the whitaker 's shrew ( crocidura whitakeri ) is a species of mammal in the family soricidae .

it is found in western sahara , algeria , morocco , tunisia .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , rocky and sandy coasts .

it is a fairly common species and the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being of " least concern " .

whitaker ' s shrew

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there are no specific conservation plans in place for whittaker’s shrew ( 1 ) .
whitaker , j . , d . pascal . 1971 . external parasites of the arctic shrew in minnesota . . journal of mammalogy , 52 : 202 .
whitaker , j . , w . hamilton . 1998 . mammals of the eastern united states . new york : cornell university press .
the vagrant shrew ( sorex vagrans ) , also known as the wandering shrew , is a medium - sized north american shrew . at one time , the montane shrew and the orizaba long - tailed shrew were considered to belong to the same species .
blair , w . n . ( 1926 ) blair ' s white - toothed shrew . scillonian 5 : 164 - 5 .
the arctic shrew ( sorex arcticus ) , also known as the blackback shrew or saddlebacked shrew , is a medium - sized shrew found in canada and the northern united states . separate species status has been proposed for the maritime shrew ( sorex maritimensis ) which is found in new brunswick and nova scotia and had been considered to be a subspecies of the arctic shrew . the tundra shrew ( sorex tundrensis ) was formerly considered to be a subspecies of the arctic shrew .
the apennine shrew ( sorex samniticus ) is a species of shrew in the soricidae family . the mammal is endemic to italy .
1990 . comparison of species - shrews . pp . 492 - 493 in s parker , s schmizs , b grzimek , eds . grizimek ' s encyclopedia , vol . 1 , 1st edition . farmington hills , mi : mcgraw - hill .
, but in general , olfaction is the strongest and most developed sense in shrews . a large portion of a shrew ' s brain is devoted to olfaction .
owen , james g . ; hoffmann , robert s . ( 15 december 1983 ) .
chakraborty , s . , pradhan , m . s . & subramanian , k . a . 2002 . crocidura nicobarica . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 30 july 2007 .
carmen , ma .
sorex palustris water shrew
. animal diversity web .
, a female lesser white - toothed shrew and her young may form a
caravan
when foraging for food or seeking a place of safety ; each shrew grips the tail of the shrew in front so that the group stays together .
comments : see george ( 1988 ) for an electrophoretic study of systematic relationships among sorex species . s . monticolus ( which now includes s . m . obscurus ) is considered distinct from s . vagrans ( hennings and hoffman 1977 ) . sorex vagrans sonomae ( of california and oregon ) were elevated by carraway ( 1990 ) to full species status ( including 2 subspecies : sonomae and newly described tenelliodus ) . sorex monticolus bairdii , which formerly has been included in sorex vagrans , was regraded by carraway ( 1990 ) as a distinct species , sorex bairdii with 2 subspecies ( bairdii and permiliensis ) . jones et al . ( 1992 ) and hutterer ( in wilson and reeder 1993 ) followed carraway ( 1990 ) in regarding s . vagrans , s . monticolus , s . bairdii , and s . sonomae as separate species . carraway ( 1990 ) subsumed s . trigonirostris into s . vagrans and did not indicate that trigonirostris deserved even subspecific status .
churchfield , s . 1990 . the natural history of shrews . ithaca , ny : cornell university press .
wilson , d . , s . ruff . 1999 . water shrew , sorex palustris . pp . 38 - 39 in the smithsonian book of north american mammals . vancouver : ubc press .
breeding interval : arctic shrew females give birth to one or two litters each year .
and they may also prefer areas with more acidic soils than other local shrew species .
natureserve ( whittaker , j . c . , hammerson , g . & norris , s . j . )
churchfield , s . 1990 . the natural history of shrews . ithaca , new york : comstock publishing associates .
harris , s ; yalden , d . w .
mammals of the british isles
. the mammal society .
like all female mammals , water shrew mothers provide their young with milk after they are born .
the tail of the shrew is bicolored , gradually ranging from brown above to more gray underneath .
the nicobar shrew or nicobar white - tailed shrew ( crocidura nicobarica ) is a critically endangered species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is endemic to the great nicobar island of india .
type : miller , g . s . 1901 jun 27 . proceedings of the biological society of washington . 14 : 95 .
type : miller , g . s . 1902 may 29 . proceedings of the united states national museum . 24 : 776 .
the ansell ' s shrew ( crocidura ansellorum ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is endemic to zambia . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .
the excessive use of pesticides to control locusts may be affecting whittaker’s shrew , either by reducing the availability of its insect prey , or by poisoning the shrew when it ingests insects containing the chemicals ( 1 ) . however , this threat is not believed to be placing the species at risk of extinction at present ( 1 ) .
the breeding period of the ornate shrew starts in late february and ends in late september or october .
van zyll de jong , c . 1999 . tundra shrew . pp . 44 - 45 in d wilson , s ruff , eds . the smithsonian book of north american mammals . washington d . c . : smithsonian institution press .
nowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker’s mammals of the world . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .
amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & stuart , s . n . ( global mammal assessment team )
species of the crocidura genus are more commonly called ‘white - toothed shrews’ , a name that distinguishes them from the closely related red - toothed shrews , whose teeth are coloured by iron deposits ( 2 ) . very little is known about whittaker’s shrew , but crocidura shrews generally have short , smooth , thick fur and a long , bristly tail ( 3 ) . the colouration of whittaker’s shrew is said to be similar to the lesser white - toothed shrew ( crocidura suaveolens ) , which has brownish - grey fur on the back , a white belly and white legs ( 4 ) .
water shrews are short - lived . the typical life span of a water shrew is about 18 months .
. like other shrew species , it has a high metabolic rate and needs to feed frequently . it eats
churchfield , s . ( 1988 ) shrews of the british isles . shire natural history series no 30 . shire publications , princes risborough .
in 1975 the species was recorded from campbell bay national park to the galathea river , but in a subsequent survey in 1984 , no specimens were observed in the same area ( s . s . saha pers . comm . ) . the population is considered to be decreasing .
shrew species communicate with different types of calls as well , for example , chirps are sometimes used in courtship .
the only known predators of arctic shrews are owls . the remains of an arctic shrew have been found in a
the black shrew ( suncus ater ) is a white - toothed shrew only known from mount kinabalu in the malaysian state of sabah on the island of borneo . it is listed as a critically endangered species due to habitat loss and a restricted range . it is the smallest shrew of its kind and lives in parts of middle asia .
macdonald , s . 2003 . the small mammals of alaska : a field handbook of the shrews and small rodents . unpublished : unpublished draft .
type : miller , g . s . 1909 may . annals and magazine of natural history ( ser . 8 ) . 3 : 417 .
air bubbles are trapped in the thick fur when the animal dives underwater . the air bubbles help the shrew with buoyancy and also allow it to engage in a behavior called “water - walking” . the water shrew can dive underwater for about 15 seconds , but is only able to if it is swimming vigorously . the air bubbles allow the shrew to swim , but as soon as the shrew stops swimming , then it will shoot back up to the surface .
the gueldenstaedt ' s shrew ( crocidura gueldenstaedtii ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in armenia , azerbaijan , china , georgia ( country ) , greece , kazakhstan , kyrgyzstan , russia , taiwan , turkey , and uzbekistan .
2004 . alpine shrew . pp . 254 - 260 in d kleiman , v geist , m mcdade , m hutchins , eds . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , vol . volume 13 , 2nd edition edition . farmington hills , mi : gale group .
team wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet’s species and habitats from destruction .
mutchler , s . 2011 .
sorex minutus
( on - line ) . animal diversity web . accessed april 06 , 2011 at urltoken .
stone , r . 1995 . eurasian insectivores and tree shrews - status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc insectivore , tree shrew and elephant shrew specialist group : 1 - 164 . accessed april 05 , 2011 at urltoken .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
its feet have a fringe of hairs , more visible on the larger hind feet , which allow this animal to run on the water ' s surface .
the alpine shrew is nocturnal and is a skilled climber , using its tail for balance . it uses scent glands on its
shrews of similar size have a gestation period around 21 days , but no definitive information on the ornate shrew is available .
the alpine shrew is found in the mountains and uplands of central and eastern europe and parts of france . its range includes the
clough , g . 1963 . biology of the arctic shrew , sorex arcticus . american midland naturalist , 69 : 69 - 81 .
shrews have limited visual ability . the eyes of shrews are very small , and the optic region of the shrew brain is small .
buckner , c . 1970 . direct observation of shrew predation on insects and fish . the blue jay , 28 : 171 - 172 .
. there is a stretch of territory through baja where the shrew is not found , then it is found again near the southern tip .
it is listed on appendix iii of the bern convention . a major part of the alpine shrew ' s range in the carpathians is covered by the carpathians reserve ( about 45 , 000 ha ) and national park ( about 70 , 000 ha ) . there is a need for monitoring , particularly of isolated subpopulations .
macdonald , d . w . and tattershall , f . t . ( 2001 ) britain ' s mammals - the challenge for conservation . the wildlife conservation research unit , oxford urltoken
and is known as the scilly shrew . skull and tooth measurements of individuals from scilly are found to be intermediate in size of those in the
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shrews can make and hear sounds in high frequencies . calls are made for defense and courtship . they are also made when an shrew is afraid .
conaway , c . 1952 . life history of the water shrew ( sorex palustris ) . amer . midland nat . , 48 : 219 - 248 .
the nicobar shrew is a nocturnal and semi fossorial species , which lives among leaf litter in tropical moist deciduous forest ( molur et al . 2005 ) .
spitzenberger , f . 1996 . zoogeogeography of autria ' s mammal fauna . an interim report on atlas work in progress . proceedings of the 1st european congress of mammalogy , 1 : 55 - 65 .
and sent it to mr f w smalley
who had the largest collection of rodents in the country
. in 2010 , a scilly shrew made headlines on
. it was only discovered as the ship was about to arrive in penzance . the shrew was flown back to the isles of scilly the next day on a
the ornate shrew is found along portions of the west coast of north america and a few near shore islands . the northern extent is around 39 degrees latitude in
global range : sakhalin island ; siberia , from the pechora river to chukotka , south to the altai mountains ; mongolia and northeastern china ; alaska ; yukon , northwest territories , canada ( hutterer , in wilson and reeder 1993 ) . according to rausch and rausch ( 1993 ) , s . tundrensis is limited to the nearctic and the eurasian populations comprise a complex of sibling species distinct from s . tundrensis .
ticul alvarez , s . , matson , j . , castro - arellano , i . , woodman , n . , de grammont , p . c . & hammerson , g . ( 2008 ) .
the lesser white - toothed shrew found in a variety of habitats , among shrubs in coastal sand dunes or dense plants in rocky deserts , humid or arid conditions .
macdonald , d . w . , and tattersall , f . t . ( 2001 ) . britain ' s mammals - the challenge for conservation . the wildlife conservation research unit , oxford university . available from urltoken
lvarez - castaeda , s . t . , matson , j . , castro - arellano , i . , woodman , n . , de grammont , p . c . & hammerson , g . a .
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lawrence , w . , k . hays , s . graham . 1965 . arthropodous ectoparasites from some northern michigan mammals . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan , 639 : 1 - 7 .
george , s . b . ( 1988 ) .
systematics , historical biogeography , and evolution of the genus sorex
. journal of mammalogy 69 ( 3 ) : 443–461 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1381337 .
this shrew has a wide distribution in europe , extends eastwards to japan and also occurs in north africa ( 3 ) . it does not occur on mainland britain , but is present on jersey and sark in the channel islands and is also found on the scilly isles ( 3 ) , where it is thought to be represented by a subspecies known as the scilly shrew ( c . s . cassiteridum , endemic to the scilly isles ( 6 ) . it is believed to have originally been introduced to the scilly isles ( 4 ) and has since evolved into a new subspecies .
baird , d . , r . timm , g . nordquist . 1983 . reproduction in the arctic shrew , sorex arcticus . journal of mammalogy , 64 : 298 - 301 .
this shrew inhabits dry and rocky areas with little plant life , as well as coastal sand dunes , where it takes shelter in the burrows of rodents or among rocks ( 1 ) .
, fungi and green vegetation . once it ' s caught , the food is held by the fore feet and torn to pieces using the teeth through upward thrusting of the head . water shrews can live without food for up to 3 hours , but captive shrews have been found to feed almost every 10 minutes . the amount of food required by a water shrew has been estimated to be 0 . 95 g / day .
platt , w . , n . blakley . 1973 . short - term effects of shrew predation upon invertebrate prey . proceedings of the iowa academy of science , 80 : 60 - 66 .
comments : some recent literature regards sorex alaskanus as a subspecies of s . palustris ( junge and hoffman 1981 ; jarrel and macdonald 1989 ; jones et al . 1992 ; harris , in wilson and ruff 1999 ) , whereas other authors have regarded s . alaskanus as a distinct species ( hall 1981 ; beneski and stinson 1987 ; george 1988 ; hutterer , in wilson and reeder 1993 ; carraway 1995 ; baker et al . 2003 ) . inadequate material has prevented conclusive studies ( cook et al . 1997 ) . see george ( 1988 ) for an electrophoretic study of systematic relationships among sorex species . taxonomy of s . palustris currently is being studied by suzanne mclaren ( carnegie museum nat . hist . , pittsburgh , pa ) .
in which the males are in general bigger and heavier than the females . the size of the shrew can be anywhere from 130–170 mm and weigh from 8 - 18 grams . their tails range from 57–89 mm . the shrew contains black and brown fur colors and changes depending on the season . the color will change to lighter brown in the summer and a black color in the winter .
the lesser white - toothed shrew is a medium - sized shrew . the upperparts of the body and side grayish or reddish brown in color . tail relatively long . tail color varies from grayish to brownish above , paler below with bristles dispersed along the entire length . distinctive line dividing the upperparts from the underparts . underparts and feet whitish . snout broad . ears small but distinguished . eyes small .
the sicilian shrew ( crocidura sicula ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in sicily ( italy ) and gozo ( malta ) . its natural habitat is temperate shrubland .
diurnal animal with maximum activity from 5 to 8 pm , otherwise hiding between shrubs or under rocks . feeds on snails , earthworm and arthropods , especially insects . lesser white - toothed shrew secretes pheromones to communicate with other individuals . it is typically a solitary species . lesser white - toothed shrew breeds from one to seven times throughout the year , but mainly from march to may . female gives birth to five litters each containing from one to six young after a gestation period of around 28 days . the young open their eyes at 10 days and reaches sexual maturity after 3 months . lesser white - toothed shrew can live for 2 . 5 years .
it is listed on appendix iii of the bern convention . subspecies c . s . caneae , endemic to crete , is on appendix ii of the bern convention ( as c . ariadne ) . it occurs in protected areas within its range . no specific conservation actions are recommended .
hutterer , r . , g . amori , b . kryštufek , h . meinig , s . bertolino , f . spitzenberger , j . zima . 2010 .
sorex alpinus
( on - line ) . iucn red list . accessed march 06 , 2011 at urltoken .
feldhamer , g . a . , drickamer , l . c . , vessey , s . h . , merritt , j . f . and krajewski , c . ( 2007 ) mammalogy : adaptation , diversity , ecology . third edition . the johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .
johnston , r . f . & rudd , r . l . ( 1957 ) .
breeding of the salt marsh shrew
. journal of mammalogy 38 ( 2 ) : 157–163 . doi : 10 . 2307 / 1376305 .
gillihan , s . w . & foresman , k . r . ( 2004 ) .
sorex vagrans
. mammalian species : number 744 : pp . 1–5 . doi : 10 . 1644 / 1545 - 1410 ( 2004 ) 744 < 0001 : sv > 2 . 0 . co ; 2 .
the alpine shrew ( sorex alpinus ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in the alpine meadows and coniferous forests of southern european mountain ranges : the alps , the pyrenees , the carpathian mountains and the balkans .
whittaker’s shrewcan be found across north africa , in morocco , algeria , tunisia and egypt , the spanish northern african territories of ceuta and melilla , and possibly also in western sahara and libya . it is distributed over a large altitudinal range , from sea level to up to 1 , 800 metres ( 1 ) .
this species is found from southern british columbia , canada south to monterrey , california , and east to idaho , western montana , and northern utah in the united states . a disjunct subspecies s . vagrans orizabae found in the transverse volcanic belt of mexico was recently elevated to species status ( carraway , 2007 ) .
stiff hairs along the sides of the hind feet are found only in the water shrew and the pacific water shrew ( sorex bendirii ) . the latter , a pacific northwest species , differs in being slightly larger ( 8 . 9 - 9 . 7 cm , 3 . 5 - 3 . 8 inches , body length ) and dark brown rather than blackish - gray ( burt and grossenheider 1976 ) . see carraway ( 1995 ) for a key to western north american soricids based primarily on dentaries .
the average life expectancy of a vagrant shrew has been estimated at a little over six months . however , they can live much longer ; although few survive for more than seventeen months , a few survive their second winter and reach two years of age .
possessing an extremely high metabolism , shrews have to feed every two to three hours to meet the demands of this high energy requirement , and often eat more than their body weight in food every day ( 6 ) . the diet of crocidura shrews typically consists of invertebrates , frogs , toads and lizards , and the bodies of recently killed animals ( 5 ) . another consequence of a shrew’s high metabolism and resultant active lifestyle is a rather short life span ( 2 ) ; shrews rarely live longer than a year , making them the shortest lived mammals in the world ( 6 ) .
type for crocidura suaveolens catalog number : usnm 105801 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : female ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : e . zollikofer year collected : 1900 locality : zuberwangen , sankt gallen , switzerland , europe
hutterer , r . ; amori , g . ; kryštufek , b . ; meinig , h . ; bertolino , s . ; spitzenberger , f . ; zima , j . ( 2008 ) . ' sorex alpinus ' . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 2013 - 08 - 21 .
the appenine shrew is endemic to the italian peninsula . it is recorded from the appenines to calabria , at altitudes between 300 m and 1 , 160 m , but its exact distribution is poorly known ( hausser 1990 , 1999 , amori and aloise 2005 ) .
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .
the water shrew is a boreal species , also inhabiting relict habitat in southern mountains . it requires high quality water , preferably mountain streams , and abundant cover such as rocks , logs , or overhanging stream bank . suitable management consists primarily of maintaining these conditions . there are many areas ( e . g . , state and national parks ) in which habitat is adequately protected . the southern range of the water shrew may be shrinking through habitat fragmentation and local extirpation , but current information is inadequate to allow an evaluation of this hypothesis .
stewardship overview : the water shrew is a boreal species , also inhabiting relict habitat in southern mountains . it requires high quality water , preferably mountain streams , and abundant cover such as rocks , logs , or overhanging streambank . suitable management consists primarily of maintaining these conditions .
buchler , e . r . ( november 1976 ) .
the use of echolocation by the wandering shrew ( sorex vagrans )
. animal behaviour 24 ( 4 ) : 858–873 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s0003 - 3472 ( 76 ) 80016 - 4 .
although there is little information available on the biology of whittaker’s shrew , it is likely to be similar to be other crocidura species . crocidura shrews typically give birth to litters containing between one and ten young , which weigh just one gram each at birth . the young are hairless for their first week of life , and do not open their eyes until 13 days old , but are weaned after about 20 days and are sexually mature after just two to three months ( 5 ) . if shrew families have to move before the young are fully grown they do so by ‘caravanning’ ; the immature shrews form a line behind the mother , with each one holding onto the hind end of the one in front with its teeth . the grip between individuals in the chain is so strong that if the mother is lifted off the ground then all of the family are lifted up too ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
the american water shrew tends to breed from december to september and females usually have a three week gestation period where offspring will be born in the spring and summer . they usually produce two to three litters during that time . these litters can contain anywhere from three to ten offspring .
this species occurs from yukon and northwest territory to quebec in canada ; southwards to north dakota , south dakota , minnesota , michigan , and wisconsin in the united states ( hutterer , in wilson and reeder 1993 ; kirkland and schmidt 1996 ) . the disjunct populations in nova scotia and new brunswick have now been elevated to species status ( s . maritimensis ) .
there is little information about the mating habits of the arctic shrew , however males of most shrew species mate with many females , and compete with other males for females , so the assumption is that arctic shrews behave similarly . in wisconsin , the breeding season lasts from february to august , and the breeding season is shorter in more northern areas , from april to august . arctic shrew females give birth to one or two litters each year , and these litters range in size from 4 to 10 offspring , with an average of 7 offspring per litter . the gestation period ranges between 13 and 21 days , so the young stay with their mother until 5 to 6 . 5 weeks after conception , and males make no contribution to parental care . when they are born , young arctic shrews are helpless . their mother and are cares for them until the end of the weaning period , 20 to 24 days after birth . both female and male arctic shrews reach sexual maturity after one year . as much as 50 percent of all juveniles die in the first month , but the average lifespan of an arctic shrew in the wild is around 18 months .
loss of alpine water courses due to water abstraction and hydroelectric power is also a threat , as is loss of habitat owing to intensification of winter tourism in the alps . human land use is a direct threat and climate change may be a future indirect threat as a result of range shifts in other species that may be direct competitors with s . alpinus when ranges overlap .
lukacova , l . , e . dannelid , j . hausser , m . macholan , j . zima . 1996 . g - banded karotype of the alpine shrew , sorex alpinus ( mammalia , soricidae ) , from the sumava mts . . folia zoologica , 45 : 223 - 226 .
type for sorex tundrensis merriam , 1900 catalog number : usnm 99286 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : unknown ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : w . osgood year collected : 1899 locality : saint michaels [ = michael ] , alaska , united states , north america
arctic shrews can be found in a variety of habitats , but populations are highest in moist grassy areas near lakes , bogs , swamps , and ditches . in the upper peninsula of michigan , arctic shrew populations are the densest in spruce and tamarack swamps , as well as near lakes and streams .
type for crocidura nicobarica miller , 1902 catalog number : usnm 111788 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : female ; adult preparation : skull ; remainder in fluid collector ( s ) : w . abbott year collected : 1901 locality : great nicobar island , nicobar islands , andaman and nicobar is , asia
occurs in a variety of habitats ( 2 ) , favouring dry ground , and has even adapted to living on the seashore and grassy sand dunes in the scilly isles ( 4 ) . like the greater white - toothed shrew , it often occurs close to man , living around outbuildings ( 3 ) .
management research needs : research is needed on geographic variation in habitat requirements . further research should be conducted on dispersion pattern and dispersal . research is needed on the effects of land and stream pollution on water shrew survival . the minimum population size needed to maintain genetic viability in a fragmented habitat should be investigated .
the nicobar shrew has been recorded from campbell bay national park ( possibly now extinct here ) and galathea national park in great nicobar islands ( chakraborty et al . 2004 ; molur et al . 2005 ) . additional studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , general ecology and threats to this little - known species .
type for sorex alpinus catalog number : usnm 112928 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : male ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : f . boettcher year collected : 1901 locality : mauseklippe , bodethal [ = bodetal ] , harz mountains , sachsen - anhalt , germany , europe elevation ( m ) : 630
is classified as
near threatened
on the iucn ' s red list of threatened species , however , more data are needed to determine broad population trends . major threats include the loss of alpine rivers and streams due to water extraction and hydroelectric power and increasing winter tourism in mountains of central europe . climate change may pose a significant threat in the near future as range shifts may increase interspecific competition for resources .
characteristic mammals of the ecoregion include : ornate shrew ( sorex ornatus ) , puma ( puma concolor ) , fringed myotis bat ( myotis thysanodes ) , california chipmunk ( tamias obscurus ) , bobcat ( lynx rufus ) , coyote ( canis latrans ) , san joaquin kit fox ( vulpes macrotis ) and bighorn sheep ( ovis canadensis ) .
like all shrews , the arctic shrew has a voracious and insatiable appetite due to its quick metabolism . it eats insects , worms and small invertebrates , with a large proportion of its diet made up of larch sawflies , though arctic shrews in captivity have been fed dead voles fly pupae , and mealworms . the only known predators of arctic shrews are owls .
the lesser white - toothed shrew has a wide global distribution . it occurs in the palaearctic , extending from the atlantic coast of spain and probably portugal ( where its occurrence needs further confirmation ) extending eastwards through europe and asia to siberia . the southernmost edge of its distribution reaches sinai ( egypt ) , asia minor , israel , saudia arabia , iran and china .
stockley , p . , j . searle . 1994 . characteristics of the breeding season in the common shrew ( sorex araneus ) : male sexual maturation , morphology and mobility . pp . 181 - 188 in j merritt , g kirkland , r rose , eds . advances in the biology of shrews , special publication no . 18 . pittsburgh : carnegie museum of natural history .
hibernation a winter survival strategy characteristic of some mammals in which an animal ' s metabolic rate slows down and a state of deep sleep is attained . whilst hibernating , animals survive on stored reserves of fat that they have accumulated in summer . in insects , the correct term for hibernation is ' diapause ' , a temporary pause in development and growth . any stage of the lifecycle ( eggs , larvae , pupae or adults ) may enter diapause , which is typically associated with winter .
the water shrew is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) . it is partially protected in the uk under schedule 6 of the wildlife and countryside act , 1981 ( 3 ) . listed under schedule iii of the bern convention , and classified as a species of conservation concern under the uk biodiversity action plan , although not a priority species ( 7 ) .
the water shrew ( neomys fodiens ) is the largest of the british shrews ( 2 ) ; it has black upper parts and a whitish underside , between which there is a clear demarcation ( 4 ) . typically for most shrews , the snout is long and the eyes and ears are small ( 2 ) . the fur is short and dense , and there are often tufts of white around the eyes and on the ears ( 2 ) . stiff hairs border the feet and form a keel on the underside of the tail ( 2 ) , which aid in swimming ( 4 ) . this species is a ' red - toothed shrew ' ; iron is deposited in the enamel of the tooth - tips , making them more resistant to wear - and - tear , and giving them a red appearance ( 6 ) .
this shrew is the smallest of the ' white - toothed shrews ' ( 2 ) ; it lacks the deposition of iron in the tips of the teeth seen in red - toothed shrews ( 4 ) . the upper surface of the body is greyish or reddish brown in colour ; and the underside is paler ( 3 ) . the tail is covered in short bristly hairs ( 3 ) , and long whisker - like ( 2 ) white hairs ( 3 ) . although smaller and lighter , this species is very similar in appearance to the greater white - toothed shrew ( crocidura russula ) ( 2 ) , so much so that the only truly reliable method to distinguish between the two species is by examination of the teeth , and the relative sizes of the tail and hind feet ( measurements above ) ( 3 ) .
many shrews have such uniformly grayish coats that separate species cannot easily be distinguished , but both the summer and winter coats of the tundra shrew are highly distinctive . its summer pelage is tricolored , dark brown on the back , pale gray on the underparts , and brownish - gray or pale brown in between . its longer winter fur is brown on the back and grayish on the sides and underparts . the tundra shrew is common , though limited , in distribution in alaska and extreme northwestern canada , where it inhabits hillsides and other well - drained areas with dense vegetation . its food habits are not well known , but insects , earthworms , and parts of a small grass flower were found in the digestive tracts of some specimens . embryo counts in a small sample of pregnant females averaged 10 , which is high for shrews . links : mammal species of the world
the reddish - gray musk shrew ( crocidura cyanea ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in angola , botswana , democratic republic of the congo , lesotho , malawi , mozambique , namibia , nigeria , south africa , swaziland , tanzania , zambia , and zimbabwe . its natural habitats are temperate forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , and caves .
of 1 / 1 5 / 1 1 / 1 3 / 3 with a total of 32 teeth . they swim well and make short dives in search of food . the shrew prefers aquatic insects such as ; stone flies and crane flies . they are known to also feed on small fish , vegetation , and snails . shrews require a lot of food and cannot go without food for anymore than three hours because of their high metabolic rate .
the breeding season can occur from april to august , but may be shorter in the north of the species ' range . arctic shrew females give birth to 1 or 2 litters each year . litters range from 4 to 10 offspring , with an average of 7 young per litter . shrews are pregnant for between 13 and 21 days . females nurse their young for 20 to 24 days . both female and male arctic shrews reach sexual maturity after one year .
the least dwarf shrew ( suncus infinitesimus ) is a species of mammal in the soricidae family . it is found in cameroon , central african republic , democratic republic of the congo , kenya , nigeria , south africa , swaziland , tanzania , and uganda . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , temperate grassland , subtropical or tropical dry lowland grassland , subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , and arable land .
management requirements : protection of habitat , especially water quality , is the primary management consideration . guidelines should be developed for activities with potentially adverse impacts such as logging . during timber harvest , buffer strips should be maintained along potential water shrew habitat ( christian , pers . comm . , 1994 ) . pesticide use that might impact aquatic / riparian invertebrate populations should be avoided whenever possible . in some cases it may be desirable to reintroduce shrews from nearby populations to restored habitat .
it is uncommon in the western part of its range , occurring at much lower densities than its congener c . russula ( libois et al . 1999 ) . further east it is more common . described as abundant and ubiquitous in at least parts of its global range ( harrison and bates 1991 ) . in the steppe forest zone in ukraine it is the most abundant shrew species , both in natural and agricultural habitats ( i . zagorodnyuk pers . comm . 2006 ) .
the alpine shrew is endemic to europe , where it has a disjunct range in the alps , the balkans , the carpathians , and a number of isolated mountains in germany , czech republic and poland ( spitzenberger 1999 , meinig 2004 ) . it previously occurred in the pyrenees , where it is thought to have gone extinct in the early 20th century , and in the harz ( spitzenberger 1999 ) . its vertical range is from 200 to 2 , 500 m ( spitzenberger 1999 ) .
, fungi and green vegetation ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) . once in possession , the food is held by the fore feet and torn to pieces using the teeth through upward thrusting of the head ( sorenson , 1962 ) . water shrews can live without food for up to 3 hours , but captive shrews have been found to feed almost every 10 minutes ( nagorsen , 1996 ) . the amount of food required by a water shrew has been estimated to be 0 . 95 g / day .
in wisconsin , the breeding season is from february to august . the breeding season is shorter in more northern areas , from april to august . arctic shrew females give birth to 1 or 2 litters each year . litter sizes range from 4 to 10 offspring , with an average of 7 offspring per litter . the gestation period ranges between 13 and 21 days . the lactation period ranges between 20 and 24 days . the time from conception to weaning lasts between 5 and 6 . 5 weeks . both female and male arctic shrews reach sexual maturity after one year .
global range : ( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) boreal and montane regions of labrador , nova scotia , and new england across canada to east - central alaska ( cook et al . 1997 ) , south to the northern great lakes region and in the western mountains to mid - california , nevada , utah , and new mexico ; a small , disjunct population in arizona ' s white mountains has not been observed in recent years ( hoffmeister 1986 ) ; another apparently disjunct series of populations in the appalachians ranges from southwestern pennsylvania to north carolina , tennessee , and georgia ( laerm et al . 1995 , brimleyana 22 : 47 - 51 ) . hall ( 1981 ) mapped the ranges of the subspecies .
the alpine shrew is 6 to 7 . 7 centimetres ( 2 . 4 to 3 . 0 in ) in length , not including a tail as long as its body , and weighs between 5 . 5 and 11 . 5 g ( 0 . 2 and 0 . 4 oz ) . it is a uniform greyish - black on its dorsal ( upper ) surface and greyish - brown on its underparts . the tips of its teeth are reddish - brown and it has a long pointed snout , small black eyes and rounded pink ears . its legs and feet are white and the underside of its hairy tail is yellowish .
occupies a variety of habitats , but populations are highest in moist grassy areas near lakes , bogs , swamps , and ditches . specifically , in the upper peninsula of michigan , arctic shrew populations are the densest in spruce and tamarack swamps , as well as near lakes and streams . they are often found in clearings in boreal forests , as well as marshes . other occasional habitats include dry fields , old fields , mixed conifer swamps , dense grasses adjacent to ditches , mixed grasses , strawberries and ferns at forest clearings , alder thickets , and dry marsh with grasses , sedge hammocks , forbs , cattail , willow , and red - osier shrubs .
the arctic shrew is most distinctive in its tricolored fur . it is dark brown or black on its back from its head to the base of its tail , while its flanks are a lighter brown , and its underside is lighter still grayish brown . even its tail is bi - colored , dark brown on the dorsal side , and gradually fading to a lighter brown on the ventral side . the fur is grayer in winter time , and its tricolor is most marked during the winter months from october to june , for the fur is thicker and brighter . arctic shrews molt twice a year , and the tricolor bands in the fur are less prominent in younger shrews .
water shrews are almost invariably found near streams or other bodies of water , where they find food and also escape from predators . these shrews readily dive to stream bottoms , paddling furiously to keep from bobbing to the surface—their fur , full of trapped air , makes them buoyant . they feed on aquatic invertebrates , insect larvae , and even small fish . in the water they are susceptible to predation from larger fish and snakes . on land , water shrews have a more typical shrew diet , feeding on a variety of invertebrates , including earthworms , snails , and insects . they also eat fungi and green vegetation . links : mammal species of the world click here for the american society of mammalogists species account
of the approximately 30 mammalian species of mammals present , one of them ( an endemic bat ) lives only in pine - oak forests . the level of endemism is high , and this is well demonstrated by the proportion of endemic species with respect to total recorded species . more than ten percent of the mammalian species found at sierra de la laguna are endemic . one notable mammal found along the far west coast , including california and baja , is the ornate shrew ( sorex ornatus ) . there are several threatened mammals found in the sierra de la laguna pine - oak forests , including : the mexican long - tongued bat ( choeronycteris mexicana nt ) . the isolation of this region has contributed to the scarcity of predators , and to the poor competitive ability of some animals . rodents and lagomorphs are virtually absent from the region
arctic shrews are found in a variety of habitats in highest density of 3 to 5 individuals per acre and each individual arctic shrew appears to limit its range to one tenth of an acre . of their various habitats , they found in greatest quantity and density in areas near bodies of water , such as lakes , streams , marshes , wetlands , bogs , swamps , ditches or open areas near wetlands . in the upper peninsula of michigan , they are found densely in spruce and tamarack swamps , in addition to other typical habitats . arctic shrews have been found in clearings in boreal forests , and occasionally in mixed conifer swamps , dry or old fields , dense grasses near ditches , mixed grasses , in the undergrowth of forest clearings , alder thickets , and dry marsh with grasses , sedge hammocks , forbs , cattail , willow , and red - osier shrubs .
water shrews are relatively large shrews with males tending to be longer and heavier than females . the total length of a water shrew can range between 130 and 170 mm , and the weight ranges from 8 to 18 grams . although the color of the fur may be variable , it is generally black or grey - black on the back and a silvery - grey on the belly , but appears more black in the winter and becomes more brown in the summer . water shrews can have tails varying from 57 to 89 mm in length . the tail is dark above and white or grey below . the hind feet ( 18 to 21 mm ) are larger than the fore feet and have a trim of 1 mm long stiff hairs on the toes and the inner and outer sides of the feet . a fringe of smaller stiff hairs is also found on the fore feet .
arctic shrews are solitary animals . adults are territorial . in one laboratory study , whenever two arctic shrews were placed together in a cage , one was dead within several days , though there was no sign of injury to the dead shrew and the cause for this mortality is unclear , however the result of this forced interaction has been repeatedly observed . arctic shrews are active during day and night , though there are contradicting reports on levels and cycles of activity throughout the day . one claim is that they are least active during mid - morning , while other reports describe alternating periods of activity and rest , with an average of fourteen periods of activity daily . arctic shrews are very active and move quickly . periods of inactivity are spent lying on the ground , either on one side or with the ventral side down , body rolled up , and head tucked under the body . grooming consists of wiping the forefeet rapidly along the mouth .
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justification : a relatively widespread species in north africa , with no major threats at the presente , hence is listed as least concern .
population size and trends are unknown . it is a very difficult species to find and to track in the field .
c . whitakeri seems to be dependent on dry and stony habitats , with sparse vegetation ( i . e . , steppe or subdeserts ) . it is also found in sandy coastal dunes . the species shelters among rocks and in rodent burrows .
no major threats are known . the main natural predator of this species is the barn owl . it can be affected by pesticides , which are used massively against locusts in the southern part of its range .
this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .
( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t41366a115519360 .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
genus a category used in taxonomy , which is below ‘family’ and above ‘species’ . a genus tends to contain species that have characteristics in common . the genus forms the first part of a ‘binomial’ latin species name ; the second part is the specific name . invertebrates animals with no backbone , such as insects , worms , and spiders . metabolism the total of all the chemical reactions that take place in an organism , in order to produce energy and the basic materials needed for important life processes . the speed at which an organism carries out these processes is called its metabolic rate .


araneus quadratus , the four-spot orb-weaver , is a common orb-weaver spider found in europe and central asia , and as far as the kamchatka peninsula and japan .

females can reach 17 mm in length , especially when gravid , males approximately half that .

they are quite variable in appearance , ranging from brown to bright orange or green , but they always have the characteristic four white spots on the abdomen .

the darker color morphs are easiest to identify , due to the contrast between the white spots and the rest of the body .

the legs are sometimes brightly striped .

the spider lives in gardens , wooded areas , or wherever there is vegetation to string an orb web across .

this species builds its web close to the ground to catch jumping insects such as small grasshoppers .

the female builds the more elaborate web , complete with a funnel-shaped retreat off to the side where she goes during inclement weather .

the web is smaller and closer to the ground than those of other species of orb-weaver .

adult females can actively change their color .

it takes about three days to take on colors that accurately match their resting surface .

araneus quadratus

close - up of a palp from the side of a male araneus quadratus .
female araneus quadratus . the abdomen is full with eggs . notice the different colour to the first photo .
araneus quadratus clerck , 1757 ( = aranea reaumuri ( scopoli ) ) ( also previously known as epeira quadrata . )
turning the tables slightly , bristowe included a . quadratus in his tasting experiment one afternoon when he was staying at flatford mill [ 16 ] . he doesn ' t mention why a . quadratus was chosen for his gastronomic adventure but he does note that , of the spiders tasted that day ,
. . . araneus quadratus , with a slightly nutty flavour , was the best
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araneus quadratus is a large orb - weaving spider with four distinct spots on its abdomen . among other things you will in this video see it catching a large grasshopper . more info on this spider here : urltoken contact me : urltoken stock footage / video of araneus quadratus here : urltoken music : kevin macleod ( incompetech . com )
kajak , a . 1965 : an analysis of food relations between spiders - araneus cornutus cl . and araneus quadratus cl . - and their prey in meadows . ekol . pol . a13 : 717 - 764 .
the four - spot orb weaver , araneus quadratus , gets its name from the markings on its abdomen . four dark dots surrounded by white . the main colour of the abdomen can be almost any colour .
general : our heaviest spider , a . quadratus is an autumn - maturing orb - web weaver . easily recognized ; indeed it is one of clerck ' s original species .
etymology : araneus - latin for spider ; quadratus - latin for square , referring to the four prominent spots on the abdomen . ( it appears that no - one ' s quite sure what epeira is derived from . )
nyffeler , m . and benz , g . 1978 : die beutespektren der netzspinnen argiope bruennichi ( scop . ) , a . quadratus cl . und agelena labyrinthica ( cl . ) in odlandwiesen bei zürich . revue suisse zool . 85 : 747 - 757 .
araneus albilunatus roewer , 1961b : 51 , f . 13a - d ( d f ) . araneus albilunulatus brignoli , 1983c : 259 .
araneus subumbrosus roewer , 1961b : 53 , f . 14a - b ( d f ) . araneus subombrosus brignoli , 1983c : 260 .
araneus floriatus hogg , 1914a : 57 ( d m f ) . araneus floriatus hogg , 1915a : 446 , f . 25 ( f ) .
araneus basalteus schenkel , 1936b : 99 , f . 35 ( djj ) .
araneus pseudoconicus schenkel , 1936b : 114 , f . 40 ( dj ) .
treating nevus araneus ( broken capillaries ) with electrocautery . for medical education - nsfe .
araneus angulatus personata simon , 1929 : 678 , 756 ( d m f ) . araneus angulatus personatus breitling et al . , 2016b : 69 ( subspecies inquirenda ) .
araneus aralis bakhvalov , 1981a : 137 , f . 1 ( d f ) .
araneus asiaticus bakhvalov , 1983 : 69 , f . 3 ( d f ) .
araneus baicalicus bakhvalov , 1981b : 148 , f . 6 ( d f ) .
araneus bargusinus bakhvalov , 1981b : 147 , f . 5 ( d f ) .
araneus carimagua levi , 1991a : 230 , f . 190 ( d m ) .
araneus cohnae levi , 1991a : 229 , f . 188 ( d m ) .
araneus demoniacus caporiacco , 1939a : 346 , f . 14 ( d m ) .
araneus ferganicus bakhvalov , 1983 : 91 , f . 5 ( d f ) .
araneus jamundi levi , 1991a : 222 , f . 157 ( d m ) .
araneus margaritae caporiacco , 1940c : 826 , f . 31 ( d f ) .
araneus matogrosso levi , 1991a : 230 , f . 189 ( d m ) .
araneus mauensis caporiacco , 1949a : 421 , f . 61 ( d f ) .
araneus nigroquadratus lawrence , 1937 : 233 , f . 10 ( d f ) .
araneus oxygaster caporiacco , 1940c : 823 , f . 29 ( d f ) .
araneus perincertus caporiacco , 1947d : 176 , f . 32 ( d f ) .
araneus phlyctogena simon , 1907d : 297 ( d f , plus two varieties ) .
araneus scutellatus schenkel , 1963 : 153 , f . 90 ( d m ) .
araneus sogdianus charitonov , 1969 : 79 , f . 2 ( d f ) .
araneus titirus simon , 1896e : 68 ( d f ) . araneus titirus levi , 1991a : 245 , f . 267 - 271 ( f , d m ) .
araneus xavantina levi , 1991a : 214 , f . 116 ( d m ) .
araneus tschuiskii bakhvalov , 1974 : 111 , f . 72 - 74 ( d f ) . araneus tschuiskyi bakhvalov , 1983 : 90 , f . 4 ( f ) .
scientific name : araneus quadratus size : females up to 15mm , males up to 8mm distribution : found throughout the uk months seen : june to october habitat : found in tall grass , bushes and hedgerows food : flies and other small insects special features : four spot orb weavers ( araneus quadratus ) are fairly common . they can be found throughout the u . k . in the summer and autumn months . the body colour of is extremely variable . they can be ; yellow green , orange , red or brown . the abdomen has some white patches , but these are only really clear on the brown individuals . usually the four white spots on the abdomen which give this spider its name are visible . four spot orb weavers catch their prey in a web , and the females also build a retreat to the side of the web , made from thick silk .
nomen nudum : araneus quinqueuncatus simon , 1895a : 822 ( f , south america ) .
araneus crispulus tullgren , 1952 : 168 , f . 15a - b ( d f ) . araniella crispulus grasshoff , 1976 : 150 ( t f from araneus , rejected ) .
araneus horizonte levi , 1991a : 211 , f . 99 - 104 ( d f ) . araneus horizonte braul , bertoncello & lise , 2000 : 124 ( d m ) .
araneus ventricosus kishuensis uyemura , 1961 : 93 , f . 23 ( d f ) .
araneus boreus uyemura & yaginuma , 1972 : 10 , f . 1 - 7 ( d m f ) . araneus boreus yaginuma , 1986a : 100 , f . 53 . 6 ( m f ) . araneus boreus chikuni , 1989b : 66 , f . 15 ( f ) . araneus boreus tanikawa , 2007c : 83 , f . 240 , 681 ( f ) . araneus boreus tanikawa , 2009 : 455 , f . 257 ( f ) .
araneus bilunifer pocock , 1900a : 227 , f . 74 ( d f ) . araneus bilunifer patel , 1975b : 162 , f . 3a - c ( f ) . araneus bilunifer tikader & bal , 1981 : 43 , f . 91 - 94 ( f ) . araneus bilunifer tikader , 1982a : 221 , f . 428 - 431 ( f ) .
araneus granti hogg , 1914a : 57 ( d f ) . araneus granti hogg , 1915a : 448 , f . 26 ( f ) . araneus granti chrysanthus , 1960 : 36 , f . 32 - 33 , 49 , 60 , 72 ( f , d m ) .
nyffeler and benz ( 1978 [ 9 ] ) , found that bees were a major component ( by mass ) of the diet of a . quadratus . however , this may have been more to do with prey availability , as , in a later study ( 1989 [ 10 ] ) diptera , homoptera and aphids were the major prey . this agrees with the earlier work of kajak . she showed that , at her study sites , diptera made up a greater proportion of the diet . in fact the number of bees caught in nyffeler and benz ' s 1978 study were low but their large size contributed disproportionately to biomass caught . nevertheless , their results confirm that a . quadratus can cope with such powerful and potentially dangerous prey .
araneus acolla levi , 1991a : 219 , f . 138 - 141 ( d f ) .
araneus adiantiformis caporiacco , 1941b : 83 , f . 29a - d ( d m ) .
araneus ana levi , 1991a : 268 , f . 389 - 391 ( d f ) .
araneus anjonensis schenkel , 1963 : 171 , f . 99a - b ( d f ) .
araneus aubertarum berland , 1938 : 174 , f . 131 - 132 ( d f ) .
araneus bastarensis gajbe , 2005a : 55 , f . 4 - 7 ( d f ) .
araneus baul levi , 1991a : 288 , f . 503 - 506 ( d f ) .
araneus caballo levi , 1991a : 273 , f . 418 - 421 ( d f ) .
araneus calusa levi , 1973 : 512 , f . 152 - 157 ( d f ) . araneus calusa levi , 1981b : 255 , f . 5 - 7 ( d m ) .
araneus canacus berland , 1931b : 669 , f . 8 - 11 ( d f ) .
araneus canalae berland , 1924a : 222 , f . 126 - 127 ( d f ) .
araneus carroll levi , 1973 : 516 , f . 215 - 220 ( d f ) .
araneus castilho levi , 1991a : 196 , f . 15 - 16 ( d m ) .
araneus chiapas levi , 1991a : 262 , f . 351 - 352 ( d m ) .
araneus chingaza levi , 1991a : 258 , f . 330 - 334 ( d f ) .
araneus cuiaba levi , 1991a : 248 , f . 276 - 278 ( d f ) .
araneus ealensis giltay , 1935a : 1 , f . 1 - 2 ( d f ) .
araneus exsertus rainbow , 1904a : 102 , f . 26 - 27 ( d f ) .
araneus finneganae berland , 1938 : 176 , f . 137 - 140 ( d f ) .
araneus frio levi , 1991a : 276 , f . 429 - 430 ( d m ) .
araneus gerais levi , 1991a : 231 , f . 191 - 192 ( d m ) .
araneus guatemus levi , 1991a : 232 , f . 211 - 214 ( d f ) .
araneus huixtla levi , 1991a : 286 , f . 497 - 498 ( d m ) .
araneus jalisco levi , 1991a : 269 , f . 392 - 394 ( d m ) .
araneus kerr levi , 1981b : 254 , f . 1 - 4 ( d f ) .
araneus kirgisikus bakhvalov , 1974 : 111 , f . 71 , 75 ( d f ) .
araneus lanio levi , 1991a : 268 , f . 381 - 384 ( d f ) .
araneus lenkoi levi , 1991a : 258 , f . 326 - 329 ( d f ) .
araneus lintatus levi , 1991a : 262 , f . 347 - 350 ( d f ) .
araneus masculus caporiacco , 1941b : 85 , f . 30a - b ( d m ) .
araneus miami levi , 1973 : 512 , f . 172 - 176 ( d f ) .
araneus monica levi , 1973 : 504 , f . 110 - 121 ( d f ) .
araneus moretonae levi , 1991a : 219 , f . 142 - 145 ( d f ) .
araneus musawas levi , 1991a : 274 , f . 427 - 428 ( d m ) .
araneus nacional levi , 1991a : 284 , f . 474 - 476 ( d f ) .
araneus notandus rainbow , 1912a : 196 , f . 7 - 9 ( d f ) .
araneus nuboso levi , 1991a : 276 , f . 431 - 432 ( d m ) .
araneus orgaos levi , 1991a : 211 , f . 92 - 94 ( d f ) .
araneus paitaensis schenkel , 1953b : 37 , f . 18a - e ( d m ) .
araneus poltyoides chrysanthus , 1971 : 29 , f . 52 - 58 ( d f ) .
araneus prunus levi , 1973 : 536 , f . 375 - 379 ( d f ) .
araneus quirapan levi , 1991a : 284 , f . 470 - 473 ( d f ) .
araneus repetecus bakhvalov , 1978 : 790 , f . 5 - 7 ( d f ) .
araneus royi roewer , 1961b : 53 , f . 15a - d ( d f ) .
araneus salto levi , 1991a : 282 , f . 462 - 465 ( d f ) .
araneus schneblei levi , 1991a : 211 , f . 95 - 98 ( d f ) .
araneus sernai levi , 1991a : 214 , f . 109 - 112 ( d f ) .
araneus sicki levi , 1991a : 250 , f . 286 - 289 ( d f ) .
araneus tambopata levi , 1991a : 222 , f . 153 - 156 ( d f ) .
araneus tatianae lessert , 1938 : 449 , f . 35 - 37 ( d f ) .
araneus tepic levi , 1991a : 272 , f . 410 - 413 ( d f ) .
araneus toruaigiri bakhvalov , 1970 : 51 , f . 1 ( d f ) . araneus toruaigiri bakhvalov , 1974 : 109 , f . 44 - 48 ( f , d m ) .
araneus uruapan levi , 1991a : 276 , f . 433 - 434 ( d m ) .
araneus villa levi , 1991a : 249 , f . 279 - 281 ( d f ) .
araneus viperifer schenkel , 1963 : 165 , f . 96a - b ( d f ) . araneus viperifer ohno & yaginuma , 1967 : 37 , f . 4 . 1 - 4 ( m f ) . araneus viperifer nishikawa , 1969 : 58 , f . 2 ( m f ) . araneus viperifer yaginuma , 1971 : 129 , f . 106 . 2 - 5 ( m f ) . araneus viperifer suganami , 1971 : 24 , f . 5 - 6 ( f ) . araneus viperifer shinkai , 1977 : 375 , f . 18 ( f ) . araneus viperifer shinkai , 1978 : 91 , f . 27 - 30 ( m f ) . araneus viperifer chikuni , 1989b : 68 , f . 19 ( m f ) . araneus viperifer yin et al . , 1997d : 152 , f . 68a - b ( f ) . araneus viperifer song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 242 , f . 141h , 149l ( f ) . araneus viperifer tanikawa , 2001b : 66 , f . 79 ( f ) .
araneus yatei berland , 1924a : 222 , f . 128 - 130 ( d f ) .
araneus zapallar levi , 1991a : 242 , f . 254 - 257 ( d f ) .
araneus zygielloides schenkel , 1963 : 169 , f . 98a - d ( d f ) .
epeira pinguis karsch , 1879g : 68 ( d f ) . aranea pinguis bösenberg & strand , 1906 : 226 , pl . 11 , f . 210 ( f ) . araneus pinguis yaginuma , 1957a : 55 , f . 17 ( f ) . araneus pinguis yaginuma , 1969b : 19 , f . 1b - 8b ( m f ) . araneus pinguis song , yu & shang , 1981 : 83 , f . 3 - 4 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis hu , 1984 : 95 , f . 91 . 1 - 2 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis yaginuma , 1986a : 95 , f . 50 . 2 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis song , 1987 : 165 , f . 126 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis yoshikura , 1987 : 298 , f . 37 . 6a ( m ) . araneus pinguis zhang , 1987 : 70 , f . 53 . 1 - 2 ( m f ) . araneus quadratus zhang , 1987 : 74 , f . 58 . 1 - 2 ( f , misidentified ) . araneus pinguis chikuni , 1989b : 64 , f . 5 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis yin et al . , 1997d : 181 , f . 97a - e ( m f ) . araneus pinguis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 139u - v , 144e - f ( m f ) . araneus pinguis namkung , 2002 : 245 , f . 19 . 7a - b ( m f ) . araneus pinguis kim & kim , 2002 : 183 , f . 10 , 82 - 83 , 170 - 171 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis namkung , 2003 : 247 , f . 19 . 7a - b ( m f ) . araneus pinguis marusik & crawford , 2006 : 173 , f . 1 - 3 , 7 - 9 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis tanikawa , 2007c : 82 , f . 236 - 237 , 675 - 678 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis tanikawa , 2009 : 454 , f . 249 - 252 ( m f ) . araneus pinguis kim & lee , 2012b : 27 , f . 15a - b ( f ) .
given its size and the fact that the spider reaches maturity in one season , a . quadratus must have a healthy appetite . perhaps because of this , but more probably because its relatively common , a . quadratus has been used in several feeding experiments on spiders . anna kajak ( 1965 [ 7 ] ) studied the spider , together with several other species , over a period of years . in a paper comparing
consumption
rates in various species , she concluded that a . quadratus does indeed show a high rate of feeding and growth , with one of the highest rates of increase per unit of body mass , with the larger individuals putting on up to 10mg ( dry weight ) per day . not only that , but perversely , its apparent burst of weight gain occurred in september when insect numbers were in decline . kajak gave an expression relating mass of prey consumed to the spider ' s body weight . taking a slight liberty with the equation one can produce a growth plot for the spider ( see figure ) . this assumes an initial weight of 0 . 1mg ( for a ~ 1mm diameter egg , a reasonable egg size ! ( livecchi , le berre and ramousse ( 1977 [ 8 ] ) ) and makes various other approximations , such as 1mg of dry weight of prey being converted to 1mg fresh weight of spider . the resulting plot shows that it is quite reasonable for a well - fed a . quadratus to attain a mass of 2 . 5gm in a single season .
neosconella parva bryant , 1945a : 381 , f . 19 , 24 ( d f , preoccupied in araneus by karsch , 1878 ) . araneus bryantae brignoli , 1983c : 262 ( replacement name ) . araneus bryantae levi , 1991a : 262 , f . 353 - 356 ( f ) .
araneus anantnagensis tikader & bal , 1981 : 46 , f . 99 - 102 ( d f ) . araneus anantnagensis tikader , 1982a : 25 , f . 436 - 439 ( f ) .
araneus panchganiensis tikader & bal , 1981 : 48 , f . 103 - 106 ( d f ) . araneus pachganiensis tikader , 1982a : 227 , f . 440 - 443 ( f ) .
in synonymy : amamrotypus archer , 1951 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( levi , 1973 : 478 ) aranea linnaeus , 1758 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( clerckian names validated by iczn direction 104 ; see also iczn opinion 2224 ) atea c . l . koch , 1837 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( levi , 1991a : 171 ) cambridgepeira archer , 1951 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( levi , 1973 : 478 ) cathaistela archer , 1958 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( yaginuma , 1959c : 28 ) conaranea archer , 1951 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( levi , 1973 : 478 ) conepeira archer , 1951 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( levi , 1973 : 478 ) neosconella f . o . pickard - cambridge , 1903 = araneus clerck , 1757 ( levi , 1973 : 478 )
araneus viridisoma gravely , 1921a : 415 , f . 3c ( d m f ) . araneus viridisomus caleb & mathai , 2014c : 3 , f . 1 - 9 ( f ) . araneus viridisomus patil & uniyal , 2016 : 172 , f . 1 - 11 ( m f ) .
araneus ishisawai kishida , 1928b : 474 , f . 41 ( d f ) . araneus ishisawai yaginuma , 1957a : 55 , f . 18 ( f ) . catheistela ishisawai yaginuma & archer , 1959 : 36 ( t f from araneus ) . araneus ishisawai namkung , paik & yoon , 1972 : 93 , f . 8 ( f ) . araneus ishisawai chikuni , 1989b : 63 , f . 4 ( f , d m ) . araneus seensis oliger , 1991 : 141 , f . 1 - 8 ( d m f ) [ urn : lsid : nmbe . ch : spidersp : 015189 ] . araneus ishisawai namkung , 2002 : 243 , f . 19 . 5a - b ( m f ) . araneus ishisawai namkung , 2003 : 245 , f . 19 . 5a - b ( m f ) . araneus ishisawai tanikawa , 2007c : 83 , f . 241 - 243 , 682 - 685 ( m f ) . araneus ishisawai tanikawa , 2009 : 455 , f . 258 - 261 ( m f ) . araneus ishisawai marusik , 2009f : 97 ( s ) . araneus ishisawai kim & lee , 2012b : 21 , f . 9a - c ( m f ) . araneus ishisawai baba & tanikawa , 2015 : 42 , 4 f . ( m f ) .
araneus abeicus levi , 1991a : 255 , f . 316 - 320 ( d m f ) .
araneus illaudatus levi , 1971a : 176 , f . 233 - 237 ( f , misidentified ) . araneus abigeatus levi , 1975c : 269 , f . 5 - 11 ( d m f ) .
araneus alhue levi , 1991a : 244 , f . 262 - 266 ( d m f ) .
araneus apache levi , 1975c : 270 , f . 12 - 20 ( d m f ) .
araneus axacus levi , 1991a : 277 , f . 440 - 444 ( d m f ) .
araneus bimini levi , 1991a : 264 , f . 372 - 375 ( d m f ) .
araneus blumenau levi , 1991a : 200 , f . 42 - 48 ( d m f ) .
araneus boneti levi , 1991a : 268 , f . 385 - 388 ( d m f ) .
araneus carchi levi , 1991a : 215 , f . 122 - 127 ( d m f ) .
araneus colima levi , 1991a : 266 , f . 376 - 380 ( d m f ) .
araneus concepcion levi , 1991a : 241 , f . 250 - 253 ( d m f ) .
araneus cristobal levi , 1991a : 277 , f . 435 - 439 ( d m f ) .
araneus desierto levi , 1991a : 280 , f . 453 - 456 ( d m f ) .
araneus dreisbachi levi , 1991a : 280 , f . 449 - 452 ( d m f ) .
araneus fronki levi , 1991a : 228 , f . 179 - 183 ( d m f ) .
araneus galero levi , 1991a : 234 , f . 223 - 227 ( d m f ) .
araneus ginninderranus dondale , 1966 : 1169 , f . 3a - c ( d m f ) .
araneus huahun levi , 1991a : 244 , f . 258 - 261 ( d m f ) .
araneus iguacu levi , 1991a : 256 , f . 321 - 325 ( d m f ) .
araneus koepckeorum levi , 1991a : 224 , f . 168 - 173 ( d m f ) .
araneus leones levi , 1991a : 281 , f . 457 - 461 ( d m f ) .
aranea lithyphantiformis kishida , 1910 : 7 ( d ) . araneus lithyphantiformis brignoli , 1983c : 257 .
araneus mazamitla levi , 1991a : 270 , f . 400 - 403 ( d m f ) .
araneus mendoza levi , 1991a : 284 , f . 477 - 481 ( d m f ) .
araneus ocaxa levi , 1991a : 288 , f . 499 - 502 ( d m f ) .
araneus penai levi , 1991a : 216 , f . 128 - 132 ( d m f ) .
araneus pico levi , 1991a : 215 , f . 117 - 121 ( d m f ) .
araneus popaco levi , 1991a : 282 , f . 466 - 469 ( d m f ) .
araneus pseudoventricosus schenkel , 1963 : 150 , f . 88a - c ( d m ) . araneus pseudoventricosus yin et al . , 1997d : 190 , f . 107a - c ( m ) . araneus pseudoventricosus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 144i ( m ) .
araneus puebla levi , 1991a : 285 , f . 482 - 486 ( d m f ) .
araneus rotundicornis yaginuma , 1972a : 55 , f . 9 - 16 ( d m f ) . araneus rotundicornis yaginuma , 1986a : 97 , f . 51 . 2 ( m f ) . araneus rotundicornis chikuni , 1989b : 64 , f . 7 ( m f ) . araneus rotundicornis tanikawa , 2007c : 77 , f . 214 - 216 , 639 - 640 ( m f ) . araneus rotundicornis tanikawa , 2009 : 450 , f . 216 - 217 ( m f ) . araneus rotundicornis lee , lee & kim , 2012 : 211 , f . 1 - 6 ( f ) . araneus rotundicornis kim & lee , 2012b : 28 , f . 16a - b ( f ) .
araneus selva levi , 1991a : 259 , f . 335 - 338 ( d m f ) .
araneus svanetiensis mcheidze , 1997 : 270 , f . 601 - 604 ( d m f ) .
araneus talasi bakhvalov , 1970 : 51 , f . 2 ( d f ) . araneus talassi bakhvalov , 1974 : 109 , f . 43 , 49 - 52 ( f , d m ) .
araneus talca levi , 1991a : 240 , f . 245 - 249 ( d m f ) .
araneus tellezi levi , 1991a : 291 , f . 515 - 519 ( d m f ) .
araneus tenancingo levi , 1991a : 290 , f . 511 - 514 ( d m f ) .
araneus tijuca levi , 1991a : 250 , f . 290 - 294 ( d m f ) .
araneus transversus rainbow , 1912a : 197 , f . 10 - 14 ( d m f ) . araneus transversus davies & gallon , 1986 : 233 ( rainbow ' s f = gea theridioides ) .
araneus ubicki levi , 1991a : 274 , f . 422 - 426 ( d m f ) .
araneus urubamba levi , 1991a : 218 , f . 133 - 137 ( d m f ) .
araneus cochise levi , 1973 : 497 , f . 55 - 59 ( d f ) . araneus cochise dean , agnew & breene , 1989 : 126 , f . 1 - 2 ( d m ) . araneus cochise levi , 1991a : 278 , f . 445 - 448 ( m f ) .
araneus roseomaculatus ono , 1992b : 122 , f . 1 - 4 ( d f ) . araneus roseomaculatus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 241 , f . 140d - e ( f ) .
araneus licenti schenkel , 1953b : 42 , f . 20a - c ( d f ) . araneus licenti yin et al . , 1997d : 172 , f . 89a - c ( f ) . araneus licenti song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 239 , f . 138j - l ( f ) .
araneus pichoni schenkel , 1963 : 157 , f . 93a - b ( d f ) . araneus pichoni yin et al . , 1997d : 205 , f . 124a - b ( f ) . araneus pichoni song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 139q , 148q ( f ) .
epeira stella karsch , 1879g : 69 ( dj ) . araneus tsuno yaginuma , 1972a : 53 , f . 1 - 8 ( d m f ) . araneus tsuno shinkai , 1977 : 327 , f . 21 ( m ) . araneus tsuno zhou , wang & zhu , 1983 : 154 , f . 2a - d ( f ) . araneus maculifrons oliger , 1983a : 303 , f . 4 - 8 ( d m f ) . araneus tsuno yaginuma , 1986a : 97 , f . 51 . 1 ( m f ) . araneus tsuno marusik , 1989b : 42 ( s ) . araneus tsuno chikuni , 1989b : 64 , f . 6 ( m f ) . araneus tsuno yin et al . , 1997d : 183 , f . 100a - d ( f ) . araneus tsuno song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 241 , f . 140t - u , x , 149h ( f ) . araneus tsuno namkung , 2002 : 250 , f . 19 . 12a - b ( m f ) . araneus tsuno kim & kim , 2002 : 185 , f . 13 , 87 - 88 , 176 - 178 ( m f ) . araneus stella ono , 2002a : 59 , f . 23 ( s m f ) . araneus stella namkung , 2003 : 252 , f . 19 . 12a - b ( m f ) . araneus stella tanikawa , 2007c : 78 , f . 217 , 641 - 642 ( m f ) . araneus stella tanikawa , 2009 : 450 , f . 218 - 219 ( m f ) . araneus stella kim & lee , 2012b : 30 , f . 18a - c ( m f ) .
epeira acropyga thorell , 1877b : 398 ( d f ) . araneus acropyga simon , 1899a : 91 .
aranea albiaculeis strand , 1906b : 621 ( d f ) . araneus albiaculeis caporiacco , 1940c : 822 .
araneus altitudinum caporiacco , 1934a : 153 , pl . 3 , f . 11 ( d f ) .
araneus badongensis song & zhu , 1992c : 168 , f . 2a - b ( d m ) . araneus badongensis song & li , 1997 : 412 , f . 14a - b ( m ) . araneus badongensis yin et al . , 1997d : 200 , f . 117a - c ( m ) . araneus badongensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 237 , f . 142k - l ( m ) .
epeira camilla simon , 1889i : 338 ( d f ) . araneus camilla dyal , 1935 : 179 .
araneus circellus song & zhu , 1992c : 168 , f . 3a - b ( d f ) . araneus circellus song & li , 1997 : 412 , f . 15a - b ( f ) . araneus circellus yin et al . , 1997d : 145 , f . 60a - c ( f ) . araneus circellus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 237 , f . 136n - o ( f ) .
araneus coccinella pocock , 1898c : 211 , pl . 8 , f . 6 ( d f ) .
araneus colubrinus song & zhu , 1992c : 169 , f . 4a - b ( d f ) . araneus colubrinus song & li , 1997 : 413 , f . 16a - b ( f ) . araneus colubrinus yin et al . , 1997d : 146 , f . 61a - c ( f ) . araneus colubrinus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 136s - t ( f ) .
araneus dospinolongus barrion & litsinger , 1995 : 635 , f . 403a - f ( d m ) .
araneus emmae simon , 1900a : 482 , pl . 16 , f . 6 ( d f ) .
epeira flavisternis thorell , 1878b : 61 ( d f ) . araneus flavisternis simon , 1899a : 90 .
araneus hui hu , 2001 : 442 , f . 286 . 1 - 3 ( d f ) .
araneus kapiolaniae simon , 1900a : 483 , pl . 16 , f . 7 ( d f ) .
araneus liberalis rainbow , 1902c : 486 , pl . 18 , f . 2 ( d f ) .
araneus linzhiensis hu , 2001 : 443 , f . 287 . 1 - 3 ( d f ) .
araneus octodentalis song & zhu , 1992c : 169 , f . 5a - b ( d m ) . araneus octodentalis song & li , 1997 : 414 , f . 17a - b ( m ) . araneus octodentalis yin et al . , 1997d : 149 , f . 64a - c ( m ) . araneus octodentalis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 144a - b ( m ) .
araneus ogatai tanikawa , 2001b : 76 , f . 43 - 44 , 52 - 53 ( d f ) . araneus ogatai tanikawa , 2004a : 57 , f . 1 - 2 ( d m ) . araneus ogatai tanikawa , 2007c : 89 , f . 272 - 273 , 735 - 737 ( m f ) . araneus ogatai tanikawa , 2009 : 459 , f . 311 - 312 ( m f ) .
araneus pavlovi schenkel , 1953b : 39 , f . 19a - d ( d m ) . araneus pavlovi yin et al . , 1997d : 205 , f . 123a - d ( m ) . araneus pavlovi song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 144c - d ( m ) . araneus pavlovi song , zhu & chen , 2001 : 192 , f . 114a - c ( m ) .
araneus providens kulczyński , 1911c : 484 , pl . 20 , f . 55 ( d m ) .
araneus rumiae biswas & raychaudhuri , 2013a : 158 , f . 8 - 12 ( d f ) .
araneus santacruziensis barrion & litsinger , 1995 : 640 , f . 407a - e ( d f ) .
araneus suavis rainbow , 1899b : 308 , pl . 24 , f . 2 ( d f ) .
araneus tatsulokeus barrion & litsinger , 1995 : 636 , f . 404a - f ( d f ) .
araneus tinikdikitus barrion & litsinger , 1995 : 635 , f . 402a - g ( d m ) .
araneus ventricosus ishinodai uyemura , 1961 : 95 , f . 24a - b ( d m f ) .
araneus woodfordi pocock , 1898b : 463 , pl . 19 , f . 3 ( d f ) .
araneus wulongensis song & zhu , 1992c : 170 , f . 6a - b ( d f ) . araneus wulongensis song & li , 1997 : 415 , f . 18a - b ( f ) . araneus wulongensis yin et al . , 1997d : 153 , f . 69a - c ( f ) . araneus wulongensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 242 , f . 141o - p ( f ) .
araneus xianfengensis song & zhu , 1992c : 171 , f . 7a - b ( d f ) . araneus xianfengensis song & li , 1997 : 415 , f . 19a - b ( f ) . araneus xianfengensis yin et al . , 1997d : 185 , f . 102a - c ( f ) . araneus xianfengensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 242 , f . 141l - m ( f ) .
araneus xizangensis hu , 2001 : 449 , f . 293 . 1 - 5 ( d m ) .
araneus yadongensis hu , 2001 : 450 , f . 294 . 1 - 6 ( d m ) .
araneus yoshitomii yoshida , 2014 : 37 , f . 1 - 6 ( d m j ) . araneus yoshitomii baba , osawa & murakami , 2015 : 17 , f . 2 - 4 ( m ) .
araneus yukon levi , 1971a : 166 , f . 167 - 173 ( d m f ) . araneus yukon dondale et al . , 2003 : 235 , f . 510 - 516 ( m f ) .
araneus washingtoni levi , 1971a : 160 , f . 106 , 123 - 130 ( d m f ) . araneus washingtoni dondale et al . , 2003 : 228 , f . 489 - 495 ( m f ) . araneus washingtoni paquin & dupérré , 2006 : 6 , f . 5 - 8 ( m f ) . araneus washingtoni marusik & kovblyuk , 2011 : 113 , f . 7 . 5 ( m ) .
araneus badiofoliatus schenkel , 1963 : 155 , f . 92a - c ( d f ) . araneus badiofoliatus yin et al . , 1997d : 199 , f . 116a - c ( f ) . araneus badiofoliatus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 237 , f . 135o - p , 147c ( f ) .
araneus borealis tanikawa , 2001b : 69 , f . 22 - 23 , 28 - 31 ( d m f ) . araneus borealis tanikawa , 2007c : 87 , f . 264 , 717 - 720 ( m f ) . araneus borealis tanikawa , 2009 : 457 , f . 293 - 296 ( m f ) .
araneus komi tanikawa , 2001b : 75 , f . 41 - 42 , 49 - 51 ( d m f ) . araneus komi tanikawa , 2007c : 89 , f . 271 , 732 - 734 ( m f ) . araneus komi tanikawa , 2009 : 459 , f . 308 - 310 ( m f ) .
araneus nigromaculatus schenkel , 1963 : 154 , f . 91a - c ( d f ) . araneus nigromaculatus yin et al . , 1997d : 204 , f . 122a - c ( f ) . araneus nigromaculatus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 139e - f , 148l ( f ) .
araneus nojimai tanikawa , 2001b : 63 , f . 1 - 2 , 9 - 13 ( d m f ) . araneus nojimai tanikawa , 2007c : 85 , f . 259 , 704 - 708 ( m f ) . araneus nojimai tanikawa , 2009 : 457 , f . 280 - 284 ( m f ) .
epeira tartarica kroneberg , 1875 : 2 , pl . 1 , f . 1 ( d f ) . araneus mongolicus simon , 1895c : 335 ( d m f ) . araneus tartaricus schenkel , 1936b : 269 , f . 89 ( m ) . araneus tartaricus spassky & shnitnikov , 1937 : 276 , f . 3 ( m ) . araneus mongolicus ermolajev , 1937b : 603 , f . 3 ( m f ) . araneus tartaricus bakhvalov , 1974 : 111 , f . 87 , 89 - 90 , 96 ( m f ) . araneus tartaricus feng , 1990 : 60 , f . 35 . 1 - 5 ( f ) . araneus tartaricus yin et al . , 1997d : 191 , f . 108a - c ( f ) . araneus tartaricus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 241 , f . 140k - l ( f ) . araneus tartaricus kim & kim , 2002 : 184 , f . 11 , 84 , 172 - 173 ( m f ) . araneus tartaricus yoo & kim , 2002a : 28 , f . 48 ( m ) . araneus tartaricus yin et al . , 2012 : 618 , f . 300a - c ( f ) .
araneus pahalgaonensis tikader & bal , 1981 : 44 , f . 95 - 98 ( d f ) . araneus pahalgaonensis tikader , 1982a : 223 , f . 432 - 435 ( f ) . araneus pahalgaonensis yin et al . , 1990 : 38 , f . 91 - 93 ( f ) . araneus pahalgaonensis yin et al . , 1997d : 179 , f . 95a - d ( f ) . araneus pahalgaonensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 139i , m - n , 148o ( f ) .
epeira bandelieri simon , 1891c : 10 , pl . 1 ( d f ) . araneus bandelieri petrunkevitch , 1911 : 281 . araneus bandelieri levi , 1991a : 214 , f . 113 - 115 ( f ) .
aranea hispaniola bryant , 1945a : 366 , f . 2 ( d f ) . araneus hispaniola brignoli , 1983c : 262 . araneus hispaniola levi , 1991a : 263 , f . 365 - 368 ( f ) .
araneus pseudosturmii yin et al . , 1990 : 25 , f . 62 - 63 ( d f ) . araneus pseudosturmii yin et al . , 1997d : 150 , f . 65a - b ( f ) . araneus pseudosturmii song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 140a , 148f ( f ) . araneus pseudosturmii yin et al . , 2012 : 615 , f . 298a - b ( f ) .
araneus viridiventris yaginuma , in ohno & yaginuma , 1969 : 21 , f . 3a - f ( d m f ) . araneus viridiventris yaginuma , 1986a : 101 , f . 54 . 1 ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris chikuni , 1989b : 69 , f . 24 ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris yin et al . , 1990 : 22 , f . 51 - 57 ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris kim et al . , 1995 : 88 , f . 1 - 2 ( f ) . araneus viridiventris yin et al . , 1997d : 142 , f . 57a - h ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 242 , f . 141j - k , n , 145d , 149m ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris chang & tso , 2004 : 27 , f . 1 - 4 ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris tanikawa , 2007c : 83 , f . 245 , 689 - 691 ( m f ) . araneus viridiventris tanikawa , 2009 : 455 , f . 265 - 267 ( m f ) .
as with other members of the genus , a . quadratus macerates its prey , rather than merely injecting digestive juices , sucking out the resulting
soup
and leaving an empty husk . the cheliceral teeth sported by the araneids must help in this process ( conversely , those groups which leave an empty husk after consuming their prey often have relatively small cheliceral teeth ( e . g , theridiidae and thomisidae ) [ 15 ] .
araneus motuoensis yin et al . , 1990 : 36 , f . 87 - 90 ( d f ) . araneus motuoensis yin et al . , 1997d : 176 , f . 93a - d ( f ) . araneus motuoensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 239 , f . 139c - d , 148k ( f ) . araneus motuoensis hu , 2001 : 445 , f . 288 . 1 - 2 ( f ) .
araneus aethiopissa simon , 1907d : 291 ( d f ) . larinia badiana roewer , 1961b : 49 , f . 12a - e ( d m f ) . araneus aethiopissa grasshoff , 1970b : 218 ( s ) .
araneus amabilis tanikawa , 2001b : 82 , f . 69 - 72 , 75 - 76 ( d m f ) . araneus amabilis tanikawa , 2007c : 84 , f . 251 - 255 , 697 - 698 ( m f ) . araneus amabilis tanikawa , 2009 : 457 , f . 273 - 274 ( m f ) .
araneus celebensis merian , 1911 : 219 , pl . 9 , f . 6 ( d m f ) .
araneus comptus fuscocapitatus rainbow , 1916a : 109 , pl . 22 , f . 29 ( d f ) .
araneus dayongensis yin et al . , 1990 : 22 , f . 58 - 61 ( d f ) . araneus dayongensis yin et al . , 1997d : 147 , f . 62a - d ( f ) . araneus dayongensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 137a - b , 147k ( f ) . araneus daoyongensis yin et al . , 2012 : 601 , f . 289a - d ( f ) .
araneus dianiphus xanthostichus rainbow , 1916a : 107 , pl . 22 , f . 26 ( d f ) .
araneus iriomotensis tanikawa , 2001b : 71 , f . 24 - 25 , 32 - 35 ( d m f ) . araneus iriomotensis tanikawa , 2007c : 87 , f . 265 - 266 , 721 - 724 ( m f ) . araneus iriomotensis tanikawa , 2009 : 459 , f . 297 - 300 ( m f ) .
araneus legonensis grasshoff & edmunds , 1979 : 303 , f . 1 - 11 ( d m f ) .
araneus mariposa levi , 1973 : 502 , f . 107 , 122 - 137 ( d m f ) .
araneus mayumiae tanikawa , 2001b : 81 , f . 56 - 57 , 62 - 66 ( d m f ) . araneus mayumiae tanikawa , 2007c : 81 , f . 233 - 234 , 668 - 671 ( m f ) . araneus mayumiae tanikawa , 2009 : 452 , f . 242 - 245 ( m f ) .
araneus menglunensis yin et al . , 1990 : 41 , f . 94 - 99 ( d m ) . araneus menglunensis yin et al . , 1997d : 187 , f . 104a - h ( m ) . araneus menglunensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 239 , f . 143k - l , 148i ( m ) . araneus menglunensis yin et al . , 2012 : 607 , f . 293a - f ( m ) .
araneus obscurissimus caporiacco , 1934a : 156 , pl . 4 , f . 2 ( d m f ) .
araneus octumaculalus han & zhu , 2010a : 58 , f . 1 - 6 ( d m f ) .
araneus parvulus rainbow , 1900a : 489 , pl . 24 , f . 3 ( d m f ) .
araneus pontii caporiacco , 1934a : 154 , pl . 3 , f . 12 ( d m f ) .
epeira prospiciens thorell , 1890a : 138 ( d m f ) . araneus prospiciens simon , 1899a : 92 .
araneus ryukyuanus tanikawa , 2001b : 67 , f . 5 - 8 , 19 - 21 ( d m f ) . araneus ryukyuanus tanikawa , 2007c : 87 , f . 262 - 263 , 714 - 716 ( m f ) . araneus ryukyuanus tanikawa , 2009 : 457 , f . 290 - 292 ( m f ) .
araneus scutigerens hogg , 1900 : 100 , pl . 15 , f . 2 ( d m f ) .
araneus tuscarora levi , 1973 : 514 , f . 204 - 214 , 444 ( d m f ) .
araneus ventricosus hakonensis uyemura , 1961 : 106 , f . 9 , pl . 7 ( d f ) .
araneus yasudai tanikawa , 2001b : 72 , f . 26 - 27 , 36 - 38 ( d m f ) . araneus yasudai tanikawa , 2007c : 88 , f . 267 - 268 , 725 - 727 ( m f ) . araneus yasudai tanikawa , 2009 : 459 , f . 301 - 303 ( m f ) .
araneus zhaoi zhang & zhang , 2002 : 22 , f . 1a - e ( d m f ) .
araneus circumbasilaris yin et al . , 1990 : 29 , f . 69 - 73 ( d f ) . araneus circumbasilaris yin et al . , 1997d : 165 , f . 81a - e ( f ) . araneus circumbasilaris song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 136p - r , 147j ( f ) . araneus circumbasilaris song , zhu & chen , 2001 : 187 , f . 109a - d ( f ) .
araneus yuanminensis yin et al . , 1990 : 26 , f . 64 - 68 ( d f ) . araneus yuanminensis yin et al . , 1997d : 154 , f . 70a - e ( f ) . araneus yuanminensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 242 , f . 141r - t , 149n ( f ) . araneus yuanminensis song , zhu & chen , 2001 : 196 , f . 117a - e ( f ) .
bristowe ( 1958 [ 4 ] ) noted that it was
. . . certainly our heaviest as well as one of our most handsome spiders
. indeed parker reported the find of an impressive a . quadratus which weighed in at 2 . 25 grams , on a field week at juniper hall in 1979 ( jones , 1980 [ 5 ] ) . elsewhere its size is also remarked upon , as is its egg - laying capabilities . bristowe claimed a
record in child birth
for quadratus , having noted that a
. . . large specimen will lay more than 900 eggs which weigh twice as much as she does after the operation is completed
. this is confirmed by wunderlich ( sauer and wunderlich , 1985 [ 6 ] ) , who reports a gravid female , initially weighing 1 . 1 grams , reducing to just 0 . 3 grams after laying !
araneus auriculatus song & zhu , 1992c : 167 , f . 1a - d ( d m f ) . araneus auriculatus song & li , 1997 : 411 , f . 13a - d ( m f ) . araneus auriculatus yin et al . , 1997d : 144 , f . 59a - e ( m f ) . araneus auriculatus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 237 , f . 135m - n , 142i - j ( m f ) . araneus auriculatus zhu & zhang , 2011 : 198 , f . 138a - d ( m f ) . araneus auriculatus yin et al . , 2012 : 598 , f . 287a - c ( f ) .
araneus gratiolus yin et al . , 1990 : 32 , f . 78 - 80 ( d f ) . araneus gratiolus yin et al . , 1997d : 170 , f . 86a - c ( f ) . araneus gratiolus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 138a - b , 148b ( f ) .
araneus triguttatus saito , 1934b : 326 , pl . 13 , f . 23 , pl . 15 , f . 66 ( f , misidentified ) . araneus triguttatus saito , 1959 : 90 , f . 106a - d ( f , misidentified ) . araneus triguttatus yaginuma , 1960 : 55 , f . 51 ( f , misidentified ) . araneus hoshi tanikawa , 2001b : 73 , f . 39 - 40 , 45 - 48 ( d m f ) . araneus hoshi tanikawa , 2007c : 88 , f . 269 - 270 , 728 - 731 ( m f ) . araneus hoshi tanikawa , 2009 : 459 , f . 304 - 307 ( m f ) .
araneus linshuensis yin et al . , 1990 : 35 , f . 84 - 86 ( d f ) . araneus linshuensis yin et al . , 1997d : 173 , f . 90a - c ( f ) . araneus linshuensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 239 , f . 138m - n , 148g ( f ) .
araneus tenerius yin et al . , 1990 : 45 , f . 111 - 116 ( d f ) . araneus tenerius yin et al . , 1997d : 192 , f . 109a - f ( f ) . araneus tenerius song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 241 , f . 140m - o , 149d ( f ) .
araneus shunhuangensis yin et al . , 1990 : 18 , f . 43 - 46 ( d f ) . araneus shunhuangensis yin et al . , 1997d : 134 , f . 49a - d ( f ) . araneus shunhuangensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 241 , f . 140f - h , 149a ( f ) . araneus shunhuangensis yin , griswold & xu , 2007 : 3 , f . 2a - f ( d m ) . araneus shunhuangensis yin et al . , 2012 : 616 , f . 299a - j ( m f ) .
araneus diadematoides zhu , tu & hu , 1988 : 55 , f . 17 - 19 ( d f ) . araneus diadematoides yin et al . , 1997d : 166 , f . 82a - c ( f ) . araneus diadematoides song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 137c - d , 147l ( f ) . araneus diadematoides song , zhu & chen , 2001 : 188 , f . 110a - c ( f ) .
araneus diffinis zhu , tu & hu , 1988 : 56 , f . 20 - 22 ( d f ) . araneus diffinis yin et al . , 1997d : 202 , f . 119a - c ( f ) . araneus diffinis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 137h - i , 147n ( f ) . araneus diffinis song , zhu & chen , 2001 : 190 , f . 112a - c ( f ) .
aranea faxoni bryant , 1940 : 334 , f . 102 - 103 ( d f ) . araneus faxoni brignoli , 1983c : 262 . araneus faxoni levi , 1991a : 264 , f . 369 - 371 ( f ) .
araneus qianshan zhu , zhang & gao , 1998 : 30 , f . 1 - 4 ( d f ) . araneus qianshan song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 240 , f . 140b - c ( f ) .
araneus affinis zhu , tu & hu , 1988 : 53 , f . 4 - 6 ( d m ) . araneus affinis yin et al . , 1997d : 155 , f . 71a - c ( m ) . araneus affinis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 236 , f . 134m , 135a , 146l ( m ) .
araneus aksuensis yin , xie & bao , 1996 : 1 , f . 1 - 5 ( d f ) . araneus aksuensis yin et al . , 1997d : 155 , f . 72a - e ( f ) . araneus aksuensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 237 , f . 135b - d , 146m ( f ) .
araneus elongatus yin , wang & xie , 1989 : 331 , f . 5 - 9 ( d f ) . araneus elongatus yin et al . , 1997d : 137 , f . 52a - e ( f ) . araneus elongatus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 238 , f . 137l - n , 147o ( f ) .
araneus guandishanensis zhu , tu & hu , 1988 : 57 , f . 23 - 24 ( d m ) . araneus guandishanensis yin et al . , 1997d : 171 , f . 87a - c ( m ) . araneus guandishanensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 239 , f . 143e - f , 148c ( m ) .
araneus taigunensis zhu , tu & hu , 1988 : 58 , f . 36 - 38 ( d m ) . araneus taigunensis yin et al . , 1997d : 182 , f . 98a - c ( m ) . araneus taiguensis song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 241 , f . 140j - k , 149c ( m ) .
epeira semi - nigra l . koch , 1878c : 737 ( dj ) . aranea semi - nigra bösenberg & strand , 1906 : 235 . araneus mongolicus saito , 1959 : 87 , f . 95a - e ( f , misidentified ) . araneus mongolicus yaginuma , 1961a : 82 , f . f ( m , misidentified ) . araneus seminiger namkung , 1964 : 37 , f . 25 ( d f ) . araneus tartaricus yaginuma , 1986a : 94 , f . 49 . 4 ( m f , misidentified ) . araneus miyashitai tanikawa , 2001b : 77 , f . 54 - 55 , 58 - 61 ( d m f ) . araneus tartaricus namkung , 2002 : 249 , f . 19 . 11a - c ( f , misidentified ) . araneus seminiger ono , 2002a : 58 , f . 21 - 22 ( s m ) . araneus seminiger namkung , 2003 : 251 , f . 19 . 11a - c ( f ) . araneus seminiger tanikawa , 2007c : 78 , f . 218 - 220 , 643 - 644 ( m f ) . araneus seminiger tanikawa , 2009 : 450 , f . 220 - 221 ( m f ) . araneus seminiger kim & lee , 2012b : 29 , f . 17a - b ( f ) .
araneus marmoroides schenkel , 1953b : 35 , f . 17a - e ( d m ) . araneus marmoroides zhu , tu & hu , 1988 : 58 , f . 31 - 35 ( m , d f ) . araneus marmoroides chen & gao , 1990 : 46 , f . 50a - b ( m f ) . araneus marmoroides yin et al . , 1997d : 175 , f . 92a - e ( m f ) . araneus marmoroides song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 239 , f . 138q - r , 143i - j ( m f ) . araneus marmoroides song , zhu & chen , 2001 : 191 , f . 113a - e ( m f ) .
araneus acachmenus rainbow , 1916a : 98 , pl . 21 , f . 14 - 15 ( d f ) .
araneus acusisetus zhu & song , in zhu et al . , 1994 : 27 , f . 2a - c ( d m ) . araneus acusisetus yin et al . , 1997d : 143 , f . 58a - c ( m ) . araneus acusisetus song , zhu & chen , 1999 : 236 , f . 134k - l , 146k ( m ) . araneus acusisetus tanikawa , 2001b : 83 , f . 73 - 74 , 77 - 78 ( m , d f ) . araneus fuscocoloratoides namkung , 2002 : 254 , 620 , f . 19 . 16a - b ( d m f ) . araneus acusisetus namkung , 2003 : 255 , f . 19 . 15a - b ( m f , s ) . araneus acusisetus tanikawa , 2007c : 82 , f . 238 - 239 , 679 - 680 ( m f ) . araneus acusisetus tanikawa , 2009 : 455 , f . 255 - 256 ( m f ) . araneus acusisetus kim & lee , 2012b : 17 , f . 6a - c ( m f ) .
araneus agastus rainbow , 1916a : 104 , pl . 22 , f . 20 - 21 ( d f ) .
araneus albabdominalis zhu et al . , 2005 : 508 , f . 3a - e ( d m f ) .