jasus paulensis , also commonly known as the st paul rock lobster , is a species of spiny lobster found in the waters around saint paul island in the southern indian ocean and around tristan da cunha in the southern atlantic ocean .

at one time the rock lobsters on tristan da cunha were believed to be a separate species known as the tristan rock lobster ( jasus tristani ) , but the use of mitochondrial dna sequencing has shown them to be identical .

some authorities , for example the iucn , retain them as separate species .

the tristan rock lobster features on the coat of arms and the flag of tristan da cunha .

jasus paulensis

afrikaans kreef [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )
afrikaans kaapse kreef [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )
english cape crawfish [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )
english cape crayfish [ from synonym ] for jasus ( jasus ) lalandii ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )
jasus paulensis ( heller , 1862 ) : beurois ( 1971 ) [ statut pour les îles subantarctiques ] beurois , j . 1971 . régime alimentaire de la langouste jasus paulensis ( heller , 1862 ) des iles saint - paul et amsterdam ( ocean indien ) résultats préliminaires . téthys , 3 : 943 - 948 .
distribution of jasus spiny lobsters in the mid - latitude southern . . . | download scientific diagram
grua , p . , 1963 . maturité , cycle sexuel , soies ovigères des langoustes australes femelles jasus paulensis heller , 1863 . etude statistique . comité national français recherches antarctiques , 4 : i - viii , 1 - 35 , figs 1 , 2 , graphs 1 - 14
english australian crayfish [ from synonym ] for jasus ( sagmariasus ) verreauxi ( h . milne edwards , 1851 )
villacorta - rath c , et al . outlier snps enable food traceability of the southern rock lobster , jasus edwardsii .
to assess the probe efficiency in non - target species ( i . e . those not used for the initial probe design ) , we assessed the recovery of loci across the modern jasus samples including j . edwardsii , j . frontalis , j . lalandii , j . paulensis and j . tristani .
grua , p . , 1960 . les langoustes australes ( jasus lalandii ) . biologie - milieu - exploitation commerciale . terres australes antarctiques françaises , 10 : 15 - 40 , figs
morgan emj , green bs , murphy np , strugnell jm . investigation of genetic structure between deep and shallow populations of the southern rock lobster , jasus edwardsii in tasmania , australia .
for the target - capture experiment , we collected 87 samples of modern and museum specimens of jasus comprising six species j . edwardsii , j . caveorum , j . frontalis , j . lalandii , j . paulensis and j . tristani . specimens of s . verreauxi ( n = 16 ) were included to evaluate the custom probe set and the efficiency between ddrad and target - capture methods for the validated loci in both methods ( supplementary table s11 ) .
porobić j , canales - aguirre cb , ernst b , galleguillos r , hernández ce . biogeography and historical demography of the juan fernández rock lobster , jasus frontalis ( milne edwards , 1837 )
the genus jasus encompasses six lobster species ( j . caveorum , j . edwardsii , j . frontalis , j . lalandii , j . paulensis and j . tristani ) that are distributed throughout the southern hemisphere 37 . j . edwardsii is the most widespread species within the genus , whilst the other species maintain limited geographical distributions , with some species known from only a single seamount ( e . g . j . caveorum ) . these species all support valuable fisheries , and have been exploited for more than one hundred years 38 .
pca across and within species based on snp genotypes , where no deamination filter was applied . for each dataset , the sample passed filters and snp pruning was adjusted to allow 0 . 10 maximum missing data per site and maf < 0 . 05 : ( a ) pca across six jasus species , 146 snps and 53 samples passed filters ; ( b ) pca of j . lalandii , 154 snps and 19 samples passed filter ; ( c ) pca of j . edwardsii , 748 variants and 12 samples passed filters ; ( d ) pca of j . paulensis , 124 variants and 14 samples passed filters .
deamination and transition / transversion ratio were calculated over filtered variants using vcftools 0 . 1 . 14 60 . snp pruning , diversity indices ( f st , heterozygosity and maf ) and pca were estimated for all jasus species using plink 1 . 9 61 .
booth , j . d . & ovenden , j . r . distribution of jasus spp . ( decapoda : palinuridae ) phyllosomas in southern waters : implications for larval recruitment . mar . ecol . prog . ser . 200 , 241–255 ( 2000 ) .
sample quality of modern and museum jasus specimens . ( a ) box - plot of mean gc content and year since sample collection . ( b ) linear regression between a 260 / a 280 ratio and gc content ; blue dots represent museum samples and red dots represent modern samples .
museum samples ( n = 47 ) were donated by the national institute of water and atmospheric research ( niwa ) and te papa museum ( new zealand ) . the samples were collected in 1967 ( j . lalandii and j . paulensis ) , 1991 ( j . edwardsii and j . lalandii ) and 1995 ( j . caveorum ) . samples were preserved in ethanol / isopropanol ( mostly evaporated ) . in some cases preservation methods were not indicated .
holthuis , l . b . and e . sivertsen . 1967 . the crustacea decapoda , mysidacea and cirripedia of the tristan da cunha archipelago with a revision of the
frontalis
subgroup of the genus jasus . results norwegian scientific expedition to tristan da cunha , 52 : 1 - 55 , text figs 1 - 9 , pls 1 - 5
a total of 40 lobsters samples were collected between 2010 and 2015 . the french southern and antarctic lands ( terres australes et antarctiques françaises - taaf ) provided j . paulensis pleopod tissue collected in 2014 . j . lalandii and j . tristani pereiopod samples , collected during in 2015 in south africa and tristan da cunha islands , respectively , were donated by the south african department of agriculture , fisheries and forestry . j . frontalis were sampled in juan fernandez archipelago in 2010 43 , these samples were donated by the universidad de concepcion ( chile ) .
the efficiency of the target capture experiment non - target jasus species was assessed using only modern samples ( n = 40 ) . the overall target coverage was given by the mean depth of targets for each species using bedtools 2 . 26 62 . mean coverage ( sample coverage depth ) , heterozygous read rate and gc content of samples were estimated from sample alignments using bbmap ( urltoken ) .
figure 1 . distribution of jasus spiny lobsters in the mid - latitude southern hemisphere based on booth ( 2006 ) . sampling locations for the present study were as follows : ( 1 ) st paul and amsterdam islands ; ( 2 ) seamount 150 ( located on the southwest indian ridge ) ; ( 3 ) gough and inaccessible islands ( tristan da cunha archipelago ) ; and ( 4 ) vema seamount .
principal component analysis and scatter plot of locus - specific f st vs observed heterozygosity of jasus species in modern samples . ( a ) and ( b ) 313 snps from the ddrad original probe set ; ( c ) and ( d ) 647 snps from the assembly - based reference . maximum missing data per site was set to 0 . 10 , maf < 0 . 05 , and overall f st was estimated according to weir & cockerham ( 1984 ) .
number of variable loci shared amongst each of six jasus species . ( a ) the left panel displays the number of loci shared among five ( 5 ) , four ( 4 ) , three ( 3 ) and two ( 2 ) species , or found only in a single species ( 1 ) in the assembly - based reference ( black and grey stacked column ) and the corresponding significant blast hits to the original probe set ( grey ) . ( b ) the right panel is a graphic representation of target enrichment hybridization reaction showing library size , captured fragments size and off - target reads . the grey lines represent the 120 - mer probes , the orange lines represent the library fragments and the black arrows represent overlapping / non - overlapping paired - end reads ( read 1 and read 2 ) .
in order to compare the target - genome divergence among species and its effects on target enriched sequencing , a nonparametric correlation was performed among sequencing yield ( given in number of processed reads ) , mapped reads , gc content , mean coverage and mapping quality for each species using spss v22 . 0 ( ibm corp . , ny , usa ) . univariate analysis of variance was applied to test whether gc content and mean coverage were significantly different among jasus species . the sequencing yield effect was included as a covariate , since it was previously explored as a random factor within a one - way anova analysis and found to be significant . data were checked with levene’s test and logarithm transformed to ensure normality and homogeneity of variance . principal component analysis ( pca ) including all variables was performed using past 3 . 12 ( urltoken ) .
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batchelor , a . , de silva , r . , dyer , e . , kasthala , g . , lutz , m . l . , mcguinness , s . , milligan , h . t . , soulsby , a . - m . & whitton , f .
has been assessed as data deficient . this species was formerly known from a very restricted range ( st paul and new amsterdam islands ) , however a few recent specimens have been collected from other seamounts along the south west indian ridge . this species faces a number of threats including intense harvesting within the st paul and new amsterdam islands eez , and intrinsic threats associated with its small range . the abundance of this species outside of the current fishing grounds is unknown therefore making it difficult to draw any conclusions on the impact of fishing to the global population . further surveys are needed for this species along the seamounts of the south west indian ridge before a more accurate assessment of conservation status can be made .
this species was originally only known from the st . paul and amsterdam islands in the southern indian ocean , with a single specimen has also been reported from the kerguelen islands ( holthuis 1991 ) , however recently additional specimens have been collected from seamounts along the south west indian ridge ( j . groeneveld pers . comm . 2011 ) . these indicate that the species is far more widely , but sparsely , distributed along the south west indian ridge than previously thought .
typically this species is found on rocky substrates at a depth range of 0 - 60 m , although is most commonly found in the kelp zone at a depth range of 10 - 35 m ( holthuis 1991 ) . females are most commonly taken from may to october , while males are most commonly taken from november to april ( holthuis 1991 ) .
this species is harvested as a food source and is taken using lobster pots ( holthuis 1991 ) . only a single ship harvests this fishery , and undertakes two trips per year with each trip lasting up to two months ( biais 2009 ) . recent information from the french rock lobster fishery in the st paul and amsterdam eez shows a consistent catch of around 350 - 400 t ( g . duhamel pers . comm . 2011 ) . “yields ( kg / pot ) are presently increasing along the period 2001 - 2010” ( g . duhamel pers . comm . 2011 ) .
the major threat to this species is high levels of exploitation . an intrinsic threat is this lobster ' s extremely restricted range . this species is also susceptible to environmental fluctuations for both adult and larval stages , and also to single catastrophic events .
an annual fishing quota of 400 tonnes is in place for this species . further surveys for this species are needed along the south west indian ridge in order to better understand both distribution and abundance .
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broad and flattened , about as wide as long , much larger than the small spines .
type locality :
st . paul
, [ = st . paul island in the southern part of the western
. a report of the catch of a single lobster in kerguelen islands by aubert de la rüe ( 1954 : 119 ) seems very reliable and is well documented ( the specimen was brought up with algae entangled in the anchor of the ship
lozère
, a catch witnessed by a . berland ) ; but this evidently is a freak occurrence , as no lobster catches have been reported from the kerguelen either before or after this event .
the species lives at depths between 0 and 60 m , on rocky or gravel bottom , being most numerous in the kelp zone between 10 and 35 m . egg - layingstarts in may , and
females have been observed until november , or exceptionally early december . females are caught from may to october , while males dominate in most catches from november to april . the animals are nocturnal and feed on plants and ( dead ) animal matter .
cm ( females ) . the specimes from amsterdam island on the average are slightly smaller than those from st . paul island .
the fishing grounds are restricted to the islands of st . paul and amsterdam , the shorelines of which are respectively 12 and
heller , 1862 , verhandlungen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft wien , 12 : 525 .
aubert de la rüe , e . , 1954 . deux ans aux iles de la désolation , archipel de kerguelen : 1 - 316 , pls ( r . juliard , paris ) .
fischer , w . and g . bianchi ( eds ) , 1984 . fao species identification sheets for fishery purposes . western indian ocean ( fishing area 51 ) , vol . 5 : pag . var .
heller , c . , 1862b . neue crustaceen , gesammelt während der weltumseglung der k . k . fregatte navara . zweiter vorläufiger bericht . verhandlungen zoologisch - botanischen gesellschaft wien , 12 : 519 - 528 .
williams , a . b . , 1986 . lobsters - identification , world distribution , and u . s . trade . marine fisheries review , 48 ( 2 ) : 1 - 36 , figs 1 - 80
contains the volume of fish catches landed by country or territory of capture , by species or a higher taxonomic level , by fao major fishing areas , and year for all commercial , industrial , recreational and subsistence purpose . more > >
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en - st . paul rock lobster , fr - langouste de st . paul , sp - langosta de st . paul .
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disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
holthuis , l . b . 1991 . fao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date . fao fisheries synopsis . 125 ( 13 ) : 292 p .
fao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date
english agassiz ' s lobsterette for nephropsis agassizii a . milne - edwards , 1880
english atlantic deep - sea lobster for acanthacaris caeca a . milne - edwards , 1881
english blind deep sea lobster for acanthacaris caeca a . milne - edwards , 1881
english blue spot rock lobster for panulirus longipes ( a . milne - edwards , 1868 )
english blunt slipper lobster for scyllarides squammosus ( h . milne edwards , 1837 )
deep sea between 122 and 1400 m , mostly between 122 and 900 m . [ details ]
deep sea between 878 and 2560 m , most common between 1100 and 1900 m . [ details ]
deep sea from 470 to 1804 m , mostly between 900 and 1400 m ; bottom mud . [ details ]
deep sea from 580 to 1160 m , bottom mud or sandy mud . [ details ]
deep - sea species from 640 to 1054 m depth . bottom very flat , of soft mud ( ooze ) . possibly a burrowing species . [ details ]
depth range from ( 205 - ) 260 to 373 ( - 390 ) m . [ details ]
depth range from 0 . 6 to 180m , usually between 0 . 6 and 64m [ details ]
found in deep water ( 406m ) , but also in 59 - 61m depth . [ details ]
in shallow water , from the sublittoral down to 15m depth , in coral reef areas , often on seaward edges of the reef . . . [ details ]
littoral zone to 0 . 5m deep , in sheltered bays and estuaries [ details ]
a deepsea species from 293 to 878 m depth ( mostly between 550 and 825 m ) . lives on soft mud bottoms in burrows . [ details ]
burrowing in muddy sand of the intertidal zone , sometimes under rocks . burrows y - shaped , and about 0 . 6 to 1 . 0m deep [ details ]
continental shelf between 0 and 150 m depth ; usually not deeper than 50 m . found on hard substrates : rock or hard . . . [ details ]
deep sea between 137 and 824 m , mostly between 200 and 600 m . bottom : mud or fine sand . [ details ]
deep sea between 170 and over 1060 m , usually between 500 and 750 m . on soft muddy substrates . [ details ]
deep sea between 420 and 1260 m , mostly between 500 and 800m . on muddy or sandy bottoms . [ details ]
deep sea between 655 and 1234 m , most catches between 800 and 1300 m ; substrate sand or mud , sometimes with rubble . [ details ]
deep sea between 786 and 2029 m , most catches between 1600 and 1900 m . substrate : mud . [ details ]
depth range between 230 and 360 ( - 400 ) m . soft substrate ( mud or coralfine rubble ) . [ details ]
depth range from 140 to 640 m ; substrate mud or sandy mud , firm enough for burrowing . [ details ]
depth range from 230 to 700 m , most common between 300 and 500 m ; on a substrate of sand or mud . [ details ]
depth range from 250 to 750 m , but mostly between 300 and 450 m . substrate of hard mud ; the species possibly lives . . . [ details ]
found at 560 m depth ; bottom solid bluish grey mud overlaid by softer brown mud . [ details ]
in shallow , sometimes slightly turbid coastal waters , from 1 to 8 m depth , with a few records from depths as great . . . [ details ]
shallow coastal waters , rock pools , etc . the extreme rarity of the species is the cause that very little is known . . . [ details ]
the species lives at depths between 0 and 60 m , on rocky or gravel bottom , being most numerous in the kelp zone . . . [ details ]
the species lives in coastal waters at depth between 0 and 46 m , on rocky bottoms , sometimes with patches of sand . . . [ details ]
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holthuis , l . b . 1991 . fao species catalogue . vol 13 . marine lobsters of the world . an annotated and illustrated catalogue of species of interest to fisheries known to date . fao fisheries synopsis . 125 ( 13 ) : 292 p . [ details ]
habitat the species lives at depths between 0 and 60 m , on rocky or gravel bottom , being most numerous in the kelp zone between 10 and 35 m . [ details ]
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carla a . souza , 1 nicholas murphy , 1 cecilia villacorta - rath , 2 laura n . woodings , 1 irina ilyushkina , 3 cristian e . hernandez , 4 bridget s . green , 2 james j . bell , 3 and jan m . strugnell 5 , 1
open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4 . 0 international license , which permits use , sharing , adaptation , distribution and reproduction in any medium or format , as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author ( s ) and the source , provide a link to the creative commons license , and indicate if changes were made . the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons license , unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material . if material is not included in the article’s creative commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use , you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder . to view a copy of this license , visit urltoken .
in order to obtain a ddrad loci catalogue . this was used as a template to design the mybait
assembly , using liberal similarity thresholds ( 75 % ) , revealed putative paralogous loci , which were discarded . redundant loci ( present in multiple assemblies ) were synonymized into single loci as described in the methods section . across all three assemblies only 123 loci were shared between the two species , and 2 , 267 were species - specific ( 1 , 219 were from
. the percentage of missing loci over all samples was 52 . 4 ± 19 . 2 for
histograms displaying the number of shared loci among samples in ddrad libraries of j . edwardsii ( a ) and s . verreauxi ( c ) samples . overlapping histograms of target - capture and ddrad representing the percentage of missing data among validated loci in j . edwardsii ( b ) and s . verreauxi i ( d ) .
) . the enriched loci were sequenced on a single 250 x 2 illumina miseq sequencing run , generating 4 . 6 gbp ( giga base pairs ) of sequence data ( 1 . 29 % sequencing error rate and 84 . 49 % of data above q30 score ) . subsequent trimming and removal of low quality reads and external contaminants resulted in 800 and 174 mbp high - quality data for modern and museum specimens , respectively . the lower sequencing output for museum samples is likely due to low yield dna extracts , which were highly fragmented and possessed a low a
museum samples ( n = 8 ) generated sequencing data sufficient to enable variant calling and were excluded from downstream analysis .
as the probes were developed with j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi ddrad libraries , we initially examined the probe capture efficiency in these two taxa .
. in addition , the target - capture approach resulted in less missing data within each species than the ddrad sequencing approach ( fig .
target - capture enriched sequencing and genotyping efficiency between j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi sampling .
we were able to re - sequence and validate 54 loci reported in villacorta - rath et al . 15 in eight j . edwardsii samples replicates . besides , the average level of missing data among these loci in our target - capture experiment was 15 . 96 % within j . edwardsii species . it means that the ddrad loci outliers discovered in a previous study 15 were successfully re - sequenced and could be enriched and sequenced in range of populations to investigate genome signatures of selection .
species and a further 112 were shared across at least three species . only two loci were detected from a single species ( fig .
number of reads mapped to original probe set ( ddrad loci ) and assembly - based reference with corresponding levels of similarity threshold ( * ) .
* overall loci counts across species . * * ( maq ≥ 5 ) .
) . after discarding snps in linkage disequilibrium , those with greater than 10 % missing data or a minor allele frequency ( maf ) lower than 0 . 05 , 313 informative snps remained across all modern
samples . these snps had a mean heterozygosity of 0 . 32 ± 0 . 16 and a global
of 0 . 15 . pca analyses of this data revealed three main clusters ( fig .
) , which is unsurprising given that these snps are testing species level differences , however , the remaining snps allow population - level assessment within multiple taxa .
species , including ‘off - target’ loci ( i . e . flanking regions adjacent to the targeted ddrad loci ) . all
) . the new assembly - based reference comprised 5 , 940 loci , of which 1 , 773 loci were assigned as off - target reads , rather than artefacts ( fig .
) , and therefore , an alternative source of informative sequencing data . blast analysis of off - target loci showed 925 significant hits to a
the assembly - based reference increased mapping success from 34 . 86 % to 49 . 23 % across the 40 modern
) . mapping results showed that 1 , 475 ( among 5 , 940 ) loci were monomorphic among specimens . among the variable loci , we found 1 , 731 homologous loci were consistently shared across the five species , 4 , 026 were shared across at least three species and 112 loci were found in only a single species ( fig .
) . employing an assembly - based reference maximised the use of available reads because it permitted the mapping of loci that were too divergent - in the non - targtet species - to be efficiently mapped to the original probe set .
descriptive statistics of mapped data based on the new assembly for modern and museum samples .
mean coverage and gc content ( gc % ) per sample was compared across species in modern samples . data expressed as mean ( sem ) . a , b , c different superscripts within a column denote significant differences ( p < 0 . 01 ) . adjustment for multiple comparisons : bonferroni .
) . for example , the heterogeneous mean coverage ( 0 . 631 ; p < 0 . 01 ) and gc content ( 0 . 346 ; p < 0 . 01 ) across species , for example , were both positively correlated with sequencing yield ( supplementary table
) . however , mean coverage and gc content were not reciprocally correlated . the mean coverage was significantly reduced in
) , the latter presented the greatest gc content . this implies that , unlike
genome was the most divergent as evidenced by higher sequence dissimilarities to the assembly - based reference . in line with this observation , differences in average sequence coverage have been reported in target - capture experiments for species with more than 5 % sequence divergence
overall 23 , 555 cross - species variants were identified within the 1 , 731 shared loci ( fig .
) from the assembly - based reference . the diversity of this reference is in accordance with the patterns in the original mapped loci ( table
( 4 , 106 ) . after removing snps with missing data greater than 10 % , maf lower than 0 . 05 and linked snps , a total of 647 informative snps remained ( 2x increase from the original mapped loci ) . this snp subset displayed a high proportion of polymorphic loci ( 0 . 42 ± 0 . 22 mean heterozygosity ) and low differentiation level ( global
) . this indicates that they are potentially more informative within species rather than among species comparisons , when compared with those from the mapped probe set . for example , in fig .
st among species equal to 0 . the pca analyses based on 647 snps revealed four main clusters : ( 1 )
should be synonymized ) . the assembly - based data set provided greater separation than the mapped probes , placing
species . this result indicates that differentiation levels among non - target species can be more accurately achieved by building an assembly - based reference of target - enriched sequencing data ; because it takes into account the full diversity of the sequencing dataset .
) were mapped to the assembly - based reference . the alignments were then compared with modern samples in terms of mean coverage , gc content , read heterozygous rate and snp diversity . prior to this comparison , dna damage patterns were established for each museum sample by tracking and quantifying cumulative substitutions frequencies of c to t at the 5′end and g to a at the 3′end in mapped reads using the mapdamage 2 . 0 software
( data not shown ) . no evidence of base mis - incorporation bias due to dna damage was found in any of the museum samples .
in contrast to the modern samples , a significant correlation between gc content and mean coverage ( 0 . 24179 ; p < 0 . 032 ) was found , suggesting that museum samples were highly impacted by sequencing coverage ( supplementary table
) . the overall gc content among museum samples were quite heterogeneous ( fig .
) and significantly correlated to the year of collection ( 0 . 483 ; p < 0 . 01 ) and a
) . we suggest that sequencing coverage was affected by dna fragmentation in museum samples leading to non - uniform representation of targets and heterogeneous gc content in sequencing libraries . however , patterns are difficult to interpret . for example , the highest overall coverage was observed in 50 - year - old
) . in both sample groups , the mean gc content significantly deviated from the mean of corresponding modern samples ( p < 0 . 01 in both cases ; supplementary table
museum samples were the only samples that demonstrated an increased read heterozygous rate ( p < 0 . 0066 ; in supplementary table
. it may also be related to the museum preservation methods applied to the specimens .
ratios as low as 1 . 01 and moderate dna concentration above 30–40 ng / µl ( as determined from the a
values ) exhibited acceptable average target coverage with no significant gc % deviations ( fig .
ratio greater than 1 . 0 and spectrophotometric quantification greater than 30 ng / µl are more likely to generate acceptable sequencing coverage . the a
ratio and dna spectrophotometric quantification cutoff , both prior to sequencing , and when assessing the results of sequencing .
because of the limitations of the museum samples used in this study , the amount of missing data was much higher in these samples . this is likely because the fragmentation bias of dna templates in library preparation led to uneven enrichment and sequencing coverage of targeted loci . the number of loci in each species ranged from 3 , 828 in 25 - year - old
) when compared with the modern samples . the loci also seem to be less variable , as determined by the number of snp per locus in all species . whilst cumulative substitution bias was not evident in museum samples , the overall deamination level in museum samples of
) . thus , in order to examine the usefulness of the target capture approach for incorporating museum samples into population genomic studies , we modified the variant - filtering settings to avoid false positive variants as a precaution . strand biased variants , heterozygous snps at the end of reads and snps with deamination pattern found towards the 5′ and the 3′ reads’ ends were filtered out resulting in a slightly different snp set from that used for the modern samples .
st estimates ( from 0 . 0589 to 0 . 0653 after filtering ) and pca distributions ( supplementary fig .
st values , suggesting that base modifications due to dna damage are not severe enough to influence overall differentiation or are not present among the variants called . thus , provided historic samples with extreme low coverage ( < 2 . 0x ) are removed , variant call accuracy can be adjusted to diminish base mis - incorporation bias to a negligible level .
here , ddrad libraries from two closely related lobster species , j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi were used as genome resources to design probes to capture and enrich genomic libraries of other five closely related species . the target - enriched sequencing generated thousands of informative markers for population genomics application with a small sequencing effort of 4 . 6 gbp only . the enriched sequencing of previously discovered ddrad loci enabled the recovery of 1 , 250 out of 2 , 366 ddrad loci in the species from which the probes were designed , including sample replicates between both methods . thus , it could potentially be used to enrich and re - sequence ddrad loci outliers discovered in previous studies 15 in a range of populations to investigate genome signatures of selection . also , this method circumvents one of the main disadvantages of ddradseq , that being the high level of missing data due to allele dropout .
remaining ddrad reads were assembled in pyrad 3 . 0 . 4 19 and used to build ddrad loci catalogues within and between species . samples were assembled in three datasets as follows : ( 1 ) j . edwardsii only ; ( 2 ) s . verreauxi only ; and ( 3 ) all samples from both species . for assemblies 1 and 2 we adopted a 95 % similarity threshold within species and for assembly 3 we established an 85 % similarity threshold . a maximum of three mismatches and a maximum of 0 . 5 site heterozygosity were allowed per cluster . to avoid clusters of paralogous loci we discarded all clusters with excessive shared heterozygous snps in more than four individuals and the paralogous filter was set to three . the ddrad loci were considered for probe design ( candidate ddrad loci ) only if they were shared across 10 individuals in assemblies 1 and 2 or 20 individuals in assembly 3 . pyrad assemblies’ settings and outputs are detailed in the supplementary methods s1 .
, and contigs with more than 90 % similarity across at least 55 % of the fragment length were discarded . highly similar clusters with spurious alignments resulting from low complexity dna sequences ( comprised by mononucleotide repeats ) were also discarded . as capture probes are known to support up to about 12 % sequence divergence
, 75 % similarity among ddrad loci was used as a limit . remaining repetitive regions among ddrad loci were identified and removed using repeatmasker web server
a total of 2 , 366 loci were finally selected as templates for bait manufacturing : 2 , 358 nuclear loci and eight mitochondrial loci . the mybaits ® set were estimated to cover 322 kb from 5 . 3 gb of j . edwardsii genome , including 80 loci identified as outlier snps putatively under selection in j . edwardsii 15 . in total , 4 , 732 120 - mer mybaits ® probes ( mycroarray ) were manufactured with 2x tiling density and an overlap of 60 bp between probes . probes sequences were deposited at the dryad data repository ( urltoken ) .
dna was extracted from adult lobsters ( pleopod clip or pereiopod muscle ) and phyllosoma larvae ( leg ) . all dna extractions were performed with the dneasy qiagen kit using spin columns econospin ( epoch life sciences ) . as the museum specimens resulted in low dna yield and purity levels , the isolation protocol was optimized accordingly . for these samples , dna recovery was improved by overnight incubation , final dna elution in 30 µl of ae buffer with three consecutive washes followed by column centrifugation . dna extraction and library preparation using museum specimens was performed using consumables dedicated to the museum specimens only with different batches for each species .
sequencing data was processed using the locally developed pipeline carlaseq ( urltoken ) described in detail in supplementary methods s4 . briefly , it involved the first four steps of the pipeline that consisted of adapter trimming , removal of contaminants ( human and microorganisms ) , merging of paired - end reads and de - multiplexing . the paired - end filtered reads were merged and trimmed to fragments up to 220 bp long . reads with average phred score lower than 33 were discarded .
processed reads were mapped to the reference ddrad loci , using bowtie 2 21 with ‘–very - fast - local’settings . samtools ( urltoken ) was used to sort alignments ( maq ≥ 5 ) . picard 2 . 6 . 0 ( urltoken ) was used to mark pcr duplicates from alignments by identifying fragments that are identical in insert length and related sequence composition . the capture reaction ensures that single strand fragments at a given locus are unlikely to be of equal length unless they are duplicates .
the efficiency of the target capture experiment was firstly assessed for the two species ( j . edwardsii and s . verreauxi ) from which the original probes were designed . this data set included 11 j . edwardsii specimens and 16 s . verreauxi , of which eight and 16 samples , respectively , were replicates of the original ddrad libraries sequenced . the number of on - target reads between species was compared using blast . then , mapping success ( bowtie 2 ) and the amount of missing data ( loci counts ) per number of samples were compared between ddrad and target - capture methods for both species .
c . a . s . wrote the main text , generated the data and performed the analyses . c . a . s . , n . m . and j . m . s . designed the study . c . a . s . , n . m . , j . m . s . , j . j . b . and b . g . conceived the idea and reviewed the manuscript . c . v . r . , l . n . w . , i . i . and c . e . h . collected the samples and contributed to data interpretation . c . a . s . and l . n . w . performed the laboratory work . c . a . s . , n . m . and j . m . s . led the writing of the manuscript with contributions from all authors .
supplementary information accompanies this paper at doi : 10 . 1038 / s41598 - 017 - 06582 - 5
publisher ' s note : springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations .
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balaena is a genus of cetacean ( whale ) in the family balaenidae .

balaena is considered a monotypic genus , as it has only a single extant species , the bowhead whale ( b . mysticetus ) .

it was first described in 1758 by linnaeus , who at the time considered all of the right whales ( and the bowhead ) as a single species .

historically , both the family balaenidae and genus balaena were known by the common name , " right whales " , however balaena are now known as bowhead whales .

throughout history , the family balaenidae has been the subject of great taxonomic debate .

authorities have repeatedly recategorized the three populations of right whale plus the bowhead whale , as one , two , three or four species , either in a single genus or in two separate genera .

in the early whaling days , they were all thought to be a single species , balaena mysticetus .

eventually , it was recognized that bowheads and right whales were in fact different .

later , morphological factors such as differences in the skull shape of northern and southern right whales indicated at least two species of right whale — one in the northern hemisphere , the other in the southern ocean .

as recently as 1998 , dale rice , in his comprehensive and otherwise authoritative classification , marine mammals of the world : systematics and distribution , listed just two species : balaena glacialis ( the right whales ) and balaena mysticetus ( the bowheads ) .

a dna study by rosenbaum in 2000 , and another study by churchill in 2007 finally provided clear evidence to conclude that the three living right whale species do comprise a phylogenetic lineage , distinct from the bowhead , and that the bowhead and the right whales are rightly classified into two separate genera .

the right whales , therefore , are now officially in the eubalaena genus .

the fossil record of balaena , dating to the late miocene , encompasses ten species known from finds in europe , north america , and south america .

balena , described by scopoli in 1777 , and leiobalaena , described by eschricht in 1849 , are junior synonyms of balaena .

balaena

balaena may be derived from the genus balaena , which contains the bowhead whales .
the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) is a species of the family balaenidae , in suborder mysticeti , and genus balaena , which once included the right whale .
' the balaena ' - a whaling song with old photos from dundee , scotland .
blue balaenas are blue with yellow gas bags . they can drop big balaena sand bags .
' the balaena ' - a whaling song with old photos from dundee , scotland . - youtube
mix - ' the balaena ' - a whaling song with old photos from dundee , scotland .
a high - coverage genome of the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the longest - lived mammal .
shelden , k . , d . rugh . 1995 . the bowhead whale , balaena mysticetus : its historic and current status .
[ 0021 ] george et al . ( 1999 ) , age and growth estimates of bowhead whales ( balaena mysticetus ) via aspartic acid racemization
kovacs m . k . , bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) . environmental monitoring of svalbard and jan mayen . retrieved on 27 may 2014
what made you want to look up balaena ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
[ 0890 ] zeh et al . ( 2002 ) , survival of bowhead whales , balaena mysticetus , estimated from 1981 - 1998 photoidentification data ( pubmed )
krutzikowsky , g . , b . mate . 2000 . dive and surfacing characteristics of bowhead whales ( * balaena mysticetus * ) in the beaufort and chukchi seas .
purple balaenas are mauve and reddish - purple in coloration with blue gas sacs . they can drop big balaena water bags . they are only found in primordia waters .
balaena prisca , one of the five balaena fossils from the late miocene ( ~ 10 mya ) to early pleistocene ( ~ 1 . 5 mya ) , may be the same as the modern bowhead whale . the earlier fossil record shows no related cetacean after morenocetus , found in a south american deposit dating back 23 million years .
to cite this page : justice , j . 2002 .
balaena mysticetus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
search for ' balaena mysticetus ' returned 9 matching records . click on one of the taxon names listed below to check the details . [ new search ] [ direct link ]
european cetacean society . bowhead whales ( balaena mysticetus ) sighting in the franz josef land area . archived 23 may 2014 at the wayback machine . . retrieved on 24 may 2014
george , j . , j . bada , j . zeh , l . scott , s . brown . 1999 . age and growth estimates of bowhead whales ( * balaena mysticetus * ) via aspartic acid racemization .
bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) scientific name : balaena mysticetus higher classification : balaena rank : species , kingdom : animalia , phylum : chordata , class : mammalia , order : cetacea , suborder : mysticeti , family : balaenidae , genus : balaena , species : b . mysticetus , type : mammal , diet : carnivores , size : about 14 m ( 46 ft ) to 18 m ( 59 ft ) in length , weight : as much as 100 tons , lifespan : live for more than 100 years , possibly up to 200 years , * * balaena mysticetus , is a species of the right whale family balaenidae , in suborder mysticeti , and genus balaena . a stocky dark - colored whale without a dorsal fin , it can grow 14 m ( 46 ft ) to 18 m ( 59 ft ) in length . this thick - bodied species can weigh from 75 tonnes ( 74 long tons ; 83 short tons ) to 100 tonnes ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) . [ 3 ] they live entirely in fertile arctic and sub - arctic waters , unlike other whales that migrate to low latitude waters to feed or reproduce . the bowhead was also known as the greenland right whale or arctic whale . american whalemen called them the steeple - top , polar whale , [ 4 ] or russia or russian whale . the bowhead has the largest mouth of any animal . more info : urltoken
ford jr , t . j . ; werth , a . j . ; george , j . c . ( 2013 ) .
an intraoral thermoregulatory organ in the bowhead whale ( balaena mysticetus ) , the corpus cavernosum maxillaris
.
gross a . , 2010 background document for bowhead whale balaena mysticetus . the ospar convention and musée des matériaux du centre de recherche sur les monuments historiques . isbn 978 - 1 - 907390 - 35 - 7 . retrieved on 24 may 2014
clark , c . , w . ellison . 2000 . bioacoustics ( 80 ) - calibration and comparison of the acoustic location methods used during the spring migration of the bowhead whale , balaena mysticetus , off pt . barrow , alaska , 1984 - 1993 .
we had a fantastic time at cafe balaena , dean really creates a fabulous atmosphere and his humor that is infectious . my husband thoroughly enjoyed having a banter and laugh with him . the setting on these cool june evenings was warm and inviting with gas heaters . . .
the okhotsk sea bowhead is a subpopulation of balaena mysticetus linnaeus , 1758 . see also global assessment for the bowhead whale . genetic analyses have confirmed that the okhotsk sea bowheads are distinct from the bering - chukchi - beaufort sea bowheads and are a separate , isolated subpopulation ( leduc et al . 2005 ) .
carl linnaeus first described this whale in the 10th edition of his systema naturae ( 1758 ) . [ 8 ] seemingly identical to its cousins in the north atlantic , north pacific and southern oceans , they were all thought to be a single species , collectively known as the
right whale
, and given the binomial name balaena mysticetus .
this song , ' the balaena ' , is a whaling song from old dundee ( sung here by lowland folk ) and is taken from a vinyl album i ' ve had for many years . my great grandfather was apparently a whaler from dundee , but i have no idea if he ever sailed on this ' balaena ' ! what i do know is that on one of his trips to greenland he got iced in for so long that when he got back home he walked in and frightened my great grandmother who , of course , had given up hope for his safe return , and took him for a stranger . if he happened to return today he would ( no doubt ) be very disappointed to find that this great grandchild is very anti - whaling ! but the world & its situations have changed greatly in the last 100 or so years ! anyway , i hope you like this great old song & the visuals .
reilly , s . b . , bannister , j . l . , best , p . b . , brown , m . , brownell jr . , r . l . , butterworth , d . s . , clapham , p . j . , cooke , j . , donovan , g . , urbán , j . & zerbini , a . n . ( 2012 ) . balaena mysticetus . the iucn red list of threatened species doi : 10 . 2305 / iucn . uk . 2012 . rlts . t2467a17879018 . en
historical range could have been broader and more southern than that of currently regarded as bowheads had been abundant among labrador and newfoundland ( strait of belle isle ) , and northern gulf of st . lawrence at least until 16th and 17th century although it is unclear this was whether or not due to colder climate of those periods . [ 36 ] distributions of balaena during pleistocene were far more southerly as fossils have been excavated from italy and north carolina , and thus could have overlapped between those of eubalaena based on locations where fossils have been excavated . [ 37 ]
currently , three species of right whales are recognized by scientists . they are the north pacific right whale ( eubalaena japonica ) , the north atlantic right whale ( eubalaena glacialis ) and the southern right whale ( eubalaena australis ) . while recent genetic data supports this three - species taxonomy , right whales in the north atlantic and north pacific are still listed under the endangered species act as a single species ( balaena glacialis ) . separate listing of the north pacific right whale would force the preparation of a recovery plan and other actions to protect the species and its habitat .
balaena vista is a development of self catering apartments located in st . helena bay along the west coast of south africa . we offer a combination of one , two and four bedroom units in a rustic location . the apartments offer an unspoilt 180 degree view of the bay , a haven for dolphins and whales throughout the year . the apartments have easy access to shops , restaurants and numerous tourist attractions , including the west coast and boland wine routes , while still within driving distance of the family holiday havens of langebaan and saldanha . more information is provided under the local information section . take a look at our accomodation page to find out more about what we can offer you and your family on your holiday !
what other hervey bay cafe can offer you the stunning views over the marina to fraser island ? at night you can enjoy the beauty as the moon rise over the water or see the raw power of nature as storms light up the sky over fraser island . whether you choose to come for breakfast , lunch or dinner you will be able to choose from an extensive menu that showcases the freshest and finest ingredients that hervey bay and the fraser coast has to offer . we cater for all tastes and all dietary requirements . no matter what time you choose to visit cafe balaena you will always find the atmosphere to be relaxed and easy going . soft music in the background . . . warm sun and gentle breezes in summer . . . cozy warmth on our cool winter nights . . . and the very best that hervey bay has to offer . . . you simply won ' t find a cafe with a better atmosphere in hervey bay .
show me : neomonachus schauinslandi arctocephalus pusillus arctocephalus tropicalis arctocephalus forsteri arctocephalus australis arctocephalus galapagoensis arctocephalus philippii a . p . philippii a . p . townsendi callorhinus ursinus zalophus japonicus zalophus californianus zalophus wollebaeki eumetopias jubatus neophoca cinerea phocarctos hookeri otaria byronia odobenus rosmarus erignathus barbatus phoca vitulina phoca largha pusa hispida p . h . ladogensis p . h . saimensis pusa caspica pusa sibirica halichoerus grypus pagophilus groenlandicus histriophoca fasciata cystophora cristata monachus tropicalis monachus monachus monachus schauinslandi mirounga leonina mirounga angustirostris leptonychotes weddellii ommatophoca rossii lobodon carcinophaga hydrurga leptonyx ursus maritimus enhydra lutris lontra felina neovison macrodon eubalaena glacialis eubalaena japonica eubalaena australis balaena mysticetus caperea marginata eschrichtius robustus megaptera novaeangliae balaenoptera acutorostrata balaenoptera bonaerensis balaenoptera edeni b . e . brydei balaenoptera omurai balaenoptera borealis balaenoptera physalus b . p . physalus b . p . quoyi balaenoptera musculus b . m . brevicauda physeter macrocephalus kogia breviceps kogia sima ziphius cavirostris tasmacetus shepherdi indopacetus pacificus hyperoodon ampullatus hyperoodon planifrons mesoplodon hectori mesoplodon mirus mesoplodon europaeus mesoplodon bidens mesoplodon grayi mesoplodon perrini mesoplodon peruvianus mesoplodon bowdoini mesoplodon traversii mesoplodon carlhubbsi mesoplodon ginkgodens mesoplodon stejnegeri mesoplodon layardii mesoplodon densirostris mesoplodon hotaula platanista gangetica inia geoffrensis inia boliviensis lipotes vexillifer pontoporia blainvillei monodon monoceros delphinapterus leucas cephalorhynchus commersonii cephalorhynchus eutropia cephalorhynchus heavisidii cephalorhynchus hectori c . h . hectori c . h . maui steno bredanensis sousa teuszii sousa chinensis sousa plumbea sousa sahulensis sp . nov . sotalia fluviatilis sotalia guianensis tursiops truncatus tursiops aduncus stenella attenuata stenella frontalis stenella longirostris stenella clymene stenella coeruleoalba delphinus delphis delphinus capensis lagenorhynchus albirostris lagenorhynchus acutus lagenorhynchus obliquidens lagenorhynchus obscurus lagenorhynchus australis lagenorhynchus cruciger lissodelphis borealis lissodelphis peronii grampus griseus peponocephala electra feresa attenuata pseudorca crassidens orcinus orca globicephala melas globicephala macrorhynchus orcaella brevirostris orcaella heinsohni neophocaena phocaenoides phocoena phocoena phocoena sinus phocoena spinipinnis phocoena dioptrica phocoenoides dalli trichechus manatus trichechus senegalensis trichechus inunguis dugong dugon hydrodamalis gigas or
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urltoken
thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
the taxonomy of the bowhead whale is not in doubt . there are four identified subpopulations two of which ( okhotsk sea and east greenland - svalbard - barents sea ) have separate iucn red list assessments .
the global ( pan - arctic ) population of the bowhead whale appears to be increasing , due primarily to the well - documented increase in the large bering – chukchi – beaufort seas subpopulation ( also known as the western arctic population or stock ) . the global population size , at over 25 , 000 animals , is well above the iucn red list vulnerable threshold for a non - declining population . the bering – chukchi – beaufort subpopulation ( estimated to be over 16 , 000 and increasing at 3 % per year or more ) may have recovered to near or even above its level prior to commercial whaling . the east canada – west greenland subpopulation is estimated to exceed 4 , 000 , and has probably been increasing but is still below its pre - whaling level . bowhead whale numbers in the east greenland – svalbard – barents sea subpopulation remain at a small fraction of pre - whaling abundance with no estimate of trend . the main reduction in the global population occurred before the three - generation time window that would trigger the red list population reduction ( a ) criterion . the east greenland – svalbard – barents sea and okhotsk sea subpopulations have separate red list assessments , in addition to being included in this global assessment .
bowhead whales are found only in arctic and subarctic regions . until recently they have spent much of their lives in and near sea ice and they migrate seasonally to avoid ice entrapment and to take advantage of food concentrations ( moore and reeves 1993 ) . with the reduction of sea ice cover , bowhead whales now occur increasingly in open water during the summer ( moore 2016 ) . the scientific committee of the international whaling commission ( iwc ) has traditionally recognized five stocks named for the regions in which bowheads occur : bering – chukchi – beaufort seas ; hudson bay – foxe basin ; davis strait – baffin bay ; svalbard – barents sea ( spitsbergen ) ; and okhotsk sea ( rugh et al . 2003 ) . movements of tagged bowheads indicating somewhat overlapping ranges , and lack of clear genetic differences , has discredited the traditional distinction between the hudson bay – foxe basin and the davis strait – baffin bay populations ( heide - jørgensen et al . 2006 , postma et al . 2006 , alter et al . 2012 , iwc 2012 ) . four main subpopulations are now recognized : bering – chukchi – beaufort seas ; east canada – west greenland ; east greenland – svalbard – barents sea ; and okhotsk sea . the boundary between the bering – chukchi – beaufort seas and eastern canada – west greenland subpopulations is liable to become more porous as sea ice cover diminishes ( heide - jørgensen et al . 2012 ) .
with the exception of the okhotsk sea , genetic divergence between bowhead whales in different parts of their range appears to be low , and there is some evidence of movement between the main areas of occurrence ( iwc 2013 ) . the okhotsk sea subpopulation appears to be genetically and geographically isolated .
based on direct observations and telemetry , the summer range of the bering – chukchi – beaufort seas subpopulation extends from chaunskaya guba ( russian federation ) in the western chukchi sea through the beaufort sea and east to amundsen gulf ( canada ) and viscount melville sound ( heide - jørgensen et al . 2012 ) . most of the whales appear to migrate into the bering sea in winter ( iwc 2013 , quakenbush et al . 2012 , citta et al . 2015 ) . in the 19 th century , substantial catches were also taken in summer in the bering sea , but the climatic conditions were quite different then than at the present ( iwc 2013 )
bowhead whales belonging to the east canada – west greenland subpopulation are observed in hudson bay , foxe basin , hudson strait , davis strait , baffin bay , gulf of boothia , prince regent inlet , and other waters of the canadian arctic archipelago . tracking of satellite - tagged whales has confirmed movements from foxe basin through fury and hecla strait into the gulf of boothia and prince regent inlet , and from cumberland sound into prince regent inlet , gulf of boothia , foxe basin , and hudson strait , while animals tagged in west greenland moved to prince regent inlet and hudson strait ( heide - jørgensen et al . 2012 ) . the whales move out of the summering areas as ice forms in autumn to wintering areas in polynyas ( holst and stirling 1999 ) , unconsolidated pack ice , and open water near the ice edge off west greenland ( reeves and heide - jørgensen 1996 ) and eastern baffin island . sightings and strandings have occurred in recent years in the western north atlantic as far south as newfoundland ( ledwell et al . 2007 ) and the gulf of maine ( accardo et al . in press ) .
the east greenland – svalbard – barents sea subpopulation occurs from the east coast of greenland across the greenland sea , including the northeast water polynya off northeastern greenland , in the barents sea , in the franz josef land archipelago , and in the kara sea at least as far as far as severnaya zemlya . there have also been sightings further south , exceptionally reaching iceland and the coast of finnmark . vagrants have been observed as far south as the western british isles and france ( de boer
. 2014 ) . there is no evidence of migration into or out of the okhotsk sea .
. 2011 ) . bowheads also commonly feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods , and the diet includes at least 60 species ( lowry 1993 ) .
the seasonal distribution of bowhead whales is strongly influenced by prey availability and pack ice conditions ( moore and reeves 1993 ) . during the winter , they occur within areas of sea ice ( stafford
2015 ) . during the spring , they use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage . during the summer and autumn , they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large - scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods ( finley 1990 , finley
2017 ) . nearly all life history data come from the bering – chukchi – beaufort seas population . female age at sexual maturity is estimated at 18 - 33 years ( rosa
. ( 2007 ) estimated the mean generation time for bowhead whales to be about 52 years , assuming an age at first reproduction of 20 years . females give birth every 3 - 7 years ( rugh
limited subsistence whaling on the bering – chukchi – beaufort subpopulation by indigenous people of alaska and chukotka is permitted by the iwc on the basis of advice from its scientific committee ( under its aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure ) . small hunts are also authorized in canadian waters under co - management agreements between federal agencies and indigenous communities , and in west greenland under the iwc management procedure . the reported average annual take in alaska and chukotka during 2006 - 15 was about 55 animals struck of which about 75 % were successfully landed ( allison 2017 , suydam et al . 2017 ) .
extensive commercial hunting , beginning in the 1500s , depleted bowhead whales throughout their range . commercial whaling for the species has been prohibited under international conventions since the 1930s . the limited subsistence whaling by indigenous communities mentioned above has not impeded the recovery of the affected populations .
accidental human - caused deaths are relatively few . during 2010 - 15 , two dead - stranded and one live bowhead were observed to be entangled with fishing gear but it was unclear whether the entanglement was the cause of death . of the bowhead whales taken in alaskan hunts during 1990 - 2012 , 12 % showed scars or wounds from fishing gear and 2 % showed scars or wounds from ship strikes ( george et al . 2017a ) .
there has been concern since the 1970s that disturbance from oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in the arctic region would affect bowhead whales . effects on diving behavior ( robertson et al . 2013 ) and calling rates ( blackwell et al . 2015 ) in the vicinity of seismic surveys have been observed , but to date there has been no discernible population - level impact . examination of whales taken in subsistence hunts off alaska since 1980 found relatively low levels of morbidity , which would be consistent with an increasing population and good individual animal health ( george et al . 2017b ) .
during this century , a profound reduction in the extent and thickness of sea ice in the arctic has occurred and this reduction is predicted to continue , possibly leading eventually to the complete disappearance of sea ice in summer as mean arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average ( frey et al . 2015 ) . the short - term effects of reduced ice cover on bowhead whales in the western arctic appear to be positive , due to increased feeding opportunities ( george et al . 2015 , moore 2016 ) . however , the long - term effects are less clear . the emergence of bowheads as a separate , ice - adapted species may have coincided with the appearance of sea ice in the late pliocene , and bowheads could lose out to non - ice - adapted species in the long term , but no projections of the time scale of such an eventuality are available ( harington 2008 , iwc 2016 ) .
there is also concern that , as the sea ice diminishes , the opening up of the arctic to increased vessel traffic , fishing activities , and extractive industries will increase human - caused impacts on bowhead whales ( reeves et al . 2012 , 2014 ) .
bowhead whales were legally protected from commercial whaling under the international convention for the regulation of whaling ( icrw ) since its entry into force in 1948 , and by its predecessor the convention on the regulation of whaling since the 1930s . all range states except canada are parties to the icrw . limited aboriginal subsistence whaling of bowhead whales is allowed by the iwc ( the regulatory body established under the icrw ) from the bering - chukchi - beaufort seas stock and off west greenland on the basis of scientific advice ( see threats section ) . hunting by indigenous people in canada is co - managed by the federal government and regional bodies created under land - claim agreements . the bowhead whale has been included in the convention on international trade in endangered species appendix i since 1975 and it is listed on the convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals appendix i . bowhead whales are managed under national threatened species legislation in the u . s . a . , canada , and the russian federation .
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) once inhabited oceans throughout the northern hemisphere . over the last hundred years the population of bowhead whales has been greatly reduced into five geographically secluded stocks . these stocks are : the spitsbergen stock , which inhabit the north atlantic ; the davis strait and hudson bay stocks , which both inhabit the west - northern atlantic ; the okhotsk stock , which are found in the okhotsk sea ; and bering sea stock , found in the area of the bering sea ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) . bowhead whales inhabit the arctic ocean and associated seas . they are rarely found below 45 degrees north latitude ( nowak 1999 ) .
lives in the colder waters of the northern hemisphere . of the current total population , approximately 700 are found in the north atlantic while 7 , 000 are located in the north pacific .
usually follow the receding ice drifts ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) . during summer they can be found in bays , straits , and estuaries ( nowak 1999 ) .
) . the name
bowhead
comes from their bow - shaped mouth . the lower jaw makes a u - shape around the upper jaw . this lower jaw is usually marked with white spots , contrasting with the rest of the whale ' s black body ( nowak 1999 ) . baleen in the bowhead whale ' s mouth is the largest of any cetacean with 300 baleen plates measuring 300 - 450 centimeters in vertical length . the skull makes up almost one - third of the total body length , is curved and asymetric ( lanier 1998 ) . bowhead whales , on average , are sixty feet in length and weigh around 100 tons . contributing to the whale ' s mass is a two foot thick layer of insulating blubber ( nicklen 2000 ) .
also has a small pectoral fin for its size , less than 200 centimeters in length ( nowak 1999 ) . bowhead whale females measure between 16 and 18 meters in length , males measure between 14 and 17 meters in length . bowhead whales weigh from 75 , 000 to 100 , 000 kg .
through songs . it is unknown how long these pair bonds last or how many matings male bowhead whales take part in during mating season .
usually occurs during late winter and early spring . spring migration takes place soon after this and the female gives birth between april and june , with most births occurring in may . it takes twenty years for a bowhead whale calf to reach sexual maturity . at this time , they can be between 12 . 3 and 14 . 2 m in length ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) . females usually reach sexual maturity before males and are also 1 to 2 meters larger than males at this time ( george et al . 1999 ) . in some cases pseudohermaphroditism can occur , leaving a whale to appear female , but also having male sex organs ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) .
( george , et al . , 1999 ; shelden and rugh , 1995 )
breeding interval typical calving intervals are every 3 to 4 years in bowhead whales .
when a calf is born , its average length is 4 . 25 to 5 . 25 m . calves grow approximately 1 . 5 cm a day . the calf is fed with its mother ' s milk until it is weaned , which occurs between nine and fifteen months after birth . after weaning , growth rate decreases . after births occur , whales segregate into groups in order to migrate . calves and mothers are in the front group . perhaps this is to allow them to be the first to feed on food aggregations that are encountered . for the most part it seems that females take care of the young , although there have been some cases of
travelling in groups of three : a mature male , a mature female , and a calf ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) .
has a remarkable lifespan . the average age of animals captured during whaling is estimated at 60 to 70 years old , based on examination of changes in the nucleus of the eye over time . however , several individuals have been discovered with ancient ivory and stone harpoon heads in their flesh and examination of their eye nucleus has resulted in estimated lifespans up to 200 years ( george et al . 1999 ) , making bowhead whales the longest lived mammalian species . there is little knowlege of diseases in
when migrating , bowhead whales divide into three smaller groups in which to migrate during the spring and fall . the groups they segregate into are : subadults , intermediate mature whales , and large adults . each of the five stocks show distinct migration patterns dependent on the supply of food and the extension or recession of the polar ice cap ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) .
is a baleen whale , which means that they filter water through baleen plates , feeding on the organisms caught in the plates and pushing the rest of the water out .
can sometimes feed opportunistically during the spring migration , but mostly feed during the winter months on their feeding grounds . they eat crustacean zooplankton , epibenthic organisms , and some benthic organisms . crustacean zooplankton , such as copepods , are not important food sources for young
, but increase in importance with age ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) . copepods are small crustaceans , which a bowhead whale can filter at approximately 50 , 000 per minute ( stover 2001 ) .
sometimes form groups of up to fourteen individuals , in which they make a v - shape formation . in this formation they travel at the same speed and filter feed together ( nowak 1999 ) .
bowhead whales are protected from predators by their large size . they are also known to take shelter under ice drifts . as the oceanic waters of the polar regions become frozen , bowhead whales will swim beneath the extending polar ice cap . in order to survive under the ice cap ,
can break through the ice in order to breathe without making themselves accessible to other marine predators ( stover 2001 ) . in a study in 1995 , it was found that one - third of the animals of the davis strait stock showed scars from killer whale attacks ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) .
as both a mode of transportation and a way to encounter fresh food supplies ( lanier 1998 ) . bowhead whales play an important role as predators of plankton in the arctic ocean .
is a benefit to the whaling industry . because of their large size , one whale can bring a large bounty of whale meat , massive baleen , and the blubber for which it is primarily hunted . in fact ,
is the most economically valuable of all cetaceans ( nowak 1999 ) . many native people such as eskimos also depend on these resources for the survival of their communities economically by using baleen for tools , blubber for fuel , and whale meat for food and trade ( nicklen 1995 ) .
may interfere with humans is in marine fishing . the large bowhead whale has been known to collide with sailing vessels on rare occassions as well as get caught in nets fishing for other oceanic life ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) .
involve reducing or ending the hunting of this species . agencies who are playing parts in the conservation of the species are the alaskan eskimo whaling commission ( aewc ) and the national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ) ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) . native people have been allowed to take only one whale every two years ( nicklen 2000 ) . whale populations plummeted as a result of a huge expansion in the whaling industry from the 1600s to the early 1900s ( shelden and rugh 1995 ) .
james justice ( author ) , university of northern iowa , jim demastes ( editor ) , university of northern iowa .
the body of water between europe , asia , and north america which occurs mostly north of the arctic circle .
the body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .
body of water between the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , australia , asia , and the western hemisphere . this is the world ' s largest ocean , covering about 28 % of the world ' s surface .
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals . ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals .
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .
a method of feeding where small food particles are filtered from the surrounding water by various mechanisms . used mainly by aquatic invertebrates , especially plankton , but also by baleen whales .
offspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .
the area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .
the regions of the earth that surround the north and south poles , from the north pole to 60 degrees north and from the south pole to 60 degrees south .
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .
animal constituent of plankton ; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae . ( compare to phytoplankton . )
raloof , j . 2000 . cetacean seniors : whales that give new meaning to longevity .
stover , d . 2001 . science and technology : the wisest whale of the sea .
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this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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ewan maccoll & a . l . lloyd - south australia ( sea shanty )
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great venue , good atomsphere , but grilled prawns with a salad were ice cold and soggy from the freezer , such a shame .
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linnaeus , c . ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . laurentius salvius : holmiae . ii , 824 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 75 [ details ]
van der land , j . ( 2001 ) . tetrapoda , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 375 - 376 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
university of michigan museum of zoology . animal diversity web . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
mead , j . g . ; brownell , r . l . jr . ( 2005 ) . cetacea . in wilson , d . e . & d . m . reeder ( eds ) . mammal species of the world . a taxonomic and geographic reference ( 3rd ed ) , johns hopkins university press , 2 , 142 pp . 723 - - 743 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
rice , d . w . ( 1998 ) . marine mammals of the world . systematics and distribution . society for marine mammalogy special publication . 4 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
hershkovitz , p . ( 1966 ) . catalog of living whales . bulletin of the united states national museum . ( 246 ) : 1 - 259 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
jefferson , t . a . , m . a . webber and r . l . pitman . ( 2008 ) . marine mammals of the world . academic press , amsterdam . [ details ]
perrin , w . f . ; würsig , b . ; thewissen , j . g . m . ( 2009 ) . encyclopedia of marine mammals . second edition . academic press : london . isbn 978 - 0 - 12 - 373553 - 9 . xxix , 1316 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
type specimen type locality greenland seas . no type specimen ; based on the greenland right whale of whalers and authors . [ details ]
these whale - like creatures ' dorsal sacs house vaporized biofluid that swells the organs like hot - air balloons , granting them aerial mobility . in rare cases , these dorsal sacs remain inflated after death , resulting in the carcass remaining airborne for years , and causing unique ecologies to form around them .
though generally slow , jet mechanisms near their tails allow for high - speed locomotion . they can also shell foes from afar with a kind of biological mortar . monogamous in nature , balaenas produce a single offspring every three years , the rearing of which is handled by both partners . this period of raising young is streaked with irritability , resulting in the predation of creatures that the usually gentle balaenas would typically regard as symbionts .
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banks , r . c . , r . w . mcdiarmid , and a . l . gardner
checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
mead , james g . , and robert l . brownell , jr . / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 1
mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing
with contributions by bernadette n . graham , adam p . potter , and mariana m . upmeyer
status : cites - appendix i ; u . s . esa - endangered ; iucn - critically endangered ( spitzbergen population ) , endangered ( okhotsk sea subpopulation and baffin bay - davis strait stock ) , vulnerable ( hudson bay - foxe basin stock ) , lower risk ( cd ) ( bering - chukchi - beauf . . .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the taxonomy is not in doubt . there are five traditionally recognised geographical populations . the species was once commonly known in the north atlantic and adjacent arctic as the greenland right whale . however , the common name bowhead whale is now used almost exclusively for the species .
justification : this species is assessed as not applicable as it is of marginal occurrence in the european mammal assessment region .
bowhead whales are found only in arctic and subarctic regions . they spend much of their lives in and near the pack ice , migrating to the high arctic in summer , and retreating southward in winter with the advancing ice edge ( moore and reeves 1993 ) . the iwc recognises five stocks : bering - chukchi - beaufort sea ; hudson bay - fox basin ; davis strait - baffin bay ; spitsbergen ; and the okhotsk sea ( rugh et al . 2003 ) . the spitsbergen stock extends from the east coast of greenland across the greenland sea , the barents sea and the kara sea as far as severnaya zemlya , and going as far south as the ice front , exceptionally reaching iceland and the coast of finnmark ( norway ) .
current population size the range - wide abundance is not known with precision but numbers over 10 , 000 individuals , with 10 , 500 ( 8 , 200 - 13 , 500 ) ( in 2001 ) in the bering - chukchi - beaufort seas ( zeh and punt 2005 ) , and a provisional estimate of 7 , 300 ( 3 , 100 - 16 , 900 ) for a part of the range of the hudson bay - foxe basin and baffin bay - davis strait stocks ( cosens et al . 2006 ) . there are no reliable abundance estimates for the small okhotsk sea and spitsbergen stocks . population trends the bering - chukchi - beaufort ( bcb ) population has been monitored for more than 30 years and has been increasing over this period at an estimated rate of 3 . 4 % ( 1 . 7 % - 5 % ) per year in the presence of subsistence hunting ( zeh and punt 2005 ) . no quantitative estimates of trends in the other bowhead populations are available , but inuit hunters and elders report that they are observing more bowheads in the eastern canadian arctic than they did in the 1960s - 1970s , and that the geographic distribution of the whales has expanded in recent years . no estimates of population trend are available for the svalbard - barents sea and okhotsk sea stocks . pre - whaling population sizes all bowhead populations were severely depleted by commercial whaling , which was established in the north - eastern atlantic by 1611 ( ross 1993 ) . basque whalers took bowheads in the north - west atlantic ( labrador ) in the 16th century , but ambiguities over the species identity of whales taken in early commercial whaling make pre - 1600 catch records difficult to interpret . minimum pre - whaling stock sizes are estimated to have been 24 , 000 for the svalbard - barents sea stock , 12 , 000 for the hudson bay - foxe basin and baffin bay - davis strait stocks , and 3 , 000 for the okhotsk sea stock ( woodby and botkin 1993 ) . the spitsbergen and okhotsk sea stocks are at a small fraction of their pre - whaling levels . demographic parameters a high longevity ( > 100 years ) is suggested by biochemical methods and the finding of old - fashioned stone harpoon heads in harvested animals ( george et al . 1999 ) . if this high longevity is confirmed , it would be among the longest known for a mammal .
the seasonal distribution is strongly influenced by pack ice ( moore and reeves 1993 ) . during the winter they occur in areas near the ice edge , in polynyas , and in areas of unconsolidated pack ice . during the spring these whales use leads and cracks in the ice to penetrate areas that were inaccessible during the winter due to heavy ice coverage . during the summer and autumn they concentrate in areas where zooplankton production is high or where large - scale biophysical processes create local concentrations of calanoid copepods ( finley 1990 , finley et al . 1998 ) . small to medium - sized crustaceans , especially krill and copepods , form the bulk of the bowhead ' s diet ( lowry et al . 2004 ) . they also feed on mysids and gammarid amphipods , and the diet includes at least 60 species . bowheads skim feed at the surface and feed in the water column . it has recently been suggested that they also feed near the bottom , but probably do not directly ingest sediments as gray whales routinely do . during surface skim feeding , coordinated group patterns have been observed , including whales feeding in echelon ( v - shaped ) formation .
heavy commercial hunting , beginning in the 1500s , depleted all populations of bowheads . the bering - chukchi - beaufort sea stock has recovered substantially since the end of commercial hunting in the early 20th century to around 10 , 000 animals , while recent provisional estimates of the hudson bay - foxe basin and baffin bay - davis strait stocks suggest that a significant recovery has probably occurred . there is no reliable evidence of recovery of the svalbard - barents sea and okhotsk sea stocks . limited aboriginal subsistence whaling on the bcb stock ( by native peoples of alaska and chukotka ) is permitted by the iwc on the basis of advice from its scientific committee ( most recently under its new aboriginal subsistence whaling management procedure ) . these takes have not impeded the recovery of the stock . very small takes by indigenous hunters are allowed in canadian waters , so far too few to seriously impede recovery of the stocks , but there will be pressure to increase these takes given the recent , higher population estimates for the eastern canadian arctic . there has been concern since the 1970s that disturbance from oil and gas exploration and extraction activities in the arctic region might affect bowhead whales . there is also evidence of incidental mortality and serious injury caused by entanglement in fishing gear and ship strikes ( philo et al . 1992 , 1993 ; finley 2000 ) . environmental threats , such as pollution ( bratton et al . 1993 ) , and disturbance from tourist traffic ( finley 2000 ) may affect bowhead whales but the impacts have not yet been well characterized or quantified . during this century , a profound reduction in the extent of sea ice in the arctic is expected , and possibly a complete disappearance in summer , as mean arctic temperatures rise faster than the global average ( anonymous 2005 ) . the implications of this for bowhead whales are unclear but warrant monitoring .