parvulastra vivipara , the tasmanian live-bearing seastar , is a tiny , uniformly orange-yellow seastar , up to 15 mm across .

the species usually has five short arms and is a rounded , pentagon shape .

morphological variation is common and three , four or six arms are occasionally present .

it is endemic to coastal waters in southeast tasmania .

parvulastra vivipara

parvulastra vivipara ( tasmanian live - bearing seastar ) : species management profile for tasmania ' s threatened species link ( threatened species section ( tss ) , 2014wb ) [ state action plan ] .
citation : department of the environment ( 2018 ) . parvulastra vivipara in species profile and threats database , department of the environment , canberra . available from : urltoken . accessed tue , 10 jul 2018 06 : 36 : 25 + 1000 .
patiriella vivipara . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :
this tiny seastar , called patiriella vivipara is listed as endangered under the threatened species protection act 1995 .
scientific name : patiriella vivipara common name : tasmanian live - bearing seastar other names : live - bearing seastar , cushion star the species is conventionally accepted ( dartnall 1969 ) .
prestedge , g . k . ( 2001b ) . salinity tolerance of patiriella vivipara , a seastar endemic to southeast tasmania . the tasmanian naturalist . 123 : 36 - 46 .
byrne , m . ( 1996 ) . viviparity and intragonadal cannibalism in the diminutive asterinid sea stars patiriella vivipara and p . parvivipara . marine biology . 125 ( 3 ) : 551 - 567 .
prestedge , g . k . ( 1999a ) . will the introduced european green crab impact upon patiriella vivipara , the rare endemic seastar ? . the tasmanian naturalist . 121 : 26 - 28 .
prestedge , g . k . ( 1999b ) . will the introduced northern pacific seastar impact upon patiriella vivipara , the rare endemic seastar ? . the tasmanian naturalist . 121 : 29 - 32 .
prestedge , g . k . ( 2001a ) . updated information and previously unpublished observations on patiriella vivipara , a seastar endemic to southeast tasmania . the tasmanian naturalist . 123 : 24 - 35 .
threatened species survey of patiriella vivipara and gazameda gunnii in southport lagoon for the southport lagoon conservation area , george iii monument historic site & ida bay state reserve management plan 2006 ( tas . dpiw 2006a ) .
rowland , m . ( 2001 ) . education and monitoring program for the endangered tasmanian seastar - patiriella vivipara : project report & action plan for the woodbridge environment group . woodbridge , tasmania : marine and coastal research tasmania .
prestedge , g . k . ( 1998 ) . the distribution and biology of patiriella vivipara ( echinodermata : asteroidea : asterinidae ) a seastar endemic to southeast tasmania . records of the australian museum . 50 : 161 - 170 .
byrne , m . & a . cerra ( 1996 ) . evolution of intragonadal development in the diminutive asterinid sea stars patiriella vivipara and p . parvivipara with an overview of development in the asterinidae . biological bulletin . 191 : 17 - 26 .
threatened species scientific committee ( tssc ) ( 2009av ) . commonwealth listing advice on patiriella vivipara . department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 30 - jun - 2009 .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009k ) . approved conservation advice for patiriella vivipara ( tasmanian live - bearing seastar ) . canberra : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 30 - jun - 2009 .
( of patiriella vivipara dartnall , 1969 ) dartnall , a . j . ( 1969 ) . a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea , asterinidae ) from tasmania . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales . 93 ( 3 ) : 294 - 296 , 1 plate . page ( s ) : 294 [ details ]
tasmania department of primary industries & water ( tas . dpiw ) ( 2006a ) . threatened species survey of patiriella vivipara and gazameda gunnii in southport lagoon for the southport lagoon conservation area , george iii monument historic site & ida bay state reserve management plan 2006 . hobart , tasmania : marine environment section , marine farming branch ( tas . dpiw ) .
it is a tiny orange - yellow seastar , with adults only reaching up to 13mm across . it is endemic to tasmania which means it is only found here . the name p . vivipara comes from the seastar ' s ability to produce live young instead of eggs . this is known as viviparity . the newborn seastar is a tiny replica of its parent . this is tasmania ' s only known endemic , vivaparous seastar so it is very special .
p . vivipara is threatened because it only occurs in a limited area . all the known populations occupy less than 3 hectares . they are restricted to rocky reefs in the tidal zone and seem to prefer living under rocks near the high tide mark . this puts them at great risk from changes to their habitat . for example , they are at risk from pollution such as eutrophication or sedimentation which are threats at pittwater . another threat to seastars is from collectors who collect specimens for aquariums . it is also thought that the introduced nz seastar p . regularis could be competing with it . this seastar came to australia in a batch of oysters earlier this century .
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for information to assist regulatory considerations , refer to policy statements and guidelines , the conservation advice , the listing advice and / or the recovery plan .
department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts ( 2009 ) .
. canberra : department of the environment , water , heritage and the arts . available from :
recovery plan not required , a recovery plan will have limited benefit for the species . the actions covered by the conservation advice are considered to be sufficient at this time ( 17 / 06 / 2009 ) .
guidelines for natural values surveys - estuarine and marine development proposals ( natural and cultural heritage division , 2015a ) [ management plan ] .
dartnall , a . j . 1969 . a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea : asterinidae ) from tasmania . proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales 93 ( 3 ) : 294 - 296 fig . 1 pl . 29 [ 294 , pl . 29 ( a - f ) ] .
the distribution shown is generalised from the departments species of national environmental significance dataset . this is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge . some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices . see map caveat for more information .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar is endemic to south - east tasmania . it is known from 13 isolated subpopulations within the south tasmanian natural resource management region ( tssc 2009av ) .
the extent of occurrence for the tasmanian live - bearing seastar has been estimated to be approximately 2600 km 2 , in the sheltered waters of south - east tasmania from d ' entrecasteaux channel to norfolk bay . however , much of the area is considered unsuitable for the species due to inappropriate substrate and depth of water ( deeper than 1 . 2 m ) ( m . wapstra 2007 , pers . comm . ) .
the area of occupancy is estimated to be 10002000 m 2 . this figure is based on relatively accurate estimates of the extent of most extant subpopulations totaling approximately 1024 m 2 . however , published accounts of the extent of the largest subpopulation ( pitt water ) , the most recently discovered subpopulation ( southport lagoon ) and historical accounts of subpopulations considered extinct , are not available . given the extent of all other subpopulations , it is highly unlikely that the inclusion of these subpopulations would result in more than a doubling of the estimated area of occupancy . this is due to the restriction of the species to specific substrates within the very narrow littoral zone ( m . wapstra 2007 , pers . comm . )
the species is known reliably from 13 locations ( prestedge 2001a ) , however , the subpopulations at two , or possibly three , of these locations are believed to be extinct ( prestedge 2001a ; rowland 2001 ) .
it is believed that the colony at woodbridge was introduced there in late 1995 . they originally came from pitt water and had been on display at the marine discovery centre at woodbridge . this colony was released from their small aquarium onto the shore at woodbridge , due to concerns for adequate care over the christmas period . this proved to be an unplanned , but successful relocation . no tasmanian live - bearing seastars had been recorded from this site prior to the relocation ( prestedge 2001a ) .
the species ' distribution is severely fragmented as all known subpopulations are small and isolated . the sites are separated by distances that exceed the presumed dispersal capacity of the species ( prestedge 2001a ) .
in dartnall ' s ( 1969 ) original survey , the species was recorded from three localities ( pitt water , roches beach and eaglehawk neck ) .
hoggins ( 1976 cited in rowland 2001 ) estimated the size of subpopulations at midway point , tinderbox and eaglehawk neck .
prestedge ( 1998 ) also monitored subpopulations of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar on the shore at pitt water between 1976 and 1982 , and eaglehawk neck , roches beach and fortescue bay in february 1998 .
during the 1990s additional new colonies were recorded mainly as a result of unsystematic private surveys ( prestedge 2001a ) .
rowland ( 2001 ) undertook an assessment of the abundance of tasmanian live - bearing seastars at a number of locations in south - east tasmania , excluding the pitt water subpopulations .
polanowski ( 2002 ) undertook surveys and population counts at several of the known sites , and located a new subpopulation at mays point , lauderdale .
in 2006 a survey of the species at southport lagoon ( for the purpose of developing a management plan for the area ) was conducted over five days from october to december . seven colonies , varying from a few individuals to several hundred seastars , were recorded ( tas . dpiw ) 2006a ) .
the discovery of a subpopulation during the 2006 survey at southport lagoon ( tas . dpiw 2006a ) , extended the known distribution for the species , and is the most southerly record known . the results from this survey indicate that there may be other subpopulations of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar not yet discovered in similar habitat in the surrounding area , but these are unlikely to significantly extend the distribution of the species ( tas . dpiw 2006a ) .
the estimated population size ( excluding the pitt water subpopulation ) is approximately 27 000 individuals ( rowland 2001 ) . no comprehensive surveys have been undertaken to estimate the subpopulation size at pitt water . however , an approximate estimate of 326 000 tasmanian live - bearing seastars in the pitt water subpopulation , has been made on the basis of existing data and the total length of inhabited shoreline . this estimate is based on limited data , and more detailed surveys would be required to confirm its accuracy ( polanowski 2002 ) .
the species is known from 13 isolated subpopulations which vary in abundance from less than 20 to several thousands ( tas . pws 2003 ) . these are considered subpopulations due to the extent of their geographical separation and the limited dispersal potential of the species ( prestedge 1998 ) .
materia ( 1994 ) suggests that the oyster cove subpopulation became extinct because of eutrophication of their habitat due to surrounding aquaculture practices , however , there are indications that the species never existed there ( rowland 2001 ) .
1 . prestedge 1998 2 . prestedge 1998 ; rowland 2001 3 . polanowski 2002 ; prestedge 1998 ; rowland 2001 4 . polanowski 2002 5 . polanowski 2002 6 . rowland 2001 7 . prestedge 1998 ; rowland 2001 8 . prestedge 2001a 9 . polanowski 2002 ; prestedge 1998 , rowland 2001 10 . prestedge 2001a ; rowland 2001 11 . rowland 2001 12 . prestedge 2001a 13 . materia 1994 ; rowland 2001 14 . rowland 2001 15 . tas . dpiw 2006a
there is insufficient information available to determine if this species undergoes extreme natural fluctuations in population numbers . however , there has been an increase in the number of colonies and in population numbers since 1990 and the species is thought to experience a boom - bust cycle ( prestedge 2001a ) .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar is believed to live for 810 years ( prestedge 1998 ) .
none of these reserves are actively managed for the species , although the southport lagoon conservation area subpopulation is within an area covered by a management plan ( tas . dpiw 2006b ) that has made recommendations for the species , and the pitt water nature reserve subpopulation has been actively managed and monitored as part of the redevelopment of the sorell causeway ( aquenal 2001 ) .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar lives in rocky areas in the upper intertidal zone , usually under rocks or in crevices . they appear to have a water depth limit , being found from just below the high water mark to a depth of approximately 1 . 2 m at high water ( prestedge 2001a ) . the species prefers gently sloping , sheltered shores , characterised by rocks often no more than 2030 cm high . the species was originally believed to have a strong affinity with sandstone , however it has been found to inhabit a variety of substrates including dolerite , sedimentary rock , basalt , concrete and house bricks ( prestedge 2001a ) .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar does not overlap with any epbc act - listed threatened ecological communities ( tssc 2009au ) .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar feeds , unselectively , on the film of algae and microbes coating the surface of submerged rocks ( bryant & jackson 1999b ; polanowski 2002 ) . the tasmanian live - bearing seastar feeds at night and on dull , overcast days ( prestedge 1998 ) . it is an extra - oral ( outside of the mouth ) feeder and can evert ( push out ) its voluminous cardiac stomach to a diameter larger than that of its body . tasmanian live - bearing seastars often have their stomach fully everted and in contact with the substratum , indicating that digestion is likely to take place outside the body ( polanowski 2002 ) .
insufficient information is available to determine daily seasonal patterns of movement for this species . it is unknown whether the species has a home range or territory .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar is distinctive in the field due to its orange - yellow colour , making it easily detected even against a background of similar coloured substrate . it can be distinguished from similar species of patiriella spp . by its orange - yellow underside ( bryant & jackson 1999b ) .
the tasmanian live - bearing seastar can be surveyed at low tide , by walking the littoral zone and searching for the species by visual assessment of the substrate . lifting rocks by hand ( where possible ) to search for the species may also be undertaken ( prestedge 1998 ; tas . dpiw 2006a ) . surveying at night , or on overcast days , is recommended because the seastars are more visible as they emerge from hiding and move onto the top of rocks to feed ( polanowski 2002 ) .
minister ' s reasons for recovery plan decision a recovery plan is not considered to be necessary for this species as a recovery plan will have limited benefit for the species . the actions covered by the conservation advice are considered to be sufficient at this time .
in 2001 , part of the pitt water subpopulation of tasmanian live - bearing seastars came under threat from the necessary replacement of the bridge spanning the sorell causeway . the tasmanian department of infrastructure energy and resources undertook a relocation exercise during aprilmay 2001 . the tasmanian live - bearing seastars were removed from the causeway and placed at a number of relocation sites chosen during a relocation survey . a total of 21 368 seastars were relocated and a number of monitoring sites were established for future ongoing monitoring of seastar subpopulations ( aquenal 2001 ) .
ensure infrastructure or development activities in areas where the tasmanian live - bearing seastar occurs do not adversely impact on known subpopulations .
protect subpopulations of the listed species through the development of conservation agreements and / or convenants .
develop and implement a management plan for the control and eradication of the northern pacific seastar and new zealand seastar in the local region .
prestedge ( 1998 , 2001a ) published articles on a study into the biology and distribution of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar .
prestedge ( 1999a , 1999b ) published articles on two separate experiments investigating the impact of the european green crab ( carcinus maenas ) and the northern pacific seastar on the tasmanian live - bearing seastar .
prestedge ( 2001b ) published an article on the salinity tolerance of the species .
rowland ( 2001 ) undertook population surveys and produced an education and monitoring program for the species .
polanowski ( 2002 ) submitted an honours thesis on the feeding behaviour , distribution and population genetics of the tasmanian live - bearing seastar .
byrne and cerra ( 1996 ) conducted a study on the evolution and development of the species ( and one other closely related species ) .
aquenal ( 2001 ) . tasman highway sorell causeway bridge and approaches design and construction seastar relocation plan . report on relocation june 2001 . hobart , tasmania : department of infrastructure energy and resources .
bryant , s . & j . jackson ( 1999b ) . tasmania ' s threatened fauna handbook : what , where and how to protect tasmania ' s threatened animals . hobart , tasmania : threatened species unit , parks and wildlife service .
dartnall , a . j . ( 1969 ) . a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea : asterinidae ) from tasmania . in : proceedings of the linnaean society of nsw .
materia , c . j . ( 1994 ) . a study of native asteroids in south eastern tasmania . wildlife report 94 / 9 . hobart , tasmania : tasmania parks and wildlife service , and the tasmanian museum and art gallery .
polanowski , a . ( 2002 ) . the feeding behaviour , distribution and population genetics of the endangered seastar . hons . thesis .
tasmania department of primary industries & water ( tas . dpiw ) ( 2006b ) . southport lagoon conservation area , george iii monument historic site & ida bay state reserve management plan 2006 . hobart , tasmania : tasmania parks and wildlife service , department of primary industries and water . available from : urltoken .
tasmania parks and wildlife service ( tas . pws ) ( 2003 ) . seastars endemic to tasmania . threatened species fact sheet . hobart , tasmania : tasmania parks and wildlife service . available from : urltoken .
wapstra , m . ( 2007 ) . personal communications . hobart , tasmania : environmental consulting options tasmania .
commonwealth of australia ( 2009j ) . inclusion of species in the list of threatened species under section 178 of the environment protection and biodiversity conservation act 1999 ( 80 ) ( 17 / 06 / 2009 ) . f2009l02541 . canberra : federal register of legislative instruments . available from : urltoken . in effect under the epbc act from 30 - jun - 2009 .
anonymous ( 2009 ) . australian faunal directory . australian biological resources study . available from : urltoken .
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dartnall , a . j . 1969 ,
a viviparous species of patiriella ( asteroidea : asterinidae ) from tasmania
, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 93 , no . 3 , pp . 294 - 296 fig . 1 pl . 29
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 0ba1dcbb - 295a - 4ace - 9f97 - e5f483eec9e3
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 14881b18 - 098e - 43c4 - 8895 - 118476526e13
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 91092607 - 3f20 - 4e4a - be1b - 3fbbb90f4fa0
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c1ddef26 - 4a09 - 4c23 - b1d7 - 5459d754dcb1
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : ef8cbfc1 - 545b - 4e8c - 9845 - ec2938bc7960
urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 591036
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the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 2 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .
below is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .
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tasmania ' s first signal station has been restored more than 200 years since it began operation on mount nelson .
planned ecological burns in southwest national park will help regenerate important habitat areas for the critically endangered orange - bellied parrot .
p . vivapara was first described from the pittwater area by a . j . dartnall in 1968 . the seastar is only known to have been recorded in five locations in tasmania . these are : roches beach , lauderdale ; pittwater lagoon , midway point ; tesselated pavement , eaglehawk neck ; fortescue bay and powder jetty , howden . despite searching it has not been seen at howden since the development of an aquaculture farm and changes to the foreshore occurred .
research has been undertaken by christine rowland of marine and coastal research tasmania . a number of people have been researching the seastars abundance and current distribution as well as physico - chemical factors such as temperature , salinity and habitat type . this type of research is necessary so that suitable recovery plans can be developed and implemented to prevent this species from becoming endangered or extinct .
it is very important that local people are educated about marine species , especially about the importance of not collecting specimens . many of our invertebrates are becoming threatened through over collection , especially butterflies , coral and other marine life .
another seastar we may soon see included on tasmania ' s threatened species list is smilasterias tasmaniae . there are 3 dried specimens at the australian museum in sydney , believed to be all that remained of a species last seen in the 1960s . then in 1994 the species was ' rediscovered ' by c . rowland here in tasmania . she considers them likely to be listed as vulnerable .
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isurus hastalis or carcharodon hastalis , the broad-tooth white shark , is an extinct white shark that lived from the eocene epoch to the pleistocene epoch .

its teeth can reach lengths up to 3.5 in ( 7.5 cm ) and are found worldwide , especially in miocene and pliocene marine deposits .

it is believed to be an ancestor to the great white shark , a fact supported by the transitional species carcharodon hubbelli , and most likely would have been one of the top predators in its ecosystem ; preying upon small whales and other mammals .

a study by ehret et al. in 2012 has suggested that i. hastalis belongs to the genus carcharodon , rather than isurus .

fossil evidence suggests carcharodon is derived from carcharodon ( cosmopolitodus ) hastalis .

specimens from the piasco formation show an evolutionary mosaic of characters between c. hastalis and c. carcharias .

isurus hastalis

click the button below to add the shx037 - our largest ever 3 inch fossil isurus hastalis ( extinct white shark ) tooth to your wish list .
this giant and spectacular fossil tooth is of the extinct mako shark called isurus hastalis . this prehistoric shark is a member of the white shark family . teeth from isurus hastalis look remarkably similar to the modern great white shark less the serrations . little is known about this species and it is classified in the genus isurus ( mako ) due to its characteristic smooth edges . some consider this shark the
grandfather of the great white
.
shortfin mako sharks ( isurus oxyrinchus ) . credit : mark conlin , swfsc large pelagics program . [ public domain ]
tagged shortfin mako shark ( isurus oxyrinchus ) . credit : mark conlin , swfsc large pelagics program [ pubilc domain ] .
the white shark is a member of the family lamnidae , which includes three genera : carcharodon , isurus , and lamna . in oligocene deposits about 30 million years old , teeth have been found that are very similar to those of the white shark but lack the serrations that characterize the genus carcharodon . since the extant mako sharks of the genus isurus have teeth that are always smooth - edged , these fossils have traditionally been classified as isurus hastalis . miocene deposits , about 23 million years old , in italy have yielded very similar teeth , but with faint serrations near the tip of the blade . these teeth were classified as isurus escheri , and were regarded as ' proof ' that the modern saw - toothed great white evolved gradually from smooth - toothed mako sharks of the genus isurus .
there are two living species of mako sharks today . the shortfin mako ( isurus oxyrinchus ) and the less common longfin mako ( isurus paucus ) . both makos are very similar , but the long - fin mako has a slimmer body and larger fins .
but nature is often subtler than human ideas about how it ' works ' . paleoichthyologist henri cappetta , one of the most distinguished researchers on fossil sharks , noticed that fossil teeth of ' isurus ' hastalis are very similar to those of the modern white shark . in fact , cappetta has remarked that the two are so similar that fossil carcharodon carcharias teeth in which the serrations have been abraded away by geological activity are virtually impossible to differentiate from specimens of hastalis . in 1995 , paleoichthyologist mikael siverson began to question the assignment of hastalis to the genus isurus . based on striking similarities between the root shape and overall structure of the tooth blade , siverson now believes that hastalis and escheri are not makos at all , but direct ancestors of the modern white shark . siverson has therefore suggested that they should be re - assigned to the genus cosmopolitodus . this view has also been adopted by paleontologist david ward and seems to be gaining acceptance in at least some paleontological and fossil collecting circles .
isurus oxyrinchus teeth are very similar to the fossil i . desori teeth . many believe it should be assigned to the same species .
shortfin mako shark , isurus oxyrinchus , off catalina island , california , eastern pacific ocean . credit : jidanchaomian via cc by - sa 2 . 0 .
the assumption that saw - toothed carcharodon evolved from smooth - toothed isurus is based on the idea that the appearance of serrations coincides with the origin of the genus carcharodon . but it ' s relatively easy to serrate a tooth , as shown by many clearly separate shark lineages which have independently evolved serrated teeth . a newer interpretation of the lamnoid fossil record holds that the carcharodon lineage was originally smooth - toothed and is actually older than that of isurus . according to this scenario , the carcharodon lineage can be traced back to the smooth - toothed isurolamna inflata , which lived about 65 to 55 million years ago . i . inflata gave rise to macrorhizodus praecursor , which lived about 55 million years ago and had smooth edged but broader teeth than its ancestor . praecursor gave rise to cosmopolitodus hastalis , which lived about 35 million years ago and developed even braoder teeth . hastalis , in turn , gave rise to cosmopolitodus escheri , which lived about 25 to 20 million years ago and had weak serrations on its teeth . and finally , escheri gave rise to the modern white shark , carcharodon carcharias , which appeared some 11 million years ago and had the coarsely serrated teeth for which the genus is renowned today . therefore , carcharodon and isurus both descended from isurolamna inflata and many smooth - edged fossil teeth originally named isurus are in fact part of the carcharodon lineage .
isurus oxyrinchus , an extant mako shark is thought by some to be the same as i . desori , an extinct mako shark . therefore , i oxyrinchus may be synonymous with i desori . these teeth are also very similar to i . paucus , the other extant mako shark . it is currently being debated wether or not some isurus tooth forms are of i paucus . if i paucus is to be differentiated from i oxyrinchus in the fossil specimens , the differences are very slight , and will not be discussed here . i oxyrinchus upper teeth are have long , slender crowns . their roots are long in the anterior section of the mouth and become more squarish as the teeth transition to laterals . also the crowns of upper laterals tend to be broader than the upper anteriors . lower teeth also have long , slender crowns that have a lingual bend . the crowns however remain more peg - like as the teeth transition to laterals . below are two diagrams , one of an upper anterior tooth , and one of a lower anterior tooth .
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a new fossil discovery has helped quell 150 years of debate over the origin of great white sharks .
carcharodon hubbelli , which has been described by us scientists , shows intermediate features between the present - day predators and smaller , prehistoric mako sharks .
the find supports the theory that great white sharks did not evolve from huge megatooth sharks .
palaeontologists have previously disagreed over the ancestry of the modern white sharks , with some claiming that they are descended from the giant megatooth sharks , such as megalodon ( carcharocles megalodon ) .
when the early palaeontologists put together dentitions of megalodon and the other megatooth species , they used the modern white shark to put them together , so of course it ' s going to look like a white shark because that ' s what was used as a model ,
explained professor dana ehret of monmouth university in new jersey who lead the new research .
modern day white sharks show similarities in the structure of their teeth with the extinct megatooth sharks .
as they both sport serrations on the cutting edges , early scientists working on the animals used this as evidence for the sharks being closely related .
but we actually see the evolution of serrations occurring many times in different lineages of sharks and if you look at the shape and size of the serrations in the two groups you see that they are actually very different from each other ,
professor ehret told bbc news .
white sharks have very large , coarse serrations whereas megalodon had very fine serrations .
now , additional evidence from the newly described species shows both white shark - like teeth shape as well other features characteristic of broad - toothed mako sharks that feed on smaller fish rather than primarily seals and other large mammals .
it looks like a gradation or a transition from broad - toothed makos to the modern white shark . it ' s a transitional species , and you don ' t see that a whole lot in the fossil record ,
professor ehret said .
the mako - like characteristics of the new species , named carcharodon hubbelli in honour of gordon hubbell - the researcher who discovered it in the field - were only found due to the incredible preservation of the fossil .
the pisco formation is in south western peru , along the pacific ocean , a five mile drive from lima on the transcontinental highway .
a very low energy environment with high depositional rates led to a large number of spectacularly well preserved finds from the area .
these have included whale skeletons complete with preserved baleen and preserved feathers on giant penguin fossils .
the formation has also preserved a shallow marine environment and fossils such as specialised marine sloths that swam in the ocean to feed on sea grasses , and the giant sperm whale relative leviathan melvillei .
ehret and his colleagues were able to discover the original excavation site due to the site being protected by the high salt content of the sediment , preserving the hole .
a big issue in shark palaeontology is that we tend to only have isolated teeth , and even when you find associated teeth very , very rarely are they articulated in a life position ,
continued professor ehret .
the nice thing about this new species is that we have an articulated set of jaws which almost never happens and we could see that the third anterior tooth is curved out , just like in the tooth row of mako sharks today ,
he said .
david ward , an associate researcher at the natural history museum , london , who was not involved in the study told bbc news :
everyone working in the field will be absolutely delighted to see this relationship formalised .
the mosaic of both white shark - like and mako - like characters had been spotted by the researchers in an initial description of the fossil , but the age of the fossil meant their conclusion that the species was intermediate between a mako ancestor and modern white sharks wasn ' t fully accepted .
some folks said ' well , it makes a great story , but it ' s not old enough because by this time , the early pliocene , we see full blown white sharks in the ocean . '
this led ehret and his team to revisit the original site the fossil was taken from the pisco formation in peru to re - examine the geology of the area , guided by the original field notes of gordon hubbell .
there are only two species of mako shark today : the short - and long - finned mako sharks .
they are smaller than white sharks and eat primarily fish rather then mammals , whereas white sharks shift away from eating fish as they grow .
megalodon was the largest of the ' megatooth ' sharks reaching lengths of 15 - 20m .
a 2008 study found that its bite was one of the most formidable ever to have evolved .
shark teeth are usually found isolated because they are continually replaced in a conveyor - belt - like fashion .
gordon gave us two photographs from when he actually collected the specimen and then a hand drawn map with a little ' x ' on it . we tried to use the map and we didn ' t have much luck .
but using the two pictures of the excavation , my colleague tom devries was able to use the mountains in the background .
we literally walked through the desert holding the pictures up , trying to compare them . that ' s how we found the site .
not only did they find the site , but the team were able to discover the precise hole from which the fossil had been excavated in 1988 , before making a lucky escape from the desert .
we made it back to lima with about three hours to spare before an earthquake hit and shut down the transcontinental highway for two weeks . it was quite a trip .
by analysing the species of molluscs found fossilised at the site , the team found that the shark was actually two million years older than had been thought , making it roughly 6 . 5 million years old .
that two million year push - back is pretty significant because in the evolutionary history of white sharks , that puts the species in a more appropriate time category to be ancestral or . . . an intermediate form of white shark .
we ' ve bolstered the case that white sharks are just highly modified makos . . . it fits the story now ,
professor ehret told bbc news .
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full reference : l . agassiz . 1843 . recherches sur les poissons fossiles . tome iii ( livr . 15 - 16 ) . imprimérie de petitpierre , neuchatel 157 - 390
see also agassiz 1843 , applegate and espinosa - arrubarrena 1996 , clark 1895 , fowler 1911 , jordan 1925 , jordan and gilbert 1919 , leriche 1942 , marsili et al . 2007 , purdy et al . 2001 , vicens and rodríguez - perea 2003 and woodward 1889
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as in any intellectual pursuit , reconstruction of evolutionary pathways can be tainted by inherent biases of the researchers . one of the most revealing examples of this tendency is provided by the fossil white sharks , carcharodon carcharias and its relatives . widely perceived as the ne plus ultra of sharkdom , the modern great white has long been assumed to be the grandest , most polished revision of lamnoid evolution .
morphological studies of modern lamnids by systematist leonard j . v . compagno and others provide another source of evidence useful for tracing the group ' s evolutionary history . such studies not only support that
. intriguing new evidence from molecular genetics fully supports this evolutionary hypothesis . it is not yet clear from the fossil record which lamnoid was the common ancestor of
or a similar as - yet undiscovered species . other circles favor a species called
, known from fossil teeth dating from the late cretaceous to the mid - paleocene ( about 100 to 60 million years ago ) . the teeth of
( small secondary cusps on either side of the main blade ) . in addition to being a possible ancestor of the mighty great white ,
reefquest centre for shark research text and illustrations © r . aidan martin copyright | privacy
shortfin mako shark . photo by mark conlin , swfsc large pelagics program . public domain via wikimedia commons
makos are pelagic , they prefer the open ocean , and live in tropical and temperate waters worldwide . they are also very hydrodynamic , and are among the fastest fish . depending on the source , they can attain speeds anywhere from 20 mph to 30 mph . according to the fmnh , the average adult size is around 10 feet ( 3 . 2 m ) . because of their size and speed , makos are a popular sport fish .
these are sample early mako shark teeth - isurolamna inflata - from the paleocene aquia formation . the fossils and photos are used by permission of bill heim .
i would like to give special thanks to bill heim for clarifying some aspects of mako shark evolution and providing fossils for this article . reference : jurgen kriwet , heike mewis , and oliver hampe . ( 2015 ) a partial skeleton of a new lamniform mackerel shark from the miocene of europe . acta palaeontologica polonica 60 ( 4 ) , 2015 : 857 - 875 urltoken
great white shark : myth and reality is a great book about great white sharks . this 144 page book is geared for a general readers and students and is full of great pictures . the author is a professional photographer who has been researching great whites for over 20 years .
desert sharks desert sharks , by mark renz , takes you to the deserts of peru in search of prehistoric sharks . this book is full of stunning images and interviews from paleontogists . it traces the the evolution of the great white shark , which evolved around 4 - 5 million years ago in what is now the deserts of peru . this 193 page book also contains a ton of beautiful photographs , just look at the one on the cover !
skullduggery eyewitness shark casting kit this is a great educational and creative introduction into the world of sharks . kids create and paint casts of a great white , thresher , hammerhead shark , and the corresponding shark teeth . they learn basic shark information as well as differences between types of sharks !
this beauty ( a lower anterior ) is as big as my north carolina mako finds ! left is the lingual view , right is the profile view . it is 2
in size and comes from the calvert formation of maryland .
this is a 2
shortfin mako shark tooth found at the pcs mine in aurora . it ' s still in a little bit of matrix .
these are two other shortfin mako sharks tooth found at the pcs mine in aurora . the largest is 2
. they are from the pungo river formation .
your guide to t rex . - all the research on social behavior , diet , speed , strength , types of tyrannosaur , skin and feathers , and much more !
your guide to c . megalodon - all the research is here ! size , diet , evolution and excintion , and much more !
to ask questions about paleontology , fossil identification , image use , or anything else , email us . urltoken is very active on facebook , you can also message us there ! we don ' t buy or sell fossils , so please don ' t email us asking about the value of a fossil or fossil purchases .
massive maximum size tooth for this species . the rare equivalent of a 7 inch megalodon tooth .
and this one does not disappoint ! this beautiful specimen is the largest in memory that we have had for sale . it is an honest 3 inches in length on the diagonal , and has excellent preservation with a needle sharp tip , complete root and sharp cutting edges on both sides with no lower blade chips . the enamel has a beautiful chatoyant greenish blue luster and hue . it has naturally shiny and has not been coated , dipped or oiled as is often the case . even a 2 . 5 inch tooth is impressive but one that hits the three inch mark is like a 7 inch megalodon shark tooth ! even damaged ones are hard to come by but this one offers no apologies . it ' s simply a must - have specimen for the serious collector wanting the biggest teeth !
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shx056 - fine quality large 2 . 15 inch great white fossil shark carcharias tooth
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color with exceptional gloss . the root shows very nice detail . absolutely great preservation and condition - extra sharp edges and tip - very clean . the
narrow form
of the
color and excellent preservation . this color is rarely seen - adding to the value of these makos . f
a must have color for any serious mako tooth collection . teeth from my old inventory - very difficult to find these teeth !


coloconger canina is an eel in the family colocongridae ( worm eels/short-tail eels ) .

it was described by peter henry john castle and solomon n. raju in 1975 .

it is a marine , deep-water dwelling eel which is known from leptocephali collected from the indian ocean .

it is known to dwell at a minimum depth of 300 m.

coloconger canina

coloconger canina coloconger canina is found in the eastern indian ocean . source : fish base intended audience : general reading level : high school teacher section : no
the following term was not found in genome : coloconger canina [ orgn ] .
universal fish catalogue - coloconger saldanhai quéro 2001 archived 2013 - 12 - 15 at the wayback machine .
the colocongridae , the worm eels or short - tail eels are a family of eels , containing a single genus , coloconger .
( of ascomana canina castle & raju , 1975 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
indo - pacific short - tail conger - coloconger scholesi the indo - pacific short - tail conger has a lateral line that runs the lenght of its body . source : fishes of australia intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : no
greek , kolos = short , truncated + latin conger = conger ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; bathydemersal ; depth range 300 - ? m ( ref . 56787 ) . deep - water ; 7°n - 6°n , 92°e - 94°e ( ref . 46206 )
eastern indian ocean : known from the type locality , 6°38 ' n , 92°44 ' e ( leptocephali ) .
eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed . ) , 2003 . catalog of fishes . updated database version of march 2003 . catalog databases as made available to fishbase in march 2003 . ( ref . 46206 )
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5098 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 00093 ( 0 . 00036 - 0 . 00242 ) , b = 3 . 13 ( 2 . 91 - 3 . 35 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 8 ±0 . 6 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 43 of 100 ) .
the webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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the species in this family of eels are found in warm tropical waters of the atlantic , indian , and west pacific oceans . compared to most other species of eel , they have short , stubby bodies . they also have blunt snouts , they are bottom - dwellers and most are found at depths of around 1 , 000 - 2 , 900 feet .
status and range is taken from icun redlist . you can click on the iucn status icon to go to the iucn page about a species .
threatened in us endangered in us introduced status taken from us fish and wildlife . click on u . s . status icon to go to the u . s . fish and wildlife species profile .
is found in the eastern atlantic off the coast of africa from senegal to gulf of guinea .
the froghead eel is a deepwater eel found in the indian and western pacific oceans .
the indo - pacific short - tail conger is found in the indian and pacific oceans .
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distribution : atlantic , indian , and western pacific oceans . body stubby and snout blunt ( least elongate anguilliform ) ; lateral line complete , most pores in short tubes ; anus well behind midlength ; pectoral fin well developed ; vomerine teeth absent ; vertebrae 142 - 163 . suggested new common name for this family from ref . 58418 .
greek , kolos = tail + latin , conger = conger ( ref . 45335 ) .
the list below must not be used as an authority reference synonymy list like those found in scientific published revisions , which must be the source to be used and cited eventually when they exist .
rather , it reflects the current content of fishbase , and the progress with respect to synchronization with the catalog of fishes . however , we think it can be useful for users to assess the quality of information in fishbase , to start new work on the family , or to cross - check with other lists .
but we appreciate to be cited in publications when this list has been of any working value . in particular , for published scientific , we suggest then to cite it in the material and method section as a useful tool to conduct the research , but again , not as a taxonomic or nomenclatural authority reference .
unless it is explicitly precised , the list is not complete , please search all original names published for the family in the catalog of fishes ( genera , species ) , including those with uncertain or unknown status , that are not included in fishbase when they are not attached to a valid species .
this list uses some data from catalog of fishes ( not shown but used to sort names ) .
in the column coff , the digit indicates the status of synchronization with coff : 0 : not checked ; 1 : same status ; 2 : different status ; 3 : other combination ; 4 : synonym in coff ; 5 : species / subspecies issue ; 6 : synonym of another species in coff ; 7 : not in coff ; 8 : should not be in coff . the coff version currently used is the one published on 23 - 07 - 2014 ( ref . 97102 ) .
when subfamilies are recognized , nominotypical subfamily first then other subfamilies by alphabetical order .
type genus of the family first ( or of subfamily when subfamilies are recognized ) then other genera by chronological order of description ( and alphabetical order ) .
type species of the genus first by chronological order ( and alphabetical order ) , with last listed misapplied names in a light gray font .
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colongrids are found in tropical waters of the atlantic , indian , and west pacific oceans . they are bottom - dwelling fish , living in waters from 300 to 900 m ( 980 to 2 , 950 ft ) in depth . [ 1 ] compared with other eels , they have relatively short and stubby bodies , with blunt snouts .
mcclosker , john f . ( 1998 ) . paxton , j . r . ; eschmeyer , w . n . , eds .
froese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2011 ) .
colocongridae
in fishbase . june 2011 version .
this page was last edited on 21 march 2018 , at 21 : 17 .
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strobilops labyrinthicus , common name the maze pinecone , is a species of air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family strobilopsidae .

strobilops labyrinthicus

this website is about the snail strobilops labyrinthicus , its common name is maze pinecone . in this site you will find this snails classification , general habitat & distribution , what it eats , how it reproduces , and other general facts . there is also a photo gallery showing pictures of shells of this snail . i hope you enjoy the site !
forsyth , r . g . , oldham , m . j . 2014 . distribution of strobilops aeneus pilsbry , 1926 , in canada , with two new ontario records ( mollusca : gastropoda : strobilopsidae ) . check list 10 ( 2 ) : 397 - 401 . link
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the recent gastropoda of oklahoma iii . terrestrial species : pupillidae , carychidae , strobilopsidae and oligyridae
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methods of studying ribbon development in urban areas . study area : the oklahoma city - norman area
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turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , p . m . mikkelsen , r . j . neves , c . f . e . roper , g . rosenberg , b . roth , a . scheltema , f . g . thompson , m . vecchione , and j . d . williams . 1998 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks . 2nd edition . american fisheries society special publication 26 , bethesda , maryland : 526 pp .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
it occurs in eastern maine ( 73 of 101 sites ) throughout the study region across a wide assortment of habitats ( nekola , 2008 ) . in new york , hotopp and pearce ( 2007 ) report it from 16 counties including five recent sites . waggoner et al . ( 2006 ) found this species in 3 of 15 samples in surveys of the sipsey wilderness area , bankhead national forest , northwest alabama .
occurrences are based on some evidence of historical or current presence of single or multiple specimens , including live specimens or recently dead shells ( i . e . , soft tissue still attached without signs of external weathering or staining ) , at a given location with potentially recurring existence . weathered shells constitute a historic occurrence . evidence is derived from reliable published observation or collection data ; unpublished , though documented ( i . e . government or agency reports , web sites , etc . ) observation or collection data ; or museum specimen information .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
dourson , d . c . 2015 . land snails of west virginia . goatslug publications , bakersville , north carolina . 412 pp .
hotopp , k . and t . a . pearce . 2007 . land snails in new york : statewide distribution and talus site faunas . final report for contract # nyher 041129 submitted to new york state biodiversity research institute , new york state museum , albany , new york . 91 pp .
nekola , j . c . 2008 . land snail ecology and biogeography of eastern maine . final report submitted to : maine department of inland fisheries & wildlife and the aroostook hills and lowlands inventory , january 27 , 2008 . 119 pp .
waggoner , j . , s . a . clark , k . e . perez , and c . lydeard . 2006 . a survey of terrestrial gastropods of the sipsey wilderness ( bankead national forest ) , alabama . southheastern naturalist , 5 ( 1 ) : 57 - 68 .
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note : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on
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natureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :
ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .
data developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .
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eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
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confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
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use of images featured on maryland biodiversity project is only permitted with express permission of the photographer .
estillfork , jackson county , alabama ( 1 . 97 mm . in maximum diameter ) . bob winters ! 17 march , 2015 .
specimens culled by h . g . lee , and sem produced in collaboration with dr . ann heatherington , dept . of geology , university of florida , gainesville , fl .
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the current name shown here must be accespted with caution in many cases . i have attempted to resolve differences between old and new taxonomy , as well as differences in opinion , but this is often my “best guess” . few records have been verified by examining the material on which they are based .
urltoken | © 2003–2018 robert forsyth , kamloops , bc , canada . accessed : july 9 , 2018