rapaninae is a subfamily of predatory sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family muricidae .

this subfamily was known as thaidinae until 1993 .

rapaninae

global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant . . .
kool sp ( 1993a ) phylogenetic analysis of the rapaninae ( neogastropoda : muricidae ) . malacologia 35 : 155–259
global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores .
les muricidae d’afrique occidentale : the west african muricidae : ii . ocenebrinae , ergalataxinae , tripterotyphinae , typhinae , trophoninae & rapaninae
vermeij gj , carlson sj ( 2000 ) the muricid gastropod subfamily rapaninae : phylogeny and ecological history . paleobiology 26 : 19–46
global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores . - pubmed - ncbi
our analyses indicate that rapaninae are a monophyletic subfamily , and show unequivocally that the ‘ergalataxines’ ( sensu vermeij & carlson , 2000 ) , represented here by morula , ergalatax , muricodrupa and pascula , do not fall within the rapaninae . the ‘ergalataxinae’ are recovered as a monophyletic subfamily in all trees except the bayesian 28s tree . agnewia , considered an ergalataxine by vermeij & carlson ( 2000 ) and a rapanine by tan ( 2003 ) , is placed firmly in the rapaninae by our 28s analysis .
to contribute to this debate , we have generated a molecular phylogeny of 29 muricid species , the largest molecular dataset available for this family at present . our main aim was to test the monophyly of the rapaninae , and the inclusion within it of the ‘ergalataxine’ clade ( including morula and ergalatax ) . based on available samples , we also aimed to derive a preliminary genus - level phylogeny for the rapaninae .
some notes on the genus spinidrupa habe and kosuge , 1966 ( muricidae : ergalataxinae ) , with the description of habromorula gen . nov . ( muricidae : rapaninae ) and four new species from the indo - west pacific
global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores , molecular phylogenetics and evolution | 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2012 . 09 . 014 | deepdyve
claremont m . , vermeij g . j . , williams s . t . , reid d . g . global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores .
martine claremont , david g . reid , suzanne t . williams ; a molecular phylogeny of the rapaninae and ergalataxinae ( neogastropoda : muricidae ) , journal of molluscan studies , volume 74 , issue 3 , 1 august 2008 , pages 215–221 , urltoken
claremont m . , vermeij g . j . , williams s . t . & reid d . g . ( 2013 ) global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 66 : 91–102 . [ published online 28 september 2012 ; code - compliant paper version published january 2013 ] [ details ]
the position of drupa morum and d . ricinus within the rapaninae was not resolved in the 28s tree , but in the coi , combined bayesian and combined ml trees there was some support for inclusion of d . ricinus within the thais clade ( coi tree , pp = 70 % ; combined bayesian tree , pp = 91 % ; combined ml tree , bs = 76 % ) .
molecular phylogeny based on the combined dataset , 28s plus coi sequences using ( a ) strict mp analysis and ( b ) ml analysis . support values are parsimony bootstrap values . shaded boxes indicate subfamilies as concluded by this study : darker shading , ergalataxinae ( e ) ; lighter shading , rapaninae ( r ) . other subfamilial assignments are indicated by letters following the species name : m , muricinae ; mo , muricopsinae ; o , ocenebrinae ; t , trophoninae .
bayesian molecular phylogenies based on 28s sequences ( a ) , coi sequences ( b ) and combined 28s and coi sequences ( c ) . support values are posterior probabilities . shaded boxes indicate subfamilies as concluded by this study : darker shading , ergalataxinae ( e ) ; lighter shading , rapaninae ( r ) . other subfamilial and familial assignments are indicated by letters following the species name : m , muricinae ; mo , muricopsinae ; o , ocenebrinae ; t , trophoninae ; bu , buccinidae .
so far , molecular data have been little used for the resolution of muricid phylogeny . marko & vermeij ( 1999 ) published a molecular phylogeny of mainly eastern pacific ocenebrines , with two rapanines as the outgroup , which supported monophyly of the ocenebrinae . two other molecular studies focused on relationships within the coralliophilinae , but also showed support for a sister relationship between the coralliophilinae and the rapaninae , although fewer than six non - coralliophiline taxa were sampled ( oliverio & mariottini , 2001 ; oliverio , cervelli & mariottini , 2002 ) .
a rapanine clade was recovered in all analyses with moderate to high support ( 28s tree , pp = 100 % ; coi tree , pp = 88 % ; combined bayesian tree , pp = 100 % ; combined mp tree , bootstrap probability ( bs ) = 78 % ; combined ml tree , bs = 61 % ; figs 2 , 3 ) . the rapaninae clade included the genera agnewia , concholepas , dicathais , drupa , mancinella , menathais , nassa , rapana , semiricinula , stramonita , thais , thalessa and vasula .
the division of rapaninae into two principal clades , as suggested by our molecular results , reflects some aspects of previous morphological phylogenies ( but not that of tan , 2003 ; fig . 1 c ) . kool ( 1993a ) retrieved a clade that included vasula , thais and mancinella , similar to our ‘ thais clade’ , although kool ' s group excluded nassa ( fig . 1 a ) . notably , the inclusion of the type species of thais , t . nodosa , in this clade is only weakly supported in our analyses .
the ocenebrinae ( as represented by nucella , acanthina and , for 28s , eupleura ) are monophyletic in all trees , in agreement with previous morphological ( kool , 1993a , b ; tan , 2003 ) and molecular ( marko & vermeij , 1999 ) results . we found no evidence of a sister relationship between rapaninae and ocenebrinae , in contrast to the results of tan ( 2003 ) . however , all studies on the composition and relationships of this group , including our own , suffer from limited sampling of ingroup and / or outgroup taxa .
there was some support for two principal clades within the rapaninae . one clade consisted of agnewia tritoniformis , concholepas concholepas , dicathais orbita , rapana rapiformis , semiricinula marginatra , thais speciosa and stramonita haemastoma . this clade , referred to here as the ‘ concholepas clade’ , was well supported in the coi bayesian tree ( pp = 100 % , fig . 2 b ) , the combined bayesian tree ( pp = 96 % , fig . 2 c ) and the combined ml tree ( bs = 91 % , fig . 3 b ) , but less well supported in the 28s bayesian tree ( pp = 91 % , fig . 2 a ) and the combined mp tree ( bs = 63 % , fig . 3 a ) . ( note that the coi and combined trees include only a subset of the taxa . )
genus conothais kuroda , 1930 accepted as pinaxia h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( synonym )
genus cuma swainson , 1840 accepted as cymia mörch , 1860 ( invalid : junior homonym of cuma h . milne - edwards , 1828 [ crustacea ] ; cymia and cumopsis are replacement names )
genus planithais bayle in p . fischer , 1884 accepted as tribulus h . adams & a . adams , 1853 ( synonym )
genus provexillum hedley , 1918 accepted as vexilla swainson , 1840 ( unnecessary nom . nov . pro vexilla , by hedley treated as a junior homonym of vexillum röding , 1798 )
bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]
( of thaididae jousseaume , 1888 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . [ details ]
( of concholepadidae perrier , 1897 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . page ( s ) : 255 [ details ]
( of drupinae wenz , 1938 ) bouchet p . & rocroi j . - p . ( 2005 ) . classification and nomenclator of gastropod families . malacologia . 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 397 isbn 3 - 925919 - 72 - 4 . page ( s ) : 255 [ details ]
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department of zoology , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk . m . claremont @ urltoken
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londo , n . headland of pemba bay , cabo delgado prov . , mozambique
voucher material is deposited in the collection of the natural history museum , london ( bmnh ) or the australian museum , sydney ( am ) . species are arranged by subfamily as concluded by this study .
abbreviations : f , r , forward and reverse primers , respectively ; fs , rs , forward and reverse primers used for sequencing only .
three datasets were analysed : 28s sequences ( n = 30 ) , coi sequences ( n = 18 ) , and 28s and coi sequences combined , limited to those specimens for which both 28s and coi sequences were available ( n = 18 ) . the buccinid species was used as the outgroup in the 28s analysis . no coi sequence was available for the buccinid , so in the coi and the combined datasets , hexaplex ( muricinae ) was used ( a muricine outgroup was also used in the analysis by kool , 1993a ) .
forward and reverse sequence fragments were assembled , verified and edited using sequencher ( v4 . 6 ; genecodes corporation , ann arbor , michigan ) . clear heterozygous peaks in both the forward and reverse sequence were scored as polymorphism ( e . g . williams & ozawa , 2006 ) . ribosomal ( 28s ) sequences were aligned using clustalx ( v1 . 8 ; thompson et al . , 1997 ) , where ‘delay divergent sequences’ was set to 98 % , the gap - opening penalty was set to 20 and a gap - extension penalty was set to 5 . poorly aligned sites were removed with gblocks ( v . 0 . 91beta ; castresana , 2000 ) , with the minimum number of sequences for a conserved position set to 70 % of the total number of sequences , the minimum number of sequences for a flanking position set to 90 % of the total number of sequences , the maximum number of contiguous non - conserved positions set to three , and the minimum length of a block set to five . no gap positions were allowed . minor adjustments to the resulting alignments were made by eye in macclade ( v4 . 06 osx ; maddison & maddison , 2003 ) .
twenty - four different models of nucleotide substitution were tested for each gene partition ( 28s and coi ) using mrmodeltest ( v . 2 . 2 ; j . nylander , urltoken ) . for 28s and coi , the best model ( as chosen by both the hierarchical ratio test and akaike ' s information criterion ) was gtr + i + g . however , in the case of coi , additional comparisons of log - likelihoods indicated that a model that allowed site - specific rate variation across codon positions was a significantly better fit to the data . further testing identified a different model of nucleotide substitution for each codon partition . therefore , bayesian analysis was performed twice , once using a gtr + ss model over the entire coi partition and once allowing each codon to evolve separately ( position 1 : sym + i ; position 2 : gtr ; position 3 : hky + g ) . the latter resulted in an improved bayes factor , and the resulting bayesian tree was therefore preferred .
congruence of genes within combined datasets was checked by the partition homogeneity test implemented in paup * ( v . 4 . 0b10 ; swofford , 2002 ) , with 1 , 000 replicates . the starting tree was obtained with stepwise addition , and taxa added randomly ( 10 replicates ) . new trees were generated using the tree - bisection - reconnection algorithm ( tbr ) and a heuristic search . gaps were treated as missing and multistate characters were interpreted as polymorphisms . because the validity of the partition homogeneity test has been questioned ( see e . g . quicke , jones & epstein , 2007 ) , individual gene trees were also examined visually to determine whether any strongly supported branches ( posterior probability , pp ≥ 95 % ) were in conflict .
phylogenies were constructed from the three datasets using bayesian inference and the markov chain monte carlo method ( mcmc ) ( mrbayes v . 3 . 1 , huelsenbeck & ronquist , 2001 ) . parameters for each gene were set according to the best model , and were free to vary between gene partitions . any branches with less than 50 % posterior probability support were collapsed . the mcmc analysis ran for 3 , 500 , 000 generations , with a sample frequency of 1 , 000 and a burn - in of 1 , 501 . analyses were performed twice , computing the final tree from a combination of all retained trees .
convergence was first tested by examining the average deviation of the split frequencies of the two runs , in order to determine whether the two runs had converged . the log - likelihood values of the data ( after burn - in ) and the potential scale reduction factor ( psrf ) were also assessed .
in order to compare different analytical methods , analysis of the combined dataset was performed using both unweighted maximum parsimony ( mp ) and maximum likelihood ( ml ) in paup * , estimating nodal support by means of bootstrap values . for the parsimony analysis , gaps were treated as missing and multistate taxa were treated as polymorphism . the starting tree was obtained by stepwise addition , taxa were added randomly ( 1 , 000 replicates ) , and a heuristic search was performed . in the ml analysis , a gtr + i + g model was used , with starting values for all parameters estimated from the bayesian tree . in both analyses , bootstrap values were computed using a heuristic search with the 50 % majority consensus rule . the number of bootstrap replicates was 10 , 000 in the mp analysis and 1 , 000 in the ml analysis .
the mitochondrial gene coi was difficult to amplify for some samples , perhaps due to poor preservation . however , we were able to amplify approximately 700 bp of coi in 60 % of the taxa sequenced . after the removal of primer sequences , 658 bases remained for phylogenetic analysis . of these , 246 were phylogenetically informative : 41 in position one , two in position two and 203 in position three . there were no gaps or stop codons within the coi alignment .
the 28s alignment , initially 1 , 521 bp ( after the removal of primer regions ) , was reduced by 9 % to 1 , 332 bp after ambiguously aligned sites were removed . seventy - seven of the remaining sites were phylogenetically informative . results using hexaplex as outgroup and excluding buccinum were consistent with those using the buccinid outgroup ( tree not shown ) .
the results of the partition homogeneity test indicated that there was no significant incongruence between the coi and 28s datasets ( p = 0 . 574 ) . in addition , comparison of the bayesian trees for the independent coi and 28s datasets indicated that no well supported clades ( pp ≥ 95 % ) were in conflict between the gene trees . therefore , the datasets for the 18 taxa represented by both genes were combined . in this combined dataset of 1 , 990 characters , 303 were phylogenetically informative .
average standard deviation of split frequencies converged on zero for all trees recovered by bayesian analysis ( fig . 2 ) and log - likelihood values after burn - in had reached stationarity . psrf values for all runs were 1 . 00 .
the other rapanine clade consisted of mancinella intermedia , nassa serta , thalessa distinguenda , thais nodosa , menathais tuberosa and vasula melones . this clade is referred to here as the ‘ thais clade’ , because it includes the type species , t . nodosa . the thais clade had low to moderate support in all bayesian and ml trees ( 28s tree , pp = 85 % ; coi tree , pp = 70 % ; combined bayesian tree , pp = 72 % ; combined ml tree , bs = 76 % ; figs 2 , 3 b ) . a similar clade , including m . intermedia , t . distinguenda and m . tuberosa , but not thais nodosa , received low support in the combined mp tree ( bs = 64 % , fig . 3 a ) .
an ocenebrine clade , represented by acanthina monodon , eupleura nitida and nucella lapillus , was well supported in all analyses ( 28s tree , pp = 100 % ; coi tree , pp = 100 % ; combined bayesian tree , pp = 100 % ; combined mp tree , bs = 100 % ; combined ml tree , bs = 100 % ; figs 2 , 3 ; eupleura included in 28s tree only ) . the 28s analysis supported a muricine clade of hexaplex trunculus and murex occa ( pp = 100 % ; fig . 2 a ) . a muricopsine clade , represented by favartia alveata and muricopsis schrammi , was well supported in both the combined bayesian and combined parsimony trees ( combined bayesian tree , pp = 100 % ; combined mp tree , bs = 78 % ; figs 2 c , 3 a ) , but less well supported in the combined ml tree ( bs = 61 % , fig . 3b ) . the phylogenetic relationships among these subfamilies were not well resolved .
our limited sampling of other muricid subfamilies , poor basal resolution and lack of some subfamilies ( such as coralliophilinae , haustrinae and typhinae ) preclude further discussion of relationships among them .
our ‘ concholepas clade’ has not been retrieved as a monophyletic group in previous analyses . nevertheless , concholepas , stramonita and rapana were relatively basal in the rapanine phylogeny of kool ( 1993a ) , as were concholepas , rapana and dicathais in that of vermeij & carlson ( 2000 ) , indicating a degree of morphological similarity among these genera ( although this was interpreted as plesiomorphic resemblance within the cladistic analyses ) . our use of the genus thais follows vermeij ( 2001 ) . the appearance of thais speciosa in the concholepas clade , rather than the thais clade , is consistent with vermeij ' s observation that this species is not a typical member of the genus , and indicates that thais ( sensu vermeij , 2001 ) is not monophyletic .
our sampling of ergalataxinae is too limited to draw many conclusions at this stage . the genus morula ( as used by houart , 2004 ) is polyphyletic , if the genera ergalatax , pascula and muricodrupa are accorded generic rank . the generic name habromorula is available for morula spinosa and tenguella for morula granulata ( houart , 2004 ) .
our sampling is too limited to permit more than brief speculation on the biogeography of rapanine muricids . the ‘ concholepas clade’ contains two eastern pacific taxa ( concholepas , thais speciosa ) , one from the atlantic ( stramonita haemastoma ) , two from southern australasia ( agnewia , dicathais ) and two from the tropical indo - west pacific ( rapana , semiricinula ) . this wide distribution could imply an originally tethyan range for this clade , with restriction to refugia ( e . g . wilson & allen , 1987 ) . alternatively , there is a suggestion of a southern high - latitude connection among the genera concholepas , agnewia , dicathais and possibly stramonita ( represented in the south - temperate eastern pacific , as well as in the tropical eastern pacific , and tropical and temperate atlantic ) . the thais clade , on the other hand , appears to be entirely tropical on the basis of our sampling .
we would like to thank the australian museum ( sydney ) for loan of specimens and the following for donation of additional material : p . kuklinski , j . d . taylor , m . a . e . malaquias , e . a . glover , j . a . jara and g . poppe . we are extremely grateful to j . d . taylor , g . j . vermeij and k . s . tan for helpful comments and suggestions . pat dyal and the molecular biology unit at the nhm helped mc with sequencing . this paper was edited by jms associate editor j . d . taylor , and we thank him and two anonymous referees .
review of the recent species of morula ( oppomorus ) , m . ( azumamorula ) and m . ( habromorula ) ( gastropoda : muricidae : ergalataxinae )
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marlo added a link to
stramonita rustica ( lamarck , 1822 )
on
stramonita rustica ( lamarck , 1822 )
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it is quite doubtful that the two specimen photos above are s . rustica . see link in my next post .
marlo added a link to
stramonita haemastoma floridana ( conrad , 1837 ) , florida rock shell
on
stramonita floridana ( conrad , 1837 )
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marlo added a link to
let ' s talk seashells ! - > stramonita haemastoma canaliculata ( gray , 1839 )
on
stramonita canaliculata ( gray , 1839 )
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scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
description : shell solid , with five spiral rows of nodules on body whorl , with a variable number of scaly ribs between . ( the shell is usually eroded , so this fine sculpture is normally not present ) . outer lip thick , curved , with four teeth internally , more or less the same size . columella thickly calloused , smooth . external colour grey with black nodules ; deep interior of aperture purple - grey , teeth white ; outer lip cream or cream alternating with black or brown .
size : up to 35 mm in length , but usually less than 20 mm .
distribution : northern australia , from north - western australia to twofold bay , nsw . ( see comparison below ) .
comparison : there has been debate as to whether this species is distinct from the widespread tropical indo - west pacific species morula granulata ( duclos , 1832 ) . however , the most recent work by tan ( 1995 ) makes a convincing case for it being a distinct species , and presents the following comparison of characters .
morula granulata : entire indo - west pacific region , from eastern africa to the eastern pacific , including northern australia from central western australia to queensland . in queensland , it occurs on the outlying area of the great barrier reef .
morula marginalba : northern australia , from north - western australia to twofold bay , nsw , on the coast and continental islands , and other islands of the central indo - west pacific .
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claremont , martine ; vermeij , geerat j . ; williams , suzanne t . ; reid , david g .
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claremont , martine ; vermeij , geerat j . ; williams , suzanne t . ; reid , david g .
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chávez , e . a . ; michel - morfin , j . e .
some notes on the genus spinidrupa habe and kosuge , 1966 ( muricidae : ergalataxinae ) , with the description of habromorula gen . nov . ( muricidae : rapaniane ) and four new species from the indo - west pacific
results of the rumphius biohistorical expedition to ambon ( 1990 ) : part 5 . mollusca , gastropoda , muricidae
a mathematical theory of evolution , based on the conclusions of dr . j . c . wilis , f . r . s . philos
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martine claremont , geerat j vermeij , suzanne t williams , david g reid .
authors : benjamin merget , christian koetschan , thomas hackl , frank förster , thomas dandekar , tobias müller , jörg schultz , matthias wolf .
authors : colin halford , vincent gau , bernard m . churchill , david a . haake .
institutions : veterans affairs greater los angeles healthcare system , university of california , los angeles , genefluidics , veterans affairs greater los angeles healthcare system , university of california , los angeles .
electrochemical sensors are widely used for rapid and accurate measurement of blood glucose and can be adapted for detection of a wide variety of analytes . electrochemical sensors operate by transducing a biological recognition event into a useful electrical signal . signal transduction occurs by coupling the activity of a redox enzyme to an amperometric electrode . sensor specificity is either an inherent characteristic of the enzyme , glucose oxidase in the case of a glucose sensor , or a product of linkage between the enzyme and an antibody or probe . here , we describe an electrochemical sensor assay method to directly detect and identify bacteria . in every case , the probes described here are dna oligonucleotides . this method is based on sandwich hybridization of capture and detector probes with target ribosomal rna ( rrna ) . the capture probe is anchored to the sensor surface , while the detector probe is linked to horseradish peroxidase ( hrp ) . when a substrate such as 3 , 3 ' , 5 , 5 ' - tetramethylbenzidine ( tmb ) is added to an electrode with capture - target - detector complexes bound to its surface , the substrate is oxidized by hrp and reduced by the working electrode . this redox cycle results in shuttling of electrons by the substrate from the electrode to hrp , producing current flow in the electrode .
authors : r . craig stillwell , ian dworkin , alexander w . shingleton , w . anthony frankino .
authors : rangaraj m . rangayyan , shantanu banik , j . e . leo desautels .
authors : peiling yap , thomas fürst , ivan müller , susi kriemler , jürg utzinger , peter steinmann .
institutions : swiss tropical and public health institute , basel , switzerland , university of basel , basel , switzerland .
authors : yanping chen , adena why , gustavo batista , agenor mafra - neto , eamonn keogh .
institutions : university of california , riverside , university of california , riverside , university of são paulo - usp , isca technologies .
authors : jo - ann mcclure - warnier , john m . conly , kunyan zhang .
institutions : alberta health services / calgary laboratory services / university of calgary , university of calgary , university of calgary , university of calgary , university of calgary .
diffusion tensor imaging ( dti ) techniques provide information on the microstructural processes of the cerebral white matter ( wm ) in vivo . the present applications are designed to investigate differences of wm involvement patterns in different brain diseases , especially neurodegenerative disorders , by use of different dti analyses in comparison with matched controls . dti data analysis is performed in a variate fashion , i . e . voxelwise comparison of regional diffusion direction - based metrics such as fractional anisotropy ( fa ) , together with fiber tracking ( ft ) accompanied by tractwise fractional anisotropy statistics ( tfas ) at the group level in order to identify differences in fa along wm structures , aiming at the definition of regional patterns of wm alterations at the group level . transformation into a stereotaxic standard space is a prerequisite for group studies and requires thorough data processing to preserve directional inter - dependencies . the present applications show optimized technical approaches for this preservation of quantitative and directional information during spatial normalization in data analyses at the group level . on this basis , ft techniques can be applied to group averaged data in order to quantify metrics information as defined by ft . additionally , application of dti methods , i . e . differences in fa - maps after stereotaxic alignment , in a longitudinal analysis at an individual subject basis reveal information about the progression of neurological disorders . further quality improvement of dti based results can be obtained during preprocessing by application of a controlled elimination of gradient directions with high noise levels . in summary , dti is used to define a distinct wm pathoanatomy of different brain diseases by the combination of whole brain - based and tract - based dti analysis .
authors : evan l . pannkuk , thomas s . risch , brett j . savary .
authors : mayandi sivaguru , glenn a . fried , carly a . h . miller , bruce w . fouke .
institutions : university of illinois at urbana - champaign , university of illinois at urbana - champaign , university of illinois at urbana - champaign .
authors : timothy j . gray , lee thomas , tom olma , david h . mitchell , jon r . iredell , sharon c . a . chen .
an important role of the clinical microbiology laboratory is to provide rapid identification of bacteria causing bloodstream infection . traditional identification requires the sub - culture of signaled blood culture broth with identification available only after colonies on solid agar have matured . maldi - tof ms is a reliable , rapid method for identification of the majority of clinically relevant bacteria when applied to colonies on solid media . the application of maldi - tof ms directly to blood culture broth is an attractive approach as it has potential to accelerate species identification of bacteria and improve clinical management . however , an important problem to overcome is the pre - analysis removal of interfering resins , proteins and hemoglobin contained in blood culture specimens which , if not removed , interfere with the ms spectra and can result in insufficient or low discrimination identification scores . in addition it is necessary to concentrate bacteria to develop spectra of sufficient quality . the presented method describes the concentration , purification , and extraction of gram negative bacteria allowing for the early identification of bacteria from a signaled blood culture broth .
authors : vladimir a . timoshevskiy , atashi sharma , igor v . sharakhov , maria v . sharakhova .
authors : nikki m . curthoys , michael j . mlodzianoski , dahan kim , samuel t . hess .
high levels of reactive oxygen species ( ros ) may cause a change of cellular redox state towards oxidative stress condition . this situation causes oxidation of molecules ( lipid , dna , protein ) and leads to cell death . oxidative stress also impacts the progression of several pathological conditions such as diabetes , retinopathies , neurodegeneration , and cancer . thus , it is important to define tools to investigate oxidative stress conditions not only at the level of single cells but also in the context of whole organisms . here , we consider the zebrafish embryo as a useful in vivo system to perform such studies and present a protocol to measure in vivo oxidative stress . taking advantage of fluorescent ros probes and zebrafish transgenic fluorescent lines , we develop two different methods to measure oxidative stress in vivo : i ) a “whole embryo ros - detection method” for qualitative measurement of oxidative stress and ii ) a “single - cell ros detection method” for quantitative measurements of oxidative stress . herein , we demonstrate the efficacy of these procedures by increasing oxidative stress in tissues by oxidant agents and physiological or genetic methods . this protocol is amenable for forward genetic screens and it will help address cause - effect relationships of ros in animal models of oxidative stress - related pathologies such as neurological disorders and cancer .
institutions : barts and the london school of medicine and dentistry , barts and the london school of medicine and dentistry .
high efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria . the genus mycobacterium can be difficult to transform ; this is mainly caused by the thick and waxy cell wall , but is compounded by the fact that most molecular techniques have been developed for distantly - related species such as escherichia coli and bacillus subtilis . in spite of these obstacles , mycobacterial plasmids have been identified and dna transformation of many mycobacterial species have now been described . the most successful method for introducing dna into mycobacteria is electroporation . many parameters contribute to successful transformation ; these include the species / strain , the nature of the transforming dna , the selectable marker used , the growth medium , and the conditions for the electroporation pulse . optimized methods for the transformation of both slow - and fast - grower are detailed here . transformation efficiencies for different mycobacterial species and with various selectable markers are reported .
microbiology , issue 15 , springer protocols , mycobacteria , electroporation , bacterial transformation , transformation efficiency , bacteria , tuberculosis , m . smegmatis , springer protocols
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worms - world register of marine species - pinaxia h . adams & a . adams , 1853
adams h . & adams a . ( 1853 - 1858 ) . the genera of recent mollusca ; arranged according to their organization . london , van voorst . vol . 1 : xl + 484 pp . ; vol . 2 : 661 pp . ; vol . 3 : 138 pls . [ published in parts : vol . 1 : i - xl ( 1858 ) , 1 - 256 ( 1853 ) , 257 - 484 ( 1854 ) . vol . 2 : 1 - 92 ( 1854 ) , 93 - 284 ( 1855 ) , 285 - 412 ( 1856 ) , 413 - 540 ( 1857 ) , 541 - 661 ( 1858 ) . vol . 3 : pl . 1 - 32 ( 1853 ) , 33 - 96 ( 1855 ) , 97 - 112 ( 1856 ) , 113 - 128 ( 1857 ) , 129 - 138 ( 1858 ) ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 1 : 132 [ details ]
n . puillandre , 1 t . f . duda , 2 c . meyer , 3 b . m . olivera , 4 and p . bouchet 5
correspondence : n . puillandre ; e - mail : rf . nhnm @ erdnalliup
copyright © the author 2014 . published by oxford university press on behalf of the malacological society of london , all rights reserved
recently published a phylogeny of the cone snails based on 330 species and sequences of three mitochondrial gene regions . in the present paper we utilized this molecular phylogeny as a foundation to establish a new genus - and subgenus - level classification of the conidae , with four genera (
) . we also tentatively allocate all cone snail species currently considered as valid in worms , but not represented in the molecular phylogeny , to genera and subgenera based on their morphological characters .
simplified version of the bayesian tree based on the concatenation of sequences of three mitochondrial gene regions ( coi , 16s , 12s ) and published by puillandre et al . ( 2014 : fig . 2 ) showing the proposed classification . genera and subgenera with multiple species are reduced to triangles , whose lengths are proportional to the branch lenghts . posterior probabilities ( > 0 . 95 ) are shown for each node . only ( sub ) genera with at least one sequenced representative are figured .
proposing a classification based on a phylogeny mainly consists of ( 1 ) identifying the groups that will be named ; ( 2 ) attributing available names and , if necessary , establishing new ones , for the groups identified in ( 1 ) ; and ( 3 ) ranking these names .
as far as possible , only well supported ( bootstrap probability > 90 % ; bayesian posterior probability > 0 . 95 ) clades ( and single - species lineages ) were linked to names . when several alternatives were possible ( e . g . one supported clade that includes two supported clades , both with available names attributable to them ) , other characters and properties , such as shell morphology , type of prey , bathymetric and / or geographical distribution , were considered in order to identify the most appropriate grouping to minimize within - group variability . overall , a conservative approach was adopted , to minimize the number of supraspecific taxa , both named and unnamed . in two cases ( pyruconus and cylinder ) we attributed a name to a group we recognized to be non - monophyletic ( although this non - monophyly is not supported ) , in order to avoid having to establish new names for many small clades . such polyphyletic , but morphologically consistent , genera may correspond to grades and in future each of the included clades may be shown to deserve its own name .
as far as possible , a genus - group name ( i . e . a genus or subgenus ) was applied based on the position of its type species in the tree . if the type species of a nominal genus or subgenus had not been sequenced , application of the name was determined by reference to the morphologically most similar species used in the molecular analysis . if more than one name was applicable for a clade , the valid name was determined by the rule of priority . in the classification below , od refers to the fixation of type species by original designation , sd by subsequent designation and m by monotypy ( as defined by iczn , 1999 : art . 68 , 69 , respectively ) .
all the 803 species of conidae listed as valid in worms ( 2014 ) were allocated to genera and subgenera , with two levels of confidence . those printed in bold font were placed in the classification based on the dna sequences of puillandre et al . ( 2014 ) . the others were classified based on their shell and / or radula characters , following tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) and , for species not included or considered as synonyms by tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) , following petuch ( 2013 ) or the advice of m . tenorio ( personal communication ) .
species sometimes referred to as ‘cone snails’ but allocated to artemidiconus ( conorbidae ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; bouchet et al . , 2011 ) , benthofascis ( conorbidae ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; bouchet et al . , 2011 ) , genota ( cryptoconidae in tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; or borsoniidae in bouchet et al . , 2011 ) and genotina ( cryptoconidae in tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; or mangeliidae in bouchet et al . , 2011 ) were excluded . within conorbidae , only benthofascis lozoueti has been sequenced and molecular analysis indicates that the family is separate from conidae ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) . however , b . lozoueti is the only conorbid species that does not resorb the inner shell walls ( tucker , tenorio & stahlschmidt , 2011 ) . it thus cannot be excluded that the other conorbidae species—which resorb them—may in fact not be confamilial . likewise , as indicated above , molecular data place genota in the borsoniidae ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) and this clade is not further discussed here . fossil taxa ( hemiconus cossmann , 1889 ; cryptoconus koenen , 1867 ; conorbis swainson , 1840 ; conilithes swainson , 1840 ; eoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 and plagioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) are not discussed either . consequently , only the conidae , conilithidae and taranteconidae ( sensu tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) are discussed below , i . e . the cone snails as defined by bouchet et al . ( 2011 ) .
[ synonyms : conilithidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . taranteconidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . puncticuliinae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . ]
remarks : conus californicus has always been considered a unique species within cone snails , because of its molecular ( including toxicological : biggs et al . , 2010 ; elliger et al . , 2011 ) and morphological singularities and also because of its diet , since it is able to prey indifferently on fish , molluscs and worms ( kohn , 1966 ) .
remarks : puillandre et al . ( 2014 ) did not sequence the type species of profundiconus ; their sequenced material was identified as p . aff . profundorum . however , tucker & tenorio ( 2009 , 2013 ) found profundiconus to be a morphologically well supported group and we are thus confident in applying this name to the clade containing p . aff . profundorum .
type species : conus pagoda kiener , 1847 ; sd , tucker & tenorio ( 2009 : 140 ) ( under iczn , 1999 : art . 70 . 3 . 2 ) .
[ synonym : duodenticonus tucker & tenorio 2013 ; type species : asprella memiae habe & kosuge , 1970 ; od ; n . syn . ]
remarks : the species c . kimioi was placed in the subgenus boucheticonus ( following tucker & tenorio 2013 ) , even if the corresponding clade was not highly supported .
henriquei ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : kermasprella powell , 1958 ; type species : conus raoulensis powell , 1958 ; od . yeddoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus sieboldii reeve , 1848 ; od ]
[ synonyms : bathyconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus orbignyi audouin , 1831 ; od ; n . syn . fumiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus traversianus e . a . smith , 1875 , od ; n . syn . viminiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus vimineus reeve , 1849 ; od ; n . syn . ]
elegans ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1895 ) n . comb .
arcuata ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) n . comb .
remarks : tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) included both conasprella delesserti and conasprella arcuata in kohniconus . in our analysis , the two species do not cluster together . the name kohniconus could have been applied to the lineage that includes the species c . delessertii , but because of the closer morphological resemblance of conus emarginatus with c . arcuata , we have applied kohniconus to the lineage that includes c . arcuata .
sagei ( korn & g . raybaudi massilia , 1993 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : globiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus tornatus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . jaspidiconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : conus jaspideus gmelin , 1791 ; od ; n . syn . perplexiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus perplexus g . b . sowerby ii , 1857 ; od ; n . syn . ]
arawak ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
baccata ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1877 ) n . comb .
berschaueri ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
ericmonnieri ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
herndli ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
ogum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
perplexa ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1857 ) n . comb .
poremskii ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
simonei ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .
tornata ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) n . comb .
[ synonyms : cucullus röding , 1798 ; type species : conus marmoreus linnaeus , 1758 ; sd , winckworth ( 1945 : 139 ) . coronaxis swainson , 1840 ; type species : conus bandanus hwass , 1792 ; m ]
type species : conus asper lamarck , 1810 , by typification of replaced name . asprella was established as a substitute name for cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( see below ) . conus asper was not among the 11 species included in asprella by schaufuss ( 1869 : 43–44 ) , and wenz ( 1940 ) cited conus sulcatus bruguière , 1792 ( a species originally included by schaufuss ) as the type species ; conus sulcatus and c . asper are subjective synonyms .
[ synonyms : cylindrella swainson , 1840 ; type species : conus asper lamarck , 1810 ; subjective synonym of conus sulcatus hwass , 1792 ; m . cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( conidae ) , is a homonym of cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( urocoptidae ) and has been placed on the official index of rejected and invalid names by iczn , 1999 : opinion 1030 . sulciconus bielz , 1869 ; type species ( here designated ) : conus sulcatus hwass in bruguière , 1792 , n . syn . the names asprella and sulciconus were both published in 1869 and their exact dates of publication are not known in order to establish priority . under iczn ( 1999 ) : art . 24 . 2 , we act here as first revisers and give precedence to the name asprella over sulciconus . ]
[ possible senior synonym : mamiconus cotton & godfrey , 1932 ; type species : conus superstes hedley , 1911 ; od . the identity of c . superstes is uncertain ; it is listed as a nomen dubium by tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) ]


eudonia luminatrix is a moth in the crambidae family .

it was described by meyrick in 1909 .

it is found in new zealand .

the wingspan is 19 – 22 mm .

the forewings are deep ochreous-brown , streaked with blackish on the veins .

the first and second lines are white , edged posteriorly with black suffusion .

the hindwings are whitish-fuscous tinged with brassy-yellowish .

the discal spot , postmedian line and terminal fascia are fuscous .

adults have been recorded on wing in october and november .

eudonia luminatrix

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eudonia är ett släkte av fjärilar som beskrevs av gustaf johan billberg 1820 . enligt catalogue of life ingår eudonia i familjen crambidae , men enligt dyntaxa är tillhörigheten istället fami [ . . ]
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again indebted for the material of these notes to the energetic assistance of my valued correspondents , mr . g . v . hudson , of wellington , and mr . a . philpott , of invercargill .
l . neuræ , philp . ( trans . n . z . inst . , 1904 , 330 ) , is a synonym of this species . mr . philpott kindly sent me two examples of his species , himself suggesting that it might be identical with my phaula , and this is undoubtedly the case .
mr . hudson sent me several examples of this species from the thames district . it is common and widely distributed in eastern australia , where it is undoubtedly native ; it has not been hitherto recorded from new zealand , and may perhaps have only recently succeeded in introducing itself . the species of this genus are strong and bold fliers , and can cross wide seas .
♂ ♀ . 32–37 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , partially sprinkled with brown - reddish ; thorax with an irregular transverse anterior reddish - fuscous or dark - fuscous line . abdomen whitish - ochreous sprinkled with brown - reddish , with a bar of blackish suffusion on apex of second segment , and sometimes a double dorsal series of blackish dots . forewings triangular , costa posteriorly moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen bowed , oblique , strongly waved ; pale brownish - ochreous , with numerous waved ferruginous - brown striæ , tending to be somewhat marked with black on veins and costa ; median band somewhat paler through obsolescence of striæ , limited by groups of striæ more distinctly marked with black , anterior curved , posterior rounded - prominent beneath costa and in middle , latter prominence suffused with blackish ; an oblique subapical patch of darker brown suffusion , its upper edge defined and running from above median prominence to apex : cilia pale ochreous mixed with brown - reddish , basal half sprinkled with dark fuscous . hindwings with termen rounded , irregularly waved - dentate ; colour and striæ as in forewings , but prominences of median band nearly obsolete ; a blackish discal dot ; cilia as in forewings .
invercargill , common on flowers of senecio in march ( philpott ) ; two specimens . much like gobiata , from which it may be certainly distinguished by the much more strongly waved termen of both wings ; gobiata is also rather smaller , whiter - irrorated , with straighter striæ , lower half of anterior margin of median band and oblique streak from apex forming distinct black lines . i formerly quoted butler ' s name erroneously as a synonym of gobiata .
having received two fine specimens from mr . philpott , i am satisfied it is a good species , and readily distinguished from beata by the colour of the hindwings .
notoreas fulva , huds . ( lythria fulva , huds . , trans . n . z . inst . , 1904 , 357 . )
according to two ♀ specimens communicated by mr . hudson , this species is a true notoreas .
christchurch , otira gorge , dunedin , invercargill ; from january to march , and in july ; seven specimens . i have possessed examples of this species for a long time , but did not feel sure of their status , the species being a very variable one , and allied to other variable species ; having now , however , received four very fine specimens from mr . philpott , i am satisfied that it is a good species . mr . philpott writes that it is usually confused in collections with productata ; it is , however , nearer melinata , from which it differs by the much longer antennal pectinations , less rounded termen of forewings , distinct and unusually straight white posterior fascia ,
hindwings of ♂ not tinged with fuscous towards base , and other details . s . productata is also very variable , but easily distinguished by different from of median band , of which the posterior margin is obtusely angulated rather above middle ; in fact , all the allied species could be distinguished by the form of the posterior margin of median band , which is different in each .
s . humillima , huds . , is a synonym of this species , according to specimens sent me by mr . philpott , by request of mr . hudson .
lake tekapo ; one specimen ( hudson ) . allied to s . asaleuta , but very distinct .
invercargill , common in november ( philpott ) ; three specimens . belongs to the cleodoralis group ; not very like any new zealand species , but probably related to the tasmanian plagiotis and its allies .
invercargill , in october and november ; five specimens ( philpott ) . rather variable in the development of the black and white scales . a distinct species , somewhat intermediate between legnota and epicremna .
♂ . 17–18 mm . head and thorax ferruginous - brown , face prominent , flattened - conical ; edge of collar and a spot on shoulders whitish . palpi 3 ½ , brown mixed with dark fuscous , whitish towards base beneath . antennæ dark fuscous , pubescent - ciliated ( ½ ) . abdomen dark grey . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , termen little rounded , rather oblique ; bright ferruginous - brown ; a slender median longitudinal rather irregular ochreous - whitish streak from base to termen , terminal fifth attenuated and tending to be obsolescent : cilia slaty - grey . hindwings dark - grey ; cilia pale - grey , basal third slaty - grey . under - surface dark - grey , hindwings sometimes with very slender indistinct median streak of whitish suffusion ; costal edge of hindwings whitish - yellowish ; all cilia whitish - grey .
invercargill , in january ( philpott ) ; two specimens . very close to heteranthes from mount cook , but that species is darker , median streak of forewings whiter , broader , more regular , forewings on under - surface with dorsum suffused with white , hindwings on under - surface with costa suffused with white towards base , and well - marked white median streak , cilia white towards base . possibly more extensive material may show this to be a local form of heteranthes , but at present it seems better to treat them as distinct .
♂ . 16 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ferruginous - brown , face - rounded - prominent ; palpi 4 , whitish towards base beneath . antennæ dark fuscous , pubescent - ciliated ( ¾ ) . abdomen rather dark fuscous . forewings elongate , broader than in saristes , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen straight , rather oblique , rounded beneath ; ferruginous - brown ; a moderate regular white median longitudinal streak from base to termen , somewhat edged with fuscous suffusion towards middle : cilia pale grey , with darker basal shade , on costa whitish except near apex , with a white bar on terminal extremity of median streak . hindwings dark fuscous ; cilia whitish , basal third fuscous . under - surface dark grey , forewings much suffused with yellowish towards costa and termen , on dorsum broadly whitish - yellowish , hindwings with costa rather broadly pale ochreous - yellowish , with veins suffusedly streaked with pale yellowish , especially on a median streak , all cilia whitish .
invercargill ( hudson ) ; one specimen . distinguished from the preceding by the broader forewings ; rather longer palpi and antennal ciliations , white costal cilia , extensive yellowish suffusion of under - surface , and other details .
♂ ♀ . 17–20 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous - brown , in ♀ with a broad dorsal white stripe extending through crown and thorax , face somewhat rounded - prominent ; palpi 4 , whitish beneath and more or less above , especially in ♀ . antennæ dark fuscous , in ♂ simply ciliated ( ⅓ ) . abdomen rather dark fuscous , more or less whitish on segmental margins posteriorly . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa hardly arched , apex obtuse , termen straight , rather oblique , rounded beneath ; ochreous - brown ; a moderate white median longitudinal streak from base to termen , slightly broadest in middle , in ♂ more or less edged beneath with dark - fuscous suffusion , in ♂ broadly edged with dark - fuscous suffusion on both margins except towards base above ; in ♀ a narrow irregular white suffused subcostal streak , and broad dorsal or subdorsal white streak narrowed towards base ; in ♂ a slender white streak along upper part of termen above median streak , in ♀ a broader undefined patch of white suffusion : cilia in ♂ pale grey , with a white basal streak on upper half of termen , in ♀ almost wholly white . hindwings rather dark fuscous , with a broad costal streak of whitish - ochreous suffusion from base to ⅓ ; cilia whitish - ochreous , in ♂ more or less greyishtinged , and with a grey basal line . under - surface wholly light ochreous - yellowish , forewings somewhat infuscated ; cilia ochreous - whitish .
invercargill , in december ; three specimens taken by myself , and three others received from mr . philpott . i have hitherto confused this species with æthonellus , and recorded it under that name , but now see it to be distinct . æthonellus , which is known from mount hutt only , has the costal edge of forewings ochreous - whitish , no white streak on upper part of termen or in cilia , hindwings without the pale - yellowish costal patch , but with cilia clear pale - yellowish except basal line , under - surface of forewings suffused with grey except towards costa and on a median streak , of hindwings partly greyish between veins . in five of the seven species of this group—viz . , æthonellus , aulisteś , saristes , heteranthes , and antimorus —the antennæ of ♂ are pubescent - ciliated—that is , clothed with short pubescence over their whole surface , but with a row of somewhat longer cilia on one side ; in the other two— melitastes and heliotes —they are glabrous ( devoid of pubescence ) , but simply ciliated on one side .
described ( trans . ent . soc . lond . , 1902 , 278 ) from the chatham islands ; but mr . philpott has now sent me two specimens from invercargill—a very interesting record . it is allied to falcatalis , but smaller and darker , and distinguished by the prominent angulation of termen of second segment of forewings ( in falcatalis the margin is somewhat bent but not angulated ) , and the principal dorsal scale - tuft of hindwings being hardly beyond the middle , whereas in falcatalis it is much broader and is considerably beyond the middle .
♂ . 18 mm . head white mixed with dark reddish - fuscous , frontal tuft moderately long . palpi brownish irrorated with dark fuscous . antennæ grey , above with a blackish line . thorax whitish irrorated with dark reddish - fuscous , metathorax suffused with black and edged with white . abdomen dark reddish - fuscous sprinkled with whitish , and mixed with blackish on sides towards middle . legs reddish - fuscous sprinkled with white , tibiæ and tarsi banded with white and dark fuscous . forewings cleft from beyond ¾ , segments broad , termen of first sinuate , of second bowed in middle ; reddish - fuscous closely irrorated with whitish and sprinkled with dark fuscous , anterior ¾ transversely strigulated with white , especially towards dorsum ; costal edge suffused with dark fuscous and strigulated with white ; a triangular black blotch on costa at ⅔ , its apex produced and extending to before lower angle of cleft , edged posteriorly by a fascia of brownish - ochreous suffusion crossing base of both segments , followed by a broader fascia of dark - fuscous suffusion , edged posteriorly by an even whitish line parallel to termen : cilia grey , on costa dark fuscous with a white spot before apex , on termen whitish towards base with a sharply marked even black basal line throughout , on dorsum mixed with black scales , forming a tolerably even line posteriorly , at ⅔ with a flat black scale - tooth preceded and followed by whitish patches . hindwings cleft firstly from middle , secondly from ¼ , segments moderately broad , termen of second subsinuate ; grey ; cilia light grey , on dorsum mixed with black scales throughout , with a moderate elongate - triangular black scale - projection beginning at ⅗ .
wellington ; one specimen ( hudson ) . allied to falcatalis and æolodes , but differs from both in the strong black entire line at base of terminal cilia of forewings . the species of this genus require careful discrimination , and probably more remain to be found in the mountains ; their larvæ are usually attached to compositæ ( feeding variously on the flowers or leaves , or in the stems ) , and should be looked for .
♀ . 14 mm . head , palpi , and thorax ochreous . abdomen grey . forewings elongate , gradually dilated , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen somewhat sinuate , rather oblique ; ferruginous - ochreous , irregularly mixed with white ; costa and dorsum shortly strigulated with blackish ; a large trapezoidal blotch of partial blackish suffusion extending over costal half of wing from base to near middle , posteriorly formed by upper part of central fascia ; a rounded - triangular blackish spot on dorsum before tornus ; a curved leaden - metallic stria from ⅘ of costa to tornus , forming posterior
margin of ocellus , anterior margin silvery - whitish , ocellus limited above by a triangular blackish spot , and containing two or three undefined black dashes : cilia ferruginous - ochreous , with a blackish basal line ( imperfect ) . hindwings with vein 4 absent ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey , with darker basal shade .
♂ . 15 mm . head and palpi grey ; palpi moderate , terminal joint very short . antennal ciliations 1 . thorax reddish - ochreous , somewhat mixed with grey . abdomen rather dark grey . forewings elongate - triangular , costa gently arched , fold occupying basal ⅖ , apex obtuse , termen slightly rounded , rather oblique ; reddish - fuscous , suffusedly strigulated with light yellow - ochreous ; costal fold strigulated with blackish ; several dark ferruginous - brown dots on dorsum ; a wedge - shaped ochreous patch mixed with dark reddish - fuscous and towards costa with orange , resting on costa from ⅗ to ⅘ , its apex touching termen above tornus , preceded and followed by undefined bands of grey - whitish suffusion : cilia reddish - fuscous , tips whitish - yellowish . hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey - whitish , with grey basal line .
♂ . 12 mm . head , palpi , and thorax brown mixed with dark fuscous ; palpi under 2 , whitish - ochreous towards base ; antennal ciliations 2 . abdomen dark fuscous . forewings elongate - oblong , costa anteriorly moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen slightly rounded , somewhat oblique ; dark purplish - fuscous , irregularly strigulated with blackish - fuscous ; a narrow blackish - fuscous fascia from middle of costa to ¾ of dorsum , slightly curved , somewhat expanded towards costa ; the dark strigulation tends to form two or three spots towards apex : cilia dark fuscous , towards tips paler and somewhat mixed with orange - ochreous . hindwings dark fuscous , more blackish posteriorly ; cilia grey mixed with bronzy , with blackish - grey basal shade , tips more whitish . forewings beneath with a short longitudinal coppery - orange streak beneath upper margin of cell before middle of wing .
♂ ♀ . 8–9 mm . head and thorax brown , sometimes suffused with ferruginous - reddish . palpi brownish , paler towards base . abdomen dark grey . forewings elongate , narrow , costa slightly arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; 3 absent , 7 present ; in ♂ with narrow costal fold towards base ; varying from ochreous - brown or dark brown tinged with ochreous to bright ferruginous , sometimes sprinkled with - black , termen always suffused with ferruginous ; in ♂ a more or less indicated streak of ochreous or pale - ochreous suffusion running from base through disc to below middle and thence curved upwards to costa before apex , sometimes distinct and marked at ⅔ with a whitish spot , sometimes almost obsolete : cilia brown . hindwings dark grey ; cilia grey .
invercargill , abundant on short vegetation on sandhills in march ( philpott ) ; four specimens . this species differs from all the others of the genus
in the possession of a costal fold in ♂ , but is otherwise so nearly allied that it is clearly unnecessary to separate it generically . the genus is separated from all others by the neuration .
this species , previously included by me in proselena , is properly referable to eurythecta , having the same neuration as the preceding . i am much indebted to mr . philpott for calling my attention to the actual structure , and thus enabling me to correct my original error of observation . it may , however , be regarded as the most primitive of the five known species of the genus , and the affinity with proselena is real .
♂ ♀ . 17–18 mm . head , palpi , and thorax fuscous irrorated with whitish , head paler and more ochreous - tinged ; palpi irrorated with blackish on inferior half . abdomen ochreous - grey - whitish . forewings elongate , narrow , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen nearly straight , rather strongly oblique ; fuscous irrorated with ochreous - whitish ; a small pale brownish - ochreous basal patch , suffused with fuscous on costa , limited by an inwardly oblique black line resting externally on a ridge of raised scales ; beyond this a dark fuscous blotch from costa reaching half across wing , its posterior angle touching a large tuft of blackish scales below fold surrounded with pale brownish - ochreous suffusion ; immediately beyond this a small round ochreous spot strongly edged with blackish in disc at ⅓ , a blackish dot above this , and another at ⅖ above middle of disc ; an irregular light ochreous spot in disc at ⅔ , followed by some blackish scales ; an angulated series of blackish dots running from a dark spot on costa beyond ⅔ to dorsum before tornus : cilia grey irrorated with whitish . hindwings grey - whitish , slightly ochreous - tinged posteriorly ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .
invercargill , in january ; two specimens ( philpott ) . allied to iophæa , but readily distinguished by the black line limiting the pale basal patch , the whitish hindwings , and other differences .
♂ ♀ . 12–13 mm . head and thorax ochreous - grey - whitish . palpi whitish , second joint tinged with greyish - ochreous beneath , terminal joint shorter than second , with blackish anterior line . antennæ whitish , sprinkled with dark grey . abdomen grey mixed with ochreous - whitish , in ♂ suffused with pale ochreous towards base . forewings lanceolate , acute ; light ochreous - brown , suffusedly irrorated with whitish , tending to leave a more or less clear median longitudinal streak of ground - colour ; a blackish mark on fold towards base ; discal stigmata rather large , black , approximated , plical represented by a dark fuscous or brown cloud , very obliquely before first discal , sometimes extending upwards towards costa ; several cloudy blackish or dark fuscous dots on posterior part of costa and termen : cilia whitish , partially tinged with ochreous or fuscous , with an indistinct blackish median line . hindwings 1 , light grey ; cilia ochreous - grey - whitish .
invercargill , common in december at new river ( philpott ) ; three specimens . quite distinct from any other .
♂ . 18 mm . head whitish - ochreous sprinkled with fuscous . palpi whitish - ochreous , second joint and a median band of terminal joint irrorated with dark fuscous , terminal joint unusually short , about half second . antennæ pale ochreous suffusedly ringed with dark fuscous , uniformly pubescent - ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous suffused with brownish and irrorated with dark fuscous . abdomen grey , segments dorsally banded with golden - ferruginous . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , termen very obliquely rounded ; ochreous - whitish , closely irrorated with brown ; a triangular brownish patch above dorsum towards base , limited posteriorly by a fine inwardly oblique blackish line terminating beneath in a conspicuous raised black dot above ⅖ of dorsum , preceded by some whitish suffusion ; discal stigmata large , round , brown , edged with a few black scales ; a small blackish spot on dorsum at ⅘ , whence proceeds a sinuate line of scattered blackish scales near termen , angulated in middle and continued to costa at ⅘ , where it is somewhat dilated and preceded by a spot of whitish suffusion ; a bar of brown suffusion from second discal stigma to tornus : cilia ochreous - whitish tinged with brown and irrorated with fuscous , at tornus with a grey bar preceded by whitish suffusion . hindwings light grey ; cilia ochreous - whitish suffused with pale greyish .
invercargill , in october ; one specimen ( philpott ) . superficially much like b . griseata , but really abundantly distinct when examined in detail ; the unusually short terminal joint of palpi and pubescent - ciliated antennæ are notable structural characteristics ; the large brown discal stigmata are also a salient point .
♂ . 17 mm . head whitish - ochreous . palpi whitish - ochreous , second joint suffusedly irrorated with dark fuscous , terminal joint nearly as long as second , with dark fuscous subapical ring . antennæ whitish - ochreous spotted with dark fuscous , simply ciliated . thorax whitish - ochreous mixed with light brownish . abdomen grey , dorsally banded with ferruginous . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen rounded , rather strongly oblique ; whitish - ochreous suffusedly mixed with ochreous - brown ; base of costa suffused with dark fuscous ; first discal stigma represented by a short oblique linear black mark , followed by whitish suffusion , second round , whitish , partially edged with black , plical black , rather obliquely beyond first discal ; a suffused blackish dot on dorsum towards tornus ; some fuscous suffusion towards costa at ⅔ , and towards apex and termen ; between these are indications of an angulated suffused whitish - ochreous subterminal line , most distinct towards costa : cilia whitish - ochreous , with a light fuscous sub - basal shade . hindwings light grey ; cilia whitish - grey .
invercargill , in december ; one specimen ( philpott ) . also belongs to the griseata group , but quite distinct by the character of the stigmata and subterminal line .
♂ ♀ . 23 mm . head and thorax whitish - ochreous , in ♂ more brownishtinged . palpi whitish - ochreous , externally with a few scattered dark - fuscous scales . antennæ whitish - ochreous , obscurely ringed with dark fuscous .
abdomen whitish - ochreous , in ♂ more brownish , dorsally suffused with brassy - golden except on margins of segments . forewings elongate , costa moderately arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; whitish - ochreous , with a few scattered dark - fuscous scales , in ♂ mostly suffused with brownish except on dorsal streak ; a broad pale dorsal streak from base to tornus , upper edge prominent near base , where there is a tuft of scales , and about middle of dorsum ; some dark - fuscous suffusion extending above this streak from base to ⅗ of disc , and thence upwards to costa ; stigmata round , whitish - ochreous , edged with dark fuscous , plical obliquely beyond first discal ; an angulated dark - fuscous line or series of dots from ⅘ of costa to tornus : cilia ochreous - whitish , in ♂ irrorated with grey , basal third barred with fuscous . hindwings very pale whitish - ochreous ; a cloudy round fuscous discal spot ; apex and lower half of termen suffused with fuscous irroration ; cilia ochreous - whitish , round apex and on lower half of termen with a suffused fuscous shade .
wellington ; two specimens ( hudson ) . differs from both the other described species in having the wings of ♀ fully developed , and formed quite as in ♂ ; the pale dark - edged stigmata are also characteristic .
♂ ♀ . 16–17 mm . head and thorax rather dark fuscous , somewhat sprinkled with whitish , forehead with conical horny projection . palpi dark fuscous , somewhat whitish - sprinkled , terminal joint with two whitish bands . antenæ grey - whitish spotted with dark fuscous . abdomen dark fuscous , two basal segments dorsally amber - coloured . forewings rather narrowly elongate - oblong , costa rather arched towards base and apex , apex obtuse , termen almost straight , oblique ; dark fuscous , partially tinged with ochreous - brown , slightly whitish - sprinkled ; some variable irregularly scattered black dashes and dots in disc , plical stigma represented by a blackish tuft of scales , second discal by a transverse black mark ; three very ill - defined transverse fasciæ or lines of whitish suffusion , first at ¼ , straight , moderately broad , second median , straight , very indistinct , third at ¾ , narrow , curved , representing subterminal line : cilia fuscous mixed with dark fuscous . hindwings dark fuscous , somewhat lighter anteriorly ; cilia grey , with dark fuscous basal shade .
wellington ; two specimens ( hudson ) . distinct by its relatively small size and dark colouring .
i have recently ( proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . , 1907 , 54–68 ) recast the limits of this genus and its near allies , from extended material . the new zealand species are now classified as follows : —
conopomorpha , meyr . middle tibiæ not thickened , posterior tibiæ with bristly hairs .
macarostola , meyr . middle tibiæ not thickened , scales sometimes expanded at apex only , posterior tibiæ smooth - scaled .
gracilaria , hw . middle tibiæ thickened with dense scales , more or less rough beneath , posterior tibiæ smooth - scaled .
♀ . 12 mm . head yellow - whitish , sides of crown reddish - ochreous . palpi yellow - whitish , terminal joint ferruginous - tinged near base . antennæ white ringed with blackish , basal joint whitish - ferruginous . thorax ferruginous - ochreous , with a yellow - whitish dorsal stripe . abdomen rather dark grey , beneath yellow - whitish . legs whitish , anterior and middle femora and tibiæ mixed with ferruginous - ochreous and sprinkled with black , tips of tarsal joints blackish . forewings elongate - lanceolate , costa moderately arched posteriorly , apex acute ; deep ochreous - yellow , more orange towards dorsum , with a strong purple gloss , strewn throughout except beneath fold with very numerous suffused yellow - whitish dots separated by small dots and strigulæ of dark fuscous scales ; three moderate brassy - yellow - whitish spots on dorsum : cilia ochreous - whitish . hindwings rather dark grey ; cilia grey .
mount holdsworth , 3 , 000 ft . ; one specimen ( hudson ) . very distinct .
finding that phryganostola , which only differed from glyphipteryx by the rough projecting scales or tuft of second joint of palpi , appeared to be an artificial division , which separated nearly allied species , i have suppressed it , including all the species in glyphipteryx .
♀ . 14 mm . head , antennæ , thorax , and abdomen dark fuscous , patagia shining bronze . palpi black , second joint without tuft , with three white rings , terminal joint with two white stripes . forewings elongate , rather narrow , costa gently arched , apex round - pointed , termen hardly sinuate , rather strongly oblique ; bright golden - bronze ; five variably oblique narrow violet - silvery - metallic partly black - edged streaks from costa , first short , slightly before middle , second angulated , reaching half across wing , third short , fourth longer , rather dilated apically , fifth running to termen beneath apex ; an erect similar streak from tornus , terminating in a black mark just beyond apex of second costal streak , and a short streak from termen below middle ; a small blackish apical spot : cilia grey , basal half bronzy , with a silvery dot on subapical streak , on costa with white bars on streaks . hindwings blackish - grey ; cilia dark grey .
invercargill , in january ; one specimen ( philpott ) . resembles transversella , but without the pale longitudinal streak , the silvery streaks differently formed , the second angulated , third shorter than fourth ( in transversella longer than fourth ) , and otherwise distinct .
under the names of derogatella , walk . , and melichrysa , meyr . , treated as synonymous , i have hitherto confused two distinct species , which can now be distinguished under these two names ; both are common .
characterized by its dull brownish - ochreous ground - colour , tendency to confusion of the white markings , so that anterior half of wing is sometimes wholly suffused with white , plentiful black strigulation , the ante - median white fascia broadly dilated towards costa , shortly angulated above middle , posterior part of disc confusedly mixed with white and black scales , and presence of distinct black sub - basal line in terminal cilia .
masterton , wellington , christchurch , invercargill ( and , according to walker , auckland ) , from december to march .
characterized by clear yellow - ochreous ground - colour , well - defined and separate white black - edged markings , ante - median white fascia very acutely angulated in middle , and absence of black line in terminal cilia .
whangarei , auckland , nelson , dunedin , invercargill , in december and january . my original description clearly included both species , but the name ( meaning “honey - golden” ) is a relative definition of this one , and i now limit it in that sense .
♂ . 13–14 mm . head , palpi , thorax , and abdomen rather dark fuscous . antennæ dark fuscous , ciliations 4 . forewings elongate , costa gently arched , apex obtuse , termen very obliquely rounded ; 6 present ; whitish - fuscous , strewn with cloudy dark - fuscous strigulæ ; a moderately broad slightly oblique dark - fuscous median fascia ; a cloudy dark - fuscous spot on costa at ¾ ; the confluence of the strigulæ tends to form suffused spots in disc towards apex , and along termen : cilia whitish - fuscous , with dark - fuscous ante - median shade and indistinct bars on basal third . hindwings with 6 present ; grey ; cilia grey .
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grotella citronella is a species of moth in the genus grotella , of the family noctuidae .

this moth species is found in north america , including the mojave desert region of california .

grotella citronella

grotella citronella barnes & mcdunnough , 1916 ; 5 , pl . 3 , f . 13 ; tl : california , riverside co . , palm springs
the moth is at least somewhat worn . but it might be a member of the grotellini , possibly 11227 - grotella citronella or some other grotella . see grotellini plate at mpg . ( no rsvp , thanks )
lectotype for grotella citronella barnes & mcdunnough , 1916 catalog number : usnm collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of entomology sex / stage : male ; preparation : pinned locality : riverside co . , palm springs , california , united states
grotella vagans barnes & benjamin , 1922 ; 15 ; tl : nevada , clark co .
grotella parvipuncta barnes & mcdunnough , 1912 ; 19 ; tl : new mexico , ft . wingate ; deming
grotella stretchi barnes & benjamin , 1922 ; 14 ; tl : california , riverside co . , palm springs
grotella ( grotellini ) ; [ nacl ] , 159 ; [ mna26 . 1 ] , 26 ( note )
grotella vauriae mcelvare , 1950 ; 117 ; tl : texas , brewster co . , near hot springs , tornillo creek
grotella blanchardi mcelvare , 1966 ; j . lep . soc . 20 ( 2 ) : 91 ; tl : new mexico , eddy co . , white city
grotella margueritaria blanchard , 1968 ; j . lep . soc . 22 ( 3 ) : 142 , pl . 1 , f . 6 ; tl : texas , [ brewster co . ] , big bend national park , chihuahuan desert nr . nugent mountain , 914m
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lectotype : barnes & mcdunnough . 1916 . contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america . 3 ( 1 ) : 5 , pl . 3 , fig . 13 adult .
poole , robert w . ( march 30 , 1995 ) . the moths of america north of mexico . fascicle 26 . 1 . noctuoidea , noctuidae : cuculliinae , stiriinae , psaphidinae . charles l . hogue ( illustrator ) , brit griswold ( illustrator ) , chip clark ( photographer ) , patricia gentili ( photographer ) . wedge entomological research foundation . pp . 249 . isbn 0 - 933003 - 07 - 2 .
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[ mna26 . 1 ] ; poole , 1995 the moths of america north of mexico . noctuoidae , noctuidae ( part ) , cuculliinae , striinae , psaphidinae moths am . n of mexico 26 . 1 : 1 - 249
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poole , robert w . / poole , robert w . , and patricia gentili , eds .
nomina insecta nearctica : a check list of the insects of north america , vol . 3 : diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera
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pale yellow moth with spots adjacent to the outer margin - schinia luxa - bugguide . net
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america . .
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panoquina panoquin , the salt marsh skipper , is a butterfly of the hesperiidae family .

it is found along the atlantic coast of the united states , from new york south to florida and the florida keys , west along the gulf coast to southern texas .

the wingspan is 35 – 39 mm .

the wings are dark brown with pointed forewings .

there are a few pale spots on the upperside of the forewings .

the underside of the hindwings has yellow veins and a short white bar at the end of the cell .

adults are on wing from may to august in two generations in the north and from april to october in three generations in the south .

in florida , there are multiple generations with adults on wing from february to december .

adults feed on the flower nectar of a wide range of plants .

the larvae feed on distichlis spicata .

panoquina panoquin

species panoquina panoquin - salt marsh skipper - hodges # 4116 - bugguide . net
forewings are pointed . wings are dark brown . upperside of forewing has a few pale spots . underside of hindwing has yellow veins and a short white bar at the end of the cell .
two broods from may - august in the north ; three broods from april - october in the south ; several broods from february - december in florida .
nectar from flowers including privet , sweet pepperbush , red clover , gumweed , lippia , salt marsh fleabane , blue mistflower , thistle , and verbena .
along the immediate atlantic coast from long island , new york south to florida and the keys ; west along the gulf coast to south texas .
g5 - demonstrably secure globally , though it may be quite rare in parts of its range , especially at the periphery .
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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check list of the lepidoptera of north america . . . ms , database ( version 2003 )
ongoing developmental version with contributions by don lafontaine , jean - françois landry , jim troubridge , paul opler , ron hodges , john brown , et al . higher classification does not yet reflect recent and substantial changes that have been published
other contributing editors : tatiana dominick , donald , r . davis , douglas c . ferguson , john g . franclemont , eugene g . munroe , and jerry a . powell
disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .