rhinodipterus is an extinct genus of prehistoric dipnoan sarcopterygians or lobe-finned fish , that lived in the devonian period , between 416 and 359 million years ago .

it is believed to have inhabited shallow , salt-water reefs , and is one of the earliest known examples of marine lungfish .

research published in 2010 based on an exceptionally well-preserved specimen from the gogo formation of australia has shown that rhinodipterus has cranial ribs attached to its braincase and was probably adapted for air-breathing to some degree .

this could be the only case known for a marine lungfish with air-breathing adpatations .

rhinodipterus

( a ) rhinodipterus sp . skull in ventral view . ( b ) rhinodipterus sp . mandible in dorsal view . ( c ) rhinodipterus sp . ceratohyal in lateral view . ( d ) the extant protopterus showing arrangement of cranial ribs attached to neurocranium ( adapted from bemis 1986 ) .
rhinodipterus secans ( gross , 1956 ) : lukševičs , 2001 , lk . 503 , joon .
rhinodipterus secans ( gross , 1956 ) : krupina , 2004 , lk . 394 , joon .
rhinodipterus secans : gross , 1956 , lk . 20 - 32 , joon . text fig . 12 - 23 ; 5 - 7
in griphognathus whitei from the gogo formation , an exact contemporary of rhinodipterus with a similar long - snouted morphology , parts of the cranial cavity and labyrinth spaces ( fig . 4e ) have been described from acid - prepared specimens [ 52 ] . the information is more limited than that for rhinodipterus , but certain comparisons can be made . the olfactory canals , which are very long , merge posteriorly with a short and narrow telencephalic cavity ( [ 52 ] figs . 56 , 61 , 63 ) . proportionately , this cavity appears somewhat smaller than that of rhinodipterus , with a less pronounced ventral bulge ( [ 52 ] fig . 10 ) . there is a large anterodorsally directed pineal recess ( [ 52 ] fig . 10 ) ; this region of the cranial cavity is unfortunately damaged in rhinodipterus , so the two taxa cannot be compared in this respect . the labyrinth cavity and supraotic cavity of griphognathus have been figured in some detail ( [ 52 ] fig . 46 ) . the supraotic cavity is broadly similar to that of rhinodipterus but is not as bulbous and sac - like . however , the labyrinth cavity has an enlarged utricular recess ( fig . 4e ) , very similar to that of rhinodipterus .
palaeozoic global oxygen levels ( berner 2006 ) and the rise of air - gulping . shaded area represents global oxygen levels of 15 % or less . rhinodipterus has been added to the pruned tree of ahlberg et al . ( 2006 ) to show monophyly of air - gulping dipnoans .
as can be seen , these comparisons yield a remarkably consistent picture : on every point , the endocast of rhinodipterus is more similar to the brain of neoceratodus than to the lepidosirenids . given that rhinodipterus is a stem lungfish , this strongly suggests that the similarities reflect retained primitive characters in neoceratodus , relative to a more derived morphology in lepidosirenids . comparison with other members of the lungfish stem group , and with the non - dipnoan sarcopterygians eusthenopteron , tungsenia and spodichthys , support this conclusion and add further information about character evolution in the early part of the lungfish stem lineage .
in chirodipterus wildungensis ( figs . 4c , 5c ) , which comes from the latest frasnian [ 53 ] of bad wildungen , germany , and is thus the youngest of the fossil lungfish discussed here , the telencephalic cavity appears to be somewhat larger and deeper than that of rhinodipterus . the olfactory bulbs were pedunculate , though it is difficult to determine the exact length of the tracts . dorsally there is a prominent pineal recess . the labyrinth cavity of chirodipterus is similar to that of rhinodipterus except that the utricular cavity is slightly smaller ( figures 4 and 5 ) . supraotic cavities have not been described .
our work represents the first virtual endocast of any lungfish . despite being late devonian in age , rhinodipterus kimberleyensis is one of the most derived near - complete fossil lungfish braincases known . not surprisingly , of all the known stem lungfish endocasts , rhinodipterus resembles the similarly - aged chirodipterus wildungesis and griphognathus whitei most closely [ 21 ] , [ 52 ] . with respect to extant taxa , the endocast of rhinodipterus consistently resembles the brain of neoceratodus more than the lepidosirenids , suggesting neoceratodus has retained more primitive characters than the other extant lungfish taxa . the stark difference in morphology between the australian lungfish and the lepidosirenids is again noted . the early evolution of the lungfish stem group is characterized by expansion of the ventral part of the telencephalon , possibly related to evolution of an enhanced sense of smell , and slightly later , expansion of the utricular recess . undoubtedly these changes in labyrinth proportions relate to increased sensitivity for some sensory input , whether it be acceleration , gravitational or auditory , or a combination of all three .
the distinct ‘stepped’ shape of the ceratohyal ( indicated by the ventral notch ) in rhinodipterus ( figure 1 c ) is more similar to neoceratodus ( günther 1871 ) than other devonian genera . the strong posterior margin of this bone indicates a robust connection of the sternohyoideus muscle to the pectoral girdle . the large lateral crest on this bone provides a larger area for interhyoideus muscle attachment , and these features indicate highly controlled mobility of the hyoid arch . as neoceratodus uses its ceratohyals to push air from the branchial chambers into the lung when breathing ( den blaauwen et al . 2005 ) , we suggest that rhinodipterus also had increased capacity for this action when compared with other marine dipnoans .
the form of the sacculolagenar pouch in rhinodipterus is also worth mentioning . most extant fish and amphibians possess separate saccular and lagenar maculae , however modern lungfish are unusual in this respect in having just one [ 65 ] . primitive osteichthyans , including the earliest lungfish and tetrapods , also have a common sacculolagenar chamber as opposed to the large , separate lagena outgrowth seen in modern tetrapods [ 58 ] and actinopterygians [ 47 ] . although rhinodipterus maintains a common sacculolagenar pouch , its ventral margin shows a distinct ventral notch ( figs . 4f , 5d ) . this is particularly unusual as none of the other stem lungfish with labyrinth morphology known appear to do so , nor do the extant taxa .
the presence of the large articulations for cranial ribs , an elongate parasphenoid ( figure 1 a ) and a mobile ceratohyal and pectoral girdle in rhinodipterus indicate air - gulping behaviour . cranial ribs anchor the pectoral girdle during air - gulping in extant forms ( figure 1 d ) and are a key feature in all air - breathing forms ( long 1993 ) .
here we present an investigation by x - ray computed tomography ( µct ) of the braincase and cranial cavity of rhinodipterus kimberleyensis [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] , a recently described stem - group dipnoan from the late devonian gogo formation in northern western australia . the gogo formation is a lagerstätte known for its perfect 3d preservation and high diversity of taxa [ 32 ] , [ 33 ] . rhinodipterus is one of the most crownward stem dipnoans with a near - complete ossified braincase known . lungfish endoskeletons have undergone a radical reduction in ossification since the devonian , possibly as a result of paedomorphosis [ 34 ] , with the result that many post - devonian lungfish are known only from dermal bones and teeth , and none preserves a complete three - dimensional braincase .
holodipterus gogoensis , also from the gogo formation , shows the shape of the braincase particularly well in one weathered specimen ( anu 49102 ) [ 24 ] . the authors have identified numerous nerve canals and approximate endocranial proportions . holodipterus shows two short , robust , and broadly diverging olfactory canals ( [ 24 ] fig . 6b ) , contrasting with the narrower and more elongate canals in rhinodipterus . the space for the telencephalon is relatively short and does not allow for any considerable ventral expansion . like griphognathus , holodipterus also exhibits a large , anterodorsally directed pineal recess ( [ 24 ] fig . 6b ) . the labyrinth region more closely resembles chirodipterus wildungensis ( fig . 4c ) with space for a high superior sinus but lacking a distinctively enlarged utriculus , such as that in rhinodipterus .
when the cranial cavity of rhinodipterus is compared with the brain morphology of the extant lungfish ( figure 1 ) , substantial differences in telencephalic morphology immediately become apparent . all the extant genera have large telencephalic lobes : in protopterus and lepidosiren they are oblong [ 12 ] , [ 16 ] , [ 18 ] , whereas in neoceratodus they are rounder , and very deep ventrally [ 14 ] . the olfactory bulbs are sessile in the lepidosirenids but separated from the telencephalon by short olfactory tracts in neoceratodus ; in all three genera the olfactory bulbs ( or tracts ) attach anterodorsally on the telencephalon . in rhinodipterus the telencephalic lobes must have been much smaller , though the predominantly ventral expansion of the telencephalic cavity suggests a shape somewhat like the brain in neoceratodus , and the olfactory tracts must have been long .
the labyrinth region of modern lungfish are distinguished from those of other gnathostomes by possession of an enlarged utriculus [ 51 ] , [ 52 ] . in the lepidosirenids this is enormous , as big as or bigger than the ( undifferentiated ) sacculolagena , whereas neoceratodus shows a less extreme morphology with a somewhat smaller utriculus ( figure 4 ) . rhinodipterus has a labyrinth cavity resembling that of neoceratodus , except that its utricular cavity is slightly smaller and does not extend so far posteriorly ( figure 4f , g ) . the sinus superior is tall and narrow , as in all modern lungfish . the only surprising feature of the ear of rhinodipterus is the shallow notch , situated approximately between the saccular and lagenar portions , which is not matched either by modern lungfish or by other fossil stem lungfish ( see below ) .
figure 1 shows the characteristic elongated parasphenoid and articulations for cranial ribs of rhinodipterus . the lengthening of the parasphenoid extending posterior to the neurocranium significantly enlarges the buccal cavity , would have enabled the animal to hold a large air bubble . the slot between the tooth plates for a tongue pad ( figure 1 b ) acts as a stop - valve when air is being forced into the lungs ( campbell & barwick 1988 ) .
it is popularly believed that vertebrate air - gulping originated in a tropical lowland setting ( thomson 1969 ) . most fossil lungfish inferred to be air - gulpers have all been from freshwater deposits . the exceptions are the escuminac bay fauna , and partial remains of rhinodipterus from marginal marine environments from the late devonian of europe ( gross 1956 ; ørvig 1961 ; cloutier 1996 ) . usually , marine dipnoi lack the morphological features that would indicate that they were air - breathers ( den blaauwen et al . 2005 ) , and no evidence of cranial ribs in the common late devonian marine gogo fauna ( holodipterus , chirodipterus , griphognathus ) ( miles 1977 ) . however , cranial rib articulations and other features suggesting air - gulping behaviour have been found in a new species of rhinodipterus recently discovered from the shallow marine reef environment of the gogo formation , western australia .
a new species of rhinodipterus from the gogo formation of western australia is known from a single incomplete specimen ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) and will be described in detail in a separate paper ( clement in preparation ) . the specimen was prepared by one of us ( j . l . ) using weak acetic acid ( 7–10 % ) , fortified by mowital b30 consolidant , and coated in a sublimate of ammonium chloride for photography .
the pineal and parapineal organs primitively reached close to the skull roof , though there may not have been a pineal foramen ( a foramen is present in dipnorhynchus and powichthys , but absent in all other members of the lungfish total group ) . this condition is characteristic of all known stem group members ( though unknown in rhinodipterus because of specimen damage ) ; the reduced size and height of the pineal - parapineal complex in extant lungfish is derived ( as recognised by stensiö 1963 [ 50 ] ) . lepidosirenids are more derived than neoceratodus in this regard .
figures 2 and 3 show a virtual endocast of the neurocranial cavity of rhinodipterus kimberleyensis . it measures approximately 45 mm in length , and 20 mm at the widest point across the horizontal semicircular canals . the neurocranium is incomplete anteriorly ( snout tip missing ) , and damaged dorsally in the orbito - temporal region [ 31 ] , but otherwise it is complete and uncompressed with many smaller canals for cranial nerves or blood vessels identifiable . the posterior portion of the neural cavity corresponding to the myelencephalic region or hindbrain ( including the labyrinth region ) is particularly well preserved .
together , these patterns build up a picture of rather modest , directional change during the early evolution of lungfish , centered principally on ventral telencephalic expansion and enlargement of the utriculus . this was a prolonged process , as shown by the substantial differences between even the most derived devonian stem group members such as rhinodipterus , and the extant lungfish . stensiö ' s ( 1963 : p . 82 [ 50 ] ) assertion , based on chirodipterus wildungensis , that the extant ‘dipnoan brain had evolved prior to the beginning of the devonian and that since that time it has remained practically unchanged’ is incorrect .
a , youngolepis praecursor ( from chang [ 25 ] , fig . 19 ) ; b , dipnorhynchus sussmilchi ( from campbell and barwick [ 22 ] , fig . 25 ) ; c , ‘ chirodipterus’ australis ( from miles [ 52 ] , fig . 48 ) ; d , chirodipterus wildungensis ( from säve - söderbergh [ 21 ] , fig . 9 ) ; e , griphognathus whitei ( from miles [ 52 ] , fig . 46 ) ; f , rhinodipterus kimberleyensis ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) ; g , neoceratodus forsteri ; and h , protopterus annectens ( both from retzius [ 51 ] , plate xxiv ) . not to scale , anterior is to the right .
the middle part of the cranial cavity of rhinodipterus is less informative , partly because it is damaged dorsally , but it nevertheless allows some comparisons to be made with the extant genera . the hypophysis appears to have been oriented ventrally as in neoceratodus , not posteroventrally as in lepidosiren [ 14 ] , [ 18 ] and protopterus [ 12 ] . the shape of the mesencephalic - metencephalic cavity suggests the presence of quite large auricles extending forward on either side of a raised middle region of the brain , as in neoceratodus or latimeria . the raised middle region would have comprised the optic tectum and cerebellum , but unfortunately nothing can be said about their morphology and relative proportions beyond the fact that they were narrow in dorsal view .
the distribution of cranial ribs is known from the middle devonian to recent lungfish . recorded from howidipterus and barwickia from a middle devonian lacustrine site in australia ( long 1992 ) , they are also present in later taxa such as sagenodus ( schultze & chorn 1997 ) and gnathorhiza ( berman 1976 ) . like the extant taxa , these fishes inhabited freshwater systems exposed to seasonal drying or anoxia , possibly caused by rotting vegetation . fleurantia and scaumenacia from the marginal marine late devonian deposits of quebec also possess cranial ribs ( cloutier 1996 ) , their presence in dipterus from the fluvial old red sandstone of scotland is not confirmed ( ahlberg & trewin 1995 ) . schultze ( 1975 ) was first to record the presence of cranial ribs in rhinodipterus .
the evolution of labyrinth morphology over time begs an obvious question : how does it relate to function and behaviour ? the vestibular system in fish is involved in detecting body orientation in three dimensions , and respond to other cues such as gravity and acceleration . clement [ 31 ] previously discussed semicircular morphology and its bearing on locomotive behaviour . the similarity between the labyrinth region of neoceratodus and rhinodipterus ( fig . 4f , g ) drew her to conclude that some late devonian lungfish may have obtained similar functional abilities of the labyrinth as seen in extant taxa . narrower semicircular canals increase sensitivity and are associated with more rapid swimming or accurate maneuverability [ 66 ] . the loss of ampullae , narrowing and heightening ( effectively lengthening ) of the canals - a trend seen over time in lungfish - almost certainly enhances sensitivity .
the semicircular canals have already been described in r . kimberleyensis [ 31 ] , the sacculolagena and utricular recess could not be modeled at that time and were thus neglected in that description . these regions are in fact ossified , well preserved and visible from the scan data , measuring close to 20 mm across their widest point ( fig . 2 ) . the sinus superior is laterally compressed and stands vertically ( fig . 3c ) . both the utricular recess and sacculolagena are large , rounded structures . the sacculolagena of rhinodipterus protrudes ventrally below the notochordal chamber , and there is a distinct ventral notch in the sacculolagena ( fig . 3c ) . an expansion in the anterior semicircular canal exists for the anterior ampulla , but the absence of a significant expansion for the posterior ampulla on the posterior semicircular canal [ 31 ] is confirmed .
description : this is a fine example of the lungfish rhinodipterus . it has long been believed that air breathing developed in lungfish living in freshwater habitats , and then spread to marine taxa . specimens of this genus found in australia last year have raised doubts about this long - held hypothesis . the long mouth cavity of this fish coupled with the articulation of the cranial ribs are much like those of the extant freshwater lungfishes of today . while the invasion of freshwater habitats from the marine realm was previously thought to be the driving force in the development of air breathing , this new data has led some researchers to theorise that a drop in ambient oxygen levels was more likely . examples such as this are rarely available . the repaired crack detracts but little from the specimen offered here , the only one i have ever been able to secure .
rhinodipterus provides the earliest unequivocal evidence of air - gulping adaptations in a marine lungfish . extant lungfish shed little light on the selective pressures of the earliest air - breathing dipnoans . despite the ambiguity of the environment in which air - gulping evolved , this observation raises some interesting phylogenetic implications . do all the air - gulpers belong to a single lineage or did air - gulping evolve more than once in the dipnoi ? such a complex suite of characters as those involved in aerial respiration most probably evolved only once , suggesting that these fishes comprise a monophyletic group ( figure 2 ) , based on the recent phylogenetic analysis of lungfishes by ahlberg et al . ( 2006 ) . we suggest that it was a combination of increased metabolic activity combined with low global oxygen levels that drove the evolution of air - gulping in lungfishes during the devonian period .
the presence of rhinodipterus in marine conditions might indicate that these environments were oxygen stressed . many of the exceptionally preserved specimens from gogo show asymmetry ( e . g . variable shape and number of dermal skull bones ) with high levels of variability often present within the same individual ( long & trinajstic in press ) . increasing asymmetry has been shown to occur in animals in stressed habitats ( parsons 1992 ) . the superb state of preservation of the gogo fossils also indicates quick burial and low oxygen levels . while marine conditions were generally better oxygenated than many freshwater environments , there was still sufficient hypoxia in some marine environments to select for air - gulping ( playford & wallace 2001 ) . a large spiracular notch suggests accessory air intake by comparison with extant forms like polypterus . the tetrapodomorph fish gogonasus shows large spiracular openings on top of the skull ( long et al . 2006 ) , indicating that some other gogo fishes may also have been adapting to hypoxic conditions .
a , youngolepis praecursor ( from chang [ 25 ] , fig . 19 ) ; b , dipnorhynchus sussmilchi ( from campbell and barwick [ 22 ] , fig . 25 ) ; c , chirodipterus wildungensis ( from säve - söderbergh [ 21 ] , fig . 9 ) ; d , rhinodipterus kimberleyensis ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) ; and e , eusthenopteron foordi ( from jarvik [ 69 ] , figs . 57 , 59 ) . not to scale , anterior is to the right , grey arrows indicate telencephalic ventral expansion . abbreviations : n . i , olfactory nerve ; n . ii , optic nerve ; n . iii , oculomotor nerve ; n . iv , trochlear nerve ; n . v , trigeminal nerve ; n . vii , facial nerve ; n . viii , auditory nerve ; n . ix , glossopharyngeal nerve ; n . x , vagus nerve ; pin , pineal gland . colour key : green , telencephalic region ; red , diencephalic region ; blue , mesencephalic region ; yellow , metencephalic and myelencephalic regions ; and orange , labyrinth region .
the reconstruction of internal structures in vertebrate fossils has undergone a technical revolution in recent years with the shift from physical serial sectioning or grinding [ 35 ] , [ 36 ] to tomographic techniques based on x - rays or other types of radiation that penetrate the specimen [ 37 ] – [ 42 ] . while brains themselves are only very rarely preserved [ 43 ] , the study of cranial endocasts as a proxy for brain morphology [ 44 ] is a thriving field . of course , one must take care when interpreting endocasts , especially those of fishes where the brain can incompletely fill the neurocranial cavity [ 14 ] , [ 43 ] . nevertheless , endocasts of exquisitely preserved fossils can provide much information about the relative sizes of different regions of the brain , and thus provide a basis for tentative inferences about the sensory and motor capabilities of the animal [ 45 ] . endocasts are also highly character rich , highlighting an underutilized source of anatomical traits for comparative morphology and cladistic analysis . the cranial endocast of rhinodipterus presented here is the first near - complete cranial cavity of a stem lungfish to be imaged tomographically . it demonstrates both the utility of the technique and the high quality of the anatomical data obtainable from gogo formation material .
recent discoveries of tetrapod trackways in 395 myr old tidal zone deposits of poland ( niedźwiedzki et al . 2010 nature 463 , 43–48 ( doi : 10 . 1038 / nature . 08623 ) ) indicate that vertebrates had already ventured out of the water and might already have developed some air - breathing capacity by the middle devonian . air - breathing in lungfishes is not considered to be a shared specialization with tetrapods , but evolved independently . air - breathing in lungfishes has been postulated as starting in middle devonian times ( ca 385 ma ) in freshwater habitats , based on a set of skeletal characters involved in air - breathing in extant lungfishes . new discoveries described herein of the lungfish rhinodipterus from marine limestones of australia identifies the node in dipnoan phylogeny where air - breathing begins , and confirms that lungfishes living in marine habitats had also developed specializations to breathe air by the start of the late devonian ( ca 375 ma ) . while invasion of freshwater habitats from the marine realm was previously suggested to be the prime cause of aerial respiration developing in lungfishes , we believe that global decline in oxygen levels during the middle devonian combined with higher metabolic costs is a more likely driver of air - breathing ability , which developed in both marine and freshwater lungfishes and tetrapodomorph fishes such as gogonasus .
dipnoans , or lungfish , are an ancient lineage of osteichthyan fish that first appeared in the early devonian ( chang & yu 1984 ) . today they are represented by three genera , all of which respire bimodally to some extent ( graham 1997 ) . all exist in freshwater environments exposed to seasonal drying or anoxic conditions . lungfish take in air by gulping a bubble in the mouth , thus a large buccal cavity is an intrinsic feature of all modern air - breathing species .
the gogo formation is an early to mid - frasnian shallow marine inter - reef shale deposit within a large reef complex in the canning basin , western australia ( playford 1980 ) . gogo has yielded an incredibly diverse fish fauna with over 50 species described so far , more than 10 of which are dipnoans .
air - gulping specializations first appeared within the dipnoi during the middle devonian ( figure 2 ) , a time of maximum low global oxygen levels ( berner 2006 ) . air - gulping is thought to have evolved to supplement conventional aquatic respiration during this time of low oxygen ( thomson 1969 ) . their adaptations have also been interpreted as for buoyancy control ( graham 1997 ) , to allow the expulsion of excessive carbon dioxide ( thomson 1969 ) , or to supply the heart with an additional source of oxygen ( farmer 1999 ) . however , in many extant fishes including neoceratodus , activity is a stronger stimulus for air breathing than aquatic hypoxia ( johansen et al . 1967 ) . the question remains as to whether such adaptations were environmentally or metabolically induced .
marine waters are usually better oxygenated than most freshwater environments because of increased wind - driven mixing and tidal flushing ( graham 1997 ) . this trend contributed to the belief that air - gulping must have evolved in hypoxic or anoxic freshwater conditions . however , while hypoxia in marine environments is generally not as extreme , widespread or prolonged as in freshwater habitats , it does still exist . an expansion of hypoxic waters across continental shelves occurred during the warm climate of the palaeozoic ( berry et al . 1989 ) , with hypoxic conditions common in shallow marine and estuarine areas . despite this , few workers considered that aerial respiration could have evolved in marine waters .
ecological radiations of fishes in the devonian are likely to have been associated with increased metabolic costs for greater mobility , and more intensive competition and predation pressures ( graham 1997 ) . the ability to extract additional oxygen could have afforded air - gulping lungfishes the selective advantage of higher rates of metabolic activity , and does not confine their evolution to specific ecological conditions .
we thank k . campbell for useful discussion , g . young for comments on the manuscript , and a . warren who discovered the specimen . this work was funded by arc discovery grant dp0772138 .
structure and phylogenetic significance of diabolichthys speratus gen . et sp . nov . , a new dipnoan - like form from the lower devonian of eastern yunnan , china
the postcranial anatomy of two middle devonian lungfishes ( osteichthyes , dipnoi ) from mt . howitt , victoria , australia
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citation : clement am , ahlberg pe ( 2014 ) the first virtual cranial endocast of a lungfish ( sarcopterygii : dipnoi ) . plos one 9 ( 11 ) : e113898 . urltoken
copyright : © 2014 clement , ahlberg . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .
data availability : the authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction . all relevant data are within the paper .
funding : this work was funded by a wallenberg scholarship from the knut and alice wallenberg foundation , awarded to pea . urltoken . the funder had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .
of the extant dipnoans , the neoceratodontid lineage is thought to have diverged from the lepidosirenids ( protopterus and lepidosiren ) as long ago as the permian [ 10 ] , [ 11 ] . as would be expected , the lepidosirenid lungfish are more similar to each other than to neoceratodus , the sole remaining species of the neoceratodontidae . the two lungfish families differ strikingly in a number of morphological features , including their overall body shape , both body and paired fins , skull roof , dentition , and in a number of soft tissue elements including their nervous systems [ 12 ] – [ 18 ] .
a , latimeria ; b , neoceratodus ; and c , protopterus in dorsal view , modified from northcutt [ 16 ] ; and schematic representations of extant sarcopterygian brains showing brain divisions , latimeria in d , dorsal and e , lateral view ( adapted from niewenhuys [ 19 ] ) ; neoceratodus in f , dorsal ( adapted from northcutt [ 16 ] , [ 17 ] ) and g , lateral view ( adapted from holmgren and van der horst [ 14 ] ) ; and protopterus in h , dorsal view ( adapted from northcutt [ 16 ] ) and i , lepidosiren in lateral view ( adapted from collin [ 18 ] ) . scale bar equals 1 cm . abbreviations : a , auricle ; c , cerebellum ; n . ii , optic nerve ; n . v , trigeminal nerve ; n . x , vagus nerve ; t , telencephalon .
the first illustrated endocast of any devonian lungfish was that of chirodipterus wildungensis [ 21 ] . later , a number of uncrushed specimens were used to reconstruct the neurocranial cavity of dipnorhynchus illustrating the relationship between the braincase and the canals for nerves and blood vessels [ 22 ] , [ 23 ] , and again similarly for holodipterus from a single specimen [ 24 ] . partial endocasts of the extinct dipnomorphs youngolepis [ 25 ] and powichthys [ 26 ] , and the porolepiform glyptolepis [ 27 ] are also known , as are those of primitive tetrapodomorphs such as tungsenia [ 28 ] and eusthenopteron [ 29 ] .
clement 2012 ( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) from the frasnian gogo formation , was acid - prepared by prof . john a . long ( mv ) , and is currently housed at the west australian museum , perth . the uncrushed specimen was scanned at the australian national university ( anu ) high resolution x - ray computed tomography facility [ 46 ] , with a scan resolution of 55 . 5 microns . three - dimensional modeling and segmentation was completed using the software vgstudio max , version 2 . 2 ( volume graphics inc . , germany ) . permits were not required for the described study , which complied with all relevant regulations .
we use the following brain terminology herein : telencephalon and diencephalon comprise the forebrain , the mesencephalon the midbrain , and the hindbrain is composed of the metencephalon and myelencephalon . anteriorly , housed within the olfactory canal , the olfactory tract is an extension of the brain itself ( not a nerve ) . the tract can be expanded into an olfactory bulb anteriorly , usually contained within a nasal sac or cavity [ 47 ] .
( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) cranial endocast in a , dorsal ; and b , ventral views .
abbreviations : n . ii , optic nerve ; n . v , trigeminal nerve ; n . x , vagus nerve .
( wam 09 . 6 . 149 ) cranial endocast in a , anterior ; b , posterior ; and c , lateral views .
the telencephalic region is long ( at least longer than 14 mm ) and slightly broader than the midbrain cavity ( by approx . 0 . 5 mm ) . anteriorly , the endocast has long , slender olfactory canals that are circular in cross - section . they lie close to each other and diverge only narrowly ( fig . 2 ) . the anterior portion of the snout is missing , so the nasal capsules are unknown . the olfactory canals merge with the telencephalic cavity proper in the posterior third of the telencephalic region ; relative to the canals , the cavity bulges ventrally as well as ( to a lesser degree ) laterally and dorsally .
posterior to the telencephalon , the anterior margin of the diencephalic region is marked by the canals for the optic nerves ( n . ii ) that emerge into the orbits . a small , smoothly rounded ventral protuberance , separated from the telencephalic cavity by a distinct notch , represents the hypophysial fossa ( fig . 2b , 3a , c ) . two pairs of canals for blood vessels emerge from the hypophysial fossa ; anteriorly possibly for the ophthalmic artery and posteriorly possibly for the pituitary vein ( fig . 2b ) . unfortunately this region of the braincase has suffered some damage dorsally , so canals for nerves iii and iv that should emerge from the dorsal part of the cranial cavity are not preserved . the diencephalic , mesencephalic and metencephalic regions are strongly laterally compressed ( between 3 . 5–5 . 1 mm in width ) , all slightly narrower than the telencephalic region ( ≈5 . 5 mm ) .
wide canals for the trigeminal nerves ( n . v ) anterior to the labyrinth region mark the anterior boundary of the myelencephalic region ( fig . 2 ) . while the mesencephalic and metencephalic regions are short , the myelencephalon is longer ( almost the same length as all three preceding regions combined , ≈10 mm ) . dorsally , the supraotic cavities are well defined and carry broad , bulging anterior and posterior prominences ( figs . 2a , 3b ) . in anterior view two deep indentations where the supraotic cavities attach to the cranial cavity can be seen ( fig . 3a ) .
on either side of the specimen , behind the labyrinth region , a thick canal for the vagus nerve ( n . x ) extends posterolaterally . posterior to the vagus nerve , five narrow canals for spinal nerves can be seen extending laterally from the cranial cavity ( figs . 2 , 3b , c ) . moving from the posterior margin of the labyrinth region to the posterior end of the endocast , the cranial cavity gradually narrows by nearly half its width , and also becomes lower . at its most posterior point the cranial cavity has a narrow upright - oval cross - section ( fig . 3b ) .
the canal for the notochord is wide and circular in cross - section posteriorly . it gradually narrows and becomes shallower towards the anterior , while simultaneously flexing ventrally to accommodate the ventral expansion of the mesencephalic - metencephalic region of the cranial cavity ; its anterior end lies just posterior to the hypophyseal fossa ( fig . 2b ) .
obviously care must be taken when interpreting cranial cavity endocasts , especially as the shape of fish brains are generally not constrained as tightly as in other groups such as mammals and birds [ 48 ] , [ 49 ] . however , stensiö [ 50 ] noted that the telencephalic and diencephalic regions in neoceratodus very closely reflected the shape of the cranial cavity . moreover , no part of the brain can be larger than the cavity that houses it , and this simple fact places strong constraints on the inferred brain morphology .
chirodipterus australis from the gogo formation , which has been figured in the same manner as griphognathus whitei [ 52 ] shows some interesting differences from chirodipterus wildungensis . the overall shape of the cranial cavity is similar , again with a well - developed pineal recess , but the telencephalic cavity appears to be proportionately shorter and the olfactory canals are long ( [ 52 ] figs . 17 , 66 ) . in the labyrinth cavity , the utricular recess is much smaller than in the aforementioned taxa ( figure 4c , d ) and the supraotic cavity is small and simple in shape ( [ 52 ] fig . 47 ) . as previously recognized [ 54 ] , these and other features suggest that ‘chirodipterus’ australis is not closely related to c . wildungensis and should not be assigned to that genus , ‘c . ’ australis is probably a less crownward member of the stem group than c . wildungensis .
the stem - group members discussed above are all forms that from a traditional ‘key character’ perspective would be ( and have been ) deemed conventional ‘fossil lungfish’ : they possess major components of the modern lungfish character complex such as autostyly , absence of an intracranial joint , and a palatal bite . this contrasts with youngolepis , powichthys and porolepiforms - considered in the next section - which are assigned to the most basal part of the dipnoan stem group in the majority of recent analyses [ 28 ] , [ 55 ] but are not so obviously lungfish - like . the ‘fossil lungfish’ are all undisputed members of the stem group [ 22 ] , [ 55 ] , [ 56 ] and are always recovered crownward to youngolepis , powichthys and porolepiforms .
the cranial cavity of youngolepis ( fig . 5a ) has been described in its entirety [ 25 ] , whereas in powichthys and porolepiforms ( represented here by glyptolepis groenlandica ) the part posterior to the diencephalon is unknown [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] . the telencephalic regions of all three taxa resemble each other , and differ from those of the ‘fossil lungfish’ as well as extant lungfish , on several points . the telencephalic cavity proper is very short , and the olfactory canals correspondingly long . furthermore , there is no ventral expansion of the telencephalic cavity ; insofar as there is a vertical expansion at all ( in powichthys and glyptolepis , but not in youngolepis ) it is dorsal to the exits of the olfactory canals . in eusthenopteron ( figure 5e ) , tungsenia and spodichthys , which are members of the tetrapod stem group and can thus be used as an outgroup in this context , the telencephalic cavity is longer than in youngolepis , powichthys and glyptolepis , but there is again no obvious ventral expansion [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 57 ] . all six genera have large anterodorsally directed pineal recesses . the otic region of youngolepis closely resembles that of eusthenopteron ( fig . 5a , e ) : the utricular recess is not enlarged , the sinus superior is low , and the supraotic cavity resembles that of griphognathus .
primitively , the nasal cavities are separated from the telencephalic cavity by long olfactory canals . although the exact location of the olfactory bulb within the cranial cavities of the fossil forms is not strongly constrained ( see jarvik 1980 : fig . 89 , for one attempt at reconstruction [ 29 ] ) , it is clear that pedunculate olfactory bulbs are primitive for the lungfish total group . sessile bulbs are a derived feature of lepidosirenids .
the telencephalon proper is primitively short . all extant lungfish have a longer telencephalon than the stem group members . lepidosirenids are more derived than neoceratodus in this regard .
a ventral expansion of the telencephalon is primitively absent ( as shown by youngolepis , powichthys and glyptolepis ) , but begins to develop in conjunction with other aspects of lungfish morphology such as autostyly and a palatal bite . dipnorhynchus and all more crownward stem lungfish have such an expansion , but it is smaller than that of modern lungfish .
an expanded utriculus develops gradually within the lungfish stem group , crownward of dipnorhynchus . the utriculi of extant lungfish are larger than those of any stem group members , but once again the lepidosirenids are much more derived than neoceratodus .
the neuroanatomy of extant lungfish allow us to draw some tentative conclusions about the functional significance of the telencephalic expansion . in neoceratodus the part of the telencephalon that lies ventral to the plane of the olfactory tract consists entirely of the subpallium [ 14 ] . this region of the brain appears to deal substantially with olfaction , and we can probably conclude that the ventral expansion of the telencephalon during lungfish evolution related functionally to the development of an enhanced sense of smell [ 19 ] . conversely , the mesencephalon , which receives visual input , is proportionately small in both stem and crown lungfish , relative to most actinopterygians and chondrichthyans .
there are surprisingly few studies on lobe - finned fish labyrinths , despite the likely insights they could provide into the transition of the early tetrapods [ 58 ] – [ 60 ] . retzius [ 51 ] was the first to describe them in lungfish , millot and anthony [ 61 ] for the coelacanth . later authors have expanded this work [ 62 ] – [ 65 ] . latimeria is considered to have an labyrinth region “with tetrapod affinities” [ 62 ] , whereas the dipnoan labyrinth has been described as having a mix of chondrichthyan and lissamphibian features [ 64 ] .
the functional significance of the striking utricular expansion in the dipnoi is surprisingly difficult to determine . early literature considered the utricule most important for postural control ( particularly horizontal movement ) , whereas the sacculolagena was considered to have a more auditory role [ 67 ] . however , more recent literature suggests that all otolith organs may have both auditory and vestibular roles [ 67 ] , often varying between different fish species [ 68 ] . although conclusions can ' t be drawn without experimental evidence , the changing proportions of labyrinth organs likely indicate an altered sensitivity of the vestibular system with respect to posture control , and may or may not have had an additional role in hearing .
thanks are due to a number of people , firstly prof . john long who led the 2008 museum victoria / australian national university gogo expedition , funded by arc discovery grant dp 0772138 , during which dr . anne warren discovered the specimen , prof . john long also prepared the specimen . we are indebted to prof . t . senden of australian national university for scanning the specimen , and many thanks are also due to dr . sophie sanchez for assistance with three - dimensional modeling and rendering of the specimen . the manuscript was improved by three helpful reviews , and amc wishes to acknowledge dr . tom challands for valuable discussions concerning lungfish endocast morphology .
conceived and designed the experiments : amc pea . performed the experiments : amc . analyzed the data : amc pea . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : amc pea . wrote the paper : amc pea .
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malo kingi or the common kingslayer is an irukandji jellyfish named after victim robert king , a tourist from the united states swimming off port douglas , queensland , who died from its sting .

it was first described to science in 2007 , and is one of four species in genus malo .

it has some of the world 's most potent venom , even though it is no bigger than a human thumbnail .

as an irukandji , it can cause irukandji syndrome , characterized by severe pain , vomiting , and rapid rise in blood pressure .

malo kingi

two malo kingi specimens , opaque due to preservation . credit : lisa - anne gershwin
no one has contributed data records for malo kingi yet . learn how to contribute .
synonymy straehler - pohl 2014 suggests that malo kingi is a junior synonym of malo maxima . no genetic data included . [ details ]
malo kingi , the common kingslayer . credit : gondwanagirl ; distributed under a cc - by 2 . 0 license
malo kingi : a new species of irukandji jellyfish ( cnidaria : cubozoa : carybdeida ) , possibly lethal to humans , from queensland , australia .
( l ) the halo - form tentacle of an adult malo kingi . ( r ) . tentacle of a young pseudo - irukandji form lacking the species ' characteristic halos . credit : lisa - anne gershwin .
gershwin , l . 2007 . malo kingi : a new species of irukandji jellyfish ( cnidaria : cubozoa : carybdeida ) , possibly lethal to humans . zootaxa 1659 : 55–68 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
aww look at this tiny jelly ! the common kingslayer ( malo kingi ) is only about 5 millimetres ( 0 . 20 in ) to 25 millimetres ( 0 . 98 in ) wide ( or wider ) and has four long tentacles , which can range in length from just a few centimeters up to 1 metre ( 3 . 3 ft ) in length . wait . wait a sec . why is it called the common kingslayer ? that sounds just a taaaad bit ominous , no ?
a number of nematocysts were recovered from king ' s body and clothing , and were examined by australian jellyfish expert and csiro researcher , lisa - anne gershwin . in her 2007 zootaxa paper she concluded that these nematocysts were like none she ' d ever seen before . she compared cells from these nematocysts with those from several specimens of a new species she had found in 1999 , and it was a perfect match . in 2007 , gershwin named this new species malo kingi , after the scientist it felled .
some species of box jellyfish ( cubozoans ) can weigh up to 2 kg , but many are absolutely tiny . like the bell - shaped body of c . barnesi , m . kingi ' s bell grows to no more than 3 cm high . and not only is m . kingi tiny , it ' s also transparent , making it extremely difficult to spot in the water . the species is distinguished from all others by having strange halo - like rings of tissue encircling its four tentacles .
straehler - pohl , i . ( 2014 ) . critical evaluation of characters for species identification in the cubomedusa genus malo ( cnidaria , cubozoa , carybdeida , carukiidae ) . plankton and benthos researchm . 9 ( 2 ) : 83–98 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
gershwin reported that m . kingi ' s danger to humans has been ambiguous , citing several attacks that have resulted in only minor symptoms . in the 1960s , australian medical toxicologist , jack h . barnes , tested the venom of a m . kingi specimen in his collection , and got off lightly . in his report , barnes even named his attacker ' pseudo - irukandji ' , because of its inability to inflict the full force of irukandji syndrome . gershwin noted that barnes happened to choose the smallest , and likely youngest , specimen in his collection , and argued that a life in captivity could have messed with the jellyfish ' s toxicity levels :
gershwin looked into a number of other non - fatal m . kingi attacks , and found that none of them could be attributed to an adult specimen .
it is possible that as pseudo - irukandji matures , it concurrently changes its physical and chemical properties , becoming lethal with halo - form tentacle bands ,
she concluded . so if you ' re going to have an encounter with the kingslayer , make sure it ' s a baby one .
in 2003 , while investigating king ' s death , gershwin suffered a m . kingi sting herself , and just like barnes , her symptoms were mild . her attacker was also small , and gershwin noted that it was missing the distinctive halo - form tentacles , plus gonads , suggesting to her that it was a juvenile .
i was personally stung quite extensively across the palms of both hands by this species in june 2003 at port douglas , without systemic effects ,
she wrote .
however , both hands blistered badly and several layers of skin completely peeled about one week after the sting event . the specimen proved to be immature when examined , and was subsequently used for dna analysis .
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“how’s it feel , kingslayer , to have all the gold in the world but it won’t buy your sword hand back ? “ “a minor setback , if truth be told .
a minor setback , if truth be told . but look - i have spares !
this tiny species of jellyfish is one of the most venomous creatures in the world . thanks to its role in the death of robert king , a nestlé research scientist from ohio , it has been nicknamed the common kingslayer .
in 2002 king had travelled to australia with his partner to spend some time snorkelling in opal reef , which is just off port douglas in queensland . earlier that year , british tourist richard jordan had been stung by a jellyfish 700 km away on hamilton island . the venom from the sting brought on irukandji syndrome , and jordon was its first documented fatality . named after a local indigenous australian tribe near cairns in queensland , irukandji syndrome is brought on by a sting from one of 10 species of venomous jellyfish found in tropical and temperate oceans around the world . many of them are found in australian waters .
( and now would be a good time to mention that there ' s a book by sydney - based author , wendy lewis , that recounts king and jordon ' s tragic encounters with these jellyfish called see australia and die . see australia and die . help i live here and my cat brings spiders into my house through the window . )
while rarely fatal , irukandji syndrome sends most of its victims to hospital . it takes 5 - 10 minutes after the sting for symptoms to set in , but when they do , they ' re excruciating . a typical set of symptoms includes severe lower back pain , vomiting and muscle cramps , and if particularly serious , could result in toxic heart failure , fluid on the lungs or a brain haemorrhage . around 30 % of cases result in some form of heart failure , and one in five victims suffer life - threatening complications and end up on life support .
scale illustration of the irukandji jellyfish , carukia barnesi . credit : anynobody ; distributed under a cc - by 2 . 0 license
jellyfish deliver venom via nematocysts . when a jellyfish ' s tentacle touches its victim , these little harpoon - shaped darts fire into the victim ' s skin to deliver venom into the bloodstream . no nematocysts were recovered from jordan ' s body , which made it difficult to nail down a culprit , but it ' s widely assumed that he was stung by carukia barnesi , a box jellyfish species from the whitsundays area commonly known as the irukandji jellyfish .
his specimens had been in captivity for hours prior to the stinging experiment ; the degree to which the condition of the animal affects its sting ability is undocumented , but i have often observed cubozoans stinging each other and the sides of the collecting container . it is not difficult to imagine that they could have expended much of their stinging ability without sufficient time to regenerate it .
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collins , a . g . ; jarms , g . ( 2018 ) . world list of cubozoa .
habitat : mostly australia but has been found of the coast of japan and florida . status : not evaluted
well… upon further research , this itty - bitty jelly is so cute it might kill you . no , really . and not from like the sheer adorableness of it… but from its insanely poisonous sting . this species of box jellyfish was described as recently as 2007 after an 44 year - old american tourist by the name of robert king was swimming in australian waters and encountered this minute box jellyfish . he was stung and died soon after . that’s where i’s morbid name of ‘common kingslayer’ comes from ( after robert king ) .
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guyanemorpha is a genus of beetles , the guyane false-form beetles , in the family carabidae .

it contains one known species , the spectacular guyane false-form beetle , ( guyanemorpha spectabilis ) , which was found in french guiana and first described in 2013 by terry l. erwin in the open access journal zookeys .

it was discovered during a survey of the country 's insects by the entomological society antilles-guyane ( seag ) .

related species cohabit with ants , and it is thought likely that g. spectabilis will do so also .

guyanemorpha

the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , guyanemorpha spectabilis . image credit : karolyn darrow , smithsonian institution .
this myrmecophilous genus of carabidae has a single species , guyanemorpha spectabilis . it is an inquiline in the nests of arboreal ants .
guyanemorpha is a genus of beetle , the guyane false - form beetles , in the family carabidae . it contains one known species , the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , ( guyanemorpha spectabilis ) , which was found in french guiana and first described in 2013 by terry l .
the beetle , scientifically named guyanemorpha spectabilis , belongs to the pseudomorphini tribe , famous for the co - existence of its representatives with various ant species .
guyanemorpha spectabilis , commonly named the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , stands out among its dull relatives in the western hemisphere , with its great size and beautiful coloration .
beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n .
ebscohost | 93527059 | beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n .
guyanemorpha is a genus of beetle , the guyane false - form beetles , in the family carabidae . it contains one known species , the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , ( guyanemorpha spectabilis ) , which was found in french guiana and first described in 2013 by terry l . erwin in the open access journal zookeys . it was discovered during a survey of the country ' s insects by the entomological society antilles - guyane ( seag ) .
erwin tl . 2013 . beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n . zookeys 358 : 11–23 ; doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 358 . 6298
erwin tl ( 2013 ) beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n . zookeys 358 : 11–23 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 358 . 6298 pdf
more information : erwin tl ( 2013 ) beetles that live with ants ( coleoptera , carabidae , pseudomorphini ) : a remarkable new genus and species from guyane ( french guiana ) , guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n , sp . n . . zookeys 358 : 11 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 358 . 6298
scientists from the smithsonian institution describe the spectacular guyane false - form beetle , or guyanemorpha spectabilis , from guyane ( french guiana ) . as its name suggests , the newly discovered species stands out among its dull relatives in the western hemisphere , with its great size and beautiful coloration . the study was published in the open access journal zookeys .
abstract : among the extensive collections currently being made in guyane ( french guiana ) , adults of a large and colorful species of pseudomorphine were encountered . the adults present , for the first time in the western hemisphere , elytra with a marked color pattern , and in addition a size considerably beyond that of the rest of the members of all other known genera in the western hemisphere . both of these attributes , however , are well known in the australian pseudomorphine fauna . this new species is described and illustrated and a revised key to the western hemisphere genera is included . the type locality of guyanemorpha spectabilis gen . n . , sp . n . is guyane , risquetout , pk20 , 4 . 916°n , 52 . 516°w , 12m altitude .
this surprising large and colorful pseudomorphine came as a shock to me , as all other species of the tribe in the western hemisphere are quite dull brown , dark reddish , or blackish with no , or little , color contrast on the upper surface ,
explains the author dr . terry l . erwin .
in the world of entomology this new species can be only compared in its rare characteristics to the olinguito , a new carnivore species which charmed the world and just recently described by kris helgen in zookeys ,
he added .
the new species belongs to the pseudomorphini tribe , famous for the co - existence of its representatives with various ant species . members of g . spectabilis occur at lowland rainforest sites in french guiana and are accordingly most likely to live with ants , although at present nothing is known about their way of life .
the pseudomorphines are a very interesting evolutionary off - shoot of the normal carabid morphotype in both form and function and are only just now beginning to be understood in north america . the fact that species of related genera in south america are living with arboreal ants will make learning about them far more difficult . insecticidal fogging gets adults of these species , but only tearing apart arboreal azteca ant nests while suspended in a tree will produce their larvae , and that is not for carabidologists faint of heart ,
explains the author dr . erwin , and his intern , lauren amundson .
famous as the sacred beetles of ancient egypt the scarab beetle group in fact represents much greater diversity around the globe . some of the most vulnerable representatives are contained in the flightless genus gyronotus , . . .
costa rica reveals astonishing biodiversity of braconid wasps , with 277 new species of the tribe heterospilini described in the latest special issue of the open access journal zookeys .
two new beautiful wasp species are added to the rare pompilid genus abernessia , which now contains a total of only four known species . the two new species a . prima and a . capixaba are believed to be endemic for brazil alongside . . .
in guiana , symbiosis between azteca ants and the cecropia tree ( or trumpet tree ) is frequent . however , a surprising discovery has been made : one species of ant ( azteca andreae ) uses the
velcro
principle to cling on firmly . . .
arboreal tarantulas are known from a few tropical places in asia , africa , south and central america and the caribbean . these tarantulas generally have a lighter build , thinner bodies and longer legs , better suited for their . . .
scientists discovered a new enigmatic species of ant coming from the philippines . cardiocondyla pirata or the pirate ant engages the imagination with a bizarre pigmentation pattern that has no equivalent worldwide . the female . . .
the co - evolution of plant—pathogen interactions has been revealed in unprecedented detail in a study of one of the world ' s deadliest crop killers . this is the rice blast pathogen , which destroys enough food to feed more . . .
using genome editing to inactivate a protein called pcsk9 effectively reduces cholesterol levels in rhesus macaques , a species of monkey , according to researchers from the perelman school of medicine at the university of . . .
fish that ' farm ' their own patches of seaweed alter their ' cropping ' practices under high co2 conditions , researchers at the university of adelaide in australia have found .
mucus is able to protect us from infection thanks to ancient genes that have been conserved throughout 350 million years of evolution—dating back to our days as a jellyfish .
by proving a theory that was first proposed almost 40 years ago , researchers have confirmed a new way that cells conserve energy .
our bodies consist of many different kinds of cells , each with their own role . the japanese scientist shinya yamanaka had made earlier the discovery , earning the nobel prize in 2012 , that cells from adult skin can be converted . . .
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little is known about the species ' behaviour , other than that it lives in lowland rainforest . related species cohabit with ants , and it is thought likely that g . spectabilis will do so also .
the holotype is currently held in trust at the national museum of natural history , part of the smithsonian institution , washington , dc , until the planned natural history museum of guyane is established , and at that time , the specimen will be transferred there .
well as 2015 becomes an ever distant memory and we scuttle , creep , scurry , amble and roll ( for this is how beetles move right ? ) into 2016 , let us look back on a very successful year of collection enhancement .
the collection here is a big one , and serves to represent the world’s known coleoptera biodiversity as comprehensively as possible but it is an uphill task to curate , much in the same way as a dung beetle may struggle against the desert sands with its dung ball prize .
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dr terry erwin of the smithsonian institution has described a new genus and species of beetle from french guiana .
the beetle lives in lowland rainforests of french guiana and is most likely to live with ants , although at present nothing is known about their way of life .
“this surprising large and colorful pseudomorphine came as a shock to me , as all other species of the tribe in the western hemisphere are quite dull brown , dark reddish , or blackish with no , or little , color contrast on the upper surface , ” said dr erwin , who is the author of the paper published in the open - access journal zookeys .
“in the world of entomology this new species can be only compared in its rare characteristics to the olinguito , a new carnivore species which charmed the world and just recently described by dr kris helgen in zookeys . ”
“the pseudomorphines are a very interesting evolutionary off - shoot of the normal carabid morphotype in both form and function and are only just now beginning to be understood in north america . ”
“the fact that species of related genera in south america are living with arboreal ants will make learning about them far more difficult . insecticidal fogging gets adults of these species , but only tearing apart arboreal azteca ant nests while suspended in a tree will produce their larvae , and that is not for carabidologists faint of heart , ” dr erwin said .
juvenile australopithecus climbed trees , 3 . 32 - million - year - old foot fossil shows
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in october , the world wildlife fund ( wwf ) published a list of 441 new species that have been discovered in the amazon in the last four years : 258 plants , 84 fish , 58 amphibians , 22 reptiles , 18 birds , and one mammal . that’s “an average of two new species identified every week for the past four years , ” read a wwf press release , and “ [ t ] his doesn’t even include the countless discoveries of insects and other invertebrates . ”
the findings are a welcome break from news of impending extinctions , and the new species are a reminder of the importance of continued vigilance and conservation . of course , the amazon is not the only place where new life is popping up . thousands of new species are described each year , hailing from nearly every continent and diverse branches of life . in may , the scientist covered the international institute for species exploration at arizona state university’s annual top 10 , with favorites chosen for their unexpected features or their unique habitats . here are a few of candidates for the 2013 lineup :
) , which roams the open grasslands and forests of brazil and colombia . though it’s the smallest of the tapirs , it’s one of the largest animals in south america . published in the
the new tapir species isn’t so new to local tribes , however , who regularly hunt the “little black tapir , ” as they call it . “ [ indigenous people ] traditionally reported seeing what they called ‘a different kind of anta [ tapir in portuguese ] . ’ however , the scientific community has never paid much attention to the fact , stating that it was always the same tapirus terrestris , ” lead author and paleontologist mario cozzuol of brazil’s universidade federal de minas gerais belo horizonte told mongabay . com . “they did not give value to local knowledge and thought the locals were wrong . knowledge of the local community needs to be taken into account and that ' s what we did in our study , which culminated in the discovery of a new species to science . ”
was this year declared to be a distinct species from its close relative , the onlingo , a member of the raccoon family . the new species was first discovered in a drawer , at chicago’s field museum . kristofer helgen , curator of mammals at the smithsonian institution national museum of natural history , found a collection of skin , skulls , and bones that “stopped me in my tracks , ” he told
. “the skins were a rich red color and when i looked at the skulls i didn’t recognize the anatomy . . . right away i thought it could be a species new to science . ”
on the basis of a grainy video of an olinguito - like animal in the andes , helgen and his colleagues headed to colombia and ecuador to find the mammal in the trees of cloud forests . furry , orange , and weighing less than a kilogram , the olinguito is solitary and nocturnal . it is smaller than the olingo , and the two species have differences in their teeth and tails . helgen’s team published its findings august 15 in zookeys , noting that the olinguito is threatened ; construction and farming and destroyed nearly half of its forest habitat . “this reminds us that the world is not yet explored and the age of discovery is far from over , ” helgen told bbc news .
journal . belonging to the warbler family , the cambodian tailorbird can be found living in and around the country’s capital city of phnom penh . it resembles other tailorbirds , the researchers report , but its plumage , song , and genes support its reclassification as its own species—something that is rare in urban ecosystems .
“the modern discovery of an undescribed bird species within the limits of a large populous city—not to mention 30 minutes from my home—is extraordinary , ” study coauthor simon mahood of the wildlife conservation society told bbc news . “the discovery indicates that new species of birds may still be found in familiar and unexpected locations . ”
once again , however , as the bird’s small habitat continues to shrink , prompting the researchers to recommend that it be listed as “near threatened” on the international union for conservation of nature’s red list .
sleek , eel - like fish known as arapaima have , for some time , been considered to comprise a single species , but new evidence suggests that a classic division of the group into four species is actually more accurate . moreover , researchers claim to have found a distinct fifth species of arapaima , according to a study published by suny college of environmental science and forestry’s donald stewart in the march issue of
“everybody for 160 years had been saying there’s only one kind of arapaima , ” stewart said in a press release . “but we know now there are various species , including some not previously recognized . ”
a common target of amazonian fisherman , arapaima are commercially important fish . curious about the recognition of four species of arapaima in the mid - 1800s , stewart closely examined original specimens and found that they were indeed four species after all . one specimen , held at the instituto nacional de pesquisas da amazônia in manaus , brazil , even represents a fifth species ( a . leptosoma ) , stewart concluded . the sensory cavities on its head have a unique shape , and the fish has a sheath over part of its dorsal fin that other arapaima don’t have . it also has a distinctive color pattern .
unfortunately , arapaima have been overfished in the amazon basin for more than a century , bringing their current populations to near zero .
) , close cousin of the scalloped hammerhead . according to study published in august in the journal
, the new shark species is genetically distinct , and has about 10 fewer vertebrae that the scalloped hammerhead .
the carolina variety was discovered by university of south carolina fish expert joe quattro , who gathered what appeared to be 80 young scalloped hammerheads . genetic and anatomical analyses proved otherwise , however . in the end , 54 of the 80 sharks belonged to the new species .
quattro expects that , like the dwindling populations of the scalloped shark , the carolina shark is rare . “outside of south carolina , we’ve only seen five tissue samples of the cryptic species , ” quattro said in a release . “and that’s out of three or four hundred specimens . ”
you might think that finding a new species of the largest fish in the ocean is uncommon , and it is , but this year boasts another new shark species : hemiscyllium halmahera , a shark that “walks” along the sandy bottoms surrounding a remote indonesian island ( see video ) . publishing in july in the journal of ichthyology , marine biologist mark erdmann of conservation international and his colleagues describe the species . the animals can grow up to 70 centimeters ( 27 inches ) in length , and as with other walking—or epaulette—sharks , females lay their eggs under reef ledges .
with so many new species populating this year’s scientific literature , there simply isn’t room to cover them all . but suffice it to say that diversity is not what this list is lacking : a new orchid from volcanic islands west of spain , a tiny crustacean found in an offshore reef cave near california’s catalina island , the spectacular guyane false - form beetle of the french guiana rainforests , five species of “slavemaker” ants that steal the young of other ants , a humpback dolphin , two gecko species , and a turkish scorpion . plus many more just waiting to be found .