the wallace 's hanging parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) also known as the flores hanging parrot , is a small ( length : 11 – 12 cm ) parrot endemic to the island of flores .

this is an arboreal parrot .

the male is predominantly green , with a red bill , a red spot on the throat , orange legs and dark red nape , bright red rump and uppertail-coverts .

the female has the red on the throat reduced or absent .

this parrot qualifies as endangered as it has a very small range and population .

the main threat is habitat destruction .

it is named after alfred russel wallace , a british naturalist , explorer , geographer , and biologist .

wallace ' s hanging parrot

wallace ' s hanging parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) is a species of bird in the psittaculidae family .
the wallace ' s hanging parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) - also known as the flores hanging parrot - is endemic to the western parts of the island of flores in the lesser sunda islands of indonesia .
hanging parrots general info and species listing . . . photos of the various hanging parrot species for identification
species : scientific : loriculus flosculus . . . english : wallace ' s hanging parrot . . . dutch : flores hangparkiet . . . german : blütenpapagei . . . french : loricule de walace
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the wallace ' s hanging parrot is well camouflaged by its plumage and is , therefore , easily overlooked in the foliage . they are most commonly seen flying . their flight is rapid with whirring wing - beats . their calls are not particularly loud , but sharp and shrill .
the flores hanging parrot was , until fairly recently , thought to be extinct due to its very small range and population .
cites lexicon of parrots birdlife international internet bird collection parrots : a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 xeno - canto wallace ' s hanging parrot , chartier , allen t . xc31397 parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . 2010 edition vanished and vanishing parrots , forshaw , 2017 . parrots in aviculture , low , 1992 .
all other parrots on flores are much larger . tawny - breasted parrot - finch
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collar , n . , de juana , e . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . flores hanging - parrot ( loriculus flosculus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
due to its very small range and population , this parrot qualifies as endangered . the current population is estimated at between 2500 and 10000 . its main threat is habitat destruction due to deforestation .
11 - 12 cm . arboreal parrot . male predominantly green , lighter on underparts , with red bill , elongated red spot on throat , orange legs and dark red nape , bright red rump and uppertail - coverts . female has red on throat reduced or absent .
this parrot qualifies as endangered because it has a very small range , in which its habitat is severely fragmented and declining in extent and quality , with rapid declines suspected in the population . its status is likely to deteriorate further if conservation measures are not implemented in the near future .
this is a small arboreal parrot , averaging 4 . 75 inches ( 11 to 12 cm in length ) . the male is predominantly yellowish - green , with a red bill , an elongated red spot on the throat , orange legs and dark red nape , bright red rump and uppertail - coverts . the bill is pale red with yellow tips . the iris of the male is orange ( hen brown ) and the feet are brownish - flesh in color .
the population is estimated to number 2 , 500 - 9 , 999 mature individuals based on an assessment of known records , descriptions of abundance and range size . this is consistent with recorded population density estimates for congeners or close relatives with a similar body size , and the fact that only a proportion of the estimated extent of occurrence is likely to be occupied . this estimate is equivalent to 3 , 750 - 14 , 999 individuals , rounded here to 3 , 500 - 15 , 000 individuals . trend justification : the species ' s distribution seems to correspond with the two major natural forest types on flores : moist evergreen and semi - deciduous . these are being cleared for agriculture and the collection of firewood and construction materials . hence , the species is suspected to be in decline , although the likely rate of decline has not been estimated .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
endangered b1ab ( ii , iii , iv , v ) ver 3 . 1
, where it is known from eight documented localities , at some of which it is locally common in groups of up to 20 birds ( birdlife international 2001 ) . at tanjung kerita mese , population density was estimated at c . 10 birds per hectare . the species is quite easily overlooked ; however , its overall rarity cannot be disputed , and its apparently restricted habitat and altitudinal range suggest that it must be both numerically constrained and susceptible to further habitat loss . recent records on rinca island from outside its known altitudinal range and preferred habitat
. 2007 ) suggest that it may be more cosmopolitan in its distribution and therefore less threatened , but this requires further research .
. 2007 ) . its range apparently closely equates to that of these two forest - types on flores , although it also visits degraded roadside habitat . it occurs chiefly in a narrow altitudinal band between 600 m and 1 , 200 m , but has been recorded down to sea - level in deciduous forest on rinca island
habitat destruction through the combined impacts of firewood collection , commercial logging , timber extraction for construction materials and clearance for agriculture together represent the most pertinent threat . the loss and fragmentation of forests is already extensive on flores , where no semi - evergreen forest below 1 , 000 m is included within gazetted protected areas . these threats are compounded by human population expansion , with large volumes of timber required for housing construction , and the fact that there is little or no governmental enforcement of laws . moist deciduous forest is currently being extensively cleared through land grabbing and establishment of agricultural areas , a factor that is inevitably reducing the range and population of this species . forest clearance continues in the coastal belt to make way for crops , and illegal logging continues in protected areas .
cites appendix ii . two recent surveys have targeted endemic birds on flores . two sites at which this species occurs are proposed for establishment as protected areas : tanjung kerita mese and egon iliwuli ( on gunung egon ) .
conduct a targeted survey for the species to identify important sites , with a view to affording them protection . conduct research into its status and habitat use ( with particular regard to feeding ecology and forest fragmentation ) such that long - term management of the species is facilitated . monitor trade across indonesia to investigate whether this presents a significant threat . support the rapid establishment of tanjung kerita mese proposed protected area along with additional intact stretches of forest at nggorang bowosie ( 220 km
) . initiate awareness campaigns to elicit the support of local people in protecting forests .
this errata version of the 2014 assessment was created because the original publication was missing the red list criteria .
( errata version published in 2018 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t22685428a123785052 .
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sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
forms a species - group with l . exilis and l . pusillus , and sometimes considered conspecific with former . monotypic .
11–12 cm . green , lighter on underparts ; bill red ; throat with elongated red spot ; nape tinged orange ; rump and uppertail - coverts red ; legs orange . female has red on . . .
mainly combinations of insect - like , short , staccato , high - pitched “tsee” or “tsik” notes .
primary semi - evergreen forest , chiefly 800–1000 m but with records down to 450 m .
most sightings in 1993 were in fruiting fig trees , and dependence or specialisation on this food resource judged likely .
endangered . cites ii . previously considered vulnerable . a birdlife “restricted - range” species . surveys in 1993 found it to be locally common in the tanjung kerita . . .
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recent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .
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male - mainly green in colour , orange tint on nape to upper mantle ; red rump and upper tail coverts ; long , red mark on throat ; green tail tipped with pale green ; outer tail feathers tipped with orange / red . bill orange / red . eye orange . female - as in male , but long , red mark on throat minimal or absent . eye brown .
calls made in flight are sharp and screeching ; same notes are made while perched but are softer . also emits some hoarse , abrupt notes in display .
aviary 2 x 1 x 2m ( 6 . 5 x 3 . 3 x 6 . 5 ft ) or large birdroom cage with tiled surround and well - drained floor .
fruits such as : figs , apple , pear , banana , orange , pomegranate , mango , papaya , cactus fruits ; vegetables such as : carrot , celery , green beans and peas in the pod ; nectar made from : lactose - free baby cereal , honey , malt extract or molasses , mixed with filtered water and made fresh once or twice daily or , commercial lory nectar ; various millet seed mixes , canary grass seed , and small amount of niger and oats ( may be sprouted ) ; millet spray ( may be sprouted ) ; softened rusk , eggfood and mealworm larvae for rearing .
enjoys bathing so provide overhead misters or shallow water bowls . provide regular supply of fresh , unsprayed flowering , willow , or elder branches for the birds to remove the bark .
this species is threatened by the combined impacts of firewood collection , commercial logging , timber extraction for construction materials and clearance for agriculture .
found from 450 - 1000m ( 1312 - 3280 ft ) in primary semi - evergreen forest . on rinca seen in coastal moist deciduous forest . apparently requires an abundance of fruiting figs .
outside the breeding season birds gather in flocks of up to 20 individuals . are easily overlooked in the canopy ; noisy and conspicuous in flight .
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their preferred habitat includes forest and wooded areas , as well astall secondary vegetation . outside the breeding season , they are usually seen in small family groups and small flocks of up to 10 birds . at times larger gatherings can be seen foraging in favored feeding areas , such as on flowering and fruiting trees .
please note that some sources consider this species extinct . the state that the only specimen collected in about 1875 on flores island may not have been a valid species and it disappearead after deforestation . ( references : fuller , e . extinct birds of the world ql676 . 8 . f85 1987 isbn 0 - 8160 - 1833 - 2 p . 13 ) .
hens have brown irises and the red throat patch is much smaller or even absent in some females .
their natural diet consists of nectar , fruits , buds , flowers and seeds .
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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
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birdlife is reviewing the status of this species for the 2018 red list . please click here to join the discussion
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : loriculus flosculus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .


crassostrea ingens is a species of fossil oyster , a marine bivalve mollusk in the family ostreidae , the oyster .

this species lived during the pliocene .

fossils have been found in new zealand shallow-water limestone and shellbeds .

locations include the wairarapa , whanganui basin , gisborne district , north canterbury , and hawke 's bay ( especially in the te aute limestone ) .

crassostrea ingens

a fossilised oyster ( crassostrea ingens ) shell . it is a large , amorphous , thick , scaly , laminate shell .
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - species : crassostrea ingens ( c . a . von zittel , 1865 ) † - id : 7661000837
species crassostrea graphoides auct . non schlotheim accepted as crassostrea cuttackensis ( newton & smith , 1912 ) accepted as magallana cuttackensis ( newton & smith , 1912 ) ( misspelling and misidentication )
[ footnote ] * o . ingens , however , has since been collected at kaawa creek .
( 1995 ) stable - isotope and amino acid profiles of the new zealand giant pliocene oyster crussostreu ingens .
species crassostrea belcheri ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1871 ) represented as magallana belcheri ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1871 )
species crassostrea hongkongensis lam & b . morton , 2003 represented as magallana hongkongensis ( lam & b . morton , 2003 ) ( original combination )
the present investigation goes to show how necessary it is not to neglect the evidence that small molluscs may have to offer , for it modifies very materially the earlier estimate of the age of the wilkie ' s bluff beds , which was based solely on the large and obvious fossils . the masses of crassostrea ingens and the large pectens and the corals at first glance appear to provide a faunule so different from that at nukumaru that stage distinction seems apparent , but closer study has shown that the difference is mainly a superficial one .
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exceedingly large ( 200 mm to more than 300 mm high ) , exceedingly thick and heavy , calcitic ; exterior irregularly foliose , without true radial or commarginal sculpture ; cemented to hard substrates by umbonal area of left valve . some specimens oval ( length up to 0 . 7 height ) but most narrowly elongate , length half height or less , and relatively deeply dished . left valve exceedingly thick , deep ( inflation of left valve 60 - 80 mm or more ; interior cavity 30 - 40 mm or more deep ) , most specimens curved weakly to left over ventral half ; ligamental area large , in most specimens elongate ( a little higher than wide ) , depressed medially and with a margining groove and ridge up each side ; no sign of chomata in any adult specimens . adductor scar at centre of cavity height , a little in front of centre , gently to steeply inclined ( dorsal side depressed ) , dorsal margin straight to slightly irregular , ventral margin deeply convex , i . e . , a rounded semicircular outline ; retaining bright purplish red colour in most pliocene specimens . ventral area of internal cavity with a wide shallow groove in most specimens , extending from posterior of adductor scar to antero - ventral extremity of shell . right valve almost flat , more weakly foliose than left , about 15 to 40 mm thick ( i . e . , considerably thinner than corresponding left valve ) ; hinge a mirror image of left one ; adductor scar as in left valve but less steeply inclined .
( early nukumaruan ) occur in the base of hautawa shellbed at hautawa road , north of hunterville , rangitikei valley , and in the base of pukenui limestone in southern wairarapa . the oldest specimens referred here ( tentatively ) are relatively small ( to c . 150 mm long ) , narrow , laterally compressed specimens from the basal grit member of the hurupi formation in putangirua stream , eastern palliser bay ( early tongaporutuan ) ; we are not aware of any kapitean records . rare , poorly preserved ?
occurs exceedingly abundantly in
reefs
( e . g . , in wilkies shellbed , wanganui ( mangapanian ) , in a bank up to eight metres thick found continuously over more than 45 km ) and scattered in very near - shore , subtidal shellbeds , and apparently occupied much the same semi - estuarine , near - shore niche as
tongaporutuan - kapitean ? ; opoitian - early nukumaruan .
wanganui river
, type , almost certainly from the
reef in wilkies shellbed , mangapanian . widespread and abundant in shallow - water , near - shore limestone and shellbeds of pliocene age ( opoitian to early nukumaruan ) in wanganui basin , gisborne district , hawke ' s bay ( particularly abundant in te aute limestone facies ) , wairarapa , and north canterbury .
cite this publication as :
a . g . beu and j . i . raine ( 2009 ) . revised descriptions of new zealand cenozoic mollusca from beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) . gns science miscellaneous series no . 27 .
© gns science , 2009 isbn 978 - 0 - 478 - 19705 - 1 issn 1177 - 2441 ( included with a pdf facsimile file copy of new zealand geological survey paleontological bulletin 58 in cd version from : publications officer , gns science , p . o . box 30368 lower hutt , new zealand )
north chanter island , kermadec group , raoul island sector , pacific ocean , n . z .
waipatiki limestone , south side , waipatiki beach , hawkes bay , n . z .
bartrum bay , motutara , south muriwai coast , rodney district , west auckland , n . z .
mathesons bay , leigh , rodney district , north auckland , n . z .
keyhole rock , spit beach , aromoana , dunedin heads , n . z .
matanganui limestone , south rocky side , tarawhenua peninsula , pitt island , chatham islands .
fossil point , bosquet bay , kawau island , hauraki gulf , auckland , n . z .
awapapa limestone , te mata peak , havelock north , hawke bay , n . z .
modern pholad bivalves which have bored into a piece of rock from a coastal shore platform . pholads use the edge of their shells to mechanically drill / cut into the rock . fossil examples like this image exist in rocks from the wanganui basin .
this specimen shows gastropod shells which have accumulated in muddy sediment , and then been ' current aligned ' , i . e . , the movement of the water has turned them so they face the same direction . this specimen comes from the cenozoic of new zealand . image shown in both plan and cross - sectional views . see also
scallop shells embedded in a sandy limestone , from cenozoic sediments of hawke ' s bay .
) . this specimen is formed from casts and molds . these fossils are often found in the port waikato area .
tracks in sandstone . probably made by an echnoderm ( like a sea urchin or kina ) grazing on organic detritus on a sandy sea floor . these tracks can be see in waitamata group sediments , dated at about 20 - 18 million years old .
this group of microfossils is interesting as we don ' t really know what they are - we think they are algae .
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mitchell , l . , curry , g . b . , and fallick , a . e .
several beaches in the taranaki province of the north island are famous for fossils . this ancient oyster shell lived between 3 . 6 and 2 . 6 million years ago , and was buried in marine sediment that has since been uplifted .
by comparison with an image and description in ' cenozoic mollusca of new zealand ' by beu and maxwell ( 1990 ) .
to download this volume and to learn more about ancient molluscs in new zealand .
dr daniel thomas from the institute of natural and mathematical sciences , massey university , made this model using a structured light 3d scanner ( 2015 ) . this fossil shell is from sediment that also contains fossil penguin bones . this specimen was found by daniel when he was looking for fossil penguins .
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on the system and stage names applied to subdivisions of the tertiary strata in new zealand .
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[ read before the auckland institute , august 18 , 1939 ; received by the editor , october 5 , 1939 ; issued separately , june , 1940 . ]
years ago the writer closely studied the fossils occurring at kaawa creek , south of waikato heads , in beds that on palaeontological grounds have been assigned to the waitotaran stage of the wanganui system . these beds were found to be rich in small molluscs , in addition to the larger forms that had already been recorded by bartrum and powell (
, p . 40 ) : —“the high percentage of species that are peculiar to the beds , together with the small number found in pliocene rocks elsewhere in new zealand , shows that the faunule is definitely an isolated one , — . when the faunule is compared with that at hawera the difficulty of correlation becomes further apparent , for the kaawa and hawera beds belong to different facies , and on the whole the assemblage of species differs at each locality , there being only 19 species that are common to both . a striking feature of the faunule at kaawa is the entire absence of such typical waitotaran fossils as the large pelecypods
, vol . 1 , no . 2 , p . 87 , 1931 ) shows a total absence of minutae , and as these are well represented in the faunule at kaawa , correlation is made still more difficult . not until a facies of the taranaki waitotaran is found in which minutae are represented can precise comparisons be made . ”
an attempt to obtain minutae from several localities along the section between , and including , nukumaru beach and waihi beach , hawera , was recently made with moderate success . shortage of time made it necessary to limit collecting to a very brief interval ( two to three hours ) at each locality , and to devote most of this time to searching for matrix that appeared likely to yield small shells , little attention being given to collecting the larger species . collections of matrix were thus made at nukumaru beach , wilkie ' s bluff ( waitotara ) , mangapani ( 12 miles by road upstream from waitotara township ) , and waihi beach , hawera .
the present paper includes description of new species and furnishes new records ; in addition to these , an attempt is made to define more precisely than has been possible in the past the limit that should be drawn between the nukumaruan and waitotaran stages of the wanganui system .
park ( repts . geol . explor . during 1886 - 87 , no . 18 , p . 57 , 1887 ) placed the rotella beds at nukumaru in the newer pliocene , the nukumaru limestone in older pliocene , and the coralline series at waitotara in the upper miocene . the palaeontological observations made in this paper go to show that actually these three horizons are not so widely separable as park thought , but are sufficiently close in faunal characteristics to be grouped together .
although based originally on park ' s waitotara coralline series as developed at wilkie ' s bluff , waitotara ( park , loc . cit . , pp . 55 and 64 ) , as conceived at present the waitotaran includes the succession of beds from waitotara to beyond hawera ; it is here shown , however , to contain two distinct faunal communities . certain upper members of the sequence must be withdrawn from the waitotaran stage ; but they need not be recognised as an additional stage for they contain a faunule that is essentially nukumaruan .
the lists given below ; with the exception of that for waihi beach , hawera , do not represent the full muster of species at the various localities , those for wilkie ' s bluff and mangapani including only those species obtained during the visits recently made by the writer . though not comprehensive , these lists supply strong evidence regarding the correlation of certain beds along part of the nukumaru - hawera coastal section , and , as will be shown , assist in indicating more accurately than has hitherto been possible the sectional division between the nukumaruan and waitotaran stages .
[ footnote ] * recorded by marshall and murdoch ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 52 , p . 123 , 1920 ) .
the presence of nukumaruan faunas in hawke ' s bay as well as in taranaki demonstrates that a continuous sea - way united these areas in nukumaruan times . this has already been shown by ongley ' s ( n . z . jour . sc . tech . , vol . 16 , no . 5 , p . 260 , 1935 ) recent demonstration that near manawatu gorge nukumaruan sediments once formed a continuous sheet across the mountain axis of mesozoic rocks which is shown on current geological maps of new zealand as intervening between extensive areas of pliocene strata on either side of this axis . it is not unreasonable to suppose that the sea
connection existed in the form of a great strait , for , as mr . powell has remarked to the writer , the conditions under which the oyster beds of the coralline series accumulated probably were analogous to those obtaining in foveaux strait at the present day ; such supposition is not opposed to a nukumaruan age for the beds at waitotara .
the outcrop collected from at mangapani extends for a chain or two along the left wall of mangapani valley , which enters the valley of the waitotara river approximately from the west at a point about 12 miles by road upstream from waitotara township . the fossils were obtained from loose , brown , micaceous quartzsands of shallow water character , underlying six or eight feet of a flaggy limestone ( upper limit not seen ) which contains large pectens here and there near its base .
of the 64 species collected at mangapani , 43 ( 67·1 per cent . ) are found at nukumaru or higher wanganuian horizons , or are recent , and do not occur at waipipi or hawera ; the following eight species ( 12·5 per cent . ) occurring at mangapani are found also at waipipi or hawera , and not at nukumaru or higher wanganuian horizons : — chlamys ( phialopecten ) triphooki , eumarcia ( atamarcia ) benhami , polinices waipipiensis , polinices pateaensis , cerithioderma mangawera n . sp . , zelandiella pliocenica , alcithoe whakinoensis , stiracolpus haweraensis , taniella planisuturalis . of the species not entering into these percentages seven range from recent or from upper or mid - pliocene into the lower pliocene , and therefore cannot be used to show the affinity of these beds with either the nukumaruan or waitotaran . there are no species that are peculiar to the mangapani faunule .
[ footnote ] * marwick ( trans . n . z . inst . , vol . 57 , p . 621 , 1927 ) states that c . orassitesta is a species important to the stratigrapher as it seems to be characteristic of the nukumaruan .
at nukumaru , wilkie ' s bluff , mangapani , and in nukumaruan beds in hawke ' s bay are essentially alike , yet distinct from that at hawera ( which shows affinity with that at kaawa creek ) . at least 56 . 5 per cent . of the species of mollusca found at wilkie ' s bluff , and at least 53·1 per cent . of those at mangapani , occur also at nukumaru .
in view of all these facts there seems little reason for hesitation in assigning the mangapani beds to the nukumaruan stage .
the downward sequence between nukumaru and waitotara ( park , loc . cit . , p . 64 ) is : —
soft brown micaceous sandstones ( park makes no reference to these being fossiliferous ) .
? ? ? ( no exposure , but if coralline beds are present one would expect them to outcrop ) .
direct stratigraphical evidence on the correlation of the beds of the two areas is not at present available , though this may yet be obtained by search inland from waitotara . park ( loc . cit . , p . 67 ) has noted the similarity in succession of the strata in the sections at scinde island and pohui , hawke ' s bay , to that at waitotara ; in each case there is an upper and a lower limestone separated by about 150 feet of soft brown sandstone , the lower limestone
at waitotara being a shell limestone passing down into brown calcareous sands ( i . e . , the upper part of park ' s coralline series ) . may it not be that the limestone at mangapani is equivalent to the lower calcareous beds at waitotara ? if so , the fossiliferous sands at the former locality must be lower in the sequence than the coralline beds at wilkie ' s bluff ; and this is in accord with the palaeontological evidence discussed below .
b . percentage of species found in nukumaru and younger wanganuian beds , or recent , but not on waipipi–hawera section .
both sets of beds are more nearly related faunally to mid - and upper wanganuian than to the waipipi - hawera beds , so nearly in fact that one is justified in assigning them to the nukumaruan .
the beds at mangapani are slightly older than those of the coralline series at waitotara .
of the older series exposed to erosion increased as uplift continued . this would account for the greater number of derived forms in later rather than in the earlier beds of the younger sequence . another possibility is that the upper beds of the strata uplifted might be sparsely fossiliferous , and those exposed later to erosion rich in fossil species ; in which case any fossils derived from the older rocks would be more commonly found in later rather than in earlier members of the younger sequence . so far as is known , however , there is no evidence of unconformable relations or of notable disconformity at the requisite horizon along the wanganui section , but there is no stratigraphic evidence that such do not exist in the obscured portion of the coastal section between waitotara heads and the point some miles north - west , where the pliocene beds reappear from under drifts of sand . in fact , it is here that the stratigraphic equivalent of the mangapani beds is to be expected , if , as has been suggested above , these latter constitute a horizon that is lower than that of the coralline beds at waitotara .
to the 73 species recorded by powell ( rec . auck . inst . mus . , vol . 1 , no . 2 , pp . 87–89 , 1931 ) from waihi beach , hawera , the following 40 have now to be added : —
( k indicates that the species is peculiar to the hawera and kaawa creek faunules ) .
it is interesting to note that 11 of the species listed above occur also at kaawa creek , 10 of them being found only in the hawera and kaawa creek faunules . as a result of these additions the total number of species common to the two faunules now stands at 29 , and there is little doubt that further search for small molluscs will show additional connection between them . the presence at hawera of the hitherto exclusively kaawa creek species indicated in the above list strengthens the argument for correlation of these
two horizons . the pyramidellid unit in the beds at hawera affords the same evidence , for it has much in common with that at kaawa creek , such species as chemnitzia ngatutura , odostomia bartrumi , and waikura n . sp . in particular being distinctive .
the additions in the above list bring the total number of species at hawera to 113 , and reduce the percentage of recent species from 35·62 , as determined by powell ( rec . auck . inst . mus . , vol . 1 , no . 2 , p . 89 , 1931 ) , to 23·0 ; compared with this the percentage of recent species at kaawa creek is 21·6 . continued collecting at hawera , however , no doubt will still further reduce this percentage .
the writer is greatly indebted to professor j . a . bartrum , of auckland university college , for his ready assistance with photography , and for the suggestions he kindly made during preparation of the manuscript . to mr . j . n . anderson , engineer to the patea county council , he is also considerably indebted for help in locating certain fossiliferous outcrops along waitotara valley , including that at mangapani . mr . anderson kindly conducted the writer by car for many miles from waitotara township .
nucula ( linucula ) wanganuica n . sp . ( fig . 10 ) .
shell moderately inflated , beaks about posterior third , small , directed backwards . antero - dorsal margin short , curving downwards ; anterior end truncated , the margin straight , oblique ; ventral
margin regularly curved ; posterior margin convex , lightly sinused at its middle ; postero - dorsal margin very short , curved , descending rapidly . upper portion of valve smooth , weak concentric sculpture developing ventrally ( seen only under hand - lens ) . very fine microscopic radials are also developed , and these cut the concentric ridges in a fashion reminiscent of the sculpture of limopsis . only very good specimens show the lunule ornamented by weak radial threads as described by marwick for linucula . chondrophore triangular , oblique , broadening considerably below ; teeth moderately heavy , 7 posterior to pit , about 12 in front . margins finely crenate .
nucula ( linucula ) aptera n . sp . ( fig . 1 ) .
from n . wanganuica n . sp . this shell differs in having greater inflation of valve and fuller beak , stronger concentric sculpture , no antero - dorsal wing , and much finer teeth . tutamoensis , waipaoa and ruatakiensis lack the regular concentric sculpture , and have the outline different . beak at posterior fourth . divaricating radials well seen under microscope . hinge very light , there being 8 or 9 fine anterior teeth and about 7 posterior ones . margins finely crenate . radial threads present as in wanganuica .
shell small , solid , a little oblique , prodissoconch not quite central , but not so laterally situated as that of h . kaawa , the species it most resembles . kaawa has the beak notably broader and is a thinner shell , more circular in outline . the radials of kaawa , though widely spaced like those of the new shell , are heavier and not of the nature of delicate fine threads . waitotara has the flat inter - spaces crossed by close - set concentric threads , which cause fine nodulation of radials where they cross them . the beak rises prominently above hinge , which is fairly broad . ligamental pit triangular ; on each side of it the hinge bears about 20 vertical taxodont teeth , extending for equal distances on each side of the pit . internally the whole of the ventral margin and the ventral parts of anterior and posterior margins are crenulated .
height , 1·7 mm . ; length , 1·7 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 0·6 mm .
of neozelanic species this fossil most resembles g . coccinea hedley , a macquarie island species . it differs from other local species in the almost total absence of sinuation on ventral margin , the beaked effect at anterior being much less obvious than in coccinea , forsteriana and aucklandica . it is notably smaller than coccinea , and equally notably larger than the last two species . except for the unsinuated ventral margin and for the rather more
erect posterior one , the outline is that of coccinea . the beak , however , is more turned inwards . in characters of hinge these two species resemble one another very closely . the fossil has tooth of left valve rather better developed . the right valve has a lamellar tooth developed below and just in front of beak ; above this there is a groove that engages the tooth of the left valve . coccinea has these teeth barely developed ( right valve ) . sculpture consists of concentric growth - ridges and striae and weak radial lines and very low folds , mostly towards posterior end , much as in coccinea . there is a broad fold running from umbo to postero - ventral margin .
height , 5·0 mm . ; length , 6·1 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 1·6 mm .
height , 2·2 mm . ; length , 2·05 mm . ; inflation ( one valve ) , 0·6 mm .
closely allied to marshalli marwick , but is a larger and more heavily built species with much coarser ribbing and dorsal side drawn up a good deal more . the ribs are broad and heavy , and are separated by wide , shallow , almost flat - floored interstices , which are broader in relation to width of axials than are those of marshalli . the ribs are only 8 or 9 in number as compared with 11 or 12 in marshalli , from which species the large , heavy , shell and different ribbing provides ready separation .
localities : nukumaru ( nukumaruan ) ; devil ' s elbow , napier - wairoa road ; kawau island , in 20 fathoms ( recent ) .
type from nukumaru . the type - material consists of odd right and left valves .
shell auriform , imperforate , spire very slightly elevated . sculpture of thin , spaced spiral threads and curved axials , these two elements of equal strength , giving a fenestrated effect . in fact , the sculpture very closely indeed resembles that of scissurella geoffreyi , a fossil from kaawa creek . the present shell , however , has the broadly spreading aperture , concave columella and almost completely covered umbilicus of s . rosea ( hedley ) , the genotype of scissurona . slit deep , situated above periphery , not crossed by lamellae .
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shell large , last whorl enlarging rapidly ; upper surface convex . spire low , its whorls lightly rounded ; sutures distinct . protoconch closely coiled , its nucleus minute . surface smooth to unaided eye , but hand - lens shows numerous fine spiral threads . periphery sharply rounded low down , almost angled . base practically smooth . umbilicus small , its width about 1 / 7 ; to ⅛ that of least diameter of shell .
distinct in its lack of prominent sculpture ; large size and sharply angulated , narrow periphery ; laterally spreading aperture , in which respect it resembles edomita marwick .
spire very low , whorls cenvex , suture channelled broadly , umbilicus wide and perspective . the body - whorl bears about eight distinct regular spiral cords , the first from suture being on rim
of channel , the last forming a keel well below periphery and almost on outer edge of base . these cords become stronger and more distant from suture downwards . base smooth .
localities : wilkie ' s bluff ( type ) ; mangapani ; devil ' s elbow , napier - wairoa road .
not unlike the recent sub - tatei ( suter ) , but the smooth base distinguishes it . albolapis laws has spirals on the base . politus ( suter ) has the spirals much finer . the specimen of unicarina from hawke ' s bay has the channel around suture not so strongly excavated .
one shell , probably a new species , close to finlayi , but with few axials and the umbilicus rather more open . specimen not good enough for description .
several dozen very well preserved specimens have been collected . these show the surface to be sculptured with very numerous , dense radial threads , a feature not commented on at the time of description , owing no doubt to lack of the best material .
related to subtilicosta marwick , but notably smaller and with relatively larger aperture , which is circular . spire lightly convex in outline , sutures moderately distinct ; whorls clasping , faintly convex and rather bulging anteriorly . height of body greater than half that of shell . body - whorl narrow ; aperture with its rim trumpet - like , heavily thickened on parietal wall ; aperture as wide as , or perhaps rather wider than , the body .
this species has relationship with both rekohuana powell and minor ( suter ) . from rekohuana it differs in having the whorls more clasping and sutures tangential , the height of body not so great relative to height of shell , and the aperture different , its posterior border being more nearly horizontal . minor is smaller and has the whorls bulging , those of rekohuana and of rekominor being flat .
shell small , narrow , outline pupoid , whorls flat to very lightly convex , often bulging a little below , and thus slightly overhanging suture . periphery sub - angled , the angulation bearing a fine spiral groove . suture below periphery , the spiral thus in evidence above suture . not unlike morioria powell in shape , but the presence of peripheral angulation and of supra - sutural spiral distinguishes it . porrectoides is also a tapering species , but has not the angulation and coarse spiral . e . ngatutura is consistently much smaller .
this is an exquisitely fashioned little species , taller than either fricta or castlecliffensis , and having the heterostrophe protoconch similar to that described by powell for expansa . the embryo of fricta has the nucleus minute , that of both nukumaruensis and castlecliffensis being much larger . whorls well rounded , sutures strongly cut in , the summit of whorls being shouldered close in to suture . all adult whorls crossed by close , fine ( hair - like under hand - lens ) straight , slightly oblique axials , which extend well down on to base . numerous fine spiral threads , rather finer than the axials , are universally developed . aperture typical , elongate - oval , lips thin , peristome discontinuous . height of body - whorl about half that of shell .
shell minute , attenuate , whorls convex , sutures distinct . protoconch with five thin raised spiral threadlets , spaced widely on posterior part of whorl , but closer together in front . axial sculpture almost obsolete , indicated by exceedingly low corrugations , and present on all post - nuclear whorls . body - whorl long , its height not quite half that of shell . aperture similar to that of analoga powell ; peristome continuous ; parietal callus thick .
shell minute , spire elevated ( about twice height of aperture ) , whorls lightly convex to flat , sutures moderately defined , impressed , situated slightly below periphery . aperture roundly ovate ; outer
lip thin , slightly effuse ; columella arcuate , set vertically , a slight umbilical chink present near its insertion . outer lip antecurrent to suture , which descends to meet aperture . good specimens show low , faint spirals over surface of last two whorls .
five specimens from mangapani are undoubtedly marshall and murdoch ' s ataxocerithium perplexum . like nukumaru shells they are considerably worn , but one is sufficiently preserved to show the sculpture and carination of zeacumantus lutulentus ( kiener ) , to which marshall and murdoch ' s name must fall in synonymy .
shells from nukumaru and mangapani have characters close to those of this species . the protoconch , however , seems less bulging , but this may be due to wear , and the nodules are finer .
the protoconch is described in the generic diagnosis above . the embryonic volutions ( about 2 ½ in number ) increase slowly ; the early post - embryonic whorls increase rapidly at first and then gradually ; thus the protoconch as a whole projects in mucronate fashion . the embryo closes at an ill - defined varix , issuing from which there are three spirals , a third now appearing between the original embryonic ones . all adult whorls with three spiral keels , evenly and regularly nodulated , the nodules connected axially by ridges , weaker than the spirals , giving a fenestration of squares . sutures margined above by a thin thread , which issues from suture on body - whorl as a distinct cord marking the sharply angled periphery . base with two spiral threads .
the resemblance to isotriphora is superficial . it is more likely that the new zealand shell has arisen from a local group , such as notosinister or cautor , possibly the latter .
height ( estimated ) , 15·0 mm . ; width , 5·0 mm . larger specimens occur .
numerous topotypes have been obtained . the writer has this species also from mangapani , wilkie ' s bluff , and from an outcrop near devil ' s elbow ( napier - taupo road ) . the keels on the shells from these localities are slightly heavier and a little more distant one from the other , but otherwise they agree well with topotypes . hawera specimens show some variation in regard to the strength and number of secondary spirals ; some shells have the secondaries fine , even dense ; others have only one or two rather stronger secondaries between the pairs of keels .
three specimens were collected at hawera . the species occurs also at kaawa creek .
one very striking specimen with the umbilical perforation deep and entering right to the top of the shell , seeming to be more penetrating than that of sagenus the parietal callus is worn and outer lip badly broken back .
these shells carry the same number of spirals as octocarinata ( powell ) and also like that species lack the prominent shoulder of inornata . unlike the former , however , the posterior of spire - whorls
has two distinct , though fine , spirals developed , and not a broad swelling as in octocarinata . further , octocarinata has the aperture almost equal in height to that of the spire , whereas the new species has the height of the whole body about half that of the shell . the shell of cavatocarinata is thus more attenuate .
localities : off otago heads , in 72 fathoms ( type ) ; nukumaru ; mangapani . the shells from nukumaru , though stumpier than the recent ones from otago heads , lack the shoulder of inornata and have fewer spirals .
the protoconch is large , its summit flattened and blunt ; smooth . the nucleus on the flattened summit is minute , closely coiled in planorboid fashion . after the first 1 ½ turns the coiling descends in helicoid volutions , the whorls enlarging rapidly , becoming strongly convex , and persisting for just over two turns to close of embryo . the large protoconch appears out of proportion to the size of the early adult whorls . the anterior canal is better defined than that of inornata , being not so open , and longer ; the beak is twisted somewhat to left ; umbilicus entirely closed ; there is no swollen rib comparable with that on inornata and related forms running from beak and bordering left side of umbilicus .
cerithioderma ( miplioderma ) mangawera n . sp . ( fig . 17 ) .
the form of this pliocene species is entirely that of trichosirius finlayi laws , a fossil occurring in hutchinsonian and awamoan beds in the south island . the new species , however , is smaller , more lightly built , and has the axials much less oblique with respect to posterior suture . the posterior one of the three strongest spirals is higher up on whorl in mangawera , and above it there is one fairly strong spiral . finlayi has two , and sometimes three , spirals between suture and the posterior of the three heavy cords ; and these spirals are always much finer than the cords , appearing as spaced , thin but distinct thread .
so far as the writer is aware this species has been known up till now only from the pliocene beds at petane . it is extremely close to f . maxwelli finlay , occurring in deep water off otago heads .
shell very small , spire staged , body - whorl equal to spire in height , of about three post - nuclear whorls , the last one disproportionately long and narrow ; outlines straight . whorls convex , a little flattened around suture , which is distinct . protoconch
heterostrophic , paucispiral , planorboid , well rounded and considerably tilted . spiral sculpture of weak , irregular striae here and there , but rather better developed than in the genotype ( g . dolichostoma ) ; growth - stages well seen . body - whorl long , widely convex in one broad sweep from suture to base ; aperture elongately oval , narrowly angled behind , rather broadly rounded in front ; columella set vertically , strongly arcuate , its fold indicated externally by a low swelling near junction with parietal wall , and becoming more strongly differentiated within aperture ; inner lip with a narrow , well developed pad of callus ; outer lip thin , lightly convex .
the shells from wanganui localities scarcely show the slight anterior bulge typical of christyi .
shell of moderate size , attenuate , body not unduly inflated . whorls convex ; sutures distinct , margined by a low , moderately broad spiral . whorls rising steeply above shoulder . axials developed on all whorls , the interspaces rather narrower than the ribs ; 12 axials on last whorl , no obsolescence of axials evident . the whorls are higher in relation to width than are those of marshalli and imperator , more like those of attenuatus . axials are not so sharply defined as those of imperator and the spirals ( about 28 on body - whorl , each pair with an interstitial threadlet ) are finer . anterior canal long . protoconch typical of the genus .
a very delightfully preserved shell , more slender than any of its associates in zeadmete , quite devoid of axial sculpture , and having fine , close , evenly spaced and regular spiral cords over whole adult surface ; 12 spirals on penultimate whorl . whorls strongly shouldered , the suture almost channelled . the two folds on columella are equal in strength . protoconch normal .
closely allied to m . maoria ( marshall and murdoch ) , an awamoan fossil from target gully . it is , however , considerably larger , has the sutures very deeply channelled and the fenestration of sculpture closer . the spire - whorls have three spiral cords ( two in maoria ) ; the body - whorl four heavy ones ( three in maoria ) , and four or five fine spaced threads anterior to them . axials on body 14 in number ( 12 in maoria ) . nodules at intersections of spirals and axials present on all whorls . columella with three strong , evenly
spaced plaits . inner lip fairly thickly callused . the protoconch is polygyrate , closely coiled , and has the nucleus tiny and central . outer lip broken .
height ( estimated ) , 20·0 mm . ; width ( estimated ) , 10·0 mm .
related to z . opihiensis laws , a fossil from awamoan beds in south canterbury , but separable on account of the more numerous and finer axials ( 18 or 19 on penultimate whorl ; 11 or 12 on that of opihiensis ) , more cut in suture , and less swollen sub - sutural spiral . in apical characters the two forms are identical , the protoconch being conical , polygyrate and sharply pointed , its nucleus minute and base broad . both also have the two small denticles on mid - portion of columella , separated by a light groove . were it not for the protoconch these species would fall into macrozafra , for they agree in build , sculpture and denticulation of columella with m . subabnormis ( suter ) , the genotype of macrozafra .
localities : mangapani ( type ) , common ; wilkie ' s bluff ; petane ; hawera .
just as these shells placed in zafra differ from macrozafra in nuclear characters , so zemitrella inconspicua ( marshall ) , a fossil from the pakaurangi point beds , differs from other neozelanic zemitrella , as has been remarked by the writer ( trans . roy . soc . n . z . , vol . 68 , p . 496 , 1939 ) . if group - names are not already available for those forms with polygyrate apices , it seems that generic distinction should be accorded them .
shell with spire very elongate and slowly tapering , whorls as high as broad , shouldered above posterior third , the shoulder concave and rising steeply to suture , which is clasping . below shoulder whorl descends vertically and is practically straight . shoulder with a swollen border around suture , and a thin spiral thread at about its anterior third , elsewhere with fine spiral striae and curved growth - lines . antepenultimate whorl with six strong , sharply raised and evenly spaced spiral cords , nodulated weakly where crossed by axials , the nodulation strongest on posterior cords , hardly visible on anterior one or two . body - whorl with 14 strong , spaced spiral cords , the upper few faintly nodulated ; interstitial spirals absent . axials very weakly developed , indefinite , indicated chiefly by nodulation on spirals ; some better developed than others , persisting weakly across spiral grooves ; all axials weakening and many dying out entirely towards anterior of whorls . sinus moderate , as indicated by growth - lines on shoulder . anterior notch broken away , but growth - lines on fasciole show it was moderately deep . aperture narrowly ovate , angled behind . sutures very oblique to the horizontal .
separable at a glance from all other neozelanic austrotoma on account of its tenuity of whorl and spire , and large size .
shell tall and slender , outline of spire straight , protoconch missing . whorls with a broad , prominent rounded median keel carrying three or four spiral cinguli ; above keel three fine subequidistant spirals ; below keel two spirals , the lower the heavier . suture margined below by a swollen band consisting of two strong close nodular spirals , the nodules connected axially across interspace . body - whorl with 15 raised and spaced spiral cords , the last half - dozen or so becoming finer , though still well elevated ; most of the inter - spaces with an interstitial threadlet . sinus normal .
pliocene shells from several localities differ in a number of ways from the recent p . zelandica ( smith ) . they are more attenuate ( body much less swollen ) than zelandica , have whorls not so strongly shouldered , and lack the broad smooth zone on whorls .
three shells differing from sata in that they are notably less slender and have the protoconch larger and broader across the base .
l . sata , a kaawa creek species , has been collected also at waihi beach , hawera .
shell small , elevated , outlines convex above , straight below . whorls broadly sulcate medially ; sutures narrow at periphery . whorls axially ribbed , the ribs vertical , straight , nodulated at both extremities , the nodules at anterior ends rather sharper and stronger than those behind . penultimate whorl with 12 to 14 ribs , spaced at intervals greater than their own width . body - whorl swollen and pouting around periphery , contracting rapidly over short base to strongly twisted neck and well developed fasciole .
somewhat like z . biplex ( hutton ) , and z . turpicula marwick .
( of dioeciostrea orton , 1928 ) orton j . h . ( 1928 ) . the dominant species of ostrea . nature . 121 ( 3044 ) : 320 - 321 . , available online at urltoken note : names in this paper are unavailable because there is a disclaimer p . 121 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gofas , s . ; le renard , j . ; bouchet , p . ( 2001 ) . mollusca . in : costello , m . j . et al . ( eds ) , european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . patrimoines naturels . 50 : 180 - 213 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
coan , e . v . ; valentich - scott , p . ( 2012 ) . bivalve seashells of tropical west america . marine bivalve mollusks from baja california to northern peru . 2 vols , 1258 pp . [ details ]
( of dioeciostrea orton , 1928 ) huber , m . ( 2010 ) . compendium of bivalves . a full - color guide to 3 , 300 of the world’s marine bivalves . a status on bivalvia after 250 years of research . hackenheim : conchbooks . 901 pp . , 1 cd - rom . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]


pseudodromia is a genus of crabs in the family dromiidae , often referred to as sponge crabs .

they are small or medium-sized crabs which get their name from the ability to shape a living sponge into a portable shelter for themselves .

a sponge crab cuts out a fragment from a sponge and trims it to its own shape using its claws .

the last two pairs of legs are shorter than other legs and bend upward over the crab 's carapace , to hold the sponge in place .

the sponge grows along with the crab , providing a consistent shelter .

pseudodromia

guinot , d . ( 1967 ) . la faune carcinologique ( crustacea brachyura ) de l ' ocean indien occidental et de la mer rouge . catalogue , remarques bibliographiques et biobliographie . bull . inst . fondamental d ' afrique noire ( ifan ) . 237 - 252 . [ details ]
lewinsohn , c . ( 1977 ) . die dromiidae des roten meeres ( crustacea decapoda : brachyura ) . zoologische verhandelingen ( rijksmuseum van natuurlijke historie , leiden ) 151 . 41 pp . [ details ]
database contains : 10 . 643 species ( 763 with photo ) , 1 . 682 genera , 124 families
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bidentate , no median tooth , two prominent lobes , each of which is broadly bifid . female
, little more massive than first two pairs of legs . none of those limbs verrucose or dilated . first two pairs of legs without podobranchs . inner margins of
of first two pairs of legs armed with several small spines . last two pairs of legs very unequal . third pair of leg shortest . fourth pair almost as long as either of first two pairs , no spine on outer margin of fourth leg
alcock , a . w . , 1900a . materials for a carcinological fauna of india . no . 5 . brachyura primigenia or dromiacea . journal of the asiatic society of bengal , calcutta , 68 , part 2 ( 3 ) : 123 - 169 , pls 3 - 5 .
alcock , a . w . , 1901 . catalogue of the indian decapod crustacea in the collection of the indian museum . part i . brachyura . fasc . 1 . introduction and dromides or dromiacea ( brachyura primigenia ) . trustees of the indian museum , calcutta , i - viii , 1 - 80 , pls a & 1 - 7 .
ihle , j . e . w . , 1913 . die decapoda brachyura der siboga - expedition i . dromiacea . siboga expeditie monografie , 39 ( b ) : 1 - 96 , 38 figs , pls 1 - 4 .
mclay , c . l . , 1993 . crustacea decapoda : the sponge crabs ( dromiidae ) of new caledonia and the philippines with a review of the genera . in : a . crosnier ( ed . ) , résultats des campagnes musorstom , volume 10 . mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , 156 : 111 - 251 , figs 1 - 19 , tabl . 1 - 8 .
miers , e . j . , 1884b . crustacea ( brachyura ) . in : report on the zoological collections made in the indo - pacific ocean during the voyage of h . m . s . alert 1881 - 1882 . part i . the collections from melanesia . part ii . the collections from the western indian ocean . british museum ( natural history ) , london , 8 ( 2 ) : 513 - 575 , pls 46 - 52 .
sakai , t . , 1976a . crabs of japan and the adjacent seas . ( in 3 volumes : ( 1 ) english text : i - xxix , 1 - 773 , figs 1 - 379 , ( 2 ) plates volume : 1 - 16 , pls 1 - 251 , ( 3 ) japanese text : 1 - 461 , figs 1 - 2 , 3 maps . ) kodansha ltd , tokyo .
wada , k . , 1995 . brachyura . in : s . nishimura , guide to seashore animals of japan with color pictures and keys . vol . 2 : 379 - 418 , pls 101 - 118 . ( in japanese )
sorry , there are no images or audio / video clips available for this taxon .
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though they are an important source of food , little is known about crabs on the west coast of india . information on the diversity of these fascinating creatures is confined to crabs collected from sandy beaches , rocky foreshores , mud flats , marshes and mangrove swamps .
altogether 83 species of the crabs have been reported along the west coast of india . of these , 37 species are marine , 40 estuarine , and six live in freshwater .
crabs are an inexpensive source of protein . they fetch a good price during the monsoon or off - season . crab fishing provides livelihood for a large number of people in coastal villages .
due to limited yield and great local demand , there is no export potential for crabs . large annual fluctuations occur in the numbers caught . soylla serrata is the most common edible crab of india . portunus pelagious , charybdis cruciata and portunus sanguinoleutus are other commercially important crabs ; they are caught throughout the year and support a minor but regular fishery along the goa coast .
the gear and methods for catching crabs are not highly specialized . most are caught during the daytime using various types of conventional nets , traps , lines , bait and hand picking during low tide . the crabs are kept in baskets with wet weeds to reduce mortality , and are marketed live .
crabs play an important role in recycling nutrients in mangrove ecosystems . they are a prime source of food for various fish , ( including stingrays ) , frogs , crocodiles , swimming and wading birds , jackals and other carnivores . they are important scavengers of the seashore , making up in numbers what they lack in size .
despite their ecological importance , crabs are often treated as a nuisance . they burrow actively , causing considerable damage to canal and river banks and pond bunds . this can cause heavy losses to commercial aquaculture .
the lunar cycle is thought to influence the occurrence and body composition of crabs . the highest numbers of crabs are found during the full moon , while the weight of the crabs is highest during a new moon .
people believe that during a new or full moon , the texture and taste of crab meat changes considerably . this is due to moulting of the shell and seasonal variations in the chemical composition of the meat .
there is no regular culture in india specifically for crabs . though scylla serrata and portunus spp . are suitable for culture due to their high growth rate , adaptability to brackish water , voracious feeding and early attainment of sexual maturity , no attempt has been made to raise them commercially . the coastal and brackish water farms of goa could be used to culture these species .
the best way to conserve crabs is to protect their habitat . some commercially important species inhabit mudflats and sandy beaches . these and related habitats such as mangroves can be protected by minimizing erosion , planting casuarina trees and protecting sand dunes .


cotinis aliena ( also keys green june beetle ) is a species of cotinis found in the florida keys .

this species is considered to be critically imperiled because it is only known from three localities in the florida keys and one locality in southern peninsular florida .

development and pesticides are the most likely threats to its survival .

cotinis aliena

no one has contributed data records for cotinis ( cotinis ) burmeister , 1842 yet . learn how to contribute .
in the eastern united states , the genus cotinis burmeister previously contained only c . nitida ( l . ) , the common economic pest known as the
green june beetle
. a new species from the florida keys , cotinis aliena , is here described and illustrated . a checklist is provided for the genus , which includes 27 valid new world species , and 44 synonyms .
jennifer hammock split the classifications by nmnh entomology resource from cotinis nitida ( linnaeus , 1764 ) to their own page .
apologies for the white debris that made its way into this photo . i will try to take photos later on but wanted to post asap as bugguide did not yet have an image for this neat species from the florida keys . for more information on c . aliena ( pp . 4 - 7 ) as well as other neat cotinis spp . feel free to check out the following resource : woodruff , r . ( 2008 ) . the genus cotinis burmeister in the eastern united states , with description of a new species from the florida keys , including a checklist of the genus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : cetoniinae ) . insecta mundi , 584 .
woodruff , r . e . 2008 . the genus cotinis burmeister in the eastern united states with description of a new species from the florida keys , including a checklist of the genus ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae : cetoniinae ) . insecta mundi 0051 : 1 - 13 .
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it is possible that this species was introduced , but there is no definite evidence of this .
this species is only known from three localities in the florida keys and one locality in extreme southern peninsular florida , usa . no specimens have been found since 1998 .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
this species is only known from three localities in the florida keys and one locality in extreme southern peninsular florida .
survey the florida keys and southern peninsular florida , usa for presence of this species .
distribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
deyrup , m . and r . franz . 1994 . rare and endangered biota of florida , volume iv . invertebrates . university press of florida : gainesville , florida . 798 pp .
natureserve . unpublished . concept reference for taxa which have not yet been described ; to be used as a placeholder until a citation is available which describes the circumscription of the taxon .
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note : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .
data developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
key largo , monroe county , florida , usa june 24 , 2016 size : ~ 2 . 4 cm
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published in insecta mundi : a journal of world insect systematics , # 0051 ( 2008 ) . published by the center for systematic entomology , inc . , gainseville , fl . urltoken copyright © 2008 by the authors .
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smith , a . b . t . 2009 . checklist and nomenclatural authority file of the scarabaeoidea of the nearctic realm . version 4 . electronically published , ottawa , canada . 97 pp . , available online at urltoken
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
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scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .