the mindanao horned frog or southeast asian horned toad ( megophrys stejnegeri ) is a species of amphibian in the megophryidae family .

it is endemic to the philippines .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , and intermittent rivers .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

mindanao horned frog

the mindanao horned frog is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
the mount malindang national park on mindanao is currently one of the few protected areas providing a safe haven to some populations of the mindanao horned frog ( 1 ) .
the mindanao horned frog is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .
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it is vitally important that more information is collected on the biology and true range of the mindanao horned frog , in order to determine the best methods of protecting it ( 6 ) .
like other species in the genus megophrys , the mindanao horned frog is likely to have a large head and mouth , making it well - adapted to swallowing relatively large prey ( 3 ) .
burger , r . m . ( 2000 ) taxon management account : malaysian horned frog . dallas zoo , dallas , texas .
mindanao horned frogs are endemic to the philippines . its relatively small distribution makes it vulnerable to a range of threats including habitat destruction and degradation .
the mindanao horned frog has a relatively small distribution , and it is therefore vulnerable to a number of specific threats across its range . the primary threats to this species include logging activity in the lowland forests of the philippines , as well as contamination of nearby mountain streams and rivers due to mining activity and agricultural runoff , which are resulting in the destruction of the mindanao horned frog’s natural habitat ( 1 ) .
the mindanao horned frog is endemic to the philippines ( 4 ) . it has been observed in a number of provinces , including basilan , bohol , leyte , mindanao , dinagat , biliran and samar , but it is possible that its distribution may be more extensive than this ( 1 ) .
burger , r . m . , ( 2000 ) . taxon management account : malaysian horned frog , megophyrs montana nasuta . in frog forum . retrieved 10 november 2013 , from http : / / www . frogforum . net
- although it is called the mindanao horned frog , you can still find this creature in bohol . its natural habitat is a subtropical or moist lowland forest . it is mostly found near a fresh water supply when it can lay its eggs or in dense underbrush , leaf litter , or other fallen object covering the ground . the number of mindanao horned frogs are decreasing in number because of deforestation and ' ' kaingin ' ' .
the mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri ) is a member of the large and ancient megophryidae family , which diverged from the other amphibian families roughly 70 million years ago . more commonly known as the ‘asian toadfrogs’ , this diverse family contains around 136 species of frog , which range in size from 2 to 12 . 5 centimetres long .
the mindanao shrew rat ( crunomys melanius ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in the philippines . endemic to camiguin , leyte , and mindanao .
reptiles canada - a beautiful collection or horned frogs get together for a photoshoot and flaunt their impressive coloration .
the mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri ) is a member of the large and ancient megophryidae family , which diverged from the other amphibian families roughly 70 million years ago . more commonly known as the ‘asian toadfrogs’ , this diverse family contains around 136 species of frog , which range in size from 2 to 12 . 5 centimetres long ( 2 ) .
ventral view of the frog . note the mottled appearance of the abdominal surface .
st concern in view of its wide distribution throughout all islands of the mindanao paic and presumed large population .
megophrys nasuta adopting a crouched position , enabling it to blend into the leaf litter ( . . . perhaps a crouching frog thinks it is a hidden frog . . )
the mindanao horned frog spends the majority of its time hiding among detritus and leaf litter , on the floor of lowland and montane rainforests . it is generally found close to mountain streams , which it requires for breeding , and the tadpoles of this species can usually be found in secluded pools along these streams ( 1 ) .
- the giant visayan frog is considered endangered because of habitat loss . the habitat of this frog is a subtropical or moist lowland forests . this frog is part of the dissglossidae family . giant visayan frogs can be found in moist lowland forests in cebu , panay and siquijor
found this little frog on a rainy day going to a waterfall near calinan / bukidnon tropical jungle .
this nocturnal frog is terrestrial to semi - arboreal . it relies on its camouflage to avoid predation .
there is a need for improved protection on mindanao , leyte , samar , and bohol to protect the remaining forest on these islands .
field herp forum - grumpy frog may have met his match in the intimidating gaze of the megophrys nasuta .
the mindanao shrew rat ( crunomys melanius ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in the philippines .
coeliccia exoleta is a philippine endemic species , confined to mindanao and camiguin islands . so far , the species has been recorded in 12 sites . the species has a very fragmented range and occurs in low numbers . it was recorded once in camiguin , and there is reference in muller ' s collection to several sites in mindanao . surveys of several of the mindanao sites in recent years have failed to find the species .
the slender mud frog ranges across hong kong , southern china , myanmar , thailand , vietnam , and malaysia .
this montane frog prefers forests and streams at elevations above 4 , 950 ft ( 1 , 400 m ) .
the mindanao treeshrew ( urogale everetti ) , also called the philippine tree shrew , is a species of treeshrew endemic to the mindanao region in the philippines . it is the only member of the genus urogale . the scientific name commemorates british colonial administrator and zoological collector alfred hart everett .
amphibian species as a whole are hugely under threat . around 32 percent of amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction , while a further 43 percent have declining populations ( 5 ) . species that are restricted to a small geographic area , such as the mindanao horned frog , are most at risk of extinction due to changes in their habitat , often as a result of human influence and climate change ( 6 ) .
the asian horned frog is nocturnal . its impeccable camouflage makes it extremely difficult to see on the forest floor . if it is discovered , either during the day or at night , it will crouch down further into the leaf litter and wait for the disturbance to go away .
reptile forums uk - great pictures of a striking pair of ceratophrys cornuta , a less common species of pacman frog .
this species is currently known from a few mountains on north - western mindanao island , in the philippines . listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on mindanao in the philippines .
the malayan horned frog was first described by the german ornithologist and herpetologist hermann schlegel in 1858 . it is often touted as a charismatic species due to its unusual appearance – a pair of horn - like skin projections on its head , and an extended , pointed snout . betrayed by its loud metallic ‘honk’ for a
in singapore , this species is easily distinguished from other frog species due to the prominence of its triangular projections of
horns
and snout .
the bana leaf litter frog is nocturnal and terrestrial ; it spends most of its time taking refuge in the leaf litter deep in the forest .
dorsal view of m . nasuta adult . the frog’s excellent camouflage is largely due to both body shape and colour patterns that closely mimic that of dried leaves .
draco mindanensis , commonly known as the mindanao flying dragon , is a lizard species endemic to the philippines . characterized by a dull grayish brown body color and a vivid tangerine orange dewlap , this species is one of the largest of the genus draco . it is diurnal , arboreal , and capable of gliding . the mindanao flying dragon inhabits regions of primary and secondary - growth forests . there appears to be a dependence on primary dipterocarp forest for this species ' survival . d . mindanensis is noted for being a bioindicator for the forested regions of mindanao . threatened heavily by deforestation , the iucn has listed d . mindanensis as vulnerable . currently , there are no specific conservation efforts being made to preserve the species . rather , there are projects that target the protection of the habitats in which the mindanao flying dragon lives .
the mindanao brown dove ( phapitreron brunneiceps ) is a threatened species of bird in the family columbidae . it is endemic to forests on the philippine islands of mindanao and basilan , but it has not been recorded from the latter island since 1937 . it is threatened by habitat loss and hunting . until recently , it was considered conspecific with the tawitawi brown dove and collectively called the dark - eared brown dove .
the philippine leafbird ( chloropsis flavipennis ) is a species of bird in the chloropseidae family . it is endemic to the philippines . it is found in the islands of mindanao , leyte , and cebu . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . it is threatened by habitat loss . its stronghold appears to be mindanao , with populations small in leyte and in cebu , the species could already be extinct .
reaching 100 - 120 mm in snout - vent length ( svl : the length from snout to vent ) and females capable of reaching a svl of up to 160 mm ( malkmus et al . , 2002 ) . the species is characterized by the existence of prominent triangular projections on its upper eyelids and snout : these appendages create what looks like “horns” from which its common name , the ‘horned’ frog , is derived .
wildenhues , m . , rauhaus , a . , bach , r . , karbe , d . , van der straeten , k . , hertwig , s . t . , ziegler , t . ( 2012 ) : husbandry , captive breeding , larval development and stages of the malayan horned frog megophrys nasuta ( schlegel , 1858 ) ( amphibia : anura : megophryidae ) . amphibian and reptile conservation 5 ( 3 ) : 15 - 28
the normal species , ceratophryne dorsata , [ can be found ] from guyana and brazil , will become just as big as a normal frog ( sometime in the future but not now ) .
threatened heavily by deforestation , the iucn has listed d . mindanensis as vulnerable . currently , there are no specific conservation efforts being made to preserve the species . rather , there are projects that target the protection of the habitats in which the mindanao flying dragon lives .
. these tubercles serve to identify individual frogs as tubercle presence , shape , number and location on body surface vary from individual to individual . the colour of the frog allows it to blend in with the colour of leaf
congrats , shauming ! this is a great series ! i ' ve seen this frog only once , also in calinan , but it was a very long time ago . i hope they ' re still there . . .
draco mindanensis , commonly known as the mindanao flying dragon , is a lizard species endemic to the philippines . characterized by a dull grayish brown body color and a vivid tangerine orange dewlap , this species is one of the largest of the genus draco . it is diurnal , arboreal , and capable of gliding .
despite its grumpy and disapproving demeanour , this species is actually shy in nature and will crouch down , motionless , when startled or disturbed . this is part of the frog ' s strategy to avoid detection and for greater camouflage among the leaf litter .
this species is known from basilan , biliran , bohol , dinagat , leyte , samar , and many parts of mindanao , in the southern and eastern islands of the philippines . it is found from around sea level up to 1 , 800 m asl ( diesmos et al . 2014 ) . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest .
asian toadfrogs vary from being extremely common to exceedingly rare . the slender mud frog ( leptolalax pelodytoides ) has a vast distribution and during the breeding season can be the most abundant species in a stream habitat . on the other hand , sung ' s slender frog ( leptolalax sungi ) is known only from a 50 - yd ( 50 m ) stretch of one mountain stream . efforts are being made to protect the rapidly disappearing habitat in which asian toadfrogs live . as of the year 2002 , no asian toad - frogs were listed as endangered or threatened by the iucn .
bickford , d . , ng , t . h . , qie , l . , kudavidanage , e . p . , and bradshaw , c . j . ( 2010 ) . forest fragment and breeding habitat characteristics explain frog diversity and abundance in singapore . biotropica 42 ( 1 ) , 119 - 125 .
the head of the frog is relatively large and broad as compared to its body size with a hidden tympanum . the tympanum can be described as
. . . diagonally placed , rounded below , somewhat angular on upper edge , [ and ] separated from eye by a distance greater than greatest diameter of tympanum
( taylor , 1962 ) .
males are 2 . 3–2 . 9 in ( 57 . 2–73 . 0 mm ) long , and females are 3 . 1–3 . 3 in ( 79 . 9–84 . 2 mm ) long . this heavy - bodied frog has a head that is broad and flat . the limbs are slender and short and seem disproportionately small for the body . the protruding eyes are dark , except for the upper third , which is white . the pupil is vertical . a narrow white membrane is visible around the margin of the eye . from above , the bana leaf litter frog is uniformly dark brown with red spots on the flanks and hind limbs ; the belly is gray with minute white spots .
however , the protection of the rest of the forested areas of the philippines requires much work ( 1 ) . conservation international and the critical ecosystem partnership fund have been working to support conservation and increase conservation awareness throughout the philippines , including in areas such as east mindanao . however , there are fears that in the already established national parks , land is being disturbed by human settlements and the boundaries of protected areas are not being properly enforced ( 7 ) .
males grow up to 1 . 43 in ( 36 . 2 mm ) in length and females up to 1 . 79 in ( 45 . 4 mm ) . this bizarre toothless frog has a narrow mouth and an extremely truncated snout . small , pointy tubercles are present above the eye and leaflike venations are on the back . the color of the back ranges from light to dark brown , with some irregular mottling on the head and back . the pupil is diamond - shaped , and the iris is golden brown .
megophrys nasuta is known to inhabit mature rainforest or swamp forest , where its characteristic loud “honk” call can be heard especially during the early hours of dusk and just before rain : it is then that calling frequency increases , as opposed to almost solitary calls during the later hours of the night . this may be due to those periods being suitable breeding periods for the frog - it is perhaps useful to note here that most frogs usually call ( period of greatest vocalization ) in the later hours of dusk ( bickford et al . , 2010 ) .
males grow up to 1 . 31 in ( 33 . 4 mm ) and females to 1 . 62 in ( 41 . 2 mm ) . an elongate frog , it is orange to light brown , with irregular dark brown mottling on the back and head . the chin and belly are creamy white , and the slender limbs have black transverse bars . the upper lip includes several vertical black bars and one cream - colored vertical bar at the apex of the snout . small tubercles may be scattered along the back . the tadpole is long and slender and has a subterminal mouth . the body and tail are light brown , and the edges of the tail fin are translucent .
asian toadfrogs come in just about every size and shape imaginable . the largest species , the broad - headed toad ( brachytarsophrys ) , attains a maximum length of 6 . 6 in ( 168 mm ) , and the smallest species , the borneo frog ( leptobrachella ) , is a mere 0 . 7 in ( 17 . 8 mm ) long . females are typically larger than males , except among the moustache toads ( vibrissaphora ) and two species of alpine toads ( scutiger ) . other sexually dimorphic characters include keratinized nuptial patches on the chest and fingers of breeding male alpine toads and cateyed frogs ( oreolalax ) and bizarre keratinized spines seen on the upper lip of the male moustache toad during the breeding season .
males grow to 1 . 7–3 . 6 in ( 44–92 mm ) in length and females to 2 . 6–4 . 4 in ( 67–111 mm ) . this is a stocky , large - bodied frog with a bizarre , elongated
horn
on the upper eyelid and , in some forms , a fleshy appendage projecting off the nose . this skin is smooth , except for one or two pairs of fleshy ridges that extend from behind the head to the groin . the color of the back is light brown to reddish brown , occasionally with a few black tubercles . the flanks bear numerous fleshy tubercles and are slightly darker in color than those on the back . the color and overall shape of this species is a perfect imitation of a dried leaf . the pupil is vertical , and the iris is dark brown . tadpoles have a funnel mouth , and the body and tail are brown .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
frost , d . r . 2017 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . american museum of natural history , new york , usa available at : urltoken .
this species was removed from the synonymy of megophrys montana by iskandar ( 1998 ) , where it had been placed previously by inger ( 1954 ) .
this terrestrial species inhabits primary and secondary montane and lowland rainforests and is dependent on mountain streams where it breeds . individuals of this species are found among leaf litter , or exposed on the forest floor , near tree roots and standing water pools ( plaza and sanguila 2015 ) . tadpoles are suspension feeders and prefer quiet pools in streams . it apparently has a wide tolerance of ecological disturbance ( sanguila et al . 2016 ) .
the species is traded at low levels for the domestic pet trade ( philippines red list assessment workshop may 2017 ) .
some subpopulations of this species are protected in national parks , such as mount malindang national park , and other protected areas , including mount apo natural park .
more information is needed on this species ' distribution , population status , ecology , and threats . additional taxonomic studies are recommended given this species ' widespread distribution ( plaza and sanguila 2015 ) .
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generally , megophrys species spend much of their time quietly hidden in leaf litter , where they hunt prey and hide from predators . however , when defending a territory against a potential rival , they have been known to rear up and inflate their lungs to make them look bigger , before screaming loudly and leaping at their opponent ( 2 ) .
members of the genus megophrys tend to move about using short hops , as their large body size relative to their short legs makes larger jumps more difficult ( 4 ) .
this information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken
stuart , s . n . , chanson , j . s . , cox , n . a . , young , b . e . , rodrigues , a . s . l . , fischman , d . l . and waller , r . w . ( 2004 ) status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide . science , 306 ( 5702 ) : 1783 - 1786 .
sodhi , n . s . , bickford , d . , diesmos , a . c . , lee , t . m . , koh , l . p . , brook , b . w . , sekercioglu , c . h . and bradshaw , c . j . a . ( 2008 ) measuring the meltdown : drivers of global amphibian extinction and decline . plos one , 3 ( 2 ) : e1636 .
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wow , thanks for all the compliments , been busy setting up business in kota kinabalu lately , surely will continue spotting for pn .
awesome series shauminglo . . ! congrats for the sotd . . : - )
fantastic pictures sir ! and a fine spotting ( english accent ) ! : p for real tho . good stuff .
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captive bred reptile forums uk - see photos of a wicked looking megophrys stejnegeri owned by brian santos .
it ' s that time of the year in wisconsin when many repti . . .
this is an excellent write - up on how to prepare for the . . .
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university of san carlos school of law and governance , pelaez st . , cebu city
hombron ' s kingfisher or the blue - capped kingfisher ( actenoides hombroni ) is a species of bird in the family alcedinidae endemic to the philippines . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical , moist , lowland forests and subtropical or tropical , moist , montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .
although called a warty pig , facial warts of this species are small and only found in males . these pigs are best recognized by the white stripe which runs over the bridge of the nose behind the mouth .
numbers of wild visayan warty pigs are not available , but the species has lost 95 % of its former range in recent times and is highly endangered .
found only on one tiny island in the philippines , the camiguin forest rat is a little - known species as it has only been known to scientists since 2002 . the camiguin forest rat has soft , thick dark reddish - brown fur , which is slightly paler on the underside . the snout and the sides of the face are covered in dark grey hairs . the camiguin forest rat has small , nearly naked ears , relatively large forefeet , and long , wide hindfeet . the relatively short tail , which measures less than the head and body length , is almost entirely hairless .
the grey imperial pigeon ( ducula pickeringii ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae . it is found in brunei , indonesia , malaysia , and the philippines . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and plantations . it is threatened by habitat loss .
the dinagat gymnure ( podogymnura aureospinula ) is a species of mammal in the family erinaceidae . it is endemic to the philippines . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .
any bird of the order passeriformes ) bird . this species of passerineformes has been declared as a critically endangered species last january 24 , 2014 , according to www . philstar . com . it was feared to be extinct , because of the clearance of most of the islands forests , but it was rediscovered in 1992 in a small patch of limestone forest in
- the visayan warty pig has been considered endangered due to the destruction of its habitat , specifically the forest . this species can be found in panay , negros , cebu and aklan . they mainly feed on cultivated vegetables , fallen fruits and root crop .
- the tarsier is a primate found in the bohol . the tarsier jumps tree to tree to hunt for their food , tarsiers are insect based , they mainly eat insects by pouncing on them at the right time . tarsiers are born with fur and their eyes open and can climb trees within an hour of birth . the majority of tarsier species are now endangered or threatened , and some are designated critically endangered .
- the philippine flying lemur locally known as ' ' kagwang ' ' is one of the two species of flying lemurs , the only two living species in the order dermoptera ( arboreal gliding mammals found in southeast asia ) . this species shows sexual dimorphism , which means when the female is larger than the male . this species is categorized as the least concern endangered species .
- the black shama can be found in the forests of cebu . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , and plantations . it is threatened by habitat loss from kaingin farming and deforestation .
- the panay cloudrunner is the second largest cloud rat , a squirrel like rodent that can be found in the island of panay . the late date of discovery was because the lack of forest cover on panay lead to the island being largely ignored by biologists . the lack of habitat has brought this cloud rat species to be categorized as an an endangered species .
- is a species of bird of the zosteropidae family , in the genus dasycrotapha . it is classified as vulnerable sue tot he loss of habitat , deforestation and kaingin farming .
- is a megabat that mostly lives on negros island . two small populations were also found on cebu island in the philippines . like other bare - backed fruit bats , its wings meet along the midline of their bodies , making it a very agile flier . by the mid - 1980 ' s , the fruit bat vanished because of replacing the lowland forest to a sugar cane plantation , but was later rediscovered last 1996 .
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dorsal ( back ) view of adult megophrys nasuta individual : the
horns
, snout , vent , tubercles and dorsolateral folds are labelled .
the arms and legs are also marked by the mottled appearance – arms are moderate in size , and fingers are widened at the tips , and lack webbing between . toes , however , show signs of webbing , while displaying similar widening at the tips as fingers ( inger , 1966 ) .
or plants by animals ) in the litterfall of the forest grounds ( inger , 1966 ; wildenhues , 2012 ) .
42 ( gosner , 1960 ; inger , 1984 ) . tadpoles posses a distinctly shaped oral groove formed from the horizontal expansion of the lips , which results in a dorsally oriented funnel - mouth – this structure is unique to megophryid species ( inger , 1984 ) . juvenile frogs are similar in colour to adults with noticeable protrusions at the eyelids and snout , although these are not fully formed .
for more details and pictures , please refer to the ' biology ' section below .
megophrys nasuta pair in amplexus . note the obvious size difference between the male ( smaller individual ) and female : a clear example of sexual dimorphism . ( click picture to find out more about sexual dimorphism )
megophrys nasuta exhibits inguinal amplexus : a type of amplexing position where the male clasps the female around her pelvic region . males typically rest their feet on the female’s thighs ( see picture ) . this posture is typically maintained for hours , ( sometimes even for weeks ) , and pairs will usually not break away from the stance even when disturbed ( burger , 2000 ; wildenhues et al . , 2012 ) .
eggs are laid either adhered to surfaces in water or partially submerged in streams . oviposition ( that is , egg laying ) is usually conducted beneath structures such as submerged logs or rocks . the large white eggs ( of about 2 cm in diameter , including glutinous layer ) are glutinous and laid attached to each other ( wildenhues , 2012 ) . the larvae take approximately one week to hatch following egg deposition . the larvae are white and heavily dependent upon the yolk for sustenance and as a energy reservoir : following the early days of hatching , they remain motionless on the stream’s bottom .
partial view of megophrys nasuta egg clutch : eggs are usually laid partially submerged in water under structures such as dead wood or rocks .
side view of megophrys nasuta tadpole . the tunnel shaped mouth is clearly observed here .
the larvae , when hatched , are a pale white in colour , and are attached to their yolk reservoir : a week later , they develop brownish pigment . larvae begin to metamorphsose in about two and a half months , although this may be delayed to up to seven months , depending upon development temperature . captive breeding of megophrys nasuta has shown that lower temperature of development ( ranging from about 19°c to 22°c ) would result in a longer and slower development rate , while higher temperatures led to quicker development rates . however , larvae that developed quicker resulted in smaller metamorphs and juveniles as compared to that raised in lower temperatures ( wildenhues et al . , 2012 ) .
larvae commence development from metamorphs ( gosner stage * 45 ) into juvenile frogs ( gosner stage 46 ) where their tail is completely resorbed from about three to seven months following egg deposition .
* gosner stages define different stages of the developing anuran young : from its two cell stage ( gosner stage 1 ) to when it has completely resorbed its tail ( gosner stage 47 ) .
juvenile megophrys nasuta . this individual had a snout - vent length of 18 mm and was found hiding along stream bank vegetation .
megophrys nasuta is known to be a voracious opportunistic predator . adults are observed to feed on crickets , cockroaches , locusts , worms , slugs , and even snails , although this list is likely more diverse ( obst et al . , 1984 ; burger , 2000 ; wildenhues et al . , 2012 ) . its cryptic colouration and camouflage aid in its feeding strategy , allowing it to prey on smaller unsuspecting animals on the forest ground .
front view of m . nasuta tadpole . note the funnel - shaped mouth .
the large funnel mouth shape of m . nasuta tadpoles is a specialized structure for its feeding strategy . the funnel creates a suction that channels in water , which carries fine food particles such as algae , plankton and microbes . the tadpole then utilizes its internal oral ridges ( fine folds in its oral cavity ) to filter and select for appropriately sized and appropriate food in the water ( inger , 1954 ; burger , 2000 ) .
megophrys nasuta is known to primarily occur in mature rainforest - it is a forest specialist . the species inhabits lowland and submontane forests , and is usually found in the vicinity of clear forests stream : which serves as a necessary habitat for its tadpole and breeding grounds ( inger , 1954 ; berry , 1975 ; dring , 1979 ) . in singapore , it is found in the more pristine forested areas of bukit timah nature reserve , in addition to more mature swamp - forest in central catchment nature reserve ( teo & rajathurai , 1997 ) .
adult frogs are completely terrestrial in nature , although usually always found near streams . tadpoles , however , spend their entire larval period in streams , and are often observed congregated on the sides of streams : they are known to favour the root mats of streamside vegetation , and areas of dead leaves accumulation , possibly as these are areas of greater plankton abundance ( inger , 1954 ; burger , 2000 ) .
globally , the native range of m . nasuta stretches from yala , southern thailand , throughout the malay peninsula , singapore , sumatra , borneo , till the natuna islands .
in singapore , m . nasuta is confined within the central catchment nature reserves ( ccnr ) and bukit timah nature reserve ( btnr ) . due to sensitivity of this species’ location in singapore , the exact sites within the reserves cannot be revealed .
map of singapore . locations of megophrys nasuta are found within the shaded areas .
the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) lists m . nasuta as a taxon of ‘ least concern ’ due to its presumed wider distribution range , and population size ( van dijk et al . , 2004 ) . however , forest fragmentation coupled with habitat destruction and loss threatens population size—this is further compounded by harvesting for the pet trade ( wildenhues , 2012 ) .
frogs often serve as indicators of ecosystem health . some frogs - such as forest specialists like megophrys nasuta , are particularly sensitive ( and susceptible ! ) to changes in the environment : such as rising temperature , a drop in precipitation , and even the presence of pollutants in the stream . in fact , because frogs ( like many amphibians ) are partly aquatic and partly terrestrial , this makes them even more vulnerable to environmental changes and decline .
a comprehensive survey of the amphibians in singapore was carried out from 1993 to 1997 by teo and rajathurai of the vertebrate study group of singapore’s nature society . the survey , carried out over four years with a six year pre - survey period ( 1987 to 1993 ) , listed 36 records of m . nasuta in singapore , confined to bukit timah nature reserve and catchment nature reserve . this was corroborated in part by m . nasuta records from ‘the pangolin’ , a quarterly bulletin of singapore’s vertebrates published by the malayan nature society singapore ( lim , 1998c , 1989c , 1989d , 1990c , 1995 ) . however , current knowledge regarding this species’ current status in singapore is lacking or unpublished .
“zij hebben in het algemeen de kenmerken der kikvorschen ; maar hun kop is veel grooter en plat ; hun muil is buitengewoon wijd , en hunne bovenste oogleden zijn meer of min puntig verlengd . men vindt hen in zuid - amerika en achter - indie . ”
“they generally have the characteristics of the frogs , but their head is much larger and flat ; their mouth is extremely wide , and their upper eyelids are more or less pointed extended . one can find them in south america and back indies . ”
however , m . nasuta does look similar to other megophrys species ( all of which are not found in singapore ) . there are currently five recognized species under the megophrys ( frost , 2011 ) .
palpebral projections with wide large head . ventral surface is mottled light - dark brown in colour .
with a wide large head . similar in morphology to m . nasuta , but is lacking the elongated pointed snout .
tubercles on skin surface . tubercles greater in number as compared to that in m . nasuta . body colour ranges from dark brown to greyish
original description of m . nasuta ( page 56 - 57 ) . extracted from schlegel , h . [ 1858 ] . image courtesy of biodiversity heritage library .
schlegel orignally placed m . nasuta within the ceratophryne genus - this was later revised several times and finally placed under megophrys in 1929 by gee and boring ( gee & boring , 1929 ) .
“zij hebben in het algemeen de kenmerken der kikvorschen ; maar hun kop is veel grooter en plat ; hun muil is buitengewoon wijd , en hunne bovenste oogleden zijn meer of min puntig verlengd . men vindt hen in zuid - amerika en achter - indie .
, van guyana en brazilie , wordt nogeens zoo groot als onze gewone pad . zij heeft , door haren grooten kop , een ge - drogtelijk aanzien , is echter met zeer fraaije groene en roode kleuren versierd . op java wordt eene bruine soort ,
they generally have the characteristics of the frogs , but their head is much larger and flat ; their mouth is extremely wide , and their upper eyelids are more or less pointed extended . one can find them in south america and back indies .
she has , because of her big head , an ugly [ appearance ] , however [ it ] is decorated with beautiful green and red colours .
on java you find a brown species , cer . montana which is of the same size of the other amphibians , which is replaced on sumatra by a related specie , cer . nasuta , which has one pointed skin flap to the muzzle .
dr . albert gunther was a german zoologist and herpetologist who described more than 340 species . however , he mistakenly identified adult megophrys montana males as megophrys nasuta females ( then referred to as megalophrys montana and megalophrys nasuta ) - and only discovered his error when he was presented with specimens of larger size that were females , as compared to the smaller sized males that he dealt with ( gunther , 1873 ) . dr gunther also mistakenly brought this information to charles darwin – who in his book ‘the descent of man , and selection in relation to sex’ , incorrectly wrote about the ‘differences’ between the
males
and
females
of megalophrys montana , although these were in fact two different species .
type specimen : two syntypes , rmnh 2143 , deposited in the national museum of natural history , leiden , the netherlands ( miracle et al . , 2007 )
maximum likelihood of amphibian phylogeny : megophrys nasuta ( boxed in red ) is seen to be in the same clade with brachytarsophrys and xenophrys . numbers at node are maximum likelihood boot - strap values . ( source : adapted from science direct ; direct permission not obtained , but within the limits of fair use )
a recent study conducted by pyron and wiens in 2011 based on analysis of sequence data from 12 genes : three mitochondrial and nine nuclear reflects the position as megophryidae as the sister taxon to pelobatidae .
megophryidae is accepted as monophyletic – this is based on analyses carried by frost et al . , using comparative anatomical character evidence of haas ( 2003 ) , with dna sequences from mitochondrial transcription unit h1 and several nuclear genes : h3 , rhodopsin , tyrosinase and the large ribosomal subunit 28s ( frost et al . , 2006 ) .
barcode obtained from bold systems from data deposited in genbank , ncbi . ( clicking on the image will take you to the boldsystems databse )
. the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 ( cox i ) gene sequence is available on genbank .
2 . wild singapore ' s page on amphibians in singapore : a blog on singapore ' s wildlife .
berry , p . y . ( 1975 ) . family rhacophoridae . the amphibian fauna of peninsular malaysia . tropical press , kuala lumpur . pp . 90 - 109 .
davison , g . w . , ng , p . k . , and ho , h . c . ( 2008 ) . the singapore red data book : threatened plants & animals of singapore . nature society ( singapore ) .
dring , j . c . m . ( 1979 ) . amphibians and reptiles from northern trengannu , malaysia , with descriptions of two new geckos : cnemaspis and cyrtodactylus . bull . brit . mus . nat . hist . ( zool . ) 34 ( 5 ) : 181 - 241 , i pi . 17 figs .
frost , d . r . , grant , t . , faivovich , j . , bain , r . h . , haas , a . , haddad , c . f . , de sa , o . r . , channing , a . , wilkinson , m . , donnellan , s . c . , raxworthy , c . j . , campbell , j . a . , blotto , b . l . , moler , p . , drewes , r . c . , nussbaum , r . a . , lynch , j . d . , green . d . a . and wheeler , w . c . ( 2006 ) . the amphibian tree of life . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 1 - 291 .
frost d . r . ( 2011 ) . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 5 ( 31 january 2011 ) . [ online : electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , new york ] . available : urltoken [ accessed 10 november 2013 ]
gee , n . g . and boring , a . m . ( 1929 ) , peking nat . hist . bull . , vol . 4 , pt . 2 , pp . 20 , 40
gosner , k . l . ( 1960 ) . a simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification . herpetologica 16 ( 3 ) , 183 - 190 .
gunther , a . c . l . g . ( 1873 ) contribution to our knowledge of ceratophrys and megalophrys . annals and magazine of natural history , series 4 , 11 : 417 - 419 . available : http : / / urltoken [ accessed 14 november 2013 ]
haas , a . ( 2003 ) . phylogeny of frogs as inferred from primarily larval characters ( amphibia : anura ) . cladistics , 19 ( 1 ) , 23 - 89 .
inger r . f . ( 1954 ) . systematics and zoogeography of philippine amphibia . fieldiana zoology 33 , 183 - 531 . natural history museum , chicago , illinois . p . 531
inger , r . f . ( 1966 ) , the systematics and zoogeography of the amphibia of borneo . fieldiana ( zool . ) 52 , 1 - 402 , 71 figs .
inger , r . f . , shaffer , h . b . , koshy , m . , and bakde , r . ( 1984 ) . a report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the ponmudi , kerala , south india . part 1 . journal of bombay natural history society 81 ( 2 ) , 406 - 427 .
lim , k . k . p . , ( 1989c ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch 2 ( 3 )
lim , k . k . p . , ( 1989d ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch 2 ( 4 )
lim , k . k . p . , ( 1990c ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch , 1 ( 3 )
lim , k . k . p . , ( 1995 ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch
lim , k . k . p . and yang , c . m . ( 1991 ) . ‘an annotated checklist of the amphibians of singapore , with emphasis on material in the zoological reference collection’ , raffles bulletin of zoology 39 , 21 5 - 233 .
leong , t . m . , and chou , l . m . ( 1999 ) . larval diversity and development in the singapore anura ( amphibia ) . raffles bulletin of zoology 47 , 81 - 138 .
miracle , m . e . g . , ostende , l . , & arntzen , j . w . ( 2007 ) . type specimens of amphibians in the national museum of natural history , leiden , the netherlands . zootaxa , 1482 , 25 - 68 .
obst , f . , k . richter , and u . jacob . ( 1984 ) . atlas of reptiles and amphibians for the terrarium . neptune , city , nj : t . f . h . , publishing , inc . .
pyron , a . r . , & wiens , j . j . ( 2011 ) . a large - scale phylogeny of amphibia including over 2800 species , and a revised classification of extant frogs , salamanders , and caecilians . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 61 ( 2 ) , 543 - 583 .
taylor , e . h . 1962 . the amphibian fauna of thailand . university of kansas science bulletin 43 ( 8 ) : 267 - 599 .
teo , r . c . h . and rajathurai , s . ( 1997 ) . mammals , reptiles and amphibians in the nature reserves of singapore – diversity , abundance and distribution . in chan , l and corlett , r . t . ( eds ) , biodiversity in the nature reserves of singapore . ( pp . 353 – 425 ) . singapore : national parks board .
van dijk p . p . , iskandar d . , and inger r . ( 2004 ) . megophrys nasuta . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . [ online ] . available : www . iucnredlist . org . [ accessed : 10 november 2013 ] .
thank you for reading this web - page ! should you have any queries or comments , spot an error in the information above or perhaps have more local ( singapore ) information about this species , please feel free to drop me an email at prar . selv @ gmail . com . : ) your comments are very much appreciated , and will help in adding to our knowledge of this species in singapore .
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all asian toadfrogs have eight vertebrae and intervertebral discs that are not fused to adjacent vertebrae at the time of metamorphosis . the sacral diapophyses are dilated , and the pectoral girdle is arciferal , with a long bony sternum . on the roof of the mouth the neopalatines are absent ; to compensate ,
a palatal process of the maxilla is elongated . asian toadfrogs share a common ancestor with north american and european spadefoot toads ( pelobatidae ) and parsley frogs ( pelodytidae ) . some researchers have recognized these three families as the suborder pelobatoidea . asian toadfrogs can be distinguished from their sister groups by their paddle - shaped tongue and a hyoid that is simplified and elongated ; the hyoid lacks any remnant of a cartilaginous connection to the back of the skull .
the broad - headed toads are sit - and - wait predators , consuming fairly large prey that may be moving along the forest floor . little else is known about the foraging activities of the remaining species . random examination of stomach contents has found that moths , spiders , crickets , cockroaches , beetles , scorpions , centipedes , and snails are all potential prey of asian toadfrogs .
funnel - mouth tadpoles feed on minute particles on the surface of the water . while feeding , the larvae position their upturned lips at the level of the water . taking advantage of the gentle currents that they prefer , they simply allow water and any small particles on the surface film to flow over the edge of the funnel and into the mouth . papillae ( small fleshy fingerlike projections ) around the lips direct the food particles into the mouth . when the papillae come in contact with a particle that is too large , the tadpole quickly dives to avoid the obstruction and resurfaces to resume the feeding process . the non–funnel - mouth tadpoles of leptobrachiinae all forage on the detritus or algae that accumulate in streams . one study has shown that in the same microhabitat , leptobrachine larvae consume food particles that are on average three times the size of what the funnel - mouth tadpoles eat .
in seasonal climates breeding activity occurs during the wet season . in vietnam , this is typically late fall to early spring , and it may last one to two months . in these climates , it is not uncommon to find peak breeding activity when evening temperatures are 41–44°f ( 5–7°c ) . males also may be heard calling during the day , but these efforts are never made with the enthusiasm that is heard at night . female leaf - litter frogs from borneo are full of eggs in january , june , july , and august ; these equatorial megophryids may breed all year round .


the bluehead wrasse or blue-headed wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) is a species of saltwater fish in the wrasse family ( labridae ) of order perciformes native to the coral reefs of the tropical waters of the western atlantic ocean .

individuals are small ( less than 110 mm standard length ) and rarely live longer than two years .

they form large schools over the reef and are important cleaner fish in the reefs they inhabit .

bluehead wrasse

information on the bluehead wrasse is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
the spawning , growth , and general behavior of the bluehead wrasse . . . : ingenta connect
estrogenic control of behavioral sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . - pubmed - ncbi
manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse .
the bluehead wrasse is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
hunt von herbing , i . & w . hunte . 1991 . spawning and recruitment of the bluehead wrasse
manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . - pubmed - ncbi
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cleaner wrasse ( species of wrasse ) collects and eats dead tissue and parasites accumulated in the mouth of large marine fish .
semsar k , godwin j ( 2004 ) multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 45 : 345–53 .
the bluehead wrasse is a small - bodied wrasse that lives on coral reefs of the caribbean sea and its adjacent waters ( florida , bermuda , and the gulf of mexico ) . as a result of its interesting mating system ( discussed below ) , the bluehead wrasse is one of the best - studied reef fishes on caribbean reefs .
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figure 4 and 5 . models of suppression and subsequent process of sex change following the loss of the tp male in the bluehead wrasse .
semsar k . and l . godwin . 2004 . multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . horm behav . 45 : 345–353 .
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semsar , k . and j . godwin ( 2004 ) multiple mechanisms of phenotype development in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 45 : 345 - 353 .
warner rr , swearer se ( 1991 ) social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biological bulletin 181 : 199–204 .
wrasse can reach 4 to 98 inches in length , depending on the species .
the blue head wrasse is rated by the iucn as an animal of least concern .
wrasse can be part of large school ( group of fish ) or live solitary life .
in the absence of dominant males , the larger females of the group can display sex reversal or change and replace the absent dominant males . this behavior is referred to as protogyny . bluehead wrasse harem
semsar k , kandel flm , godwin j ( 2001 ) manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior 40 : 21–31 .
expression across female ( a ) , initial phase male ( b ) , and terminal phase male bluehead wrasse ( c ) . darkfield images of silver grain localization and density were taken at 100× total magnification .
warner , r . r . and s . e . swearer . 1991 . social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biol . bull . 181 : 199–204 .
the bluethroat wrasse can be recognised by its colouration . it occurs on rocky reefs of southern australia .
marsh ke , creutz lm , hawkins mb , godwin jj ( 2006 ) aromatase immunoreactivity in the bluehead wrasse brain , thalassoma bifasciatum : immunolocalization and co - regionalization with arginine vasotocin and tyrosine hydroxylase . brain research 1126 : 91–101 .
the bluehead wrasse is too small to be eaten but is captured for display in public and private aquaria . currently , scientists do not believe that the species is at any risk of extinction , and population sizes are apparently stable . however , it is important to continue to monitor bluehead wrasse populations in order to ensure that any changes resulting from capture of adults or from expected negative trends in coral reef health throughout its range will be identified at an early stage .
wrasse belong to the labridae family . with 60 genera and over 500 species , wrasse are one of the largest families of coral reef fish . the size of wrasse in an aquarium varies considerably within each genus , but most reach an average size of six inches in length . in the wild , the largest member of this family grows to an adult size of over six feet . wrasse are closely related to parrotfish , and can be recognized by their bright colors and elongated body with a pointed snout . wrasse are found throughout the world in all marine habitats . most wrasse are schooling fish , but others may be found in a harem or as individuals when young . most wrasse bury themselves in the sand at night , and also when threatened .
some species of wrasse go through drastic color changes from juvenile to adult form . most species of wrasse have no characteristics that differentiate males from females , and the breeding of these fish in an aquarium is extremely difficult .
wrasse is marine fish that belongs to the labridae family . there are more than 500 species of wrasse that can be found in tropical and subtropical waters of indian , pacific and atlantic ocean . wrasse inhabits coastal areas , rocky shores , coral reefs , tidal pools and sandy sea floor . few species of wrasse are part of human diet . wrasses are very popular among aquarists because of their colorful bodies . some species , such as humphead wrasse , are listed as endangered due to over - fishing and destruction of coral reefs ( their habitat ) .
wrasse can survive 3 to 30 years in the wild ( most species live from 3 to 5 years ) .
wrasse is a carnivore ( meat - eater ) . its diet is based on small invertebrates ( crabs , shrimps , mollusks , snails and sea urchins ) and fish . wrasse occasionally follows large marine predators and collects leftover of their meals .
semsar , k . , f . l . m . kandel , and j . godwin ( 2001 ) manipulations of the avt system shifts social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . horm . behav . 40 : 21 - 31 .
warner , r . r . and e . t . schultz . 1992 . sexual selection and male characteristics in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum : mating site acquisition , mating site defense , and female choice . evolution . 46 ( 5 ) : 1421–1442 .
warner , r . r . and swearer , s . e . ( 1991 ) , social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) . biol . bull . 181 : 199 - 204 . ( october , 1991 )
red night shrimp ( rhynchocinetes rigens ; left ) are the most popular prey item for lionfish in bermudian waters . the invasive predators also feast on bluehead wrasse , which remove parasites from other fish species . photos by franco banfi ( left ) and paul starosta / via getty images
some wrasse adapt well to life in an aquarium , but others may require special attention and should only be kept by very experienced aquarists . wrasse must have an aquarium with a well - sealed lid , along with fine substrate , and good water conditions .
marsh - hunkin , k . e . , h . m . heinz , m . b hawkins , and j . godwin ( 2013 ) estrogenic control of behavioral sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . integrative and comparative biology 53 ( 6 ) : 951 - 9 .
lema , sean c . , melissa a . slane , kelley e . salvesen , john godwin ( 2012 ) variation in gene transcript profiles of two v1a - type arginine vasotocin receptors among sexual phases of bluehead wrasse ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) . general and comparative endocrinology 179 : 451 - 464 .
k semsar , fl kandel , and j godwin , manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse : hormones and behavior [ horm . behav . ] . vol . 40 , no . 1 , pp . 21 - 31 . aug 2001 .
some wrasse are referred to as cleaner fish , and will set up a station on the reef to pick parasites and dead tissue from larger fish , including predators . most cleaner wrasse are recognized by other reef fish , and are not eaten by larger fish on the reef .
bester , c .
bluehead .
florida museum of natural history : ichthyology . 2012 . florida museum of natural history . 27 may 2012 < urltoken > .
marsh , k . e . , l . m . creutz , m . b . hawkins , and j . godwin ( 2006 ) . aromatase immunoreactivity in the bluehead wrasse brain , thalassoma bifasciatum : immunolocalization and co - regionalization with arginine vasotocin and tyrosine hydroxylase . brain research 1126 : 91 - 101 .
expression data from bluehead wrasse brain cdna microarrays generated in our lab indicated that zic2 was upregulated in terminal phase males relative to both females and ip males ( passador - gurgel and godwin , unpublished data ) . this study focuses on the preoptic area of the hypothalamus and the possibility that zic2 mrna abundance is elevated specifically in tp males relative to females and ip males in this key integrative area for male - typical courtship and sexual behavior [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] . a second goal was to characterize the distribution of zic2 mrna expression in the brain of the bluehead wrasse using in situ hybridization .
nucleotide sequence alignment of the confirmed z ic2a partial nucleotide sequence isolated from thalassoma bifasciatum ( bluehead wrasse ; hq423137 . 1 ) aligned with gasterosteus aculeatus zic2a ( three - spined stickleback ; bt027912 . 1 ) . nucleotides indicated with “ * ” represent identical nucleotides when our clone was aligned with stickleback zic2a sequences from the ncbi database .
larson et , norris do , summers ch ( 2003b ) monoaminergic changes associated with socially induced sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse . neuroscience 119 : 251–263 .
koulish , s . and kramer , c . r . ( 1989 ) , human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hcg ) induces gonad reversal in a protogynous fish , the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( teleostei , labridae ) . j . exp . zool . , 252 : 156 - 168 . doi : 10 . 1002 / jez . 1402520207
wrasse has pointed snout , thick lips and prominent ( outward oriented ) canine teeth . it has elongated body covered with smooth scales and long dorsal and anal fins .
bluehead wrasses are generalist foragers and eat a variety of prey . they are known to forage for small invertebrates and crustaceans on the reef surface , target individual zooplankton in the water above the reef surface , and clean the parasites off of larger species . as they are one of the most common small - bodied fishes on reefs , bluehead wrasses are eaten by many different species of predatory fishes .
in summary , zic2 is widely expressed in the adult bluehead wrasse brain , including regions that regulate sexual behavior and function . the function of zic2 remains relatively unstudied in adult animals generally and this work is therefore novel in adult teleosts . we have also provided evidence of sexual phenotype differences in zic2 expression in the preoptic area . together with evidence of roles in neural differentiation and dopaminergic signaling in other species , these sexual phenotype differences in bluehead wrasses suggest a potential role in their remarkable sexual plasticity . further research involving mechanistic approaches will be necessary to explore this possibility .
larson et , norris do , gordon grau e , summers ch ( 2003a ) monoamines stimulate sex reversal in the saddleback wrasse . general and comparative endocrinology 130 : 289–298 .
it gets its common name from the adult coloration , which includes an obviously blue head on an otherwise green body . juveniles are solid yellow , or nearly so , with a black spot on the dorsal fin . the numerical success of the bluehead wrasse is apparent to anyone who has visited a caribbean reef ; it is one of the most common species in that region .
predatory threats to the blue head wrasse include the trumpetfish , red hind , greater soapfish , and yellowfin grouper ( bester ) . they are not predated by humans , but may be used as baitfish .
ty - jour ti - social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) t2 - the biological bulletin . vl - 181 ur - urltoken pb - marine biological laboratory , cy - woods hole , mass . : py - 1991 - 10 - 01 sp - 199 ep - 204 do - 10 . 2307 / 1542090 sn - 0006 - 3185 au - warner , r r au - swearer , s e er -
semsar , k . , f . l . m . kandel , and j . godwin . 2001 . manipulations of the avt system shift social status and related courtship and aggressive behavior in the bluehead wrasse . hormones and behavior . 40 : 21 - 31 . semsar k . and l . godwin . 2003 . social influences on the arginine vasotocin system are independent of gonads in a sex - changing fish . j neurosci . 23 ( 10 ) : 4386–4393 .
wrasse can bury itself in the sand or quickly swim away ( thanks to well developed pectoral and caudal fins ) , to escape from predators . some species hide among the large tentacles of mushroom coral and sea anemones .
but , is that fair to the lionfish ? sure , humans created this problem , which endangers red night shrimp , bluehead wrasses and countless other animals . a lionfish , however , is a living creature too — one that didn’t purposefully migrate into our waters .
color of the body depends on the species , habitat , age and gender . wrasse can be white , yellow , orange , red , purple , blue , green , grey , brown or black and covered with numerous bars , stripes and markings .
@ article { bhlpart30476 , title = { social control of sex change in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum ( pisces : labridae ) } , journal = { the biological bulletin . } , volume = { 181 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the rights holder . } , url = urltoken publisher = { woods hole , mass . : marine biological laboratory , } , author = { warner , r r and swearer , s e } , year = { 1991 - 10 - 01 } , pages = { 199 - - 204 } , }
caution is required with : dwarf angelfish , anglers & frogfish , anthias , basslets , blennies , butterflyfish , cardinalfish , clownfish , eels , filefish , goatfish , gobies , groupers , grunts & sweetlips , hawkfish , hogfish , lionfish & scorpionfish , parrotfish , puffers , squirrelfish , triggerfish and wrasse .
shapiro , d . y . 1979 . social behavior , group structure , and the control of sex reversal in hermaphroditic fish . adv . studies behav . 10 : 43 - 102 . warner , r . r . 1982 . mating systems , sex change , and sexual demography in the rainbow wrasse , thalassoma lucasanum . copeia . 653 - 661 .
bluehead wrasses are carnivorous and usually feed on zooplankton , the eggs of other fish , and small bottom - dwelling organisms . juveniles and initial phase individuals in particular may participate in cleaning stations , consuming dead material and parasites off of the bodies and out of the gills of larger fish as they pass through the station . which food source they capitalize on depends largely on ocean current and reef condition ( oceana ) .
females produce and release thousands of eggs during the spawning season . some wrasses show parental care . males guard eggs laid in the algae or various cavities until they hatch . other species of wrasse produce planktonic eggs which freely float , carried by ocean currents . incubation period lasts 24 hours on a temperature of 27 degrees of celsius ( lower temperature prolongs incubation period ) .
. again , much like avt , 11 - kt is affected by the fluctuation of cortisol ; elevated cortisol levels results in the inhibition of 11 - kt synthesis , thereby keeping gonads intact in suppressed ip females as well as allowing ip males to retain their reproductive function without the tp coloration since the lack of 11 - kt production does not affect testosterone levels . in fact , ip fish , both male and female , have undetectable levels of 11 - kt . as closely related they are to each other in terms aiding sex change in the bluehead wrasse , 11 - kt and avt systems can act independently of each other . 11 - kt does not increase avt mrna expression nor is it necessary for the display of such expression . however , 11 - kt could still play a role in the responsiveness to exogenous avt
the bluethroat wrasse can be recognised by its colouration . juveniles and females are greenish to reddish with a dusky bar behind the pectoral fin . the body scales have pale centres . males are brown to bluish - grey , with a white band across the body below the soft portion of the dorsal fin . the head is grey , the chin and throat are blue and the lips are yellow .
munday , p . l . , j . w . white , and r . r . warner . 2006b . a social basis for the development of primary males in a sex - changing fish . proc . r . soc . lond . , b , biol . sci . 273 : 2845–2851 . peacock , richard .
sex change in nature - coral reef fish .
evolution faq . web . 14 nov . 2010 . < urltoken > . petersen , c . w . , r . r . warner , d . y . shapiro , and a . marconato . 2001 . components of fertilization success in the bluehead wrasse , thalassoma bifasciatum . behavioral ecology . 12 : 237 - 245 . perry a . n . and m . s . grober . 2003 . a model for social control of sex change : interactions of behavior , neuropeptides , glucocorticoids , and sex steroids . horm behav . 43 ( 1 ) : 31e–8 .
lionfish also disrupt reef ecosystems by targeting baby bluehead wrasses and other cleaner fish . “cleaning stations are areas on the reef where our [ native ] predators don’t eat the other fish , ” flook said . akin to how we go to doctors to get checkups , the reef fish have these areas , which are like no - feed zones . except lionfish don’t abide . flook said lionfish target these cleaning stations in bermudian waters , not only eating the cleaners but all the fish in need of a tune - up .
as previously mentioned , when the dominant tp male disappears from his harem , the largest ip female is prompted to take over . once the largest fish of the harem detects the absence of the territorial dominant male , it immediately undergoes transitional changes in order to replace the missing leader . this process is a response to a social cue that is regulated by the change in hormones . during sex change , there are rapid changes in behavior , such as increased aggression and the beginnings of typical t - tp male courtship conduct , as well as permanent color change . additionally , the gonads in the ip female change dramatically . that is , the ovaries of the ip female that contain no detectable testicular tissue are transformed into perfect testes . within a week of changing from a large , yellow wrasse to a large , blue and green wrasse , the former female is already producing sperm and fertilizing the eggs laid by the females in the territory .
most research involving the blue head wrasse revolves around its ability to change sex . in a study by robert warner and stephen swearer , social control of sex change was studied . they found that “overall , there was a very strong response to the removal of tp and [ early terminal phase ] males on the experimental reefs” ( warner ) . following the removal of the tp males , it was always the largest individuals in the group that took their place as dominant males .
what is the neurochemical basis of such changes ? to recap , aggression and courtship behavior demonstrated by t - tp males is a means of suppressing sex change in ip females as well as nt - tp males . only when the suppression condition is lifted can sex change take place or be completed ( ross , 1989 ) . the dominated fish are placed under chronic social stress , thereby increasing their levels of cortisol ( perry and grober , 2003 ) . the changes in the levels of cortisol in turn affect the expression of arginine vasotocin ( avt ) . cortisol and avt have an inverse relationship . for the bluehead wrasse , behavioral sex change is associated with an increase of avt . thus , t - tp males have low levels of cortisol and high levels of avt while the reverse is true for ip females and males . for the suppressed fish , the high amounts of cortisol promote the pathway for estrogen production in the gonads , which accounts for their lower levels of avt and their lack of typical t - tp male behavior .
zic has been studied primarily in relation to development , but we found widespread expression of zic2 mrna in the brain of adult bluehead wrasses . expression was high in the granule cells of the cerebellum , as in other species examined to date , but is also present in a variety of other brain areas . these areas include the thalamus , hypothalamus , habenula , torus semicircularis , torus longitudinalis , medial longitudinal fascicle , and various telencephalic regions . we also found that zic2 mrna was more abundant in the preoptic area of terminal phase ( tp ) males than in either females or the female - mimic initial phase ( ip ) males , but found no significant differences in zic2 mrna in the habenula or cerebellum across sexual phenotypes .
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justification : this species is widespread in the northwestern atlantic and is common in many parts of its range . although it is collected for the aquarium trade , and is closely associated with reef habitat , these are not currently considered to be a threat to this species global population . it listed as least concern .
this species is common in the tropical waters of the western central atlantic ocean , and is found in bermuda , florida , the gulf of mexico , and the caribbean sea to venezuela and trinidad and tobago .
anguilla ; antigua and barbuda ; bahamas ; barbados ; belize ; bermuda ; bonaire , sint eustatius and saba ( saba , sint eustatius ) ; cayman islands ; colombia ; costa rica ; cuba ; curaçao ; dominica ; dominican republic ; grenada ; guadeloupe ; guatemala ; haiti ; honduras ; jamaica ; martinique ; mexico ; montserrat ; nicaragua ; panama ; puerto rico ; saint kitts and nevis ; saint lucia ; saint martin ( french part ) ; saint vincent and the grenadines ; sint maarten ( dutch part ) ; trinidad and tobago ; turks and caicos islands ; united states ; venezuela , bolivarian republic of ; virgin islands , british ; virgin islands , u . s .
this species has been noted as one of the ‘top ten’ species of fish on the export list in florida ( wood 2001 ) and puerto rico ( sadovy 1992 ) . an ornamental fishery evaluation study found that 844 individuals were harvested per annum across the la parguera and rincón regions , puerto rico ( richard et al . 2006 ) .
there are no major threats known for this species , although it is closely associated with coral reefs and shows high site fidelity . adults remain on their home reefs , with no emigration or immigration after settlement ( warner and hoffman 1980 ) . habitat destruction may pose a local threat to this species .
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scott w . michael , marine fishes , 1st ed . ( t . f . h . publications inc , new jersey , 2001 ) . rudie h kuiter , fairy & rainbow wrasses and their relatives , 1st ed . ( tmc publishing , chorleywood , uk , 2002 ) in house resources : adam mangino , eli fleishauer urltoken name
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…such as young blueheads ( thalassoma bifasciatum ) and labroides species , act as cleaners for larger fishes . they pick off and eat the external parasites of groupers , eels , snappers , and other fishes that visit them periodically . this cleaning service is also performed by various other small fishes and by certain shrimps .
dog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies…
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figure 3 . the differentation of gonads and the changes the ovaries undertake into to become a tesis . all juveniles first develop a rudimentary female gonad that can differeniate into either primary testis or ovary . ( munday et al . , 2006 )
in addition to avt , serum 11 - ketotestostrone ( 11 - kt ) is involved with the transition from an ip female to a tp male . whereas avt is responsible for the behavioral aspect of the sex change , 11 - kt is responsible for the physical aspect . as the primary androgen in fish , increased 11 - kt , accompanied by a sharp drop of serum estradiol ( e2 ) , is the key component of the conversion of the ovary into a testis . additionally , increases in 11 - kt is correlated with the development of color change typical to that of the tp male
interestingly enough , neither the development nor the maintenance of male - typical behavior depends on the presence of gonads ( semsar and godwin , 2004 ) . in fact , ovariectomy does not prevent the development of male behavior in socially dominant females ( godwin et al . , 1996 ) . thus , increases of avt occur regardless of whether sex - changing females have gonads or not . this lends itself to the theory that male behavior assumption is purely dependent on attaining social dominance .
mechanism the physical characteristics and procedures in which a trait is able to express itself .
arginine vasotocin ( avt ) a hormone that is responsible for the expression of sociosexual behavior in vertebrates .
serum 11 - ketotestostrone ( 11 - kt ) and serum estradiol ( e2 ) types of steroid hormones .
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t . bifasciatum is a reef - dwelling fish found primarily throughout the caribbean and gulf of mexico . they are found as far north as the carolinas and as far south as brazil . they frequent shallow reef areas , mangroves , and sea grass beds . they may occur in schools , especially when feeding . juveniles are known to recede into sea anemones for protection from predation , but they must avoid the stinging tentacles and ingestion by the anemone ( bester ) .
t . bifasciatum is a brightly colored fish with multiple possible color variations depending on stage of development . the juvenile phase is generally an overall yellow coloration , while the initial phase ( ip ) is characterized by a “dusky blue color with irregular white stripes” ( beletsky , 2010 ) . variations include dark spots or stripes and may depend on location . the most notable color phase is that of the supermale , or terminal phase ( tp ) male . these individuals have a bright blue head adjacent to a dark bar , white bar , another dark bar , and a blue - green or yellow - green body ( bester ) . fins may have dark bars or spots as well .
reproduction normally occurs toward the middle of the day when the ip fishes form large groups and release gametes into the water . the supermales form harems of courted females and reproduce with each female separately .
a study conducted by koulish and kramer explored the effect of human chorionic gonadotrophin ( hcg ) on protogynous fish . in 1 - 6 weeks , after treatment with hcg , 80 % of the fish displayed signs of sex reversal ( compared to 11 % control ) ( koulish ) .
beletsky , l . ( 2010 ) . belize and northern guatemala . northampton : interlink books .
computer generated map for thalassoma bifasciatum ( un - reviewed ) . www . aquamaps . org , version of aug . 2010 . web . accessed 29 may . 2012 .
it occurs from the central coast of new south wales south to tasmania and west to eastern south australia .
the map below shows the australian distribution of the species based on public sightings and specimens in australian museums . click on the map for detailed information . source : atlas of living australia .
the species occurs on rocky reefs . juveniles are found in shallow weed habitats in bays and estuaries . adults are usually seen on deeper rocky reefs to depths of about 40 m but have been trawled from water down to 160 m .
edgar , g . j . 1997 . australian marine life : the plants and animals of temperate waters . reed books . pp . 544 .
gomon , m . f . & b . c . russell in gomon , m . f . , glover , c . j . m . & r . h . kuiter ( eds ) . 1994 . the fishes of australia ' s south coast . state print , adelaide . pp . 992 .
hutchins , b . & r . swainston . 1986 . sea fishes of southern australia . complete field guide for anglers and divers . swainston publishing . pp . 180 .
kuiter , r . h . 1996 . guide to sea fishes of australia . new holland . pp . 433 .
kuiter , r . h . 2000 . coastal fishes of south - eastern australia . gary allen . pp . 437 .
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greek , thalassa = the sea + greek , soma = body ; the colour of the sea ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 0 - 40 m ( ref . 9710 ) , usually 3 - 30 m ( ref . 27115 ) . tropical ; 23°c - 26°c ( ref . 27115 ) ; 33°n - 8°n , 98°w - 59°w
western atlantic : bermuda , florida ( usa ) , southeastern gulf of mexico and throughout the caribbean sea to northern south america .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 25 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 26340 ) ; max . reported age : 3 years ( ref . 3420 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 12 - 13 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 10 - 11 . body elongate ; 3 primary color phases , the smallest with a black mid - lateral stripe which continues as pale red blotches on head ; back above stripe yellow on reef fish and whitish on fish from inshore non - reef areas , and body below white . the largest phase , has a bright blue head and a green body with two broad vertical black bars anteriorly which are separated by a light blue interspace ; this phase is always male . the small yellow phase with the black stripe may be either male or female ( ref . 13442 ) .
inhabits reef areas , inshore bays and seagrass beds . feeds mainly on zooplankton and small benthic animals , but may also feed on ectoparasites of other fishes ( ref . 9626 ) . spawn at midday throughout the year ( ref . 26938 ) . a protogynous hermaphrodite ( ref . 55367 ) . generally of no interest to fisheries because of its small average size ( ref . 5217 ) .
a diandric species ( ref . 55367 ) . sex reversal is completed in more than 3 - 4 weeks ( ref . 34185 , 34257 ) . length at sex change = 8 . 3 cm tl , forms leks during breeding ( ref . 55367 ) .
robins , c . r . and g . c . ray , 1986 . a field guide to atlantic coast fishes of north america . houghton mifflin company , boston , u . s . a . 354 p . ( ref . 7251 )
) : 25 - 28 . 1 , mean 26 . 8 ( based on 222 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00912 ( 0 . 00524 - 0 . 01589 ) , b = 3 . 01 ( 2 . 86 - 3 . 16 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & genus - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 3 ±0 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : high , minimum population doubling time less than 15 months ( k = 0 . 7 ; tmax = 3 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : low vulnerability ( 20 of 100 ) .
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spawning season of wrasses takes place all year round in tropical waters or during the warm period of year in subtropical and temperate areas .
some wrasses are born as females , but they change sex and transform into males later in life . these individuals are scientifically known as protogynous hermaphrodites .
larvae are part of plankton during the first month of their life . after that period , they become large enough to join the community on the coral reefs .
“the problem with the lionfish is it’s like darwin’s nightmare , ” oliver steeds said , standing on the deck of the baseline explorer .
a late afternoon sun dwindled over the 146 - foot research vessel , as it sat anchored in st . george’s harbour on bermuda’s northeast corner . licks of ocean water dried off a gold - plated submersible parked next to steeds , the director of a deep ocean exploration project called the nekton mission , as he recounted the basics of the invasive species .
“lionfish are chowing their way through the food chain , because they don’t have any predators , ” steeds said .
the first lionfish sightings occurred off the florida coast in the mid - 1980s . lionfish hail from the indo - pacific , but due to their ruby stripes and daggerlike spines , they are a favorite among exotic pet owners . scientists now believe that it was u . s . owners dumping adult lionfish into public waters that allowed a local population to establish itself . ( in 1992 , hurricane andrew famously washed out a tank of six lionfish into biscayne bay , florida , which people often inaccurately cite as the start of the invasion . )
since then , lionfish have terrorized atlantic waters , their ferocious appetites upsetting the balance of reef ecosystems . such was the case near the bahamas between 2003 and 2009 , where lionfish overconsumed juvenile parrotfish and other young plant eaters . the result : algae bloomed with abandon , choking the reef ecosystems at a 150 - to 200 - foot depth . coral coverage shrank by as much as 88 percent in places ; sponge coverage by 96 percent .
map of the lionfish spread based on sightings from 1985 to 2015 . data by u . s . geological survey . image by adam sarraf
“in u . s . waters , we know the lionfish are consuming a number of economically important species too , like snapper , grouper and even spiny lobster , ” said ocean ecologist james morris of noaa’s national ocean service . what’s more , lionfish multiply swiftly . a single female spawns every two to three days and can lay 2 million eggs in a year .
two species of lionfish — pterois volitans and pterois miles — now threaten reef ecosystems across the western atlantic and the caribbean .
but a solution may be on the way , in the form of a robot .
in a way , the lionfish terminator — not the robot’s official name — is cousin to a vacuum cleaner .
the idea surfaced in the fall of 2015 , when colin angle , the ceo for irobot and the maker of the roomba robotic vacuum , paid a visit to friends on bermuda . during the visit , angle and his wife , biochemist erika ebbel joined a group of locals and sailed offshore for a dive . with them was chris flook , who had a long relationship with lionfish .
as a collector of marine specimens for the bermuda aquarium , museum and zoo , flook had been one of the first people to notice lionfish in bermudian waters in the early 2000s . for unknown reasons , sightings began to surge up and down the atlantic around the turn of the millennia .
“the first one i saw , i thought “oh , that’s pretty cool . lionfish aren’t supposed to be here , so maybe somebody’s released it , ” flook said . “then very quickly i started to notice over time , we were losing small fish from these areas . ”
lionfish began outcompeting bermudian predators , like groupers , for food . groupers feed in spurts , flook said . they eat and then chill out for a few days . by comparison , lionfish feed constantly , which flook and other experts blame on a hunting technique developed in their native range . in the indo - pacific , small species see the spiked barbs and know to retreat , so the lionfish must work hard for its meals . fish in the atlantic , however , are naive to the danger and don’t flee .
left : marine ecologist chris flook filets a lionfish . flook was one of the first to notice bermuda’s lionfish invasion in the early 2000s . right : alex chequer of the ocean support foundation holds up an adult lionfish prior to a research dissection . photo by megan crigger
flook did early experiments when he noticed the invaders , where he put lionfish and bermuda’s dominant reef predator in separate tanks . he then collected juvenile bream fish from an enclosed bay , which he suspected had never come in contact with a grouper or lionfish .
“ [ the bream ] did exactly what we thought . they would stay away from the grouper because they knew at some point that grouper was going to try to eat them , ” flook said . “in the lionfish tank , it was actually surprising how quickly the breams swam up to the lionfish to try and hide next to it . the lionfish ate every single one . ”
as the invasion grew , flook and a collection of local divers founded the bermuda lionfish task force , which holds daily dives and fishing tournaments to rid their waters of the invasive species .
on that fall day , while the group ate their catch on the boat , flook and the other bermudians recounted these stories of the lionfish , and angle had a thought .
“he envisioned building a robot to kill lionfish , ” recalled geoffrey gardner , a native bermudian , a friend of angle’s and fellow mit alumnus . “and that was the beginning of rise . ”
after the trip concluded , the angles laid the foundation for robots in service of the environment ( rise ) .
the independent , nonprofit company has recruited a league of engineers and scientists — all volunteers — to establish a skynet for lionfish . gardner , for instance , is coordinating the robot testing . meanwhile , ed williams , an rov ( remotely operated underwater vehicle ) designer at robo nautica in california , is pitching in weekends to engineer prototypes .
john rizzi , a retired entrepreneur and navy veteran , was appointed as the group’s executive director . “in order to attack the problem of lionfish in the western atlantic , you need maybe thousands of machines , ” rizzi said . “to do that , you have to be able to build them reliably , inexpensively . ”
two rov designs are leading the way . one model carries a spear gun , matching how human divers typically harvest lionfish . the second model will electrocute the lionfish by using a robot arm equipped with two metal electrodes .
“when the probes get to either side of the fish , you basically zap it , ” rizzi said . to start , each model will sport video cameras , so a pilot can guide the rovs from onshore or inside a boat . but the team’s long - term plan is autonomous underwater robots that hunt lionfish on their own .
rise’s other leading prototype would use a pressure - powered speargun to cull lionfish . spearing is considered a humane method for collecting lionfish . this model will begin field tests in september . photo by ed williams , robo nautica
one of the first steps in development , especially for the zapper model , is observing how lionfish might react to an approaching robot . but here’s one advantage for the rise team . due to their venomous barbs , lionfish have few predators . as a result , they don’t automatically flee when approached .
to keep other nearby fish from being zapped , rizzi and the other designers are relying on ocean chemistry . saltwater is highly conductive , so they expect it should act almost like a straight wire between the two electrode plates . the team is testing the shocking mechanism on lionfish in aquariums before rolling out the design into oceans . rise hopes these robots will appeal to fishermen , who are looking for ways to supply lionfish to restaurants — a growing sustainable market .


terthreutis duosticta is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .

it is found in taiwan .

the wingspan is about 17 mm .

the ground colour of the forewings is cream , the costal and terminal area tinged with ochreous brownish .

the strigulae are brownish .

the hindwings are brownish cream .

terthreutis duosticta

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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