acanthaspis petax is a species of assassin bug that preys on ants .

this species uses carcasses of its preferred prey item to disguise itself from predation from spiders in the salticidae family .

this insect lives in east africa near lake victoria , in countries including uganda , kenya , and tanzania .

it measures about 1 cm ( 0.4 in ) in length .

acanthaspis petax

the wierd but facinating acanthaspis petax in khao yai national park . inset is a jumping spider seen on an adjacent branch at the same time
robert jackson and simon pollard from the university of canterbury have been studying a pretender with a much more gruesome disguise – the ant - snatching assassin bug acanthaspis petax , which covers itself with the corpses of its own prey .
heres turmeric , shes an asocial assassin bug , based on milkweed assassin bug and acanthaspis petax . she carved those skulls out of wood in hopes people would just leave her be , shes old and tired and not great with socialization
acanthaspis petax is famous for it ' s incredible use of dead ants to perform a macabre form of aggressive mimicry . as you can see from the photograph this assassin bug covers itself by stacking the exoskeletons of dead ants into its back and carrying them around like a rucksack !
but why do the assassin bugs refrain from using other insects in the same way ? the researchers suggest that acanthaspis petax may actually be relying on the spiders’ inherent reluctance to attack ants . because ants have a tendency to swarm and may secrete chemical weapons , the spiders don’t typically hunt them .
for years , scientists debated why acanthaspis petax engaged in this unusual behavior . it hunts several different types of prey , but appears to exclusively stack ant bodies on its back . some suggested that the ant corpses may provide olfactory camouflage when hunting , while others thought the mound of bodies may be used as a visual distraction for larger creatures that are hunting the assassin bug .
it is believed that they perform this grizzly feat in order to mask themselves from the predatory jumping spiders ( salticidae ) that sometimes feed on them . it is thought that jumping spiders do not normally attack ants due to their nature of swarming and use of acids as defence . an incredible form of camoflague and defense by acanthaspis petax showing just how complex the interactions of species in bio - diverse habitats like khao yai national park can be .
a fascinating find by ian edwardes in khao yai national park is the assassin bug acanthapsis petax . known to exist in africa , malaysia and the philippines this incedible member of the reduviidae family is now known to be found in thailand also .
this is acanthaspis petax , a member of the reduviidae family , which is found in east africa and malaysia . like other assassin bugs , it hunts its prey by piercing it with its proboscis , injecting paralysis - inducing saliva and an enzyme that dissolves tissue , then sucking out the innards . but unlike other bugs , it then fashions empty ant exoskeletons into protective outerwear . the insect can carry as many as 20 dead ants at a time , and binds them together with a sticky excretion into a cluster that may be larger than its own body .
assassin bugs are insects of the family reduviidae and while reduviidae is a large family one species ( acanthaspis petax ) from malaysia does something extraordinary , when the assassin bug attaches its prey it injects it with a enzyme that liquefies the its innards so the bug can easily suck them out leaving the prey as an empty husk of an exoskeleton . the assassin then takes the empty shell and attacks it to its back using a sticky substance to keep them in place , the bug will pile these carcasses high making a mound of twenty or more exoskeletons . these trophies provide the bug several benefits as the mound of dead prey will make any predator think twice before attacking the assassin bug , and if a predator does attack the expendable mound of husks will serve as the first line of defense so the bug can escape .
many animals in our world are known to collect things : cats can start collections of garden gloves , birds will steal beads and bottle caps for their nests , squirrels hoard stashes of nuts . most often , animals collect and store food . even if they’re not hungry now , food is too good to pass up , so they will store it for later when they need it . those who don’t collect food often run their collections for aesthetic reasons . birds build their nests with brightly colored objects to attract mates ; decorator crabs and sea urchins add bits of ocean debris to their camouflage . some insect larvae will spin bits of trash into their cocoons in order to strengthen them . or my personal favorite , the acanthaspis petax collects the carcasses of ants that it has eaten and stores them on its back , so it looks bigger , badder , and is less likely to be eaten by its own predators .
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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : world journal of zoology publisher : faisalabad idosi publications . isbn / issn : 1991 - 6442 , 1817 - 3098 oclc : 956131812
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the nymphs cover themselves with their victims ' bodies . three nymphs and one adult are in the video , but there were eight nymphs hanging around . this is one of my favourite bugs .
this modern - day assassin bug stacks dead ant bodies on its back to confuse predators .
imagine you’re wandering in the forests near lake victoria , in kenya or tanzania , when you spot something strange crawling on a leaf . it looks like a dozen or so ants , stuck together in a ball . but look more closely and you’ll see the ants are dead . and there’s a nasty - looking insect underneath , hauling these ants corpses along like a miniature backpack .
in 2007 , a team of researchers from new zealand carried out an experiment to test whether the insect’s corpse - carrying strategy truly helped protect it from predation . in the study , they left assassin bugs alone in glass cages with several species of jumping spiders , which are their natural predators . some of the insects were carrying balls of ant carcasses on their backs ( the researchers called these “masked” bugs ) while others were left naked . since the jumping spiders have excellent vision but a poor sense of smell—they hunt by using their acute sense of sight to make a precisely gauged leap and land on their prey—the experiment would indicate if the ant bodies served as visual camouflage or not .
the result : the spiders attacked the naked bugs roughly ten times more often than the masked ones . the researchers even repeated the experiment with dead , preserved assassin bugs , to control for the effects of movement and behavior , and the results remained the same . carrying that ball of dead ants , it turns out , is a great strategy for the assassin bug to use in trying to survive for its next meal .
the scientists speculate that the large mound of corpses changes the visual form of the insect to the point where the spiders can’t recognize it as prey .
joseph stromberg is a science reporter for vox . com . he was previously a digital reporter for smithsonian .
a mongoose is lightning fast and has razor - sharp teeth . a black mamba can kill 15 grown men with just one bite . which of these two mortal enemies will win ?
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sand strikers , also known as bobbit worms , are primitive - looking creatures that lack eyes , or even a brain . despite this , they are savage predators who shoot out grapple - like hooks to reel in passing fish .
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well it ' s halloween and while that is not really a thing here in australia i thought i should choose an appropriate creature for my slowly growing american audience . i thought of some sort of bat ( of which i have many ) or something which looks evil like last week ' s leaf tailed gecko but i decided that
would be perfect . it is a bug which makes a costume out of the dead bodies of its prey .
reduviidae ( assassin bugs ) are one of my favorite families . they have a curved
and raptorial spiny forelegs which make they use to deadly effect when catching prey .
( these sems are my own work , they are of a reduviid in the genus oncocephalus . if you want to use them for any purpose in any form you can , without condition . if you do use them i would appreciate a link to this blog if possible . )
many members of this family are highly specialized in the prey which they catch and have developed some really cool tricks for killing prey , which has earned the family the common name assassin bug .
is a voracious predator of arthropods . it is an ant hunting specialist and has a horrifying trick . when it kills an ant and sucks out its fluids , as assasin bugs do , it uses the dried out remains to disguise itself . it excretes a glue like substance and sticks the ant husk to itself . it can stick up to 20 ants onto itself at a time .
this may seem like a fairly useless disguise , but the purpose seems to be to give the bug the appearance of being an ant swarm . predators are reluctant to attack ants because they are fairly unpalatable and they tend to defend themselves in swarms . this has been shown to work in experiments with jumping spiders . there has also been speculation that the dead ants act as a visual and / or olfactory camouflage which assists them in capturing ants .
is from malaysia , which i was a little confused about because i had always thought it was african . upon trying to find out weather this meant the malaysian peninsula or borneo i could not find any records of asian specimens in the literature . according to the literature i have read , they all seem to come from africa , most commonly uganda , but some records from west central africa exist . i ' m not sure where this discrepancy comes from .
unused creatures in my backlog . if i can ' t thick of anything else to add to the list i will run out of material on 22 / 03 / 2017 . if you have any creatures to suggest , please let me know , details are on the contact me page .
this is an old article , reposted from the original wordpress incarnation of not exactly rocket science . i’m travelling around at the moment so the next few weeks will have some classic pieces and a few new ones i prepared earlier .
the animal world is full of charlatans . some have bodies shaped by natural selection to fade into the background or resemble other harmful species . yet others , like chameleons and octopuses , have the rare ability to actively change their colour or shape to actively hide themselves from view .
many species disguise themselves through their behaviour rather than their bodies ; like human soldiers in camouflage gear , they don special suits to remain inconspicuous .
decorator crabs , for example , coat their shells with a collection of sea anemones , algae , corals and sponges , held on with velcro - like bristles while other crabs actively carry these living masks with specially modified legs . these species have the cartoonish air of a man carrying a pot plant in front of him while sneaking past on tip - toes . but some charlatans are not so amusing .
the word ‘bug’ has a specific technical meaning – it refers to a group of insects , the hemipterans , that have sucking mouthparts . most , like aphids , use these to gulp plant sap but the assassin bugs use them for murder . they grab passing insects , stab them with their syringe - like mouthparts , inject paralytic saliva and digestive enzymes and suck up the broken - down bodily fluids .
most species discard the lifeless husks but the ant - snatcher secretes fine sticky threads from its back and there it sticks the remains of its prey . an earlier study suggested that the assassin bug’s cadaverous backpack protected it from other predators and now , jackson and pollard have tested this theory by pitting the bugs against jumping spiders .
jumping spiders are superb stalkers that use keen vision and accurate leaps to ambush prey . jackson and pollard let three species of jumping spiders loose upon either naked assassin bugs or those bearing ant - coats .
they found that the spiders attacked the naked bugs about ten times more than the covered ones , even if the bugs in question were actually dead and preserved .
the fact that the dead shielded bugs were just as uninviting as their living peers suggests that the disguise has nothing to do with a change in the bugs’ behaviour or motion but everything to do with the ants they carried . clearly , when faced with a jumping spider , wearing a coat of dead ants can mean the difference between life or death to an assassin bug .
why does it work ? unlike the decorator crabs , the assassin bugs weren’t plastering themselves with local wildlife to blend in . certainly , the experiments were done in glass cages with no other ants around . instead , jackson and pollard suggests that the ants break up the bug’s form so that instead of a characteristic shape that the spider can tag as ‘prey’ , it sees a jumbled mess that doesn’t look like anything it has ever eaten before . it sees the bug , but doesn’t register it as a meal .
there is a final possibility though . ants are not easy prey – they have chemical weapons and strength in numbers and many small predators give them a wide berth . so the bugs’ grisly defence may rely on using ants in particular and jackson and pollard are now putting this idea to the test .
reference : jackson , r . r . , pollard , s . d . ( 2007 ) . bugs with backpacks deter vision - guided predation by jumping spiders . journal of zoology , 273 ( 4 ) , 358 - 363 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1469 - 7998 . 2007 . 00335 . x
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here is another example , seen in pang sida national park , of a creature using the exoskeletons of insects as protection . its a larval nymph but of what i have absolutely no idea .
i do not know the answer . what i do know is that my gps struggles in deep valleys to ' contact ' the . . .
500 pf f5 . 6 about to be announced . . . 24 cm long . . . . . 4300 usd expensive for f5 . 6 but 24 cm is . . .
if there is a clear ' trail ' forming from the bite site ( see pic below for example ) , then likely it . . .
its about time for a redesign of the web site - this design has served us well but its now time to . . .
good to hear the chicks of the blue - banded kingfisher have fledged successfully .
the draco is d . blanfordii and the calotes is c . emma . the calotes emma can be distinguished by the . . .
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i sat by a leaf i saw a neocollyris bonelli ( i think - the smaller tiger beetles can be confusing ) . . .
thanks ton ! heres a couple more . without a doubt the biggest earwig that i have ever seen - . . .
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the pokémon world is interesting because many of their animals have evolved to look like man - made objects , such as voltorb or klefki . klefki is the key ring pokémon , who mischievously collects keys and jingles them at its foes . it makes sense that , if its goal is to collect keys , it would evolve to look like a keyring so it could potentially trick people into giving them their keys . klefki’s shape is it’s own form of unique camouflage , but it begs the question : why does kelfki want the keys in the first place ?
our first clue is in the pokédex : “these key collectors threaten any attackers by fiercely jingling their keys at them” , making noise is an excellent way to scare off predators , and if klefki isn’t capable of making threatening noises itself it has to resort to using tools . orangutans have been known to strip leaves from a branch and hold them in front of their mouths before they scream out an alarm ; a very primitive megaphone , and one of the only examples of animals using tools to manipulate sound in our world .
perhaps many wild pokémon have learned to associate human sounds with danger . if they hear the opening of a pokéball , the whir of a chainsaw , or the jingling of keys , wild pokémon know that humans are nearby and they may be in trouble . klefki uses this to its own advantage – by collecting and jingling keys , it can make other pokémon afraid of it .
so back to klefki . we know klefki uses its keys to make noises , but it probably does it for other reasons as well . for example , a klefki with the most keys is probably the loudest and strongest , meaning that it would be more attractive to other klefki in the interest of survival of the fittest . because of this , klefki became the little kleptomaniac that it is . collecting keys became a part of the species’ culture and survival .
for reference , the earliest known lock and keys in our world date back to the ancient egyptians , around 4000 bc . although the first all - metal key is from about 900 ad .
evolution ( of the darwinian variety ) , as you might know , is a very long and slow process . biologists estimate it takes on average one million years for major changes in a species to occur . if klefki did evolve into a keychain with the purpose of collecting keys , the pokémon world must have had keys around for much longer than we have , considering we’ve only had keys for 6000 years . either that , or their evolution happens much more quickly ( which we already knew , anyways ) .
klefki collects keys to makes noises and scare off predators by tricking them into thinking humans are nearby . it evolved to look like a keyring so it could more easily collect keys .


the green fruit-piercing moth , ( eudocima salaminia ) , is a moth of the family erebidae .

it is found from india across south-east asia to the pacific islands .

in australia it occurs in the northern territory , queensland and new south wales .

adult is a fruit-piercer .

eudocima salaminia

select a genera calyptra ochsenheimer - calyptra minuticornis guenée oraesia guenée - oraesia emarginata fabricius plusiodonta guenée - plusiodonta calcaurea sp . n . - plusiodonta wahri sp . n . eudocima billberg - eudocima salaminia cramer - eudocima dividens walker - eudocima [ rhytia ] cocalus cramer - eudocima [ rhytia ] discrepans walker - eudocima [ adris ] sikhimensis butler - eudocima [ khadira ] aurantia moore - eudocima [ othreis ] phalonia linnaeus [ fullonia clerck ] - eudocima [ othreis ] srivijayana bänziger - eudocima [ othreis ] homaena hübner - eudocima [ othreis ] smaragdipicta walker - eudocima [ othreis ] kinabaluensis feige - eudocima [ othreis ] mionopastea hampson
major and sporadic . several genera of noctuid moths are fruit piercing but the most damaging are eudocima fullonia , e . materna , e . jordani and e . salaminia .
the only other specific host plant we have encountered is stephania japonica variety timoriensis ( a very widely - occurring species in australia and asia ) . eudocima salaminia breeds on this plant . this vine grows in rainforest areas and proliferates when the vegetation is disturbed by man .
{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . eudocima salaminia cramer , 1777 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 9 , 2018 ] .
there are three widely occurring species of fruit piercing moth : eudocima salaminia , e . fullonia , e . jordani and e . materna . the adult moths are large and stout - bodied , with a wingspan of 100 mm . the forewings can be mainly brown , cream or green . hind wings are yellow orange , with black patches and spots .
eudocima salaminia - another asian and australian species which is active right down the queensland coast and is particularly damaging to citrus in s . e . queensland . it appears to be more active in early winter when the o . fullonia is less common . in thailand this species causes ca . 5 - 12 % of damage to longan and 10 - 20 % on citrus .
larvae are velvety - black . the larvae of eudocima spp . have two large spots ( mainly white with dark centres ) on either side of the body just before the first pair of prolegs .
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larva feed on native vines for about three weeks , progressing through five or six stages , or instars , before forming a dark - brown pupa in a delicate silk cocoon between webbed leaves . after 2½ weeks adults emerge from the pupa . breeding occurs through most of the year in northern queensland , although it is much reduced during the dry season . in drier areas such as central queensland , outbreaks are more common in wet years that are favourable to continuous growth of the larval - host vines .
fruit piercing moths are found on the east coast of australia , north from the northern rivers district of new south wales . a few species also occur across the north of the continent . it is believed that they die out in areas south of mackay and rockhampton in cold winters and reinvade the southern areas after winter .
these moths feed on carambola , banana , citrus , fig , guava , kiwifruit , longan lychee , mango , stonefruit , persimmon and ripening papaya . larval hosts include native vines of the family menispermaceae ( of which there are about 20 species in northern queensland ) . the preferred species are tinospora smilacina and stephania spp .
moths feed at night by penetrating the skin of the ripe or ripening fruit with their strong proboscis and sucking the juice . internal injury consists of a bruised , dry area beneath the skin . secondary rots develop at the puncture site . secondary - moth feeders often visit fermenting fruit , taking advantage of the access holes the fruitpiercing moths drill . early summer to early autumn is the most important period .
not determined , but would depend on individual fruit value . nightly inspections with a strong torch are recommended when fruit is nearing maturity . the red eyes of the moths will reflect the light from a torch , aiding detection .
netting trees or bagging fruits is very effective . early harvest , where it doesn ' t jeopardise maturity standards , will help to reduce losses .
no satisfactory chemical control measure is known . hand collection of moths and various traps have had limited success .
check the australian pesticides and veterinary medicines authority chemical database and permit database for chemicals registered or approved under permit to treat this pest on the target crop in your state or location . always read the label . always observe withholding periods .
& copy ; the state of queensland ( department of agriculture and fisheries ) 2010–2018 . queensland government
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urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 5c0b1f27 - 0bfb - 462c - aa35 - 1441af8cd0c2
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f143dcec - f129 - 4bf0 - b726 - 233eb9c9999a
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : f925880e - 614e - 4275 - bc58 - 9d964b862c76
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 509111
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. this and the next species are characterised by dark green forewings with fawn costal and distal margins . in
these marginal zones are narrower , and the green ground is paler . the hindwing black border is also narrower .
. only three specimens have been recorded in recent surveys from : forest at 200m near tawau in sabah ; from 1465m on bukit retak in brunei ; from 2600m on g . kinabalu .
. the larva was illustrated by moore ( 1884 - 1887 ) , common ( 1990 ) and tanahara & tanahara ( 2001b ) . it is blackish grey , posteriorly rather square , semi - looping in gait . below the spiracular level it is distinctly paler , and has a series of three yellow - white marks subdorsally on each side of the first three abdominal segments : a spot and two ocellate marks with broader white lunules anteriorly and narrower , reddish lines completing the ring posteriorly . there is an oblique line of the same yellow - white colour from the proleg backwards on a6 . tanahara & tanahara noted a second form of larva in okinawa . it is mottled and speckled in shades of grey - brown and is diffusely paler in the line of the spiracles . there is an oblique white line running back from the proleg on a6 , with black areas posterior to it above and below the line of the spiracles . the ocellate marks are black but with much narrower rings ( without an expanded section ) enclosing them . there is no white spot on a1 . moore ( 1881 ) illustrated a variegated larva of this type but with ocellate marks more as in the first form . the host plants noted by common and tanahara & tanahara were
leaf butterfly ( kallima inachus ) . sa dom ' e sa mariposa ( sardinia island )
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identification marks : palpi are with 2nd joint thickened and reaching vertex of head , 3rd blunt and naked . head and collar is plum - colour ; thorax green , the metathoracic tufts and abdomen orange clothed with coarse hairs . fore wing golden green ; a broad cream coloured costal fascia from near base of inner margin to apex , striated with pale red and turning to green at costa ; a cream coloured marginal band ; a curved red streak below vein 2 . hind wings are orange with large black lunule beyond lower angle of cell ; a black marginal band with cilial whitish spots from costa to vein 2 . underside of fore wing fuscous orange at base and with broad whitish postmedial band not reaching costa or inner margin ; the cilia whitish . ( w . s . ♂ 84 mm ) .
gurule , s . a . ( 2013 ) ; taxonomic study of moths ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) from north maharashtra ( india ) . phd thesis , university of pune , india
shubhalaxmi , v , r c kendrick , alka vaidya , neelima kalagi , and alaka bhagwat . 2011 . inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india . journal of the bombay … 108 , no . 3 : 183 - 205 . urltoken
enumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .
india ; oriental and papuan regions ; china ; japan ; philippines ; hong kong ; madagascar ; formosa ; australia ; fiji .
a preliminary checklist of moth species collected in north maharashtra is presented based on studie . . .
inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india .
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“the [ common ghost moth ] caterpillar is cylindrical and fleshy , except the head and adjoining segment which are rough and corneous . the segments are muscular and well developed , and of a dull creamy white , tinged with purplish red at their divisions . ” description from aw scott , ‘ australian lepidoptera and their transformations’ , volume 2 , plate 11 ( 1890 - 1898 ) .
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primary tropical fruit pests three major pests of tropical fruit growing are flying foxes , fruit piercing moth and fruit spotting bug . other pests are periodically important on certain fruits but these are generally not perennial . growing areas of mixed species of fruit probably helps to minimise insect problems .
the flying fox problem should be addressed on a national level , with cooperation between national parks and wildlife , csiro and the relevant departments of agriculture .
the queensland department of primary industries has undertaken to investigate the fruit piercing moth and fruit spotting bug questions , and csiro is also commencing work on fruit piercing moth in s . e . queensland .
fruit piercing vs fruit sucking moth all species of moths recorded feeding on fruit belong to the family ' noctuidae ' ( night flying moths ) . what we , the researchers , call fruit piercing moth and you , the growers , call fruit sucking moth are , for the most part , the same thing .
csiro have recommended that we call fruit piercing moths those that can actually pierce the skin or rind of fruit , and fruit sucking moths , those that rely on skin being damaged to gain access to the fruit juices . the problem with such a division is that there is a range of species whose individual piercing ability depends on the hardness of the fruit involved .
a swiss researcher who studied fruit piercing moths in thailand recorded no fewer than 88 species of moths that could pierce fruit , the number of fruits that could be pierced by an individual species varying with fruit hardness . eleven species were confirmed primary piercers of longan , a further eighteen primary piercers of citrus and an additional 59 piercers of soft and very soft fruits ( such as raspberry ) . only four species of moth caused 60 - 95 % of the damage to the longan and citrus .
damage caused by moths the major primary piercing species have a heavily armoured proboscis * which allows them to attack a wide range of fruits . a species like othreis fullonia has been recorded on no fewer than 40 different fruits and this is probably a very conservative figure . some unusual fruits like tomato , capsicum , cashew , coffee , prickly pear , and melon are included in this .
the ability of moths to pierce fruit was first recognised in australia ca 1875 , but was doubted for some time . fungi and bacteria enter through the hole created by feeding and fruit rot sets in rapidly , in most cases rendering the fruit worthless .
distribution of fruit piercing moths the moths occur largely in tropical and subtropical areas and predominate in australia and the pacific , in asia , africa , tropical america and some areas of europe . in australia , they occur in most tropical and subtropical areas of the east coast and through most monsoonal areas in the north of the country .
othreis fullonia - a widely distributed species in australia and the pacific , parts of asia and also africa . in thailand , this species alone is estimated to cause 70 - 90 % of primary damage to longan , and 50 - 70 % . to citrus . it appears to be the dominant species active in north queensland and the most significant pest of lychees here .
othreis materna - another widely distributed species , in australia , in the indian sub - continent and in parts of africa . in australia it is the most significant pest of fruits in the northern territory and west australia and in the drier inland areas . its distribution appears to be governed by its restriction to breeding on only one genus of vine .
othreis jordani - this species was only recognised in thailand after the swiss study was complete and has only recently emerged as a significant pest in australia . as it looks very similar to o . fullonia no doubt it was confused for a long time . from our data , it appears that o . jordini is the most significant pest of carambolas , just in advance of o . fullonia .
adris tyrannus - this is a large , relatively active species in north queensland but it is considered more of a pest in countries like japan .
the most important vine species ( and i say that with some reservation , as there may be more than one species involved ) is tinospora smilacina ( no common name ) . there are three distinct varieties of this plant .
1 . foreshore and exposed coast variety - this appears to be deciduous during the dry season except where exposed to some moisture ( e . g . buchan ' s point and wangetti beach ) .
2 . rainforest variety - apparently not deciduous ( e . g . mission beach and cairns botanic gardens ) .
3 . inland ( dry area ) variety which apparently occurs across northern australia in those areas influenced by the summer monsoon - deciduous during the dry , from about june to october ( e . g . einasleigh , dimbulah ) .
tinospora has a considerable water storage capacity in the stem ( large vascular rays ) which enables it to survive in very harsh conditions .
our experiments show that tinospora is the favoured larval host plant of o . fullonia , the only genus eaten by the larvae of o . materna and we think it is the host plant of o . jordini .
the activity of these moth species through the dry season is limited by the deciduousness of the host plant . nevertheless , the plants commence re - growth just prior to the first summer rains , allowing the moths to take full advantage of the new growth once the rains accelerate leaf production .
part of the success of o . fullonia as a fruit piercer lies in its ability to switch larval hosts , should tinospora be in short supply or in its deciduous phase . numerous species of menispermaceae have been found growing in close proximity to one another .
the more we are able to examine menispermaceae in the field , the more we ' ll be able to say of
risk
in the growing fruit trees in certain area . adult moths are reputed to have great powers of dispersal and there is a reported case of a specimen of o . materna being caught 300 miles out to sea from mauritius . nevertheless , our feelings are that orchards close to areas of tinospora ( or rainforest ) are at greatest risk .
control , management , forecasting of course our ultimate goal is the control or management of moth activity , using both direct control measures and forecasting techniques .
moth activity is generally too late to allow for chemical use , and in any case , the moths do not remain in contact sufficiently long to achieve knockdown . so unless some super , quick active synthetic pyrethroid with a very short withholding period , is developed , broadscale chemical application in control of these moths can be ignored .
history of control techniques a ] poisoned baits ( still some possibilities here using fruit volatiles ) .
apparently carambolas in malaysia are enclosed in a paper bag prior to ripening and left as such until harvesting . very labour intensive , netting trees , which may have the double advantage of reducing flying fox damage .
we ' ve heard a figure of $ 200 quoted per medium - sized tree i . e . using half - inch bird netting .
h ] light repulsion technique - this method appears to hold a good promise . a barrier of lights ( 550 - 580 m ) ( yellow - green wavelengths ) is formed around a block of trees , but shining outwards . there should be a 12 m barrier between the lights and surrounding vegetation , so that the moths are denied cover . we have planted a test plot of 4 blocks of carambolas at walkamin research station in order to test this technique .
other control measures a ] pheromones - these are sex attractants produced by a female moth to attract the male for mating . we are doing cooperative work with the university of queensland and csiro division of entomology in canberra , to isolate and produce pheromones from these moths . some novel compounds with large molecules have been found , differing in trace elements between species . pheromones , in the first place , would be used as monitoring tools to ascertain major moth activity periods .
they may also have some control application , or result in feeding disruption , as we suspect mating takes place in the fruit tree . as there is a 4 . 5 : male bias in moths feeding ( irrespective of species ) a pheromone could conceivably limit feeding activity .
b ] biological control - we have identified a fly which parasitises the larvae and a trichogramma ( very small wasp ) which parasitises the eggs of primary - piercers . we have also found a lygaeid bug which we suspect may prey on the eggs .
another fly parasite is known from new caledonia and has been imported by fiji as a control agent . it apparently doesn ' t effectively control o . fullonia in new caledonia , so its worth in fiji is questionable . several other predators and parasites have been identified in the pacific region . csiro are having a closer look at this aspect . birds , insectivorous bats , etc . , all play a role in limiting moth numbers .
c ] decoys - it may be possible to employ the volatile compounds from the larval host plants as decoys to reduce moth breeding by inducing females to lay eggs on plants other than those on which larvae will feed .
forecasting the remainder of our work involves developing an ability to forecast when moths are likely to be a significant problem . this is accomplished through :
we are hopeful that something positive from the control viewpoint will be forthcoming in the next twelve months .


the orange-breasted falcon ( falco deiroleucus ) is a bird of the falcon family .

it is probably closely related to and looks like a larger version of the bat falcon .

these two , in turn , are probably closest to the aplomado falcon and constitute a rather old american lineage of falcos .

it is found from southern mexico to northern argentina .

it 's a medium-sized falcon at 35 – 40 cm ( 14 – 15.5 in ) long and a weight of 325 – 700 grams ( 11 ounces – 1 pound 9 ounces ) .

it is a bird predator , with strong talons that enable it to catch prey in flight , and is considered by some – such as the german-brazilian ornithologist helmut sick – as filling the ecological niche of the peregrine falcon as a breeding species in tropical america .

the orange-breasted falcon , however , seems to favor more heavily wooded habitats than the peregrine , therefore the species does not seem to be in ecological competition with peregrine falcons wintering or breeding in south america .

the orange-breasted falcon has a similar plumage to the much smaller bat falcon and is generally considered most closely related to that species now .

orange - breasted falcon

read more about orange - breasted falcon biology , natural history , and conservation at the orange - breasted falcon account on neotropical birds .
nobody uploaded sound recordings for orange - breasted falcon ( falco deiroleucus ) yet .
the orange - breasted falcon looks very similar to the smaller bat falcon . people often confuse the two species , making it hard for biologists to confirm reports of the much rarer orange - breasted falcon .
relative to its body size , the orange - breasted falcon appears to have the largest feet of any falcon . it also has an unusually large beak .
orange - breasted falcons usually reach breeding age at around 2 - 3 years old .
the peregrine fund captive breeding / reintroduction project and field studies . orange - breasted falcon falco deiroleucus contains extensive information on the biology and status of this species . vireo orange - breasted falcon photos . aves de rapina do brasil species account wirh emphasis on brazil .
a female orange - breasted falcon flies around the temple of the grand jaguar under the light of the super moon in a heavy fog and mist .
recommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : orange - breasted falcon falco deiroleucus . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018
orange - breasted falcon is a raptor of the neotropics whose range historically stretched from southern mexico through northern argentina . it now is found only locally throughout its expansive range , with most current observations coming from a few well - known nesting locations . never considered common anywhere , orange - breasted falcon’s current abundance and distribution are clouded by confusion with the similarly - plumaged bat falcon ( falco rufigularis ) ; many purported records of orange - breasted falcons outside their known localities may pertain to that species .
in central america , the orange - breasted falcon is absent everywhere south of belize and guatemala and found again only in panama . its absence from many countries that contain seemingly suitable habitat is one of the greatest mysteries of falcon and neotropical bird conservation .
the orange - breasted falcon is a brilliantly colored medium - sized falcon of the contiguous neotropical forest , arguably the most beautiful species of falcon , and the holy grail for many tropical birders . it has always been rare and may be the most sparsely distributed falcon in the world , with its abundance and distribution clouded by confusion with the much more common and similarly plumaged bat falcon . the international union for conservation of nature lists the orange - breasted falcon as “near threatened” globally in its red list of threatened species . once ranging from southern mexico through middle and south america , the species is now regionally endangered or extirpated in central america ( berry et al . ) .
robert b . berry has been studying orange - breasted falcons since the early 1990s . a lifelong falconer , he played a significant role in the recovery of the north american peregrine falcon in the 1970s and ’80s .
cover image : bathed by a gentle breeze in the early morning light , a wild - born juvenile orange - breasted falcon waits for her captive - bred father to bring food . photo by robert b . berry .
the peregrine fund ' s world center for birds of prey is a great place to get a close - up look at the orange - breasted falcon , one of the most colorful falcons in the world . on display at our velma morrison interpretive center , orange - breasted falcons delight visitors with their bright orange breast , large yellow feet and slaty black backs . visit us to learn all about this neotropical raptor and the rainforest habitat in which it lives .
the black - and - white hawk - eagle might be the greatest threat to juvenile orange - breasted falcons , both wild and captive - bred . this spectacular species is widespread from mexico to argentina but is uncommon and secretive in the mountain pine ridge of belize . it is extremely rare in guatemala—which , by itself , may account for the stability of the country’s small orange - breasted falcon population .
call . overall colouration very dark . underparts mainly orange , with black barring . iris brown ; bill dark with yellow base and cere ; legs yellow - orange .
the orange - breasted falcon female is nearly twice the size of her mate – a greater size difference than that of all other 39 falcon species . you may be wondering why there is such a large gap between the sexes . this adaptation enables the pair to select different - sized prey . the male takes smaller quarry , and the female captures larger prey . relative to its overall body size , the female orange - breasted falcon has the largest feet of any falcon and also a particularly large beak . this heavy armament provides many advantages for the species . the female’s large size , huge feet and talons and beak help her manage social relations in the family group and defend the nest from predators .
baker , a . j . , d . f . whitacre , o . a . aguirre - barrera , and c . white . 2000 . the orange - breasted falcon falco deiroleucus in mesoamerica : a vulnerable , disjunct population ? bird conservation international 10 : 29 - 40 ) .
orange - breasted falcon four - year - old superstar b1’s calm demeanor assures his wild - born and adopted progeny that it is safe to “play . ” despite his constant vigil and aggressive defense , he is unable to protect all of the young falcons . photo by robert b . berry .
berry , r . b . , c . w . benkman , a . muela , y . seminario , and m . curti . 2010 . isolation and decline of a population of the orange - breasted falcon . condor , vol . 112 , no . 3 : 479 - 487 .
there’s a single chick in the nest , ” aaron radioed as he hung from a rope on a lofty cliff in belize . “should we take it ? ” he had climbed hundreds of feet down to an orange - breasted falcon eyrie to retrieve fledglings on behalf of the peregrine fund for experimental captive propagation .
peregrine fund biologists have been studying the orange - breasted falcon since 1978 , initially in ecuador and peru and then in belize and guatemala . our biologists have worked very hard to find these falcons in central america , searching on foot , by plane and by helicopter . during one survey over a two - year period ( 1999 - 2000 ) , they checked nearly 400 cliffs but never saw a single orange - breasted falcon in honduras , nicaragua , el salvador , or costa rica . this confirmed that the small declining population in belize and guatemala is isolated by almost 1 , 000 miles from the larger population in south america .
the author feeds falcon chicks ranging in age from one day to 40 days old . photo by carol berry .
important references : baker , a . j . , d . f . whitacre , and o . agruirre . 2012 . orange - breasted falcon . pp . 296 - 312 in d . f . whitacre ( ed . ) , neotropical birds of prey : biology and ecology of a forest raptor community . cornell university press , ithaca , ny . berry , r . b . , c . w . benkman , a . muela , y . seminario , and m . curti . 2010 . isolation and decline of a population of the orange - breasted falcon . condor 112 : 479 - 489 . baker , a . j . 1998 . status and breeding biology , ecology , and behavior of the orange - breasted falcon ( falco deiroleucus ) in guatemala and belize . m . sc . thesis , brigham young university , provo , ut . baker , a . j . , d . f . whitacre , o . aguirre - barrera , and c . white . 2000 . the orange - breasted falcon falco deiroleucus in mesoamerica : a vulnerable , disjunct population ? bird conservation international 10 : 29 - 40 . bierregaard , r . o . 1994 . orange - breasted falcon . p . 268 in del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , and j . sargatal ( eds ) . handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona , spain . boyce , jr . , d . a . 1980 . hunting and pre - nesting behavior of the orange - breasted falcon . raptor research 14 : 35 - 39 . brown , l . , and d . amadon . 1968 . eagles , hawks and falcons of the world . vol . 2 . mcgraw - hill , new york . cade , t . j . 1982 . falcons of the world . cornell university press , ithaca , ny . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .
today , we are focusing our efforts on studying the behavior , breeding and hunting habits , threats , and habitat requirements of the only known orange - breasted falcon population in northern central america . because this rare falcon appears to be largely absent from much of central america , we recognized the need to begin a captive - breeding and release program to help maintain genetic diversity and to prevent further decline . we conducted our first experimental release for this species in 2005 . in 2006 , we began a captive breeding program at our facilities in sheridan , wyoming . by 2012 , 45 orange - breasted falcons had been produced in captivity and 30 released to the wild in belize .
like many other falcon species , orange - breasted falcons are primarily bird hunters . they prey on small - to medium - sized birds , particularly doves , parakeets , and swifts . however , they also take large insects and , during dusk and pre - dawn hours , bats . they are aerial hunters , so they take all of their prey while in flight .
we believe that the orange - breasted falcon’s primary extinction drivers are habitat alteration and associated human activities , which include indiscriminate shooting , logging , agriculture , and development . these drivers interact with the impacts of human disturbance , such as increased access to remote habitat , hunting , tourism , selective logging , and collecting , further exacerbated by interactions with the bird’s natural predators .
the orange - breasted falcon is not known to nest apart from mature forest , although we do not know the point at which fragmented habitat becomes uninhabitable or why . small farms , orchards , and cattle ranches caused the abandonment of at least one historic territory and threaten others . construction of three hydroelectric dams along the macal river are implicated in the loss of two of four falcon territories . the last of these construction projects was completed in 2012 , with human traffic limited , although a massive infrastructure of power lines presents a high risk of falcon collisions and electrocutions . even well - meaning tourists may have a negative impact by disrupting nesting .
it is also helpful during the young birds ' first flights , as they often end up grounded in the dense tropical forest . if they are tame , biologists can pick them and place them in a safe spot high off the ground and away from predators . but this tameness doesn ' t last . after a week or two of flying wild , these young falcons quickly grow wary of any potential predator – including humans ! nonetheless , even wild orange - breasted falcons are naturally relatively unafraid of humans , to their detriment . another unique aspect of this falcon is the long period of time – about five months – that the juveniles depend on their parents for food . other falcon species , such as the peregrine falcon and aplomado falcon , are dependent for about half that time .
our captive orange - breasted falcon colony consists of 28 birds—11 original founders from panama , 4 from belize ( including 2 botfly - infested juveniles we rescued in 2012 ) , and their captive - bred progeny . they are maintained in spacious climate - controlled aviaries in wyoming . this species is very difficult to breed in captivity , despite the ease in breeding the related bat falcon and many other falcon species . of the 56 young produced in captivity since 2006 , all have been the product of artificial insemination . thirty - nine have been released in the mountain pine ridge area , including 5 in 2014 ; of these , 23 are thought to have become independent through 2013 .
aaron spent the next six years studying the orange - breasted falcon . his field research became the seminal life - history study of the species . he concluded that the local population was probably stable—but just barely—and part of a larger unknown population ( baker et al . 2000 ) . it was not until the end of the decade that we concluded that the northern population was very small , isolated , and in steep decline .
the orange - breasted falcon’s history in middle america is documented by only 10 museum specimens collected between 1867 and 1962 from mexico to costa rica , a few confirmed sightings , and a single breeding record . our surveys over several decades confirm that the species’ northern population is limited to the maya mountains of belize and the mirador cordillera of guatemala—an area comprising less than 4 percent of its former range in central america . orange - breasted falcons are isolated by some 1 , 500 kilometers from the closest population of not more than four pairs on the colombian border of panama , which we survey annually . despite a wide network of contributors , ebird has been unable to confirm a single central american record for this species outside our study area .
captive - bred male b1 takes flight near the hack site , watched by his wild mate , caya . the pair made history in 2013 , fledging three beautiful youngsters and proving that captive - bred orange - breasted falcons can survive and breed successfully in the wild . photo by robert b . berry .
many tropical raptors—including the closely related bat falcon—hunt within the forest canopy . the orange - breasted falcon is unique in hunting above the canopy , the most challenging environment for a bird - eating specialist . the birds have long , narrow , pointed wings , a relatively short tail , and a heavy compact body with a deep sternum , supporting powerful flight muscles . these features maximize speed as opposed to maneuverability , for preying on a wide variety of small - to - medium - sized birds and bats , which are captured in high - speed stoops when they are briefly exposed above the forest canopy or while crossing a canyon , stream , or river valley . the female orange - breasted falcon is the most heavily armed of falcons , possessing a massive , laterally compressed beak , thick powerful legs , and enormous feet relative to its body size—important attributes for grasping and quickly dispatching dangerous quarry such as parrots . males are half the size of their mates and lack their impressive armature , a difference that supports the female’s dominant role in social relations , nest defense , and exploitation of a varied prey base .
the techniques used to release young orange - breasted falcons to the wild are similar to those used for releasing aplomado falcons and other birds of prey – with several important differences . the orange - breasted falcon chicks are hand - raised in small groups by a biologist . this is to help keep them tame while they are in the hack box , where the chicks become accustomed to their new surroundings , and for a short while after they are released to the wild . this is helpful because the chicks vary quite a bit in age when they arrive at the hack site . if the chicks are tame , biologists can release the older birds while still climbing up to the box in the evening to feed the younger birds that haven ' t yet flown for the first time .
though there were probably never lots of orange - breasted falcons , the species’ range in central america today is limited to areas of belize , guatemala and panama – a very small portion of its historic range . biologists estimate the population in this region to be made up of only around 30 pairs . that isn ' t very many ! by looking at records for this species in south america since 1970 , biologists believe that this striking falcon ' s population is in trouble there , as well .
“no , ” i replied , feeling guilty about his arduous descent to the nest . “come on back up . ” taking the last young falcon from the nest would be unethical .
peregrine fund president bill burnham asked me to visit baker to explain the breeding biology of the orange - breasted falcon . i had never seen the bird , but i had lots of experience breeding falcons in captivity . early in march of 1992 , aaron and i were sprawled on a massive boulder in the middle of the macal river , in the shadow of a gigantic cliff—an irresistible ecological magnet for falcons and one of aaron’s orange - breasted falcon territories . armed with binoculars and a spotting scope , we scanned the sky for raptors . as if by magic , a male orangebreasted falcon appeared above us , spiraling effortlessly upward in the noonday thermals until it became a tiny speck . an instant later , it came plummeting earthward in a blistering vertical stoop , climaxed by streaking across the cliff face , its defiant kak - kak - kak call echoing between the towering canyon walls . then it rocketed off in a different direction to chase a black vulture and next a plumbeous kite . it was the most spectacular and inspiring aerial performance i had ever seen in a lifetime of working with falcons . what bravado and courage he showed . surely the bird was reassuring his unseen mate and serving notice that this was his domain and he was invincible .
the maya mountains of western belize and the mirador cordillera of guatemala are home to the largest and densest known orange - breasted falcon population , which includes 32 territories . seven of them have been abandoned for more than a decade . aerial surveys in 2009 and 2010 located 10 additional eyries in the rugged and remote southern maya mountains , which are only accessible by helicopter . the massif is 75 miles long by 40 miles wide with a northeast - southwest orientation extending about 20 miles into heavily developed eastern guatemala , where the falcons are absent .
perhaps the biggest threat that these falcons face is loss or change in their habitat because of practices like logging , agriculture , and development . another threat could also be the growing population of black vultures in the area . black vultures are scavengers that can eat just about anything . they are sometimes attracted to garbage dumps and tend to congregate there in large numbers , picking through the trash to find tasty morsels to eat . this means that black vultures can often be found in areas where humans are present . as people move closer and closer to orange - breasted falcon habitat , the vultures might be moving with them . black vultures might compete with these falcons for nesting cliffs and probably consume falcon eggs and young , too !
aaron spent the night at a medical clinic , soaking up antihistamines , while oscar and i sat at camp , removing each other’s stingers like a pair of chimpanzees picking lice . we waited until after dark to collect our gear at the cliff , after the bees had settled down . unaware that highly aggressive africanized bees had displaced the mild - mannered european honeybees a decade earlier , we were fortunate to escape serious injury or worse . this episode took place at belize’s thousand foot falls in 1994 , during the initial phase of our orange - breasted falcon research in central america .
our core study population is in the mountain pine ridge of the northern mountains , a small granite plateau of about 200 , 000 acres , with an elevation between 600 and 900 meters . the plateau is dominated by pines and dissected by streams and deep hardwood canyons extending into valleys with abundant limestone and granite cliffs , a few of which are occupied by orange - breasted falcons . the forest life zone is borderline tropical - subtropical moist to wet forest . both the falcon and its prey breed during the dry season , from february through may , a period with the highest temperatures and lowest rainfall .
many authors have reflected on the orange - breasted falcon’s rarity throughout its range . we believe that its specialized habitat requirements , low reproductive rate , and predation by a plethora of natural enemies are the primary causes for its historic scarcity . more recently , the cumulative effects of habitat alteration , fragmentation , human conflicts , and increasing predation may explain the catastrophic reduction in the species’ range in central america and its declining population . given the species’ ecological challenges and its apparent isolation from the little - known population in south america , the extirpation of the small population in belize and guatemala seems increasingly likely .
orange - breasted falcons have probably always been rare because of their specialized habitat : large cliffs where they nest and large areas of unbroken tropical forest where they live . historically , their range may have been from southern mexico to northern argentina . today , they occupy just 4 % of their former range in central america where a small population of fewer than 40 pairs persist in areas of belize , guatemala and panama .
there are three popular birding sites in central america where orange - breasted falcons are predictably seen : tikal national park , guatemala , and hidden valley inn & reserve and black rock river lodge in the mountain pine ridge area of belize’s northwest maya mountains . fully two - thirds of ebird’s citizen - science records in central and south america ( 292 of 427 ) come from these locations as part of our study population .
only a few decades ago , our knowledge of the orange - breasted falcon ( falco deiroleucus ) was limited to a few sight records in the literature and some sketchy notes attached to 19th and early 20th - century museum specimens and a single breeding record in tikal national park , guatemala . in 1978 , tom cade , founder and president of the peregrine fund , and biologist peter jenny assembled sparse geographic information and began searching for the species in ecuador , peru , and guatemala . from the early 1980s through 1991 , researchers conducted studies of newly located territories in guatemala and belize as part of the maya project , a nearly decade - long ( 1988 - 96 ) ecological raptor study ( see neotropical birds of prey : biology and ecology of a forest raptor community ) . graduate student aaron baker was part of the project and began the first natural - history study of the orange - breasted falcon in 1992 . he searched for cliffs by questioning local people , examining topographical maps , and exploring river valleys and areas of high relief on foot , by car , and from fixed - wing aircraft . by 1996 baker had expanded his study population to 19 territories in belize and guatemala . our present - day research and restoration program builds upon this series of earlier investigations .
aaron baker calculated that 55 percent of orange - breasted falcon nesting attempts failed and that predators caused most of the failures . the list of potential predators is enormous , from jays and toucans to hawk - eagles , owls , forest - falcons , and vultures ; mammals such as the tayra ( a large mustelid ) and rats ; arboreal snakes , insects , and parasites . prominent on the list are the black - and - white hawk - eagle , stygian owl , and black vulture . of them , the black vulture is the most ubiquitous and is increasing in numbers along with the human population . a group of vultures can overpower a falcon’s aggressive defense and consume its eggs or young . they also usurp prime nesting cliffs . more predatory than the turkey vulture and the much less common king vulture , they forage by sight , attacking and killing small animals and fledgling birds .
a group of vultures can overpower a falcon’s aggressive defense and consume its eggs or young . black vulture is the most ubiquitous and is increasing in numbers along with the human population . black vulture by jordan rolen / macaulay library .
scott newbold leads our current field team , aided by local naturalists jonathan urbina and rony jobel and our rock - climbing specialist matt allshouse . they visit orange - breasted falcon territories multiple times each season to assess occupancy and productivity . africanized bees limited our banding activities prior to 2011 , when we began using full - body bee suits despite the heat and discomfort . we use color - coded leg bands with white letters and numerals as safe and permanent markers for future demographic studies . we do not capture adults or use radio telemetry because of the inherent risks to the small , fragile population . we rely on old - fashioned fieldwork , with the aid of boots , binoculars , and bug spray !
orange - breasted falcons occupy their territories year - round and typically are found in areas of towering cliffs within vast expanses of moist tropical and subtropical mature forest in the vicinity of water . cliffs in belize and guatemala are large ( typically 125 meters high and 250 meters wide ) with obscure ledges , potholes , and crevices , which provide shade from the blazing tropical sun and safety from predators . there are few tree - nesting records , possibly because trees offer less protection from predators and the sun’s heat . the species is not known to nest in tropical savannah—suitable habitat for lookalike species such as bat and aplomado falcons . some researchers suggest that orange - breasted falcons are birds of edges , borders , and clearings adjacent to montane forest , which may offer more rewarding hunting opportunities . we have found that the species does frequent a mosaic of habitats , including farmed fields , orchards , and pasturelands—but only if mature forest is the dominant community .
these falcons are extremely fast flyers and though no study has been done to measure their speed , biologists who have observed these birds in fast pursuit believe they could even be faster than the peregrine falcon , one of the fastest animals on earth ! orange - breasted falcons use several different hunting strategies to capture their prey . the most often perch on high , exposed snags , which give them a great view over the tree canopy or adjacent valleys . once prey is spotted , they might chase their quarry in direct pursuit over the canopy , sometimes making steep climbs into the air before falling in a short stoop onto their prey . they also may pursue their dinner in a very fast horizontal tail - chase or scan the sky for swifts and other high - flying birds and go up to meet them in the air .
like most other falcons , orange - breasted falcons do not build their own nests . instead , they often make small depressions in the substrate of ledges or in crevices of cliffs or sink holes . in guatemala , biologists found a pair nesting on a mayan temple in tikal national park , and they know of one instance of this species nesting in a palm tree . in south america , biologists have documented the falcons nesting under clumps of plants growing on large trees and in natural cavities of large trees , at the base of fronds of palm trees , and on cliffs .
captive - release programs are typically employed only as a lastditch effort when species have been extirpated from all or much of their former range . but we believe that active species rescue is preferable to watchful waiting . our goal is to introduce unrelated captive - bred falcons to the local population . these individuals have the potential to enhance genetic variation , stabilize recruitment deficits , and help mitigate population declines . because dna fingerprinting indicates that the orange - breasted falcons in central and south america are a single population without subspecies , the risk of introducing maladaptive genes into the population is minimal .
species that are highly specialized ecologically and have small , isolated populations are prone to population declines and local extirpation . both territorial occupancy and productivity in our core study population in belize have dropped by half since the 1990s . the number of eyries has fallen from 12 to 6 with only 2 failed attempts to reoccupy one of the eyries . productivity in belize and guatemala was close to one young per active eyrie in the 1990s but has declined to ~ 0 . 5 since 2003 ( berry et al . 2010 ) . productivity in both countries has been highly variable in recent years with a record low of only two young fledged in 2012 , 15 in 2013 ( including 5 young with a captive - bred parent ) , and back to a more typical 8 young in 2014 fledged from 15 eyries . the maintenance level for the well - studied peregrine falcon is more than double with one or more young per active eyrie . whether an extraordinary year now and then like the one we experienced in 2013 is sufficient to sustain a long - lived species such as the orange - breasted falcon is unknown . if that good year does not materialize , the risk of entering an extinction vortex is great .
our research has revealed many of the orange - breasted falcon’s mysteries , and yet we have barely scratched the surface when it comes to fully understanding its population dynamics , the carrying capacity of its environment , its fecundity , longevity , and recruitment needs , the impacts of weather , parasites , and predators , and the consequences of anthropogenic activities . we are banding chicks to help analyze population viability and increasing fledging success by applying prophylactic treatments for parasites . we have experimented with vulture exclusion nest boxes , and we are enhancing genetic variation by introducing unrelated captive - bred falcons . but none of these initiatives is likely to succeed unless the local people embrace a strong conservation ethic . in partnership with the cornell lab of ornithology and university of wyoming , we are developing elementary school education programs in central america , focusing on the important role of raptors in the environment . we are making a difference but our success will depend on public support and enlightened future management .
two of six occupied territories in guatemala are located outside tikal national park and have no protection . they are threatened by rapidly expanding rural communities with a much higher rate of deforestation , colonization , agriculture , and subsistence hunting than in belize . even though falcon occupancy and productivity have been more stable in guatemala than belize , the inevitable correlates of human progress are likely to have a greater negative impact over time .
conservation : friedmann ( 1950 ) summarized the known history of the orange - breasted falcon with the terse comment ,
apparently nowhere numerous ,
and it remains poorly known and scarce to the present time . cade ( 1982 ) regarded it as probably the most sparsely distributed falcon in the world , and he suspected that the total population might be no more than a few thousand individuals . the reasons for its scarcity are not apparent , as noted by collar ( 1986 ) . it is clearly endangered in the northern mesoamerican portion of its range and very rare or extinct in central america south of belize and el petén , guatemala ( thorstrom et al . 2002 ) . there is little evidence to suggest that it was ever more than rare or uncommon there within historical times . it is probably more common , but still poorly known and locally distributed , in the humid lowlands and foothills of south america east of the andes . there appears to be no reason to suspect a population decline at this time , other than locally due to habitat loss , but the low population size in northern central america ( the only area where it has been relatively well studied ) and its absence from other apparently suitable areas are causes for vigilance . it is ominous that peter jenny visited many of the known specimen localities for this species in the early 1980s , but found suitable forest habitat remaining at only one of them ( cade 1982 ) . collar et al . ( 1994 ) considered this to be a globally near threatened species , but it iwas still categorized as a species of
least concern
by birdlife international . in 2012 , however , birdlife changed its status to near threatened . more . . . .
like all birds of prey , orange - breasted falcons are visually oriented and their eyesight is eight times better than ours . how do we know this , since we cannot see through their eyes ? we know because they have eight times the numbers of visual cells ( rods and cones ) in their retinas than we do . even as young chicks , they pick up on small movements , such as a fly buzzing nearby , a rustle in the grass , or a passing bird flying overhead . biologists who were caring for young falcons prior to their release in our restoration program noticed that the young birds were fascinated with a ceiling fan . they focused intently on it , moving their heads in sync with the rotating blades ! their lives depend on their ability to locate and identify prey flying high up in the sky or moving deftly across open areas in the forest canopy or rivers where these falcons hunt .
six pairs reside in guatemala , all in the petén department , which includes tikal national park . the topography is gently rolling , broken in a few areas by steep karst terrain with few large escarpments , limiting the abundance of the falcons . elevations range from 100 to 300 meters . the climate is lowland tropical , warmer and wetter than the mountains of belize . the warm , moist tropical environment , coupled with a pronounced dry season for nesting , may be critical ingredients for the falcon’s specialized niche .
following their first week of exploration , the young falcons begin aerial games of chase , which soon become spectacular high - speed mock attacks . they also play keep away , plucking a pinecone or small stick from a tree , or catching a hapless butterfly or a giant flying grasshopper , and carrying it aloft , daring the others to “catch me if you can . ” following an intense pursuit , the prize is dropped , triggering a mad dive by the participants to retrieve it and renew the game . these chases are thrilling to watch as the falcons twist and dodge between the trees , flying at speeds comparable to that of a major league fastball pitch . orange - breasted falcons may be among the fastest falcons in the world . although these games may look like play to us , they have deadly serious survival implications as the young falcons hone their hunting skills . losing a meal struck down over the canopy could later mean the difference between life and death by starvation .
like other falcons , orange - breasted falcons are also extremely agile flyers . when they are young , they develop amazing flying skills through hard work and practice in what appears to us like playing games . just as a cat
plays
with a toy mouse , these young falcons play to hone their future hunting skills . we have had the privilege of watching these young birds in action ! in the first weeks after they fledge from the nest , the young falcons play “tag” by chasing one another , twisting , turning and diving after each other through the air . the wind makes a loud whooshing noise as they pass relatively low to the ground . another popular game is
keep away
with sticks or pine cones . they fly close to a pine tree and grab a pine cone with their talons . all the while , other young falcons are in hot pursuit . the bird carrying the cone eventually drops it , a buddy catches it in midair , and the chase continues . soon , they practice catching butterflies and large grasshoppers and eventually small migrating birds , such as swallows flying south over the forest canopy in the fall . eventually , these falcons no longer need parental care and feeding .
although 2013 was a very good year , it was marred by the loss of three of seven young falcons—two captive - bred young and one of b1 and caya’s youngsters . overwhelming evidence points to predation by a black - and - white hawk - eagle , the first such losses in five years of releases at the current hack site . juveniles are vulnerable , especially when they are roaming the countryside . we witnessed one unsuccessful hawk - eagle attack , when one of the young falcons managed to dive into the canyon to pick up speed and maneuverability and escaped . in flat country , he would probably have been killed . black - and - white hawk - eagles hunt unseen from the clouds , stooping like a falcon to surprise their victims before they can react or sound a warning alarm .
our hack - site attendants—typically college students exploring options for graduate school—care for the young falcons during daylight hours . our role is to provide food , guidance , and protection . the attendants quickly identify and bond with each falcon through its vocalizations , wing beat , appearance , and unique personality . some falcons are sociable and friendly ; others are withdrawn , cautious , or even grumpy like a spoiled child . the attendants are like surrogate parents , initially hand - feeding and then guiding the development of essential social and hunting skills , many of which the birds seem to learn by trial and error and by watching their parents . the best part of my job as manager , apart from being there at the site , is to interpret the falcons’ behavior for the hack - site attendants and direct future activities in nightly emails .
food and feeding behavior : relative to its overall body size , this species probably has the largest feet of any falcon and also a particularly large beak , adaptations for capturing its prey , medium - sized to large birds ( particularly doves , parakeets , and swifts ) , bats , and large insects , in flight . in the well - studied nesting population in guatemala and belize , birds comprised 85 . 7 % and bats 14 . 3 % of the 105 observed prey items , and nearly half of the avian prey weighed between 25 - 75 g ( baker et al . 1998 ) . for unknown reasons , the observed hunting success ( only 4 % for 208 attempts ) is among the lowest documented for any raptor ( baker et al . op cit . ) . these falcons generally perch on high , exposed snags , sallying forth to pursue aerial prey in direct merlin - like pursuit over the canopy , either in steep climbs terminating in a short stoop or in a very fast tail - chase ; they may scan the sky for swifts and other high - flying birds and go up to meet them in the air ( jenny and cade 1986 ) . jenny saw birds stooping in peregrine fashion on two occasions , and haverschmidt ( 1968 ) also described the method of hunting , stooping on birds in flight , as like that of the peregrine . baker et al . ( 1998 ) observed three instances of cooperative hunting by pairs . more . . . .
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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
based on a model of future deforestation in the amazon basin , as well as evidence of declines elsewhere within its extensive range , it is suspected that the total population of this species is undergoing ongoing declines at the rate of 25 - 30 % over three generations , and it has therefore been uplisted to near threatened .
has a range covering much of latin america . the most northerly limit of its distribution is in southern
, at calama , in 2007 ( jara 2008 ) . declines in territory occupancy , average annual fledgling production per pair and the overall breeding productivity of the population were noted between 1992 - 1997 and 2003 - 2009 in belize ( berry
. 2011 ) . the small population ( c . 30 pairs ) in belize and guatemala appears to be isolated ( berry
partners in flight estimated the population to number fewer than 50 , 000 individuals ( a . panjabi in litt . 2008 ) , thus it is placed in the band 20 , 000 - 49 , 999 individuals here . trend justification : this species is suspected to lose 23 . 9 - 27 . 5 % of suitable habitat within its distribution over three generations ( 18 years ) based on a model of amazonian deforestation ( soares - filho et al . 2006 , bird et al . 2011 ) . it has some tolerance of forest degradation , but is poorly known and therefore suspected to decline by a rate approaching 30 % over three generations .
this species occurs in a range of habitats , including lowland forest , savanna edges , drier regions such as the chaco , and subtropical mountain slopes . it also occurs in human - modified landscapes , but only if mature forest is the dominant habitat ( berry
. 2010 ) . it is found mostly up to 1 , 100 m , but has been recorded at c . 2 , 900 m ( carrión and vargas 2008 ) . it is a highly specialised hunter of flying prey , mainly birds , but also bats . in guatemala and belize , courtship begins in february and offspring fledge in may and june . the nest is built on a cliff face , or rarely in a tree , often near water ( del hoyo
2011 ) , although the clearance , fragmentation and degradation of its forest habitat is expected to be a significant threat to the species throughout much of its range . the species , however , exhibits some tolerance of forest fragmentation and degradation , being recorded in modified landscapes with cultivated fields , orchards and pastures ( berry
. 2010 ) , and it has been found nesting in dead trees in cattle pastures ( a . lees
2011 ) . this suggests that it is not in rapid decline as a result . a further problem associated with habitat loss appears to be its displacement from nest sites by black vulture
. 2010 ) . the species may suffer a low level of direct persecution by humans , and average nesting success appears to be depressed by frequent predation , at least in some areas . the species may also be negatively impacted by the presence of africanised bees
this species occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its extensive range . fundación proaves colombia has designated a reserve in the east andes specifically for the protection of this species ( t . donegan
carry out a periodic meta - analysis of all known records and conduct further surveys to study the species ' s range , population size and trends . monitor habitat trends across its range . encourage the protection of nests by land - owners . investigate methods for reducing the impacts of black vultures and other predators and nest competitors ( berry
. 2010 ) . expand the protected area network to effectively protect ibas . effectively resource and manage existing and new protected areas , utilising emerging opportunities to finance protected area management with the joint aims of reducing carbon emissions and maximizing biodiversity conservation . conservation on private lands , through expanding market pressures for sound land management and preventing forest clearance on lands unsuitable for agriculture , is also essential ( soares - filho
2006 ) . campaign against proposed changes to the brazilian forest code that would lead to a decrease in the width of the areas of riverine forest protected as permanent preservation areas ( apps ) , which function as vital corridors in fragmented landscapes .
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authors : robert berry , christopher l . wood , and brian l . sullivan
this species account is dedicated in honor of robert berry , member of the cornell lab of ornithology ' s administrative board .
berry , r . , c . l . wood , and b . l . sullivan ( 2009 ) .
) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .
though the young falcons are raised in wyoming , they are released far from there in the country of belize . when these young falcons are 20 - 40 days old , they are transported directly to belize , thanks to the generous support of lighthawk , a flying service for conservation . some of our released males have mated with wild females and produced eggs or young chicks .
little is known about the species’ density in south america other that it is rare but widely dispersed geographically . some biologists estimate that their total population may have never been more than a few thousand individuals – and there are even fewer today .
when she is ready , the female typically lays three relatively large reddish - brown eggs over a six - day period . more than most other birds of prey , the female does most of the incubation for about 30 days and brooding of the chicks for about two weeks . while she is busy keeping the eggs and young at just the right temperature , the male works hard to provide all of her and the nestlings’ food . should he perish , the chicks are not likely to survive , as the female seldom leaves the nest unprotected . this is hard work for the male and after the chicks hatch , he must be diligent in finding enough for his family to eat . several times a day , he returns to the nest site with prey – often a bird that he has prepared by removing all the feathers , wings and legs . he and the female will often exchange food in mid - air and the female will carry it back to the nest where she will delicately feed tidbits to her young .
at around 40 days after hatching , the young fly for the first time . however , they stay in their parents ' territory for many months while they learn to hunt and live independently . during this important time in the young chicks ' lives , the parents continue to bring them food . but now , instead of tearing off small pieces to feed to them , the parents bring them whole prey so the young birds learn to tear the meat and feed on their own .
the peregrine fund is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization . our federal ein is 23 - 1969973
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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read this article in its original magazine layout , from the autumn 2014 issue of living bird [ 2 mb pdf download ] .
a brief electrical storm delayed aaron’s ascent and forced all three of us to hunker against the cliff . then we heard the muffled cry , “bees ! ” as aaron emerged amid a cloud of angry africanized “killer” bees that obscured his face . “cut the damn rope ! ” he shouted , spitting bees from his mouth . free of the rope , aaron bolted for the safety of a nearby waterhole , with oscar and i close behind , tripping and stumbling in a futile effort to outrun the angry horde . we plunged into the water , but whenever we surfaced , the bees attacked , and no amount of splashing deterred them . a waterfall at the head of the pool was shallow enough for us to stand under its protective veil . we were safe , temporarily , but the choice was clear—we must either escape from the bees or perish from hypothermia under the waterfall . i finally burst out the opposite side of the waterfall , scaled a small cliff , and crawled rapidly through the tall “dumb grass , ” oblivious to stings from a few scouts . my comrades followed .
in this1994 picture , aaron baker ( left ) , the author ( center ) , and oscar aguirre ( baker’s guatemalan assistant ) prepare to climb the macal river eyrie cliff , which looms in the background . photo by robert b . berry .


cerace sardias is a species of moth of the family tortricidae .

it is found in assam , india .

the wingspan is 40 – 42 mm .

the forewings are bright yellow , the base with a bluish-black shining streak .

the hindwings are bright yellow , the apical part dull brownish black .

cerace sardias

sardias meyrick , 1907 ( cerace ) , j . bombay nat . hist . soc . 17 : 748 . tl : india , assam , khasi hills . lectotype : bmnh . female .
cerace is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .
loxodes meyrick , 1912 ( cerace ) , exotic microlepid . 1 : 19 . tl : india , tenasserim . holotype : calcm . female .
tetraonis butler , 1886 ( cerace ) , proc . zool . soc . london 1886 : 394 . tl : pakistan , lectotype : bmnh . unknown .
diehli buchsbaum & miller , 2002 ( cerace ) , heterocera sumatrana 12 ( 3 ) : 156 . tl : indonesia , sumatra . holotype : zsm . male .
ios diakonoff , 1941 ( cerace ) , treubia 18 : 30 . tl : borneo , northeast borneo ( mt . kinabalu ) . holotype : mnhu . female .
vietnamna kawabe , 1993 ( cerace ) , ty to ga 44 : 99 . tl : north vietnam , mt . tam dao . holotype : usnm . female .
myriopa meyrick , 1922 ( cerace ) , exotic microlepid . 2 : 497 . tl : china , sichuan province , tse - chuan . holotype : mnhn . female .
onustana walker , 1863 ( cerace ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 423 . tl : nepal , holotype : bmnh . male .
nepalensis diakonoff , 1976 ( cerace stipatana ssp . ) , zool . verh . leiden 144 : 71 . tl : nepal . tamba kosi . holotype : zsm . female .
malayana diakonoff , 1970 ( cerace ) , tijdschr . ent . 113 : 101 . tl : malay peninsula , malay states ( bukit kutu ) . holotype : bmnh . female .
stipatana walker , 1863 ( cerace ) , list specimens lepid . insects colln . br . mus 28 : 422 . tl : india , silhert . lectotype : bmnh . male .
tonkinana heppner , 2010 ( cerace ) , lepid . novae 3 : 182 . tl : vietnam , ha toy province , ba vi national park . holotype : fsca . male .
semnologa diakonoff , 1976 ( cerace ) , zool . verh . leiden 144 : 70 . tl : nepal , province no . 3 east , junbesi . holotype : zsm . male .
perdicina moore , in hewitson & moore , 1888 ( cerace ) , descr . indian lepid . ins . : 279 . tl : india . bangla , darjiling . holotype : mnhu . male .
charidotis razowski , 1992 ( cerace ) , shilap revta . lepid . 20 : 108 . tl : vietnam , vietnam ( tam dao , 50 km nw hanoi ) . holotype : isez . female .
clara diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace stipatana ssp . ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 211 . tl : india . holotype : bmnh . male .
anthera diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 194 . tl : ? , siao - lou . holotype : bmnh . male .
obscura diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace guttana ssp . ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 202 . tl : india . bengal . holotype : bmnh . female .
exul diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace stipatana ssp . ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 212 tl : china . chusan island . holotype : bmnh . male .
sinensis diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 212 . tl : china . ichang , chang yang . holotype : bmnh . male .
xanthothrix diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 208 . tl : india , assam , naga hills . holotype : bmnh . male .
guttana felder & rogenhofer , 1875 ( cerace ) , reise st . fregatte novara ( zool . ) ( 2 ) 5 : pl . 138 , fig . 51 . tl : india . holotype : bmnh . female .
cyanopyga diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 205 . tl : india , burma [ myanmar ] ( maymyo ) . holotype : bmnh . male .
euchrysa diakonoff , 1974 ( cerace ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( n . s . ) 10 ( 1 ) : 220 . tl : thailand , northern thailand ( chiengmai ) . holotype : ncb . male .
formosana diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace stipatana ssp . ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 211 tl : taiwan . ( koshum , gyocha ) . holotype : bmnh . female .
archimedis diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace tetraonis ssp . ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 193 . tl : india . khasis , cherra punji . holotype : bmnh . female .
xanthocosma diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 197 . tl : japan , honshu , yamato [ nara prefecture ] . holotype : bmnh . male .
lemeepauli leme , in leme & tams , 1950 ( cerace ) , contrib . lpid . haut - tonkin : 61 . tl : vietnam , vietnam ( haut - tonkin ) . ( nord - vietnam ) saigon . holotype : ncb . female .
birmensis diakonoff , 1950 ( cerace stipatana ssp . ) , bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) ent . 1 : 210 . tl : india . burma [ myanmar ] ( ruby mines district , kosemba ) . holotype : bmnh . male .
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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
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