marquesas swamphen ( porphyrio paepae ) is a presumably extinct species of swamphen from the marquesas islands hiva oa and tahuata .

it was originally described from 600-year-old subfossil remains from tahuata and hiva oa .

it may have survived to around 1900 ; in the lower right corner of paul gauguin 's 1902 painting le sorcier d'hiva oa ou le marquisien à la cape rouge there is a bird which resembles native descriptions of porphyrio paepae .

thor heyerdahl claimed to have seen a similar flightless bird on hiva oa in 1937 .

marquesas swamphen

with reverso you can find the english translation , definition or synonym for marquesas swamphen [ porphyrio paepae ] [ probably extinct ] and thousands of other words . you can complete the translation of marquesas swamphen [ porphyrio paepae ] [ probably extinct ] given by the english - german collins dictionary with other dictionaries such as : wikipedia , lexilogos , larousse dictionary , le robert , oxford , grévisse
paul gauguin ' s 1902 probable depiction of the marquesan swamphen ( porphyrio paepae ) being killed by a dog .
) , new ireland’s prehistoric landbird assemblage resembles those of holocene ( < 10 , 000 b . p . ) cultural sites as far away as the marquesas islands (
another undescribed rail , porphyrio new sp . , is known from 19 bones ( 14 skeletal elements ) . this huge flightless swamphen is much larger than the extinct porphyrio paepae of the marquesas ( 30 ) and taller but less stout than porphyrio mantelli of new zealand . porphyrio new sp . even exceeds in size the extinct porphyrio kukwiedei of new caledonia ( 25 ) .
porphyrio paepae was known from hiva oa and tahuata on the marquesas islands ( french polynesia ) . it may have survived as late as 1937 , but must have become extinct soon afterwards ( steadman 1988 , hume and walters 2012 ) .
an undescribed flightless rail ( gallirallus new sp . ) is well represented ( 15 bones from four sites ) . it probably was endemic to new ireland , where the widespread , volant , more gracile g . philippensis lives today . the undescribed rail is referred to as gallirallus rather than as other genera of rails in oceania , following characters in ref . 28 . a vast radiation of flightless species of gallirallus once occupied tropical pacific islands of the ryukyus , marianas , and bismarcks eastward at least to the marquesas . only seven species of estimated hundreds still survive [ on okinawa , guam ( captivity only ) , new britain ( generic status unconfirmed ) , new georgia group ( solomon islands ) , new caledonia , lord howe , and new zealand ; refs . 3 and 29 ] .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
porphyrio paepae ( del hoyo and collar 2014 ) was described by steadman ( 1988 ) from bones found at two archaeological sites .
justification : this newly - recognised gallinule may have survived until as late as 1937 , but undoubtedly became extinct soon after . it likely disappeared as a result of over - hunting and predation by invasive rats and cats .
this species was a small gallinule which probably had reduced flying capabilities ( hume and walters 2012 ) .
little is known , but it was presumably driven to extinction by hunting pressure and predation by invasive species .
( amended version of 2016 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t62263064a119207668 .
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^ « [ … ] d’ hiva oa [ … ] » as such , is pronounced / diˈva oˈa / , while the polynesian h is always a / ɦ / : this shows gauguin had a very poor knowledge of the polynesian languages . he should have written de hiva oa . despite polynesian inscriptions , often approximative , gauguin seems to be inable to speak any polynesian languages , as it is said locally .
steadman , david w . ( 2006 ) . extinction and biogeography of tropical pacific birds . chicago : university of chicago press . pp . 101 , 105–6 , 127 , 243–4 , 312–5 , 523 . isbn 0 - 226 - 77142 - 3 .
— prehistoric birds are various taxa of birds that became extinct before recorded history , or more precisely , before they could be studied alive by bird scientists . they are known from subfossil remains and sometimes folk memory , as in the case of… …
— this page refers only to birds that have gone extinct since the year 1500 a . d . / c . e . and usually were subject to scientific study while alive . since 1500 , over 190 species of birds have become extinct , and this rate of extinction seems to be… …
— this is a list of the bird species recorded in french polynesia . the avifauna of french polynesia includes a total of 122 species , of which 27 are endemic , 14 have been introduced by humans , and 16 are rare or accidental . 27 species are globally… …
— this list of introduced bird species includes all the species of bird successfully or unsuccessfully introduced to an area other than their native range , or to an area they formerly inhabited . this practice has been harmful in many areas , … …
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won ' t ] randomly draw three blue balls in a row out of a box of mostly yellow balls .
won ' t ] pull three blue balls in a row at random out of a yellow box , but you could randomly sample just one blue ball .
nicht zufällig hintereinander 3 blaue bälle ziehen , aber sie könnten zufällig nur einen blauen ball herausziehen .
] better placed than the commission to explain their reasons for not ratifying the united nations international convention on the protection of the rights of all migrant workers and members of their families .
] besser als die kommission darlegen , weshalb sie das internationale un - übereinkommen zum schutz der rechte aller wanderarbeitnehmer und ihrer familienangehörigen noch nicht ratifiziert haben .
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this is the first comprehensive review of the hundreds of bird species and subspecies that have become extinct over the last 1 , 000 years of habitat degradation , over - hunting and rat introduction . covering both familiar icons of extinction as well as more obscure birds , some known from just one specimen or from traveller ' s tales , the book also looks at hundreds of species from the subfossil record - birds that disappeared without ever being recorded . julian hume and michael walters recreate these lost birds in stunning detail , bringing together an up to date review of the literature for every species . from great auks , carolina parakeets and dodos to the amazing yet completely vanished bird radiations of hawaii and new zealand , via rafts of extinctions in the pacific and elsewhere , this book is both a sumptuous reference and an amazing testament to humanity ' s impact on birds . a direct replacement for greenway ' s seminal 1958 title extinct and vanishing birds , this book will be the standard reference on the subject for generations to come .
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* florida museum of natural history , university of florida , p . o . box 117800 , gainesville , fl 32611 ; ‡ school of archaeology , university of sydney , sydney , new south wales 2006 , australia ; and § department of archaeology , la trobe university , bundoora , victoria 3083 , australia
† to whom reprint requests should be addressed . e - mail : ude . lfu . hnmlf @ namdaets .
at least 50 species of birds are represented in 241 bird bones from five late pleistocene and holocene archaeological sites on new ireland ( bismarck archipelago , papua new guinea ) . the bones include only two of seabirds and none of migrant shorebirds or introduced species . of the 50 species , at least 12 ( petrel , hawk , megapode , quail , four rails , cockatoo , two owls , and crow ) are not part of the current avifauna and have not been recorded previously from new ireland . larger samples of bones undoubtedly would indicate more extirpated species and refine the chronology of extinction . humans have lived on new ireland for ca . 35 , 000 years , whereas most of the identified bones are 15 , 000 to 6 , 000 years old . it is suspected that most or all of new ireland’s avian extinction was anthropogenic , but this suspicion remains undetermined . our data show that significant prehistoric losses of birds , which are well documented on pacific islands more remote than new ireland , occurred also on large , high , mostly forested islands close to new guinea .
oceanic islands are renowned as locations of extinction . remote islands in the tropical pacific , for example , have lost most of their endemic species of birds since humans arrived in the past several millennia ( 1 – 3 ) . these losses are documented by studying bones from prehistoric cultural and noncultural sites . by contrast , the large island of new guinea , standing at the western margin of oceania , has an avifauna that shows very little evidence of anthropogenic extinction ( 4 – 6 ) . here , we present evidence that major losses of birds occurred prehistorically on new ireland , a very large island close to new guinea , and with a modern avifauna that is rich relative to the avifaunas on remote pacific islands . this fact indicates that even large , mostly forested islands close to new guinea , and very likely even new guinea itself , have not been spared in the global extinction crisis that has followed the spread of humans around the world .
new ireland is the second largest island in papua new guinea’s bismarck archipelago . it lies north and east of new britain , which in turn lies just off new guinea’s huon peninsula ( fig .
this map of new ireland shows the location of the five archaeological sites discussed in this paper .
many aspects of avian biology in the bismarcks are understood poorly . for example , new subspecies continue to be described ( 12 , 13 ) , and little is known about avian community ecology ( e . g . , relative abundance , habitat preference , foraging ecology , and species associations ) . in this paper , we report how the avifauna of new ireland has changed in species composition since the first arrival of humans .
) belong to the papua new guinea national museum and art gallery ( port moresby , papua new guinea ) . we believe that most of the bird bones were accumulated by prehistoric peoples rather than non - human predators because of the clearly cultural context in which they were found and because the incidence of burning and breakage are typical of that in other cultural sites in oceania . identifications are based on comparisons ( by d . w . s . ) with modern skeletons from the florida museum of natural history , new york state museum ( albany , ny ) , the smithsonian institution ( washington , dc ) , and the university of washington’s burke museum ( seattle , wa ) . for some taxa in table
, identification was limited by a lack of modern skeletons of appropriate species—a large problem with birds throughout melanesia .
bal = balof 1 ( 17 bones ) + balof 2 ( 102 bones ) ; bua = buang marabak ; mbe = matenbek ; mkk = matenkupkum ; pan = panakiwuk . nisp = number of identified specimens . no species of accipiter are counted for in “total * † bones” or “percentage of * † bones . ”
‡ identification not precise enough to determine current status on new ireland ; assumed to be extant .
) are caves or rock shelters developed in reef limestone . our brief descriptions of the sites follow those given in refs .
panakiwuk is a rock shelter in a large eroded doline in northern new ireland , ≈150 m above sea level and ≈4 km from either coast . no gardens are maintained near this forested site today , and , given the rugged terrain , it is likely that no gardens were maintained there in the past . archaeological evidence suggests intermittent use of the shelter by humans moving between coasts and hunting in the forest . cultural deposits reach an average depth of 1 . 45 m in the major excavation ( 3 m 2 ) , and two other test pits ( 1 × 1 m ) bottomed out at 60–80 cm . panakiwuk was first occupied at 15 , 000–14 , 000 b . p . [ approximate age , based on calibrated radiocarbon ( 14 c ) dates reported in detail in refs . 14 – 23 ] , but occupation seems to have been sporadic . the major archaeological deposits date from 10 , 000 b . p . to 8 , 000 b . p . the site was abandoned for most of the holocene epoch , with minor reoccupation after 1 , 600 b . p .
balof 1 and 2 are shelters formed beneath the edges of a sinkhole some 2 . 7 km from the east coast . the deposits at balof 1 are ≈1 m deep and substantially reworked by oven pits dug in recent centuries . deposits at balof 2 are ≈2 m deep and relatively undisturbed , as corroborated by a sequence of
c dates . both sites are as old as 14 , 000 b . p . but were occupied only intermittently . large numbers of bones of the culturally important hornbill (
; confined to pleistocene levels ) suggest that activities at balof were aimed at particular resources . the differences in avifaunas between balof and other sites ( table
) also may relate to balof’s location at the edge of rugged limestone country that probably has been mostly forested throughout occupation of the site .
buang merabak is a limestone cave in central new ireland , ≈200 m from the east coast and perhaps 50 m above sea level . an excavation ( 1 × 1 m ) reached bedrock at a ≈1 . 6 - m depth . sparsely scattered holocene material seems to be disturbed , judging from the 14 c dates . the underlying pleistocene deposits are largely intact . although further excavation and dating are required , initial studies of the site indicate early , sparse occupation after 32 , 000 b . p . , periodic abandonments , and increased occupation in the terminal pleistocene epoch .
matenkupkum is a large limestone cave in southern new ireland , only ≈30 m inland and ≈15 m above sea level . although sea level would have been ≈120 m lower at the last glacial maximum ( 18 , 000 b . p . ) , the cave’s distance from the sea would not have been much greater because of very steep submarine contours along this coast . immediately behind matenkupkum are extensive grasslands , and further inland are limestone karst and volcanic mountains covered with rainforest . the grassland vegetation is probably a disclimax vegetation , as the soils here are well suited for tree crops and gardens , as well as rainforest . thus , when first occupied , matenkupkum may have been surrounded by rainforest . cultural deposits indicate intermittent occupation from 35 , 000 to 20 , 000 b . p . , when the site was abandoned until 16 , 000 b . p . the most intensive occupation was from 14 , 000 to 10 , 000 b . p .
matenbek is another large limestone cave in the same uplifted coral terrace as matenkupkum , and ≈70 m south of it . the original cave entrance has collapsed and may well overlie deeper and older deposits than those excavated , because the oldest levels in matenkupkum were at the entrance . the matenbek faunal sample came from two test pits ( 80 × 80 cm ) in an area that may have been 7–8 m in from the original drip line . there , 90 cm of archaeological deposits are sandwiched beneath 45 cm of in - washed soils and above 30 cm of sterile sands that cover the cave floor . the earlier of two phases of occupation at matenbek range from 20 , 000 to 18 , 000 b . p . , after which the site was abandoned and then reoccupied from 9 , 000 to 6 , 000 b . p . dates on the in - washed soils suggest that the entrance collapsed at 2 , 000 b . p .
at all five sites , the stone artifact assemblage consists mainly of simple unretouched flakes , which , on average , are much smaller at panakiwuk and balof than at matenkupkum and matenbek , where flaked river cobbles predominate . shell tools also occur throughout the sequence . obsidian imported from new britain first appears in the sites as early as 19 , 000 b . p . ( matenbek ) and as late as 7 , 000 b . p . ( balof 2 ) . pottery shards occur in small numbers only in the uppermost deposits ( < 3 , 000 b . p . ) .
although most sites had some noncultural deposits at their bases , these strata produced only bones of indigenous rodents . bones in the earliest human layers are mostly of indigenous rats , bats , reptiles , and occasionally birds . species of mammals brought to new ireland by humans appear at the sites only after 19 , 000 b . p . these are phalangers ( phalanger orientalis , spilocuscus maculatus ) , wallabies ( thylogale brunii ) , rats ( rattus praetor , rattus exulans ) , pigs ( sus scrofa ) , and dogs ( canis familiaris ) , of which only p . orientalis has been recorded from the pleistocene strata ( 17 , 24 ) . shell midden and fish bone occur throughout the sequence and in the three coastal sites as well .
represented by a coracoid and carpometacarpus , a petrel ( pterodroma sp . ) belongs to the subgenus pseudobulweria , consisting of two poorly known species ( pterodroma rostrata and pterodroma becki ) with very localized modern ranges in oceania . based on their relatively large size , the two bones from matenbek may represent the tahiti petrel ( p . rostrata ) , known today as a breeding species in east polynesia , with offshore records in the bismarcks .
pending availability of skeletons of more melanesian species of accipiter , all that can be concluded about accipiter sp . 2 ( ulna , carpometacarpus , tibiotarsus ) and accipiter sp . 3 ( coracoid , scapula , humerus , carpometacarpus ) is that at least one of these species , both of which are larger than a . novaehollandiae and too disparate in size to represent the same species , no longer occurs on new ireland . the only species of accipiter on new ireland today are the widespread a . novaehollandiae and the smaller accipiter brachyurus . a recent sight record suggests that the much larger accipiter meyerianus also may reside on new ireland ( b . m . beehler , personal communication ) .
megapodius new sp . ( scapula , tarsometatarsus ) is a very large species in the size range of megapodius molistructor of new caledonia and tonga ( 25 – 27 ) .
coturnix ypsilophorus ( coracoid , two humeri , ulna ) occurs on mainland new guinea but not in the bismarcks . much larger than c . chinensis , this quail prefers grasslands and thus may have never been abundant in new ireland .
two other rails , porzana tabuensis ( humerus , femur ) and porphyrio porphyrio ( tarsometatarsus ) , are extant and widespread in the papuan region but had not been recorded previously on new ireland . the fact that these rails have not been recorded on new ireland may be only a sampling artifact of modern surveys .
the two coracoids , scapula , femur , and tibiotarsus of cf . cacatua sp . from balof are much larger than in the parrots known on new ireland , the largest of which is eclectus roratus . these bones differ from those of e . roratus in many qualitative features . in size and proportion , they resemble the bones of several species of cacatua , of which the nearest population to new ireland is that of cacatua [ galerita ] ophthalmica on new britain ( 4 , 31 ) . much larger than the bones of cacatua ducorpsi of the solomon islands , the balof specimens probably represent an undescribed species or subspecies in the c . galerita species group , the description of which awaits the availability of more comparative skeletons .
no species of tyto have been recorded from new ireland , although five species of tyto are known from papua new guinea ( 4 , 6 ) . bones of the small tyto sp . 1 ( ulna , carpometacarpus , two tarsometatarsi ) are about the size of those in tyto alba ( new guinea and some offshore islands ) , tyto aurantia ( new britain ) , and tyto capensis ( local in new guinea and australia ) . the femur , two tibiotarsi , and six tarsometatarsi of tyto sp . 2 from balof and matenkupkum are much larger than those of t . alba , t . aurantia , and t . capensis . tyto sp . 2 would seem to be the size of tyto novaehollandiae ( specimens not available ) ; among congeners , t . novaehollandiae is exceeded in size perhaps by only tyto tenebricosa of new guinea , japen , and australia ( 32 ) . in papua new guinea today , t . novaehollandiae occurs only in lowland forests and savannas of the southern fly river region and on manus island . a large species of tyto also has been recorded from an archaeological site on mussau ( 33 ) . at one time , t . novaehollandiae may have inhabited much of the bismarck archipelago .
the humerus and tibiotarsus of corvus sp . are larger than in corvus orru , the only corvid on new ireland . specimens of corvus meeki ( bougainville , buka , shortlands ; see refs . 34 and 35 ) are not available . the new ireland bones also are larger than in corvus woodfordi ( solomon islands ) , corvus bennetti ( australia ) , corvus coronoides ( australia ) , and corvus macrorhynchos ( philippines ) . they may represent corvus tristis , confined today to mainland new guinea and nearby satellite islands , or a closely related form .
passeriformes sp . 3–6 represent four different sizes of songbirds that are smaller than mino and corvus but larger than , for example , nectarinia , dicaeum , and zosterops . these 21 bones probably represent more than four species .
) . of seven other families with ≥4 % of the total bird bones , only the megapodes , parrots , and passerines occur regularly and in good numbers in prehistoric sites north and east of the bismarcks .
prehistoric bone assemblages from remote oceania typically indicate the loss of 50–90 % of the species of native landbirds ( 1 – 3 ) . the lower proportion ( 24 % ) of extinct / extirpated species from new ireland may be related to the presence of indigenous rodents ( melomys rufescens and rattus mordax sanila ) . in remote oceania , birds evolved without native mammalian predators , leading to naïveté and vulnerability to predation when humans and associated nonnative mammals arrived ( 38 ) . evolving alongside native rodents exposed new ireland’s birds to potential predation from terrestrial animals in prehuman times . nevertheless , the arrival of humans to new ireland led to the prehistoric introduction of macropods , pigs , dogs , two species of cuscuses , and two more species of rats ( 17 ) , any of which could have had a negative impact on birds .
deposits dated to the pleistocene epoch ( > 10 , 000 b . p . ) account for 56 % of the bird bones from new ireland . unlike sites in remote oceania with continuous and rich deposition of bird bones (
) , the new ireland record is too spotty to determine precisely when various species were lost . only 2 % of the bird bones identified from the five sites are more than 15 , 000 years old ( table
) , at which time humans already had occupied new ireland for 20 , 000 years . which species may have been lost during those first 20 millennia remain unknown .
) . among the three sites with > 50 bird bones , panakiwuk has the fewest bones of extinct species , but these date primarily to 10 , 000–8 , 000 b . p . , suggesting that much extinction already had taken place by that time . for the two flightless rails (
new sp . ) , 32 of 34 bones are from pleistocene strata , suggesting that the two isolated bones may be out of context . however , three other extinct / extirpated species have records at ≤6 , 000 b . p . ( table
) , suggesting that climate and vegetation changes during the pleistocene / holocene transition were not important factors in their extinction . on the other hand , if lapita peoples in remote oceania are any indication , late holocene horticulturalists may have been just as destructive to bird life as the late pleistocene hunter / gatherers .
the bird bone samples are too small to estimate new ireland’s species richness at any one time with much certainty . we have made the very conservative assumption that all taxa marked with a double dagger (
represent extant , resident species on new ireland . if this assumption holds true , then bones of 38 of new ireland’s 106 current resident species of landbirds were recovered from the archaeological sites , as well as the bones of 12 species no longer occurring on the island . an archaeological record fully representative of new ireland’s late pleistocene / early holocene landbirds probably would include at least 30 species that no longer live on the island . thus , in the absence of human impact , the landbirds of new ireland probably would number about 140 species today . a similar number probably existed there in the late pleistocene .
we believe that few if any of new ireland’s current landbirds colonized the island within the past several millennia . according to equilibrium theory , the avifauna of new ireland should have undergone postglacial “relaxation” ( 41 , 42 ) . because most of the extinct / extirpated taxa belong to families known to be especially vulnerable to human activities , we favor human impact over relaxation as the primary cause of faunal depletion on new ireland .
humans colonized the bismarck archipelago and solomon islands by 35 , 000–30 , 000 years ago ( 43 – 45 ) . thus , unlike in remote oceania , where human arrival in the late holocene was clearly devastating to indigenous birds ( 3 ) , the lapita peoples who moved across the bismarcks and solomons about 3 , 500 years ago found a flora and fauna that already had withstood tens of millennia of human activity ( 33 , 46 ) . to provide perspective on how the rich avifaunas of this region have changed over the long course of human occupation , more islands in the bismarcks and solomons should be surveyed for bone deposits of prehistoric birds . the limited evidence from new ireland hints that even new guinea , occupied by humans at least as long as island melanesia ( 47 ) and prized since its “discovery” by europeans for being so wild and forested , has suffered as yet undetected losses of birds since the arrival of humans .
we thank g . petri and m . i . williams for their help with the manuscript preparation and b . m . beehler , j . m . diamond , h . b . freifeld , p . v . kirch , a . w . kratter , and m . spriggs for helpful comments . field research was sponsored by australian research council grants to j . p . w . ( balof ) and to c . gosden and j . a . ( matenbek ) . panakiwuk , matenkupkum , and buang merabak were excavated as part of the lapita homeland project , with major funding from national geographic society grant 3000 - 84 and from the research school of pacific studies , australian national university . d . w . s . ’s laboratory research was funded by national science foundation grants bsr - 8607535 and ear - 9714819 and university of florida division of sponsored research grant rda 1 - 23 95 - 96 ) .
white j p , flannery t f , o’brien r , hancock r v , pavlish l .
kirch p v , steadman d w , butler v l , hather j , weisler m i .
frith h j , calaby j h , editors . carberra , australia : aust . acad . sci . ; 1976 . pp . 616–628 .


the porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) is a rare species of stingray in the family dasyatidae .

this bottom-dweller is found throughout the tropical indo-pacific , as well as off west africa .

it favors sand , coral rubble , and seagrass habitats in inshore waters to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) .

a large and heavy-bodied species reaching 1.2 – 1.5 m ( 3.9 – 4.9 ft ) in width , the porcupine ray has a nearly circular , plain-colored pectoral fin disc and a thin tail without any fin folds .

uniquely within its family , it lacks a venomous stinging spine .

however , an adult ray can still defend itself ably with the many large , sharp thorns found over its disc and tail .

the diet of the porcupine ray consists mainly of benthic invertebrates and bony fishes , which it digs up from the sea floor .

it is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother .

the porcupine ray has long been valued for its rough and durable skin , which was made into a shagreen leather once used for various utilitarian and ornamental purposes , such as to cover sword hilts and shields .

it is caught incidentally by coastal fisheries .

because it must be handled carefully due to its thorns , its commercial significance is limited .

unregulated fishing has led to this species declining in many parts of its range , and thus has been listed as vulnerable by the international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) .

porcupine ray

it has also been called the roughskin stingaree , rough - skinned ray , solander’s ray and thorny ray .
porcupine ray reaches a maximum length of 4 . 8 feet ( 147 cm ) .
the strange - looking porcupine ray is covered with plate - like tenticles and sharp thorns .
examines wnt3a - porcupine interactions and the importance of fdh - related and other mutations on porcupine activity .
rare porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) in marsa alam , egypt . shot on lumix tz10 while snorkelling .
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a porcupine ray , urogymnus asperrimus , in the seychelles . source : olivier cochard - labbé / wikimedia commons . license : cc by attribution - sharealike
porcupine ray populations are declining today , and the species is considered vulnerable to extinction . porcupine rays are not targeted by commercial fisheries , but they are often caught accidently by vessels in nearshore waters . fewer porcupine rays are caught today as bycatch compared to years past , and researchers believe this means the species has been overexploited in its range and there are fewer individuals . further , a porcupine ray’s preferred habitat is in populated coastal areas that are more susceptible to human activity .
determine whether porcupine rays exhibit consistent and predictable patterns when using specific habitats and locations .
a layer of sharp thorns on its back gives this ray a considerable edge over any predators looking for a bite . the spikes , which are a mixture of large , cone - shaped thorns and smaller , pointed scales known as denticles , are critical for the porcupine ray that lacks the venomous barb most stingray species use for warding off larger animals . the porcupine ray is a rarely seen and distinctive ray species that unfortunately faces many threats in its range .
data was obtained through pilot study on ' crowd sourcing ' where divers were asked through different source egg . dive magazine to report sightings of the porcupine ray .
assess how the porcupine ray’s habitat use and movement patterns affect the species’ exposure and sensitivity to impacts , and its potential to adapt to impacts through movement and dispersal .
researchers at the save our seas foundation dárros research centre have a pretty tough time trying to capture a porcupine ray for research purposes . porcupine rays are well camouflaged , as they are a similar colour as the sand - this makes spotting them from the surface a challenge .
rough skin of this ray has been used as leather by many different cultures .
although the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus is widespread in the indian ocean and indo - west pacific , it is rare and has declined in at least parts of its range . furthermore , very little is known about the species . by investigating the porcupine ray’s movement patterns and habitat dependencies , this project will contribute to better understanding the species’ vulnerability to habitat degradation and environmental change .
andrew wants to know more about the ‘spiky pancakes’ that are porcupine rays , but to do this , he needs to find them first . armed with underwater cameras , a kayak , and snorkelling and fishing gear he is on a mission to seek out the elusive porcupine ray in the great barrier reef .
reports a click - based technology to visualize palmitoylated forms of wnt proteins in cells , porcupine fatty acid substrate preference , incorporation of fatty acids of different chain lengths by wnts , and s - palmitoylation of human porcupine .
the porcupine ray inhabits coral reefs , preferring sandy , coral rubble and seagrass areas , and is often seen near caves and overhangs ; also near mangroves , in depths to at least 30 m .
the porcupine ray is aptly named for its prickly body that acts as armor against a litany of predators . stingray species are often vulnerable to the appetites of h ammerhead and bull sharks , killer whales and other carnivorous fish . though the porcupine ray has a signature whip - like tail similar to other stingrays , theirs does not hold venom for stunting predators . the porcupine ray ' s body is flattened into an oval - shaped disc with a rounded snout , and is usually shaded brown or grey above and white below . its black tail stands out against its light body , and appears darker towards the tip . the porcupine ray inhabits the indian ocean and the indo - west pacific , concentrating around east africa , the red sea and parts of australia where tropical , inshore waters give way to coral reefs and sandy seafloors .
established the first connection between mutations in porcupine and the x - linked dominant disorder focal dermal hypoplasia ( fdh ) .
information on the undulate ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
brisson ba , bersenas a , etue sm . ultrasonographic diagnosis of septic arthritis secondary to porcupine quill migration in a dog .
provides proof of concept for pharmacological targeting of porcupine by using the small - molecule inhibitor c59 in mouse mammary xenograft models .
describes the identification of a small - molecule inhibitor of porcupine that shows efficacy and is well tolerated in rodent tumor models .
taken as incidental bycatch in trawl nets , tangle nets , and beach seines throughout its range . although occasionally taken in northern australian trawl fisheries , turtle exclusion devices on trawl nets appear to exclude the porcupine ray from capture .
information on the japanese electric ray is currently being written and researched and will appear here shortly . …
information on the caribbean electric ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
information on the golden cownose ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
information on the brazilian cownose ray is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
little is known about the life history of the porcupine ray . it forages on and around the sea - bed for bottom - dwelling crustaceans , polychaete worms and fish ( 2 ) ( 4 ) . prey is grasped in the ray’s downward - facing jaws , which bear rows of flattened teeth capable of crushing hard , outer shells ( 6 ) . like other stingrays , the porcupine ray probably retains its eggs internally during development , so that once the egg hatch , the female gives birth to a litter of live young ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .
the porcupine ray is found on or near the sea - bed in shallow inshore water , often in association with coral reefs . it commonly occurs over sand or coral rubble substrates , frequently in caves ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
as discussed in communication , several groups of ray - finned fishes have quite peculiar methods of capturing prey .
johnson md , magnusson kd , shmon cl , et al . porcupine quill injuries in dogs : a retrospective of 296 cases ( 1998–2002 )
© 2018 porcupine musings | a common sense libertarian ( voluntary polycentrist ) perspective on whatever topic i feel particularly compelled to debunk that day .
the porcupine ray has an oval - shaped disc that is covered with plate - like tenticles and sharp thorns . the tail lacks stinging spines and skin folds . the fish is brown to grey above and white below . the tail tip is dark .
the porcupine ray is a really interesting and unusual critter that gets its name from the sharp thorns covering its skin . these rays look something like spiky pancakes , which if you think about it makes a lot of sense . stingrays are really big , flat ‘meat…
information on the fake round ray ( urotrygon simulatrix ) is being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
the pmnhs is an informal society interested in marine natural history and recording , particularly in the north east atlantic region and the mediterranean sea . the name “porcupine” is taken from the naval survey vessel hms porcupine which was engaged on scientific expeditions in the north east atlantic and mediterranean in 1869 and 1870 .
information on the common shovelnose ray ( glaucostegus typus ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly . …
there are no known conservation measures in place for the porcupine ray ( 1 ) . individuals have , however , been recorded in the nature reserve of the glorieuses islands ( 8 ) , and given this species’ large range , it almost certainly occurs in other protected areas ( 9 ) .
a distinctive but uncommon stingray named for its protective covering of thorns and denticles . the porcupine ray has a thick oval - shaped body with a rounded snout and a long - whip - like tail . unlike other stingrays in the family dasyatidae , there is no venomous barb on the tail .
the flapper skate ( dipturus batis ) is the largest european ray . the undersurface is dark grey with black spots or stripes and the…
ray - finned fishes exhibit quite a variety of mating systems . the four major types , along with a few examples , are :
is the most important means of communication and foraging for many ray - finned fishes . the eyes of fish are very similar to terrestrial
) , combined with pollution and habitat alteration have proven particularly disastrous for groups of endemic ray - finned fishes ( i . e .
the key objective of this research is to document the movement and habitat use patterns of the porcupine ray in coral reef environments and thus determine how the species’ behaviour and habitat use affect its vulnerability to habitat loss and environmental change , and identify potential management responses to reduce impacts and increase the species’ resilience .
very little is known about this mysterious ray , as just ten specimens have been identified and studied in museums . named for the pale margin…
the spotted eagle ray is very distinctive with a flattened body and triangular corners to the wing - like pectoral fins . the snout is rounded…
concepts and terminology , as well as numerous examples from a diverse range of ray - finned fish families . a section of particular interest is
ray - finned fishes inhabit a variety of extreme environments . these include high altitude lakes and streams , desert springs ( e . g .
theiss , s . m . , kyne , p . m . & chisholm , l . a . 2010 . distribution of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) in australian waters , with new records from queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum - nature 55 : 101 - 105 .
theiss , s . m . , kyne , p . m . and chisholm , l . a . 2010 . distribution of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) in australian waters , with new records from queensland . memoirs of the queensland museum - nature 55 : 101 - 105 .
the reproductive habits of porcupine rays have rarely been observed , but females most likely retain their eggs internally as most other stingrays do until the eggs are fully developed and then the female can give birth to a live litter . newborn porcupine rays lack the species’ characteristic sharp thorns , but are still equipped with countless denticles on the upper part of the body . porcupine rays forage for bottom - dwelling crustaceans , marine worms and fish that burrow into soft , sandy bottoms . sharp rows of teeth in the ray ' s downward - facing jaws are ideal for breaking the hard , outer shells of its prey . porcupine rays are benthic , which means they live near the sediment surface of the ocean . benthic rays tend to
ripple
their fins to move around above the seafloor , in contrast to pelagic rays that flap their pectoral fins .
ray - finned fishes are essential components of most ecosystems in which they occur . while many ray - finned fishes prey on each other , they can also have significant impacts on nearly all other animals in their habitats . zooplanktivorous fishes , for instance , select for specific types and sizes of
in many ways , the pygmy devilray resembles its larger and more iconic relative , the manta ray . large pectoral fins , fused to the sides of…
ray - finned fishes perceive the external environment in five major ways – vision , mechanoreception , chemoreception , electroreception and magnetic reception , and to humans several of these sensory systems are entirely alien . many types of perception are also used by ray - finned fishes to communicate with individuals of the same (
) , which make up nearly all existing ray - finned fishes , have repeated and extended early trends . many of the sections , such as physical description , reproduction , behavior and ecosystem roles merely scratch the surface , but there are numerous links to family - level ray - finned fish accounts . (
magee aa , ragle ca , howlett mr . use of tenoscopy for management of septic tenosynovitis caused by a penetrating porcupine quill in the synovial sheath surrounding the digital flexor tendons of a horse .
the porcupine ray is widely distributed throughout the indian ocean and the indo - west pacific , occurring from the coast of east africa and the red sea , east as far as marshall islands and fiji , and south as far as northern australia ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . it also occurs in tropical inshore waters of the east atlantic , around central west africa ( 4 ) .
the knifetooth sawfish is an unusual type of ray , with a shark - like body and a distinctive , elongated snout , or rostrum , known as a saw . in…
( wheeler , alwyne 1985 : viii ) . detecting sound in water can be difficult because waves pass through objects of similar density . therefore , ray - finned fishes have
mobulids ( family mobulidae ) , commonly referred to as devil rays , are cartilaginous fishes found circumglobally in tropical , subtropical , and warm temperate waters . these pelagic species exhibit low fecundity and slow maturation ; however , their life history remains poorly understood , yet these species are highly exploited worldwide . this family includes the genus manta and the genus mobula with 11 identified species . five of these species have been confirmed in the philippines , namely : the spine - tail devil ray ( mobula japanica ) , bent - fin devil ray ( mobula thurstoni ) , sickle - fin devil ray ( mobula tarapacana ) , the oceanic manta ray ( manta birostris ) and the reef manta ( manta alfredi ) . two other species the pygmy devilray ( mobula eregoodootenkee ) and the shortfin devil ray ( mobula kuhlii ) are thought to occur in philippine waters though these sightings have not yet been officially confirmed .
many ray - finned fishes exhibit migratory behavior ; daily migrations are usually related to feeding or predator avoidance while longer migrations are usually for reproduction purposes . some fishes stay within saltwater (
and siphonophores ( colonies of organisms , e . g . man - o - war ) , also regularly consume various ray - finned fish . there is even some unlikely predators like
freshwater groups , however , account for the vast majority of actual extinctions in ray - finned fishes . the most significant threats are to families with restricted distribution ( i . e .
, resulting in even more extinctions . the latter example illustrates the complexity of ecological interactions and the fact that ecological interactions are not confined to aquatic organisms . because ray - finned fishes are often important food source to terrestrial organisms ( see below ) , including humans ( see economic importance and conservation ) , changes in ray - finned fish communities can have significant ecological implications .
ray - finned fishes have significant aesthetic , cultural , scientific and transformative value to humans . to many native people , especially in the united states , fish are symbols of cultural tradition and the subject of works of art . snorkeling , scuba diving , and sport fishing are increasingly popular around the world and , of course , ray - finned fishes have significant scientific and educational value .
the porcupine ray is a distinctive and unusual stingray associated with coral reefs . it appears to play an important role in bioturbation and habitat formation in reef lagoons . it is widely distributed from the indian ocean to the indo - west pacific , but relatively rare and very little is known about its biology or ecology . a recent review of the species in australia located only 25 records in museums and scientific databases . the lack of information about the porcupine ray’s biology and ecology is a significant issue given its rarity and the serious threats it faces from habitat degradation and environmental change , especially considering both the documented and projected declines in coral reefs throughout its range . lack of information about the species’ habitat use and movement compromises scientific understanding of its exposure to risks , sensitivity to these risks and ability to adapt to impacts through compensatory behaviours , such as reaching and colonising alternative habitats and locations should coral reefs in one area become degraded . while the species is rare , its highly unusual appearance makes it easy to identify and contributes to its potential role as a charismatic coral reef species . capitalising on these traits , a pilot study was carried out in 2012 using citizen scientists to identify hot spots of porcupine ray distribution . this facilitated the identification of two potential study sites in the great barrier reef . this project will focus on one of these sites , one tree island in the southern great barrier reef .
porcupine’s annual conference and agm takes place over the weekend of saturday / sunday with a two - day conference of talks and posters at plymouth university , followed by a field meeting nearby at wembury on monday [ low tide 0 . 7m @ 12 : 30 ] .
the spiny butterfly ray is under great pressure from fishing in the canary islands , a paradise in the atlantic ocean . david will work with citizen scientists to expand our knowledge about the lives of these vulnerable rays .
, which have greater density than the rest of the fish , in the inner ear attached to sensory hair cells . since gas bubbles increase sensitivity to sound , many ray - finned fish ( e . g .
. while many ray - finned fishes migrate well outside their home range – in many cases hundreds of kilometers , against current and even up waterfalls – they have remarkable abilities to find their way back . for instance ,
another common characteristic of ray - finned fishes is aggressive behavior , which results from competition for valuable resources , such as feeding , refuge and mating territories , mates , eggs , and young . one form of aggressive behavior is
not surprisingly , the lifespan of ray - finned fishes varies widely . in general , smaller fish have shorter lives and vice versa . for instance , many smaller species live for only a year or less , such as north american
wnt proteins are critical regulators of signaling networks during embryonic development and in adult tissue homeostasis . the generation of active wnt proteins requires their regulated secretion into the extracellular space . once secreted , wnts signal through the cell surface via receptor binding on wnt - receiving cells , a mechanism that is prevalent in stem cell and cancer biology . important to both wnt secretion and receptor recognition is their post - translational fatty acylation . in this perspective , we highlight progress in elucidating the biochemistry of wnt fatty acylation and provide a molecular view on the enzymology of substrate recognition and catalysis , with a focus on the wnt o - acyltransferase porcupine . special emphasis is given to wnt fatty acid biosynthesis , wnt - porcupine interactions , clinical mutations of porcupine and emerging therapeutics for perturbing wnt fatty acylation in cancer . finally , we discuss models for the functional role of the unsaturated fatty acyl chain in mediating lipid - protein interactions and in wnt trafficking .
although very wide ranging , this ray appears to be uncommon compared to various species of dasyatid rays which are sympatric with it . occurrence appears to be patchy with localised hotspots ( chin 2014 ) . juveniles appear to be site - attached , and highly resident to small areas of shallow coastal mud and mangrove habitats ( cerutti - pereyra et al . 2014 ) . it has been recorded from coral reefs , sandy reef lagoons , beaches , mud flats and mangroves , at depths of ~ 1 m to at least 30 m ( o ' shea 2013 , cerutti - pereyra et al . 2014 , chin 2014 ) . there is virtually no information available on life history parameters for this species . age at maturity , longevity , average reproductive age , generation time and average annual fecundity are all unknown . attempts to collect size - at - age data from vertebral counts have proved difficult due to the fragile nature of vertebra ( o ' shea 2013 ) . the porcupine ray reaches a maximum size of at least 115 cm disc width ( dw ) with females mature by ~ 100 cm dw and males at ~ 90 cm dw ( last and stevens 2009 ) . using data from the brown stingray ( dasyatis lata ) , a related species of similar size from the pacific as a proxy , generation time for the porcupine ray is inferred to be 21 . 5 years .
despite its large range , the porcupine fish is not regularly recorded by fisheries surveys , and is therefore believed to have a relatively small population . the population data that is available for this species indicates that it has undergone a significant population decline in parts of the centre of its range ( 1 ) . the reason for this is unclear , as while the meat , skin and cartilage all have commercial value , the porcupine fish typically has little or no importance to fisheries . it is , however , often caught as bycatch in trawls and beach seines , which may be having a detrimental effect on its population . ( 2 ) ( 4 ) .
a 17 - month - old holstein heifer was presented for persistent enlargement above the right hind fetlock of 1 - month’s duration . diffuse plantar soft tissue swelling was present on the radiographs and ultrasonography revealed the presence of multiple porcupine quill extremities embedded in the subcutaneous tissue within the flexor tendon sheath wall . surgical removal was performed .
porcupine representations of the different eigenvectors derived from the md simulations demonstrated less evidence of long range concerted motions . moreover , porcupine analysis of intermediate subtrajectories ( 3 - 15 ns , 6 - 15 ns , 9 - 15 ns , 3 - 12 ns ) showed little mutual similarity . taken together , these results suggest that the modes of motion generated by analysis of concoord ensembles might emerge on a time scale that is longer than that of our simulation . interestingly , however , in an analysis of the full 15 - ns trajectory of au , a motion resembling eigenvector 1 of the concoord ensemble appeared as eigenvector 3 ( fig . 2 c ) .
. in this situation , smaller males attempt to ' sneak ' fertilize the eggs of females as peak spawning is occurring ; the smaller males release gametes simultaneously in the vicinity of the spawning pair . hermaphroditism in ray - finned fishes involves individuals containing ovarian and testicular tissue (
species , which grow primarily in the sea but return to aquatic areas before they , spreading nutrients from the ocean up and down rivers . during rainy periods in tropical watersheds , ray - finned fish forage in flooded areas , consuming seeds and dispersing them throughout the floodplain .
little is known about the population status , trends or structure of this species , although the porcupine ray is considered to be an uncommon species . globally , shark and ray landings have declined by at least 20 % since 2003 , but the indo - pacific is amongst the regions where this decline has been more severe ( dulvy et al . 2014 ) . catches of sharks and rays in southeast asia are very high but are declining and fishers are travelling much further from port in order to increase catches ( chen 1996 ) . net and trawl fisheries in indonesia ( especially the java sea ) and elsewhere are very extensive and as a result , many shark and ray species are highly exploited and stocks of most species have declined by at least an order of magnitude ( blaber et al . 2009 ) . batoids are heavily exploited ( white and dharmadi 2007 ) and datasets from as early as 1963–1972 show the considerable decline in batoids in the gulf of thailand ( pauly 1979 ) . trawl and gill net fisheries are also moving further afield . for example , in jakarta the gillnet fishery at muara baru travels to waters around kalimantan due to the decline in local populations ( w . t . white , unpubl . data ) . while species - specific data on long - term declines in elasmobranchs in the southeast asian region are lacking , declines of he porcupine ray in southeast asia and elsewhere in the indo - west pacific are inferred given the widespread historical and continuing declines of demersal fisheries in this region ( stobutzki et al . 2006 ) . furthermore , the extensive loss and degradation of habitats such as coastal mangroves are another key threat to coastal and inshore species ; southeast asia has seen an estimated 30 % reduction in mangrove area since 1980 ( fao 2007 , polidoro et al . 2010 ) .
) have modified gas bladders and swimbladders adjacent to the inner ear . most ray - finned fishes have keen hearing ability and sound production is common but not universal . in groups that do utilize sound for communication , the most common purpose is territorial defense ( e . g .
) . at this point , approximately 90 species of ray - finned fishes are known to be extinct or only survive in aquaria , 279 are critically endangered or endangered , and another 506 are listed as vulnerable or near threatened . families of particular concern ( in descending order ) are
one of our primary research sites has been the monitoring of a century - old ray fishery site in bohol , with the goal of understanding the reproductive biology of the devil rays to assess the sustainability of the fishery . our team has been working with the local fishing community since 2012 .
justification : the porcupine ray ( urogymnus asperrimus ) is a shallow water species occurring inshore to at least 30 m depth , often associated with sandy and coral reef habitats . this species is widespread in the indo - west pacific region where intensive and largely unmanaged net and trawl fisheries occur ( with the exception of australia ) . while life history data are not available , the life history of a related species , the brown stingray ( dasyatis lata ) , suggests that this species may have a long generation length ( 21 . 5 years ) . fishing pressure is heavy in its known , shallow - water habitat , and fisheries are likely to catch this species if present . many shark and ray fisheries and stocks in the region are known to be over - exploited , with catches declining . market surveys indicate that this species has decreased in abundance in parts of the centre of its range for which comparative data are available such as the gulf of thailand . it is also a commonly caught and heavily used species in indonesia which is a global centre for intense shark and ray fishing and over - exploitation . based on its shallow water habitat preferences , long estimated generation time , global declines in chondrichthyan landings of at least 20 % over the past 12 years , and the fact that the indo - west pacific region is a region with some of the most poorly managed and intensely fished waters , a population reduction of greater than 30 % over three generations is inferred for the porcupine ray , resulting in an assessment of vulnerable . in australia , the species is assessed as least concern as has no commercial value in australian waters and is seldom caught . while the species was occasionally captured in commercial trawl fisheries , the introduction of trawl exclusion devices has significantly decreased the bycatch of large batoids in australian trawl fisheries . marine protected areas at ningaloo reef and the great barrier reef are likely to provide effective protection for this species .
during courtship ray - finned fishes exhibit a wide range of complex behaviors , reflecting their evolutionary heritage and the particular environments they inhabit . for instance , pelagic spawners tend to have more elaborate courtship rituals than benthic spawners . some of the behaviors include sound production , nest building , rapid swimming patterns , the formation of large schools , and many others . in addition , ray - finned fishes frequently change color at specific points in their reproductive cycle , either intensifying or darkening depending on the species , release pheromones , or grow tubercles ( tiny bumps of keratin ) on the fins , head or body .
clearly ray - finned fishes display considerable complexity in their ability to perceive their environment and communicate with other individuals , yet until recently it was assumed that fish had negligible cognitive ability . current research , however , indicates that learning and memory are integral parts of fish development and rely on processes very similar to those of terrestrial
some species of stingrays have evolved the amazing ability to crush and consume hard - shelled marine critters like clams , scallops , oysters and snails . these durophagous ( meaning ‘hard - eating’ ) stingrays can be found in subtropical to temperate waters worldwide , and they include the cownose and eagle rays . unfortunately , because their diets occasionally include economically valuable shellfish , durophagous stingrays are often considered ‘pest’ species by fishermen . this has led to the development of uncontrolled kill tournaments for these rays and advertising campaigns to increase ray consumption ( such as , ‘save the bay , eat a ray’ ) despite these species having some of the lowest reproductive rates among marine fishes .
benthic ray - finned fishes also utilize numerous methods of camouflage ( for both hunting and predator avoidance ) . a common and elaborate method in tropical seas is mimicking the background of the habitat ( protective resemblance ) , which involves variable color patterns as well as peculiar growths of the skin that may resemble pieces of dead vegetation ,
in 2015 lamave started a collaborative project with the tubbataha reefs natural park to assess the abundance and diversity of rays within the park . using bruv systems and visual identification a number of different species have been reported in the park including : porcupine , marble , cowtail , whiptail , mobula and manta rays . recently we started a tagging project , using acoustic tags to determine the local movements of reef mantas around the atolls .
consume the scales of the dead fish as they sink . ray - finned fishes also have significant impacts on a variety of plant species . the trophic cascade example ( above ) illustrated an indirect connection between microscopic plants ( phytoplankton ) and fish , but fish also excrete soluble nutrients into the water , such as phosphorus . phosphorus is essential for phytoplankton growth , and fish secretions may provide significant amounts of nutrients in some lakes . a more direct connection is simply the consumption of numerous plant species ( see food habits ) . finally , fish may significantly alter the geological dynamics of their habitats . many ray - finned fish build nests or burrows ( e . g . several
ap— the x - ray structure determined for phosphorylated cdk2 , bound to cyclin a ( pdb accession id : 1jst ) was reduced to a single dimer with associated atp and water of crystallization , as for iu . in this case a metal ion , manganese , was already in place . for the simulation the manganese was replaced with a magnesium 2 + ion in the same location .
a 17 - month - old heifer was referred to the veterinary hospital for a persistent enlarged flexor tendon sheath on the right hind limb of 1 - month’s duration . the anamnesis revealed the heifer had been injured by porcupine quills in this area 1 mo ago . quills were removed by the owner several hours after the initial injury and penicillin procaine ( depocillin ; intervet canada , whitby , ontario ) , 20 000 iu / kg body weight ( bw ) , im was administered for 5 d .
dynamic modes— fig . 2 a shows , in porcupine representation , the most significant motion of the cdk2 - cyclin a complex predicted by concoord for the ap state : a twist about an axis that runs from the cdk2 to cyclin a , pivoting approximately about residue p155 . however this gross twisting motion of the cdk2 - cyclin a dimer masks a flexing motion of the cdk2 . we can isolate the dynamics of the cdk2 within the complex by considering only cdk2 atoms in the pca analysis of the dimer .
based on feeding habits , researchers broadly classify ray - finned fishes as herbivores , carnivores , omnivores , zooplanktivores and detrivores . there is considerable nuance within each of these categories because many fish are opportunistic feeders – they tend to consume whatever is around , especially when food is scarce . however , primary feeding habits are often associated with body form , mouth type and digestive apparatus , as well as teeth . for instance ,
the porcupine ray is a highly distinctive , but little known species , which is named for the unusual thorny projections that are found on the upperside of its body ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . this species has a thick , oval , disc - shaped body , a rounded snout and a long , whip - like tail , which does not possess the venomous barb that is characteristic of most members of the stingray family ( dasyatidae ) ( 2 ) . instead , this species is protected from predators by its armoured body , which is covered with a mixture of large , sharp , conical thorns and smaller , pointed projections known as “denticles” . the young lack the thorns , but bear numerous large , flat denticles on the upper surface of the body ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . the colouration of this species is brown to light grey above and white below , while the tail is blackish , becoming darker towards the tip ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
in this report we use a two letter code to identify a cdk2 - cyclin a structure in a given state of phosphorylation and activity as in table i . according to this nomenclature therefore , ap ( for active form , phosphorylated ) corresponds to the x - ray structure for thr 160 phosphorylated ( and therefore active ) cdk2 - cyclin a with the phosphate group intact . au ( for active structure , manually edited so as to be unphosphorylated ) is the same structure with the phosphate group removed in silico . likewise iu ( for inactive form , unphosphorylated ) corresponds to the x - ray structure for unphosphorylated ( and therefore inactive ) cdk2 - cyclin a with no addition of phosphate group , and ip ( for inactive structure , manually edited so as to be phosphorylated ) is the same structure with a phosphate group added in silico to thr 160 before simulation . the four starting configurations were prepared as follows .
for the peak at residue 11 , this is consistent with the proposed biological function of this loop : it opens and closes to allow entrance and exit of atp and adp respectively . the second loop at around residue 35 is often difficult to model in x - ray structures of both monomeric cdk2 and cdk2 in complex with cyclin a , and may play a role at the edge of the interface between the pstaire helix and the cdk - proximal domain of cyclin a .
differential roles for the cluster of arginines that bind phospho - thr 160 — as discussed above , examination of the x - ray structure of phosphorylated cdk2 shows that the negatively charged phosphate group on phospho - thr 160 is docked into a triad of positive arginines : arg 50 , arg 126 , and arg 150 . the natural interpretation is that there is a coulomb attraction between these entities , which anchors the phospho - thr 160 in place and maintains the functional phosphorylated configuration .
the species is presumably largely taken as bycatch in unregulated fisheries in nearshore waters . it has been recorded as a high value catch in indonesian net fisheries ( white et al . 2006 ) . it appears to have disappeared or become extremely rare ( compared to certain other batoids ) in the batoid catches landed in bangkok from the gulf of thailand in recent decades ( compagno and cook , unpubl . data ) . this suggests probable local over - exploitation here and possibly also in the bay of bengal . similar trends are likely to be occurring or will occur in other areas where batoids are taken in multi - species fisheries . certainly , demersal fishery resources in the gulf of thailand and southeast asia have been severely depleted from historical levels ( stobutzki et al . 2006 ) . human modification and degradation of the ray ' s habitat is also possibly occurring in some of the more highly populated and polluted coastal areas as a result of human influences . the loss of coastal habitats such as mangroves may be of particular concern for this species which is suspected to have highly localized habitat use ( a . chin , unpubl . data ) . this species was occasionally taken in northern australian trawl fisheries ( brewer et al . 2006 ) . however , the introduction of turtle exclusion devices appears to have successfully excluded this species from continuing capture in trawl nets ( brewer et al . 2006 ) . the porcupine ray is considered to be potentially one of the most vulnerable chondrichthyans to the impacts of climate change in northern australia ( chin et al . 2010 ) .
fishes are obviously of enormous economic import to humans . primarily , humans consume fish through fishing and aquaculture , and fish are an essential form of protein for millions of people around the world . the farmed salmon industry alone is valued at over 2 billion dollars a year , but unfortunately , aquaculture operations can have serious ecological consequences . similarly , ray - finned fishes are quite popular in the aquarium trade , and those with high cash value , such as many tropical fishes , are removed in highly damaging ( i . e . using poisons ) and exploitive ways ( see conservation and other comments ) . televised sport fishing events are also popular on rivers , lakes , coastal areas and reefs around the world . the fast - growing scuba industry relies heavily on thriving coral reefs with diverse and abundant communities of ray - finned fishes . finally , of less direct ( and severely underappreciated ) economic importance are the ecological roles that fishes fill , like controlling insect populations ( e . g . many still - water groups like
three specimens of the porcupine ray urogymnus asperrimus ( bloch & schneider , 1801 ) are reported from heron island on the great barrier reef , qld . these are the first records from the southern great barrier reef and represent the southernmost records for this species on the east coast of australia . an immature male with a disc width ( dw ) of 650 mm and two females measuring 620 mm dw and 545 mm dw were caught on the eastern side of the island using hand or seine nets . the two females were released alive after examination . some morphometric data from two of the individuals are provided . the distribution , biology and ecology of this species are poorly - known , with only five catalogued australian specimens held in australian museums . the majority of these are not whole specimens and are in poor condition . there is further scattered information from photographs and live sightings . all known australian records of u . asperrimus are summarised here . there are records of the species across tropical northern australia , from ningaloo reef , wa ( 22 [ degree ] 43 [ minute ] s ) to heron island , qld ( 23 [ degree ] 26 [ minute ] s ) .
the porcupine ray is a widely distributed but relatively uncommon species found in the indo - west pacific ; it is also possibly tropical west africa ( senegal , guinea , ivory coast ) and as an invasive in the eastern mediterranean ( via the suez canal ) ( last and stevens 2009 ) . localities include south africa , madagascar , kenya , seychelles , red sea ( koseir ) , saudi arabia , oman ( muscat ) , gulf of oman , arabian sea and persian gulf , pakistan , india ( bombay , madras , malpe , south canara on malabar coast ) , sri lanka , myanmar , malaysia ( malay peninsula , penang ) , singapore , taiwan , thailand , indonesia ( jakarta , java , kalimantan ) , possibly the philippines , viet nam ( cholon ) , australia ( queensland , western australia , northern territory ) , new guinea and melanesia ( fowler 1941 , herre 1953 , capape and desoutter 1990 , last and stevens 1994 , last and compagno 1999 , theiss et al . 2010 , ebert et al . 2013 ) . the species appears to have patchy localized distributions with local hotspots recorded at d ' arros island in the seychelles , and specific sites in ningaloo reef and the great barrier reef , australia ( theiss et al . 2010 , chin 2014 ) .
actinopterygians , or ‘ray - finned fishes , ’ are the largest and most successful group of fishes and make up half of all living vertebrates . while actinopterygians appeared in the fossil record during the devonian period , between 400 - 350 million years ago ( ma ) , it was not until the carboniferous period ( 360 ma ) that they had become dominant in freshwaters and started to invade the seas . at present , approximately 42 orders , 431 families , and nearly 24 , 000 species are recognized within this class but there are bound to be taxonomic revisions as research progresses .
key to interpreting these eigenvectors is a helpful visualization of them . we have based our visualizations on the porcupine plots of ( 30 ) . in that study , a stick was drawn for all residues corresponding to the movement implied for that residue for a given eigenvector . for example to visualize eigenvector 1 a stick is drawn for each residue starting from the cα and projecting in the direction of the component of the first eigenvector that corresponds to that residue . we have found that cones are easier for the eye to interpret than sticks and a script was written to allow the molecular graphics program vmd ( 32 ) to automatically plot these cones onto the protein , given the eigenvectors of the pca decomposition . 2 we have described elsewhere ( 29 ) a web - service 3 in which we have made these analyses and visualizations available to other researchers .
) . the key to electrical communication is not simply the ability to detect electrical fields , but to produce a mild electrical discharge and modify the amplitude , frequency , and pulse length of the signal . this makes electrical signals individually specific , in addition to being sex and species - specific . consequently , “electrical discharges can have all the functions that visual and auditory signals have in other fishes , including courtship , agonistic behavior and individual recognition” ( moyle and cech 2004 : 206 ) . finally , a few highly migratory ray - finned fishes can apparently detect earth - strength magnetic fields directly , in much the same way sensation occurs with the lateral line . while the specific mechanisms of
our results show that the charge on the phosphate accounts for much , but not all of the tendency of the phospho - thr 160 not to unfold from its active conformation . however , the full 2 - charge is not required for this effect over the timescales considered : little difference is observed in simulations where the phosphate is given a single negative charge . as expected , removal of the phosphate from a simulation of the phosphorylated x - ray structure leads to a significant loosening of the association between the arginine triad ( arg 50 , arg 126 , and arg 150 ) and thr 160 . indeed , in one simulation , a rapid partial unfolding of the t - loop was observed .
ray - finned fishes generally avoid predators in two ways , through behavioral adaptation and physical structures , such as spines , camouflage and scents . usually , several behavioral and structural tactics are integrated because it is advantageous for fishes to break the predation cycle ( 1 - 4 ) in as many places as possible , and the earlier the better . for instance , ( 1 ) the primary goal of most fish is to avoid detection , or avoid being exposed during certain times of the day . if detected , ( 2 ) a fish might try to hide very quickly , blend in with the surroundings , or school ; ( 3 ) if the fish is about to be attacked then it must try to deflect the attack , and if attack is unavoidable ( 4 ) the fish will try to avoid being handled and possibly escape . therefore , many fishes avoid even the chance of attack through particular cycles of activity , shading ( or lighting , see below ) and camouflage , mimicking , and warning coloration .
( including chemoreception , electroreception , magnetic reception and a “distance - touch” sensation – see communication ) , and some even produce their own light or electricity . in addition , color diversity in ray - finned fishes is “essentially unlimited , ranging from uniformly dark black or red in many deepsea forms , to silvery in pelagic and water - column fishes , to countershaded in nearshore fishes of most littoral [ near - shore ] communities , to the strikingly contrasted colors of tropical freshwater and marine fishes” ( helfman et al . 1997 : 367 ) . of course , extravagant coloration is not helpful for fish at risk of being eaten , yet bright coloration is environment - specific ( see helfman et al . 1997 : 367 ) and bright colors at one depth are cryptic at others due to light attenuation ( see communication ) . further , color change is common in brightly colored ( as well as many other ) fishes and occurs under a variety of circumstances . pigments are responsible for a many types of color change , but there are also
monomeric cdk2 has negligible activity because the residues that should form its catalytic and substrate - recognition sites are disordered ( 3 ) . full activation requires both binding by cyclin a or cyclin e and phosphorylation of residue thr 160 on a loop ( the “t - loop” ) by a cdk - activating kinase ( cak ) activity ( 4 – 6 ) . the structure of cyclin a ( 7 ) does not change significantly , but many of the cdk2 residues are realigned toward their active configuration ( 8 ) . in this state the cdk2 has 0 . 4 % of its full activity : 100 % activity is achieved when thr 160 is phosphorylated ( 9 ) . x - ray structural data shows that phosphorylated thr 160 turns in to contact three arginine residues ( arg 50 , arg 126 , arg 150 ) , twisting the t - loop and stabilizing the conformation of residues linked to the catalytic apparatus of the kinase ( 6 ) . fig . 1 shows the experimentally determined structures of phosphorylated and unphosphorylated cdk2 in complex with cyclin a , emphasizing the arginines and the phosphorylated threonine .
principal dynamic modes of the cdk2 - cyclin a dimer . a , porcupine plot of principal motion of the dimer calculated using concoord . the view is from cdk2 along the cdk2 - cyclin a axis . the motion is primarily an interdomain twist . b , same motion recast to show only motions internal to the cdk2 . the motion is seen to be a relative flexing of the n - and c - terminal domains causing the active site to open and close . c , similar motion is sometimes observed in a corresponding analysis of a subset of the trajectories generated by molecular dynamics , although in this case it appears as the 3rd ranked eigenvector . d , when an ensemble of structures taken from the pdb of cdk2 bound to a range of ligands is subjected to the same analysis the result obtained is similar to that of the concoord ensemble : the dominant mode is shown here . e , relative contributions of different modes ( eigenvectors ) to the overall motion is shown for the three analyses : concoord ( short dashed line ) , md ( long dashed line ) , and experimental ensemble ( solid line ) . the data are renormalized so that the eigenvalues for each set add up to unity . f , second most significant motion for cdk2 is a relative twist of the n - and c - terminal domains . this view is looking “down” from the n - terminal domain , and was generated from the concoord ensemble .