the greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) is a european bat of the rhinolophus genus .

its distribution covers europe , africa , south asia and australia .

it is the largest of the european horseshoe bats and is thus easily distinguished from other species .

the species is sedentary , typically travelling up to 30 km between the winter and summer roosts , with the longest recorded movement being 180 km .

the species is notable as having the oldest recorded age for any european bat , with a bat living for over 30 years .

the frequencies used by this bat species for echolocation lie between 69 – 83 khz , have most energy at 81 khz and have an average duration of 37.4 ms.

greater horseshoe bat

can be distinguished from the lesser horseshoe bat by size . the forearm of the greater horseshoe bat is longer than 45mm .
the photograph on the left shows an adult greater horseshoe bat with an offspring .
parentage , reproductive success and breeding behaviour in the greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) .
the greater horseshoe bat prefers traditionally managed farmland , with grazing pasture and broad - leaved woodland .
lynn , jennifer .
interesting facts about the greater horseshoe bat
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
lynn , jennifer .
interesting facts about the greater horseshoe bat .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / interesting - greater - horseshoe - bat - 5547 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
longley m ( 2003 ) greater horseshoe bat project 1998–2003 . english nature report no . 532 . natural england , uk
lynn , jennifer . ( n . d . ) . interesting facts about the greater horseshoe bat . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / interesting - greater - horseshoe - bat - 5547 . html
bat conservation trust . ( 2000 ) . greater horseshoe bat : rhinolophus ferrumequinum . [ internet ] , london , bat conservation trust . available from : urltoken . [ accessed 20 january 2001 ] .
 the photograph on the left shows a typical habitat of greater horseshoe bats .
gb - level population trends for greater horseshoe bat from the hibernation survey and the roost count are shown on this page .
the diet of greater horseshoe bats mainly consists of lepidoptera and coleoptera ( vaughan , 1997 ) . greater horseshoe bats forage using perch - hunting , hawking and gleaning strategies .
rossiter sj , burland tm , jones g , barratt em . characterization of microsatellite loci in the greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum .
average values for a greater horseshoe bat echolocation call , as given by vaughan et al . ( 1997 ) , are listed below :
the photograph on the left shows cockchafer remains found beneath a feeding perch of greater horseshoe bats .
characteristics of 38 microsatellite loci , used in parentage analysis , when amplified in greater horseshoe bats .
population trends are also calculated for greater horseshoe bat at a country - level for england and wales . this species is not found in scotland .
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there are approximately 100 species of horseshoe bats which belong to the rhinolophus genus . the single species of greater horseshoe bats , or rhinolophus ferrumequinum , is the largest species of horseshoe bats , who get their names from the facial flesh that resembles the horseshoe .
maximum age recorded in europe is 30 years ( schober & grimmberger , 1989 ) . greater horseshoe bats have the longest recorded age of any european bat .
the greater horseshoe bat is one of britain ' s largest , found in southwest england and south wales . it is also found in north africa and asia . the species is known for its unique mouth structure and monogamous mating habits . the greater horseshoe bat population is declining , making conservation efforts a priority .
 the greater horseshoe bat is listed in the uk biodiversity action plan and is one of the rarest mammal species in the united kingdom . the main threats facing greater horseshoe bats are the loss of roost sites and foraging areas ( duvergé & jones , 2003 )
this complex of abandoned stone mines provides suitable hibernation conditions for a range of bat species and has a long history of usage by greater horseshoe bats rhinolophus ferrumequinum .
department of the environment and energy ( doee ) 2017 . rhinolophus philippinensis greater large - eared horseshoe bat in species profile and threats database . doee , canberra .
( least horseshoe bat ) with cross - amplification in five related species . cons gen 10 : 597–600 .
as part of the devon greater horseshoe bat project , a camera has been installed in one of our large greater horseshoe roosts . you can see some fantastic live footage on the website of the bats in the roost . the best time to watch it is just before sunset when the bats are flying around inside the roost in preparation to emerge for the night . visit the devon greater horseshoe bat project website to view the live footage .
the british population of greater horseshoe bats has declined and is now very fragmented . analysis by rossiter et al . ( 2000b ) showed that welsh populations of greater horseshoe bats are genetically isolated and have relatively low genetic variation .
the echolocation call of greater horseshoe bats is constant frequency with a frequency modulated component at the start and end .
 greater horseshoe bats are on the verge of becoming a threatened species worldwide ( iucn status , 2001 ) .
the greater horseshoe bat is found in central and southern europe but has declined significantly in northern europe . in the uk it is restricted to southern england and south wales .
) . our first objective was to investigate the effects of climate and land - use changes on greater horseshoe bat populations . we tested the hypothesis that targeted aess would benefit
ransome rd ( 1991 ) greater horseshoe bat . in : corbet gb hs , editor . the handbook of british mammals . oxford : blackwell scientific . pp . 88–94 .
rossiter , s . , j . jones , r . ransome , e . barratt . 2000 . genetic variation and population structure in the endangered greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrmequinum .
the greater horseshoe bat earned the title of greater because it is larger than other species of horseshoe bats , which are sometimes called lesser horseshoe bats . the greater horseshoe bat weighs up to 34 grams or about 1 . 2 ounces , and has a body length of 58 to 70 millimeters or 2 . 3 to 2 . 7 inches . this is considerably larger than the lesser horseshoe bats , who may weigh only 5 to 9 grams , or about one - third of an ounce with a body length of 35 to 45 millimeters or approximately 1 1 / 2 to 2 inches .
this site in south - west wales contains the main hibernation site for the population associated with pembrokeshire bat sites csac . it may thus be used by up to 5 . 5 % of the uk population of greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum .
duvergé p , jones g ( 1994 ) greater horseshoe bats—activity , foraging behaviour and habitat use . br wildl 6 : 69
few species of bats practice fidelity when it comes to mating , but some female greater horseshoe bats return to the same male season after season within polygamous colonies . observed colonies with tagged female greater horseshoe bats have proven that many females mate with the same male during several mating seasons . after a 75 day gestation period , the female horseshoe bat gives birth to one baby bat while hanging upside down and catches her offspring in her wings .
marked in blue on the diagram above is a typical foraging path of greater horseshoe bats ( based on russ , 1999 ) .
ransome rd ( 1995 ) earlier breeding shortens life in female greater horseshoe bats . phil trans r soc b 350 : 153–161 .
collins j ( 2016 ) bat surveys for professional ecologists : good practice guidelines , 3rd edn . the bat conservation trust , london
the greater horseshoe bat ' s name precisely describes the animal ' s most distinct characteristic . the species '
horseshoe
is the u - shaped structure surrounding the bat ' s nose . also called a noseleaf , this fleshy facial feature enhances echolocation , a process that the bat uses to navigate distance and locate prey . the bat makes noises that vibrate and amplify through the nostrils and off the noseleaf , then travels and bounce off surrounding objects , giving the bat direction and leading it to insects to eat .
this site in southern england includes the hibernation sites associated with 15 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population and is selected on the basis of the importance of this exceptionally large overwintering population .
ransome rd ( 2008 ) greater horseshoe bat . in : harris s , yalden dw ( eds ) mammals of the british isles : handbook , 4th edn . the mammal society , southampton , pp 298–306
the greater horseshoe bat is rare in the uk with a distribution restricted to south - west england and south wales . it is absent from scotland and northern ireland . it is also recorded in the channel islands .
known threats to this bat are roost destruction and disturbance . two mines used by the greater large - eared horseshoe bat as roosts have been disturbed or destroyed . it is also suspected that human roost disturbance of roosts and over - collection from well - known colony sites is affecting the species .
trends from both the hibernation survey and roost count show a statistically significant increase in the smoothed population index since the baseline year . overall the population of greater horseshoe bat in great britain is considered to have increased since 1999 .
nocturnally active , the greater large - eared horseshoe bat captures insects ( beetles and moths ) from the air or surfaces during flight . their flight is slow and fluttery . it lands to rest and to consume its prey .
a recovery plan for cave - dwelling bats , rhinolophus philippinensis , hipposideros semoni and taphozous troughtoni 2001 - 2005 has been developed . the recovery plan outlines management actions for the conservation of the greater large - eared horseshoe bat .
citation : ward hl , ransome rd , jones g , rossiter sj ( 2014 ) determinants and patterns of reproductive success in the greater horseshoe bat during a population recovery . plos one 9 ( 2 ) : e87199 . urltoken
britain’s population of some 10 , 000 greater horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) was until recently restricted to south and west wales and south - west england .
ransome rd ( 1989 ) population - changes of greater horseshoe bats studied near bristol over the past 26 years . biol j linn soc 38 : 71–82 .
from all years for which data are available ( 1990 - 2016 ) , counts from 201 sites contribute to the overall trend analysis ( sites surveyed in two or more years with greater horseshoe bat recorded in at least one year ) .
the distribution of paternities and maternities awarded at > 80 % confidence to a ) 135 breeding males , and b ) 216 breeding females respectively , in the woodchester mansion greater horseshoe bat population over a period of 19 years ( 1993–2011 ) .
inventoried in the uk under the national bat monitoring programme ( walsh et al .
is easily identified by a horseshoe - shaped flap of skin surrounding the nostrils .
foraging habitat management - suitable habitat for foraging should be maintained and where possible expanded within 2 km of roost sites . in the case of the greater horseshoe bat , good habitat includes broadleaved woodland and unimproved grassland , rather than coniferous woodland or improved grazing .
this horseshoe bat has very large ears and a yellow or grey noseleaf . its large ear length distinguishes it from the eastern horseshoe - bat , rhinolophus megaphyllus , which has smaller ears . its fur is grey to brown on the back and slightly lighter on the belly . it can weigh between 8 . 3 – 16 . 2 g .
during the day the bat roosts in caves and mines with high humidity . they often can be found roosting alongside eastern horseshoe - bats . a single young is born in november .
is the largest horseshoe bat in europe ( schober and grimmberger , 1997 ) . its most distinctive feature is the upper saddle process or noseleaf , the upper part of which is pointed while the lower part is horseshoe shaped ( nowak , 1994 ) . tooth and bone structures distinguish
) , these recommendations will also be highly beneficial for other bat species ( boughey et al .
mccracken gf , bradbury jw . paternity and genetic heterogeneity in the polygynous bat , phyllostomus hastatus .
as its population has started to recover , individuals and small colonies have been recorded as far away as north wales and sussex . unlike the lesser horseshoe bat , it is absent from ireland .
) emphasized the weak influence of climate for explaining local , long - term bat population trends . similarly , when assessing bat species richness and community composition at a regional scale mehr et al . (
the greater large - eared horseshoe bat can be found in north queensland , from townsville to cape york . the smaller form ( sometimes referred to as r . philippinensis achilles ) is restricted to the more northerly parts of the species ' distribution , on iron range and mcilwraith range on cape york .
the greater horseshoe bat population of northern europe has declined significantly over the last 100 years ( an estimated decline of 90 % ) , such that the uk population is now restricted to south west england and wales ( although occasional specimens are recorded elsewhere ) . there are currently 35 recognised maternity ( and all year ) roosts and 369 hibernation roosts in the country , with the population estimated to be between 4 , 000 and 6 , 600 individuals . internationally , the greater horseshoe bat occurs throughout the area between the atlantic coast of europe and japan , but the population appears to be declining almost everywhere .
greater horseshoe bats ' median emergence is 25 minutes after sunset ( jones & rydell , 1994 ) and they return to the roost 5 - 30 minutes before sunrise ( duvergé and jones , 1994 ) .
dietz m , pir jb , hillen j ( 2013 ) does the survival of greater horseshoe bats and geoffroy’s bats in western europe depend on traditional cultural landscapes ? biodivers conserv 22 : 3007–3025 . doi :
changes in male reproductive skew ( filled circles ) and cohort size ( open circles ) through time in the woodchester mansion greater horseshoe bat population . because adult females maximally produce one offspring per year , the number of pups born is a proxy for the colony size , which in turn reflects the population size .
walsh al , catto cmc , hutson am , racey pa , richardson pw , langton sd ( 2001 ) the uk’s national bat monitoring programme : final report 2001 . the bat conservation trust , london , uk
mells valley in southern england is selected on the basis of the size of its exceptional breeding population . it contains the maternity site associated with a population comprising about 12 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population . a proportion of the population also hibernates at the site , though other hibernation sites remain unknown .
this site in south - west wales supports approximately 9 . 5 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population . it represents the species at the north - western extremity of its range . the site contains a mixture of maternity , transitory and hibernation sites and so demonstrates good conservation of features required for survival .
bat species in the european alps reveals contrasting implications for conservation . biodivers conserv 22 : 2751–2766 . doi :
this complex of sites on the border between england and wales represents greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum in the northern part of its range , with about 6 % of the uk population . the site contains the main maternity roost for bats in this area , which are believed to hibernate in the many disused mines in the forest .
 a study by duvergé and jones ( 1994 ) found that greater horseshoe bats preferred the following habitats ( in descending order ) : pastures with cattle ( either single / mixed stock ) , ancient semi - woodland and pastures with non - cattle stock . woodlands and pasture close to woodland were used to a greater extent in spring and early summer while pasture was predominantly used in summer . rides , footpaths , hedges and treelines were used by greater horseshoe bats when flying in these feeding areas . the bats were generally less than 2m away from these structures .
the greater horseshoe bat ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) is the larger of the two horseshoe bats found in britain . they are so - named from the horseshoe shaped nose ' leaf ' , used as part of the bat ' s echolocation system . the ears are leaf - shaped and have a sharply pointed tip . the fur is thick , and coloured ash - grey above , and buff underneath . bats are not blind as was once popularly thought . they have good eyesight but rely on their echolocation to navigate and to detect their insect prey . they emit a succession of high - pitched squeaks and judge their position and the location of their prey from the reflected echoes .
install bat gates , fences or develop other appropriate protective systems to prevent human disturbance of roost and maternity sites .
duvergé p , jones g ( 2003 ) habitat use by greater horseshoe bats . in : tattersall f , manley w ( eds ) conservation and conflict : mammals and farming in britain . westbury publishing , west yorkshire , pp 64–81
the greater horseshoe bat is a relatively large species by british standards ( forearm : 51 - 59 mm ; head and body : 56 - 68 mm ; wingspan : 360 mm ; weight : 13 - 34 g ) , with medium to light brown fur ( often greyer and paler on the animals underside ) , a horseshoe nose - leaf and long legs ( with which it hangs from its roost , often with its wing wrapped around its body ) .
racey , p . 1982 . ecology of bat reproduction . pp . 57 - 93 in t kruz , ed .
 in order to protect greater horseshoe bat colonies , duvergé & jones ( 2003 ) suggest that permanently grazed pastures should not be ploughed and used from arable crops and that woodland and hedgerows should be retained . hedegrows should be approximately 4m high and 2 - 3m wide and should not be intensively trimmed . important habitats within 4km of roost sites should be preserved .
effect size and significance of each fixed variable added to a general linear mixed model built to describe male and female reproductive success respectively in the woodchester mansion greater horseshoe population . mx denotes model number , n denotes sample size , na ‘not applicable’ ,
the 919 maternities assigned during the period between 1993 and 2011 were shared among 216 individual females . female greater horseshoe bats showed considerable variation in total reproductive success among breeding females across the 19 year period , which ranged from one to eighteen pups (
the greater horseshoe bat has declined by over 90 percent in numbers during the last 100 years . this is due largely to habitat loss , caused by modern intensive farming methods . the destruction of woods , roosting sites , old pastureland , and the use of chemical insecticides , which have seriously reduced the abundance of their insect prey , have all contributed to this decline .
( rhinolophidae , chiroptera ) and their cross - utility in 17 other bat species . mol ecol notes 4 : 96–100 .
) . this case study based on a light - intolerant bat species also highlights another major challenge for bat conservationists : the impact of light pollution on photophobic species at a landscape scale . previous studies have shown that one of the most common mitigation measures for reducing alan , switching street lights off after midnight , fails to mitigate its negative effect on light - intolerant bat species including
greater horseshoe bats are declining in numbers in all regions where they dwell . the population has decreased up to 90 percent in a century . increasing human populations , urbanized forests and pastures , and a decreased food supply as the result of insecticides are possible causes of the species ' declining numbers . throughout much of europe , the species is protected by law and its habitats monitored and conserved . in recent years , greater horseshoe bats have become prevalent on organic farms because of the natural , pesticide - free environment afforded .
erket , h . 1982 . ecological aspects of bat activity rhythms . pp . 201 - 236 in t kruz , ed .
have been monitored in the uk by volunteers since 1997 under the national bat monitoring programme ( nbmp ) ( walsh et al .
) . finally , as lighting near colony roosts is known to have detrimental effects on photophobic bat species ( boldogh et al .
we are very grateful to the bat conservation trust for providing data from the national bat monitoring programme ( nbmp ) . the nbmp is run by the bat conservation trust , in partnership with the joint nature conservation committee , and supported and steered by natural england , natural resources wales , northern ireland environment agency , and scottish natural heritage . the nbmp is indebted to all volunteers who contribute data to the programme . the greater horseshoe bat roost count is funded by natural england . we thank jennifer j . freer for proof reading the manuscript , and s . parsons and two anonymous reviewers who made valuable comments and suggestions that helped to improve an earlier version of the manuscript . this study was funded by the biotechnology and biological sciences research council through the south west biosciences doctoral training partnership .
schmidt , s . , evidence for a spectral basis of texture perception in bat sonar , nature , 1988 , 331 : 617–619 .
duvergé and jones ( 1994 ) found that the diet of greater horseshoe bats mainly consisted of lepidoptera and coleoptera ( 30 - 45 % ) , followed by diptera ( 10 - 20 % ) and hymenoptera ( 5 - 10 % ) , although these proportions change seasonally .
barlow ke , briggs pa , haysom ka , hutson am , lechiara nl , racey pa , walsh al , langton sd ( 2015 ) citizen science reveals trends in bat populations : the national bat monitoring programme in great britain . biol conserv 182 : 14–26 . doi :
protection of roosts - greater horseshoe bats are sensitive to disturbance , especially of their nursery and winter roosts ; consequently these sites need to be protected and entrances left unobstructed ( in some cases , grids that allow access for bats , but prevent human access may be used ) .
burland tm , barratt em , beaumont ma , racey pa . population genetic structure and gene flow in a gleaning bat , plecotus auritus .
jones g , duvergé pl , ransome rd ( 1995 ) conservation biology of an endangered species : field studies of greater horseshoe bats . in : racey pa , swift sm ( eds ) ecology , evolution and behaviour of bats , symposia of the zoological society of london , pp 309–324
) . therefore we recommend that remaining dark flyways within the bat’s core sustenance zone should be protected and new ones created ( gaston et al .
the greater horseshoe bat is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . it is classified as endangered in the uk , listed under appendix ii of the bonn convention , appendix ii of the berne convention , annexes ii and iv of the ec habitats directive , schedule 2 of the conservation regulations 1994 and protected in the uk under schedule 5 of the wildlife and countryside act ( as amended ) .
south hams in south - west england is thought to hold the largest population of greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum in the uk , and is the only one containing more than 1 , 000 adult bats ( 31 % of the uk species population ) . it contains the largest known maternity roost in the uk and possibly in europe . as the site contains both maternity and hibernation sites it demonstrates good conservation of the features required for survival .
park et al . ( 2002 ) studied torpor , arousal and activity in free - living greater horseshoe bats and found that arousal tends to be closely synchronized with dusk . as the temperature increased , the bats ' torpor bout duration decreased , probably because of the increased rate of water loss .
the shading illustrates the diversity of this group - the darker the colour the greater the number of species . data provided by wwf ' s wildfinder .
horseshoe bats are named after the shape of their noseleaves , a complex horseshoe - shaped fold of skin used to emit echolocational calls and help focus the sound . broad , round wings provide these bats with excellent manoeuvrability and agility in tight spaces , with many species actually able to hover and pick insects off surfaces and spiders ' webs . horseshoe bats also have a unique roosting posture , wrapping their wings around their body and enshrouding themselves . however , the 100 or so horseshoe species have an array of roosting habits , from large cave colonies to hanging in the open among tree branches .
this site in south - west england is selected on the basis of the size of population represented ( 3 % of the uk greater horseshoe bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum population ) and its good conservation of structure and function , having both maternity and hibernation sites . this site contains an exceptionally good range of the sites used by the population , comprising two maternity sites in lowland north somerset and a variety of cave and mine hibernation sites in the mendip hills .
) found a much greater effect of land - use compared to climate . however , the assessment of bat activity and species distributions across broader scales , such as across the british range of species has revealed the great importance of meteorological variables in addition to land - use and landscape characteristics ( walsh and harris
csorba , g . , ujhelyi , p . , thomas , n . , horseshoe bats of the world , shropshire : alana books , 2003 .
greater horseshoe bats appear in appendix ii of the berne convention ( convention on the conservation of european wildlife and natural habitats ) . this requires that they be strictly protected against deliberate killing , capture , damage / destruction of breeding and nesting sites , disturbance , trading ( including parts and derivatives ) , etc .
calculates the log - likelihood of each candidate parent being the true parent relative to an arbitrary individual and then calculates the difference between the two most likely parents ( delta , δ ) . critical values of δ are determined by computer simulation , which incorporates a realistic rate of sampling error and also removes a specified proportion of candidate parents to reflect the real world in which not all animals are sampled . since greater horseshoe bat mothers appear to only suckle their own offspring
) , bat populations of many species seem to be recovering in the great britain as well as in other european countries ( van der meij et al .
griffin , d . r . , simmons , j . a . , echolocation of insects by horseshoe bats , nature , 1974 , 250 : 731–732 .
 duvergé and jones ( 1994 ) found that a range of high - quality foraging areas is essential for the survival of greater horseshoe bats . they therefore suggest the conservation of ancient semi - natural , deciduous and mixed woodlands . pasture with cattle grazing is also very important ( duvergé & jones , 1994 ) . thick hedgerows , treelines or fences along the field boundaries should be maintained as prey tends to accumulate on the leeward side of these structures and because they provide perch sites and travel routes for the bats . duvergé and jones ( 1994 ) suggest that key habitats within 4km of a greater horseshoe roost site are maintained or improved .
greater horseshoe bats often roost in buildings during the summer , and their presence can be detected by piles of excrement on the ground . they leave their roosts just after sunset , and during the summer , spend about an hour feeding before returning . they often feed again just before dawn . at the end of august they stay on the wing all night . greater horseshoe bats mate in autumn , sometimes in late winter or early spring . they form maternity roosts in may and the young are born in mid - july . this species reaches maturity at around three years old and they may live for 30 years . their preferred food is large beetles , such as cockchafers and dung beetles , large moths and caddis flies . they have been observed watching from a regular roost and then flying out to take passing insects . greater horseshoe bats hibernate in caves , cellars or disused mines , from late september to mid - may . they may emerge to feed during mild spells .
parsons s , jones g ( 2000 ) acoustic identification of twelve species of echolocating bat by discriminant function analysis and artificial neural networks . j exp biol 203 : 2641–2656
brack , v . , laval , r . k . , food habits of the indiana bat in missouri , j . mammal , 1985 , 66 : 308–325 .
 foraging habitats may be lost through changes in land - use or farming practices or the removal of linear features such as hedgerows . greater horseshoe bats may also be at risk from chemicals used on nearby vegetation , if they either come into contact with that vegetation or consume insects that have been sprayed or eaten sprayed food . there is some indication that the use of avermectin worming compounds may impact on bat activity via its effects on insects in the cowpat community ( duvergé & jones , 2003 ) .
the following habitats are found across the horseshoe bats distribution range . find out more about these environments , what it takes to live there and what else inhabits them .
we studied the determinants of male and female reproductive success in wild greater horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus ferrumequinum ) by examining patterns of parentage over a 19 year period between 1993 and 2011 . based on a likelihood method , mothers were assigned to 99 . 5 % and fathers to 76 . 8 % of 924 pups born into the woodchester population .
this study demonstrates the value of long term , standardised monitoring of bat maternity roosts when assessing the impact of conservation management . in accordance to other studies ( duvergé and jones
petri b , päbo s , von haeseler a , tautz d . paternity assessment and population subdivision in a natural population of the larger mouse - eared bat myotis myotis .
 roost sites may be lost as buildings ( especially those associated with farms ) are converted or become derelict . a range of buildings are needed for activities such as mating , breeding and night roosting . greater horseshoe bats may also be at risk from chemicals used within roost sites , for example , remedial timber treatment ( duvergé & jones , 2003 ) .
) . furthermore , the potential benefits of aess on bats have so far been assessed using acoustic indexes ( i . e . bat activity ) ( fuentes - montemayor et al .
bellamy c , altringham j ( 2015 ) predicting species distributions using record centre data : multi - scale modelling of habitat suitability for bat roosts . plos one 10 : e0128440 . doi :
day j , baker j , schofield h , mathews f , gaston k ( 2015 ) part - night lighting : implications for bat conservation . anim conserv 18 : 512–516 . doi :
willis ckr , brigham rm ( 2007 ) social thermoregulation exerts more influence than microclimate on forest roost preferences by a cavity - dwelling bat . behav ecol sociobiol 62 : 97–108 . doi :
mccracken gf , wilkinson gs ( 2000 ) bat mating systems . in : crichton eg , krutzsch ph , editors . reproductive biology of bats . cambridge : academic press . 321–357 p .
the horseshoe bats can be found in a number of locations including : africa , asia , australia , europe , united kingdom . find out more about these places and what else lives there .
greater horseshoe bats are a protected species in the u . k . and bats were caught and sampled under licences from english nature and the home office ( ppl 30 / 2513 ) . permission for access to catch bats at the maternity roost was granted by the woodchester mansion trust , and for access to catch bats in caves and mines on land that is privately owned , from the land owners .
although thomas ( 1997 , unpublished thesis ) found very high divergence in mitochondrial dna sequences , csorba et al . 2003 refrained from splitting japanese greater horseshoe bats ( rhinolophus nippon ) from r . ferrumequinum . several subspecies are identified over the range , of which two occur in the western palaearctic : r . f . creticus ( crete ) and r . f . ferrumequinum ( rest of western palaearctic range ) .
surlykke , a . , miller , l . a . , the influence of arctiid moth clicks on bat echolocation : jamming or waring ? j . comp . physiol . , 1985 , 156a : 831–843 .
bontadina f , schmied sf , beck a , arlettaz r ( 2008 ) changes in prey abundance unlikely to explain the demography of a critically endangered central european bat . j appl ecol 45 : 641–648 . doi :
heim o , treitler jt , tschapka m , knörnschild m , jung k ( 2015 ) the importance of landscape elements for bat activity and species richness in agricultural areas . plos one 10 : e0134443 . doi :
mφhl , b . , miller , l . a . , ultrasonic clicks produced by the peacock butterfly : a possible bat - repellent mechanism , j . exp . biol . , 1976 , 64 : 639–644 .
does not hunt in the winter unless the air temperature is warm enough for insect flight , and as a result they hunt less during colder and inclement weather ( racey , 1982 ) . like other microchiropteran bat species ,
frey - ehrenbold a , bontadina f , arlettaz r , obrist mk ( 2013 ) landscape connectivity , habitat structure and activity of bat guilds in farmland - dominated matrices . j appl ecol 50 : 252–261 . doi :
under domestic legislation , greater horseshoe bats are covered by the wildlife and countryside act 1981 ( as amended ) . under schedule 5 the deliberate killing , injuring , taking , possessing , disturbing and selling ( including parts and derivatives ) as well as damaging , destroying or obstructing any structure or place of refuge etc are prohibited . under schedule 6 , certain methods of killing or taking animals are specifically prohibited , and even humane trapping for research requires a licence .
boughey kl , lake ir , haysom ka , dolman pm ( 2011a ) effects of landscape - scale broadleaved woodland configuration and extent on roost location for six bat species across the uk . biol conserv 144 : 2300–2310 . doi :
rydell , j . , skals , n . , surlykke , a . et al . , hearing and bat defence in geometrid winter moths , proc . r . soc . lond . b , 1997 , 264 : 83–88 .
a female produces one baby which is typically born during june or july ( schober and grimmberger , 1997 ) . young open their eyes at 7 day and can fly during the third to fourth week . after seven to eight weeks , young are ready to leave the roost . females form maternity roosts in warmer places such as attics to care for the young ( schober and grimmberger , 1997 ) . greater horseshoe bats lose their milk teeth before birth ( nowak , 1994 ) .
razgour o , hanmer j , jones g ( 2011 ) using multi - scale modelling to predict habitat suitability for species of conservation concern : the grey long - eared bat as a case study . biol conserv 144 : 2922–2930 . doi :
summer roosts : nursery roosts are found in attics in old buildings which can be accessed by uninterrupted flight and contain up to 200 females ( greenaway & hutson , 1990 ) . greater horseshoe bats wrap their wings around their body and hang freely by the feet . hang with their offspring either singly or in small groups . adult males may be found in nursery roosts but leave when the young are born in mid summer . males hold the same territory each year , and females return here annually .
the timing of the births of greater horseshoe bats was studied by ransome and mcowat ( 1994 ) for three colonies in south - west wales and south - west england . birth timing was significantly correlated with spring temperature , with young being born earlier after warmer springs . cold springs and late births led to population declines and male - biased sex ratios at all three sites in 1986 , although all the colonies recovered following subsequent warm springs . births were approximately 18 days earlier when temperatures rose by 2°c .
the relationship between forearm length and paternity success among breeding males between 1993 and 2011 ; larger males had greater annual reproductive success . in addition , male forearm length significantly and positively influenced total male reproductive success over the 19 year period between 1993 and 2011 .
greater horseshoe bats have polygynous mating systems although rossiter et al . ( 2000a ) found that some females had offspring from the same male in separate years . fidelity for either individuals or mating sites is likely to explain this behaviour , although it could also be due to sperm competition . females mated with males from their natal colony as well as with males from outside the colony . rossiter et al . ( 2000a ) suggest that gene flow between colonies occurs through male and female dispersal during the mating period .
in contrast to males , analyses of a long - term dataset provided no evidence that maternity success was significantly skewed among breeding females . female reproductive skew is most commonly reported within cooperatively breeding species [ 21 ] , but has also been documented in populations of mammal species that , like the greater horseshoe bat , exhibit reversed sexual size dimorphism , such as the spotted hyena in which there is aggressive competition for males and female reproductive success is strongly correlated with social rank [ 15 ] . however , a lack of evidence of social hierarchy among female greater horseshoe bats , as well as the lack of skew documented among breeders and the observation that female reproductive success does not relate to body size . all suggest that there is little or no intra - sexual competition among females for males in this population . indeed , almost all females that reach breeding age ( ≥2 years ) do successfully breed . our results are more consistent with male - dominated polygynous breeding systems , where female success is less dependent on body size [ 71 ] . the fact that almost all females , but only a third of males , breed within the woodchester population , despite a relatively even sex ratio , supports the commonly held theory that females are more selective when it comes to choosing mates than males [ 64 ] .
mehr m , brandl r , hothorn t , dziock f , foerster b , mueller j ( 2011 ) land use is more important than climate for species richness and composition of bat assemblages on a regional scale . mamm biol 76 : 451–460 . doi :
schnitzler , h . u . , hackbarth , h . , heilmann , u . et al . , echolocation behavior of rufous horseshoe bats hunting for insects in the flycatcher - style , j . comp . physiol . , 1985 , 157a : 39–46 .
this species is listed in the uk biodiversity action plans ( ukbaps ) , and has been included in english nature ' s species recovery programme . it belongs to a family of animals that have been much maligned over the centuries . however , more people are realising just how fascinating bats are , and they receive a high level of legal protection . the main effort in their conservation is to encourage landowners and farmers to manage their land in ways that benefit the bats . they are also being asked to limit the use of ivermectin insecticides , commonly used for treating cattle . the chemical in the insecticide also poisons the cattle ' s dung , and kills the larvae of dung beetles , one of the greater horseshoe bat ' s principal foods . as more people learn about bats , it is hoped that the efforts to conserve them as a breeding species will gain more support . they are an intriguing group of mammals , and undeserving of their sinister reputation . the bat conservation trust carries out work on surveys and monitoring , and employs many volunteers .
azam c , le viol i , julien j - f , bas y , kerbiriou c ( 2016 ) disentangling the relative effect of light pollution , impervious surfaces and intensive agriculture on bat activity with a national - scale monitoring program . landsc ecol . doi :
besides the extrinsic factors outlined above , intrinsic factors may also have led to the population increase . while it has received little attention in studies on bat populations , the demographic allee effect—defined as a positive relationship between fitness and population size or density ( courchamp et al .
ma , j . , walter m . , liang , b . et al . , differences in diet and echolocation in four sympatric bat species and their respective ecological niches , acta zoologica sinica ( in chinese ) , 2004 , 50 ( 2 ) : 145–150 .
) , the density of these linear features was evaluated for each landscape . hedgerows and tree lines were digitized using google earth aerial photographs taken between 2010 and 2014 . finally , to consider the potential negative effect of light pollution on horseshoe bats ( stone et al .
the relationship between heterozygosity and maternity success among breeding females between 1993 and 2011 ; more heterozygous females had greater annual reproductive success . heterozygosity was also a significant predictor of , and positively correlated with , the total number of pups a breeding female gave birth to between 1993 and 2011 .
from other rhinolophids . the first premolar on the upper jaw protrudes from the row of teeth . often this premolar is very small or non - existent . the third and fourth metacarpal bones in the wings are shorter than those of its relatives ( koopman , 1994 ) . the tragus is absent ( simmons and conway , 1997 ) . the length of the head and body ranges from 57 to 71mm , the tail length ranges from 35 to 43 mm and the forearm from 54 to 61 mm . the wing span ranges from 350 to 400 mm , and the weight from 17 to 34 grams . the greater horseshoe bat can also be identified by its color . the back is brownish gray with a slight tint of red , while the underside is a lighter gray color . the membrane that connects the forearm and tail is brownish gray . young
) . these studies demonstrated that regardless of the species , the level of bat activity is not significantly different between matched conventional and aes fields . rather , the amount of particular habitat types within the surrounding landscape seems to be more important for bats ( fuentes - montemayor et al .
the advantage of large body size in greater horseshoe bats , which are not known to court aerially , suggests that males compete for access to females , and that larger males win these contests more often . however , intra - sexual contests between male greater horseshoe bats over females have not been observed ; instead it is thought females actively seek out and choose males in their underground mating territories . consequently females may choose mates either on the basis of their individual traits or on the basis of the quality of their territories , which might differ in their proximity to the maternity roost , suitability as a hibernaculum or the quality of the surrounding habitat for foraging [ 40 ] . taking these observations into account , the mating system of this species probably contains elements of both female choice and male - male competition , whereby any advantage of larger size to males comes from indirect competition for females via direct competition for mating sites . certainly individual sites are normally only occupied by a single male , who is replaced quickly on disappearance , implying strong competition for sites , and we have identified several important sites where the resident male has consistently high paternity success [ 38 ] .
greater horseshoe bats are also protected under annexes ii and iv of the european communities council directive on the conservation of natural habitats and wild fauna and flora . these cover species of community interest the conservation of which requires the designation of special areas of conservation ( sacs ) ; and species that are in need of strict protection respectively . damage or destruction of breeding sites or resting places is prohibited , and all life stages are protected against deliberate capture , killing or disturbance in the wild ; and keeping , transport , sale / exchange and offering for sale / exchange of specimens .
) , yet we found no relationship between amount of land under aes and colony size at the spatial scales and time period studied here . the ineffectiveness of aess for enhancing bat populations in farmland - dominated landscapes has also been reported elsewhere in the uk ( fuentes - montemayor et al .
) . as observed in other bat species , intraspecific competition for food may ( i ) increase flight distances to reach available foraging areas and ( ii ) reduce prey capture rates , both of which may reduce individual fitness . we further found light pollution to be negatively related to colony size .
in addition to catches at woodchester mansion , surveys of all known caves and mines – used as mating sites and hibernacula – within a 25 km radius of the maternity roost are performed during autumn , winter and spring as part of an on - going study of this population [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] , [ 41 ] . during these surveys , greater horseshoe bats present are recorded and , where necessary , ringed and tissue sampled . immigrant adults , especially males , in the population are usually found during these surveys . based on current recapture rates , we estimate that over 90 % of bats in this population have been ringed , including all breeding females [ 38 ] .
this study focused on a maternity colony that assembles each summer in the attic of woodchester mansion , gloucestershire , u . k . ( 51°43′n , 2°18′w ) . greater horseshoe bats have been caught and ringed at woodchester mansion for 54 years , and tissue samples have been collected annually from all offspring born into the colony since 1993 as well as their mothers . primary catches , during which new - born pups are ringed and sampled , take place in early to mid - july , at which time most pups are less than 20 days old and still attached to their mothers . july catches also afford an opportunity to sample any adult females in the breeding colony that have not been previously sampled or ringed .
schnitzler , h . u . , ostwald , j . , adaptations for the detection of fluttering insects by echolocation in horseshoe bats , in advances in vertebrate neuroethology ( eds . ewart , j . p . , capranica , r . r . , ingle , d . j . ) , new york : plenum press , 1983 , 801–827 .
the diet of the bat rhinolophus ferrumequinum was studied at the zhi’an village of ji’an city in china , from june to august 2004 . the bats were trained in a laboratory ( volume : 9x4x4 m 3 ) . foraging strategies of the bat were observed at night and prey remains were collected and identified . the results showed that the diet consisted mainly of lepidoptera in summer , including 11 families , more than 30 species of moths , such as noctuidae ( 36 . 6 % by number ) , sphingidae ( 24 . 1 % ) , geometridae ( 13 . 4 % ) and limacodidae ( 9 . 5 % ) . the length of culled wings ranged from 10–40 mm ( 97 . 7 % ) . pearson correlation analysis showed that the bat r . ferrumequinum foraged their prey selectively , but not opportunistically . from field studies , two ways were observed in which the bats retrieved their prey including aerial hawking during peak active period of the insects and flycatching during the insects’ non - peak activity period . the bats never gleaned prey from the ground , though they appeared to be well able to detect fluttering moths on the ground .
the 919 maternities assigned during the period between 1993 and 2011 were shared among 216 individual females . female greater horseshoe bats showed considerable variation in total reproductive success among breeding females across the 19 year period , which ranged from one to eighteen pups ( figure 1b ) . this apparent skew was not significant when maternity data for all 19 cohorts were pooled and reproductive success was corrected for the number of years each female was breeding during the 19 year period ( b index = −0 . 0009 , p = 1 , n = 216 ) . because females can only produce a maximum of one pup each year so there was no variance in reproductive success ( and therefore no reproductive skew ) among breeding individuals within years or among breeders of the same age ( figure 3b ) .


bornella anguilla is a species of sea slug , a nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family bornellidae .

this species is widely distributed throughout the tropical waters of the indo-west pacific .

this species can grow up to a length of 8 cm .

bornella anguilla

bornella anguilla from reunion is . from : yves coze , july 31 , 2003
worms - world register of marine species - bornella anguilla s . johnson , 1984
its name ( anguilla = eel ) refers to its method of swimming . while most species of
relatively large species of bornella , growing up to 80mm . it has a very characteristic mosaic - like colour pattern . its name [ anguilla = eel ] refers to its method of swimming . while most species of bornella can swim by a lateral flexion of their body , in b . anguilla a muscular wave travels down the body to produce an eel - like motion . it is reported by johnson to feed on the hydroid plumularia .
the rhinophores are on long stalks which bear a ring of long pointed papillae . the oral tentacles are very elaborate sensory appendage , shaped like a hand with long fingers . the name
anguilla
meaning eel , refers to its method of swimming . most species of bornella can swim by a lateral flexion of their body . b . anguilla uses a muscular wave that travels down the body to produce an eel - like swimming motion .
. i looked up
anguilla
and discovered that it means
eel .
this had to be it . i also noticed it was described by johnson in 1985 . i emailed scott and he answered right away :
johnson , scott . 1984 . a new indo - west pacific species of the dendronotacean nudibranch bornella ( mollusca : opisthobranchia ) with anguilliform swimming behaviour . micronesica , 19 ( 1 ) : 17 - 26 .
johnson , s . ( 1984 ) . a new indo - west pacific species of the dendronotacean nudibranch bornella ( mollusca : opisthobranchia with anguilliform swimming behavior . micronesica . 19 , 17 - 26 . [ details ]
reference : • johnson , s . ( 1984 ) a new indo - west pacific species of the dendronotacean nudibranch bornella ( mollusca : opisthobranchia ) with anguilliform swimming behaviour . micronesica , 19 ( 1 ) : 17 - 26 . [ for 1983 ]
a key diagnostic for this species is the characteristic mosaic - like color pattern on the body . this relatively large species of bornella , grows up to 80mm in length . this species is found throughout the indo - pacific being reported from south africa to australia , including myranmar , indonesia and fiji .
the genus bornella belongs to the dendronotina . the genus has many similarities in shape and natural history to members of the aeolids . members have a series of cerata - like structures on each side of its elongate body and they feed on hydroids . the cerata - like gills do not carry nematocysts like most aeolids .
johnson , s . ( 1984 ) a new indo - west pacific species of the dendronotacean nudibranch bornella ( mollusca : opisthobranchia ) with anguilliform swimming behaviour . micronesica , 19 ( 1 ) : 17 - 26 . [ for 1983 ] yonow , n . and hayward , p . j . ( 1991 ) . opistobranches de l ' île maurice , avec la description de deux espèces nouvelles ( mollusca : opistobranchia ) revue française d ' aquariologie herpétologie , 18 ( 1 ) , 1 - 30
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it has a very characteristic mosaic - like colour pattern with orange , yellow and white spots .
a muscular wave travels down the body to produce an eel - like motion . when disrupted , it swims with a sideways ondulation of its entire body .
the anus opens on the right side just below and between the first and second cerata .
the reproductive opening is further forward on the right side , below and between the rhinophore and the first cerata .
) , 18 october 1985 , size : 45 mm . one other from belle mare (
) , 27 february 1990 , size : 49 mm . and one other from trou aux biches (
a muscular wave travels down the body to produce an eel - like motion .
scottburgh - 20m - south coast kwazulu - natal , south africa . 21 may 2000 . size : 80mm . photo of head . photo : valda fraser
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the color pattern of this impressive dendronotid is a mosaic of orange , brown and white spots against a black reticulate background . each of the six pairs of cerata , as well as the rhinophoral sheaths , possess a distinctive flap shaped like a rabbit ear with black , white and orange streaks .
is a rare species , having been reported only twice . it was found in highly exposed locations , both times during the day . one of those occasions was on a basalt cliff at 6 m ( 20 ft ) . though other bornellids can swim using a side - to - side flapping motion ,
this species was first recorded in hawaii from south point , big island by john hoover in july , 1998 . it was named for its eel - like swimming motion . it ' s referred to as the
eel nudibranch
in hoover , 1998 & 2006 .
pola , m . ; rudman , w . b . ; gosliner , t . m . ( 2009 ) . systematics and preliminary phylogeny of bornellidae ( mollusca : nudibranchia : dendronotina ) based on morphological characters with description of four new species . zootaxa . 1975 : 1 - 57 . page ( s ) : 26 [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
yonow n . ( 2017 ) . results of the rumphius biohistorical expedition to ambon ( 1990 ) . part 16 . the nudibranchia - dendronotina , arminina , aeolidina , and doridina ( mollusca : gastropoda : heterobranchia ) . archiv für molluskenkunde . 146 ( 1 ) : 135 - 172 . [ details ]
gosliner t . m . , behrens d . w . & valdés a . ( 2008 ) indo - pacific nudibranchs and sea slugs . sea challengers natural history books and california academy of sciences . 426 pp . page ( s ) : 320 [ details ]
to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 2 nucleotides ; 2 proteins ) to sea slug forum ( via archive . org )
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how would you greet this
trick - or - treater
if it came to your door this halloween ? man – i think i’d just die . this amazing species looks like something you would see at a chinese new year parade . just look at the facial expression . makes you wonder whos behind that mask .
john greenamyer has been diving some twenty - four years with a macro u / w photography pursuit using both still photography and video . his favorite diving areas are png and indonesia with an emphasis on png , especially the milne bay region so popularized for its
muck
photographic opportunities . as of late he has been keeping company with roger steene and neville coleman on his travels to png and will be diving with them again in the next couple of weeks .
alan grant and myself took a sunday off in august to travel up to visit john and immerse ourselves in some four hours of still and video photography of branchs . john has some outsanding macro video footage of branchs that hopefully will appear in the near future on a sister site this webmaster is in the process of setting up for streaming video .
when he ' s not diving , john and his wife reside in running springs , california , in the los angeles area . he has his own graphic arts business in cerritos , california .
© the slug site , michael d . miller 2004 . all rights reserved .
while diving at south point on the island of hawai ` i ( the southernmost point of land in the u . s . a . ) , i noticed this unusual nudibranch on the basalt cliffs at a depth of about 20 ft . ( 7 m . ) patterned somewhat like a giraffe , with paddle - like cerata protruding from its back . not recognizing it , i popped it into a clear ziplock bag for a later photography session in anticipation of a new record for hawai ` i .
immediately the animal began swimming actively against the side of the bag with the fluid wriggling motions of a tiny eel . confused , i thought for a moment that it was actually a strange fish that mimicked a nudibranch . yet the animal definitely possessed a molluscan foot ; it had to be a slug after all . after taking pictures i let it go . regretfully , there was no way to bring it home to o ` ahu alive . i could only hope that the pictures came out .
i sent a slide to hawaii ' s reigning nudibranch queen , pauline fiene - severns , and she confirmed the id and also confirmed that it was indeed a new record for hawai ` i .
although scott states that it is primarily a nocturnal species , the specimen i found was out in the open in broad daylight .
lives in honolulu . he has published two books on marine life of the hawaiian islands . his third , a field guide to the marine invertebrates of the hawaii , will be available approximately february 1999 . with over 600 photographs , it will cover 500 species , including 66 of hawaii ' s most colorful and interesting opisthobranchs .
© the slug site , michael d . miller 1998 . all rights reserved .
the nudibranch , flabellina exoptata , is often found on hydroids and is known to feed on them . the nematocysts from hydroids are transfered and stored in cerata , which , when disturbed , are able to release these nematocysts for defense .
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the blue korhaan or blue bustard ( eupodotis caerulescens ) is a species of bird in the otididae family , found in lesotho and south africa .

its call is a series of frog-like croaks , usually uttered in flight .

its natural habitat is plateau grassland , dry shrubland , arable land and pastureland .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

blue korhaan

the rare blue korhaan is exceptionally lovely because of its exquisite blue feathers and pretty black and white striped head .
blue korhaan , mpumalanga , south africa . [ photo johan van rensburg © ]
blue korhaan at its nest with eggs , wakkerstroom , south africa . [ photo warwick tarboton © ]
this beuatiful endemic can be distinguished from other korhaans by its blue neck and belly and contrasting chestnut back .
distribution of blue korhaan in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) . see here for the latest distribution from the sabap2 .
55 cm ; 1120–1612 g . only bustard with blue - grey neck and underparts . female has duller grey neck and buff ear - coverts . immature has black and buff crown , black on . . .
we first recorded this near - threatened korhaan in march 2010 while investigating wakkerstroom . we located them at fickland pan , where they were flushed from the thick roadside grass . i am still waiting to get decent photographs of them but am hoping that more early morning trips to devon in south east gauteng will provide just this .
collar , n . & garcia , e . f . j . ( 2018 ) . blue bustard ( eupodotis caerulescens ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
o ' brien , a . , pilgrim , j . , robertson , p . , symes , a . , taylor , j . , westrip , j .
this species is listed as near threatened , as it is suspected to have undergone a moderate decline over the past 3 generations and is expected to undergo a moderately rapid population decline owing to habitat loss to intensive agriculture . further data may show that the species qualifies for a higher threat category .
. the total south african population has been estimated at 1 , 500 - 5 , 000 individuals , but this may be an underestimate as the population in the former transvaal alone has been estimated to exceed 10 , 000 individuals , with between 1 , 000 and 3 , 000 in the proposed grassland biosphere reserve centred around volksrust and wakkerstroom .
the population is estimated to number 12 , 000 - 15 , 000 individuals in total , roughly equivalent to 8 , 000 - 10 , 000 mature individuals . trend justification : surveys in the eastern karoo suggest the population has declined there since the 1980s ( shaw et al . 2016 , j . shaw in litt . 2016 ) . declines in its range have also been implied from southern african bird atlas project data , particularly in the north - east of its range ( hofmeyr 2012 , lee et al . 2017 ) , though it has been suggested to be stable elsewhere , and the overall population may still be stable ( hofmeyr 2012 ) . ongoing habitat destruction may lead to future declines .
. it feeds on insects , scorpions , small lizards and vegetable matter . it apparently benefits from small - scale agriculture , as it regularly forages in crop fields and planted pastures . breeding occurs from august to april , mainly in october and november ( del hoyo
monitor rates of habitat loss within its range . protect additional areas of the species ' s habitat .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
in the past , this species sometimes isolated in a monotypic genus , trachelotis . monotypic .
e south africa from mpumalanga s to free state and eastern cape ; also w lesotho .
calls mainly at dawn . gives a deep , throaty , two - syllabled '
high grassveld , usually above 1500 m , with short - grazed grassland and termite mounds but no or few . . .
caterpillars , grasshoppers , beetles , scorpions and small reptiles ; also grass seeds , flowers and green leaves of various plants . in winter . . .
aug–apr , chiefly oct–nov . nest situated on bare open ground , often in short , thick grass , also in old cropland . eggs 1–3 . . .
not globally threatened . cites ii . currently considered near threatened . reported decline in s and w of range unfounded , although now fairly scarce in lowland lesotho owing . . .
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relationships uncertain ; further research required . one study suggested that this genus is sister to afrotis # r .
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endemic to southern africa , occurring in the highveld of south africa surrounding and extending into lesotho . it generally prefers flat or undulating ground in grassland and nama karoo .
it mainly eats insects , lizards and plant matter , doing most of its foraging by walking along and pecking the ground , often in cultivated fields . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :
its breeding system is complex , as it can be either monogamous or polygamous , usually in trios with either two males or two females . however it may also breed cooperatively in groups of up to five , together raising a brood and defending the nest against predators .
the nest is a simple scrape in the ground , usually between grass tufts tall enough to conceal the incubating bird .
egg - laying season is from september - february , peaking from october - november .
it lays 1 - 2 , rarely 3 eggs , which are solely incubated by a single female or multiple females ( depending on the size of the family group ) for about 24 - 28 days .
the chicks are fed by both parents , leaving the nest soon after hatching to join the family group , who vigorously defend them by chasing away or distracting predators . the young take their first flight at about five weeks old .
near - threatened globally and regionally , although its population is decreasing , probably due to habitat loss caused by cultivation , human settlement and afforestation .
hockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .
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please note that the google map for common species will load slowly as there is a lot of data to show . please be patient .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : eupodotis caerulescens . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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the reference for the information following is
roberts birds of southern africa
, 7th edition * edited by par hockey , wrj dean and pg ryan , published by
the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund .
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© 2018 bird & wildlife photography by richard and eileen flack . all images are copyrighted to the author .
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