kallima , known as the oakleaf or oak leaf butterflies , is a genus of butterflies of the subfamily nymphalinae in the family nymphalidae .

they are found in east , south and southeast asia .

their common name is a reference to the lower surface of their wings , which is various shades of brown .

when the wings are held closed , this results in a remarkable similarity to a dead leaf , further emphasized by their wing shape .

kallima

kallima inachus boisduval , 1846 = inachus ( boisduval , 1846 ) = kallima formosana fruhstorfer .
kallima paralekta ( horsfield , [ 1829 ] ) = paphia paralekta horsfield , [ 1829 ] = kallima hewitsoni moore = kallima limborgii moore 1878 .
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frequency of feeding of kallima inachus at different fermented fruit juices . high quality figures are available online .
kallima alompra moore , 1879 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1879 ( 1 ) : 14
kallima buxtoni moore , 1879 ; trans . ent . soc . lond . 1879 ( 1 ) : 10
kallima spiridiva ; [ bow ] : pl . 147 , f . 1 ; [ bor ] , 287
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frequency of feeding of kallima inachus at different colored flowers supplemented with fermented pear juice . high quality figures are available online .
kallima photography is a south florida based photography and videography studio specializing in weddings in south florida , the bahamas , and beyond .
kallima albofasciata moore , 1877 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1877 ( 3 ) : 584 ; tl : s . andamans
kallima inachus ; [ bow ] : pl . 195 , f . 10 ; [ bor ] , 290 ; [ mrs ] , 563
kallima paralekta ; [ ebw ] ; [ bow ] : pl . 146 , f . 11 - 12 ; [ bor ] , 288
kallima inachis [ sic ] eucerca fruhstorfer , 1898 ; berl . ent . zs . 43 ( 1 / 2 ) : 191 ; tl : okinawa
kallima limborgii moore , 1878 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 ( 4 ) : 828 ; tl : moolai , 3000 - 6000ft
kallima inachis [ sic ] amplirufa fruhstorfer , 1898 ; berl . ent . zs . 43 ( 1 / 2 ) : 192 ; tl : malacca
kallima wellbeing centre is a spiritual goods shop that also provides holistic treatments , 1 - 2 - 1 spiritual readings , spiritual workshops and holistic courses .
at the kallima spa , you ' ll experience total relaxation and rejuvenation for mind , body and soul . choose from an exclusive selection of innovative beauty and relaxation treatments , all designed to deliver outstanding results . each luxurious treatment uses specially - designed premium products by comfort zone , kallima ' s exclusive skincare partner .
kallima buxtoni trebonia fruhstorfer , 1909 ; ent . zs . 23 ( 1 ) : [ 4 ] 231 , f . 18 ; tl : w . sumatra
kallima chinensis swinhoe , 1893 ; ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 12 ( 70 ) : 255 ; tl : omei - shan , china
callima herrich - schäffer , [ 1858 ] ; samml . aussereurop . schmett . ( ii ) 1 : 54 ( unj . emend . kallima doubleday , [ 1849 ] )
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kallima albofasciata ; wood - mason & de nicéville , 1881 , j . asiat . soc . bengal 49 pt . ii ( 4 ) : 227 ; [ bor ] , 288
kallima inachis [ sic ] alicia joicey & talbot , 1921 ; bull . hill mus . 1 ( 1 ) : 170 , pl . 21 , f . 9 ; tl : haina , five finger mtns
welcome to kallima club spa at hilton london syon park . experience total relaxation and rejuvenation for the mind , body and soul with a range of treatments , membership options and personalised fitness for a balanced wellness lifestyle .
kallima ' s bright , blue - white shade is perfect for creating beautiful , vivid print and top quality jobs . its consistent printability and reliable runnability on press ensure you get the job done efficiently and on - time .
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kallima coated cover has a unique , low density , high bulk construction giving your print the stiffness and presence you expect , all while offering savings of up to 20 % over competing products . measure your savings potential today with our savings calculators .
kallima philarchus ; moore , [ 1880 ] , lepid . ceylon 1 ( 1 ) : 37 , ( 2 ) pl . 20 , f . 1 ; [ bow ] : pl . 146 , f . 13 ; [ bor ] , 288
at the kallima spa , you ' ll experience total relaxation and rejuvenation for mind , body and soul . choose from an exclusive selection of innovative beauty and relaxation treatments , all designed to deliver outstanding results . each luxurious treatment uses specially - designed premium products by
there’s nothing as memorable as a kallima spa gift certificate – the ultimate indulgence for the people you love the most . choose from a range of treatments , products or experiences , or give them the pleasure of choosing for themselves with any of our monetary value options .
the feeding responses of kallima inachus to different volatiles . a : single compounds at concentrations of 5 % . b : compound mixtures at a total concentration of 5 % . c : different doses of ethanol and ethyl acetate ( mean ± sd ) . different letters indicate significant differences with the lsd test ( p < 0 . 05 ) . high quality figures are available online .
no subspecies are listed under this species . it is also known as the south indian blue oakleaf .
this species has been referred to as
southern blue oakleaf
in some recent books . this is a slight misnomer since the species is endemic to the western ghats , it does not occur elsewhere in southern india .
kollar , 1844 – sahyadri blue oakleaf . kunte , k . , s . sondhi , and p . roy ( chief editors ) .
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600x400 ( ~ 53kb ) upperside india : pune , 7 . 4 . 2007 © kedar tokekar
600x400 ( ~ 55kb ) underside india : pune , 7 . 4 . 2007 © kedar tokekar
w . china , c . china , japan , himalayas , assam , pachmarhi , e . ghats , s . bihar . see [ maps ]
1024x768 ( ~ 118kb ) upperside yonahadake , okinawa , ryukyu , japan , 7 - 93 , photo © s . shuichi haupt
1024x768 ( ~ 104kb ) underside oppadake , okinawa , ryukyu , japan , 7 - 93 , photo © s . shuichi haupt
600x400 ( ~ 96kb ) upperside india : subansiri , 1 . 11 . 2005 , photo © kedar tokekar
1024x768 ( ~ 107kb ) oppadake , okinawa , ryukyu , japan , 7 - 93 , photo © s . shuichi haupt
paphia paralekta horsfield , [ 1829 ] ; descr . cat . lep . ins . mus . east india coy : ( explic ) , pl . 6 , f . 4 ,
philarchus ( westwood , 1848 ) ( amathusia ) ; cabinet orient . ent . : 56
[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .
the butterflies of the malay peninsula . fourth edition revised by j . n . eliot with plates by bernard d ' abrera
the genera of diurnal lepidoptera , comprising their generic characters , a notice of their habitats and transformations , and a catalogue of the species of each genus ; illustrated with 86 plates by w . c . hewitson
( 1902 ) , : ( ragadia - argyronympha - hypocysta ) : 1 - 6 , pl . [ 1 ] ( 1895 ) , [ 2 ]
aufzählung und beschreibung der von freiherr c . v . hügel auf seiner reise durch kaschmir und das himaleygebirge gesammelten insekten in hügel ,
the butterflies of india , burmah and ceylon , a descriptive handbook of all the known species of rhopalocerous lepidoptera inhabiting that region , with notices of allied species occurring in the neighbouring countries along the border , with numerous illustrations . vol . 2
a list of the lepidopterous insects collected by mr . ossian limborg in upper tenasserim , with descriptions of new species
if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .
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we are photojournalistic wedding photographers , who strive to provide our clients with amazing portraits as well .
we believe that every wedding has a unique story , each couple is different . we love that our couples come from all walks of life and backgrounds . each have their own passions about their wedding and what they hope for in a wedding photographer . it’s those unique personalities that make weddings fun for us , and we look forward to being a part of your day . here’s a snippet of some of the things clients are saying about us :
i have no words to express how amazing ben and beka are . we got married almost a year ago in the dominican republic and these 2 came along for the ride . it was hands down the best decision we made having them there with us . i think they became a part of the family in this whole process . the pictures we have from that weekend were incredible . we relive our wedding and those amazing memories every time we look at them . not to mention they are amazing human beings . probably would have invited them to the wedding regardless . i recommend them to everyone i know , eyes closed and without a doubt . miss you guys !
purchasing your gift certificates is simple , call us on 0208 380 1590 , email us on kallimaspa @ urltoken or simply pop in to the spa and talk to one member of the team .
includes a 30 minute vitality back , neck and shoulder massage . a 30 minute elemis revitalise express facial . full use of the spa facilities , & lunch .
includes 1 x 30 minute scrub , 1 x 30 minute massage , 1 x 30 minute facial . served with a glass of bubbly and afternoon tea .
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includes bed and breakfast , champagne and chocolates in your room , one 25 - minute spa treatment each plus three - course dinner .
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we are proud partners with elemis which is naturally sourced , science led , results driven and always personally prescribed .
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rarely am i so disappointed with a place that i resort to leaving a negative review , but after . . .
i had two 25 minutes treatments - both back and neck massages . both therapists were friendly . . .
rarely am i so disappointed with a place that i resort to leaving a negative review , but after absolutely nothing being done to resolve my complaints on the day apart from being told a manager would email me , and then coming here to see that . . .
i had two 25 minutes treatments - both back and neck massages . both therapists were friendly , welcoming and professional . the first therapist gave me a robe and towel as i hadn ' t checked in yet , which was a nice touch . the massages were slightly different styles . . .
stayed there overnight for a relaxing spa day and i had a great time . the room was beautifull with a nice wiev on the fountain . the main highlight was of course the spa . fantastic design of the swimming pool facility really helped me relax . the . . .
the spa facilities themselves are lovely . we were a group of five and disappointingly 3 out of 5 of us were disappointed with the treatments . therapists felt unqualified , lacking in spa etiquette , ignored requests for a firmer massage , shortened treatment time , no ambient music . two . . .
afternoon tea was not very nice , spa facilities were lacking and service was confusing . a lot of staff coming and going and had to explain the same things to multiple people which was frustrating . the spa rooms were disturbed by loud school children coming in . . .
we booked a spa break and were treated with an upgraded room . the staff were very welcoming and the spa was just what we needed to unwind . dinner in the restaurant was included , the only note is the drinks were pretty pricey with dinner .
me and my sister took my mum as a b - day spa day treat .
this place is nice an calming . i booked 3 30 minute treatments which were body scrub , massage and a facial . this also included afternoon tea . i was unable to book all treatments together and later in the afternoon which wasn ' t a massive problem , just not . . .
we had a fabulous relaxing day here as a birthday celebration . staff were really friendly and showed us around making us feel v welcome , providing slippers and robes . we started our day with a swim - nice size pool and good size jacuzzi . there . . .
i have a monday to friday membership which is great value for money and offers full access to the gym , spa , sauna , steam and pool . . . you get discount on room rates and treatment rates as a member , staff are all very lovely and always willing . . .
what a wonderful day , as soon as you walk into the spa reception you are met with helpful staff and the ambience of the area is fresh and welcoming . my friend and i had our treatments first which we absolutely great i had ingrid give . . .
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the spa lunch consist of soup of the day and main course from the choice of salads , sandwiches , paninis or wraps . unfortunately we do not have packages with dinner . you are more than welcome to have dinner in the restaurant . . .
the spa lunch consist of soup of the day and main course from the choice of salads , sandwiches , paninis or wraps . unfortunately we do not have packages with dinner . you are more than welcome to have dinner in the restaurant after the spa .
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curators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .
species catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .
[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / cтарая версия insecta . pro )
butterfly is famous as an example of protective coloration , as well as being in form ( with folded wings ) is strikingly similar dry leaf .
< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
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< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the ‘basket’ to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the annotation score provides a heuristic measure of the annotation content of a uniprotkb entry or proteome . this score < strong > cannot < / strong > be used as a measure of the accuracy of the annotation as we cannot define the ‘correct annotation’ for any given protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / annotation _ score ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this indicates the type of evidence that supports the existence of the protein . note that the ‘protein existence’ evidence does not give information on the accuracy or correctness of the sequence ( s ) displayed . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ existence ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides any useful information about the protein , mostly biological knowledge . < p > < a href = ' / help / function _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> function < / a > section describes the catalytic activity of an enzyme , i . e . the chemical reaction it catalyzes . this information usually correlates with the presence of an ec ( enzyme commission ) number in the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section . < p > < a href = ' / help / catalytic _ activity ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000256
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > the < a href =
urltoken
> gene ontology ( go ) < / a > project provides a set of hierarchical controlled vocabulary split into 3 categories : < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ ontology ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > uniprotkb keywords constitute a < a href =
urltoken
> controlled vocabulary < / a > with a hierarchical structure . keywords summarise the content of a uniprotkb entry and facilitate the search for proteins of interest . < p > < a href = ' / help / keywords ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information about the protein and gene name ( s ) and synonym ( s ) and about the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / names _ and _ taxonomy _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides an exhaustive list of all names of the protein , from commonly used to obsolete , to allow unambiguous identification of a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / protein _ names ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates the name ( s ) of the gene ( s ) that code for the protein sequence ( s ) described in the entry . four distinct tokens exist : ‘name’ , ‘synonyms’ , ‘ordered locus names’ and ‘orf names’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / gene _ name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > information which has been imported from another database using automatic procedures . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000313
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section indicates if the gene coding for the protein originates from the hydrogenosome , the mitochondrion , the nucleomorph , different plastids or a plasmid . the absence of this section means that the gene is located in one of the main chromosomal element ( s ) . < p > < a href = ' / help / encoded _ on ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section provides information on the name ( s ) of the organism that is the source of the protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / organism - name ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section shows the unique identifier assigned by the ncbi to the source organism of the protein . this is known as the ‘taxonomic identifier’ or ‘taxid’ . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ identifier ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> names and taxonomy < / a > section contains the taxonomic hierarchical classification lineage of the source organism . it lists the nodes as they appear top - down in the taxonomic tree , with the more general grouping listed first . < p > < a href = ' / help / taxonomic _ lineage ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on the location and the topology of the mature protein in the cell . < p > < a href = ' / help / subcellular _ location _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> ' subcellular location ' < / a > section describes the extent of a membrane - spanning region of the protein . it denotes the presence of both alpha - helical transmembrane regions and the membrane spanning regions of beta - barrel transmembrane proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / transmem ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section provides information on sequence similarities with other proteins and the domain ( s ) present in a protein . < p > < a href = ' / help / family _ and _ domains _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> family and domains < / a > section describes the position and type of a domain , which is defined as a specific combination of secondary structures organized into a characteristic three - dimensional structure or fold . < p > < a href = ' / help / domain ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > information which has been generated by the uniprotkb automatic annotation system , without manual validation . < / p > < p > < a href =
/ manual / evidences # eco : 0000259
> more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘family and domains’ section provides information about the sequence similarity with other proteins . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequence _ similarities ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this section displays by default the canonical protein sequence and upon request all isoforms described in the entry . it also includes information pertinent to the sequence ( s ) , including < a href =
urltoken
> length < / a > and < a href =
urltoken
> molecular weight < / a > . < p > < a href = ' / help / sequences _ section ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
< p > this subsection of the < a href =
urltoken
> sequence < / a > section indicates if the < a href =
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to maintain daily life activities and reproduction , adult insects must look for and find suitable nutrients to supplement their diets . insects are known to make use of a variety of sensory modalities in foraging , and the integration of visual , olfactory , and gustatory cues are usually involved in their orientation to and finding of food sources ( barth 1991 ) .
depending on the food type , adult butterflies can be classified into three guilds : nectar - feeding , fruit - feeding , and a combination of both ( gilbert 1972 ; devries 1988 ; devries et al . 1997 ; devries and walla 2001 ; molleman et al . 2005 ; ômura and honda 2009 ) . most butterfly adults are found in temperate regions and feed on nectar , while fruit - feeding butterflies are found mainly in tropical and subtropical regions and feed on rotting fruits , exuded tree sap , mud , carrion , and dung ( boggs and jackson 1991 ; ômura et al . 2000 ; devries and walla 2001 ; krenn 2008 ) .
the scientific literature clearly demonstrates that the flower - visiting behavior of adult butterflies is affected by the color and odor of flowers , which provide specific information for adults , and that colors are extremely important in flower recognition and preference in some species ( use and vaidya 1956 ; weiss 1997 ; andersson and dobson 2003 ; borges et al . 2003 ) . flower scent is an olfactory stimulus that influences butterfly visitation ( andersson 2006 ; ômura 2006 ) . for example , 2 - phenylethanol and phenylacetaldehyde stimulate the foraging behavior of pieris rapae ( honda et al . 1998 ; ômura et al . 1999a , b ; ômura and honda 2005 ) .
experiments were performed at the experimental station of the research institute of resource insects of the chinese academy of forestry in yuanjiang , yunnan ( 400 m . a . s . l . , 101 . 59°–101 . 00° e , 23 . 35°–23 . 36°n ) . a net house ( 12 m long , 8 m wide , and 5 m tall ) with evenly scattered sunlight was used as the experimental chamber .
four - day - old naive adults of k . inachus were obtained from artificial culture . larvae of k . inachus were reared on fresh leaves of strobilanthes cusia ( acanthaceae ) at 25°c and with a photoperiod of 14 : 10 l : d . adults were supplied with purified water and were not allowed to contact fruit or sap before tests .
when an adult k . inachus landed nearby the food , and then reached to the food and uncoiled the proboscis to probe and feed , it was recorded as a visit .
the cotton flowers were arranged the same as in the test of feeding responses to different colors of artificial flowers . then , we sprayed fermented pear juice evenly on the petals . the juice that couldn ' t be absorbed by the cotton petals flowed into the disk . the evening before the bioassay , about 200 adult butterflies ( sex ratio not controlled ) were released into the net house and allowed free - flight to acclimatize them to the experimental arena . the number of feedings during two 2 - hr periods ( 10 : 00–12 : 00 and 15 : 00–17 : 00 ) was recorded for each model . during the bioassay , the positions of the different juice disks were changed in a clockwise direction every hour , and the flowers and juice were renewed at the same times . the observations were repeated on a second day . the data were analyzed with a chi - square test .
based on the results of auto thermal - desorption gas chromatography / mass spectrometry , we used seven pure chemical compounds in behavioral and eag response tests . all seven chemicals were commercially purchased and were more than 98 % pure . these compounds were 3 - methyl - 1 - butanol , ethyl acetate , isoamyl acetate , α - pinene , the 2 - pentanone homologue butanone , ethanol , and acetic acid . the first five compounds were present in at least three of the six kinds of fermented fruits ; ethanol and acetic acid are the major volatiles of fermentation , but were not found in our fermented fruits .
in our long - term field observation , we found k . inachus habitually basks on light colors . in order to avoid color interference , white disks ( d = 20 cm ) were covered with deep - purple cloth , spaced above the floor in the net house , and filled with 25 ml of a solution , which was dissolved in deionized water as described below . deionized water was used as a control . three feeding experiments were conducted :
in the center of the net house , a 6 m × 6 m square was delimited , and the four corners of the square and the midpoint of the four sides were chosen as the placement points of the treatments . the feeding performances of adult butterflies were characterized by assaying seven single compounds at concentrations of 5 % v / v .
in the center of the net house , a 6 m × 3 m rectangle was delimited , and the four corners of the rectangle and the midpoint of the long sides were chosen as the placement points . the synergistic effects of different compound mixtures were evaluated . based on the results of the single - compound assays , we mixed ethanol , α - pinene , and ethyl acetate at equal volumes in the following combinations : ethanol + ethyl acetate + α - pinene , ethanol + ethyl acetate , ethanol + α - pinene , ethyl acetate + αpinene , and ethanol . each mixture had a total concentration of 5 % .
in the center of the net house , a 6 m × 5 m rectangle was delimited , and the four corners of the rectangle and the one - third point of the four sides were chosen as the placement points . to identify the most effective doses of ethanol and ethyl acetate , a concentration series ( 0 . 001 , 0 . 01 , 0 . 1 , 1 , or 10 % ) of each compound was bioassayed ; 0 . 5 % ethanol was also used .
before each of the three bioassays , about 100 adults ( sex ratio not controlled ) were released into the net house and allowed free - flight to acclimatize them to the experimental arena . the number of feedings during two 2 - hr periods ( 09 : 30–11 : 30 and 14 : 00–16 : 00 ) was recorded for the treatment and control models . every model was duplicated . during each bioassay , the positions of the models were rotated clockwise every 30 min , 40 min , or 20 min , respectively , and solutions were renewed to account for evaporation . tests were replicated for two days . significant differences between treatments and controls were determined using analysis of variance , followed by the lsd test .
the eag responses to the solutions at doses of 5 µl / ml were tested . a series of odorant compounds were applied to butterfly antennal preparations in the following order : ether control , standard stimulus ( see below ) , individual samples ( 3 - methyl - 1 - butanol , butanone , αpinene , acetic acid , ethyl acetate , isoamyl acetate ) in a random order , standard stimulus , and ether control . each sample was tested five times in each antenna .
the eag responses to the solutions at doses of 50 µl / ml were tested , with solutions and procedures as described above .
the eag responses to mixtures at the dose of 50 µl / ml were tested . mixtures mixed at equal volume were as described for the behavioral feeding experiments .
to identify the eag responses to different doses of ethanol and ethyl acetate , ethanol was tested at six doses ( 0 . 01 , 0 . 1 , 1 , 5 , 10 , or 100 µl / ml ) and ethyl acetate was tested at five doses ( 0 . 01 , 0 . 1 , 1 , 10 , or 100 µl / ml ) .
ethanol at 5 µl / ml was used as the standard stimulus in eag experiments 1 and 4 , and 50 µl / ml was used in experiments 2 and 3 . the responses were averaged across individual trials and expressed as percentages of the response relative to the standard . data were normally distributed ; sexual differences in eag intensities were analyzed with a t - test . the intensity of eag responses to different compounds within males and within females were analyzed using analysis of variance , followed by the lsd test .
k . inachus showed no attempted feeding or orientation responses to the four different single colors , suggesting that foraging adults were not innately sensitive to these colors , and that color is not a forging signal for k . inachus .
showed no visits to deionized water . the different fermented fruit juices were not significantly differently attractive to
showed the strongest response to fermented pear juice , accounting for 16 . 47 % of feedings , while ethanol had the weakest effect , attracting only 11 . 01 % of feedings (
< 0 . 01 ) . adults showed the strongest attraction to white , with 35 . 71 % feeding at that color , and weaker attractions to red , yellow , and purple ( 19 . 48 % , 20 . 56 % , and 24 . 24 % feeding , respectively ) . there were no differences in feeding among red , yellow , and purple flowers ( χ
) . the volatile compounds found in more than half of the fruits were as follows : α - pinene , limonene , isobutyl acetate , ethyl acetate , isoamyl acetate , 3 - methylbutyl butyrate , 3 - methyl - 1butanol , and 6 - methyl - 5 - hepten - 2 - one . half of these are esters , so it can be concluded that esters are commonly found in fruit volatiles . all of the fruits we tested contained terpenoids , except for banana . esters were the major volatiles in banana , apple , and watermelon , while terpenoids dominated the orange volatiles , which also contained very small amounts of aromatics , such as 1 - methyl - 4 - ( 1 - methylethenyl ) - benzene . persimmon contained a high relative concentration of 3 - methyl - 4 - oxo - pentanoic acid , about 49 . 36 % . in contrast , esters and nitrogen compounds were predominant in pears , which also contained a small amount of hydrocarbons , such as nonane and 1 - nonene .
chemical components of six kinds of fermented fruits and their relative contents ( % ) .
single - compound bioassays of seven chemicals at 5 % concentration were performed . the number of adult butterflies attracted to these compounds was in the following order , from most attractive to least : ethanol > 3 - methyl - 1butanol > isoamyl acetate > ethyl acetate > αpinene > butanone > acetic acid > deionized water (
the synergistic effects of different compound mixtures were also tested . adults were attracted to these mixtures in the order from most to least , as follows : ethanol + ethyl acetate > ethanol > ethanol + ethyl acetate + α - pinene > ethanol + α - pinene > ethyl acetate + α - pinene > deionized water (
) . ethanol + ethyl acetate was the most effective of all mixtures . overall , the mixtures containing ethanol were significantly more attractive than deionized water (
> 0 . 05 ) . the presence of α - pinene reduced the number of feedings .
the effective doses of ethanol and of ethyl acetate were evaluated . the number of responses was significantly positively correlated with concentration for both compounds ( r = 0 . 974 ,
< 0 . 05 ) , but there were no differences between 0 . 01 % , 0 . 001 % ethyl acetate , and deionized water (
> 0 . 05 ) . ethanol was more attractive than deionized water regardless of its concentration . overall , 10 % ethanol was the most effective lure , and concentrations of 10 % , 1 % , 0 . 5 % , and 0 . 01 % were significantly more attractive than deionized water (
< 0 . 05 ) , but there were no differences between concentrations of 0 . 1 % , 0 . 001 % , and deionized water (
the relative electroantennogram responses of males and females to different compounds , a : reponses to compunds at the dose of 5 µl / ml b : responses to compounds at the dose of 50 µl / ml c : responses to mixtures at the dose of 50 µl / ml d : responses to different doses of ethanol . e : responses to different doses of ethyl acetate ( mean ± se ) . significant differences by the paired t - test are indicated by * ( p < 0 . 05 ) and * * ( p < 0 . 01 ) . high quality figures are available online .
> 0 . 05 ) , indicating that the perception of different compoundswas varied , but the differences were not significant . ethanol , which was used as a standard , elicited the lowest response in both sexes . eag responses of both sexes to six chemicals at the dose of 50 µl / ml were weaker than at 5 µl / ml , except for female and male responses to acetic acid , male responses to butanone , and female responses to ethyl acetate , which were somewhat greater than at 5 µl / ml .
> 0 . 05 ) ( figure5d , e , respectively ) . the values of eag responses were not correlated to the doses of chemicals ( ethanol : females r = - 0 . 194 ,
> 0 . 05 ; ethyl acetate : females r = 0 . 071 ,
alcohols , ketones , and esters were found in all six fruit volatiles , either as the majority components or at lower levels . esters were the main volatiles in most of the fruits tested . ethanol and acetic acid , both of which are characteristic volatile products of fermentation ( ômura et al . 2000 ; ômura and honda 2003 , 2009 ) , were not found in our samples .
this result may be because the fruit was not thoroughly fermented . ripe fruits are high in aromatic volatiles , rather than producing decay odor ( molleman et al . 2005 ) . the six kinds of fruit were fermented under the same conditions , so the variations in volatile composition were most likely due to differences in the fruits themselves and to different microbial species associated with the juice extracts ( wood 1961 ; ômura et al . 2000 ) .
although there was no ethanol or acetic acid in the fruit volatiles , the fruits emitted a variety of different types of chemicals and were strongly attractive to the butterfly , indicating that k . inachus uses a variety of food chemical signals .
in behavioral tests , ethanol was the most attractive volatile , while acetic acid was the least attractive . in contrast , the perception of antennae to acetic acid in eag tests was the strongest , while ethanol was the weakest , regardless of whether the test dose was 5 or 50 µl / ml . this result showed acetic acid induces the strongest perception by antenna , but k . inachus showed the strongest preference for ethanol . thus , the compound that most strongly stimulated feeding behavior did not induce high eag responses , and eag responses did not totally reflect the food choices of adults foraging in the field ( honda et al . 1998 ; ômura and honda 2009 ) . this interesting result suggests that antennal perception of these olfactory cues was caused by a specific sensory system that selectively elicited feeding behavior ( ômura and honda 2009 ) . antennal perception is not only related to foraging behavior , but also involves a large number of other behavioral functions . therefore , the antennal perception of volatiles is not necessarily interpreted as a food signal ; some signals may relate to host recognition , to the identification of conspecific individuals , or to defense ( kreher et al 2008 ) .
another striking result of the eag experiments was the differences found between genders for a few chemicals , such as 5 µl / ml butanone , 50 µl / ml acetic acid , and 100 µl / ml ethanol . these differences may be due to males and females differing in their dietary needs because of different reproductive strategies ( dierks and fischer 2008 ) . however , these differences were not consistent , as they changed at different volatile concentrations . different concentrations of the same compounds may reflect the distance between adult butterflies and food , but the relative eag responses of males and females to different concentrations of ethanol and ethyl acetate showed no significant correlation . the phenomenon may be caused by the tested concentration , which could have been higher than the perception threshold of the antenna of k . inachus .
according to the results of our study , we conclude the following : 1 ) the foraging , adult k . inachus has no sensitivity to food color , but innately uses olfaction to detect and locate food ; 2 ) the adults feed on a wide range of fruits , so they also use a wide range of volatiles such as alcohols , esters , ketones , and terpenoids , and the coexistence of multiple chemical signals is most attractive ; 3 ) antennal perception is not only related to foraging behavior , but also involves a large number of other behavioral functions , such as hostrecognition and defense behavior , so feeding preference is not necessary correlated with eag responses .
we thank yong cao , chuang jiang , zhen chen , tichu li , and chunzi luo for their participation in field observations , fei chen for his help in the eag experiment , and cheng - zhu yang for his kindness in rearing butterflies . special thanks to ning liang and other staff of the yuanjiang experimental station of riricaf for their careful logistical services during our fieldwork . this study was supported by science and technology of social development projects in yunnan province and the special fund for basic research cafybb2007018 and riri200705z .
andersson s . floral scent and butterfly pollinators . in : dudareva n , pichersky e , editors .
balkenius a , rosén w , kelber a . the relative importance of olfaction and vision in a diurnal and a nocturnal hawkmoth .


forrest 's pika ( ochotona forresti ) is a species of mammal in the family ochotonidae .

it is found in bhutan , china , india , and myanmar .

in india , it has been recorded from arunachal pradesh in the north-east .

forrest ' s pika

forrest ' s pikas are found in bhutan , china , india and myanmar .
dark grey area behind each ear
and these two areas almost meet across the nape in the forrest ' s pika , unlike the pale buffy area which does not meet in the moupin pika
.
genome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and the forrest ' s pika ( ochotona forresti ) established by cross - species chromosome painting : further support for the glires hypothesis .
70 % of the forrest ' s pika studied had violin shaped
confluence of the incisive and palatal foramina due to the abrupt constriction of the sides , whereas this constriction is not found in the moupin pika
.
genome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and the forrest ' s pika ( ochotona forresti ) established by cross - species chromosome painting : f . . . - pubmed - ncbi
ochotona forresti can be distinguished from ochotona gaoligongensis - gaoligong pika by the gaoligong pika ' s brilliant rufous - brown head and neck , and a dull rufous - black back .
ochotona roylei - royle ' s pika
and with it may form a superspecies
. ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
there is little information on this species and so it is unclear if this species is a burrowing pika , a rock dwelling pika or an intermediate habitat type of pika .
ochotona gaoligongensis - gaoligong pika : from the original description , this form is likely to be proved a synonym or sister species of the forrest ' s pika which also occurs in the same area . they appear to be morphologically similar . ( b605 . 3 . w3 , b607 . w20 )
there is little information on this species and so it is unclear if this species is a burrowing pika , a rock - dwelling pika or an intermediate habitat type of pika .
note : there is little information on this species and so it is unclear if this species is a burrowing pika , a rock dwelling pika or an intermediate habitat type of pika .
genome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and the forrest’s pika ( ochotona forresti ) established by cross - species chromosome painting : further support for the glires hypothesis - fulltext - cytogenetic and genome research 2011 , vol . 132 , no . 1 - 2 - karger publishers
forrest ' s pika has fairly dark reddish fur , with a dark grey area behind each ear ( nearly meeting each other ) ; the dorsal fur becomes dark grey - brown in winter , while the ventral fur is slightly lighter than this . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
r as , r fb r g ra nt s ( a . s . g . ) . f . y . is su pp or ted by th e we ll com e tr us t .
the name pika originated from the tungus of siberia who attempted to mimic the call
peeka
of the local pika species . ( b285 . w5g )
ochotona gloveri - glover ' s pika : ( the calloceps form ) , yunnan , china ; burma ; and sikkim , india . ( b605 . 3 . w3 ; b607 . w20 )
it is not known whether this is a rock - dwelling or burrowing pika .
embryo resorption may occur if the pika encounters adverse conditions . ( b285 . w5a )
the o . forresti fibroblast cell line was derived from skin biopsies of a male forrest’s pika collected from gaoligong mountain , yunnan , china . metaphase preparations were made following conventional methods as previously described [ yang et al . , 2003a ] . the o . forresti chromosomes were karyotyped based on inverted dapi - banding patterns that are similar to the g - banding patterns .
in main characters and size of the skull . however it can be distinguished from this pika
in this study , we have established the first genome - wide chromosomal homology map between human and forrest’s pika ( ochotona forresti , ofo , 2n = 54 ) by cross - species chromosome painting with human chromosome - specific painting probes . such a map sheds further insight into the ancestral lagomorph karyotype and chromosomal rearrangements underlying the karyotype divergence between leporidae and ochotonidae and provides further support for the glires hypothesis .
ochotona macrotis - large - eared pika ( the chinensis form ) ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
the upper incisors ' roots are found in the skull ' s premaxillary bones . however , the length of the lower incisors ' roots varies . (
note : there is very little data specific to this species so the details below are from general pika information .
this species appears to be a sister species of ochotona erythrotis - chinese red pika . ( b607 . w20 )
many species of pika inhabit very restricted ranges and so may be threatened by human environmental disruption . ( b147 )
ochotona thibetana - moupin pika based on a study of the holotype . ( b605 . 3 . w3 , b607 . w20 )
the fore claws are notably longer in this species than that of ochotona thibetana - moupin pika . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
general pika information : pikas have small , rounded ears which are 12 - 36 mm in length . ( b147 ; b285 . w5g )
in general , the status of many species of pika is hard to assess because they inhabit such remote areas . ( b285 . w5g )
ochotona nigritia - black pika :
apparently close to o . forresti ; may be only a melanistic individual
. ( b607 . w20 )
general pika information : these are shorter in burrowing pikas , such as this species , compared to rock dwelling pikas . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
pika species living in areas where winter snow is common may also make tunnels in the snow to reach and harvest any nearby vegetation . ( b285 . w5g )
this study is supported partly by a grant from the national natural science foundation of china ( no . 30770293 ) and mcb , sb ras , rfbr grants ( a . s . g . ) . f . y . is supported by the wellcome trust .
chantry - darmon c , bertaud m , urien c , chadi - taourit s , perrocheau m , et al : expanded comparative mapping between man and rabbit and detection of a new conserved segment between hsa22 and ocu4 . cytogenet genome res 111 : 134–139 ( 2005 ) .
pishchukha
is the russian common name for all species of pika and some gerbils ( rhombomys opimus , meriones tamareiscinus ( muridae - ( family ) ) . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
70 % of the ochotona forresti studied had violin shaped
confluence of the incisive and palatal foramina due to the abrupt constriction of the sides , whereas this constriction is not found in the moupin pika
.
cross - species chromosome painting with human chromosome - specific painting probes has allowed us to construct the first genome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and o . forresti , a representative species of the pika family . an integrated analysis of our comparative chromosome map and the previously published maps [ korstanje et al . , 1999 ; robinson et al . , 2002 ] provides new insight into the comparative genome organization of the lagomorpha .
little or nothing is known regarding the behavior , ecology , and reproduction of ochotona forresti ( smith et al . 1990 ) . o . forresti inhabits mountain slopes at elevations of 2 , 600 to 4 , 400 m in the forest belt ( feng et al . 1986 ) . these high altitude habitats are typically coniferous or mixed broadleaf and conifer forests and shrubland ( smith and xie 2008 ) . it is speculated that this species of pika creates burrows ( smith and xie 2008 ) .
in spring , summer and / or autumn ( fall ) ( depending on species / location ) many pika species spend much time
haying
- harvesting mouthfuls of vegetation which are carried back to the den for storage . they build up these stores , resembling piles of hay , and use them for consumption during periods of sparse vegetation , often over - harvesting so that it is a rare occurrence for them to run out of food . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
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lissovsky , a . a . 2014 . taxonomic revision of pikas ochotona ( lagomorpha , mammalia ) at the species level . mammalia 78 ( 2 ) : 199–216 .
justification : this species is listed as least concern because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
ochotona forresti ranges from northwest yunnan to northern myanmar . the mapped range in myanmar is totally speculative ( duckworth and thaw pers . comm ) . ochotona forresti occupies elevations of 2 , 600 - 4 , 400 m .
the current population status of ochotona forresti is unknown ; there have been no ecological or natural history investigations of this species .
due to the general lack of data regarding the population status , behaviour , ecology , and reproduction research in these areas should be undertaken . this species has been regionally assessed in china as near threatened ( jiang et al . 2016 ) .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .
this species occurs in nujiang and gaoligongshan ( yunnan ) nature reserves in china ( csis 2008 ) . due to the general lack of data regarding the population status , behavior , ecology , and reproduction research in these areas should be undertaken . this species has been regionally assessed in china as near threatened , nearly meeting the criteria for vulnerable under criteria a2c + 3c ( wang and xie 2004 ) .
. in india , it has been recorded from arunachal pradesh in the north - east .
smith , a . t . & johnston , c . h . ( 2008 ) . ochotona forresti . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 10 april 2009 . database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern .
choudhury , a . u . ( 2003 ) . the mammals of arunachal pradesh . regency publications , new delhi . 140pp .
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the generic name of ochotona is derived from the mongolian name for pikas :
ogdoi
. ( b285 . w5g )
pikas are small , egg - shaped , rodent - like lagomorphs which weigh under 500 g . they have rounded , relatively large ears , short legs , and a very short tail which is hardly visible . ( b285 . w5g )
newborn pikas are helpless and naked ( b147 , b287 ) or slightly furred . ( b287 )
rectangular shaped posterior end of the nasals are broader
. ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
male and female pikas are similar in size and can be difficult to tell apart from one another . ( b147 )
125 - 300 mm , with most species averaging around 200 mm or less . ( b147 )
range 4 . 1 - 12 . 7 g , depending on species . ( b287 )
in general , the head of pikas is blunt and short , and the skull is quite flattened rather than arched . there is also a constriction between the orbits . ( b147 )
there are 26 teeth in total - two less than other lagomorphs who have one more upper molar on each side . ( b285 . w5a , b605 . 1 . w1 )
the dental formula of pikas is 2 / 1 incisors , 0 / 0 canines , 3 / 2 premolars , and 2 / 3 molars . ( b147 , b605 . 1 . w1 )
lagomorphs , including pikas , differ from rodents by having two pairs of upper incisors rather than just the one pair . the additional set of incisors are called peg teeth and are found directly behind the long pair in the upper jaw . ( b147 , b285 . w5a , b605 . 1 . w1 )
at birth , lagomorphs actually have three pairs of upper incisors , but they quickly lose the outer incisor on each side . ( b147 )
[ note : lagomorphs have teeth which grow throughout their lives . for this reason the portion of the teeth which is not exposed ( not above the gum line ) is strictly speaking not a
root
; however , it is sometimes convenient to describe it as a root . ]
the first upper incisors have a cutting edge which is v - shaped . ( b147 )
pikas have high crowned cheek teeth with no roots [ the teeth grow continuously throughout life ] . ( b147 )
the lower tooth rows are closer together than the upper tooth rows . ( b147 )
adult : pikas have eyes positioned to give a broad field of vision ( b285 . w5a )
newborn : neonates are blind ; the eyes open at eight to ten days . ( b287 )
the hindlimbs are just slightly longer than the forelimbs . ( b147 , b430 . w2 , b605 . 2 . w2 )
in burrowing pikas , the claws are more straight and powerful than those of the rock dwelling pikas . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
the tail of pikas is virtually absent at a length of 5 mm ( b285 . w5g ) ; it is not visible . ( b147 ; b430 . w2 )
fine , long , soft and dense coat with fur that covers the feet including the under surface . ( b147 , b285 . w5g )
most species have two moults per year with a brighter summer coat - often a yellowish red - and a greyer winter coat . ( b147 )
newborn pikas are hairless ( b147 , b287 ) or slightly furred . ( b287 )
the uterus is duplex . the placenta is discoid , deciduate and hemochorial , with a mesometrial , superficial implantation . ( b287 )
the testes are intra - abdominal outside the breeding season . ( b147 , b287 )
during the breeding season they are found in folds of skin at the base of the penis . ( b147 )
scent glands : pikas have scent glands , as do all lagomorphs . ( b285 . w5a )
in general , pikas breed twice a year in the spring and summer , and many species will have two or more litters per year . ( b147 )
pikas show induced ovulation and a post - partum oestrus . ( b285 . w5a , b287 )
in general , burrowing pikas have litters which are twice as large as those of rock dwelling pikas . (
rock dwelling pikas have few litters per year . they may have two litters annually but often only one is successfully weaned ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
burrowing pikas may have as many as five litters a year , depending on species . ( b285 . w5g )
burrowing pikas may mature and breed in their summer of birth . however , young rock dwelling pikas will first breed as yearlings . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
the testes are intra - abdominal outside the breeding season ; during the breeding season they are found in folds of skin at the base of the penis ( in lagomorphs , the testes are in front of the penis ) . ( b147 )
high mortality as pikas are prey for many mammals and birds . ( b285 . w5a )
burrowers : up to three years of age , but usually only one year . ( b285 . w5g )
burrowing pikas have a high annual mortality , with few animals living more than two years . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
rock dwellers : up to seven years old . ( b285 . w5g ) their average mortality is low compared to the burrowing pikas . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
pikas are herbivorous - they eat grasses , flowering stalks , and leaves . pikas have a preference for those plants highest in protein or other chemicals important to them . ( b285 . w5g )
pikas eat a range of vegetable matter :
in the summer and early autumn the animals gather grasses , sedges , weeds , and many of the large flowering and woody plants , sometimes climbing a few meters up in trees and out on limbs to cut twigs . the material is sometimes place in exposed locations for curing by the sun
; many populations create haystacks to store food for winter . ( b147 )
pikas do not hibernate . ( b147 , b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
jaw motion : pikas have a vertical or transverse jaw motion . ( b147 ) ; pikas use a side - to - side jaw motion . ( b285 . w5g )
coprophagy : pikas produce two types of faeces , hard faeces like pepper seeds - small green spherical pellets - which are passed during the day ; and soft faeces , sticky and dark green / black , passed at night . faeces of the latter type have high a energy value and b vitamin levels , and are re - ingested . this behaviour , known as coprophagy , may have a similar function to the ruminant behaviour of chewing the cud . ( b147 , b285 . w5a )
pikas are known to be more vocal than other lagomorphs . ( b285 . w5a )
and a long call used by males during the breeding season which is
a series of squeaks lasting up to 30 seconds
. some rock dwellers rarely vocalise even weak calls . ( b285 . w5g )
muffle and transition calls used by young pikas , which are thought to promote cohesion among siblings . ( b285 . w5g )
pikas have scent glands , as do all lagomorphs . ( b285 . w5a )
pikas are unable to grasp plants with their forepaws ; they eat with a side - to - side jaw motion and carry vegetation in their mouths . ( b285 . w5g )
some species continue to forage throughout winter rather than haying , because snows are uncommon . ( b285 . w5g )
even at a fairly low population density of ten to twelve pikas per hectare , vegetation storage by pikas may be up to 30 kg per hectare . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
in the burrowing pikas , the young may form a line behind an adult , usually their father , and follow . ( b285 . w5g )
it is rare that they interact and usually it is to repel an intruder if they do so . ( b285 . w5g )
even in a pair of pikas which are contributing to a shared hay pile , they spend a large part of the day apart . ( b285 . w5g )
the rock dwelling pikas have large territories defended by the individual ( in north american species ) or defended in pairs ( asian species ) . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
the population density is therefore low , at 5 - 25 per acre , and reasonably stable over a period of time . (
population densities of pikas in rocky areas do not usually reach more than 20 per hectare . ( b147 )
these pikas are very friendly , sociable mammals that live within family groups where they may play - box , sit in contact , nose rub and spend time socially grooming . ( b285 . w5g )
communal dens house family groups which includes siblings of different ages . ( b285 . w5g )
the young may follow behind an adult , usually their father , in a line . ( b285 . w5g )
however , there may be aggression between members of different family groups , in particular , long chases of adult males occur . ( b285 . w5g )
population densities of burrowing steppe dwellers are often much higher than that of the rock dwellers but they are also prone to fluctuate more widely . ( b147 )
the population density may be greater than 750 per acre towards the end of the breeding season but this may fluctuate greatly both annually and seasonally . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
the maximum density of some steppe pikas is reported to exceed 300 per hectare . ( b147 )
in general , it appears that pikas are monogamous . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
mainly active by day . pikas are well - adapted to the cold and sensitive to even moderately warm conditions , therefore they tend to be active only during the cooler parts of the day . ( b285 . w5g )
pikas may be active at all hours , in particular , early morning and evenings . it seems that they are less active on sunny days compared with cloudy days . ( b147 )
pikas which live at high altitudes may be active all day , whereas pikas at warmer , lower altitudes emerge only in the morning and evening . ( b285 . w5g )
most pikas live in remote high mountains and wild country and are well adapted to the cold . pikas have become well adapted to living in rocky steppe and alpine habitats . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )
this species occupies mountain slopes that face the sun . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
elevation : 2600 to 4400 metres in the forest belt . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
burrowing pikas dig burrows in open alpine meadow , semi desert or steppe environments . ( b285 . w5g )
rock dwelling pikas nest among rocks or fallen logs . ( b285 . w5g )
certain pikas are intermediate in their habitat use in that they burrow but also sometimes live among rocks . however their life history is closer to that of the burrowing pikas . ( b285 . w5g )
it is common for burrows to be shared with birds or small mammals . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
haypiles created by pikas may provide winter food for domestic cows and horses and also native species such as ungulates or smaller herbivores .
by recycling soil , burrowing pikas have a positive contribution to ecosystem - level dynamics . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
currently no species or forms of ochotona are treated on any national list of endangered or threatened wildlife .
( b605 . 3 . w3 )
there are currently no ochotona species cites - listed . ( w354 . april08 . w1 )
iucn - lower risk / near threatened . ( w2 . apr08 . w44 )
the status of this species is unknown .
however , its restricted distribution suggests that it may be at some risk
. ( b605 . 3 . w3 )
due to their remote habitat , most pikas
rarely come into conflict with human economic activity .
( b147 )
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ye j 1 , nie w , wang j , su w , jing m , graphodatsky as , yang f .
state key laboratory of genetic resources and evolution , kunming institute of zoology , the chinese academy of sciences , kunming , pr china .
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the order lagomorpha consists of 2 families : leporidae ( hares and rabbits ) , and ochotonidae ( pikas ) , about 91 species [ hoffmann and smith , 2007 ] , of which the domestic rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus , 2n = 44 ) is the most well - studied species mainly due to its importance as a model for biomedical research [ korstanje et al . , 1999 ] .
comparative cytogenetic studies have made a great contribution to our understanding of karyotype evolution of species within the families leporidae and ochotonidae , respectively [ hsu and benirschke , 1971 ; stock , 1976 ; capanna et al . , 1991 ; ivanitskaya , 1991 ; robinson et al . , 2002 ; robinson , 2006 and literature cited therein ] . however , earlier cross - family comparison based on g - banding has only revealed a few conserved chromosomal segments between representative species from leporidae and ochotonidae , leading to the suggestion that tandem fusion could be responsible for the family - level karyotype divergence in lagomorpha [ stock , 1976 ] .
fluorescence in situ hybridization ( fish ) images were captured using the genus system ( applied imaging corp . ) as previously described [ yang et al . , 2004 ] . hybridization signals were assigned to specific chromosomes or chromosomal regions as defined by enhanced dapi - banding patterns .
examples of cross - species chromosome painting . a hsa chromosome9probe hybridized onto the short arm of o . forresti chromosome 3 . b dapi - banding of the same o . forresti metaphase . c hsa chromosome15probe hybridized onto the long arm of o . forresti chromosome 3 . d dapi - banding of the same o . forresti metaphase .
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1993 ; murphy et al . , 2001a ; reyes et al . , 2004 ; a
v , 2007 for review ; nie et al . , 2008 ] . nevertheless ,
rmed by a later study [ chantry - darmon et a l . , 2005 ]
. . . thus , o . huangensis is significantly diverging from the main group of the subgenus ochotona by main karyotypic characteristics that corresponds to the data of mtdna study ( yu et al . 2000 , niu et al . 2004 ) . the recent cytogenetic study of o . forresti ( 2n = 54 ) ( ye et al . 2011 ) also greatly expands karyotypic variability of the subgenus conothoa . as yet , the karyotypes of eight species of the subgenus conothoa and three species of the subgenus ochotona are not investigated . . . .
. . . the presence of the nox5 gene in rabbits makes the rabbit a potentially useful model to study nox5 gene functions . its presence in rabbits and its absence in rodents indicates it is a potential genetic marker to study the taxonomic position of lagomorpha in monophyletic clade glires [ 30 , 31 ] . . . .
. . . indicates that this specimen is currently accessioned as o . thibetana thibetana in the amnh collection . the forresti specimen used in ye et al . ( 2011 ) , was never accessioned into a collection and has been subsequently lost . to test potential morphological differences between l . melainus and sympatric l . mandshuricus , measurements of l . melainus and l . mandshuricus published by li and luo ( 1979 ) and luo ( 1988 ) were analyzed . . . .
. . . the 4 th group also from the same geographical area reported by hayata and shimba ( 1969 ) ; vorontsov and ivanitskaya ( 1973 ) which having the chromosome number 2n = 40 to 42 . the 3 rd group reported from qinghai tibet plateau having the chromosome number 2n = 46 to 54 reported by vorontsov and ivanitskaya ( 1973 ) ; ivanitskaya ( 1978 ) ; tan and bai ( 1987 ) ; ye et al . ( 2011 ) etc . the second group is having chromosome number 2n = 60 to 62 from the surrounding himalayan areas ( nadler et al . , 1969 ; vorontsov and ivanitskaya , 1973 ; capanna et al . , 1991 ; puget and berland , 2008 ) . . . .
reconstruction of karyotype evolution in core glires . i . the genome homology revealed by comparative chromosome painting
karyotypic evolution of the family sciuridae : inferences from the genome organizations of ground squ . . .
cross - species chromosome painting has made a great contribution to our understanding of the evolution of karyotypes and genome organizations of mammals . several recent papers of comparative painting between tree and flying squirrels have shed some light on the evolution of the family sciuridae and the order rodentia . in the present study we have extended the comparative painting to the . . . [ show full abstract ]
reconstruction of karyotype evolution in core glires . i . the genome homology revealed by comparative . . .
glires represent a eutherian clade consisting of rodents and lagomorphs ( hares , rabbits , and pikas ) . chromosome evolution of glires is known to have variable rates in different groups : from slowly evolving lagomorphs and squirrels to extremely rapidly evolving muroids . previous interordinal homology maps between slowly evolving glires were based on comparison with humans . here , we used sets of . . . [ show full abstract ]
karyotype evolution of giraffes ( giraffa camelopardalis ) revealed by cross - species chromosome painti . . .
considering the giraffe ( giraffa camelopardalis , gca , 2n = 30 ) as a primitive species , its comparative genomic data are critical for our understanding of the karyotype evolution of pecorans . here , we have established genome - wide chromosomal homologies between giraffe , chinese muntjac ( muntiacus reevesi , mre , 2n = 46 ) and human ( homo sapiens , hsa , 2n = 46 ) with whole sets of chromosome - specific . . . [ show full abstract ]
the number of rodent species examined by modern comparative genomic approaches , particularly chromosome painting , is limited . the use of human whole - chromosome painting probes to detect regions of homology in the karyotypes of the rodent index species , the mouse and rat , has been hindered by the highly rearranged nature of their genomes . in contrast , recent studies have demonstrated that . . . [ show full abstract ]