diadectomorpha are a clade of large reptile-like amphibians that lived in euramerica during the carboniferous and early permian periods and in asia during late permian ( wuchiapingian ) , and are very close to the ancestry of the amniota .

they include both large ( up to 2 meters long ) carnivorous and even larger ( to 3 meters ) herbivorous forms , some semi-aquatic and others fully terrestrial .

the diadectomorpha seem to have evolved during late mississippian times , although they only became common after the carboniferous rainforest collapse and flourished during the late pennsylvanian and early permian periods .

diadectomorpha

diadectomorpha have been nested in and out of the amniota . they’re in here .
links : diadectomorpha ; phylogeny of stegocephalians ( note figures of limnoscelis ) ; biology 356 .
diadectomorpha : ( limnoscelis + diadectidae ) + * . or limnoscelis + ( diadectidae + * ) .
kissel , r . a . , 2010 : morphology , phylogeny , and evolution of diadectidae ( cotylosauria : diadectomorpha ) . –phd dissertation , university of toronto , canada .
kissel , r . 2010 . morphology , phylogeny , and evolution of diadectidae ( cotylosauria : diadectomorpha ) . thesis ( graduate department of ecology & evolutionary biology university of toronto ) .
kissel , r . a . , 2010 : morphology , phylogeny , and evolution of diadectidae ( cotylosauria : diadectomorpha ) . –phd dissertation , university of toronto , canada , [ url : urltoken ]
“similarly , michel laurin ( 1996 ) uses the term in a cladistic sense to refer to only the most advanced reptile - like amphibians . thus his definition include the ( diadectomorpha and solenodonsauridae ) and the amniotes . ”
is the taxon basal to all other lepidosauromorpha including diadectomorpha , chelonia and lepidosauria . ( sorry , cut off from bottom of cladogram , fig . 1 ) . it was considered the most complete captorhinid from the late permian .
limnoscelis paludis ( diadectomorpha - limnosceliidae ) , early pemian , texas and new mexico an animal very close to the ancestry of amniotes . length about 1 . 5 meters life reconstruction , by dmitry bogdanov ( larger image ( wikimedia ) )
berman , d . s , s . s . sumida , and t . martens . 1998a . diadectes ( diadectomorpha : diadectidae ) from the early permian of central germany , with description of a new species . annals of carnegie museum 67 : 53 - 93 .
“however , michael benton ( 2000 , 2004 ) makes the anthracosaurs a paraphyletic order within the superorder reptiliomorpha , along with the orders seymouriamorpha and diadectomorpha , thus making the anthracosaurians the “lower” reptile - like amphibians . in his definition , the group encompass the embolomeri , chroniosuchia and possibly the family gephyrostegidae . ”
ty - jour ti - new cranial material of the rare diadectid desmatodon hesperis ( diadectomorpha ) from the late pennsylvanian of central colorado t2 - annals of the carnegie museum . vl - 64 is - 4 ur - urltoken pb - published by authority of the board of trustees of the carnegie institute , cy - [ pittsburgh ] : py - 1995 sp - 315 ep - 336 sn - 0097 - 4463 au - berman , david s au - sumida , stuart s er -
figure 1 . most parsimonious tree . the nodes are numbered in alphabetical order from the in - group node up . when a name is given , the letter designating the node is omitted but it is still reserved for this node . several clades are named in the text but could not be labeled on the figure . these include the following clades : k ( embolomeri ) , n ( seymouriamorpha ) , y ( apoda ) , z ( gymnophiona ) , aa ( salientia ) , ab ( anura ) and ad ( diadectomorpha ) . 4
synapsida ^ diadectomorpha ( ? ) sauropsida amphibian ( anamniote ) - grade taxon has ever managed to invade the niche of terrestrial herbivore , and a causal reason has been suggested for this . the endosymbionts required for digestion of high fiber vegetation must be obtained immediately after hatching fromterrestrial microbial decomposers ( modesto , 1992 ; zug , 1993 ; hotton and beerbower , 1994 ; hotton et al . , this volume ) . this constraint therefore prevents anamniote ( aquatically reproducing ) taxa from feeding on high - fiber vegetation . the fact that advanced diadectomorphs invaded this niche suggests that diadectomorphs had evolved the amniote egg .
@ article { bhlpart226640 , title = { new cranial material of the rare diadectid desmatodon hesperis ( diadectomorpha ) from the late pennsylvanian of central colorado } , journal = { annals of the carnegie museum . } , volume = { 64 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder } , url = urltoken publisher = { [ pittsburgh ] : published by authority of the board of trustees of the carnegie institute , 1901 - } , author = { berman , david s and sumida , stuart s } , year = { 1995 } , pages = { 315 - - 336 } , }
relatively few large - scale phylogenetic studies on early tetrapods have been performed , and the origin of amniotes has generally been studied separately from the origin of lissamphibians . studies on the origin of amniotes usually only dealt with anthracosaurs ( carroll , 1970a ; gauthier et al . , 1988 ) because these have been presumed to be the closest relatives of amniotes . a consensus emerged that diadectomorpha is the sister - group of amniota whereas seymouriamorphs are among the next closest relatives of amniotes ( panchen and smithson , 1988 ; laurin and reisz , 1995 ) . research on the origins of lissamphibians concluded that
dissorophoids
were the closest relatives of lissamphibians ( trueb and cloutier , 1991 ) .
name : diadectes ( penetrating bite ) . phonetic : die - ah - deck - tees . named by : edward drinker cope - 1878 . synonyms : nothodon , empecocles , helodectes , empedias , chilonyx , bolbodon , diadectoides , animasaurus . classification : chordata , amphibia , reptiliomorpha , diadectomorpha , diadectidae . species : d . sideropelicus , d . lentus , d . tenuitectus , d . carinatus , d . sanmiguelensis , d . absitus . type : herbivore . size : between 1 . 5 and 3 meters long . known locations : usa , concentration in the texas red beds . time period : asselian through to the kungurian of the permian . fossil representation : many specimens are known allowing for accurate reconstruction .
comments : traditionally considered the most primitive diadectomorphs , although a recent analysis ( kissel 2010 ) makes them the sister group to the diadectidae . limnoscelid - like in appaerance , but tending to an omnivorous or herbivorous diet . only one species is known , a single late surviving form , essentially a
living fossil
co - existing with its more advanced and successful contemporaries . from wikipedia : tseajaia was described from a single , fairly complete specimen and was given its own family by robert l . carroll . it was originally thought to be an seymouriamorph ( moss 1972 ) additional finds allowing for a better taxonomic analysis indicate they belong in the diadectomorpha , as the sister group to the large and more derived diadectidae . tseajaia itself being a fairly generalized form , gives a reasonable indication of the build and looks of the closest relatives of the amniotes ( berman et al 1992 , kissel 2010 )
to study the impact of the topology ( that only represents a consensus of current phylogenies ) and internal branch lengths ( that are not known and difficult to estimate within nested clades that appear simultaneously in the fossil record ) , two strategies have been used . a second topology , incorporating relationships between the main clades from panchen and smithson ( 1988 ) was examined . this was done because the topology suggested from these authors represents the “traditional” point of view and because it presents a great number of differences with the preferred phylogeny ( fig . 2 ) . in this phylogeny , only the relationships between the large clades are different ; the topology within temnospondyls , “microsaurs , ” nectridea , baphetidae , seymouriamorpha , anthracosauria ( embolomeres and gephyrostegus ) , and cotylosauria ( diadectomorpha and amniota ) is identical to that of the main phylogeny ( fig . 1 ) . this reflects the fact that few phylogenies ( sometimes only one ) are present within these clades ( temnospondyls are an exception ) .
further reading - a new diadectes . - the american naturalist 12 : 565 . - e . d . cope - 1878 . - new or little known reptiles and amphibians from the permian ( ? ) of texas . - bulletin of the american museum of natural history 28 : 163 - 181 . - e . c . case - 1910 . - a description of the skulls of diadectes lentus and animasaurus carinatus . - american journal of science 33 ( 30 ) : 339 - 348 . - e . c . case & s . w . williston - 1912 . - early permian vertebrates from the cutler formation of the placerville area , colorado . - united states geological survey professional papers 503 - c : c1 - c46 - g . e . lewis & p . p . vaughn - 1965 . - diadectes ( diadectomorpha : diadectidae ) from the early permian of central germany , with description of a new species . - annals of carnegie museum 67 ( 1 ) : 53 - 93 . d . s . berman , s . s . sumida & t . martens - 1998 .
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( eds sumida , s . s . & martin , k . l . m . ) 353–398 ( academic , san diego , ( 1997 ) .
deposition , diagenesis and structures of the cheese bay shrimp bed , lower carboniferous , east lothian .
shrimp - bearing sedimentary successions in the lower carboniferous ( dinantian ) cementstone and oil shale groups of northern britain .
report on the fossil fishes collected by the geological survey of scotland from the shales exposed on the shore near gullane , east lothian .
from the viséan of east kirkton , west lothian , scotland and the amniote stem .
we thank s . finney for preparation of the specimen and assistance with photographs . this work was supported by an nerc grant ( to j . a . c . ) .
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urltoken
$ more derived axis - atlas complex ; $ sacrum with at least 2 vertebrae , $ robust claws on pes ; $ loss of lateral line system .
links : phylogeny of stegocephalians ; amphibia et reptilia ngiana ( chinese ) ; v the four other mass extinctions . atw020623 .
cotylosauria : stem amniota + * : tseajaia + ( limnoscelis + diadectidae ) .
1 . 5 - 3 m ; some fully terrestrial ;
swollen
neural arches ; some ( diadectes ) herbivorous .
comments : primitive , small to large , carnivorous diadectomorphs . these animals must have lived a very similar life to ophaicodontid , varanopsid , and sphenacodontid pelycosaurs , which they resembled in overall size and shape ; presumably relied on niche partitioning . teeth retained labyrinthodont infolding of the enamel , and were pointed and slightly recurved at the tip ( carroll 1967 , via wikipedia ) traditionally divided into two genera , limnoscelis and limnostygis , although these may be synonyms
comments : highly successful clade of large herbivores , include the largest animals of their time and teh first exploitation of vegetable matter by tetrapods . previously tentrapods ( amphibians and reptiles ( ) had been carnivores only , feeding on insects , crustacea and other invertebrates , fish , and smaller tetrapods . this means that eco \ ystems were inefficent ( becaise of long food chains , and tied to water or water margins . while edphosaurs were also herbivores , they never challenged the supremacy of the diadectids . diadectid extinction at the end of the early permian allowed caseid pelycosaurs to replace them as the large herbivores ; they were in turn replaced by herbivousrous therapsids ( dinocephalia and anomodonts ) later in the permian .
left : life reconstruction of diasparactus zenos , by dmitry bogdanov . length 1 . 35 metres . wikipedia , gnu free documentation / creative commons attribution below left : the skulls of orobates , oradectes , silvadectes and diadectes from kissel 2010 , via david peters , reptile evolution . scale bar = 2 cm . below right : cladogram from kissel 2010 via wikipedia :
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parent taxon : cotylosauria according to m . laurin and r . r . reisz 1995
see also colbert 1946 , gauthier et al . 1989 , gauthier et al . 1988 , haughton and brink 1954 , huene 1954 , kissel and lehman 2002 , lewis and vaughn 1965 , martens et al . 2005 , olson 1947 , price 1947 and romer 1956
scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
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levis & vaughn , 1965 ; l . perm . swnam . | | - - †
genera et species indet . ( berman & henrici , 2003 ) ] l . perm . ceu . ` - - + ? - †
liu , j . & bever , g . s . , 2015 : the last diadectomorph sheds light on late palaeozoic tetrapod biogeography . –biology letters : vol . 11 , # 5 , in press [ doi : 10 . 1098 / rsbl . 2015 . 0100 ]
berman , d . s . & henrici , a . c . , 2003 : homology of the astragalus and structure and function of the tarsus of diadectidae . –journal of paleontology : vol . 77 , # 1 , pp . 172 - 188
carroll , r . l . , 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .
carroll , r . l . , 1988 : appendix . 594 - 648 . in carroll , r . l . 1988 : vertebrate paleontology and evolution . –w . h . freeman and company , new york , 1988 , 698 .
carroll , r . l . , 1967 : a limnoscelid reptile from the middle pennsylvanian . –journal of paleontology : vol . 41 , # 5 , pp . 1256 - 1261
clack , j . a . , 1998 : a new early carboniferous tetrapod with a mélange of crown - group characters . –nature : vol . 394 , 2 july , pp . 66 - 69
laurin , m . & reisz , r . r . , 1992 : a reassessment of the pennsylvanian tetrapod romeriscus . –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 12 , # 4 , pp . 524 - 527
laurin , m . & reisz , r . r . , 1997 : a new perspective on tetrapod phylogeny . 9 - 59 in sumida , s . s . & martin , k . l . m . , 1997 : amniote origins : completing the transition to land . –academic press , san diego , 1997 , pp . x - 510
lee , m . y . s . & spencer , p . s . , 1997 : crown - clades , key characters and taxonomic stability : when is an amniote not an amniote ? 61 - 84 in sumida , s . s . & martin , k . l . m . , 1997 : amniote origins : completing the transition to land . –academic press , san diego , 1997 , pp . x - 510
paton , r . l . , smithson , t . r . , & clack , j . a . , 1999 : an amniote - like skeleton from the early carboniferous of scotland . –nature : vol . 398 , 8 april , pp . 508 - 513
ruta , m . & milner a . r . & coates , m . i . , 2000 : the scottish carboniferous tetrapod caerorhachis bairdi –journal of vertebrate paleontology : vol . 20 , # 3 , suppl . to # 3 ,
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limnoscelis ( new mexico and colorado ) and limnostegis ( nova scotia ) ; williston ( 1911b ) , carroll ( 1967 ) , fracasso ( 1980 ) , berman and sumida ( 1990 ) , and berman ( 1993 ) .
desmatodon ( colorado , new mexico , and pennsylvania ) and diasparactus ( new mexico ) ; case ( 1908 ) , case and williston ( 1913 ) , romer ( 1952 ) , vaughn ( 1969 , 1972 ) , fracasso ( 1980 ) , berman ( 1993 ) , eberth and berman ( 1993 ) , and berman and sumida ( 1995 ) .
limnosceloides ( new mexico and west virginia ) limnoscelops ( colorado ) , and limnoscelid ( utah ) ; romer ( 1952 ) , vaughn ( 1962 ) , lewis and vaughn ( 1965 ) , langston ( 1966 ) , and berman ( 1993 ) .
tseajaia ( new mexico and utah ) ; vaughn ( 1964 ) , moss ( 1972 ) , and berman ( 1993 ) .
figure 3 . late carboniferous distributions of the diadectomorph families limnoscelidae ( l ) and diadectidae ( d ) . localities , latitidue and longitude may be found in appendix 1 .
( 1860 ) , geinitz and deichmuller ( 1882 ) , olson ( 1947 , 1967 , 1975 ) , langston ( 1963 ) , lewis and vaughn ( 1965 ) , berman ( 1971 , 1993 ) , and berman and martens ( 1993 ) .
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diadectes was a large reptile - like tetrapod that lived in the late carboniferous and early permian periods . fossils of diadectes have been discovered in new mexico , colorado , oklahoma and texas ( usa ) and one species described from germany .
diadectes latibuccatus cope 1878a ; empecocles latibuccatus ( cope 1878a ) ; empedias latibuccatus ( cope 1878a ) ; bolosaurus rapidens cope 1878a ; chilonyx rapidens ( cope 1878a ) ; empedocles alatus cope 1878a ; empedias alatus ( cope 1878a ) ; diadectes molaris cope 1878b ; empedocles molaris ( cope 1878b ) ; empedias molaris ( cope 1878b ) ; diadectes phaseolinus cope 1880b ; empedias phaseolinus ( cope 1880b ) ; helodectes paridens cope 1880b ; helodectes isaaci cope 1880b ; empedias fissus cope 1883 ; diadectes biculminatus cope 1896 .
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the phylogeny of early groups of amniotes has been in a state of flux in the last few years , but the first phylogeny based on a data matrix was published in the eighties ( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . the origins of mammals and saurians from early synapsids and early diapsids , respectively , has been relatively non - controversial , but the origin of turtles has been problematic . the most widespread view , at least until the last few years , was that the closest extinct relatives of turtles were the captorhinids ( gaffney & mc kenna , 1979 ; gaffney & meylan , 1988 ; gaffney , meylan , & wyss , 1991 ; gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . the study of gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) is probably the best documented study supporting close affinities between captorhinids and turtles :
this study is also significant in giving the first phylogenetic definitions for the names of many amniote taxa . in this tree , parareptiles are not closely related to turtles , but gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) were not confident in this part of their tree ( which is why they did not erect a formal parareptilia ) .
laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) suggested that many of the taxa that gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) considered parareptiles represented early relatives of turtles . furthermore , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) suggested that mesosaurs were the closest known relatives of reptiles :
this study used a terminology derived from olson ( 1947 ) . unfortunately , this terminology includes some junior synonyms ( according to the rules of priority suggested by de queiroz & gauthier in 1990 , 1992 , and 1994 ) of the taxa defined by gauthier et al . ( 1988 ) and the terminology used in the main phylogeny ( in the page on amniota ) corrects this .
lee ( 1995 , 1996 ) studied in detail the phylogeny of the presumed relatives of turtles , and argued that pareiasaurs are the closest known relatives of turtles , rather than procolophonids ( as argued by laurin & reisz , 1995 ) . furthermore , he believed that pareiasaurs are the stem - group of turtles ( some pareiasaurs are more closely related to turtles than to other pareiasaurs ) . his phylogeny is as follows :
all the studies mentioned above agree that turtles are the sister - clade of saurians among extant amniotes . however , the old idea that turtles are closely related to placodonts ( broom , 1924 ) has been revived recently ( rieppel , 1994 , 1995 ; rieppel & debraga , 1996 ; debraga & rieppel , 1997 ) . if this theory is accurate , turtles are saurians and are more closely related to lepidosaurs than to archosaurs .
an exhaustive list of autapomorphies of various amniote taxa cannot be provided here , but a sample of these characters can be given . the list given below assumes that the phylogeny presented at the beginning of the page on amniota is essentially correct . phylogenetic definitions , when available , are also given for the main taxa . amniote classification can be summarized as such :
parts of the phylogeny are poorly documented ( most of the unnamed clades ) and will not be discussed below . furthermore , if the suggestion of modesto ( 1999 ) that mesosaurs are anapsids is accepted , this classification and the list of apomorphies will have to be modified .
amniota is defined as
the most recent common ancestor of extant mammals and reptiles , and all its descendants
( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . it is divided into two stem - based taxa : synapsida ( mammals and their extinct relatives ) and sauropsida ( reptiles and their fossil relatives ) . the autapomorphies of amniota are listed in the
characteristics
section of the tree of life page .
sauropsida is defined as
reptiles plus all other amniotes more closely related to them than they are to mammals
( gauthier , 1994 ) . the characters supporting sauropsida include the following :
presence of a single coronoid . synapsids and the diadectomorph limnoscelis have two coronoid elements . the coronoids are bones on the dorsomedial surface of the lower jaw .
supinator process parallel to humeral shaft and separated from it by a groove . in synapsids and diadectomorphs , the supinator process is strongly angled relative to the shaft .
presence of a single pedal centrale . two centralia were present in the tarsus ( ankle ) of synapsids and diadectomorphs .
reptilia is defined as
the most recent common ancestor of extant turtles and saurians , and all of its descendants
( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . characters supporting reptilia include :
tabular small . the tabular ( a bone on the posterolateral corner of the skull table ) of early synapsids and diadectomorphs is large , but reptiles have only a small tabular , when it is present .
suborbital foramen present ( fig . 1b - d ) . the suborbital foramen is a small hole near the lateral edge of the palate , between the pterygoid , palatine , and ectopterygoid ( or jugal , when the ectopterygoid is absent ) . this structure was not found in early synapsids and diadectomorphs ( fig . 1a ) .
supraoccipital anterior crista present . the supraoccipital of mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomoprhs lacks anterior parasagittal flanges . the supraoccipital of reptiles has a paired anterior parasagittal flange called an anterior crista .
supraoccipital plate narrow . the supraoccipital is a bone in the back of the braincase . the supraoccipital plate of mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs is broad and extends farther laterally than the postparietal .
figure 1 . amniote skulls in palatal view . a , cotylorhynchus , a lower permian synapsid ; b , captorhinus , a lower permian romeriid ; c , procolophon , a triassic anapsid ; d , proganochelys , the oldest known turtle ( upper triassic ) . redrawn from a , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) ; b , heaton ( 1979 ) ; c , carroll & lindsay ( 1985 ) ; and d , gaffney ( 1990 ) . abbreviations : bc , braincase ; ec , ectopterygoid ; m , maxilla ; n , nasal ; pa , palatine ; pm , premaxilla ; ps , parasphenoid ; pt , pterygoid ; q , quadrate ; qj , quadratojugal ; s , stapes ; sq , squamosal ; v , vomer .
anapsida is defined as
extant turtles , and all other extinct taxa that are more closely related to them than they are to other [ extant ] reptiles
( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . characters supporting anapsida include :
foramen orbito - nasale enclosed between prefrontal , lacrimal , and palatine . there is no foramen between these bones in diapsids , synapsids , and diadectomorphs .
anterior lateral maxillary foramen distinctly larger than other foramina . in romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs , several small foramina ( holes ) may be present on the lateral surface of the maxilla , but none of these foramina is much larger than the others .
quadratojugal expanded dorsally ( fig . 2c , d ) . the quadratojugal of romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs is a low bone narrowly exposed on the lateral surface of the cheek ( fig . 2a , b ) .
figure 2 . amniote skulls in lateral view . a , cotylorhynchus , a lower permian synapsid ; b , captorhinus , a lower permian romeriid ; c , procolophon , a triassic anapsid ; d , proganochelys , the oldest known turtle ( upper triassic ) . redrawn from a , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) ; b , heaton ( 1979 ) ; c , carroll & lindsay ( 1985 ) ; and d , gaffney ( 1990 ) . abbreviations : bc , braincase ; e , epipterygoid ; f , frontal ; l , lacrimal ; m , maxilla ; n , nasal ; p , parietal ; pm , premaxilla ; po , postorbital ; pof , postfrontal ; prf , prefrontal ; pt , pterygoid ; q , quadrate ; qj , quadratojugal ; sq , squamosal ; st , supratemporal ; t , tabular .
temporal emargination bordered by quadratojugal and squamosal ( fig . 2c , d ) . the temporal emargination supports a tympanum in turtles , and the presence of a slender stapes in several anapsids suggests that a tympanum appeared fairly early in this group . there is no temporal emargination in romeriids , mesosaurs , and synapsids ( fig . 2a , b ) .
jaw articulation anterior to occiput ( fig . 1c , d ) . the jaw articulation of romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs is at the level of the occiput ( fig . 1a , b ) .
edentulous ectopterygoid . the ectopterygoid bears a shagreen of small denticles in romeriids , early synapsids , and diadectomorphs .
stapedial dorsal process unossified . the stapes of most early romeriids , mesosaurs , synapsids , and diadectomorphs has an ossified dorsal process .
sacral ribs with narrow distal contact . the sacral ribs of romeriids , mesosaurs , and synapsids are broad distally and a broad contact between successive ribs leaves only a small gap . the sacral ribs of anapsids are more slender and contact each other distally .
iliac blade dorsally expanded . the iliac blade of romeriids , mesosaurs , and synapsids has a long , low posterodorsal process and lacks an anterior expansion . the iliac blade of anapsids has a dorsal expansion directly above the acetabulum , a short anterior process , and it is short posteriorly .
figure 3 . skulls of early amniotes in dorsal view . a , cotylorhynchus , a lower permian synapsid ; b , captorhinus , a lower permian romeriid ; c , procolophon , a triassic anapsid ; d , proganochelys , the oldest known turtle ( upper triassic ) . redrawn from a , laurin & reisz ( 1995 ) ; b , heaton ( 1979 ) ; c , carroll & lindsay ( 1985 ) ; and d , gaffney ( 1990 ) . abbreviations : bc , braincase ; f , frontal ; j , jugal ; l , lacrimal ; m , maxilla ; n , nasal ; p , parietal ; pa , palatal ; pm , premaxilla ; po , postorbital ; pof , postfrontal ; pp , postparietal ; prf , prefrontal ; qj , quadratojugal ; sq , squamosal ; st , supratemporal ; t , tabular .
procolophonia is defined as
the most recent common ancestor of pareiasaurs , procolophonids , and testudines ( chelonia ) , and all its descendants
( laurin & reisz , 1995 ) . it is diagnosed by several autapomorphies , including the following :
pineal foramen close to fronto - parietal suture ( fig . 3c ) . the pineal foramen of most other amniotes is located close to the mid - length of the interparietal suture , or slightly anterior to this ( fig . 3a , b ) .
tabular absent ( fig . 3c , d ) . most other amniotes have a tabular ( fig . 3a ) , but this bone has been lost convergently in captorhinids ( fig . 3b ) .
cranio - quadrate space large . in most other amniotes , the cranio - quadrate space ( the space between the braincase and the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid ) is narrow and the paroccipital process and the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid converge posterolaterally ( fig . 1a , b ) . in procolophonoids , pareiasaurs , and turtles , the cranio - quadrate space is wide and the paroccipital process is parallel to the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid ( fig . 1c , d ) .
pterygoid palatal ramus not reaching level of internal naris ( fig . 1c , d ) . the palatal ramus of millerettids , romeriids , mesosaurs , and early synapsids extends anteriorly medial to the internal naris ( fig . 1a , b ) .
transverse flange of pterygoid directed anterolaterally ( fig . 1c , d ) . the transverse flange of other amniotes extends transversely or posterolaterally from the area of the basicranial articulation ( fig . 1a , b ) .
cultriform process short ( fig . 1c , d ) . the cultriform process of other amniotes is long ( fig . 1a , b ) .
paroccipital process antero - posteriorly expanded . the paroccipital process of most other amniotes is a broad , thin , vertical flange .
quadrate condyle articular surfaces nearly flat and antero - posteriorly short . in other amniotes , the articular surfaces of the quadrate are strongly convex and short .
astragalus and calcaneum ( two ankle bones ) sutured or fused to each other .
romeriida is defined as
extant saurians , and all other taxa that are more closely related to them than they are to anapsids
( gauthier et al . , 1988 ) . romeriida possesses the following autapomorphies :
postorbital separated from supratemporal ( fig . 3b ) . the postorbital contacts the supratemporal in most anapsids ( fig . 3c ) , in mesosaurs , in early synapsids ( fig . 3a ) , and in diadectomorphs .
supratemporal small ( fig . 3b ) . the supratemporal is large in most other groups of amniotes ( fig . 3a , c ) .
caniniform maxillary tooth present . romeriids have a large anterior maxillary tooth ( fig . 2b ) . most other early amniotes have a relatively homodont dentition and no anterior maxillary tooth is much larger than the other teeth ( fig . 2a , c ) .
quadrate anterior process short ( fig . 1b ) . the anterior process of the quadrate extends anteriorly along more than 55 % of the quadrate ramus of the pterygoid in most other amniotes ( fig . 1a , d ) .
anterior pleurocentra keeled ventrally . the anterior pleurocentra of other amniotes is rounded ventrally .
metapodials overlapping . the proximal heads of the metapodials of other amniotes barely contact each other . the metapodials of
protorothyridids
and diapsids are expanded proximally and overlap the metapodial lateral to them .
we thank miss diane scott for scanning the figures of amniote skulls , and ms . patricia lai for proof - reading this page .
broom r . 1924 . on the classification of the reptiles . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 51 : 39 - 65 .
carroll r . l . & w . lindsay . 1985 . cranial anatomy of the primitive reptile procolophon . canadian journal of earth sciences 22 : 1571 - 1587 .
de queiroz , k . & j . gauthier . 1990 . phylogeny as a central principle in taxonomy : phylogenetic definitions of taxon names . systematic zoology 39 : 307 - 322 .
de queiroz , k . & j . gauthier . 1992 . phylogenetic taxonomy . annual review of ecology and systematics 23 : 449 - 480 .
de queiroz , k . & j . gauthier . 1994 . toward a phylogenetic system of biological nomenclature . trends in ecology and evolution 9 : 27 - 31 .
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gaffney e . s . 1990 . the comparative osteology of the triassic turtle proganochelys . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 194 : 263 .
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gaffney , e . s . & p . a . meylan 1988 . a phylogeny of turtles . in m . j . benton ( ed . ) the phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods : 157 - 219 . oxford : clarendon press .
gaffney e . s . , p . a . meylan , & a . r . wyss . 1991 . a computer assisted analysis of the relationships of the higher categories of turtles . cladistics 7 : 313 - 335 .
gauthier j . a . 1994 . the diversification of the amniotes . in : d . r . prothero and r . m . schoch ( ed . ) major features of vertebrate evolution : 129 - 159 . knoxville , tennessee : the paleontological society .
gauthier , j . , a . g . kluge , & t . rowe . 1988 . the early evolution of the amniota . in m . j . benton ( ed . ) the phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods , volume 1 : amphibians , reptiles , birds : 103 - 155 . oxford : clarendon press .
heaton m . j . 1979 . cranial anatomy of primitive captorhinid reptiles from the late pennsylvanian and early permian oklahoma and texas . bulletin of the oklahoma geological survey 127 : 1 - 84 .
laurin , m . & r . r . reisz . 1995 . a reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny . zoological journal of the linnean society 113 : 165 - 223 .
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lee m . s . y . 1996 . correlated progression and the origin of turtles . nature 379 : 812 - 815 .
modesto s . p . 1999 . observations on the structure of the early permian reptile stereosternum temidum cope . palaeontologia africana 35 : 7 - 19 .
olson e . c . 1947 . the family diadectidae and its bearing on the classification of reptiles . fieldiana geology 11 : 1 - 53 .
rieppel , o . 1994 . osteology of simosaurus gaillardoti and the relationships of stem - group sauropterygia . fieldiana geology 1462 : 1 - 85 .
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rieppel o . & m . debraga . 1996 . turtles as diapsid reptiles . nature 384 : 453 - 455 .
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scientists have found evidence that about 2 . 4 million years ago a gene regulating jaw muscles mutated and may have led to the more graceful human jaw we see today . which statement most closely explains the link between jaw size and hominid evolution
some characteristics of recently discovered organism are listed in the table . based on the given characteristics , this organism would be classified in which kingdom
the classification of four birds are listed . based on the classification which two birds are most closely related
scientists are studying the evolutionary history of a group of plants in the us . what information about the organisms best helps the scientists to determine the evolutionary relationships among them
many scientists think that the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells originated in independent prokaryotes . which characterisitc of mitochondira most strongly supports this conclusion
modern classification of the related organisms in a diagram . which two groups are most closely related
- like taxon first crawled out on dry land . then , according to the widely accepted paradigm , certain lineages returned to the water while others ventured forth onto higher and drier environs .
( lrt , 1033 taxa ) documents a bushier conquest of land , occurring in at least seven devonian waves until the beachhead was secured by our reptile ancestors .
dr . jennifer clack and her team have shown us that fish / amphibians can have limbs ( acanthostega and ichthyostega ) and not be interested in leaving the water . that comes later and later and , well , seven times all together .
figure 1 . colosteus relatives according to the lrt scaled to a common skull length . their sizes actually vary quite a bit , as noted by the different scale bars . only pholidogaster and colosteus are taxa in common with traditional colosteid lists .
had small limbs with toes . the smaller , but equally scaly and eel - like
, reduced those limbs to vestiges , showing they were not that important for getting around underwater in that wriggly clade . neither shows signs of ever leaving the water and phylogenetically neither led to the crawling land tetrapods . however , like the living peppered moray eel (
figure 2 . greererpeton reduced to a blueprint of body parts . here there may be one extra phalanx on pedal digit 5 and one missing on pedal digit 2 compared to sister taxa . so an alternate is shown with that repair . the skulls at left are juveniles .
were likewise flat - and long - bodied aquatic forms that seem unlikely to have been able to support themselves without the natural buoyancy of water . their descendants in the lrt likewise look like they were more comfortable lounging underwater like living
the hellbender has working lungs , but gill slits are often retained , although only immature specimens have true gills ; the hellbender absorbs oxygen from the water through capillaries of its side frills . ”
only rarely do hellbenders leave the water , perhaps to climb on low pond rocks . if the
figure 3 . pederpes is a basal taxon in the whatcheeria + crassigyrinus clade .
( with its flattened skull ) appear to have opted for a return to a watery environment . and who could blame them ? in any case , their big lumbering bodies were not well adapted to clambering over dry obstacles , like rocks and plants , that made terrestrial locomotion more difficult . and the biggest best food was still in the water . no doubt limbs helped many of them find new ponds and swamps when they felt the urge to do so , like living crocs . and they probably left the water after some of the smaller and more able taxa listed below .
took the first steps toward more of a land - living life . the nostrils shifted forward , but were still tiny , at first . bur the ribs were slender without any overlap . perhaps this signaled improvements in lung power . larger nostrils appeared in
. all these taxa were still rather large and lumbering and so were probably more at home in the water .
figure 5 . eucritta in situ and reconstructed . note the large pes in green .
like ancestors . one descendant clade begins with a several long - bodied , short - legged salamander - like taxa . discosauriscus is one of these . it begins life in water , but grows up to prefer dry land . seymouria is the culmination of this clade .
, a short - legged , flat - bodied aquatic taxon . that plesiomorphic taxon gives rise to legless
their marriage to or divorce from water varies across a wide spectrum in living taxa .
figure 7 . various stem amniotes ( reptiles ) that precede tulerpeton in the lrt . so these taxa likely radiated in the late devonian . and taxa like acanthostega and ichthyostega are late - survivors of earlier radiations documented by the earlier trackways .
no one should have ever said you have to look like a typical reptile to lay an amnion - covered egg . and if they did , they were not guided by a large gamut phylogenetic analysis .
this clade become fully divorced from needing water for reproduction , but basal members still liked the high humidity and wet substrate of the swamp .
. these were small agile taxa with relatively long legs that would have had their genesis in the late devonian . their first appearance in the fossil record was much later . the development of the amnion - enclosed embryo may have taken millions of years . the first phylogenetic reptiles appear in the form of amphibian - like
, according to the lrt , from distinct clades that were more or less ready to do so and in different ways . and , of course , odd extant fish , like the peppered moray eel (
) continue this tradition . what will they eventually evolve into , given enough time ?
the fin to limb transition : new data , interpretations , and hypotheses from paleontology and developmental biology . annual review of earth and planetary sciences . 37 : 163–179 .
jarvik : postcranial anatomy , basal tetrapod interrelationships and patterns of skeletal evolution . earth and environmental science transactions of the royal society of edinburgh .
polydactly in the earliest known tetrapod limbs . nature 347 : 66 - 69 .
diurnal , land - based predation on shore crabs by moray eels in the chagos archipelago . coral reefs 28 ( 2 ) : 387–397 .
on the fish - like tail in the ichtyhyostegid stegocephalians . meddelelser om grønland 114 : 1–90 .
figure 1 . the complete skull of anthracosaurus greatly resembles its relative , neopteroplax .
anthracosaurus russelli ( huxley 1863 , panchen 1977 , clack 1987 ; westphalian , late carboniferous , 310 mya , skull length 40cm ; figs . 1 , 2 ) was originally considered a labyrinthodont . the wide , yet pointed , triangular skull and tall orbits recall traits found in labyrinthodonts , like sclerocephalus , and in the basal tetrapod , tiktaalik . here , in the large reptile tree ( lrt , 967 taxa ) , anthracosaurus nests with neopteroplax ( fig . 3 ) as a derived embolomere , the clade that likely gave rise to seymouriamorpha , lepospondyli and reptilia
has an inverted teardrop shape . the marginal and palatal fangs are quite large . although flattened in dorsal view , comparisons suggest the jaw margin was convex , as in
is basal in the embolomeri . those giant marginal and palatal fangs indicate a predatory niche .
figure 2 . left : anthracosaurus chimaera from clack 1987 . right : older tracing in dorsal view of the complete skull and palatal view attributed to anthracosaurus from an online photo . the narrower skull is made of several different specimens ( chimaera ) and produces a loss of resolution in the lrt .
( fig . 2 ) based on a chimaera of specimens . unfortunately , plugging that data into the lrt produced loss of resolution over several nodes . using the older single skull in dorsal view had no such problems .
figure 3 . neopteroplax has a skull quite similar to the older single skull of anthracosaurus and they nest together in the lrt .
“gauthier , kluge and rowe ( 1988 ) defined anthracosauria as ‘amniota plus all other tetrapods that are more closely related to amniotes than they are to amphibians” ( amphibia in turn was defined by these authors as a clade including lissamphibia and those tetrapods that are more closely related to lissamphibians than they are to amniotes ) . ”
in this definition non - amniote anthracosauria does not include anthracosaurus , but only silvanerpeton and gephyrostegus in the lrt because more basal taxa are also basal to amphibians .
“as ruta , coates and quicke ( 2003 ) pointed out , this definition is problematic , because , depending on the exact phylogenetic position of lissamphibia within tetrapoda , using it might lead to the situation where some taxa traditionally classified as anthracosaurs , including even the genus anthracosaurus itself , wouldn’t belong to anthracosauria .
laurin ( 2001 ) created a different phylogenetic definition of anthracosauria , defining it as “the largest clade that includes anthracosaurus russelli but not ascaphus truei” .
in the lrt ascaphus , the tailed frog , is derived from the large clade , the embolomeri , that includes anthracosaurus . however the small clade that includes just anthracosaurus and neopteroplax does not include the tailed frog .
in the lrt the embolomeri are basal to eucritta and the seymouriamorpha , which are basal to the reptilia ( = amniota ) and lepospondyli ( including amphibia ) . the chroniosuchia and gephyrostegus are both amphibian - like reptiles in the lrt .
s the exact phylogenetic position of lissamphibia within tetrapoda remains uncertain , it also remains controversial which fossil tetrapods are more closely related to amniotes than to lissamphibians , and thus , which ones of them were reptiliomorphs in any meaning of the word . ”
( amphibia : anthracosauria ) from the northumberland coal measures . palaeontology 30 ( 1 ) : 15 - 26 .
description of anthracosaurus russelli , a new labyrinthodont from the lanarkshire coalfield . quartery journal of the geological society 19 : 56 - 58 .
huxley . philosophical transactions of the royal society of london , b . 269 : 581 - 640 .
huxley ( amphibia : labyrinthodontia ) and the family anthracosauridae . philosophical transactions of the royal society b . 279 ( 968 ) : 447–512 .


scratch , also known as scratch ii ( foaled 1947 ) was a french thoroughbred racehorse and sire best known for winning the prix du jockey club and the classic st leger stakes in 1950 .

scratch won the solario stakes in england as a two-year-old and emerged as one of the best of a very strong generation of french-trained colts in the following year .

he won the prix de guiche and prix greffulhe in the early part of the year and then defeated the year 's outstanding three-year-old colt tantieme in the prix du jockey club .

in the autumn of 1950 he won the st leger by defeating vieux manoir , who had beaten him in the grand prix de paris .

he won the prix jean prat as a four-year-old before being retired to stud where he had an unremarkable record as a sire of winners in europe and south america .

scratch ( horse )

i give credit to whoever made the outline of this horse and of course scratch .
a scratch in horse racing simply means that a horse that was entered to run in a race will not be running in that race .
some people near red lodge thought a horse was in distress and stuck on a pipe . turns out the horse just wanted to scratch her belly .
coloured the horse in according to what my dream horse would look like . the background i drew from scratch and was inspired by halloween costume which was a cobweb dress .
declared - in u . s . , a horse withdrawn from a stake in advance of scratch time . in europe , a horse confirmed to start in a race .
grandsire - grandfather of a horse , sire of the horse ' s dam .
“riders and handlers should be encouraged to scratch rather than pat their horses as a reward . ”
learning how to properly scratch your horse is one of the best training tools you can have . a horse is a body oriented animal , so speaking to it through body language is the best way to communicate .
i think i would have a revolt on my hands if i didn ' t give my horses a good scratch every day .
del mar stewards said on thursday that the scratch of smogcutter would be referred to the racing board’s investigators for a possible complaint .
quarter horse - breed of horse especially fast for a quarter of a mile , from which its name is derived .
break ( a horse ) - to accustom a young horse to racing equipment and methods , and to carry a rider .
british researchers presented findings at the recent international equitation science conference in denmark that a scratch on the wither was more effective as a reward than a pat .
sometimes a scratch isn’t the decision of the connections of a horse . before each race a horse is inspected - typically by a race official called a steward and a veterinarian . if there is any reason that they believe that the horse will not be able to run his best , that he will potentially create a dangerous situation in a race , or that he is not likely to fairly represent the bettors who back him then they have the ability to scratch any horse . they can do so any time from the day before a race to minutes before the race starts .
there are all sorts of reasons that a horse can be scratched from a race . first off is because of a decision by an owner or a trainer . sometimes a trainer will enter a horse in two or more different races at the same time , and then wait until closer to the day of the race to decide which one sets up better for the horse . other times , a trainer will scratch a horse if the conditions of the racing surface aren’t going to be ideal - like if rain has made a turf course too soft for a horse to run his best , for example . a trainer could also scratch a horse if they aren’t happy how the horse has trained leading up to the race , or if they have concerns about his health and readiness .
rewarding a horse by giving him a good scratch is the best training tool you can use . scratching is how horses communicate happiness and contentment in the wild , and by using this natural body language , you will communicate directly with your horse in a better way than voice or training equipment alone .
i am also a firm believer in scratching . my horses love it and it is great for bonding . my horse will stop eating to get a neck scratch . he absolutely loves it when i dig my nails in along his crest .
eased - chart caller ' s assessment of a horse that is being deliberately slowed by the jockey to prevent injury or harm to the horse .
muzzle - nose and lips of a horse . also a guard placed over a horse ' s mouth to prevent him from biting or eating .
it’s rare to find an acreage property of this size so close to everything and it’s a fantastic opportunity to develop a truly unique retirement village from scratch , ” mr bentley said .
lead pony - horse or pony who heads parade of field from paddock to starting gate . also a horse or pony who accompanies a starter to post .
leg up - to help a jockey mount his horse . also a jockey having a mount . also to strengthen a horse ' s legs through exercise .
schooling - accustoming a horse to starting from the gate and to teach him racing practices . in steeplechasing , more particularly to teach a horse to jump .
this studio is dedicated to creating and sharing fun , horse - themed games .
all win / place / show bets involving a scratched horse will be refunded .
breeze - working a horse at a moderate speed ; less effort than handily .
hand ride - urging a horse with the hands and not using the whip .
post position - position of stall in starting gate from which a horse starts .
silks - jacket and cap worn by riders which designate owner of the horse .
spit box - receptacle for urine and blood taken from a horse for testing .
stall walker - horse that moves about his stall and frets rather than rests .
the best place to scratch your horse is where the withers meet the neck . naturally , this is an area a horse cannot reach itself , so it is an area that is like the middle of the human back . anything that can access it and give it a good scratching is welcome and will be sought after . so using this area as a training tool by giving the horse a reward scratching is just good sense .
no websites or painting apps or whatever aloud it has to be all done on scratch . ( sorry but it just isn ' t fair to those who can ' t do it . )
scratch ( fr ) ch . h , 1947 { 14 - f } dp = 20 - 8 - 8 - 14 - 2 ( 52 ) di = 1 . 60 cd = 0 . 58
the trio concluded : “we found that patting was less effective than wither scratching , with the latter resulting in responses similar to those found in positive horse - horse interaction .
bit - bar in horse ' s mouth by which he is guided and controlled .
bottom - stamina in a horse . also , sub - surface of racing strip .
exercise rider - male or female rider who is aboard a horse in the mornings .
near side - left side of a horse , side on which he is mounted .
short - a horse in need of more work or racing to reach winning form .
timber topper - jumper or steeplechase horse . more properly horses jumping over timber fences .
graduate - winning first time , horse or rider . also , graduate of the claiming ranks - a horse , that has moved up to allowance , stakes or handicap racing .
each portion of an exacta / trifecta / superfecta involving a scratched horse will be refunded .
black type - designation for a stakes winner or stakes - placed horse in sales catalogues .
cuppy ( track ) - a surface which breaks away under a horse ' s hoof .
dropdown - a horse meeting a lower class of rival than he had been running against .
equipment - whip , blinkers , etc . gear carried by a horse in a race .
nose - smallest advantage a horse can win by . in england called a short head .
overweight - surplus weight carried by a horse when the rider cannot make the required weight .
show bet - wager on a horse to finish in the money ; third or better .
strip - markings of a horse . white hairs running part - way down the face .
he was the last horse to be named a champion at 2 , 3 and 4 .
it took me about 3 years to learn to canter my horse correctly ! just because someone owns a horse , it doesn ' t mean that they are a perfect rider . don ' t make the assumption that all horse owners are fantastic riders , they really are not .
bleeder - horse who bleeds during or after a workout or race due to ruptured blood vessel .
calk - projection bottom of shoe to give horse greater traction , especially on a wet track .
head - a margin between horses . one horse leading another by the length of his head .
lug ( in or out ) - action of a tiring horse , bearing in or out .
shank - rope or strap attached to a halter or bridle by which a horse is led .
star - small patch of white hair on a horse ' s forehead . also a credit a horse receives from being forced out of an overcrowded race , giving him priority in future races .
stickers - calks on shoes which give a horse better traction in mud or on soft tracks .
taken up - a horse pulled up sharply by his rider because of being in close quarters .
spectacular bid was the last horse to be named a champion at 2 , 3 and 4 .
frank zanzuccki , executive director of the new jersey racing commission , advised the meadowlands via email that the “commission does not have the legal authority to scratch a horse ( s ) already entered based on conditions imposed solely on one trainer by a racetrack operator . therefore , your request to have these horses scratched must be denied . ”
update : according to a report at urltoken , the new jersey racing commission notified the meadowlands late tuesday afternoon that the track “does not have the legal authority” to scratch the two horses trained by chris oakes from the breeders ' crown .
hey everyone ! i was bored , so i decided to try doing a galloping horse run cycle .
brace ( or bracer ) - rubdown liniment used on a horse after a race or a workout .
center of distribution - the balance point of speed and stamina influences in a horse ' s pedigree .
conformation - a horse ' s build and general physical structure ; the way he is put together .
maiden - a horse who has not won a race . also applied to non - winning rider .
morning glory - horse who performs well in morning workouts but fails to reproduce that form in races .
pinhooker ; pinhook - to buy a horse at auction fo r the purpose of reselling him later .
stripe - a white marking running down a horse ' s face to bridge of nose or below .
he was ranked 10th in a blood - horse poll of the top horses of the 20th century .
another spot is along the backbone , but be cautious . the backbone can be sensitive , so scratch more gently and watch your horses reaction . if he stretches out and wiggles his upper lip , he is enjoying it and you should continue .
all art by me ! ( except for the running horse in the background from google images which i edited ) i credit urltoken for the horse neigh ( when about to run ) , and the user
audio productions
on youtube for the horse gallop sound effect . all other sound effects by me .
in order to be able to post messages on the the horse forum forums , you must first register .
bred - a horse is bred at the place of his birth . also , the mating of horses .
false favorite - horse who is bet down to favoritism when others would appear to outclass him on form .
flatten out - when a horse drops his head almost on straight line with body . may indicate exhaustion .
ridden out - refers to a horse that wins under a vigorous hand ride but is not being whipped .
steadied - a horse being taken in hand by his rider , usually because of being in close quarters .
of course , the connections of uncle mo dismiss any claims the horse doesn ' t have the distance .
im pretty sure that any horse owner who happily offers you the chance to ride really isnt going to be judgemental about your confidence at canter . . heck it takes years as a part time rider to get the hang of it and even then you can be back to scratch with a change of horse . as long as you are safe on board , not aggressive or hard on the mouth , i would think most owners are happy to see someone having the pleasure of a ride .
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“anecdotal evidence and opinion suggest that patting is meaningless or even aversive to the horse , ” they told delegates .
“wither scratching could potentially increase horse / human bonding and act as a more effective reward , ” they said .
the horse , colors background etc . are all by me . so if you use anything please credit me !
closer - a horse who runs best in the latter part of the race , coming from off the pace .
gallop - a type of gait , a fast canter . also , to ride a horse at that gait .
icing - standing a horse in a bucket of ice or applying ice packs to the legs to encourage circulation .
mare - female horse 5 years old or older . also , female of any age who has been bred .
overlay - a horse going off at a higher price than he appears to warrant based on his past performances .
prep ( or prep race ) - a workout or a race to prepare a horse for a future engagement .
refuse - when a horse will not break from the gate . in jumping races , balking at the jump .
i haven ' t found a place yet that both horses don ' t like to be scratched . t ' s eyes close and walka moves towards me if i stop as if to say
hey don ' t stop
. i think scratching and rubbing are ways to help build a relationship with a horse and show affection . wish someone would scratch and rub me ! ! ! !
bald ( or bald face ) - white face of horse , including eyes , nostrils or part of the latter .
checked - a horse pulled up by his jockey for an instant because he is cut off or in tight quarters .
colors - racing silks - jacket and cap - worn by riders to denote the owner ( s ) of horse .
fees - amount paid to rider or the cost of nominating , entering or starting a horse in a stakes race .
horse - broadly , in any thoroughbred regardless of sex . specifically , an entire male 5 years old or older .
neck - unit of measurement , about the length of a horse ' s neck ; a quarter of a length .
run - out bit - a special type of bit to prevent a horse from bearing out ( or in ) .
subscription - fee paid by owner to nominate horse for a stakes race or to maintain eligibility for a stakes race .
avila said masochistic was plagued by knee and tibia injuries as a young horse , which postponed the start of his career . thursday , avila said that masochistic was given the sedative because the horse has a tendency to try to bite stable staff .
after all , you don ' t have to canter your friend ' s horse if you don ' t want to .
bandage - strips of cloth wound around the lower part of a horse ' s legs for support or protection against injury .
cooling out - restoring a horse , usually by walking , to normal temperature after becoming overheated in a race or workout .
cribber ( a wind sucker ) - a horse who clings to objects with his teeth and sucks air into his stomach .
dosage diagram - a diagram showing the number and placement of chefs - de - race in a horse ' s pedigree .
dosage index - mathematical reduction of the dosage diagram to a number reflecting a horse ' s potential for speed or stamina .
gait - the ways in which a horse can move - walk , trot , canter , gallop , run , etc .
length - length of a horse from nose to tail , about 8 feet . also distance between horses in a race .
if you have multiple selections in your pick 3 or pick 4 , each combination will be scored according to the ' top pick scratch rules ' . the host track / authority governs the settlement rules for scratched horses in pick wagers , operating in accordance with one of two different settlement rules :
3 . if the host track doesn’t offer a consolation payout , you will be refunded if a horse is scratched in one leg of your ticket , or if the first leg of your ticket wins and a horse is scratched in the second leg .
across the board - a bet on a horse to win , place and show . if the horse wins , the player collects three ways ; if second , two ways ; and if third , one way , losing the win and place bets .
a duck , a goose , a goat , and a horse all entered the barn at different times one day last week .
climbing - a fault in a horse ' s stride in which , instead of reaching out , his action is abnormally high .
front - runner - a horse who usually leads ( or tries to lead ) the field for as far as he can .
saddle cloth - cloth under the saddle on which number ( and sometimes horse ' s name ) denoting post position is displayed .
whip - instrument , usually of leather , with which rider strikes horse to increase his speed . also called bat and gad .
nz connemara soc . nz farriers assn . aust / nz friesian soc . nz hanoverian soc . irish draught horse soc . advertising options
reference point was voted 1987 british horse of the year by the racecourse association , attracting twelve of the twenty votes . [ 16 ]
state - bred - a horse bred in a particular state and thus eligible to compete in special races restricted to state - breds .
oh no ! we ' re having trouble displaying this scratch project . if you are on a mobile phone or tablet , try visiting this project on a computer . if you ' re on a computer , your flash player might be disabled , missing , or out of date . visit this page to update flash .
scratching down on the chest , between the front legs , is another great spot . again , be cautious , as in the wild , a horse will nip at another horse in the chest when he wants to play , so make sure your horse knows you are going to touch him there for scratching purposes . watch his reaction and make sure you are ready to move if he nips at you .
i don ' t
smack
, but i do pet , kinda like petting a dog . more of a pat , with me saying
thank you
. when my kids get off the horses , they go to the head , fuss them & say
thank you
. i try to scratch at the withers , but my mustang usually backs away . if i get him along the mane behind the ear , he ' s like putty in my hands . if i actually scratch in the ear . . . . . that ' s all she wrote ! he ' d stand there for hours if i had the strength ! lol
when riding , you can use the arrow keys to move the horse around . ( i drew all the sprites and background myself ) tell me if there are any glitches and if i should add anything new ! ( i havent finished the costumes for the riding horse yet )
also - eligible - a horse officially entered , but not permitted to start unless the field is reduced by scratches below a specified number .
blinkers - device to limit a horse ' s vision to prevent him from swerving from objects or other horses on either side of him .
blowout - a short , final workout , usually a day or two before a race , designed to sharpen a horse ' s speed .
breather - restraining or easing off on a horse for a short distance in a race to permit him to conserve or renew his strength .
it was really exciting to see him ,
baffert said .
he ' s still the sweet , kind horse he is .
three riders interacted with their horses during the test and 15 patted their horse on test completion , with 12 continuing patting for over a minute .
what happened to . . . trempolino ? | sporting life - horse racing news | live racing results , racecards , live betting shows
past performances - a compilation in daily racing form of a horse ' s record , including all pertinent data , as a basis for handicapping .
rundown - of a horse , to suffer abrasions on the heels as a result of contact with the dirt and sand of the track surface .
shadow roll - usually a lamb ' s wool roll half way up the horse ' s face to keep him from seeing his own shadow .
tongue strap - strap or tape bandage used to tie down a horse ' s tongue to prevent it from choking in a race or workout .
you can remix if you want , pls just say who originally made it and get rid of the logo ( horse gif at the start ) .
if you have bet on a horse that has been scratched then , in most cases , your ticket will be void and your money will be returned . there is an exception , though . in multi - race bets - like a pick four or pick six , for example - they will not cancel your entire ticket because one horse is scratched . instead , they will turn your bet on the scratched horse into a bet on the favorite .
the horse ' s mental maturity . they ' re all different . again , if breaking means riding to you then add in physical maturity too .
try to enjoy riding your friend ' s horse , you can just take it easy and have a plod around . i don ' t know if it ' s an option to have lessons on this horse if you get on ? either way i hope it goes well for you , keep us posted !
lead ( or lead pad ) - weights carried to make up the difference when a rider weighs less than the poundage a horse is assigned to carry .
on the very face of it , the introduction of a synoptic end - point - assessment may look like a retrograde step , a shift away from the idea that modular assessment , particularly via coursework , offers a fairer evaluation of performance over time . however , it takes only a light scratch of the surface to reveal that the situation is far less reactionary than it appears .
1 . if the first leg of your ticket loses , the entire ticket is considered a loss , even if a horse is scratched in the second leg .
not having a perfect canter wouldn ' t prevent me from letting you ride my horse . i own him and i don ' t have a perfect canter .
1 . if one of the coupled horses gets scratched and the rest of the entry runs , your wager will have action on the running horse ( s ) .
members are allowed only one account per person at the horse forum , so if you ' ve made an account here in the past you ' ll need to continue using that account . please do not create a new account or you may lose access to the horse forum . if you need help recovering your existing account , please
daniel deusser and cornet d’amour . a pat may not be all it’s cracked up to be in the eyes of a horse . © paul harding / lewis harding photography
riders patted more on the right side of the horse ( 59 percent ) than the left ( 22 percent ) , or both sides simultaneously ( 19 percent ) .
faltered - used for a horse that was in contention early and drops back in the late stages . it is more drastic than weakened but less drastic than stopped .
an iconic central coast horse stud farm is set to become a beachside green haven for retirees after fetching a regional record - making sale price of $ 12 million .
when a horse is scratched , it means that it has been taken out of the race before the start of the race . a horse may be scratched in the days leading up to a race or the day of , right up until post time . our system marks scratches in the race pane so that you can ' t wager on them . however , if you wager on a horse prior to it being scratched from the race , we follow the official payout results posted by the host track .
give the horse food and water by feeding ( apple ) and watering ( puddle ) him . try to keep his ' thirst ' and ' hunger ' meter at 0 ( if your horse ' s thirst or hunger meter says - 1 , he ' s eaten more then he needs ! ) ! thirst goes up faster then hunger .
spit the bit - when a horse quits running against the bit , usually because of fatigue ; often said disdainfully :
luck lady really spit out the bit
.
just be careful , about ur health . to clarify , your horse will die , if you don ' t feed it heaps and heaps and heaps . ( just saying )
2 . you will receive a consolation payout , provided the host track offers one , if a horse is scratched in one leg of your ticket and the other leg wins .
field horse ( or mutuel field ) - two or more starters running as a single betting unit , when there are more entrants than positions on the totalisator board can accommodate .
prop - refusing to break with field from gate . standing flat - footed . also , when a horse suddenly stops running a full speed by extending his forefeet as
brakes .
rundown bandages ( or wraps ) - bandages on the hind legs , usually with a pad inside , to keep a horse from
burning
or scraping his heels when he races .
allowances - weight permitted to be reduced because of the conditions of the race or because an apprentice is on a horse . also , a weight females are entitled to when racing against males .
bar shoe - a horse shoe with a rear bar to protect an injured foot ; bar shoes may be worn with aluminum pads to protect a bruised frog , or my be worn alone .
twitch - a device usually consisting of a stick with a loop of rope at one end , which is placed around a horse ' s nose and upper lip and twisted to curb fractiousness .
he was losing weight and had little appetite , bad signs for a horse .
when you talk about surviving versus racing , i was worried about surviving ,
repole said last week .
hello fellow turtles , humans , and horses ! i re - did ominouscat ' s horse animation and added color and a background to it ! i might have overdone the clouds tho . . .
before i bought my own horse i shared various horses for about 10 years . the most successful shares were the ones where i go on well with the owner and communicated well with them . if you are honest and straightforward , you will hopefully find a successful share pretty easily . but also be warned that some horsey people are pretty nutty and not everyone will be 100 % honest . always see the owner ride the horse before you do , and trust your gut instinct . if you don ' t feel comfortable riding the horse then there is no shame in getting off and walking away . privately owned horses vary hugely in their training and experience , and for a rider wanting to gain confidence and experience you need to ensure the horse you share is well trained and well mannered .
uncle mo , with jockey john r . velazquez , captures the kelso horse race at belmont park in new york on oct . 1 , 2011 . ( new york racing association / associated press )
that would be spectacular bid ' s last defeat , as he won the 1979 meadowlands cup and then all nine of his starts at four . the end came on sept . 20 , 1980 , in the woodward , when the scratch of marlboro cup winner winter ' s tale prompted the connections of temperence hill and dr . patches to also pull out of the race , giving spectacular bid a walkover in the final race of a career that was quite fittingly , spectacular .
the horse with a misspelled name finally did what racing fans were waiting 37 years for , won the triple crown . now american pharoah can settle down to a life of leisure on the kentucky bluegrass .
reference point was given a timeform rating of 139 , the eleventh highest awarded to any horse up to that time , and higher than those of nijinsky , alleged and troy . [ 16 ] in their book a century of champions , john randall and tony morris rated reference point the thirty - sixth best british horse of the 20th century and the second best derby winner of the 1980s behind shergar . [ 5 ]
bobble - a bad step away from the starting gate , usually caused by the track breaking away from under a horse ' s hoof and causing him to duck his head or nearly go to his knees .
odds - on - odds of less than even money . in england it is simply called
on ,
thus a horse
5 - 4 on
is actually at odds of 4 - 5 .
what age is the horse when you start the breaking in process ? summer of 3rd year - what informs your decision to start the breaking process ? she was strong enough to take a saddle - how long would you normally expect it to take roughly ? - from the very beginning to being ridden out alone . very difficult here , my girl was a homebred so had 3 years of correct handling / prep so putting on saddle and backing took 3 days unknown horse you have to play it as you go along - what is the first step you take ? my homebred could already lunge / long line . so introduce saddle on lunge , then hop on - what are the stages of breaking a horse in you would usually use ? teach the horse respect and able to move the horse around and control - have you experienced any behavioural problems when breaking in ? if so what and why do you think they happened ? yes , but these were
failed
attempts so where more of a re - backing or attempt 2 , 3 , 4 . . . . . . . incorrect prep and not ensuring the horse had accepted the stages as you go . - would you ever start the process , turn the horse away and start again at a later date for any reason ? if so what reason ? yes i back in the summer prior to starting ridden work - gives them time to grow and mature further , before coming in at 4 ready to start work
go for it & be yourself . watch how the owner handles & rides the horse , that should give you a fair idea of what to do , and don ' t be afraid to ask the owner how her & her horse prefer things done - the majority of owners like their horses how they are & don ' t want someone trying to change things . relax & enjoy , what have you got to lose ?
repole isn ' t shy about which uncle mo horse he will be cheering for on saturday — the one he owns . outwork is out of a mare , nonna mia , that repole named after his grandmother .
hancock and her colleagues , as part of their study , also looked at the use of patting in a ridden situation , assessed footage of 16 horse - rider pairs at the 2012 london olympics games competing in dressage .
condition race - an event with conditions limiting it to a certain class of horse . such as : fillies , 3 - year - olds , non - winners of two races other than maiden or claiming , etc .
we do not change members ' usernames upon request because that would make it difficult for everyone to keep track of who is who on the forum . for that reason , please do not incorporate your horse ' s name into your username so that you are not stuck with a username related to a horse you may no longer have some day , or use any other username you may no longer identify with or care for in the future .
so , i just kinda need some confirmation . i know how to look after a horse - grooming etc , as well as mucking out if need be , and the owner agreed to teach me how to tack up and check if i got it right if i needed . would you let me look after / ride your horse ? i really want to know what to expect as a response , since i hate going into things blind .
- what age is the horse when you start the breaking in process ? end of 3yo year or beginning of 4yo - what informs your decision to start the breaking process ? generally when i buy them i don ' t have my own land and can ' t afford to keep anything younger - how long would you normally expect it to take roughly ? - from the very beginning to being ridden out alone . depends on the horse , but i tend to hack them alone from the start . so 3 - 5 weeks depending on horse - what is the first step you take ? once they are happy being handled then saddle cloth and then roller , firstly in the stable then walking - what are the stages of breaking a horse in you would usually use ? really simplified otherwise would be really long saddle cloth , roller then bit led in above and short lunge in trot swap roller for saddle and repeat , then add dangling stirrups and repeat long rein including out and about all through the above jump about and bang / jiggle the saddle on occasion and stand on something high next to them lay over and lead in walk swing leg over and get on lead in walk lunge in trot off lunge make sure i can turn / stop then hack for at least a month - have you experienced any behavioural problems when breaking in ? if so what and why do you think they happened ? only when i have had horses others have tried to break first , never if i have done from scratch - would you ever start the process , turn the horse away and start again at a later date for any reason ? if so what reason ? not a fan of turning away myself , but they don ' t work that hard . 3 - 4 days a week of gentle hacking . obviously it depends on the horse , but this is the basic plan i use . how long each stage takes will depend on the horse though . don ' t like schooling breakers so do tend to hack earlier than some . i am lucky we have good , safe hacking and so many horses about drivers tend to be pretty good .
it matters a lot
if outwork wins , repole said .
i ' ve got to root for my own horse . losing to a son of uncle mo is not going to make me feel any better .
what age is the horse when you start the breaking in process ? three or four . - what informs your decision to start the breaking process ? how well grown is the horse , mentally and physically , and what plans do i have for it going forward . - how long would you normally expect it to take roughly ? - from the very beginning to being ridden out alone . as long as it takes - but normally 6 - 8 weeks . - what is the first step you take ? teach the horse to lunge . - what are the stages of breaking a horse in you would usually use ? lunge , saddle , rider . bit / bridle normally much later , if at all . - have you experienced any behavioural problems when breaking in ? if so what and why do you think they happened ? no , but then i have only done 9 or 10 . - would you ever start the process , turn the horse away and start again at a later date for any reason ? if so what reason ? i have done with endurance horses - start as a four year old , then turn out for say 3 months and then start legging up for their first season at five . however the three year old that has just been started is not an endurance horse , so she will just keep pottering along three or four days a week . read more at urltoken
i have been riding professionally at the highest levels for 43 years and i would be one of the 15 riders patting . the rider that was stroking probably did not finish well and was telling their horse “i love you anyway ! ”
rabbit - a horse that is considered to have little chance of winning a race but is entered purely to ensure a fat pace and tire out the other front - runners , softening up the competition for the benefit of an entrymate .
funny , many of the places she said to scratch , a mare would be upset if you scratched them there . i notice she says
he
so maybe its a gelding / stallion itchy spots article . my mare hates getting scratched at the wither / neck area . she also hates the chest area being scratched . every mare i own wants to have their butts scratched . its so embarrassing to be out with them in the pasture . every one of them will walk up and after the initial greeting , turn their butts to me for a good scratching .
the horse the connections of smogcutter scratched to avoid running against , masochistic , won thursday ' s first race by 2 1 / 2 lengths over passing game , with minimal urging from jockey victor espinoza . he paid $ 2 . 80 .
the colt had won his first four races , before a disappointing third in the wood memorial . something was going on with the horse but no one quite knew what . still , he was installed as the favorite for the kentucky derby .
, one of the classic horse races . the race was established by colonel barry saint leger in 1776 and was named for him in 1778 . an event for three - year - old colts and fillies , it is run annually in september at
cast - a horse is a cast when he lies down in the stall in such a way that he is too close to the wall , and there is a danger that he may not be able to get up by himself without injury .
grab a quarter - to strike the side of a front foot with a hind foot . this is racetrack jargon that would be expressed more clearly by saying that the horse overstepped or overreached and cut himself ; reserve grabbed a quarater for direct quotes .
owners david frankham and brian carmody withdrew smogcutter from thursday’s first race at del mar to protest the presence of a rival horse that tested positive for a sedative in march , but whose trainer , a . c . avila , has yet to be sanctioned .
bay - color of horse varying from yellowish tan ( light bay ) to brown or dark , rich shade of mahogany ( sometimes listed as dark bay or brown ) with black points - black mane , tail and shadings of black low on the legs .
the decision to scratch and retire i’ll have another with swelling in his left front leg on the day before the belmont stakes cost him a shot to become the 12th triple crown winner , but owner j . paul reddam still stands to make millions in stud fees . while the three - year - old colt would likely have commanded an even greater fee had he raced and won saturday , most bloodstock agents and other experts expect him to garner $ 5 million to $ 10 million as a sire . here’s a look at the post - belmont careers – both on and off the track – of the 11 triple crown winners .
minus pool - a mutuel pool caused when one horse is so heavily played that , after deductions of state tax and commission , there is not enough money left to pay the legally prescribed minimum on each winning bet . the racing association usually makes up the difference .
super red , as fans knew him , ran his final race at the canadian championship in toronto in october 1973 . he went to stud under the terms of a then - record $ 6 . 08 million syndication deal , which helped pay off the estate taxes of his owner’s father . ( syndication deals spread the inherent gamble associated with high - stakes breeding across multiple buyers , who purchase shares in the horse . each share grants the owner the right to breed a mare of his or her choosing with the syndicated horse once a year for as long as the horse lives . ) secretariat retired as the sixth - leading money winner of all - time , but had mixed success as a stallion . he was put down on oct . 5 , 1989 , after suffering from laminitis , an incurable hoof condition .
a horse can be scratched leading up to the race if there is an accident of some sort . horses can be scratched because they flip when they are getting saddled , because they throw their rider on the way to the gate , or they are unruly in the gate .
in a phone interview on wednesday evening , frankham said that he and carmody were protesting a lack of action beyond the redistribution of the purse by the california horse racing board regarding masochistic’s positive for the tranquilizer acepromazine , found in a post - race test conducted on march 15 .
the following tracks apply to the ' substitute favorite scratch rules ' : arlington park , australia a , australia b , australia c , australia d , balmoral park , belterra park , beulah park , calder race course , canterbury park , delta downs , dubai meydan , emerald downs , fairmount park , fort erie , gulfstream park , hastings park , hoosier park , indiana downs , laurel park , lone star park , maywood park , meadows , northfield park , oaklawn park , parx racing , penn national , pimlico , plainridge , portland meadows , prairie meadows , remington park , retama park , ruidoso downs , sam houston race park , suffolk downs , sunland park , thistledown , and woodbine .
the star of uncle mo ' s first crop is nyquist , the undefeated 3 - year - old and presumptive favorite for saturday ' s race , followed by outwork , who won the wood memorial at aqueduct . the third horse is mo tom , who has won three of seven races .
mike watchmaker , national handicapper for the daily racing form , has nyquist ranked first but has continually mentioned the horse ' s distance capability . his comment in the latest derbywatch was :
imposing record , has now won at 9 furlongs , if not quickly . ten furlongs remains the question .
in her study , hancock and her fellow researchers observed 16 horse / rider combinations in the grand prix special dressage test of the 2012 olympic games in london . overall , pats dominated any other type of non - aid contact : riders issued 350 pats throughout the grand prix competition and only three strokes .
triple crown , in british horse racing , championship attributed to a colt or filly that in a single season wins the races known as the two thousand guineas , the derby , and the saint leger . in britain the term triple crown is also applied—though far less commonly—to a filly that in a single season…
gainsborough , ( foaled 1915 ) , english racehorse ( thoroughbred ) who won the british triple crown , consisting of the two thousand guineas at newmarket , the derby at epsom downs , and the saint leger at doncaster in 1918 . the horse later became a stud of worldwide importance , being the sire of the…
the following tracks apply to the ' void scratch rules ' : albuquerque , aqueduct racetrack , arapahoe park , belmont park , california expo , charles town , churchill downs , del mar , delaware park , dover downs , ellis park , evangeline downs , evangeline quarter , fair grounds , finger lakes , fonner park , freehold raceway , golden gate fields , harrington raceway , hawthorne , hazel park , keenland , kentucky downs , los alamitos , louisiana downs , meadowlands , monmouth , monticello raceway , mountaineer park , northville , pleasenton , pocono downs , presque isle downs , red mile , santa anita park , santa rosa , saratoga , solano , tampa bay downs , turf paradise , turfway park , yavapai downs , yonkers , and zia park .
lunging , first in a rope halter , then free lunge . they need to walk , trot , canter on command and be paying attention to me throughout . ground driving with and with out saddle , over poles and bending . then we work under saddle in the arena for a couple months until i ' m sure they will listen to aids and give to pressure . again , depends on the horse . also , i typically had only two days a week to work with them . if you can work them more often , and if they ' re ready maybe it ' s weeks rather than months . but i base it on the horse .
i am currently studying for my degree in equitation science and need to do some research for an assignment on a chosen area of interest . i want to find out people ' s different approaches and experiences when dealing with youngsters ? i would be very grateful for some feedback on these questions below . thank you very much for your time . - what age is the horse when you start the breaking in process ? - what informs your decision to start the breaking process ? - how long would you normally expect it to take roughly ? - from the very beginning to being ridden out alone . - what is the first step you take ? - what are the stages of breaking a horse in you would usually use ? - have you experienced any behavioural problems when breaking in ? if so what and why do you think they happened ? - would you ever start the process , turn the horse away and start again at a later date for any reason ? if so what reason ?