; big cypress swamp ; blackwater ; caloosahatchee ; cape canaveral ; charlotte harbor ; chipola ; choctawhatchee bay ; crystal - pithlachascotee ; daytona - st . augustine ; escambia ; everglades ; florida southeast coast ; hillsborough ; kissimmee ; lake okeechobee ; little manatee ; lower chattahoochee ; lower choctawhatchee ; lower ochlockonee ; lower st . johns ; lower suwannee ; myakka ; nassau ; new ; northern gulf of mexico ; northern okeechobee inflow ; oklawaha ; peace ; pensacola bay ; sarasota bay ; southern florida ; st . andrew - st . joseph bays ; st . johns ; tampa bay ; tampa bay ; upper st . johns ; vero beach ; withlacoochee ; yellow
altamaha ; apalachicola basin ; broad ; coosawattee ; cumberland - st . simons ; etowah ; little ; lower chattahoochee ; lower flint ; lower savannah ; middle chattahoochee - lake harding ; middle chattahoochee - walter f ; ogeechee coastal ; ohoopee ; satilla ; savannah ; tugaloo ; upper ocmulgee ; upper oconee ; withlacoochee
bear - wyaconda ; beaver reservoir ; bull shoals lake ; cahokia - joachim ; lower missouri ; lower missouri - moreau ; lower osage ; new madrid - st . johns ; peruque - piasa ; salt ; south grand ; spring ; the sny ; upper mississippi - cape girardeau ; upper white
arkansas - white - red region ; bird ; black bear - red rock ; blue ; bois d ' arc - island ; cache ; chikaskia ; clear boggy ; deep fork ; dirty - greenleaf ; elk ; farmers - mud ; illinois ; kaw lake ; kiamichi ; lake o ' the cherokees ; lake texoma ; little ; lower canadian ; lower canadian - walnut ; lower cimarron ; lower cimarron - skeleton ; lower neosho ; lower north canadian ; lower north fork red ; lower salt fork arkansas ; lower verdigris ; lower washita ; middle north canadian ; middle verdigris ; middle washita ; pecan - waterhole ; polecat - snake ; poteau ; robert s . kerr reservoir ; spring ; upper little
* hucs are not listed for states where the observation ( s ) cannot be approximated to a huc ( e . g . state centroids or canadian provinces ) .
prefers lakes , ponds , rivers , reservoirs and estuaries , but does not endure cold water ( 7 - 14°c ) . spawning occurs often before one year of age over vegetation or logs in open water at 21°c .
it is unknown whether the populations on the east coast of georgia resulted from past stocking or from dispersal through estuarine waters ( miller and jorgenson 1969 ; dahlberg and scott 1971b ) . populations in other locations were intentionally stocked as forage .
canadian river population possibly extirpated ( sublette et al . 1990 ) . populations in several west virginia lakes extirpated by cold weather ( stauffer et al . 1995 ) . probably not established in the platte drainage of colorado ( walker 1993 ) . introduced and abundant in reservoirs of the colorado river ( deacon and williams 1984 ) . starnes et al . ( 2011 ) report that it is likely extirpated from the potomac river system . established in other areas .
stock introduced into the colorado river was from the tennessee river ( minckley 1973 ) . dill and cordone ( 1997 ) gave the history of the introduction of this species into california . although lee et al . ( 1980 et seq . ) listed the species as native to florida , gilbert ( personal communication ) believes there is a considerable amount of circumstantial evidence to indicate that this species is not native east of the mississippi river , but was introduced as a forage fish beginning in the early 1900s . gilbert cites the fact that there are no published records of the species east of the mississippi river prior to the 1940s . expansion of the range of this species during the past half century likely resulted from a combination of natural range extension and human introduction ( gilbert , personal communication ) .
boschung , h . t . 1992 . catalogue of freshwater and marine fishes of alabama . alabama museum of natural history bulletin 14 : 1 - 266 .
bouc , k . 1987 . the fish book . nebraskaland magazine 65 ( 1 ) : 1 - 130 .
bradley , w . g . and j . e . deacon . 1967 . the biotic communities of southern nevada . nevada state museum anthropological papers no . 13 , part 4 . 201 - 273 .
burkhead , n . m . , s . j . walsh , b . j . freeman , and j . d . williams . 1997 . status and restoration of the etowah river , an imperiled southern appalachian ecosystem . pages 375 - 444 in benz , g . w . , and d . e . collins , eds . aquatic fauna in peril : the southeastern perspective . southeast aquatic research institute , lenz design & communications . decatur , ga .
burr , b . m . , and m . l . warren , jr . 1986 . a distributional atlas of kentucky fishes . scientific and technical series no . 4 . kentucky state nature preserves commission , frankfort , ky .
clay , w . m . 1975 . the fishes of kentucky . kentucky department of fish and wildlife resources , frankfort , ky .
cooper , e . l . 1983 . fishes of pennsylvania . pennsylvania state university press , university park , pa .
cross , f . b . 1967 . handbook of fishes of kansas . state biological survey and university of kansas museum of natural history , miscellaneous publication 45 , topeka , ks .
dahlberg , m . d . , and d . c . scott . 1971a . the freshwater fishes of georgia . bulletin of the georgia academy of science 29 : 1 - 64 .
dahlberg , m . d . , and d . c . scott . 1971b . introductions of freshwater fishes in georgia . bulletin of the georgia academy of science 29 : 245 - 252 .
eagles - smith , c . a . , t . h . suchanek , a . e . colwell , n . l . anderson , and p . b . moyle . 2008 . changes in fish diets and food web mercury bioaccumulation induced by an invasive planktivorous fish . ecological applications 18 ( 8 supplement ) : a213 - a226 . urltoken
erdsman , d . s . 1984 . exotic fishes in puerto rico . pages 162 - 176 in courtenay , w . r . , jr . , and j . r . stauffer , jr , eds . distribution , biology , and management of exotic fishes . john hopkins university press . baltimore , md .
jenkins , r . e . , and n . m . burkhead . 1994 . freshwater fishes of virginia . american fisheries society , bethesda , md .
la rivers , i . 1962 . fishes and fisheries of nevada . nevada state print office , carson city , nv .
lee , d . s . , c . r . gilbert , c . h . hocutt , r . e . jenkins , d . e . mcallister , and j . r . stauffer , jr . 1980 et seq . atlas of north american freshwater fishes . north carolina state museum of natural history , raleigh , nc .
maciolek , j . a . 1984 . exotic fishes in hawaii and other islands of oceania . pages 131 - 161 in w . r . courtenay , jr . , and j . r . stauffer , jr . , editors . distribution , biology , and management of exotic fishes . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , md .
matern , s . a . , p . b . moyle , and l . c . pierce . 2002 . native and alien fishes in a california estuarine marsh : twenty - one years of changing assemblages . transactions of the american fisheries society 131 : 797 - 816 .
menhinick , e . f . 1991 . the freshwater fishes of north carolina . north carolina wildlife resources commission , raleigh , nc .
miller , r . r . , and c . h . lowe . 1967 . part 2 . fishes of arizona . pages 133 - 151 in lowe , c . h , ed . the vertebrates of arizona . university of arizona press . tuscon , az .
miller , g . l . , and s . c . jorgenson . 1969 . seasonal occurence and length of frequency distribution of some marine fishes of coastal georgia . data report no . 35 . u . s . fish and wildlife service , washington , dc .
miller , r . j . , and h . w . robison . 1973 . the fishes of oklahoma . oklahoma state university press , stillwater , ok .
minckley , w . l . 1973 . fishes of arizona . arizona fish and game department . sims printing company , inc . , phoenix , az .
minckley , w . l . , and l . a . krumholz . 1960 . natural hybridization between the clupeid genera dorosoma and signalosa , with a report on the distribution of s . petenensis . zoologica 44 ( 4 ) : 171 - 180 .
moyle , p . b . 1976a . inland fishes of california . university of california press , berkeley , ca .
moyle , p . b . 1976b . fish introduction in california : history and impact on native fishes . biological conservation 9 : 101 - 118 .
moyle , p . b . and j . randall . 1999 . distribution maps of fishes in california . urltoken .
page , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . the peterson field guide series , volume 42 . houghton mifflin company , boston , ma .
pflieger , w . l . 1975 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city , mo .
raasch , m . s . , and v . l . altemus , sr . 1991 . delaware ' s freshwater and brackish water fishes - a popular account . delaware state college for the study of del - mar - va habitats and the society of natural history of delaware . 166 pp .
rasmussen , j . l . 1998 . aquatic nuisance species of the mississippi river basin . 60th midwest fish and wildlife conference , aquatic nuisance species symposium , dec . 7 , 1998 , cincinnati , oh .
red river authority of texas . 2001 . red and canadian basins fish inventory : grayson county . red river authority of texas .
red river authority of texas . 2001 . red and canadian basins fish inventory : red river county . red river authority of texas .
schmidt , b . - chief fisheries mangement , division of wildlife resources , salt lake city , ut . response to nbs - g non - indigenous questionaire . 1992 .
smith , p . w . 1979 . the fishes of illinois . university of illinois press , urbana , il .
sommer , t . , b . harrell , m . nobriga , r . brown , p . moyle , w . kimmerer , and l . schemel . 2001 . california ' s yolo bypass : evidence that flood control can be compatible with fisheries , wetlands , wildlife , and agriculture . fisheries 26 ( 8 ) : 6 - 16 .
southwick , r . - district fisheries supervisor , virginia department of game and inland fisheries . richmond , va . response to nbs - g non - indigenous questionaire . 1992 .
starnes , w . c . , j . odenkirk , and m . j . ashton . 2011 . update and analysis of fish occurrences in the lower potomac river drainage in the vicinity of plummers island , maryland—contribution xxxi to the natural history of plummers island , maryland . proceedings of the biological society of washington 124 ( 4 ) : 280 - 309 .
stauffer , j . r . , jr . , j . m . boltz , and l . r . white . 1995 . the fishes of west virginia . academy of natural sciences of philadelphia , philadelphia , pa .
sublette , j . e . , m . d . hatch , and m . sublette . 1990 . the fishes of new mexico . new mexico department of game and fish , university of new mexico press , albuquerque , nm .
tilmant , j . t . 1999 . management of nonindigenous aquatic fish in the u . s . national park system . national park service . 50 pp .
woodling , j . 1985 . colorado ' s little fish : a guide to the minnows and other lesser known fishes in the state of colorado . colorado division of wildlife , denver , co .
zuckerman , l . d . , and r . j . behnke . 1986 . introduced fishes in the san luis valley , colorado . pages 435 - 452 in r . h . stroud , ed . fish culture in fisheries management . proceedings of a symposium on the role of fish culture in fisheries management at lake ozark , mo , march 31 - april 3 , 1985 . american fisheries society , bethesda , md .
pam fuller , and matt neilson , 2018 , dorosoma petenense ( günther , 1867 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 12 / 28 / 2016 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018
this information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .
the data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .
citation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .
contact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .


the fitzinger 's robber frog ( craugastor fitzingeri ) is a species of frog in the family craugastoridae .

it is found in colombia , costa rica , honduras , nicaragua , and panama .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , and heavily degraded former forest .

craugastor fitzingeri

craugastor ( craugastor ) fitzingeri — hedges , duellman , and heinicke , 2008 , zootaxa , 1737 : 37 .
hylodes ( craugastor ) fitzingeri — cope , 1862 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 14 : 153 .
craugastor fitzingeri eats a variety of invertebrate prey items ( lieberman 1986 ) . shifts in prey preferences occur as individuals age ( whitfield and donnelly 2006 ) .
craugastor fitzingeri does not aggregate or coordinate with other individuals when calling ( duellman 1976 ) . however , calling is thought to aid males in spacing themselves territorially ( savage 2002 ) .
individuals may be found on low vegetation and debris in the forest , and near forest edges ( savage 2002 ) . snakes such as liophis epinephalus consume craugastor fitzingeri ( sexton and heatewole 1965 ) .
hylodes ( craugastor ) pulchrigulus — cope , 1863 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 15 : 48 .
hylodes ( craugastor ) griseus — cope , 1863 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 15 : 48 .
lithodytes ( craugastor ) griseus — cope , 1866 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 18 : 132 .
eleutherodactylus ( craugastor ) fitzingeri — hedges , 1989 , in woods ( ed . ) , biogeograph . w . indies : 317 , by implication ; lynch , 1996 , in powell and henderson ( eds . ) , contr . w . indian herpetol . : 154 .
craugastor fitzingeri — crawford and smith , 2005 , mol . phylogenet . evol . , 35 : 551 , by implication ; frost , grant , faivovich , bain , haas , haddad , de sá , channing , wilkinson , donnellan , raxworthy , campbell , blotto , moler , drewes , nussbaum , lynch , green , and wheeler , 2006 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 297 : 360 .
both species are members of the rugulosus species group , and are limited to forested riparian habitats . these species are much more robust frogs ( they have been described as
fitzingeri on steroids
) , and with experience are easily distinguished from
eleutherodactylus fitzingeri — stejneger , 1904 , annu . rep . u . s . natl . mus . for 1902 : 582 - 583 , by implication ; dunn , 1931 , occas . pap . boston soc . nat . hist . , 5 : 385 .
craugastor pulchrigulus cope , 1862 , proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 14 : 357 . holotype : usnm 4354 , lost , according to savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 296 , who designated lacm 76859 neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , rejected the neotype designation . type locality :
truando
, depto . chocó , colombia . neotype from
panamá : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory
. synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 298 .
hylodes fitzingeri schmidt , 1857 , sitzungsber . akad . wiss . wien , phys . math . naturwiss . kl . , 24 : 12 . holotype : km 1012 / 1343 , lost according to savage , 1970 , proc . california acad . sci . , ser . 4 , 38 : 273–288 , who designated lacm 76859 neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , discussed reasons for rejecting the neotype designation . type locality :
neu - granada
; expanded by schmidt , 1858 , denkschr . akad . wiss . wien , math . naturwiss . kl . , 14 : 248 to
cordilleren von neu - granada [ western panama ] in einer höhe von gegen 4000′ [ polish feet , therefore = 915 m , according to savage , 1970 , proc . california acad . sci . , ser . 4 , 38 : 273–288 ]
. neotype from
panamá : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory
.
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .
this species was previously within the genus eleutherodactylus ( crawford and smith , 2005 ) .
justification : listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , tolerance of a degree of habitat modification , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .
this species is known from northeastern honduras and northwestern costa rica , south to northwestern colombia , up to 1 , 520m asl .
this species is often common in costa rica , although populations have undergone some recorded declines at la selva ( federico bolaños pers . comm . ) .
an inhabitant of humid lowland and montane forest , and is often seen in disturbed forest or forest edge . in lowland dry forest areas , it is restricted to riparian gallery forest in the dry season , but disperses throughout forest in the wet season ( federico bolaños pers . comm . ) . reproduction occurs by direct development . in colombia , it has not been recorded from secondary forest .
museum specimens of this species have been found to have chytrid fungi ( r . puschendorf pers . comm . ) , but populations are still high . there are no major threats to the species habitat overall at present as it has a wide range .
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gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .
the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .
a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .
the following account comes from lynch and myers ( 1983 ) , savage ( 2002 ) , and personal observations .
are moderate - sized frogs . adult males have snout - vent lengths ( svl ) of 23 . 5 - 35 . 0 mm , adult females ' svl reaches 52 . 5 mm . skin on dorsum is mildly tuberculate and variably patterns with different shades of brown , tan and black . ventral skin is quite smooth . the ventral abdomen is bright white in adults , while the ventral thighs are often yellowy . the two main field characters for identification are 1 ) the distinct yellowish dots on the otherwise brown posterior surface of the thighs , and 2 ) the presence of fine pigmentation in the gular ( throat ) region that is conspicuously absent from the middle of the gular area , thus forming a white longitudinal mid - gular stripe . gular pigmentation is sometimes faded or absent , however , and the mid - gular stripe difficult to observe .
adult males can usually be sexed by their larger tympanum ( 3 / 5 to 4 / 5 of eye length in males , but 2 / 5 to 3 / 5 of eye length in females ) , and by the presence of a rather small white nuptial pad on the thumb . males also have vocal slits on the floor of their mouths . subgular vocal sac not usually evident externally . finger i longer than finger ii ; disc on fingers i and ii round , and on fingers iii and iv truncate . toes more or less webbed , the modal webbing formula is = i 2 - - 2 + ii 1 3 / 4 - 3 - iii 21 / 2 - 4 - iv 4 - - 21 / 2 . lateral fringes on unwebbed portion of toes .
display a variety of color patterns from gray brown , orangish brown up olive . some animals have a mediodorsal stripe that can be light brown , gray or yellowish . occasionally frogs have an irregular stripe that can form a w - shape over the scapular area of the back . the lips have gray or brown lineal stripes alternated with whitish stripes . tiny hatchings are nearly black all over , with a bright white gular stripe that appears almost painted on .
are found in sympatry and both have yellow dots on the posterior thighs . however , the dots in
might also have a longer rostrum and sharper canthus rostralis , but this has not been verified . two other species of
inhabits humid lowlands and lower montane forest ( 0 - 1200 m ) from eastern honduras and southward along both atlantic and pacific versants of costa rica and panama , and into northwestern colombia in the inter - andean valleys and in the chocoan lowlands as far south as the bay of buenaventura . detailed locality records are found in the following references : mccranie and wilson ( 2002 ) on honduras , koehler ( 2001 ) on nicaragua , savage ( 2002 ) on costa rica , and lynch and myers ( 1983 ) on panama and colombia .
this species is one of the most common species in southwest costa rica occurring in secondary and primary forest . in this region they make up an important component , ~ 50 % of prey , in the diets of the snakes bothrops asper and leptodiera septentrionalis ( ryan , unpublished ) .
occurs in a variety of habitats , from the wet rain forests of northwestern of colombia to seasonally dry gallery forest on the pacific side of central panama .
is commonly found in disturbed places including shrubs near houses and pastures ( pers . obs . ) , however this species also occurs in primary forest ( lynch and myers 1983 ) .
is mainly nocturnal , but it is possible to find it by day on the forest floor , or concealed in leaf litter . at night one usually finds these frogs on leaves or low branches . lynch and myers ( 1983 ) report finding this species on rocks in small streams . often one hears
start to call sporadically at around 3 or 4 o ' clock in the afternoon ( pers . obs . ) .
has two distinct calls ( lynch and myers 1983 ; ibanez et al . 1999 ) . one call sounds very much like a person striking two small stones together about eight times , starting slowly but with increasing frequency . in fact , the patient observer will often find that she can get
to respond to this noise in the field ( g . hoebel , pers . comm . ; pers . obs . ) . some people visiting or native to lower central america occasionally mistake this
call for the call of an introduced species of house gecko that is commonly heard inside buildings in urban areas here . the second call of
consists of one or two click sounds , that may be reasonably imitated by a person using the tongue against the roof of one ' s mouth . calls of
are otherwise sporadic and the calling frog difficult to locate . however , it does seem they will call in response to each other ' s calls , as well as human imitations or recordings of conspecifics ( lynch and myers 1983 ) . although not experimentally demonstrated , the second , shorter call may be a more aggressive , territorial call ( lynch and myers 1983 )
the males call generally from elevated positions on low plants . hoebel ( 1999 ) made the following observations on
at la selva biological station , heredia , costa rica . the height of perch sites varied between 0 and 1 . 6 m , and the males perched significantly higher that females or juveniles . there were no significant differences in perch height between calling and silent males , between males calling by day or night , or between males calling on dry or rainy nights . because males that call only sporadically are difficult to locate , lynch and myers ( 1983 ) suggested that this calling behavior may be an adaptation to avoid acoustically foraging predators such as the frog - eating bat ,
shows direct development , often with some form of parental care of the terrestrial eggs ( savage 2002 ) . females attend eggs that are typically deposited in the leaf litter or in holes in tree buttresses . mendoza et al . ( 2002 ) report finding a nest in a small cavity on the ground containing a clutch of 85 round and yellowish eggs , with a female
sitting on the nest . ryan ( 2005 ) reports eggs are placed and cared for in small depressions on the forest floor under the leaf litter , but can be found in litter piles near buttresses . in southwest costa rica eggs with attendant females have been found in january , february , april , june , and september , suggesting prolonged breeding that spans the dry and wet seasons . average number of eggs per clutch was 67 . 3 ± 19 . 8 ( range 24 – 81 ) eggs for 10 clutches . average nest dimensions was 61 x 69 x 23 mm ( length x width x depth ) . during the day females sit on the eggs completely covering the entire clutch , and she stay with the eggs until they hatch ( ryan 2005 ) . hatchlings are 7 . 2 mm svl and possess a visible yellow yolk sac and stay near the nest for up to 24 hours after hatching ( ryan 2005 ) .
is among the most abundant and widespread frogs of lower central america . among native species of
, this one may be the most tolerant of habitat disturbance and open spaces . this frog can be found crossing lawns , calling from manicured bushes and low thickets , but never too far from forested habitat . therefore , this species is of very low conservation concern relative to other frogs .
these frogs are non - poisonous and completely harmless . they are probably not consumed by people .
the karyotype is 2n = 22 , typically with two pairs of metacentric chromosomes , three of submetacentric , three telocentrics and one subtelocentric chromosome . however , individual and geographic variation can be found especially in the number of metacentric and submetacentric pairs so that the nf = 36 , 38 , 40 ( de weese 1976 cited in savage 2002 ) .
lynch , j . d . and duellman , w . e . ( 1997 ) .
lynch , j . d . , and myers , c . w . ( 1983 ) . ' ' frogs of the
mccranie , j . r . , and wilson , l . d . ( 2002 ) . ' ' the amphibians of honduras . ' '
k . adler and t . d . perry , eds . , society for the study of amphibians and reptiles , ithaca , new york .
quijano , f . m . , santos - barrera , g . , and pacheco - rodríguez , j . ( 2002 ) . ' '
los anfibios del monumento natural barro colorado , parque nacional soberania y areas adyacentes / the amphibians of barro colorado nature monument , soberania national park and adjacent areas .
ryan , m . j . ( 2005 ) . ' ' egg attendance by female frogs in two species of eleutherodactylus from costa rica . ' '
carolina polaña and andrew crawford ( caropil at yahoo . com , crawfordaj at naos . si . edu ) , smithsonian tropical research institute
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .
> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .
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species description based on savage ( 2002 ) . medium - sized frog . males to 35 mm , females to 53 mm .
the color of the dorsal surface ranges from gray - brown to brown to orange - brown . a lighter middorsal stripe is sometimes present . the dorsal surface is quite warty , with some ridging .
the belly is pale white or yellow , while the throat is almost always grey with a white line down the center . the ventral surface is smooth .
the rear surface of the thigh has many light yellow spots on a dark brown to black background . the upper surface of the thigh usually has some dark bars . the undersides of the thighs are usually yellowish or greenish .
iris grayish or bronzish ( one , the other , or both ) , with a brown or red stripe dividing the upper and lower halves .
dunn ( 1931 ) reported a clutch of 44 eggs attended by a male found in leaf litter . later studies suggested it was probably a female because of its large size ( lynch and myers 1983 ) .
a series of harsh clacks ( savage 2002 ) that sounds rather like a cackle . males generally call after heavy rains and around dusk , but do not call late into the night ( savage 2002 ) . the vocal sac is internal ( savage 2002 ) .
tracie
the bug lady
invites you on an out of this world walk on . . .
a night tour would not be complete without encountering a common rain frog . this is by far the most common nocturnal frog in drake bay .
they are medium sized frogs , and adults measure between 23 and 53 millimeters . as with most frogs , females are much larger than males . males are very vocal and can be heard calling sporadically throughout the night , much more frequently during the rainy season .
their advertising call has been described as a series of
clacks
, resembling two small rocks being struck against one another . males will respond to other calling males as well as to humans imitators . this makes locating these frogs a much easier task . it seems that males respond to other calls with a much shorter and harsher cackle , possibly a territorial call . males seem to be quite territorial and we have had several irate frogs approach us frantically when we call out to them .
coloration and color patterns may be quite variable within this species . some individuals have a stripe running down their back , some have spots , while others have a solid color . coloration may range from gray to brown and anywhere in between .
this has led to much confusion and many misidentifications of these frogs by researchers throughout the years .
even with all of these variations , they do have a few distinguishing characteristics . a pattern of yellow spots overlaid on a dark background located on the back of the thighs and a diffuse white line running down the middle of their throat are diagnostic . their call is also diagnostic . since females don ' t call , though , this is only useful in identifying males .
despite being so abundant , common rain frogs have proven to be something of an enigma for scientists . the first recorded discovery of their nest dates back to june 2 , 1931 . dunn found a nest with 44 eggs laid on the ground , underneath leaf litter . there was an adult frog , probably a female , guarding the egg clutch .
incredibly , this was the only recorded egg clutch found by scientists for over 70 years ! during these 7 decades researches pursued , unsuccessfully , their quest for the common rain frog ' s egg clutch . a thirteen month study of the leaf litter carried out at la selva biological station failed to reveal any nests .
in 2002 , 71 years after the first nest was discovered , mendoza found a second common rain frog nest on the ground with 85 eggs and a female frog guarding them . the embryos in this species go through direct development inside the egg . they never have a free swimming tadpole stage and tiny , fully formed frogs emerge from the eggs .
common rain frogs are known to exist in humid zones of honduras , nicaragua , costa rica , panama , and colombia .
© 2018 gianfranco gómez and tracie stice . all rights reserved . the use of any photographs , reproduced in any form or by any means , electronic or mechanical , or stored in a retrieval system , without prior consent of the owner - is an infringement of the copyright law and is forbidden .
fitzinger ' s robber frog found in corcovado , costa rica in 2013 . filmed by heidi rockney
* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .
will find all uses of
hyl . . .
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. . . hyla
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hyla grisea hallowell , 1861
1860
, proc . acad . nat . sci . philadelphia , 12 : 485 . holotype : not stated , although possibly still in usnm ; reported as ansp , lost , by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 296 , who designated lacm 76859 neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , rejected the neotype designation . type locality :
nicaragua
. neotype from
panamá : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory
. synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 289–299 .
leiyla güntheri keferstein , 1868 , arch . naturgesch . , 34 : 296 . holotype : ziug , now destroyed , according to savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 296 , who designated lacm 76859 as neotype . lynch and myers , 1983 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 175 : 530 , rejected the neotype designation . type locality :
costarica
. neotype from
panamá : canal zone : barro colorado island , near the laboratory
. also described as new by keferstein , 1868 , nachr . ges . wiss . göttingen , 1868 : 330 . synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 289 - 299 . junior secondary homonym of hylodes güntheri steindachner , 1864 .
lithodytes guentheri — cope , 1887 , bull . u . s . natl . mus . , 32 : 16 .
liohyla guentheri — günther , 1900 , biol . centr . amer . , rept . batr . , vol . 7 , part 155 : 220 .
hylodes nubilus günther , 1901 , biol . centr . amer . , rept . batr . , vol . 7 , part 162 : 237 . holotype : bmnh 1947 . 2 . 15 . 80 ( formerly 1902 . 5 . 13 . 29 ) , according to xxx . type locality :
costa rica , [ provincia de san josé , cantón de escazú , ] escazu
, 1000 m . savage , 1974 , rev . biol . tropical , 22 : 90 , commented on the type locality . synonymy by savage , 1974 , herpetologica , 30 : 289 - 299 .
eleutherodactylus nubilus — noble , 1918 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 38 : 331 . taylor , 1952 , univ . kansas sci . bull . , 35 : 762 .
eleutherodactylus griseus — cei , 1956 , invest . zool . chilen . , 3 : 54 .
fitzinger ' s robber frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 74 ) .
humid lowlands and lower montane forest ( 0–1200 m ) from northeastern honduras , eastern nicaragua and south and east throughout both atlantic and pacific versants of costa rica and panama , and into northwestern colombia on the pacific lowlands and upper basins of the cauca river valley .
please note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .
for access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .
copyright © 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .
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amphibian species of the world : an online reference v5 . 3 , database ( version 5 . 3 )
frost , darrel r . 2009 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 3 ( 12 february , 2009 ) . electronic database accessible at urltoken american museum of natural history , new york , usa
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .


eupithecia argentea is a moth in the geometridae family .

it is found in south-western china ( sichuan ) .

the wingspan is about 21 mm .

the fore - and hindwings are off-white .

eupithecia argentea

eupithecia lavicaria fuchs , 1902 ( syn : eupithecia lavicata prout , 1914 ) , described from norway .
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eupithecia is a large genus of moths of the family geometridae . there are hundreds of described species , found in all parts of the world ( 45 in the british isles alone ) , and new species are discovered on a regular basis .
eupithecia species form the bulk of the group commonly known as pugs . they are generally small with muted colours and specific identification can be difficult . as a group they are easily identified by their narrow wings held flat at 90° to the body with the hindwings almost hidden behind the forewings .
the larvae of many species feed on the flowers and seeds of their food plants rather than the foliage . many species have a very specific food plant . some hawaiian eupithecia are predators of other insects ( e . orichloris , e . staurophragma , e . scoriodes ) . they mimic twigs but when sensitive hairs on their backs are triggered , they quickly grab the insects touching them . the defensive behavior of snapping may have pre - adapted hawaii ' s ancestral eupithecia for shifting to predation from feeding on pollen . also , insect predators that behave in this way are lacking in hawaii ' s fauna .
a taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .
the name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .
the author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by
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and the number of omitted authors .
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created by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .
what a lovely catalog of larvae . never enough larvae pics to distinguish what is on my plant . thank you !
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chinery , michael ( 1986 ) . collins guide to the insects of britain and western europe ( reprinted 1991 ) .
skinner , bernard ( 1984 ) . colour identification guide to moths of the british isles .
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