the plumbeous tyrant ( knipolegus cabanisi ) is a species of bird in the family tyrannidae .

it is found in southeastern peru , western bolivia and northern argentina .

its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .

this and the jelski 's black tyrant are sometimes considered conspecific , in which case , the bird is then usually referred to as the andean tyrant .

plumbeous tyrant

nobody uploaded sound recordings for plumbeous black - tyrant ( knipolegus cabanisi ) yet .
2c . called
pinto ' s tyrant - manakin
in meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) and
serra tyrant - manakin
in snow ( 2004b ) .
johnson ' s tody - tyrant
also adopted by fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .
did not change from
tody - flycatcher
to
tody - tyrant .
22c . called
olive - crowned pygmy - tyrant
in wetmore ( 1972 ) .
49a . called
light - eyed pygmy - tyrant
in wetmore ( 1972 ) .
the arrangement of the knipolegus black - tyrants is based on hosner and moyle ( 2012 ) and fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) . since eumyiobius would be embedded in knipolegus , it has been merged into knipolegus . hosner and moyle ' s results provide support for treating caatinga black - tyrant , knipolegus franciscanus , as a separate species from white - winged black - tyrant , knipolegus aterrimus , and also plumbeous tyrant , knipolegus cabanisi , separate from jelski ' s black - tyrant , knipolegus signatus .
44a . called
sharp - tailed grass - tyrant
by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) .
i have split the blackish chat - tyrant , ochthoeca nigrita , and maroon - belted chat - tyrant , ochthoeca thoracica , from the slaty - backed chat - tyrant , ochthoeca cinnamomeiventris , based on a combination of fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) , ridgely and greenfield ( 2001 ) , hilty ( 2003 ) , and garcia - moreno et al . ( 1998 ) .
45b . called
white - breasted pygmy - tyrant
in meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) and parker et al . ( 1982 ) .
by traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) . thus , it was renamed
fork - tailed tody - tyrant
by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) .
passed to make the english name
johnson ' s tody - tyrant
, in honor of its recently deceased describer , ned . k . johnson .
, and considered them conspecific , but noted that they might also be considered separate species , as also noted by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) . sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered them conspecific and coined the name
andean tyrant
for the composite species , and this was followed by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) ; fjeldså & krabbe ( 1990 ) also considered them conspecific but used
plumbeous tyrant ,
but see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for reasons not to use that english name .
62c . johnson and jones suggested
lulu ' s tody - tyrant
for the english name . the logical
rufous - headed
is already in use in
hosner & moyle ( 2012 ) recommended use of the english name caatinga black - tyrant because it was already the most frequently used name for the taxon when treated as a species .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . plumbeous black - tyrant ( knipolegus cabanisi ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
83a . called
cinnamon tyrant - manakin
in sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) ,
cinnamon tyrant
in mobley & prum ( 1995 ) , fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) , and schulenberg et al . ( 2007 ) , and
cinnamon neopipo
in ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) and hilty ( 2003 ) , thus perhaps setting a new temporal record for lack of stability in an english name .
the andean tyrant is a montane flycatcher in low andean woodlands . they are found from peru south along the east slope of the andes through bolivia into northern argentina , where the species might be most abundant . males are dark slaty to black with red irides and white edging to some wing feathers , while females are dull - eyed and brownish above and whitish below with a rusty rump and edging to the tail feathers . male andean tyrants display for females by making a high whirring arc flight into the air . the white - winged black - tyrant is fairly similar to andean tyrant , but is found in more open habitats and has more obvious white in the wings ( males ) .
36 . formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) called
yellow - bellied bristle - tyrant
; see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for reasons for the need for their new english name for this species .
do form a distinctive group within the genus and thus the english name bristle - tyrant is retained for them , following ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) . hilty & brown ( 1986 ) , ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) , hilty ( 2003 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) retained
in recent years considered conspecific with k . signatus , although in earlier times the two were even placed in different genera . molecular # r and morphological data support treatment as separate species , present form differing in its blue - grey ( dark - tipped ) vs blackish bill in male ( 3 ) ; overall slightly paler , plumbeous plumage in male ( ns [ 1 ] ) ; much brighter rufous uppertail - coverts in female ( 2 ) ; and much buffier wingbars in female ( 2 ) . described form “ k . subflammulatus ” now known to refer to immature male plumage of present species . monotypic .
although ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) estimate that the tyrannidae have been a separate lineage since roughly 25 - 30 million years ago ( mid - oligocene ) , the current diversification of the group dates to the last 20 million years . the tyrant flycatchers remain among the most difficult to classify and identify , full of cryptic species . some flycatchers are so cryptic that there remains controversy about whether 1 or 2 species are involved , such as the the cordilleran and pacific - slope flycatchers .
the second branch is the chat - tyrant clade unofficially called ochthoecini . fjeldså et al . confirm the arrangment of genera . silvicultrix is separated from ochthoeca ( see garcía - moreno and arctander , 1998 ) and several of the former myiophobus are temporarily designated “myiophobus” ( years later , we still await a proper name ) . moreover , tumbezia has been merged into ochthoeca , with ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) pushing me over the line on this . there is still some guesswork in the arrangement of this group , but at the generic level is agrees with lanyon ( 1986 ) .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the pre - split species has been described as ' uncommon ' ( stotz et al . 1996 ) . trend justification : this population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
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at 23 , 54 , 103 , and 157 seconds . a cow in the background .
drr - pit while shooting 2 m up and down again displaying white wing patch . tape ref . ( b 20 - 24 )
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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jacob . wijpkema , tomas grim , ken simonite , héctor bernardo fernández , lars petersson , josep del hoyo , miguel andina , silvia vitale , rich bayldon , manakincarmelo .
se peru ( e cuzco , n puno ) , se bolivia ( cochabamba , santa cruz , tarija ) and nw argentina ( jujuy s to tucumán and se catamarca ) .
, especially in shorter bill , overall more dark slate - grey , wings and tail dusky , inner webs of . . .
usually quiet . male utters “tec” or “tchick” call , also makes wing - whirring noise , during display ( . . .
interior of lower growth of humid montane forest and woodland , less frequently at borders ; also . . .
little known . insects . usually inconspicuous and quiet ; also generally solitary , and does not follow mixed - species flocks . perches upright . . .
eggs in oct–jan in argentina ( tucumán and jujuy ) ; female in breeding condition in mid nov , another with brood patch in late dec and one . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . uncommon to locally fairly common . rare and very poorly known in peru ; fairly common in argentina and parts of bolivia . occurs in . . .
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highly speciose family , herein divided into nine subfamilies ( with ten tribes ) ; recent studies # r # r suggest that the first four listed ( platyrinchinae , pipritinae , tachurisinae , pipromorphinae ) are sister to rest of family , and may merit treatment as 1–4 separate families .
together with lessonia and hymenops forms a well - supported clade # r # r which was previously also considered to include pyrocephalus # r .
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even though they have been reduced from their traditional size , mainly by losing the rhynchocyclidae , the tyrannidae remain the largest of the suboscine families the tyrannidae include about one quarter of all of the suboscines .
the new slimmed - down tyrannidae have a simpler structure than the old tyrannidae . there are three major and two minor clades designated as subfamilies . the first subamily is hirundineinae . this is a small subfamily containing only 6 species . ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) considered this group closest to the tyranninae and fluvicolinae . in contrast , fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) found them sister to the elaeniinae . rheindt et al . ' s ( 2008a ) data put them in a more basal position , sister to the combined elaeniinae , tyranninae , and fluvicolinae . for now , i ' m following ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) which puts them in a basal trichotomy with the elaeniinae and a clade containing the other three subfamilies . note that the three former myiophobus included in this subfamily are not closely related to the rest of myiophobus . they have been given a new genus name , nephelomyias , by ohlsson et al . ( 2009 ) .
the second subfamily contains the elaenias ( elaeniinae ) . it has two major branches : euscarthmini and elaeniini . ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) find very similar results for the euscarthmini . rheindt et al . ( 2008a ) is a bit different , but not very strongly so . sixteen species of phyllomyias tyrannulets are separated from the main phyllomyias group ( part of elaeniini ) and placed variously in the revived genera tyranniscus and xanthomyias . i ' ve also included five tyrannulets from mercocerculus in xanthomyias . it ' s not clear whether these two groups are sisters or nested , and it seemed best to treat them as one genus for now . this reduces mercocerculus itself to a single species which belongs in elaeniini .
the arrangement of species within zimmerius is based on rheindt et al . ( 2008c , 2013 ) . based on rheindt et al . ( 2013 ) , mistletoe tyrannulet , zimmerius parvus , specious tyrannulet , zimmerius improbus ( inc . tamae ) , and venezuelan tyrannulet , zimmerius petersi , are split from paltry tyrannulet , zimmerius vilissimus .
coopmans ' s tyrannulet , zimmerius minimus , comprising minimus and cumanensis has somewhat speculatively been split from golden - faced tyrannulet , zimmerius chrysops , based on comments in rheindt et al . , ( 2013 ) . i continue include the loja tyrannulet , zimmerius flavidifrons . rheindt et al . , ( 2014 ) describe a mosiac population that is linked to both the golden - faced and peruvian tyrannulets . it includes flavidifrons and an undescribed peruvian population and may end up being lumped in with the peruvian tyrannulet . thus the old chrysops with 5 subspecies has been divided among coopmans ' s , choco , golden - faced , and loja tyrannulets . finally , chico ' s tyrannulet , zimmerius chicomendesi , newly described by whitney et al . , ( 2013c ) , has been added to the list .
the situation in the elaeniini is rather complicated , with different analyses giving quite different results . there are five groups , and once again , i rely on the multi - gene analysis of ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) to resolve their order . the clades start with ( 1 ) the tyrannulus and the myiopagis elaenias and ( 2 ) the elaenia elaenias . these form a trichotomy with a clade consisting of the remaining three groups : ( 3 ) suiriri ; ( 4 ) the capsiempis - phyllomyias group ; and ( 5 ) the pseudelaenia - serpophaga group . see ericson et al . ( 2006b ) , ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) , rheindt et al . ( 2008a ) , and tello et al . ( 2009 ) for alternative treatments .
the chapada flycatcher , suiriri affinis , is unrelated to the other suiriri taxa and has been moved to fluvicolini .
zucker et al . ( 2016 ) found that nesotriccus is embedded in phaeomyias and that both are very closely related to phyllomyias . accordingly , i have merged nesotriccus ( cocos flycatcher ) and phaeomyias into phyllomyias . it would not be unreasonable to go a step further and merge the monotypic capsiempis with phyllomyias . however , both names have equal priority and need a first reviser action to decide between them . since there ' s not a strong need to merge them , it can wait .
also based on zucker et al . ( 2016 ) , the mouse - colored tyrannulet , formerly phaeomyias murina , has been split into amazonian mouse - colored tyrannulet , phyllomyias murinus , including wagae , and northern mouse - colored tyrannulet , phyllomyias incomtus , including eremonomus .
straneck ' s tyrannulet / gray - crowned tyrannulet , serpophaga griseicapilla , has had a somewhat checkered history . it was previously referred to as serpophaga griseiceps , but the type of griseiceps was actually a juvenile of s . munda ( herzog and mazur barnett , 2004 ) . straneck ( 2007 ) gave it the name s . griseiceps . it has also been referred to as gray - crowned tyrannulet , and monte tyrannulet .
the treatment of tyranninae follows ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) , which analyses all of the genes considered in both ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) . within tyranninae , the attilas are basal , followed by the piratic flycatcher ( legatus ) , and the ramphotrigon flatbills ( including deltarhynchus ) . the remainder of tyranninae is divided into a myiarchus group and a kingbird group . there were some differences between ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) . i ' m following the resolution of these differences proposed in ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) , but we should keep in mind that some of the genes are telling incongruent stories and that additional information may change some of the details .
is its closest relative . they are sister species in tello et al . ( 2009 ) , but the support is not great and chaves et al . ( 2008 ) has them separated . i ' ve also separated the fork - tailed flycatcher in
based on tello et al . ( 2009 ) . once it is out of
is based on joseph et al . ( 2004 ) and sari and parker ( 2012 ) . they both note some issues within
. they may represent incompelete lineage sorting , species boundaries that need to be redrawn , or even cryptic species . one such involves la sagra ' s and stolid flycatchers , which seem to be mutually paraphyletic ( joseph et al . 2004 ) . other such problems exist for
also within the myiarchus group , sirystes , sirystes sibilator has been split into : sibilant sirystes , sirystes sibilator , white - rumped sirystes , sirystes albocinereus , todd ' s sirystes , sirystes subcanescens , and choco sirystes , sirystes albogriseus , based on donegan ( 2013 ) .
based on garrido et al . ( 2009 ) , the loggerhead kingbird has been split into three species : western loggerhead kingbird , tyrannus caudifasciatus , hispaniolan kingbird , tyrannus gabbii , and puerto rican kingbird , tyrannus taylori . the three are easily distinguished by their calls , or with a little care , by their plumage .
i now follow fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) for the fluvicolinae , in preference to ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) . in contrast , ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) obtain different concerning the fluvicolinae , with tello et al . much closer to the more recent ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) . in particular , i use fjeldså et al . to position colonia and ( true ) myiophobus , hoping that the denser taxon sampling does the trick .
i now split the fluvicolinae into four tribes , corresponding to fjeldså ' s clades a through d .
the fluvicolini come first . there ' s been some minor rearrangement and a few additions . following fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) , i ' ve included colonia here , as well as the black - and - white monjita , now called heteroxolmis dominicanus , previously in genus xolmis . there is one other addition . the chapada flycatcher , formerly suiriri affinis ( not s . islerorum , see kirwan et al . , 2014a ) is not related to suiriri . rather , lopes et al . ( 2018 ) found it is sister to sublegatus . lopes et al . established a new genus for it , guyramemua , so the chapada flycatcher becomes guyramemua affine and moves from elaeniini to fluvicolini .
also , based on carmi et al . ( 2016 ) , the vermilion flycatcher , formerly pyrocephalus rubinus , has been split into four species :
the contopini follow cicero and johnson ( 2002 ) , ohlson et al . ( 2008 , 2013 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) telling the same basic story . the only real disagreement concerns whether sayornis and mitrephanes are sister taxa . note also that the true myiophobus are basal in contipini . finally , empidonax taxonomy follows cicero and johnson ( 2002 ) and johnson and cicero ( 2002 ) . however , fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) have called this into question . their phylogenies suggest that empidonax is not monophyletic . support for this is weak , but further data may force a change here .
the treatment of the xolmini now follows fjeldså et al . ( 2018 ) , replacing ohlson et al . ( 2013 ) , the very similar tello et al . ( 2009 ) and the slightly different ohlson et al . ( 2008 ) .
the more complete taxon sampling by fjeldså et al . has forced a split - up of the genus xolmis . besides sending the black - and - white monjita to the fluvicolini ( heteroxolmis ) , the fire - eyed diucon , now pyrope pyrope , moves to pyrope . i ' ve also moved the black - crowned monjita , neoxolmis coronatus , rusty - backed monjita , neoxolmis rubetra , and salinas monjita , neoxolmis salinarum , to neoxolmis from xolmis . finally , the gray monjita , now nengetus cinereus , has been placed in nengetus ( swainson 1827 ) . it had historically been in the genus taenioptera ( bonaparte 1825 ) , of which it is the type . however , although bonaparte alluded to taenioptera as a subgenus in 1825 , he did not actually establish the name until 1831 . thus nengetus has priority .
the order in anairetes and uromyias is based on dubay and witt ( 2012 ) and roy et al . ( 1999 ) . dubay and witt use additional genetic information to argue that the two uromyias species ( agilis and agraphia ) form a clade sister to the rest of anairetes , contrary to the conclusions of roy et al . ( 1999 ) . whether to treat them as one genus or two is a matter of opinion . the sacc has endorsed using two genera .
[ relationships of family , sequence of genera ] [ add subfamilies ? ] . sibley & ahlquist ( 1985 , 1990 ) found that the tyrannidae consisted of two major groups , the
mionectidae
for
and several genera of small flycatchers placed in the subfamily elaeniinae ( sensu traylor 1979a ) ; sibley & ahlquist ' s data also indicated that the
mionectidae
and tyrannidae were not sister groups .
subsequent analyses ( s . lanyon 1985 , w . lanyon 1988a , b ) did not support such a division . however , chesser ( 2004 ) found the same deep division in the tyrannidae , but found that the two groups were sisters . tello et al . ( 2009 ) found that
for detailed discussions of relationships among genera , see traylor ( 1977 ) and w . lanyon ( 1985 , 1986 , 1988a , 1988b , 1988c ) . [
broad definition of phyllomyias , he noted that this genus is likely polyphyletic , with p . fasciatus , p . griseocapilla , and p . griseiceps possibly forming a group unrelated to the other species , which would force minimally the resurrection of tyranniscus ( see note 6 ) .
on described vocal differences ; this treatment returns to earlier ones ( cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941c , phelps & phelps 1950a ) that treated the two as separate before meyer de schauensee ' s ( 1966 , 1970 ) and traylor ' s ( 1977 < ? > , 1979a ) classifications . stiles & skutch ( 1989 ) further recognized andean birds as a separate species ,
, returning to the classification of ( ref ) . elevation of these taxa to species rank was not followed by fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) due to lack of published analyses of vocal differences or other data .
, were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941b ,
3a . phyllomyias reiseri and p . virescens were considered conspecific by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) , meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) , and traylor ( 1977 < ? > , 1979a , 1982 ) , but see zimmer ( 1955 ) , meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) , stotz ( 1990 ) , and hayes ( 1995 ) ; they form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) , along with p . urichi ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
4 . [ split from virescens ; silva ( 1996 ) . ] ; followed by fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .
6 . the species nigrocapillus , cinereiceps , and uropygialis were formerly ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941b , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in a separate genus , tyranniscus , but they were transferred to phyllomyias by traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) . <
were formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1941c , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in a separate genus ,
7a . the tarsal morphology of tyrannulus has been interpreted to indicate that it belongs in the cotingidae ( ridgway 1907 ) . traylor ( 1977 ) considered tyrannulus most closely related to myiopagis because of plumage similarities to m . gaimardii .
was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) included in
; zimmer ( 1941b ) treated the two as separate , and this has been followed in all subsequent classifications .
7c . hilty ( 2003 ) suspected that myiopagis caniceps might not belong in that genus , but rheindt et al . ( 2009 ) confirmed that it belongs there .
known only from the type specimen from goiás , brazil , and formerly considered a valid species ( e . g . ,
genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2009 , cuervo et al . 2014 ) reveal that
recent genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2009 , tello et al . 2009 ) confirm this placement .
7e .
serpophaga berliozi ,
described as a valid species from amazonas , peru , is now considered a synonym of myiopagis g . gaimardii ( meyer de schauensee 1966 , mayr 1971 , traylor 1979a ) .
8 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : coopmans & krabbe ( 2000 ) .
8b . myiopagis viridicata and m . cotta of jamaica are sister species ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
8c . hilty ( 2003 ) suspected that myiopagis viridicata might consist of more than one species ; genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2009 ) indicate a very deep split between cis - and trans - andean populations .
8d . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that elaenia martinica and e . chiriquensis were sister species .
8e . olrog ( 1963 ) suggested that elaenia spectabilis should be considered conspecific with e . flavogaster .
8ee . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that the traditional linear sequence of
species , as given here , does not accurately reflect phylogenetic relationships among taxa .
8f . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that elaenia flavogaster and e . gigas were closely related based on vocal , behavioral , and plumage similarities , but genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that they are not closely related .
9 . elaenia ridleyana was formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1941a , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor 1979a ) considered a subspecies of e . spectabilis or of e . chiriquensis ( cory & hellmayr 1927 ) ; treated here as a species separate from following sick ( 1985 ) and ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) ; e . ridleyana forms a superspecies with e . spectabilis ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) .
might be closely related ; they may hybridize to an uncertain extent in n . peru ( fjeldså & krabbe 1990 ) . rheindt et al . ( 2008a ) found that andean populations ( cuzco ) were genetically more similar to sympatric populations of
but suggested that this could be due to gene flow between them . rheindt et al . ( 2009 ) provided evidence that the subspecies
10a . elaenia frantzii and e . obscura were considered to form a superspecies by aou ( 1983 ) but not by subsequent authors ; they were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered conspecific ; zimmer ( 1941a ) provided rationale for their treatment as separate species , and this has been followed in most subsequent classifications . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that they are not closely related . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that e . dayi might also be closely related to these two ; genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008 ) indicate that e . dayi and e . obscura are sister species .
10c . sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered elaenia albiceps and e . parvirostris to form a superspecies . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) indicate that they are not closely related . although they seem to intergrade in some areas of central bolivia , they are sympatric without interbreeding in argentina ( traylor 1982 ) .
10cc . zimmer ( 1941a ) proposed that elaenia cristata and e . ruficeps were probably sister species based on morphology and habitat similarities , and this is strongly supported by genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a ) .
10d . the subspecies modesta was formerly ( ref ) considered a separate species from elaenia albiceps , but see zimmer ( 1941a ) . jaramillo ( 2003 ) suggested that e . albiceps consists of more than one species .
10e . the subspecies tyleri of cerro duida was described as a separate species from elaenia dayi ( chapman 1929 ) .
of the tepui region was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered a separate species from
, but they were treated as conspecific by zimmer ( 1941a ) . genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008a , 2009 ) indicate that
10g . elaenia pallatangae and e . albiceps may hybridize to an uncertain extent in ecuador and n . peru ( fitzpatrick 2004 , fjeldså & krabbe 1990 ) .
, but slud ( 1964 ) noted vocal differences between the two and recommended treatment as separate species . this has been followed by most subsequent classifications ( e . g . , wetmore 1972 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a , stiles & skutch 1989 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) , thus returning to the classification of cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) ; they constitute a superspecies ( aou 1983 , 1998 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
correct spelling for species name is brunneicapillus , not brunneicapillum ( david & gosselin 2002a ) .
has been interpreted to indicate that it belongs in the cotingidae ( ridgway 1907 ) .
genetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) indicate that it is the sister to
; this has been followed by most subsequent classifications ( e . g . , traylor < ? > 1977 , 1979 , ridgely & tudor 1994 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) , but wetmore ( 1972 ) maintained
on the basis of differences in primary shape , rectrix shape , and relative tail length .
forms a superspecies with middle american c . imberbe ( aou 1983 , 1998 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) ; meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) suggested that they might be conspecific , but they are sympatric in costa rica ( stiles & skutch 1989 ) .
may consist of more than one species ; rheindt et al . ( 2008c ) found genetic evidence consistent with at least three species , but recommended waiting for additional analyses .
12 . some authors ( cory & hellmayr 1927 , short 1975 , sibley & monroe 1990 ) considered s . affinis as a species separate from s . suiriri , but they intergrade in southeastern bolivia , northeastern paraguay , and southwestern brazil ( laubmann 1940 , zimmer 1955 , traylor 1982 , hayes 1995 , 2001 ) . their vocalizations are similar ( zimmer et al . 2001 ) , and all 17 specimens from the paraguayan hybrid zone are intermediate , suggesting free interbreeding ( hayes 1995 , 2001 ) .
13 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : zimmer et al . ( 2001 ) .
13a . lopes et al . ( 2018 ) found that suiriri affinis was not closely related to suiriri suiriri but rather to a group of genera including phyllomyias , phaeomyias , and capsiempis ; they named a new genus for affinis :
14 . morphological data indicate that mecocerculus is almost certainly polyphyletic ( lanyon 1988a ) , but no choice now but to retain as is without further study . with leucophrys as the type species for the genus , placement of the genus arbitrarily reflects the position of m . leucophrys in lanyon ' s ( 1988a ) phylogeny .
14a . mecocerculus poecilocercus and m . hellmayri form a superspecies ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
14b . fjeldså & krabbe ( 1990 ) suggested that the subspecies pallidior of western peru might be considered a separate species from mecocerculus leucophrys .
15 . anairetes nigrocristatus was formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1940b , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a ) considered conspecific with a . reguloides , but see fjeldså & krabbe ( 1990 ) and ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for recognition as a separate species , as was suspected was the best treatment by meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) ; they form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) and are sister taxa ( dubay & witt 2012 ) .
15a . spizitornis was formerly ( e . g . , oberholser 1920b , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1940b ) used for anairetes , but see < ref > , meyer de schauensee 1966 ) .
15b . genetic data ( roy et al . 1999 ) confirm that anairetes parulus and a . fernandezianus are sister species .
was formerly ( e . g . , reluctantly by zimmer 1940b ) placed in the monotypic genus
and is sister to a . parulus + a . flavirostris , and together they are sister to a . reguloides + a . nigrocristatus
were traditionally ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) placed in
many recent classifications ( e . g . , dickinson 2003 ) have merged uromyias into anairetes
on the basis of morphological and vocal characters , roy et al . ' s ( 1999 ) genetic data found that it is embedded within
17a . silva ( 1990 ) showed that
serpophaga araguayae ,
formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) considered a valid species (
bananal tyrannulet
) , is actually a synonym of myiopagis c . caniceps .
18 . serpophaga munda is often considered a subspecies ( e . g . , zimmer 1955 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a , straneck 1993 ) or morph ( short 1975 ) of s . subcristata , but see olrog ( 1963 ) and herzog ( 2001 ) .
known from four specimens from bolivia , was formerly considered a valid species ( e . g . , zimmer 1955 , meyer de schauensee 1966 , 1970 ) . traylor ( 1979 ) treated
might consist of more than one species . ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) considered the subspecies
) of southwestern ecuador and northwestern peru to represent a separate species based on differences in vocalizations .
rheindt et al . ( 2008c ) found genetic evidence consistent with two species , and zucker et al . ( 2016 ) found additional evidence for multiple species within
21b . cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) noted that evidence for treatment of polystictus pectoralis and p . superciliaris as congeneric is weak
21c . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) noted that the possibly extinct subspecies bogotensis probably deserves treatment as a separate species from polystictus pectoralis . fjeldså & krabbe ( 1990 ) suggested that the northern subspecies brevipennis might also deserve treatment as a separate species .
22 . sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered pseudocolopteryx acutipennis and p . dinelliana to form a superspecies .
22a . pseudocolopteryx is feminine , so the correct spelling of the species name is dinelliana ( david & gosselin 2002b ) .
) that differ in vocalizations and displays , and do not respond to cross - playback experiments .
22b . pseudotriccus pelzelni and p . simplex form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) and might be conspecific ( fjeldså & krabbe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
22d . pseudotriccus ruficeps was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) placed in the monotypic genus caenotriccus , but see zimmer ( 1940 ) for its merger into pseudotriccus .
23 . see sick ( 1985 ) , ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) for reasons for maintaining corythopis torquatus and c . delalandi as separate species ; they form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) .
meyer de schauensee 1966 ) placed in the conopophagidae , but see ames et al . ( 1968 ) for independent anatomical data sets that show that this species belongs in the tyrannidae . < sibley - ahlquist etc . refs > . tello and bates ( 2007 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) found strong support for a sister relationship between
24 . corythopis is masculine , so the correct spelling of the species name is torquatus ( david & gosselin 2002b ) .
24a . euscarthmus was formerly ( < ref > ) placed in the formicariidae [ = thamnophilidae ] because of similarities in tarsal scutellation .
( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) , but see lanyon ( 1988a ) .
genetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) confirm that it is not the sister to any of these genera but is a member of a group of genera that includes
25a . stigmatura napensis and s . budytoides were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , pinto 1944 ) considered conspecific , and napensis was described as a subspecies of s . budytoides ; recent authors have followed zimmer ( 1940b ) in treating them as separate species ; they are considered to form a superspecies by sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .
25b . stigmatura was formerly ( < ref > ) placed in the formicariidae [ = thamnophilidae ] because of its superficial resemblance to the genus formicivora .
26 . the species vilissimus , bolivianus , cinereicapilla , gracilipes , acer , and viridiflavus ( with chrysops and albigularis ) were formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1941b , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in a separate genus , tyranniscus , but see traylor ( 1977 ) for separation in the genus zimmerius .
based on differences in voice . ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) , krabbe & nielsson ( 2003 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) also noted that the taxon
, from honduras to nw colombia , should also be considered a separate species .
28a . zimmerius cinereicapilla was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered conspecific with z . gracilipes .
28b . zimmerius acer was treated as a separate species from zimmerius gracilipes by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) , but zimmer ( 1941 ) treated them as conspecific ; pinto ( 1944 ) , however , treated them as separate species and noted that both had been collected at santarem , brazil ( gyldenstolpe 1941 ) . most recent classifications ( e . g . , sibley & monroe 1990 , ridgely & tudor 1994 , dickinson 2003 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) have followed zimmer ( 1941 ) in treating them as conspecific . rheindt et al . ' s ( 2008b ) genetic data indicate that acer and gracilipes are not sisters , with acer basal to all other zimmerius taxa sampled .
29 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : alvarez - alfonso & whitney ( 2001 ) .
, from southwestern amazonian brazil that is likely most closely related to z . villarejoi ; recognized by
as a separate species , a treatment supported by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) , zimmer ( 1941 ) , and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) ; they constitute a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) .
more recent genetic data ( rheindt et al . 2008b ) indicate that current species limits in the
31a . the southern subspecies ottonis was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) considered a separate species from phylloscartes ophthalmicus .
31b . phylloscartes lanyoni and p . orbitalis are sister taxa ( graves 1988 ) that form a superspecies ( sibley & monroe 1990 ) ; fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) also considered p . venezuelanus a member of this superspecies .
was formerly ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 ) placed in the genus capsiempis .
1cc . phylloscartes gualaquizae , one of the former members of pogonotriccus ( see note 31 above ) , is not a member of that group ( robbins et al . 1987 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
31d . vocal and foraging behavior suggests that phylloscartes nigrifrons might be most closely related to p . flaviventris and p . parkeri ( fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
, and ridgway placed it in leptotriccus with p . sylviolus and p . flaviventris
32 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : graves ( 1988 ) .
( fitzpatrick 2004 ) ; they were all considered conspecific by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) .
known only from the unique type specimen from
rio de janeiro
and formerly considered a valid species ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ,
33 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : teixeira ( 1987 ) .
34 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : willis & oniki ( 1992 ) .
35 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : gonzaga & pacheco ( 1995 ) .
36a . phylloscartes flaviventris and p . parkeri form a superspecies ( fitzpatrick and stotz 1997 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
36b . phylloscartes ceciliae , p . superciliaris , p . roquettei , and p . sylviolus might be closely related to , or part of , the p . flaviventris - p . parkeri superspecies ( fitzpatrick and stotz 1997 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
37 . described since meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) : fitzpatrick and stotz ( 1997 ) .
were formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1941c , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in the genus
by traylor ( 1977 , 1979 ) , as first proposed by van rossem ( 1938 ) , and a merger supported by morphological data ( ames 1971 , lanyon 1988a ; cf . zimmer 1941c ) ; wetmore ( 1972 ) tentatively maintained
on the basis of plumage differences , evident even in juvenal plumage , and primary shape in adult males .
show no signs of gene flow between them , suggesting that more than one species may be involved ( miller et al . 2008 ) .
40b .
mionectes turi ,
described from
cayenne
as a valid species , is now considered a synonym of mionectes oleagineus wallacei ( meyer de schauensee 1966 ) .
and thus should be treated as a separate species ; additional gene sampling and vocal analyses needed .
41 . linear sequence of species in leptopogon follows bates & zink ( 1994 ) , who showed that genetic data indicate that the lowland species amaurocephalus is sister to the ancestor of the rest of the genus , and the highest - elevation species are most recently derived .
41a . leptopogon rufipectus and l . taczanowskii are sister species ( zimmer 1941c , bates & zink 1994 ) that form a superspecies ( parker et al . 1985 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
41b . leptopogon rufipectus was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , phelps & phelps 1950a ) known as l . erythrops , but see < ref > .
41c . traylor ( 1977 ) considered sublegatus so closely related to elaenia , as reflected in their traditional placement in linear sequences , that they might be considered congeneric , but syringeal morphology ( lanyon 1988a ) does not support a close relationship .
41d . fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) suggested that further study might show that the distinctive southern subspecies albidiventris might be a separate species from leptopogon superciliaris .
41e . called
mangrove scrub flycatcher
in haverschmidt & mees ( 1994 ) .
41f . haverschmidt & mees ( 1994 ) , who treated sublegatus obscurior as a subspecies of s . modestus , called the composite species
forest scrub flycatcher
.
42 . all sublegatus were formerly considered conspecific ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) , with the composite species called
scrub flycatcher .
species limits in sublegatus have been fluid and confusing , including different treatments by the same author ( e . g . , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a vs . traylor 1982 ) ; zimmer ( 1941b ) considered the taxon glaber , currently treated as a subspecies of s . modestus , to be a separate species that included s . obscurior ( and also the subspecies orinocensis , and pallens , as well as the taxa peruvianus and sordidus , which were considered synonyms of s . obscurior by traylor 1979a ) ; see also fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) . seasonal movements may also complicate evidence of sympatry ( meyer de schauensee 1966 , traylor 1982 ) . vocal differences exist among the three taxa recognized as species here , but formal analysis and additional research badly needed . see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for a synopsis .
42aa . short ( 1975 ) and sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) considered inezia tenuirostris and i . inornata to form a superspecies .
42b . the tarsal morphology of inezia has been interpreted to indicate that it belongs in the cotingidae ( ridgway 1907 ? ref ) .
( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , phelps & phelps 1950a ) placed in phaeomyias , but see zimmer ( 1955 ) .
genetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) indicate that it is sister to “
genetic data ( tello et al . 2009 ) indicate that it is a member of a group consisting mainly of the flatbills , but that it has no close relatives .
represented a monophyletic group , the
flatbills .
birdsley ( 2002 ) questioned the monophyly of the group based on an analysis of morphological and behavioral data . genetic data ( tello and bates 2007 ) indicate that the flatbills are monophyletic if
are removed . tello et al . ( 2009 ) found that the genera from
by lanyon ( 1988b ) based on syringeal morphology , and this merger is supported by the genetic data of tello & bates ( 2007 ) and tello et al . ( 2009 ) , who also found that
45a . although meyer de schauensee ( 1970 ) considered myiornis albiventris to be a subspecies of m . auricularis , this was not followed by previous ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 , zimmer 1940 ) or subsequent authors ; they are considered to form a superspecies by sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) .
46 . myiornis atricapillus was formerly ( e . g . , zimmer 1940 , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) considered a subspecies of m . ecaudatus , but most recent classifications have followed wetmore ( 1972 ) in considering the evidence insufficient for treatment as conspecific , thus returning to the classification of ridgway ( 1907 ) and cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) ; they constitute a superspecies ( aou 1983 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) .
was formerly ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 , cory & hellmayr 1927 ,
on the basis of differences in wing shape , bill shape , relative tail length , and extent of rictal bristles .
46b . the authenticity of a specimen from northern colombia ( romero & rodriguez 1980 ) was questioned by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) and fitzpatrick ( 2004 ) ; examination of the specimen by f . g . stiles confirmed the identification . whether this record represents a wandering individual or sympatry with
47 . oncostoma cinereigulare and o . olivaceum form a superspecies ( aou 1983 , 1998 , sibley & monroe 1990 , fitzpatrick 2004 ) ; they were considered conspecific by cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) .
47c . the name squamaecristatus was previously considered to have priority over pileatus ( e . g . , ridgway 1907 ) .
48 . lophotriccus galeatus was formerly ( e . g . , phelps & phelps 1950a , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in the monotypic genus colopteryx ( based on its unusually narrow outer primaries ) , but this was merged into lophotriccus by traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) .
49 . lanyon ( 1988b ) recommended that atalotriccus be merged into lophotriccus , and this was followed by aou ( 1998 ) ; however , see ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) for reasons to maintain as separate genus until relationships are resolved .
0b . hemitriccus as defined by traylor ( 1979 ) and used here is likely paraphyletic with respect to lophotriccus ( cohn - haft 1996 ) and perhaps atalotriccus and oncostoma .
were formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in the genus
51a . ridgely & greenfield ( 2001 ) and hilty ( 2003 ) suspected that hemitriccus margaritaceiventer might consist of more than one species ; cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) treated the subspecies impiger and septentrionalis both as separate species , and chapman ( 1929 ) described the subspecies duidae as a species ; all were considered conspecific with h . margaritaceiventer by meyer de schauensee ( 1966 , 1970 ) .
51b . hemitriccus mirandae was formerly ( e . g . , cory & hellmayr 1927 ) placed in todirostrum .
, but most recent authors have followed zimmer ( 1940 ) and meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) in treating them as separate species .
were called
bamboo - tyrants
by ridgely & tudor ( 1994 ) .
pending to modify english names of “tody - tyrants” and “pygmy - tyrants . ”
54 . hemitriccus josephinae was formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 ) placed in monotypic genus microcochlearius , but recent classifications have followed traylor ( 1977 , 1979a ) in merging this into hemitriccus .
55 . hemitriccus griseipectus was formerly ( e . g . , meyer de schauensee 1970 , traylor 1977 < ? > , 1979a , < check r - t > ) considered conspecific with h . zosterops , but see cohn - haft et al . ( 1997 ) for rationale for treatment as separate species , thus returning to the classification of cory & hellmayr ( 1927 ) .


the lestidae are a rather small family of cosmopolitan , large-sized , slender damselflies , known commonly as the spreadwings or spread-winged damselflies .

the two subfamilies in lestidae are lestinae and sympecmatinae .

damselflies in the lestinae rest with their wings partly open , while those in the sympecmatinae , the reedlings , ringtails , and winter damselflies , rest with their wings folded .

the exact taxonomy of the family is disputed , with some authorities including twelve genera and some eight .

lestidae

kento furui added the japanese common name
アオイトトンボ科
to
lestidae
.
these photos supplement pages 67 - 73 of the guide to aquatic invertebrates of the upper midwest . information on the biology of lestidae can be found on page 71 . the gills on lestidae can often be missing , so use the other characters and general body shape for identification . the main difference between lestidae and coenagrionidae is the width of the labium . lestidae have a narrow labium ( below ) . coenagrionidae have a wide labium ; click to compare with coenagrionidae .
introduction : damselfly nymphs of family lestidae have very slender and elongated bodies . they range in colour from green to brown , often supplemented with mottled patterns . legs are long and end with two claws . they are well camouflaged in stems or tangles of aquatic vegetation .
lestes parvidens artobolevskij , 1929 : olias et al . ( 2007 ) [ source additionnelle ] olias , m . , weihrauch , f . , bedjanič , m . , hacet , n . , marinov , m . , šalamun , a . 2007 . lestes parvidens and l . viridis in southeastern europe : a chorological analysis ( odonata : lestidae ) . libellula 26 ( 3 / 4 ) : 243 - 272 .
scientists commonly use wing venation to classify damselflies , but describing the wings can become very technical , so here is a short introduction . zygopterae have three major structures in wing venation : nodus , quadrangle , and pterostigma . when describing veins , the antenodal veins are closest to the nodus , while the postnodal veins are farthest away . wing venation is useful in distinguishing between two species . for example , the coenagrionidae family has an m3 vein just behind the nodus , but in the lestidae family , this same vein is closer to the wing base .
chalcolestes parvidens ( artobolevskij , 1929 ) : gyulavári et al . ( 2012 ) [ source de l ' enregistrement ] gyulavári , h . a . , felföldi , t . , benken , t . , szabó , l . j . , miskolczi , m . , cserháti , c . , horvai , v . , márialigeti , k . , dévai , g . 2012 . morphometric and molecular studies on the populations of the damselflies chalcolestes viridis and c . parvidens ( odonata , lestidae ) . international journal of odonatology , 14 ( 4 ) : 329 - 339 .
characteristics : * long , slender abdomen . damselflies swim by undulating their bodies . * spread - winged damselflies ( family lestidae ) have narrow , clear wings that are stalked at the base and held spread over the body when the fly is at rest . * broad - winged damselflies ( family calopterygidae ) have broader wings , black or with with blackish markings , that are narrowed at the base . when the fly is resting , the wings are held together over the body . * narrow - winged damselflies ( family coenagrionidae ) have narrow , clear , stalked wings like spread - winged damselflies , but the wings at rest are held together over the body . * body length : 1 1 / 4 - 2
.
a set of 21 ponds was sampled three times for odonate larvae during spring 2002 . at the same time 17 environmental variables were recorded including area , wet phase duration , total nitrogen , total phosphorus , aquatic macrophytes and land use . atotal of 16 odonate species belonging to lestidae , coenagrionidae , aeshnidae and libellulidae were recorded , and the total number of species per pond varied from zero to six . the relationships between species richness , assemblages and environmental variables were studied by simple and multiple correlation and by canonical correspondence analysis ( cca ) . the results showed that permanent ponds were larger , deeper , had more macrophyte species , had more extensive macrophytes cover and lower concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus than temporary ponds . multiple regression analysis showed that the number of odonate species was positively affected firstly by the number of macrophyte species , and then by pond depth . however , pond depth appeared to be interchangeable with several others variables , such as pond area and water duration and negatively correlated with nitrogen concentration , variables which are all linked with the permanent or temporary status of the ponds . cca analysis indicated that odonate species presence was linked with a few environmental variables , showing a tendency of odonata to avoid ponds with higher nitrogen concentrations , with the exception of lestes barbarus , a species typical of temporary water in central italy . at the same time , the majority of species were linked with longer water phase duration and with greater macrophyte species richness . acomparison with previous studies , and in particular with those carried out in central italy , confirmed the positive influence of macrophytes , water duration , and also the negative effect of nutrient load . however , several other variables , in particular land use , shade , presence of fish , which were influential in other studies , were not significant in this study .
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north american odonata - the odonata of north america , website ( version sept . 2006 )
slater museum of natural history , university of puget sound , occasional paper no . 56
this is the third printing with revisions . publication was originally printed on 15 june 1999
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
wings stalked at base . clear wings , typically held diverged above the body at rest .
odonata of north america uses the common name
spreadwings
for this family , so it has been changed .
a field guide to insects richard e . white , donald j . borror , roger tory peterson . 1998 . houghton mifflin co .
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
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like most damselflies , the species in this family have long , thin bodies and long , thin wings . unlike other damselflies , the species in this family hold their wings slightly open when they are at rest . damselflies in other families hold their wings together when they are at rest .
spread - winged damselflies have transparent wings with one black spot called the pterostigma on the tip of each of their four wings . they are 1 - 2 inches in length , and many species have have metallic green bodies , and most species have round bluish - green eyes on the sides of their heads .
spread - winged damselflies are found around ponds and swamps , where they can be seen perching on grass and plant stems .
status and range is taken from icun redlist . you can click on the iucn status icon to go to the iucn page about a species .
threatened in us endangered in us introduced status taken from us fish and wildlife . click on u . s . status icon to go to the u . s . fish and wildlife species profile .
amber - winged spreadwing - lestes eurinus the amber - winged spreadwing is found from manitoba east to nova scotia and south to missouri and north carolina . it is found across new hampshire . source : biokids intended audience : students reading level : elementary school teacher section : no
amber - winged spreadwing - lestes eurinus the amber - winged spreadwing is found near ponds , bogs , and lakes without fish . source : bugguide intended audience : students reading level : middle school teacher section : no
amber - winged spreadwing - lestes eurinus the amber - winged spreadwing is 1 . 7 - 2 inches in length . source : wisconsin odonata survey intended audience : students reading level : middle school teacher section : no
black spreadwing - lestes stultus the black spreadwing is found in the western u . s . source : bugguide intended audience : students reading level : middle school teacher section : no
blue - striped spreadwing - lestes tenuatus the blue - stripped spreadwing is found in florida . in 2008 it was found in south texas . source : bugguide intended audience : students reading level : middle school teacher section : no
california spreadwing - archilestes californica the california spreadwing is found from washington south to baja california , arizona , and new mexico . source : bugguide intended audience : students reading level : middle school teacher section : no
carolina spreadwing - lestes vidua the california spreadwing is found from north carolina south to florida and west to alabama . source : bugguide intended audience : students reading level : middle school teacher section : no
chalky spreadwing - lestes sigma the chalky spreadwing is found from oklahoma and texas south through mexico to costa rica . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
dark spreadwing - lestes macrostigma the dark spreadwing is found in in coastal regions of europe and asia . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
dune ringtail - austrolestes minjerriba the dune ringtail is found in new south wales and queensland , australia . source : atlas of living australia intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
elegant spreadwing - lestes inaequalis the elegant spreadwing is found in eastern north america from ontario south to florida and west to minnesota and texas . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
elegant spreadwing - lestes inaequalis the elegant spreadwing is a large metallic green damselfly . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
emerald damselfly - lestes sponsa the emerald damselfly is found from western europe to japan . it is also known as the common spreadwing . source : british dragonfly society intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
the emerald spreadwing is found from alaska , northwest territories and nova scotia south to california , new mexico , nebraska , and virginia . it is found across new hampshire . it is also found in eurasia and northern africa .
emerald spreadwing - lestes dryas the emerald spreadwing is metallic green . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
great spreadwing - archilestes grandis the great spreadwing is found in western and southern regions of the united states . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
great spreadwing - archilestes grandis the great spreadwing has a bright yellow stripe on its thorax that makes it easy to identify . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
lyre - tipped spreadwing - lestes unguiculatus the lyre - tipped spreadwing is found in the northern u . s . and canada . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
lyre - tipped spreadwing - lestes unguiculatus the lyre - tipped spreadwing is found near pools , ponds , and slow - moving streams . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
northern spreadwing - lestes disjunctus the northern spreadwing is found across much of north america . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
plateau spreadwing - lestes alacer the plateau spreadwing is found in arizona , new mexico , oklahoma and texas south through mexico and costa rica . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
plateau spreadwing - lestes alacer the plateau spreadwing has a blue face . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
rainpool spreadwing - lestes forficula the rainpool spreadwing is found from texas and mexico and south through central america and west indies to argentina and brazil . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
rainpool spreadwing - lestes forficula the rainpool spreadwing is found in ponds and pools . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
siberian winter damsel - sympecma paedisca the siberian winter damsel is found in afghanistan , armenia , austria , azerbaijan , belarus , china , czech republic , estonia , finland , germany , india , italy , japan , kazakhstan , north and south korea , kyrgyzstan , latvia , lithuania , mongolia , netherlands , pakistan , poland , russia , slovakia , sweden , switzerland , tajikistan , turkey , turkmenistan , ukraine , and uzbekistan . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes
slender spreadwing - lestes rectangularis the slender spreadwing is found in the eastern united states . source : biokids intended audience : students reading level : elementary school teacher section : no
slender spreadwing - lestes rectangularis male slender spreadwings have very long abdomens . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
southern spreadwing - lestes australis the southern spreadwing is found across the eastern and southern united states . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
southern spreadwing - lestes australis the southern spreadwing is usually found in non - moving water habitats with emergent vegetation . source : wisconsin odonata survey intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
southern spreadwing - lestes australis the southern spreadwing is 1 . 4 - 1 . 8 inches in length . source : bug guide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
spotted spreadwing - lestes congener the spotted spreadwing is found across much of the united states , except for some southern states . it is found in new hampshire in the fall . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
spotted spreadwing - lestes tridens the spotted spreadwing is found at the edges of ponds , marshes , and swamps . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
swamp spreadwing - lestes vigilax the swamp spreadwing is found from southeastern canada and minnesota and south to florida and oklahoma and texas . source : odonata central - texas natural science center intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
sweetflag spreadwing - lestes forcipatus the sweetflag spreadwing is found in the eastern u . s . and southeastern canada . it is found across new hampshire . source : bugguide intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
sweetflag spreadwing - lestes forcipatus the sweetflag spreadwing is found in ponds , lakes , and slow streams . source : wisconsin odonata survey intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
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distinguishing characteristics - the spreadwinged damselflies have antennae segments which are about the same length ( fig . b ) . they have a prementum which has a narrow stalk at the base and expands at the palpal lobes ( fig . c ) . lateral tracheal branches of the caudal lamellae are nearly at a right angle to the central tracheal trunk .
notes - spreadwing damselfly larvae are climbers that are found on submerged vegetation in a wide variety of environments including streams and almost any small standing water environment . they are predators that feed on small animals . they overwinter as eggs . the size of the spreadwinged damselflies at maturity is 20 - 29 mm excluding caudal lamellae .
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maggie whitson marked the classification from
irmng
as preferred for
chalcolestes viridis
.
jennifer hammock split the classifications by inventaire national du patrimoine naturel from lestes disjunctus selys , 1862 to their own page .
jennifer hammock split the classifications by type data from idigbio from lestes to their own page .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
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feeding : all damselfly nymphs are predators . coenagrionid nymphs use sit and wait hunting strategy or actively stalk their prey .
size : size of the mature nymphs varies among the species from 15 mm to about 30 mm ( not including caudal gills ) .
life cycle : damselflies undergo incomplete metamorphosis . their life cycle includes three stages – egg , nymph and adult . most species produce one generation per year . some can have even two generations in one year .
introduction : coenagrionidae is the most diverse and abundant family of damselflies . nymphs live in wide range of freshwater ecosystems . they can be found in small ponds and streams , as well as in large lakes and rivers . the most common they are in still or slow flowing waters , where climb on aquatic plants or submerged pieces of terrestrial vegetation . species , preferring running waters , hold firmly on the stones or any other solid surface . however , all damselfly nymphs can swim by side to side movements of their long body .
damselfly nymphs are more slender than dragonfly nymphs . their abdomen terminates in three caudal gills . leaves resembling gills , with highly branched small veins , are held vertically and all three are about the same length . these fragile structures are sometimes broken off or lost when escaping the predators . the head is wider than thorax and the abdomen ( in contrast to the majority of dragonfly nymphs ) . all antennal segments are about the same length .
damselfly nymphs range in colour from black , brown , green and yellow . in combination with body shape and mottled patterns are very well camouflaged . moreover , some of the less active species are covered with algae and a layer of sediments . in some cases , green or brown nymphs of the same species can be found in the same habitat , depending on the part where they live ( among the plants by the surface or sediments at the bottom ) .
prementum ( middle section of the lower lip bearing labial palps ) is triangular . labial palps possess raptorial setae and terminate in sharp hooks . nymphs feed on zooplankton and every smaller vanquishable invertebrates they come upon . cannibalism among the species is no exception . coenagrionid nymphs slowly stalk their prey among the vegetation . nymphs , living in fast flowing waters , move reluctantly and just wait until current brings some prey into their reach .
nymphs of the family platycnemididae are usually dark in colour and prefer running water habitats . they have a distinctive shape of caudal gills that terminate with a thin filament at the tip of each lamella . each lamella is lined with short to long marginal hairs .
white - legged damselflies ( platycnemididae ) are closely related to narrow - winged damselflies ( coenagrionidae ) , which are described above . the nymphs share almost all of their characteristics .
feeding : all damselfly nymphs are predators . lestid nymphs use sit and wait hunting strategy or actively stalk their prey .
size : mature nymphs can grow up to sizes around 40 mm ( not including gills ) .
life cycle : damselflies undergo incomplete metamorphosis . their life cycle includes three stages – egg , nymph and adult . most species require 1 or 2 years for one generation .
nymphs have three long feather - like gills with small veins in perpendicular position to the larger vein in the middle . by waving the gills , nymphs create the circulation of water around the body and increase the amount of acquired oxygen . moreover , nymphs can move surprisingly swiftly by wiggling side to side their long abdomens equipped with lamellated gills .
long prementum ( middle section of the lower lip bearing labial palps ) is greatly narrowed . labial palps terminate in sharp thorns and one movable hook , thereby forming a scoop . large eyes and a long extendable mask enable the nymph to catch small and fast moving animals . lestid nymphs feed on zooplankton , midge larvae , mosquito larvae and other small invertebrates . when the prey is grabbed , it is enclosed within the „basket“ of setae and interlocking teeth , tightened back , and subsequently crushed by chewing mouthparts .
nymphs do not feed for several days before emergence and stay in vegetation by the surface .
female damselflies lay eggs in plant tissue . some species land by the surface and immerse just the tip of the abdomen , while others climb down the plant stems and totally submerge . if the male is holding the female to protect her from other males , both animals will submerge . on the way back , female just let go the stem and thin layer of air on the wings will raise them to the surface .
when ensuring the continuity of the future generations , many of them perish by drowning or are eaten by fish .
feeding : all damselfly nymphs are predators . calopterygid nymphs wait until the prey comes into their reach .
introduction : nymphs of the family calopterygidae need flowing and well - oxygenated water for living and development . they occur in parts of rivers and streams , where the current is moderate . calopterygid nymphs are bad swimmers and can be washed away , when get to the stronger current ( which makes them vulnerable to predators ) .
they are mostly found climbing on overhanging vegetation or among the root masses . precisely roots of terrestrial vegetation , extending in tangles into the water , provide the best foothold and cover .
calopterygid nymphs , with very slender and elongated bodies , mostly occur in shades of brown . legs are long , thin and end with two claws . they move very slowly and do not often change their position in a habitat ( therefore are covered with a layer of sediments ) . lack of movement , colour and body shape make them perfectly camouflaged in accumulations of roots and twigs .
long antennae are bent to the sides . the first antennal segment ( closest to the head ) is longer than the length of all subsequent segments .
caudal gills , without visible veins , are triangular in cross section . gill in the middle is slightly shorter than the side gills .
extendable labium , with large cleft in the middle , is narrowed and lacks the setae . labial palps terminate in sharp thorns and one movable hook . nymphs feed on worm - like larvae , black fly larvae and other small invertebrates inhabiting flowing waters .
natural history : * habitat : along streams , in swamps and ponds . * range : throughout north america and much of the world . * behavior : damselfly larvae are called nymphs , and they can be found in the spring under rocks in streams and slow - moving rivers . damselflies are carnivores .
connections ! * unlike many insects , damselflies cannot fold their wings to their sides when at rest ; the wings either stay spread out or are held above the body . they breathe by means of three paddle - shaped gills which protrude from the end of the abdomen .
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these insects have aliases across the world ; adults are known as sewing needles , snake doctors , horse stingers , and mosquito hawks , and the nymphs are called water lizards . these names come from fables in cultures that talk about damselflies sewing people . it no surprise that there is a wide variety of names for damselflies because there are about 2 , 838 named species worldwide ! there are close to 5 , 740 named damselfly and dragonfly species worldwide , while more than 410 damselfly species call the united states and canada home . it is important that we take care of the damselflies’ habitats because scientists estimate there are 500 – 1500 species that are unnamed ; scientists now recognize damselflies as indicators for environmental conditions such as water flow , pollution , and vegetation type and abundance . attention ! damselflies are harmless to humans ; contrary to some cultural beliefs , they do not bite or sting . the following characteristics can help identify damselflies in nature :
naiads are damselfly larva , and they are completely aquatic until they hatch into the adult form . they are easy to spot because they look similar to adult damselflies , but they do not have wings . each naiad has three feathery gills on its anterior end that help the naiad gather oxygen so it can breathe under water . the coloring for naiads is not nearly as eye catching as adult damselflies because they begin a light tan color and darken each time they molt . naiads have a slender body and long legs that they use to move slowly through their aquatic habitats . these long legs are also useful when clinging to rocks or vegetation . like their adult form , naiads are also carnivorous , and they can be quite voracious when hunting small aquatic organisms .
fact ! damselflies and dragonflies are not related ! keep reading to find out why . . .
damselflies are more slender and sleeker than dragonflies . damselflies have widely separated eyes while dragonflies have eyes on the top of their heads . zygoptera ( damselflies ) means “equal winged , ” while anisoptera ( dragonflies ) means “unequal winged . ” when they are not flying , damselflies usually hold their wings up over their backs ( with the exception of spread - winged damsels ) , but dragonflies hold their wings open and to the sides .
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choong , c . y . , yasser , m . a . & nurfarhana - hizan , h . ( 2017 ) . ancient creatures : dragonflies and damselflies of malaysia . ministry of natural resources and environment , putrajaya , malaysia . pp . 115 . — [ adobe pdf ( pdf ) | ebook ( epub ) ]
acknowledgements : - assoc . prof . dr . choong chee yen , ms . nurfarhana hizan binti hijas , siti zubaidah binti abdul latif & mr . tan kok kiat
citation : - indolestes dajakanus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .
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