root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus meloidogyne .

they exist in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters .

about 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5 % of global crop loss .

root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots , causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the plant 's photosynthate and nutrients .

infection of young plants may be lethal , while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield .

root - knot nematode

meloidogyne incognita ( root - knot nematode ) ; male , full body image .
glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica .
adegbite aa , adesiyan so . 2005 . root extracts of plants to control root - knot nematode on edi -
figure 6 . the lettuce on the left is wilting due to root knot nematode infestation .
figure 1 .
knotted
roots on a tomato plant caused by root - knot nematode .
table 4 . example of a rotation plan for a root knot nematode - infested garden 1 .
karssen g , van aelst a . root - knot nematode perineal pattern development : a reconsideration .
cracking on storage roots due to root - knot nematode ( g . lawrence , aps ) .
figure 2 . a three week - old tomato plant ready for root - knot nematode inoculation .
management of root knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita affecting chickpea , cicer arietinum for sust . . .
development of a simple multiplex pcr protocol for identification of the tropical root - knot nematode . . .
use of trap crops and antagonistic crops . planting tagetes erecta and crotolaria spectabilis in nematode infested soil is effective against the root - knot nematode
root - knot nematode infection and growth of infected okra and brinjal plants . pak j bot . 40 :
identification of the tropical root - knot nematode species meloidogyne incognita , m . arenaria and m . . . .
effect of various physico - chemical factors on the incidence of root knot nematode meloidogyne spp . i . . .
1 most varieties susceptible to at least one species of the nematode type listed . 2 harmony and freedom grape rootstocks are resistant to root knot nematodes . 3 nemaguard and nemared ( peach ) rootstocks are resistant to root knot nematodes . 4 royal blenheim rootstock is resistant to root knot and root lesion nematodes .
figure 2 . close - up of
knotted
roots on a tomato plant infected with root - knot nematode .
abad p , favery b , rosso mn , castagone - sereno p . 2003 . root - knot nematode parasitism and
1 most varieties susceptible to at least one species of the nematode type listed . 2 some blackeye , lima , and snap bean varieties are resistant to meloidogyne incognita , a species of root knot nematode . 3 tomato varieties designated “n” are resistant to most root knot nematode species .
a role of the gelatinous matrix in the resistance of root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne spp . ) eggs to microorganisms .
figure 1 . a two week - old cowpea plant grown in a pouch and ready for root - knot nematode inoculation .
root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne species ) : systemics , biology , and control .
the root knot nematode species , m . incognita , is the most widespread and probably the most serious plant parasitic nematode pest of tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world (
castagnone - sereno p . genetic variability and adaptive evolution in parthenogenetic root - knot nematodes .
the threat of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in africa : a review
meloidogyne incognita ; juvenile mortality ; egg hatching ; plant extracts ; root - knot nematodes .
monitoring or assessment of nematode populations is an important aid to nematode management . monitoring should begin well before problems occur , as it is too late to prevent crop losses once root - knot nematode damage is seen in the field .
however , with careful planning , rotation in combination with fallowing and solarization can reduce root knot nematode numbers . annual crops that are useful in a rotation plan for reducing root knot nematode populations include small grains such as wheat and barley , sudangrass , and resistant tomato and bean varieties .
katcho za , 1972 . first occurrence of certain root - knot nematode species in iraq . plant disease reporter , 56 ( 9 ) : 824 .
ehlers jd , matthews wc , hall ae , roberts pa . inheritance of a broad - based form of root - knot nematode resistance in cowpea .
in general , members of the grass family are less susceptible than other plants to root - knot nematodes .
the threat of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in africa : a review | request pdf
nematode analysis is likely to show a number of plant - parasitic species . however , root - knot nematode is the only species known to cause economic damage to tomatoes in queensland and nematode management decisions should be made on the basis of its presence or absence .
babatola jd , 1980 . reactions of some rice cultivars to the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita . nematropica , 10 ( 1 ) : 5 - 9
mishra sm , 1991 . screening of tomato varieties at nursery stage against root - knot nematode . indian journal of nematology , 21 ( 2 ) : 162 .
adam mam , phillips ms , blok bc . molecular diagnostic key for identification of single juveniles of seven common and economically important species of root - knot nematode (
root - knot nematode juveniles are active , thread - like worms about 0 . 5 mm long . they are too small to be seen with the naked eye .
fademi oa , 1987 . resistance of some rice varieties to the root - knot nematode ( rkn ) meloidogyne incognita . international rice research newsletter , 12 : 11 .
several nematicide have been very effective against the root - knot nematode in sweetpotato . examples are nemagon , mocap , dasanit , nemacur , furadan , temik , vydate .
sharon e , spiegel y . glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica . j nematol . 1993 ; 25 : 585 - 9
root - knot problems increase and control becomes more difficult when tomatoes or other susceptible crops are grown without rotation .
corrigendum : distribution and genetic diversity of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in potato . . .
host suitability of ixora spp . for the root - knot nematodes meloidogyne incognita race 1 and m . javanica .
evidence of direct feeding , apparent in the form of galls and other root malformations leads to the damage symptoms described above . the invasive stage of the root - knot nematode life cycle is the juvenile root - knot nematode , which can freely move through the soil and will enter the root of a suitable host plant . only the female is capable of establishing a feeding site . the female will become immobile , causing the plant to form giant cells for feeding , which essentially appears as a gall on the root . the presence of root - knot nematodes can be detected by the presence of these characteristic galls .
) . after penetrating the root , the larvae move towards the central cylinder ( stele ) . larvae of root - knot and cyst nematodes migrate by different pathways : the
mishra c , singh b , laha sk , 1987 . integrated approach for root - knot nematode management in jute . indian journal of nematology , 17 : 285 - 287 .
mature female root knot nematodes are pear - shaped and about 0 . 01 inch long . root knot nematodes spend most of their life in galls . mature females resemble tiny , white pearls ; they sometimes can be seen with the use of a hand lens when root galls are cut open .
figure 1 . an adult female citrus nematodes , tylenchulus semipenetrans , shown imbedded in a root cut in cross section . the nematode’s front end is deep inside the root tissue while the rear end remains outside of the root .
hussey rs , mims cw , westcott sw . , iii ultrastructure of root cortical cells parasitized by the ring nematode ,
m . incognita is probably the most widely distributed and economically important species of plant parasitic nematode in tropical and subtropical regions . two - thirds of the root - knot nematode samples obtained from a number of tropical countries were of m . incognita (
wu jq , xue zh , 1986 . a preliminary study on the root - knot nematode disease of kenaf . acta - phytopathologica sinica , 16 ( 1 ) : 53 - 56 .
a number of other nematode species also can damage home garden and landscape plants including the ring nematode ( criconemoides xenoplax ) , root lesion nematodes ( pratylenchus species ) , the sugarbeet cyst nematode ( heterodera schachtii ) , the citrus nematode ( tylenchulus semipenetrans ) , the stem and bulb nematode ( ditylenchus dipsaci ) , and others . tables 1 , 2 , and 3 list some common garden plant species and their nematode pests .
trudgill dl , block vc . apomictic , polyphagous root - knoot nematodes : exceptionally successfull and damaging biotrophic root pathogens .
nematode assays can be obtained through the nematode assay section , agronomic division , north carolina department of agriculture & consumer services .
rasina b , 1970 . root - knot nematodes in hothouses . darzs un drava , 10 ( 150 ) : 14 - 15
meng q , long h , xu j . pcr assays for rapid and sensitive identification of three major root - knot nematodes ,
winter cereals are useful because they are generally poor hosts and little nematode reproduction occurs during the cold winter months . it is more difficult to find summer crops with good resistance to root - knot nematode , though sorghum x sudan grass hybrids ( particularly cv . jumbo ) are useful against most populations of the nematode .
r . n . perry , m . moens and j . starr , eds . root - knot nematodes . lincoln : cabi .
i have been told numerous times that beneficial nematodes will not work on root knot nematodes . in fact the university of florida states :
mcsorley , r . 1999 . host suitability of potential cover crops for root - knot nematodes . journal of nematology 31 : 619–623 .
a fungal egg parasite , was found effective against root - knot attacking sweetpotato . the parasite reduced egg masses by about 50 % .
lordello rra , lordello ail , sawazaki e , trevisan wl , 1986 . root - knot nematode damages a maize field in goias . nematologia brasileira , 10 ( 1 ) : 145 - 149 .
sharon e & spiegel y . ( 1993 ) . glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica . journal of nematology , 25 , pp . 585 - 9 .
fademi oa , 1986 . reaction of some selected rice cultivars to a root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita ( kofoid and white ) chitwood . pakistan journal of nematology , 4 : 15 - 18 .
instead of sending soil samples to a laboratory for nematode analysis , a simple bioassay is sometimes useful , particularly for detecting low populations of root - knot nematode . transplant a nematode - free tomato seedling of a susceptible variety into a pot containing about 2 l of your soil sample . grow plants at temperatures of 20 - 28 o c for about one month , and then remove the root system and examine it for galls . at this stage , the galls ( if present ) will be less than 0 . 5 mm in diameter but their occurrence will indicate the presence of root - knot nematode .
one of the best ways to manage nematodes is to use vegetable varieties and fruit tree rootstocks that are resistant to nematode injury . tomato varieties with the code vfn ( verticillium , fusarium , nematodes ) on the seed packet or label are resistant to common root knot nematode species . although even resistant tomato varieties can still exhibit some root galling under high nematode levels , they usually maintain their yield . for example in recent vegetable garden - type experiments on root knot nematode soil , nematode - resistant tomatoes yielded almost 6 times more tomatoes than a similar susceptible variety . an additional benefit of growing a resistant variety is the nematode levels in the soil decline rather than increase , making it more feasible to grow a susceptible crop the following season .
a considerable amount of work has been devoted to the biological control of root - knot nematodes in general and m . incognita in particular (
abad p , favery b , rosso mn , castagnone - sereno p ( 2003 ) root - knot nematode parasitism and host response : molecular basis of a sophisticated interaction . mol plant pathol 4 : 217–224 .
dubreuil g , magliano m , deleury e , abad p , rosso mn ( 2007 ) transcriptome analysis of root - knot nematode functions induced in the early stages of parasitism . new phytol 176 : 426–436 .
root injury from other nematode species can produce aboveground symptoms similar to those from root knot nematodes . however , the actual injury to the roots is more difficult to detect . roots can be shortened or deformed with no other clues as to the source of the injury . you can confirm a nematode infestation by collecting soil and root samples and sending the material to a laboratory for positive identification of the infesting species .
stanton jm , o ' donnell we . assessment of the north carolina differential host test for identification of australian populations of root - knot nematodes (
amin aw , budai cs , 1994 . some weed host plants of the root - knot nematode meloidogyne species in south - eastern hungary . pakistan journal of nematology , 12 ( 1 ) : 59 - 65 .
mohandas c , ramakrishnan s , 1997 . pathogenic effect of root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita on african white yam , dioscorea rotundata . indian journal of nematology , 27 ( 2 ) : 233 - 236 .
tesarová b , zouhar m , ry ? ánek p , 2003 . development of pcr for specific determination of root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita . plant protection science , 39 ( 1 ) : 23 - 28 .
the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita , is worldwide in distribution . it is widespread in asia , southeast asia and usually occurs in warmer areas . in some countries , m . javanica is more dominant .
sharon e , spiegel y . glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica . j nematol 1993 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 585 - 9 urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
rosso mn , dubrana mp , cimbolini n , jaubert s , abad p ( 2005 ) application of rna interference to root - knot nematode genes encoding esophageal gland proteins . mol plant microbe interact 18 : 615–620 .
nematodes cause extensive injury to many vegetables in over half of the gardens in north carolina . nematode - control measures will significantly reduce root - knot and other nematodes from the garden site . the continued combined use of rotation , resistance , and cultural practices will minimize nematode damage and , over time , will reduce the nematodes to low population levels so that a serious problem is not likely to occur . root - knot nematode problems can be detected by examining the roots of vegetables soon after harvest is completed or through an assay of a soil sample . root - knot affected cantaloupe , cucumber , eggplant , okra , squash , tomato , and other susceptible crops will have very conspicuous root galls ( swellings ) .
when tomatoes ( or other root - knot susceptible crops ) are planted in the same field every year , a check for root - knot galls at the end of the season provides valuable information on the level of nematode infestation and the likelihood of nematode damage in the next year . a thorough sampling of the field at harvest may provide as much information as having soil samples analysed for nematodes before the planting of the next crop .
may promote the giant cells to divide , it is not sufficient to drive expansion of giant cells . for the root - cyst nematode ,
li hq , cheng jl , feng cc , 1992 . the primary report on the investigation and identification of tobacco root - knot nematode in shaanxi . shaanxi agricultural science , no . 2 : 29 ; 2 ref .
nasira k , shaheen n , shahina f , 2011 . root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita wartellei on pomegranate in swat , kpk , pakistan . pakistan journal of nematology , 29 ( 1 ) : 117 - 118 .
salam ma , 1991 . weed hosts of root knot nematodes in little andaman island . current nematology , 2 ( 1 ) : 83 - 84 .
root knot nematodes , mainly m . incognita and m . javanica , are always pests of economic importance in tobacco culture , wherever the climate favours them (
bhardwaj ln , hogger ch , 1984 . root - knot nematodes of chitwan district of nepal . nematologia mediterranea , 12 ( 1 ) : 155 - 158
whitehead ag , 1969 . the distribution of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in tropical africa . nematologica , 15 : 315 - 333 .
hadisoeganda w , sasser jn . resistance of tomato , bean , southern pea , and garden pea cultivars to root - knot nematodes based on host suitability .
r . n . perry , m . moens and j . l . starr , eds . root - knot nematodes , 1 . london : cabi .
r . n . perry , m . moens and j . l . starr , eds . root - knot nematodes , 1 . wallingford , uk .
meloidogyne incognita ( root - knot nematode ) ; female . ( reproduced from orton williams kj , 1973 . cih descriptions of plant - parasitic nematodes . set 2 , no . 18 . wallingford , uk : cab international . )
nematodes are basically aquatic animals and require a water film around soil particles before they can move . also , nematode eggs will not hatch unless there is sufficient moisture in the soil . thus , soil moisture conditions that are optimum for plant growth are also ideal for the development of root - knot nematode .
it is believed the root knot nematode survives from season to season primarily as eggs in the soil . after the eggs hatch , the second - stage juveniles invade roots , usually at root tips , causing some of the root cells to enlarge where the nematodes feed and develop . the male nematodes eventually leave the roots , but the females remain embedded , laying their eggs into a jellylike mass that extends through the root surface and into the soil .
≤ 0 . 01 ) for dry root weight . although the effect of the combined nematode treatment ( mx + mp ) was less than that of
sivapalan p , 1978 . investigation on root - knot nematodes in sri lanka under international meloidogyne project . kasetsart journal , 12 ( 1 ) : 14 - 24
although california has many different species of root - feeding nematodes , the most damaging ones to gardens are the root knot nematodes , meloidogyne species . root knot nematodes attack a wide range of plants , including many common vegetables , fruit trees , and ornamentals . they are difficult to control , and they can spread easily from garden to garden in soil on tools and boots or on infested plants .
root knot nematodes are named for the reason that they feed off of a plant’s root cells from their first stage as a worm or larvae after hatched from an egg . the root knot nematode lives in three stages , growing each time and shedding their outer layer . as nematodes grow they also attach themselves to a host plant’s roots , feeding off of the plant cells and inserting itself deeper within the root as it feeds which creates a root knot or gall . throughout the three stages of shedding and growing within a plants root system , the root knot nematode will live anywhere between 17 to 57 days depending on the climate . the easiest way to eliminate nematodes is to kill them while they are in the egg stage of their life so they have no chance to damage your plants . a simple way to manage a nematode infestation is with a nematicide like multiguard protect that kills nematodes on contact without damaging your plant or the beneficial organisms in the soil . the difference is that multiguard protect is not phytotoxic , leaves no harmful residue in the soil and stimulates the growth of beneficial organisms in the soil .
field - if the management practices above are adopted , nematicides should only be needed in the field as a last resort ( e . g . in sandy soils where tomatoes are particularly prone to nematode damage ) . even in situations where root - knot nematode problems are usually severe , the use of good management practices reduces the nematode population pressure and gives nematicides a greater chance of providing effective control .
tomatoes are very susceptible to root - knot nematodes under queensland conditions . in the past , control measures were normally recommended if one root - knot nematode was found in a 200 ml soil sample taken before planting or a gall was found in the roots of bioassay plants . however , recent research suggests that the economic threshold may be a little higher than previously thought . thus , well managed crops grown in fields with a preplant density of 1 - 10 root - knot nematodes per 200 ml soil may be heavily galled at harvest but will suffer little yield loss from nematodes .
general identification of root - knot nematode infestation can be conducted by competent nematologists with basic equipment . identification of species within the genus meloidogyne requires the services of specialized taxonomists . in addition to classical taxonomic techniques , biochemical methods are also being developed (
d ' errico g , crescenzi a , landi s , 2014 . first report of the southern root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita on the invasive weed araujia sericifera in italy . plant disease , 98 ( 11 ) : 1593 - 1594 . urltoken
sharma gl , baheti bl , 1992 . loss estimates due to root - knot nematode in peas , okra , tomato and bottle gourd crops in rajasthan , india . current nematology , 3 ( 2 ) : 187 - 188 ; 3 ref .
singh sk , conde b , hodda m , 2012 . root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne incognita ) on bitter melon ( momordica charantia ) near darwin , australia . australasian plant disease notes , 7 ( 1 ) : 75 - 78 . urltoken
mclean md , yevtushenko dp , deschene a , van cauwenberghe or , makhmoudova a , et al . ( 2003 ) overexpression of glutamate decarboxylase in transgenic tobacco plants confers resistance to the northern root - knot nematode . mol breeding 11 : 277–285 .
1 most varieties susceptible to at least one species of the nematode type listed .
and is now present in many tomato cultivars . early after infection , a localized necrosis occurs at the nematode feeding site inhibiting further development of the nematode . the
count the nematode inoculum and stir on a magnetic stirring plate as described earlier .
long way in nematode management . it will provide bright future for identifying new class
khan a , shaukat ss . 2001 . management of plant parasitic nematode associated with
root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) are a major problem facing crop production globally including potatoes . during the 2011 / 2012 potato growing season , root - knot nematode infected potato tubers were obtained from different potato growing regions in south africa for identification of meloidogyne spp . using the intergenic region of the ribosomal dna ( igs - rdna ) together with the region between . . . [ show full abstract ]
root knot nematodes are tiny , almost microscopic , wormlike creatures that are very common in soil . they have a wide range of host plants , tomatoes one of the most critically affected , and very widespread distribution . root knot nematodes thrive in very moist conditions in the soil . they require a film of water around the soil before they are able to move , and the eggs cannot hatch without sufficient moisture . unfortunately , the same conditions that allow root knot nematodes to prosper are the same that make most plants flourish . root knot nematodes are parasitic creatures that live off the cells of their host plant . they excrete enzymes that cause plant cells to enlarge , creating galls or lumps ranging from 1mm to 10mm in diameter to develop all over the roots . effects of a root knot nematode infestation include stunting , wilting , yellowing , reduction of flowering , fruit set , and fruit development , and sometimes even plant death .
potting mixes - if peat , sand and other components are obtained from sources free of root - knot nematode and are not contaminated before use , the treatment of potting mixes for nematode control is unnecessary . treatments for damping - off fungi ( e . g . aerated steam at 60°c for 30 minutes ) will also kill nematodes .
meloidogyne incognita ( root - knot nematode ) ; posterior cuticular patterns of females . ( reproduced from orton williams kj , 1973 . cih descriptions of plant - parasitic nematodes . set 2 , no . 18 . wallingford , uk : cab international . )
bhat ok , kaul v , 1994 . influence of soil temperature on the population behaviour of root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita in a tomato field . annals of plant protection sciences , 2 ( 1 ) : 28 - 29 ; 6 ref .
accurate diagnosis is crucial to the development of an effective control program . soil samples can be examined for root knot juveniles and other species of nematodes . if root galls are present , the roots and soil may be submitted for analysis . for information on submitting samples to the umass extension diagnostic laboratory for nematode analysis , please see urltoken
one explanation for the suppression in nematode reproduction by one nematode species on another may be attributed to a reduction or alteration of suitable feeding sites on the root . nematode - feeding sites on roots differ between a sedentary endoparasite , such as the root - knot nematode , and a migratory ectoparasite , such as the ring nematode . meloidogyne spp . penetrate at the root tip , establish themselves and feed within the vascular cylinder region for the remainder of their life cycle ( de guiran and ritter , 1979 ) . the ring nematode feeds from individual cortical cells further back on the root for up to eight days and then moves to a new feeding site along the root ( hussey et al . , 1992 ) ; these sites are modified into discrete food cells . apparently , as a result of direct or indirect competition for feeding sites , the more aggressive nematode may influence reproduction of the cohabiting nematode . on soybean and peach , m . incognita suppressed reproduction of pratylenchus brachyurus and m . xenoplax , respectively ( herman et al . , 1988 ; nyczepir et al . , 1993 ) , whereas m . xenoplax suppressed reproduction of m . hapla on grape ( santo and bolander , 1977 ) . our results showed that m . partityla suppressed the reproduction of m . xenoplax in pecan and appears to be the more aggressive nematode specie and competitor in this nematode - nematode host - parasite relationship .
dig up plants from several areas of the field , taking care to retrieve the fine feeder roots , and look carefully for the presence of galls . the number and size of the galls provides an indication of the degree of root - knot nematode infestation .
bridge j , otim - nape w , namaganda j , 1991 . the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita , causing damage to cassava in uganda . afro - asian journal of nematology , 1 ( 1 ) : 116 - 117 ; 7 ref .
moura rmde , regina mdgc , silva - lima stda , costa mbda , ribeiro ars , 2010 . first report of root - knot nematode on yam ' são tomé ' in brazil . nematologia brasileira , 34 ( 3 ) : 178 - 180 . urltoken
young seedlings are the best developmental stage for root - knot nematode inoculation . however , this needs to be balanced with the formation of an adequate root system providing sufficient numbers of root tips as points of entry for the j2s . maintaining optimal plant growth condition is also critical for the screens . avoid over - watering plants specially those grown in pouches . over - watering the pouches , as indicated by standing water in the bottom of the pouch , can promote fungal growth and diminish root health .
if you are growing a crop susceptible to root - knot , check a sample of roots and determine the level of galling approximately 12 months before planting tomatoes . eight months before planting , destroy nematode - infested root systems and plough out the crop immediately after harvest . maintain a weed - free fallow until a cover crop is planted . plant a cover crop that is not susceptible to root - knot nematodes , such as winter cereals or forage sorghum . two months before planting , collect soil samples and either do a bioassay or test the soil for nematodes . if the results of nematode analyses or bioassays , or the previous occurrence of nematode problems , suggest that nematodes are likely to cause damage , either plant a nematode - resistant variety or apply a preplant nematicide .
seedbeds - in crops established from seedlings , transplants must be free of root - knot nematodes . before planting , fumigate all seedbeds with a registered chemical according to label directions .
dabaj kh , jenser g , 1987 . list of plants infected by root - knot nematodes in libya . international nematology network newsletter , 4 ( 3 ) : 28 - 33
ogunfowora ao , 1982 . root - knot nematodes on cowpea and some selected vegetable crops . proceedings of the 3rd research planning conference on root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , regions iv and v , 16 - 20 november 1981 , ibadan , nigeria . ( international meloidogyne project ) . international institute of tropical agriculture ibadania niger , 72 - 84
pinochet j , 1977 . occurrence and spatial distribution of root - knot nematodes on bananas and plantains in honduras . plant disease reporter , 61 ( 6 ) : 518 - 520
zijlstra cm , uenk bj , van silfhout ch . a reliable , precise method to differentiate species of root - knot nematodes in mixtures on the basis of its - rflps .
moody , e . h . , lownsbery , b . f . and ahmed , j . m . ( 1973 ) — culture of the root - lesion nematode
raveendran v , nadakal am , 1975 . an additional list of plants infected by the root - knot nematode , meloidogyne incognita ( kofoid & white , 1919 ) chitwood , 1949 in kerala . indian journal of nematology , 5 ( 1 ) : 126 - 127
the use of trays and growth pouches enables screening of hundreds to thousands of plants in a small growth space . growth pouches also allow fast and efficient non - destructive evaluation of root - knot nematode infections with no need for washing roots ( figure 4 ) .
root - knot nematodes , ( meloidogyne spp . ) are main pathogens of tomato in india . a survey was undertaken to find out the effect of physico - chemical properties of soil on the incidence and infestation of two root - knot nematode species namely meloidogyne javanica and meloidogyne incognita on tomato growing fields in aligarh . maximum disease frequency ( 87 . 5 % ) was found in shah jamal and mahraval . . . [ show full abstract ]
nwauzor ec , fawole b , 1982 . root - knot nematodes on yams in eastern nigeria . proceedings of the 3rd research planning conference on root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , regions iv and v , 16 - 20 november 1981 , ibadan , nigeria . ( international meloidogyne project ) . international institute of tropical agriculture ibadania niger , 161 - 167
nematodes–especially root - knot nematodes–cause major losses in vegetable crops in commercial farms , greenhouses , and home gardens in north carolina . root - knot nematodes are microscopic roundworms that can pierce the roots of certain plant species and lay their eggs inside the roots . this gives the roots a “knotty” appearance ( figure 1 and figure 2 ) and results in a wilted or stunted appearance of the whole plant . meloidogyne incognito , the southern root - knot nematode , is most common in north carolina , but other species have been found recently . these pests occur in about two - thirds of the fields used for crops in the state .
raymundo sa , 1985 . cropping systems research and root - knot nematode control . in : sasser jn , carter cc , eds . an advanced treatise on meloidogyne . vol . i . biology and control . raleigh , north carolina state graphics , 277 - 281 .
sharon e , spiegel y :
glycoprotein characterization of the gelatinous matrix in the root - knot nematode meloidogyne javanica .
journal of nematology , vol . 25 , no . 4 , 1993 , pp . 585 - 9 , urltoken accessed july 9 , 2018 .
jammes f , lecomte p , de almeida - engler j , bitton f , martin - magniette ml , et al . ( 2005 ) genome - wide expression profiling of the host response to root - knot nematode infection in arabidopsis . plant j 44 : 447–458 .
adesiyan so , odihirin ra , 1978 . root knot nematodes as pests of yams ( dioscorea spp . ) in southern nigeria . nematologica , 24 ( 1 ) : 132 - 134
anamika , sobita simon , 2010 . new report on occurrence of root - knot disease in beta vulgaris . current nematology , 21 ( 1 / 2 ) : 71 - 73 .
fademi oa , 1984 . influence of rate and time of carbofuran application to control root - knot nematodes in upland rice . international rice research newsletter , 9 : 22 - 23 .
martinez de ilarduya o , moore ae , kaloshian i . the tomato rme1 locus is required for mi - 1 - mediated resistance to root - knot nematodes and the potato aphid .
nematodes are roundworms that occupy a vast array of ecological niches and have many different lifestyles . of the more than 25 , 000 species of nematodes on earth , only a handful are known to feed on plants in the northeastern us . the species of greatest concern to vegetable growers in the region is the northern root knot nematode ( nrkn ) , meloidogyne hapla . unlike the southern root knot nematode ( m . incognita ) and a few other species found primarily in the southern us , nrkn is capable of surviving the freezing temperatures of northern winters .
) . soyabean ( glycine max ) is another legume severely damaged by root knot nematodes and in brazil yield can be reduced by over 55 % in the presence of m . incognita (
rodriguez - kabana , r . and king , p . s . ( 1980 ) — use of mixtures of urea and blackstrap molasses for control of root - knot nematodes in soil .
vovlas n , simões njo , sasanelli n , santos mcvdos , abrantes imde o , 2004 . host - parasite relationships in tobacco plants infected with a root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne incognita ) population from the azores . phytoparasitica , 32 ( 2 ) : 167 - 173 . urltoken
citation : baldacci - cresp f , chang c , maucourt m , deborde c , hopkins j , lecomte p , et al . ( 2012 ) ( homo ) glutathione deficiency impairs root - knot nematode development in medicago truncatula . plos pathog 8 ( 1 ) : e1002471 . urltoken
- alone = 24 , 302 eggs / gram dry root vs . mx + mp = 11 , 911 eggs / gram dry root ; data not presented in table ) .
khan mw , dabaj kh , 1980 . some preliminary observations on root - knot nematodes of vegetable crops in tripoli region of libyan jamahiriya . libyan journal of agriculture , 9 : 127 - 136
reddy ddr , 1975 . pathogenicity and control of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) infecting chick pea . mysore journal of agricultural sciences , 9 ( 3 ) : 434 - 439
galls and egg masses of root - knot nematodes on fibrous roots ( left ) . galls on sweetpotato roots are often much smaller and difficult to see ( w . martin , aps ) .
bhattarai kk , xie qg , mantelin s , bishnoi u , girke t , navarre da , kaloshian i . tomato susceptibility to root - knot nematodes requires an intact jasmonic acid signaling pathway .
although many spring - planted vegetables such as beets , carrot , english pea , lettuce , potato , radish , and others are susceptible to root - knot nematode , they can be grown in infested soil and suffer only minor damage because nematodes are inactive at low soil temperatures ( 60°f ) . however , these same vegetables can suffer extensive damage when planted in the late spring , summer , or fall when soil temperatures are more suitable for nematode activity ( 70–85°f ) . other common garden vegetables grown during mid - to late summer , such as tomato , pepper , cucumber , squash , eggplant , and okra also are highly susceptible to root - knot nematode .
the presence of developing nematodes in the root stimulates the surrounding tissues to enlarge and produce the galls typical of infection by this nematode . mature female nematodes then lay hundreds of eggs on the root surface , which hatch in warm , moist soil to continue the life cycle .
ali ss , 1986 . root - knot nematode problem in cardamom and its management . proceedings of the second group discussions on the nematological problems of plantation crops , april 24 - 25 , 1986 . central coffee research station , balehonnur , karnataka , india , pp . 10 - 12 .
the primary damage to yams ( dioscorea species ) by m . incognita is in the reduction in quality and marketability of the tubers due to the extensive surface galling caused by the root knot nematodes (
chen cm , chen p , yao g , 1991 . study on root - knot nematodes on tobacco and their control . sichuan plant protection , no . 1 / 2 , 75 - 78 .
lehman ps , cochran cr , 1991 . how to use vegetable cultivars to control root - knot nematodes in home gardens . nematology circular no . 189 . florida department of agriculture and consumer services .
sirca s , urek g , karssen g , 2003 . occurrence of the root - knot nematodes meloidogyne incognita and m . hapla in slovenia . plant disease , 87 ( 9 ) : 1150 .
root tissue response of two related soybean cultivars to infection by lectin - treated meloidogyne spp .
the formation of these galls damages the water - and nutrient - conducting abilities of the roots . galls can crack or split open , especially on the roots of vegetable plants , allowing the entry of soil - borne , disease - causing microorganisms . root knot nematode galls are true swellings and can’t be rubbed off the roots as can the beneficial , nitrogen - fixing nodules on the roots of legumes . root knot nematodes can feed on the roots of grasses and certain legumes without causing galling .
three to four days before nematode inoculation , extract root - knot nematode eggs from infected tomato roots . before starting egg extraction , wash the work area thoroughly with hot water to avoid contamination . also wash in hot water a blender , two buckets , a wire mesh support , a rubber mallet , three sieves of 425 , 90 and 25 μm aperture , a graduated cylinder and scissors .
several vegetable varieties are resistant to root - knot nematodes and will produce a good crop even in the presence of nematodes . the effectiveness is increased when combined with crop rotation . by alternating root - knot resistant and susceptible vegetables within a given portion of the garden from one year to the next , the overall nematode problem can be reduced by preventing a build - up of high populations . this practice will reduce the risk of serious damage to the susceptible vegetables . table 1 lists vegetable varieties having resistance to the most widespread and prevalent root - knot nematode . many of these varieties , especially the tomatoes , can be purchased at local lawn and garden centers or can be purchased through online retailers . others are more difficult to obtain and may have to be ordered directly from the producer .
figure 2 . healthy onion bulb ( right ) and bulb infested by stem and bulb nematode .
nematode communities and island biogeography theory : inputs from the caribbean islands and indian ocean islands . .
• grow resistant varieties . look for an “n” on the seed packet which indicates nematode resistant .
addition of organic amendments . chicken manure is very effective reducing nematode egg masses by 56 % .
first reported the development of a transgenic plant conferring nematode resistance by expressing dsrna . by targeting two
transcripts from expressed sequence tag ( est ) data for 32 nematode parasites . these efforts identified 31
chen cm , li hy , lii dy , 1986 . the study on root - knot nematodes of common turmeric ( curcuma domestica valet ) . herald of agricultural sciences , 1 : 16 - 22 .
below ground , the symptoms of root - knot nematodes are quite distinctive . lumps or galls ranging in size from 1 to 10 mm in diameter , develop all over the roots . in severe infestations , heavily galled roots may rot away , leaving a poor root system with a few large galls .
crop rotation : rotating onion , carrot , or lettuce with a nonhost crop such as sweet corn and other grain crops , if economically possible , will be effective in controlling the northern root - knot nematode . sudangrass is a nonhost to this nematode and when incorporated as a green manure will further suppress the soil population of this nematode . current crop rotations on organic soils are of limited value as most crops grown , including potatoes , beans , celery , lettuce , onion , and carrot are susceptible .
nematodes are too small to see without a microscope . often you become aware of a nematode problem by finding galled roots on a previous crop . however , you also can use a simple bioassay to detect root knot nematodes in garden soil . melons seeded in pots in moist soil collected from the garden will develop visible galls on the roots in about 3 weeks when pots are kept at about 80ºf if root knot nematodes are present . as a comparison , melons planted in heat - sterilized soil won’t develop galls .
sen k , das gupta mk , 1976 . occurrence of root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) on some plants in sriniketan ( west bengal ) . science and culture , 42 : 112 - 115
galano , c . d . , r . m . gapasin and j . l . lim . 1996 . efficacy of paecilomyces lilacinus isolates for the control of root - knot nematode ( meloidogyne incognita ( kofoid and white ) chitwood ) in sweet potato . annals of tropical research 18 : 4 - 12 .
3 nematode interactions unit , rothamsted research , ltd . , harpenden , herts al5 2jq , united kingdom
“currently , no predators are commercially available for augmentative releases for nematode control in vegetable production systems . ”
crop rotation . non - host crops or resistant crops can be planted when nematode population is high .
nematodes , nematodes , nematodes ! considering the nematode family constitutes one of the most abundant animal life on this planet , it should come to no surprise that nematode infestations are common . for fighting root knot nematodes with beneficial nematodes , the best time to apply the beneficials would be about 10 - 14 days before transplanting anything into the soil . many of the recommendations for chemical nematode control involve organophosphates or carbamates ( both effect nerve impulse transmission ) and specialized equipment . i would recommend utilizing an integrates pest management approach instead of chemicals . utilizing host plants which do not support nematode life , crop rotation , and choosing nematode resistant varieties are all steps you can take to rid yourself of those buggers once and for all .
) . in north america , losses to tobacco from root knot nematodes , mainly m . incognita , have been estimated to range from 1 % to 14 % annually in areas where control measures are the norm (
esfahani mn , ahmadi a , 2010 . field observations on the reaction of medicinal plants to root - knot nematodes in isfahan , iran . international journal of nematology , 20 ( 1 ) : 107 - 112 .
freire fdas co , ponte jjda , 1976 . root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , associated with plant parasitism in the state of bahia ( brazil ) . boletim cearense de agronomia , 17 : 47 - 55
only few populations of other nematode species from argentina have been characterized in detail ( doucet , 1989 ; lax and doucet , 2001 ; vovlas et al . , 2007 ) and no studies on root - knot nematodes from this country have been undertaken , which constitutes a disadvantage for agricultural management and for understanding meloidogyne species variability around the world . the goals of this study are : i ) to characterize a population of root - knot nematodes from a production zone in tupungato ( mendoza , argentina ) ; ii ) to contribute to the understanding of the species variability using morphological , morphometric , biochemical , molecular , and reproductive traits as well as host range ; and iii ) to provide data on the identification of root - knot nematodes infecting tomato cultivars from argentina .
above - ground symptoms exhibited by sweetpotato plants due to root - knot nematode include poor shoot growth , leaf chlorosis and stunting . galling of rootlets and severe cracking of storage roots on some varieties or formation of small bumps or blisters on other varieties are important below - ground symptoms in sweetpotato . there may also be brown to black spots in the outer layers of flesh which are not evident unless the storage root is peeled .
drain the pouches and evaluate the root systems by counting the egg masses under an illuminated desk magnifier .
with both assays further evaluation of nematode infection and calculation of the number of eggs / root system and eggs / gram of fresh root can be performed . for the tomato assays , individual roots are weighed and eggs extracted as described for inoculum preparation ( section 3 ) . when processing large number of plant samples , individual root systems could be macerated using a blender for egg extraction . the number of eggs should be counted in at least three aliquots and the eggs / gram of fresh root system calculated . for the pouch assays , the root system is pulled off the paper insert , weighed , and eggs extracted .
colombo a , cataldi s , marano g , genna g , 2008 . soil solarization and phenamiphos to control the root - knot nematode meloidogyne incognita in sicily . redia [ ix congress of the italian society of nematology ( sin ) , florence , italy , 22 - 24 november 2007 . ] , 91 : 97 - 102 .
assess the population level and damage potential based on soil sampling or the history of injury in previous crops . because root knot nematodes feed and multiply on many weed species , weed control is an important aspect of their management .
shen bk , sun sy , dai ys , 1990 . studies on root - knot nematodes of trees , ornamental plants , and forest weeds . journal of nanjing forestry university , 14 ( 3 ) : 37 - 42 .
tzortzakakis ea , conceição ilpmda , santos mcvdos , abrantes imde o , 2011 . root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) in greece . hellenic plant protection journal , 4 ( 1 ) : 25 - 30 . urltoken
mcsorley , r . , dickson , d . w . , de brito , j . a . 1994 . host status of selected tropical rotation crops to four populations of root - knot nematodes . nematropica 24 : 45–53 .
growing a crop on which the nematode pest can’t reproduce is a good way to control some nematodes . for example , the sugarbeet cyst nematode attacks only a limited number of crops including cole crops ( broccoli , brussels sprouts , cabbage , and cauliflower ) and related crops and weeds . growing nonsusceptible crops for 3 to 5 years reduces the sugarbeet cyst nematode population to a level where you can grow susceptible crops again . unfortunately , rotation isn’t as easy for controlling root knot nematodes , because so many vegetable crops and weeds are hosts of the pest .
you will need to repeat fallowing when you begin to see root injury again , as nematodes can build up to damaging levels even in a single season . a good way to conduct a fallowing program is to split the garden into thirds and fallow one - third every year or two on a rotating basis . if you intend to grow woody plants in a nematode - infested area , consider fallowing the soil for 4 years before planting . table 4 gives an example of a rotation / fallowing plan that would be useful for root knot nematode control .
unfortunately , not all nematodes are recovered with the extraction methods currently available and this applies particularly to nematodes in the egg stage . when relatively small samples are processed , some nematodes may be missed when population levels are low . the absence of root - knot nematode in these extractions does not necessarily mean that the nematode is not present in the field . in this case , use information about the soil texture , previous cropping history and previous occurrence of nematode damage to decide whether the negative result is accepted or whether the block should be re - sampled .
mullin ba , abawi gs , pastor - corrales ma , kornegay jl , 1991 . root - knot nematodes associated with beans in colombia and peru and related yield loss . plant disease , 75 ( 12 ) : 1208 - 1211
ponte jjda , 1968 . contributions to the knowledge of the host plants and control of root - knot nematodes , meloidogyne spp . , in the state of ceara . boletim da sociedade cearense de agronomia , 9 : 1 - 26
caillaud mc , dubreuil g , quentin m , perfus - barbeoch l , lecomte p , et al . ( 2008 ) root - knot nematodes manipulate plant cell functions during a compatible interaction . j plant physiol 165 : 104–113 .
often , the most damaging nematodes in the southeastern united states and the tropics are root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) . these nematodes are pests of nearly all major crops and are therefore widespread . damage can be directly observed by examining the roots , because root - knot nematodes produce galls or knot - like swellings along the plant roots ( figure 4 ) . these galls cannot not be easily removed because they are part of the plant root tissue . in contrast , nodules caused by beneficial nitrogen fixing bacteria can be easily removed . another method to distinguish nematode galls from nodules is to slice them in half and expose to air , which will cause nitrogen - fixing nodules to appear pink or red if the bacterial colony is active , or green or brown if the colony is inactive .
the cycle of development of nematodes begins with the egg where the development of the first larval phase is completed . after molting , a second age larva with a well - developed stylet leaves the egg . the nematode can infest the plant root system only at this phase . larvae from soil penetrate the root tissue growth area directly in front of the root cap . to penetrate the root , the larvae pierce a cell with the stylet and secrete the enzymes that cause cell wall degradation . these enzymes are produced in the esophageal glands (
root - knot nematodes ( meloidogyne spp . ) have gained importance due to their widespread distribution , their host range and damage potential ( hussey & janssen , 2002 ) . a recent survey on root - knot nematodes in europe by wesemael et al . ( 2011 ) showed that out of the 90 species described so far , 23 have been found in europe . furthermore , this survey showed that three species , namely meloidogyne . . . [ show full abstract ]
potential role of aqueous extract of some weeds against egg hatching and juvenile mortality of root - . . .


dichocoenia stellaris , commonly known as pancake star coral , is a species of stony coral in the family meandrinidae .

it is found in the west indies and the bahamas .

its form is a flat , platform-like structure and it is usually found in deeper water than the closely related pineapple coral ( dichocoenia stokesi ) .

some authorities consider these to be the same species while other authorities regard them as distinct .

dichocoenia stellaris

specimen details : dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1849 specimen : usnm 84894 image type : image view : colony ; dichocoenia sp . ; scale : reference : locality : - enlarge image -
specimen details : dichocoenia stellaris milne edwards & haime , 1849 specimen : usnm 84894 image type : image view : calice ; dichocoenia sp . ; scale : reference : locality : - enlarge image -
dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . colony with tentacles extended at night . charlie veron .
dichocoenia stokesi . caribbean . this species commonly forms small spherical colonies . charlie veron .
e . c . peters ( personal communication ) considers the recent caribbean genus dichocoenia to consist of only one highly polymorphic species ( manuscript in preparation ) . cairns ( 1982 ) and zlatarski and estalella ( 1982 ) both synonymized d . stellaris with this species .
taxonomic note : taxonomic note : colonies from lower reef slopes or shaded habitats have markedly smaller corallites than those from more exposed environments and are usually identified as dichocoenia stellaris ( see wells , 1973b ) . source reference : veron ( 2000 ) . taxonomic references : roos ( 1971 ) , wells ( 1973b ) , cairns ( 1982 ) . additional identification guides : colin ( 1978 ) , humann ( 1993 ) .
in the western atlantic , this coral was been divided into two species ( d . stokesii and d . stellaris ) , although most researchers lump both corals in d . stokesii . cairns et al . ( 1999 ) regard the two as distinct .
este estudio , cuarto y último donde se describen los arrecifes coralinos de bocas del toro y su estado de conservación en forma individual , contempla a 14 arrecifes continentales en 129 km de costa comprendidos entre la península valiente y el río calovébora . se encontró una cobertura de coral vivo promedio para esta región de 17 . 1 % (
3 . 6 % ) , principalmente en el sector occidental de la península , en particular la zona interna de bahía bluefield , y en el sector de tobobe . la cobertura de coral aumenta con la profundidad ( 5 m ) en la mayoría de los arrecifes . dos especies de coral , porites furcata y acropora palmata , dominan las aguas superficiales . el coral acropora palmata se encontró abundante en seis de los 14 arrecifes estudiados concentrándose su mayor presencia hacia el sector de la ensenada tobobe y punta valiente . los patrones de reclutamiento son similares en distribución a los de mayor cobertura , presentándose densidades promedios de 4 reclutas / m² ( hasta 9 reclutas / m² ) principalmente agaricia spp . , porites astreoides y siderastrea siderea . la mayor diversidad de corales y esponjas se registró hacia el sector occidental de península valiente encontrandose 55 especies de corales en el área de estudio , incluyendo dos nuevos registros para bocas del toro ( 59 especies en total ) ; dichocoenia stellaris y madracis luciphila , incrementando también la diversidad de corales de panamá a 65 especies . se encontraron 24 especies de octocorales , informándose por primera vez tres especies : gorgonia mariae , muriceopsis sulphurea y muricea laxa , aumentando así en un 10 % la diversidad de bocas del toro a 32 especies en total . se registraron cinco nuevas especies de esponjas , lo que representa un incremento del 9 % en el número de especies que hacen un total de 58 para bocas del toro . la diversidad total de esponjas en el área de estudio fue de 48 especies . se encontraron grandes poblaciones de acropora palmata en la ensenada de tobobe lo que justifica , una vez más , la necesidad de modificar el área protegida actual de forma que se incorpore dentro de los planes de conservación este nuevo sector .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is listed as data deficient as there is no reliable information on population status , and there are taxonomic uncertainties on the validity of the species . if this species is shown to be valid , and to be affected by white plague at levels similar to that observed in d . stokesii , this species may qualify for listing in a threatened category due to its low abundance .
this species occurs in the caribbean , southern gulf of mexico , florida ( including the florida middle grounds ) , and the bahamas .
this species is usually uncommon . this is a deep - water species , often classified as the more abundant and closely related
, and there is no reliable information on its current population status . ( aronson , r . , precht , w . , moore , j . , weil , e . , and bruckner , a . pers . comm . )
there is no species specific population information available for this species . however , there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined , and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species . this species is particularly susceptible to bleaching , disease , and other threats and therefore population decline is based on both the percentage of destroyed reefs and critical reefs that are likely to be destroyed within 20 years ( wilkinson 2004 ) . we assume that most , if not all , mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average , the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage destroyed reefs . reef losses throughout the species ' range have been estimated over three generations , two in the past and one projected into the future .
the age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years ( wallace 1999 ) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years . furthermore , based on average sizes and growth rates , we assume that average generation length is 10 years , unless otherwise stated . total longevity is not known , but likely to be more than ten years . therefore any population decline rates for the red list assessment are measured over at least 30 years .
this species is found in fore reef habitats below 15 m . coexists with d . stokesii in deeper water . ( aronson , r . , precht , w . , moore , j . , weil , e . , and bruckner , a . pers . comm . ) this species may be found to 22 m .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
milne edwards h , haime j ( 1849 ) recherches sur les polypiers . mémoire 4 . monographie des astréides . annales des sciences naturelles , zoologie , series 3 , 12 : 95 - 197 . [ details ]
hoeksema , b . w . ; cairns , s . ( 2018 ) . world list of scleractinia .
milne edwards & haime , 1848 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 289806 on 2018 - 07 - 09
cairns , s . d . ; hoeksema , b . w . & van der land , j . ( 2007 ) . as a contribution to unesco - ioc register of marine organisms . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
zlatarski v . n . ; martinez e . n . ( 1982 ) . les scléractiniaires de cuba avec des données sur les organismes associés . editions l’académie bulgare des sciences , sofia . 472 pp . [ details ]
m . de kluijver , g . gijswijt , r . de leon & i . da cunda
colonies form rounded heads , domes or flattened plates . rounded colonies may reach 40 cm in diameter . the
humann , p . , 1993 . reef coral identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .
roos , p . j . , 1964 . the distribution of reef corals in curacao . stud . fauna curacao , 20 : 1 - 51 .
roos , p . j . , 1971 . the shallow - water stony corals of the netherlands antilles . studies on the fauna of curaçao and other caribbean islands , 130 .
voss , g . l . , 1976 . seashore life of florida and the carribbean . banyan books , inc . miami , florida .
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cites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .
late pliocene moin fm ( santarosa ) . pueblo nuevo , limon , costa rica , southwest caribbean . late pliocene - early pleistocene manchioneal formation . navy island , port antonio , jamaica , central caribbean . moin fm ( lomas del mar ) . & nbsplomas ; del mar , limon , costa rica , southwest caribbean . & nbspportete ; , limon , costa rica , southwest caribbean . early pleistocene manchioneal formation . & nbspnavy ; island , port antonio , jamaica , central caribbean . & nbspport ; antonio , port antonio , jamaica , central caribbean . middle pleistocene middle terrace . hato , curacao , south caribbean . middle pleistocene - late pleistocene san andres formation . san andres , san andres , central caribbean . late pleistocene lower terrace . hato , curacao , south caribbean . recent recent 10 - 20m . discovery bay , jamaica , central caribbean . > 30m . discovery bay , jamaica , central caribbean .
colonies are massive , often spherical , or may form thick submassive plates . corallites are evenly spaced , plocoid or ploco - meandroid . septo - costae are usually in two neatly alternating orders .
colour : a distinctive orange - brown with white septo - costae , rarely green .
© 2011 - 2012 australian institute of marine science and crr cc by - nc 3 . 0
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arrecifes coralinos de bocas del toro , panamá : iv . distribución , estructura y estado de conservación de los arrecifes continentales de península valiente
geo - spatial location , chronological period , research sample ( gender , age , etc . )
the following 6 pages are in this category , out of 6 total . this list may not reflect recent changes ( learn more ) .
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cairns , s . d . , d . r . calder , a . brinckmann - voss , c . b . castro , d . g . fautin , p . r . pugh , c . e . mills , w . c . jaap , m . n . arai , s . h . d . haddock , and d . m . opresko . 2002 . common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : cnidaria and ctenophora . 2nd edition . american fisheries society , special publication 28 , bethesda , maryland . 115 pp .
widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , occurs on most classes of marine hardbottom communities , and has recently been classfied as common in much of its range , with more than 50 localities having been recorded . but it has been designated as vulnerable by the iucn in part because of recent declines . more information is needed .
due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to
widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , including the gulf of mexico , southern florida , bahamas , mexico , jamaica , belize , cuba , puerto rico , bermuda , curacao and bonaire and south to northern south america .
there are records for more than 50 localities between urltoken and the florida fish and wildlife conservation commission invertebrate collection and this species has a relatively large range .
common on low - relief hardbottom communities , patch reefs , fringing reefs , spur and groove reefs , transitional reefs and deeper intermediate reefs .
all coral reefs are being adversely affected by bleaching from rising ocean temperatures and water temperatures in 2005 were the warmest they ' d been in 150 years ( eakin et al . 2010 ) . coral disease , bleaching , sedimentation , and habitat loss are threats to this species and ocean acidification and climate change may be ( aronson et al . 2008 ) .
a 2008 iucn assessment estimated an approximate 38 % loss in the short term over its entire range ( aronson et al . 2008 ) .
( > 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( greater than 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) widespread distribution in the tropical western atlantic , including the gulf of mexico , southern florida , bahamas , mexico , jamaica , belize , cuba , puerto rico , bermuda , curacao and bonaire and south to northern south america .
distribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .
a79bak02fcus : low reported recruitment rates . little information on reproductive ecology in resources consulted .
p91pet01fcus : protozoan parasites , diseases of unknown etiology . a90ghi01fcus : susceptible to bleaching ( loss of zooxanthellae ) due to adverse environmental conditions . a81ant02fcus : seldom inflicted with black band disease , never reported with white band disease . a15vau01fcus : growth rate measured at 2 - 7 mm / yr increase in diameter and 2 - 5 . 2 mm / yr increase in height . p93pet01fcus : slow growth rate at 1 - 2 mm / yr .
overall depth range from 2 - 40 + m , but typically occurs from 3 - 20 m on most classes of marine hardbottom communities .
data needed on reproduction and recruitment patterns . information needed on susceptibility to sedimentation and eutrophication .
four components to a stony coral element occurrence : 1 . ) determine size and boundary of site to be surveyed , 2 . ) determine density of colonies via quadrats , 3 . ) determine size distribution of colonies with a note on maximum colony size , and 4 . ) provide habitat description .
use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .
zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .
almy , c . c . , jr . and carrion - torres , c . 1963 . shallow - water stony corals of puerto rico . caribbean journal of science 3 : 133 - 162 .
aronson , r . , a . bruckner , j . moore , b . precht , and e . weil . 2008 . [ various coral species treatments ] in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2010 . 4 . urltoken .
bak , r . p . m . 1975 . ecological aspects of the distribution of reef corals in the netherlands antilles . bijdragen tot de dierkunde 45 : 181 - 190 .
bak , r . p . m . and elgershuizen , j . h . b . w . 1976 . patterns of oil - sediment rejection in corals . marine biology 37 : 105 - 113 .
bak , r . p . m . , brouns , j . j . w . m . and heys , f . m . l . 1977 . regeneration aspects of spatial competition in the scleractinian corals agaricia agaricites and montastrea annularis . proceedings of the 3rd international coral reef symposium 1 : 143 - 148 .
cairns , s . d . 1982 . stony corals of carrie bow cay , belize . smithsonian contributions to the marine sciences 12 : 271 - 302 .
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] [ fr doc no : 2013 - 13194 ] - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - department of commerce national oceanic and atmospheric administration 50 cfr part 622 [ docket no . 120718255 - 3500 - 02 ] rin 0648 - bc38 amendment 4 to the corals and reef associated plants and invertebrates fishery management plan of puerto rico and the u . s . virgin islands ; seagrass management agency : national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) , national oceanic and atmospheric administration ( noaa ) , commerce . action : final rule . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - summary : nmfs issues this final rule to implement amendment 4 to the corals and reef associated plants and invertebrates fishery management plan ( fmp ) of puerto rico and the u . s . virgin islands ( usvi ) ( coral fmp ) , as prepared and submitted by the caribbean fishery management council ( council ) . this final rule removes seagrass species from the coral fmp . the purpose of this rule and amendment 4 to the coral fmp is to address the future management of seagrasses in the u . s . caribbean exclusive economic zone ( eez ) in accordance with the magnuson - stevens fishery conservation and management act ( magnuson - stevens act ) . dates : this rule is effective july 5 , 2013 . addresses : electronic copies of amendment 4 to the coral fmp , which include an environmental assessment , a regulatory flexibility act analysis , a regulatory impact review , and a fishery impact statement , may be obtained from the southeast regional office web site at :
9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 8 . marine neritic - coral reef - > 9 . 8 . 1 . outer reef channel suitability : marginal 9 . marine neritic - > 9 . 8 . marine neritic - coral reef - > 9 . 8 . 3 . foreslope ( outer reef slope ) suitability : suitable
1 . land / water protection - > 1 . 1 . site / area protection 2 . land / water management - > 2 . 1 . site / area management 2 . land / water management - > 2 . 3 . habitat & natural process restoration 3 . species management - > 3 . 2 . species recovery 3 . species management - > 3 . 4 . ex - situ conservation - > 3 . 4 . 1 . captive breeding / artificial propagation 3 . species management - > 3 . 4 . ex - situ conservation - > 3 . 4 . 2 . genome resource bank
1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 1 . housing & urban areas
1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 2 . commercial & industrial areas
1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 3 . tourism & recreation areas
11 . climate change & severe weather - > 11 . 3 . temperature extremes
11 . climate change & severe weather - > 11 . 4 . storms & flooding
5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 1 . intentional use : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ]
5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 3 . unintentional effects : ( subsistence / small scale ) [ harvest ]
5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 4 . fishing & harvesting aquatic resources - > 5 . 4 . 6 . motivation unknown / unrecorded
8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 1 . unspecified species
2 . species stresses - > 2 . 3 . indirect species effects - > 2 . 3 . 2 . competition
8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 2 . problematic native species / diseases - > 8 . 2 . 1 . unspecified species
8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 4 . problematic species / disease of unknown origin - > 8 . 4 . 2 . named species
9 . pollution - > 9 . 1 . domestic & urban waste water - > 9 . 1 . 3 . type unknown / unrecorded
9 . pollution - > 9 . 2 . industrial & military effluents - > 9 . 2 . 3 . type unknown / unrecorded
9 . pollution - > 9 . 3 . agricultural & forestry effluents - > 9 . 3 . 2 . soil erosion , sedimentation
9 . pollution - > 9 . 3 . agricultural & forestry effluents - > 9 . 3 . 4 . type unknown / unrecorded
9 . pollution - > 9 . 5 . air - borne pollutants - > 9 . 5 . 3 . ozone
1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends
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veron , j . e . n . 2000 . corals of the world , volume 2 . australian institute of marine science , townsville mc , australia .
wallace , c . c . 1999 . staghorn corals of the world : a revision of the coral genus acropora . csiro , collingwood .
weil , e . 2003 . the corals and coral reefs of venezuela . in : jorge cortes ( ed . ) , latin american coral reefs , elseview science b . v .
weil , e . 2004 . coral reef diseases in the wider caribbean . in : e . rosenberg and y . loya ( eds ) , coral health and diseases , pp . 35 - 68 . springer verlag , ny .
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wilkinson , c . 2004 . status of coral reefs of the world : 2004 . australian institute of marine science , townsville , queensland , australia .
willis , b . , page , c and dinsdale , e . 2004 . coral disease on the great barrier reef . in : e . rosenber and y . loya ( eds ) , coral health and disease , pp . 69 - 104 . springer - verlag berlin heidelberg .
5 - year efh review 5 - year essential fish habitat review bob trumble , ph . d mã³nica valle , ph . d . monica . valle @ urltoken cfmc meeting fajardo , puerto rico dec . 14 - 15 , …
[ pdf ] 5 - year review - united states fish and wildlife 5 - year review . final . pdf5 - year review - united states fish and wildlife service
guide to essential fish habitat consultation david o’brien noaa fisheries service habitat conservation division gloucester point , va .
fish habitat : essential fish habitat and rehabilitation l . benaka ( ed . ) 1999 . american fisheries society , bethesda , md , usa . price us * $ 50 . 00 , isbn 1 - 888569 - 12 - 3 , 480 pp .
groundfish essential fish habitat ( efh ) gis mapping van hare pacific states marine fisheries commission .
entender os fatores e interações que afetam a estrutura de comunidade em um ambiente recifal é importante para a compreensão e elaboração de propostas de manejo que visem a resiliência e conservação de populações instáveis no ambiente . algumas estratégias de conservação e manutenção destes ecossistemas são as criações de áreas protegidas marinhas que vêm se tornando locais de recuperação e conservação de várias espécies restritas nestes ambientes . o trabalho procurou avaliar o efeito do fechamento da área recifal de tamandaré , litoral sul pernambucano após 14 anos de exclusão da pesca , na estrutura de comunidades bentônicas , especialmente em populações de ouriços echinometra lucunter , abundância de corais e cobertura algal viva . foram comparados dois recifes , dentro e fora da área fechada através de técnicas de censo visual subaquático com mergulhos livres , utilizando o método conjugado de linha de transects e quadrats no topo recifal durante três períodos do ano ( verão 2011 ; outono 2012 ; verão 2012 ) empregados para avaliar a estimativa da densidade populacional de ouriços e corais ; e a técnica de fotoquadrats para a estimativa de cobertura viva dos mesmos . os resultados mostraram densidade média de ouriços e . lucunter sete vezes maior no recife aberto à pesca ( pirambu ) em comparação ao recife fechado ( ilha da barra ) indicando que o efeito da pesca intensiva de seus predadores e a falta de organismos competidores por espaço e disponibilidade de alimento na área impactada , afeta diretamente a sua abundancia e distribuição , modificando a composição de outros organismos , complexidade topográfica e os processos ecológicos do local . colônias do hidrocoral do gênero millepora sp . apresentaram maior densidade populacional na área fechada , onde foram treze vezes mais abundantes neste recife em comparação ao recife adjacente . para os corais escleractinios , as espécies agaricia humilis e favia gravida apresentaram maior densidade no recife do pirambu , enquanto que siderastrea stellata apresentou maior abundancia na ilha da barra . apesar das diferenças encontradas entre as espécies , a cobertura geral viva geral destes organismos foi três vezes maior no recife fechado à pesca , indicando um ambiente mais propício para o crescimento destes corais neste recife . a cobertura algal viva apresentou diferenças significativas entre as duas áreas , onde foram mais abundantes na ilha da barra , cobrindo cerca de 80 % do topo recifal , com exceção das algas calcarias incrustantes que apresentaram maior abundância no recife do pirambu . os resultados mostraram que a exclusão do uso de pesca no recife da ilha da barra , na área fechada de tamandaré , vem mostrando capacidade de resiliência do ecossistema recifal , importante para a reestruturação e conservação do ecossistema marinho .