taenia asiatica , commonly known as asian taenia or asian tapeworm , is a parasitic tapeworm of humans and pigs .

it is one of the three species of taenia infecting humans and causes taeniasis .

discovered only in 1980s from taiwan and other east asian countries as an unusual species , it is so notoriously similar to taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm , that it was for a time regarded as a slightly different strain .

but anomaly arose as the tapeworm is not of cattle origin , but of pigs .

morphological details also showed significant variations , such as presence of rostellar hooks , shorter body , and less number of body segments .

the scientific name designated was then asian t. saginata .

but the taxonomic consensus turns out to be that it is a unique species .

it was in 1993 that two korean parasitologists , keeseon s. eom and han jong rim , provided the biological bases for classifying it into a separate species .

the use of mitochondrial genome sequence and molecular phylogeny in the late 2000s established the taxonomic status .

t. asiatica causes intestinal taenisis in humans and cysticercosis in pigs .

there is a suspicion that it may also cause cysticercosis in human .

like other taenids , humans are the definitive hosts , but in contrast , pigs , wild boars , as well as cattle can serve as intermediate hosts .

moreover , scid mice and mongolian gerbil can be experimentally infected .

the life cycle is basically similar to those of other taenids .

humans contract the infection by eating raw or undercooked meat – a practice common in east and southeast asia – which are contaminated with the infective larva called cysticercus .

cysticercus develops into adult tapeworm in human intestine , from where it releases embryonated eggs along faeces into the external environment .

pigs acquire the eggs from vegetation .

the eggs enter the digestive tract , which they penetrate to migrate to other body organs .

unlike other taenia they preferentially settle in the liver , where they form cysticerci .

asian taeniasis is documented in nine countries in asia , including taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south-central china , vietnam , japan and nepal .

the rate of a prevalence is estimated to be up to 21 % and resulting in annual economic losses of about us$ 40,000,000 in these regions .

praziquantel is the drug of choice for treating the infection .

as the latest addition to human taeniasis , misidentified for over two centuries , still complete lack of systematic diagnosis , and no control programmes , it is regarded as the most neglected human taenid .

taenia asiatica

developmental stages of taenia spp . ( taenia solium , taenia saginata , taenia asiatica ) and associated diseases .
geographical origin of the 6 taenia saginata and 13 taenia asiatica samples analyzed a .
three tapeworm species cause taeniasis in humans , taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . only t . solium causes major health problems .
taeniasis is an intestinal infection caused by 3 species of tapeworm : taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) and taenia asiatica .
taenia solium , taenia saginata , taenia asiatica , their hybrids and other helminthic infections occurring in a neglected tropical diseases ' highly endemic area in lao pdr .
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the life cycle of taenia asiatica is complex . eggs or gravid . . .
morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia .
lights and shadows of the taenia asiatica life cycle and pathogenicity . - pubmed - ncbi
no one has contributed data records for taenia asiatica yet . learn how to contribute .
ebscohost | 92947864 | lights and shadows of the taenia asiatica life cycle and pathogenicity .
taenia asiatica and taenia saginata : genetic divergence estimated from their mitochondrial genomes . jeon hk , et al . exp parasitol 2006 may
morphologic and genetic identification of taenia tapeworms in tanzania and dna genotyping of taenia solium .
[ first discovery of taenia saginata asiatica infection in yunnan province ] . - pubmed - ncbi
taenia saginata asiatica : epidemiology , infection , immunological and molecular studies . - pubmed - ncbi
three species of the taenia genus are intestinal parasites of humans , taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . however , only two of them , t . solium and t . saginata , have been considered for centuries , t . asiatica remained undiscovered until recently . [ 1 ]
the cestode taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) ( along with t . saginata [ beef . . .
[ survey of the number of eggs in taenia asiatica gravid proglottids in dali prefecture of yunnan province ] .
morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . - pubmed - ncbi
complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica .
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life cycle of taenia spp .
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the cestodes taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , t . solium ( pork tapeworm ) and t . asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . taenia solium can also cause cysticercosis .
taenia is an important pathogenic tapeworm genus including some important parasites such as taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica , etc . members of the genus are responsible for taeniasis and cysticercosis in humans and other livestocks . till now , more than 100 species were recorded . taenia is morphologically characterized by a ribbon - like body composed of a series of segments called proglottids ; hence the name taenia .
molecular analyses reveal two geographic and genetic lineages for tapeworms , taenia solium and taenia saginata , from ecuador using mitochondrial dna .
[ survey of the number of eggs in taenia asiatica gravid proglottids in dali prefecture of yunnan province ] . - pubmed - ncbi
a taenia asiatica patient , mr . chen chin - fu , with 24 strobilae that were purged from him after using atabrine .
10 . jeon hk , eom ks . taenia asiatica and taenia saginata : genetic divergence estimated from their mitochondrial genomes . exp parasitol 2006 ; 113 : 58 - 61 . pmid : 16546174 .
a volunteer , dr . chung wc , trying to infect himself with taenia asiatica by eating raw wild boar liver that contained cysticerci .
13 . eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to taenia asiatica in korea . korean j parasitol 2001 ; 39 : 267 - 283 . pmid : 11775327 .
19 . eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to taenia asiatica in korea . korean j parasitol 2001 ; 39 : 267 - 283 . pmid : 11775327 .
complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica . | ghl - scientific and technical literature
since the 1990s , various researchers have developed and applied molecular methods for distinguishing t . asiatica from other taenia spp . , and , subsequently , for studying the relationship of t . asiatica with other taenia spp . , in particular t . saginata , and for examining the genetic variability within t . asiatica . the availability of the complete mitochondrial genome of t . asiatica [ 27 ] , and the access to published sequences through genbank , has greatly contributed to the understanding of the genetic diversity of t . asiatica .
species that can affect animals and humans include tapeworms in the taenia genus . different types of taenia are associated with different types of meat . taenia saginata is the beef tapeworm ; taenia solium is the pork tapeworm ; and taenia asiatica is the asian pork tapeworm . dipylidium caninum mainly infects dogs and cats , while echinocococcus granulosus , which infects people and livestock , is rare in the united states . taenia species are longer than dipylidium species ; they can grow up to 1 yard ( nearly a meter ) in length .
taenia saginata and t . solium are worldwide in distribution . taenia solium is more prevalent in poorer communities where humans live in close contact with pigs and eat undercooked pork . taenia asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand .
non - protease homologues in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .
not only taenia solium and taenia saginata , but also taenia asiatica infects humans . the last species is not included in the evaluation of the specificity of the immunodiagnostic techniques for taeniasis / cysticercosis . there is currently no specific immunodiagnostic method for t . asiatica available . therefore , due to the fact that molecular techniques ( the only tool to distinguish the 3 taenia species ) are normally not employed in routine diagnostic methods , the 2 questions concerning t . asiatica ( its definite geographic distribution and its ability to cause human cysticercosis ) , remain open , turning t . asiatica into the most neglected agent of human taeniasis - cysticercosis .
before exposing the lights and shadows of t . asiatica , it would be worthwhile to briefly summarize some historical and phylogenetic remarks on the three human taenia species .
complete sequence and structure of the mitochondrial genome of the human tapeworm , taenia asiatica ( platyhelminthes ; cestoda ) . jeon hk , et al . parasitology 2005 jun
humans are definitive hosts of two well - known species of the taenia genus , taenia solium ( the pig tapeworm ) and taenia saginata ( the cattle tapeworm ) . in the 1990s , a third species , taenia asiatica , was discovered , sharing features with the other two since the adult morphology is similar to that of t . saginata , but its life cycle is like that of t . solium…
coenurosis ( taenia multiceps , t . serialis , or t . brauni infection )
harrison ljs , delgado j , parkhouse rme . differential diagnosis of taenia sagianta and
taeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , and taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef ( t . saginata ) or pork ( t . solium and t . asiatica ) . people with taeniasis typically have mild gastrointestinal symptoms or may be asymptomatic .
the number of eggs in different gravid proglottids of t . asiatica is evidently different .
with the advent of molecular techniques , it became clear that the asian taenia is genetically much more related to t . saginata than it is to t . solium [ 13 - 17 ] . this led the earlier protagonists to declare the asian taenia as a strain or subspecies of t . saginata , designated taenia saginata taiwanensis , or , in line with its geographical distribution , taenia saginata asiatica [ 18 ] .
5 . eom ks , rim hj . morphologic descriptions of taenia asiatica sp . n . korean j parasitol 1993 ; 31 : 1 - 6 . pmid : 8512894 .
18 . eom ks , rim hj . morphologic descriptions of taenia asiatica sp . n . korean j parasitol 1993 ; 31 : 1 - 6 . pmid : 8512894 .
it was determined to examine whether rats injected with non - viable oncospheres of asian taenia or taenia saginata became resistant to challenge infection with eggs of taenia taeniaeformis , since ( a ) metacestodes of asian taenia and t . taeniaeformis develop in the liver of pigs and rats , respectively , and ( b ) asian taenia and t . saginata have human origins . rats injected intravenously or . . . [ show full abstract ]
eom ks , rim hj . epidemiological understanding of taenia tapeworm infections with special reference to
taenia infections . institute for international cooperation in animal biologics . 2005 ( . pdf )
evidence on the epidemiology and genetic diversity of t . asiatica was obtained through a systematic search of national and international peer - reviewed literature . given the relatively limited number of papers on t . asiatica , a general search phrase was used consisting of the different synonyms of t . asiatica , i . e . , taenia saginata asiatica , asian taenia and taiwan taenia . manuscript titles were retrieved through searching pubmed , asia journals online ( asiajol ) , african journals online ( ajol ) , latin american journals online ( lamjol ) , who global health library , and indmed . the searches were performed on 20 september 2013 .
go enrichment analysis of heterozygous genes in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .
taeniasis in humans is a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm species taenia saginata ( beef tapeworm ) , taenia solium ( pork tapeworm ) , and taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) . humans can become infected with these tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked beef ( t . saginata ) or pork ( t . solium and t . asiatica ) . people with taeniasis may not know they have a tapeworm infection because symptoms are usually mild or nonexistent .
the cestode taenia asiatica , also known as asian taenia or asian tapeworm , is a parasite of humans and pigs that is thought to be restricted to asia . humans contract infection by eating eating raw or undercooked meat and this causes intestinal taeniasis which is usually asymptomatic .
in the early 1990s , a group of korean parasitologists , led by dr keeseon eom , performed various experimental infections using korean specimens of the asian taenia . their observation that the cysts of the asian taenia preferably develop in viscera of pigs , made them propose the name cysticercus viscerotropica [ 11 ] . in 1993 , they described the morphology of the asian taenia , and declared it as a new species , designated taenia asiatica [ 12 ] .
2 . flisser a , craig ps , ito a . in palmer sr , soulsby l , torgerson pr , brown dwg eds , cysticercosis and taeniosis : taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . oxford textbook of zoonoses , biology , clinical practice and public health control . 2011 , oxford , uk . oxford university press . pp 627 - 644 .
complexities in using sentinel pigs to study taenia solium transmission dynamics under field conditi . . .
identification of species and genetic variation in taenia isolates from human and swine of north india .
30 . eom ks , jeon hk , rim hj . geographical distribution of taenia asiatica and related species . korean j parasitol 2009 ; 47 : s115 - s124 . pmid : 19885327 .
29 . rim hj , joo kh , park hs . anthelmintic effect of albendazole against taenia saginata and taenia solium infections . j korean soc chemother 1989 ; 7 : 29 - 39 .
t _ asiatica _ south _ korea _ v1 _ 0 _ 4 , gca _ 000951535 . 1
cross - sections of taenia spp . stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) .
cross protection against taenia taeniaeformis in rats vaccinated with non - viable oncospheres of asia . . .
of the 32 recognized species of taenia , only taenia solium and taenia saginata are medically important . however , recent epidemiologic studies in southeast asia have identified a third taenia species in humans , known as t asiatica . [ 1 , 2 ] cysticercosis is the development of extraintestinal encysted larval forms of t solium in various organs ( see cysticercosis ) . the cns is involved in 60 - 90 % of cases ; this condition is termed neurocysticercosis ( ncc ) . for more information , see neurocysticercosis .
. . . human taeniasis is acquired by eating uncooked or poorly cooked pork or beef infected with the larval form of the human taeniid tapeworms , taenia solium , or taenia asiatica ( from pigs ) , or taenia saginata ( from bovids ) ( schantz et al . , 1993 ; fan and chung , 1998 ) . the adult tapeworms grow ( 2–8 m ) in the human small intestine , with spontaneous elimination of proglottids from the anus especially for t . saginata or t . asiatica carriers . . . .
in the 1980s fan came up with the idea that the species found in several asian countries ( taiwan , korea , indonesia ) could be a new one . [ 16 ] this taenia was known as taiwan taenia or the asian taenia until , in 1993 , when eom and rim proposed to definitely consider it a new species , namely t . asiatica . [ 1 ] lately , and due to its molecular similarities to t . saginata , fan et al . proposed considering this asian taenia as a subspecies of t . saginata , i . e . , t . saginata asiatica , [ 17 ] leading to contrary opinions on its systematic status until t . asiatica was finally considered a valid species . [ 18 ]
the in - paralog pairs showing differential evolution rates in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .
potential nuclear molecular markers to differentiate t . saginata ( tsa ) and t . asiatica ( tas ) .
taenia saginata taeniasis produces only mild abdominal symptoms . the most striking feature consists of the passage ( active and passive ) of proglottids . occasionally , appendicitis or cholangitis can result from migrating proglottids . taenia solium taeniasis is less frequently symptomatic than taenia saginata taeniasis . the main symptom is often the passage ( passive ) of proglottids . the most important feature of taenia solium taeniasis is the risk of development of cysticercosis .
taenia infection has been recognized since biblical times . a detailed history on human taenia is described by grove , [ 5 ] cox , [ 6 ] or wadia and singh , [ 7 ] among others .
20 . fan pc , chung wc , lin cy , wu cc . pig as a favorable animal for taenia saginata asiatica infection . kaohsiung j med sci 2006 ; 22 : 1 - 13 . pmid : 16570562 .
20 . chung wc , lin cy , fan pc . ectopic locations of taenia saginata asiatica in the abdominal cavity of domestic pig and monkey . j parasitol 1996 ; 82 : 1032 - 1034 . pmid : 8973419 .
figure a : taenia saginata adult worm . the adult in this image is approximately 4 meters in length .
willms k . morphology and biochemistry of the pork tapeworm , taenia solium . curr top med chem . 2008
epidemiology of taenia solium in nepal : is it influenced by the social characteristics of the popula . . .
an adult taenia scolium , the pork tapeworm . humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat .
among taeniid tapeworms infecting humans through pork or beef , taenia solium linnaeus 1758 and taenia saginata goeze 1782 have already been known . based on the morphologic characteristics of adult and metacestodes of asian taenia saginata , the third kind of human taeniid tapeworm known to distribute in asian countries , a new species name of taenia asiatica is proposed . in addition to the known biology in their intermediate hosts , t . asiatica was different morphologically from taenia saginata goeze 1782 in having the unarmed rostellum on the scolex of adult , the large number of ' uterine twigs ' and the existence of ' posterior protuberance ' . these structures in the gravid proglottids were used as taxonomic keys in taeniid tapeworms for the first time . t . asiatica metacestode ( cysticercus viscerotropica ) was different morphologically from t . saginata metacestode ( cysticercus bovis ) in having wartlike formations on the external surface of the bladder wall .
9 . jeon hk , eom ks . complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of taenia saginata : comparison with t . solium and t . asiatica . parasitol int 2007 ; 56 : 243 - 246 . pmid : 17499016 .
taenia asiatica is a recently described species known to cause intestinal teniasis in humans and cysticercosis in animals . this species has close morphological resemblance to taenia saginata and has a life cycle resembling taenia solium , hence has been posing diagnostic dilemma and had been the reason for its comparatively late discovery . recent diagnostic tools such as serological and molecular techniques have thrown light on its exact prevalence in the endemic countries . hence introduction of utilization of these techniques in addition to the routine morphological analysis would be helpful in diagnosis of t . asiatica infections and early implementation of preventive measures .
taenia asiatica is a recently described species known to cause intestinal teniasis in humans and cysticercosis in animals . this species has close morphological resemblance to taenia saginata and has a life cycle resembling taenia solium , hence has been posing diagnostic dilemma and had been the reason for its comparatively late discovery . recent diagnostic tools such as serological and molecular techniques have thrown light on its exact prevalence in the endemic countries . hence introduction of utilization of these techniques in addition to the routine morphological analysis would be helpful in diagnosis of t . asiatica infections and early implementation of preventive measures .
go enrichment analysis of the genes containing peak - 2 introns in the t . asiatica and t . saginata genomes .
the taeenid tapeworms known to cause zoonotic infections in humans are taenia solium , taenia saginata and taenia asiatica . the first two species are well known agents causing cysticercosis and intestinal taeniasis respectively . [ 1 ] t . asiatica was discovered when epidemiological inconsistency was observed between the species ratio of tapeworms and the eating habits of hosts in south korea . [ 2 ] t . asiatica has equivocal features of t . saginata but recent deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) studies , molecular and epidemiologic characteristics had made the taxonomic conversion of t . saginata subsp . asiatica to the current separate species t . asiatica . t . asiatica has been identified to parasitise human intestinal lumen in eight asian countries i . e . china , korea , indonesia , philippines , taiwan , thailand , vietnam and japan , with the prevalence being as high as 21 % causing significant economic burden . [ 3 ] this unique species exhibits a morphology resembling t . saginata and life cycle resembling t . solium infection , pigs being the main intermediate host . [ 4 ] although t . asiatica is well - known to cause intestinal teniasis , less is known about its role in causation of cysticercosis in humans .
bowles j , mcmanus dp . genetic characterization of the asian taenia , a newly described taeniid cestode of humans .
9 . huang sw . studies on taenia species prevalent among the aborigines in wulai district taiwan . part ii . on the species of taenia . bull inst zool ( acad sin ) 1967 ; 6 : 29 - 34 .
taenia genome project including the genome assembly and transcriptome analysis of several taenia species was first lanched in beijing institute of genomics , cas and lanzhou veterinary research institute , caas since 2010 . taenia have relative large and complex genome . this comprehensive website is designed to help the pathogen researchers for a better use of genome information and transcriptome comparison .
taenia asiatica differs from taenia saginata and t . solium in 4 aspects [ 2 ] ; 1 ) the scolex has 2 rows of rudimentary hooklets , which is considered as a wart - like formation . 2 ) the number of the lateral branches of the uterus is different and allows identifying if the proglottids belong to t . solium ( 7 - 11 branches ) , t . saginata ( 14 - 32 branches ) , or t . asiatica ( 12 - 26 branches ) . 3 ) t . asiatica cysticerci in pigs are not found in muscles , they can be recovered from the liver , omentum , serosa , and lung . 4 ) t . asiatica does not cause ncc in humans .
however , this purely molecular view was soon contrasted to an epidemiological and public health perspective . galan - puchades and mas - coma opened the debate , and made the case for t . asiatica as a separate species [ 19 ] . the debate continued , with different phylogenetic studies considering the asian taenia either as t . saginata asiatica [ 20 , 21 ] or t . asiatica [ 22 - 27 ] , depending on the research group involved . the identification of t . saginata / t . asiatica hybrids in china and thailand [ 28 - 30 ] , may reopen this debate , as reproductive isolation has historically been an important criterion for considering t . asiatica and t . saginata as distinct biological entities [ 24 ] . although the current literature seems to favor t . asiatica at the species level , it is clear that the taxonomy of the asian taenia remains as complex and controversial as it was two decades ago [ 31 ] .
t . asiatica is still present in taiwan today but in only some aborigines who live in the mountainous areas . however , the cases are getting rarer with the improvement of rural medical health services . taenia asiatica has always been there and has come a long way for its recognition . we just need to train our eyes to see in different dimension .
4 . fan pc , lin cy , chen cc , chung wc . morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . j helminthol 1995 ; 69 : 299 - 303 . pmid : 8583124 .
17 . fan pc , lin cy , chen cc , chung wc . morphological description of taenia saginata asiatica ( cyclophyllidea : taeniidae ) from man in asia . j helminthol 1995 ; 69 : 299 - 303 . pmid : 8583124 .
1 . do humans act as intermediate hosts of t . asiatica as they do in the case of t . solium ?
both taenia and d . latum infections can be prevented by adequate cooking or freezing of beef , pork , or fish
species of taenia were among the earliest recognized helminths in humans , with written records of their occurrence extending into antiquity .
t . asiatica as a separate species was discovered relatively recently . it had been mistaken for taenia saginata goeze ( 1782 ) for more than 200 years and later was classified as subspecies of t . saginata . however , extensive epidemiological , molecular , comparative morphology and phylogenetic analyses have indicated the independent and specific status of t . asiatica ( eom & rim 1993 ) .
11 . jeon hk , chai jy , kong y , waikagul j , insisienhmay b , rim hj , eom ks . differential diagnosis of taenia asiatica using multiplex pcr . exp parasitol 2009 ; 121 : 151 - 156 . pmid : 19017531 .
23 . chang sl , ooi hk , nonaka n , kamiya m , oku y . development of taenia asiatica cysticerci to infective stage and adult stage in mongolian gerbils . j helminthol 2006 ; 80 : 219 - 223 . pmid : 16923263 .
hence , in absence of a specific immunological test for t . asiatica , only the post - mortem molecular analysis of the extracted cysticerci can be used to assess the species causing pig cysticercosis . as a consequence , t . asiatica may be misdiagnosed as t . solium not only in humans but also in pigs . therefore , any pig cysticercosis around the world diagnosed only by immunological methods could be produced also by t . asiatica , so we propose that it should be named t . solium / asiatica cysticercosis .
the cestode taenia asiatica ( asian tapeworm ) ( along with t . saginata [ beef tapeworm ] and t . solium [ pork tapeworm ] ) causes intestinal taeniasis in infected humans . taenia asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand . genetic studies by eom et al . ( 2009 ) indicated that t . asiatica occurs in japan , the philippines , and vietnam as well ( t . saginata and t . solium have a worldwide distribution ) . ( centers for disease control parasites and health website ) genetically , t . asiatica is far more similar to t . saginata ( to which it is also morphologically very similar ) than it is to t . solium ( jeon et al . 2007 ; eom et al . 2009 ) . taenia asiatica shares its intermediate host association ( i . e . , pigs ) with t . solium , not with its closer relative t . saginata ( which use cattle as the intermediate host ) . thus , it appears that the divergence of t . asiatica and t . sagitata was associated with a host shift .
there are three species of taenids that use humans as definitive hosts : taenia solium , t . saginata , an t . asiatica . in addition , taenia solium can also use humans as intermediate hosts causing cysticercosis . this ability makes this parasite especially important . other species of taenids circulate in wild animals and infect humans only occasionally causing cysticercoses / coenuroses as well as taenoses .
to investigate the aetiology , species and epidemiological factors of taenia infection in a pilot area of lanping county , yunnan province .
garcia hh et al . diagnosis , treatment and control of taenia solium cysticercosis . curr opin infect dis . 2003 oct .
taenia solium , t . saginata , and t . asiatica are 3 zoonotic tapeworms which induce human infections through pigs and cattle as intermediate hosts . among them , t . asiatica is the last known species found in asian countries where rural people eat undercooked visceral organs of pigs , i . e . , the liver , omentum , serosa , and lung [ 1 - 4 ] .
among coproantigen - detection methods ( only genus specific ) , a coproantigen elisa for t . solium was tested with t . asiatica but did not cross - react [ 19 ] . therefore , this is the only 100 % specific immunological method currently available to identify t . solium carriers , but not t . asiatica carriers . even a positive result for t . solium in this elisa would not exclude t . asiatica since dual human infection with t . solium and t . asiatica has been reported in thailand [ 10 ] .
life cycles of the 3 human taenia tapeworms ( this figure has been modified from fig . 1 . 2 of flisser et al . , biology of taenia solium , t . saginata , and t . asiatica . in murrell kd ed , who / fao / oie guidelines for the surveillance , prevention , and control of taeniosis / cysticercosis . 2005 , pp 1 - 9 ) .
ohnishi k , sakamoto n , kobayashi k , iwabuchi s , nakamura - uchiyama f . therapeutic effect of praziquantel against taeniasis asiatica .
t . asiatica is limited to asia and is seen mostly in the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia and thailand .
6 . zarlenga ds , george m . taenia crassiceps : cloning and mapping of mitochondrial dna and its application to the phenetic analysis of a new species of taenia from southeast asia . exp parasitol 1995 ; 81 : 604 - 607 . pmid : 8543003 .
garcía hh at al . taenia solium cysticercosis . lancet . 2003 aug 16 ; 362 ( 9383 ) : 547 - 56 .
studies on the diversification times of the different taenia species indicate that t . asiatica fully diverged from a common t . saginata / asiatica ancestor in the late pleistocene , ~ 40 , 000 years ago . this diversification might have co - occurred with the arrival of homo sapiens in asia , and the introduction of new wild boar populations and / or new breeding and husbandry practices in this region [ 63 , 95 ] . again , these results indicate a closer relatedness of t . asiatica with t . saginata than with t . solium .
8 . jeon hk , lee kh , kim kh , hwang uw , eom ks . complete sequence and structure of mitochondrial genome of the human tapeworm , taenia asiatica ( platyhelminthes ; cestoda ) . parasitology 2005 ; 130 : 717 - 726 . pmid : 15977909 .
geographical information of taenia asiatica is reviewed together with that of t . solium and t . saginata . current distribution of t . asiatica was found to be mostly from asian countries : the republic of korea , china , taiwan , indonesia , and thailand . molecular genotypic techniques have found out more countries with t . asiatica from japan , the philippines , and vietnam . specimens used in this paper were collected from around the world and mostly during international collaboration projects of korean foundations for parasite control activities ( 1995 - 2009 ) in developing countries .
31 . flisser a . in farthing mjg , keusch gt , walekin d eds , taenia solium , taenia saginata and hymenolepis nana . enteric infections . 2 : intestinal helminths . 1995 , london , uk . chapman and hall medical . pp 173 - 189 .
further experimental studies on t . saginata - like tapeworms from south korea , indonesia , thailand , and the philippines showed similar results , leading the authors to rename their taiwan taenia into asian taenia , denoting its more diverse geographical distribution [ 7 - 10 ] .
t . asiatica is generally neglected in the global elimination context of human taeniasis - cysticercosis . we assume that t . asiatica remains ignored mainly for 2 reasons ; first , its supposedly non - cosmopolitan character , being restricted to asian countries , and second , its close molecular similarities to t . saginata , suggesting that t . asiatica probably does not cause human cysticercosis since t . saginata eggs do not infect humans .
figure c : iodine - stained wet mount of a taenia sp . egg . image courtesy of the oregon state public health laboratory .
figure d : iodine - stained wet mount of a taenia sp . egg . image courtesy of the oregon state public health laboratory .
eom ks . what is asian taenia ? parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s137 - 41 . epub 2006 jan 4 .
avila g et al . laboratory animal models for human taenia solium . parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s99 - s103 .
taenia solium tapeworm infections can lead to cysticercosis , which is a disease that can cause seizures , so it is important seek treatment .
only 2 types of taeniases ( t . saginata and t . solium ) were recognized morphologically in korea up to 1992 until t . asiatica being newly described in 1993 as the third type . the prevalence of taeniasis in korea was considered to be caused only by infection with t . saginata or t . solium until eom and rim revised the identification of the korean taenia tapeworms to establish a new species , t . asiatica [ 1 ] . in order to understand distribution of human taenia tapeworms in korea , 68 taenia specimens were analyzed by morphology and nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial cox1 gene and its2 region . the distribution ratio of t . solium : t . asiatica : t . saginata was 3 : 51 : 14 ( or approximately 1 : 18 : 5 ) from 9 provinces in korea between 1935 and 2005 [ 37 ] .
t . asiatica has been misdiagnosed as t . saginata for more than 200 years in asia [ 16 ] and the same might currently occur in the rest of the world , since the morphology of t . asiatica ' s gravid proglottids is practically indistinguishable from that of t . saginata .
the remainder of this systematic review will provide an update of our current understanding of the transmission , risk factors , geographical distribution and genetic diversity of t . asiatica . for a review on the history , taxonomy and morphology of t . asiatica , we refer to eom [ 32 ] .
due to ( i ) the alomst impossibility to distinguish the morphology of t . asiatica and t . saginata gravid proglottids , ( ii ) current immunodiagnostic techniques that can not identify t . asiatica ( adult / cysticerci ) carriers ( humans or pigs ) , and ( iii ) the fact that molecular techniques ( the only tool to distinguish the 3 taenia species ) are normally not employed in routine diagnostic methods , the 2 questions concerning t . asiatica ( its definite geographical distribution and its ability to cause human cysticercosis ) remain open , turning t . asiatica into the most neglected agent of human taeniasis - cysticercosis . these knowledge gaps should first be assessed before strategies of global taeniasis - cysticercosis elimination are implemented , since t . asiatica is not only a potential candidate to produce human cysticercosis but , as well , a modulating factor in the epidemiology of t . solium .
willingham al 3rd , engels d . control of taenia solium cysticercosis / taeniosis . adv parasitol . 2006 ; 61 : 509 - 66 .
t . asiatica is a recently identified zoonotic human parasite causing intestinal taeniosis , which closely resembles t . saginata . although slight differences in morphology isslight differences in morphology are noted between the species , they cannot be used solely for the diagnosis and differentiation of species . hence , supplementation of serological and more promising molecular methods in addition to morphological study would help in differentiation of the species accurately . t . asiatica has been identified only from few regions of the world and introduction of diagnostic protocols in countries endemic to taenia can reveal the true prevalence of t . asiatica world - wide .
19 . leon wu . taeniasis asiatica in the philippines . taeniasis / cysticercosis and echinococcosis international symposium and the 3rd congress of fap 2005 . 82 .
leon wu . taeniasis asiatica in the philippines . taeniasis / cysticercosis and echinococcosis international symposium and the 3rd congress of fap 2005 ; p . 82 .
( a ) homologous genes shared between t . asiatica and other tapeworms ( that is , t . saginata , t . solium , e . multicularis and h . microstoma ) . ( b ) gene block linkages between t . asiatica and t . saginata . the collinear gene blocks determined by mcscan between genome scaffolds ( > 1 mb ) represent 7 , 212 and 7 , 201 genes for t . asiatica and t . saginata , respectively .
t . asiatica tapeworms range in size from 4 - 8 m , produce 700 proglottids / worm and may produce 80 , 000 eggs per proglottid .
jeon hk , chai jy , kong y , waikagul j , insisiengmay b , rim hj , eom ks : differential diagnosis of taenia asiatica using multiplex pcr . exp parasitol . 2009 , 121 : 151 - 156 . 10 . 1016 / j . exppara . 2008 . 10 . 014 .
. . . human taeniasis results from intestinal infection with parasitic tapeworms of the genus taenia . the most common are taenia saginata and taenia solium , but another species , taenia saginata asiatica , has been relatively recently described ( fan , 1988 ; fan and chung , 1998 ; zarlenga , 1991 ) . whereas the first two species have a worldwide distribution , t . saginata asiatica has been reported primarily in taiwan , korea , thailand , indonesia , china , malaysia , and the philippines ( fan et al . , 1990 ; eom and rim , 1993 ; bowles and mcmanus , 1994 ; fan et al . , 1995 ; simanjuntak et al . , 1997 ; fan and chung , 1998 ; eom and rim , 2001 ; eom et al . , 2002 ) , with sporadic cases in other countries such as spain ( velez and camacho , 1997 ) . . . .
taenia asiatica has made a remarkable journey through the scientific literature of the past 50 years , starting with the paradoxical observation of high prevalences of t . saginata - like tapeworms in non - beef consuming populations , to the full description of its mitochondrial genome . experimental studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s have made it clear that the life cycle of t . asiatica is comparable to that of t . saginata , except for pigs being the preferential intermediate host and liver the preferential location of the cysts . whether or not t . asiatica can cause human cysticercosis , as is the case for taenia solium , remains unclear . given the specific conditions needed to complete its life cycle , in particular the consumption of raw or poorly cooked pig liver , the transmission of t . asiatica shows an important ethno - geographical association . so far , t . asiatica has been identified in taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south - central china , vietnam , japan and nepal . especially this last observation indicates that its distribution is not restricted to south - east - asia , as was thought so far . indeed , the molecular tools developed over the last 20 years have made it increasingly possible to differentiate t . asiatica from other taeniids . such tools also indicated that t . asiatica is related more closely to t . saginata than to t . solium , feeding the debate on its taxonomic status as a separate species versus a subspecies of t . saginata . furthermore , the genetic diversity within t . asiatica appears to be very minimal , indicating that this parasite may be on the verge of extinction . however , recent studies have identified potential hybrids between t . asiatica and t . saginata , reopening the debate on the genetic diversity of t . asiatica and its status as a separate species .
taenia asiatica has made a remarkable journey through the scientific literature of the past 50 years , starting with the paradoxical observation of high prevalences of t . saginata - like tapeworms in non - beef consuming populations , to the full description of its mitochondrial genome . experimental studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s have made it clear that the life cycle of t . asiatica is comparable to that of t . saginata , except for pigs being the preferential intermediate host and liver the preferential location of the cysts . whether or not t . asiatica can cause human cysticercosis , as is the case for taenia solium , remains unclear . given the specific conditions needed to complete its life cycle , in particular the consumption of raw or poorly cooked pig liver , the transmission of t . asiatica shows an important ethno - geographical association . so far , t . asiatica has been identified in taiwan , south korea , indonesia , the philippines , thailand , south - central china , vietnam , japan and nepal . especially this last observation indicates that its distribution is not restricted to south - east - asia , as was thought so far . indeed , the molecular tools developed over the last 20 years have made it increasingly possible to differentiate t . asiatica from other taeniids . such tools also indicated that t . asiatica is related more closely to t . saginata than to t . solium , feeding the debate on its taxonomic status as a separate species versus a subspecies of t . saginata . furthermore , the genetic diversity within t . asiatica appears to be very minimal , indicating that this parasite may be on the verge of extinction . however , recent studies have identified potential hybrids between t . asiatica and t . saginata , reopening the debate on the genetic diversity of t . asiatica and its status as a separate species .
an overview of the epidemiological , biological , and clinical studies of taenia and taeniasis in taiwan for the past century is presented . the phenomenal observations that led to the discovery of taenia asiatica as a new species , which differ from taenia solium and taenia saginata , are described . parasitological surveys of the aborigines in taiwan revealed a high prevalence of taeniasis , which might be due to the culture of eating raw liver of hunted wild boars . chemotherapeutic deworming trials involving many patients with taeniasis were discussed . praziquantel was found to be very effective , but sometimes complete worms could not be recovered from the feces after treatment , probably due to the dissolution of the proglottids . atabrine , despite some side effects , can still be used , in properly controlled dosages , as the drug of choice for human t . asiatica infection if we need to recover the expelled worms for morphological examinations . research results on the infection of t . asiatica eggs from taiwan aborigines in experimental animals were also noted . since the pig serve as the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica and the predilection site is the liver , a differential comparison of other parasitic pathogens that might cause apparently similar lesions is also presented .
an overview of the epidemiological , biological , and clinical studies of taenia and taeniasis in taiwan for the past century is presented . the phenomenal observations that led to the discovery of taenia asiatica as a new species , which differ from taenia solium and taenia saginata , are described . parasitological surveys of the aborigines in taiwan revealed a high prevalence of taeniasis , which might be due to the culture of eating raw liver of hunted wild boars . chemotherapeutic deworming trials involving many patients with taeniasis were discussed . praziquantel was found to be very effective , but sometimes complete worms could not be recovered from the feces after treatment , probably due to the dissolution of the proglottids . atabrine , despite some side effects , can still be used , in properly controlled dosages , as the drug of choice for human t . asiatica infection if we need to recover the expelled worms for morphological examinations . research results on the infection of t . asiatica eggs from taiwan aborigines in experimental animals were also noted . since the pig serve as the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica and the predilection site is the liver , a differential comparison of other parasitic pathogens that might cause apparently similar lesions is also presented .
figure e : unstained taenia sp . egg , teased from a proglottid of an adult . four hooks can easily be seen in this image .
hoberg ep . phylogeny of taenia : species definitions and origins of human parasites . parasitol int . 2006 ; 55 suppl : s23 - 30 .
t . asiatica cysticerci show a clear liver tropism in pigs which indicates that t . asiatica may mainly cause hepatic cysticercosis in humans [ 27 ] . currently , there is no specific immunological method for t . asiatica cysticercosis , and , as already mentioned , t . asiatica cross - reacts even in the most specific serological test for t . solium cysticercosis . therefore , the application of serological approaches only can certainly not demonstrate whether t . asiatica is or is not involved in human cysticercosis cases . we have already suggested the use of liver ultrasonography to investigate the possible presence of cysticerci in patients harbouring t . saginata - like adults [ 28 ] . just as in pigs , only the molecular analysis of the extracted cysticerci could assess the species causing human cysticercosis .
phylogenetic resolution for human taenia indicates independent origins for t . solium and t . asiatica + t . saginata . hence , although discovered only 20 years ago , it is estimated that the divergence of t . saginata and t . asiatica took place 0 . 78 - 1 . 71 mybp in africa or eurasia . [ 18 ] the biotic expansion from africa into eurasia may have resulted in isolation and later divergence of t . asiatica in asia . a total of eight extant boar species have been identified in south - east asia . this diversity of potential intermediate hosts in this area may have influenced the switch of intermediate host for t . asiatica from herbivore to swine . therefore , the association of t . asiatica with swine may have been established in asia following divergence of host populations that later expanded into europe , being consistent with a dominant distribution of this species in asian countries . [ 18 , 19 ]
22 . chang sl , nonaka n , kamiya m , kanai y , ooi hk , chung wc , oku y . development of taenia saginata asiatica metacestodes in scid mice and its infectivity in human and alternative definitive hosts . parasitol res 2005 ; 96 : 95 - 101 . pmid : 15812671 .
taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm , and taenia solium , the pork tapeworm , are the most common tapeworms affecting humans . infection follows consumption of undercooked beef or pork containing cysts . t . saginata cysts may occur in other domestic bovines and a closely related asian species has been shown to infect pigs , ungulates and monkeys . t . solium cysts also occur in dogs and cats . a third species of human taenia , t . asiatica , which is also transmitted in pigs , has recently been described in asia where prevalence rates of up to 20 % have been documented among indonesian villagers .
the limited amount of genetic variation within t . asiatica has also been observed for other genes . indeed , sequence divergences of 0 . 1 to 2 . 1 % were found in t . asiatica hdp2 fragments [ 69 ] , while no divergence was found in the 18 kda gene sequence [ 91 ] .
human taeniases had been not uncommon in the republic of korea ( = korea ) until the 1980s . the prevalence decreased and a national survey in 2004 revealed no taenia egg positive cases . however , a subsequent national survey in 2012 showed 0 . 04 % ( 10 cases ) prevalence of taenia spp . eggs suggesting its resurgence in korea . we recently encountered 4 cases of taenia saginata infection who had . . . [ show full abstract ]
t . asiatica used to be called
taiwan taenia
. two of our collection demonstrated this tapeworm also with analysis of cox1 sequencing ( table 1 ) [ 11 ] . taiwanese dr . p . c . fan made orchid island ( lanyu island ) very well known among cestodologists and parasitologists while he was pioneering the research works on taiwan taenia , as one of the endemic areas of the tapeworm as well as the mainland taiwan . this small island is a land of the yami tribe who moved from south - east asia via the philippines 2 hundred years ago . the natural intermediate host of t . asiatica was also confirmed in lanyu native pigs for the first time . yeh et al . [ 22 ] described that
food - borne parasitic zoonosis such as infections with angiostrongylus cantonensis , clonorchis sinensis , and t . saginata asiatica ( taenia asiatica ) are not rare , but the former is seasonal and the latter 2 are ethnically and geographically associated
. t . saginata and t . solium are also prevalent in taiwan by consuming undercooked beef or pork .
the journey of taenia asiatica , as documented by scientific literature , started in taiwan in the late 1960s . several authors reported on the paradox of observing a high prevalence of taenia saginata - like tapeworms in the native aboriginal population living in mountainous areas of taiwan , while these populations restrained from beef consumption ( reviewed by [ 1 , 2 ] ) , and meat inspection for bovine cysticercosis had been negative for some time [ 3 ] . dr ping - chin fan , a taiwanese parasitologist , conducted various studies on this taiwan taenia in the late 1980s and early 1990s ( reviewed by [ 1 , 4 - 6 ] ) . through observational and experimental studies , he and his team observed the morphology and researched the epidemiology of the taiwan taenia , which diverged from that of t . saginata . this led fan to raise the possibility of the taiwan taenia being a new species [ 4 ] .
unless multiplex pcr [ 20 ] or pcr - rflp [ 8 ] are used , any t . saginata - like gravid proglottids expelled by humans around the world could indeed be t . saginata or t . asiatica [ 10 ] , thus we propose that it should be named t . saginata / asiatica taeniasis .
mayta h , talley a , gilman rh , jiménez j , verastegui m , ruiz m , garcia hh , gonzalez ae : differentiating taenia solium and taenia saginata infections by simple hematoxylin - eosin staining and pcr - restriction enzyme analysis . j clin microbiol . 2000 , 38 : 133 - 137 .
an adult taenia saginata , the beef tapeworm . the ruler at the bottom is about 11 . 5 centimeters ( 4 . 5 inches ) long .
regarding taeniases in other asian countries , intestinal parasite control among primary school children have been performed in cambodia by korea association of health promotion and national center for parasitology , entomology , and malaria control since 2006 . taenia tapeworm eggs were collected from 21 taenia tapeworm carriers in koh kong inhabitants [ 23 ] . the taenia eggs were isolated from the stools and placed in dna sequencing and multiplex pcr for differentiated diagnosis . all of the 21 taenia specimens from koh kong in cambodia were identified as t . saginata ( n = 19 ) and t . solium ( n = 2 ) by cox1 sequencing and multiplex pcr .


bermuda land snails , scientific name poecilozonites , are an endemic genus of pulmonate land snail in the family gastrodontidae ( according to the taxonomy of the gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi , 2005 ) .

scientists believe that poecilozonites colonised the mid-atlantic island of bermuda at least 300,000 years ago .

poecilozonites makes up 95 % of bermuda 's terrestrial fossils .

only one other large pulmonate , succinea , has been found as a fossil .

bermuda land snail

for decades conservationists believed bermudas endemic land snail , poecilozonites bermudensis , was extinct .
quensen jf , iii , woodruff ds . associations between shell morphology and land crab predation in the land snail
wada s , chiba s . the dual protection of a micro land snail against a micro predatory snail .
an evolutionary microcosm : pleistocene and recent history of the land snail p . ( poecilozonites ) in bermuda
more information about the bermuda land snail project is available from london zoo’s website at www . zsl . org .
and an extraordinary sequence of events helped conservationists find what could be the last colony of bermudas endemic land snail , poecilozonites bermudensis .
goodfriend ga . variation in land - snail shell form and size and its causes : a review .
moreno - rueda g . disruptive selection by predation offsets stabilizing selection on shell morphology in the land snail
the last recorded sighting of this endemic land snail was made in the early 1970s by stephen j gould .
hoso m . cost of autotomy drives ontogenetic switching of anti - predator mechanisms under developmental constraints in a land snail .
liew t - s , vermeulen jj , marzuki me , schilthuizen m . a cybertaxonomic revision of the micro land snail genus
ratios ) of land snail shells has been used for estimation of paleotemperatures . some potential uses of land snail shells for paleoenvironmental reconstruction include the study of stable isotopes of h and n , periodic growth lines , and deposits of pedogenic carbonates on the shells .
* “s” , snail survived after experiment ; “p” , snail was preyed by atopos slug in the experiment .
the poecilozonites family contains at least four species of snail , all of which are endemic to bermuda .
wednesday , april 25 : the bermuda land snail was teetering on the brink of extinction when a colony of 56 of the tiny creatures was sent to the zoological society of london in february 2004 .
hoso m , hori m . divergent shell shape as an antipredator adaptation in tropical land snails .
fringing reefs . where platforms are continuous with the shore , separated from land by shallow water .
a snail which conservationists thought was extinct has been found living in an alley in bermuda , it ' s been reported .
poecilozonites bermudensis is a slightly larger snail than the species above , reaching about the size of a bermuda 5 cent coin .
drew pettit , director of conservation services said : “a survey completed in 2012 could not find any wild population of this endemic snail in bermuda .
fossil land snail shells constitute a valuable source of paleoenvironmental information for the quaternary . they can be dated by a variety of methods , including radiocarbon , amino acid racemization and epimerization , and perhaps also
) . here , we argue that this iterative gigantism was the result of selection pressure from vertebrate predators that colonized and evolved during glacial periods when the land area of bermuda was at its maximum .
barrier reefs . further offshore , separated from land by wide , deep ( more than 10 meters or 30 feet ) water .
mr lines is one of just a handful of residents who knows what this species of snail looks like because he has been involved in conservation studies in the past looking for the snail .
this critically endangered endemic species of bermudian land snail was almost eradicated from its mainland range due to several accidentally introduced predatory flat worm species and the predatory rosy wolf snail . zsl was asked by bermuda’s department of conservation services ( bdcs ) to establish a secure breeding population of this species and to clarify that species life history and associated care requirements as part of the government’s recovery programme for this species .
poecilozonites circumfirmatus . an indigenous snail long thought extinct until re - discovered living in july 2002 by local college student alex lines , a bermuda aquarium museum and zoo intern . in the 1970s , harvard paleontology professor stephen jay gould found one and wrote
an evolutionary microcosm : pleistocene and recent history of the land snail poecilozonites in bermuda . at one time years ago , they could be picked up by the bucketful to be ground up and burnt for lime and mortar . nowadays ,
in 2014 the smithsonian institution declared this species of fish was endemic to bermuda .
london zoo began a bermudian land snail programme in 2004 , to help protect what was thought to be the last remaining species , poecilozonites circumfirmatus , from extinction . the poecilozonites family was once so common in bermuda that they were burned for limestone , according to the bermuda sun . in 1951 , another of the island ' s native species , the bermuda petrel , was rediscovered . until then it was thought the seabird , also known as the cahow , had become extinct in the 1600s .
the adaptive significance of shell anti - predation traits is better known for marine snails than for land snails ( goodfriend , 1986 ; vermeij , 1993 ) . this does not mean that land snails are less likely to be preyed upon in terrestrial ecosystems as compared to the marine ecosystems . in fact , the terrestrial ecosystem is a hostile environment to land snails , who face a taxonomically wide range of predators ( barker , 2004 and reference therein ) . the fact that molluscs have diversified to become the second largest phylum on land after the arthropods ( bieler , 1992 ; brusca & brusca , 2003 ) , suggests that land snails have evolved successful adaptations to deal with predation , and the evolution of shell morphology is likely to have played an important part .
dr outerbridge said : we have a canadian snail expert who is coming to bermuda in the new year to help us look at the potential sites where the poecilozonites bermudensis could be translocated .
zsl london zoo maintains the only ex situ population of this species outside of bermuda .
, domestic and wild ( once domesticated but let free by persons leaving bermuda ) .
dr . lane said bermuda waters offer types of seaweed not found in the caribbean .
in late 2013 the smithsonian in washington dc declared this species was endemic to bermuda .
the land snail shell is a single piece of coiled exoskeleton that consists of several layers of calcium carbonate . its basic ontogeny follows a straightforward accretionary growth . shell material is secreted by the mantle , which is located around the shell aperture , and is added to the existing aperture margin . despite this general shell ontogeny that produces the basic coiled shell of all land snails , there is a great diversity of shell forms .
furthermore , it was discovered that the population of another smaller endemic snail , poecilozonites circumfirmatus , was rapidly declining .
a first line of defence of the plectostoma snail against the atopos slug predation is the snail’s resting behaviour . when the snail is resting or disturbed , it withdraws its soft body into the shell and adheres its shell aperture firmly to the substrate . we found that the attachment of the plectostoma shell aperture to the substrate may not be strong enough to resist manipulation by atopos . the slug could remove the snail from the resting position and then approach the shell aperture . hence , the resting behaviour of the snail is not an effective anti - predation trait against shell - apertural entry .
) , predators may evolve new adaptations for processing shells to circumvent the responses of their prey , but on bermuda the cycle of escalation was broken by habitat loss and extinction of predators during interglacials owing to loss of land area and prime habitat . the major interglacial inundations of mis 11 , 9 , 5 and 1 are all associated with extinction events on bermuda (
and esr . the vast majority of paleoenvironmental studies based on land snail shells have examined the faunal composition of fossil assemblages , from which a variety of paleoenvironmental characteristics such as biome , temperature , and moisture conditions have been reconstructed . still , there are a number of problems involved in using this approach and these are discussed . shell morphology has occasionally been used to reconstruct such factors as rainfall and temperature . stable isotope studies on quaternary land snails include : analysis of
platform margin reefs . found in really deep water surrounding the outer edge of the bermuda platform .
dr . lane is a professor of biology at the university of rhode island and has been to bermuda many times . dr . schneider has been coming to bermuda since the 1970 ' s .
golden coral . stenopus scutellatus . rare in bermuda waters but seen by chris flook in 2003 .
and steps are now being taken to protect the habitat and re - establish the uniquely bermudian small snail on the island .
in the early 1600s , uninhabited bermuda once had its own turtles but they were eaten after 1609 by colonists . today , the shallow reefs and seagrass meadows of the bermuda platform provide foraging grounds for immature hawksbill ( eretmochelys imbricata ) and green turtles ( chelonia mydas ) . the bermuda turtle project ( btp ) continues today as a joint effort between the bermuda zoological society , the bermuda aquarium museum and zoo and the caribbean conservation corporation . the project’s mission is to further the understanding of the biology of highly migratory , endangered marine turtles in order to promote their conservation both in bermuda and worldwide .
plans are now afoot to begin bringing poecilozonites circumfirmatus back to bermuda to start the population up again .
asian gecko ( hemidactylus frenatus ) . accidentally introduced to bermuda in 2011 or thereabouts in cargo imports .
last updated : july 9 , 2018 multi - national © 2018 by bermuda online . all rights reserved
liew t - s , kok acm , schilthuizen m , urdy s . on growth and form of a heteromorphic terrestrial snail :
dewitt tj , sih a , hucko ja . trait compensation and cospecialization in a freshwater snail : size , shape and antipredator behaviour .
a survey conducted in 1988 by two us scientists in bermuda could find no living trace of poecilozonites bermudensis .
afforded a certain amount of protection under bermuda ' s protection of birds act 1975 . overall , only 23 birds breed in bermuda , but there are over 200 different types of migrant birds that visit every year .
news article on the re - discovery of p . bermudensis : ' extinct ' snail is found in city alleyway . royal gazette oct 2014
' tales from the snail trail . . . slip sliding away ' by robbie smith in envirotalk volume 78 ( 3 ) fall 2010 .
mr lines told the royal gazette : i was in the alleyway poking around and moving some flower pots when i noticed these snail shells .
this is a unique genus of snail , found nowhere else in the world , and for years we have thought it has been extinct .
as a result a lifeboat project was arranged and the much smaller snail was sent to london zoo where it has been saved from extinction .
it is the surviving member of bermuda’s only endemic animal genus . two related endemic species , p . bermudensis and p . reinianus are considered to have become extinct in the 20th century . a landmark survey of the island’s snails , by drs . rudiger bieler and john slapcinsky in 1998 , revealed very sparse numbers of bermuda ' s endemic snail island - wide .
mediterranean or turkish gecko ( hemidactylus turcicus ) . accidentally introduced to bermuda in 2011 or thereabouts in cargo imports .
to sum up , plectostoma anti - predation traits might mainly act to delay the predator , which increases the time and energy requirement for atopos to complete predation . the resistance exhibited by the snail in response to shell - drilling by the slug cannot ensure the survival of the preyed snail . our results are in accordance with the general view that snail shells usually cannot resist drilling by their predators ( vermeij , 1982 ) .
) than in those morphs . no representative fauna from mis 10 is yet known so we do not know if larger land birds colonized and evolved during that period , but a very different predator , the tortoise
yellow crowned night herons ( nyctanassa violacea ) , once brought in to keep down the land crab population , were re - established from 46 birds imported from florida in the 1970s . they are now native .
but because my son had been so heavily involved with efforts to find this snail i had a good idea of what i was looking at .
considered a highly prized food in the caribbean , in stew pots , but not eaten in bermuda . it is fortunate that one of its foods in the caribbean , the poisonous fruit of the manchineel tree , does not grow in bermuda .
once a lot more numerous than now . until the 1950s , bermuda had bermuda cedar trees galore , which cicadas loved . the sound of the cicada love song , amorous adult males to females , was for many years in bermuda the loudest and most wonderful insect song at night . bermudians referred to cicadas fondly as
hummers .
some species of cicadas then known in bermuda registered over 100 decibels when singing . sadly , when most of the bermuda cedar trees were killed of by a blight in the 1950s , the cicadas that made the nights so uniquely magical and romantic in sound also largely disappeared .
newly discovered ( 2008 ) botryocladia flookii seaweed , a type of seaweed that had never before been studied or catalogued , was named after chris flook , the collector of specimens and the bermuda lionfish project coordinator for the bermuda aquarium museum and zoo .
well , it turned out that the government felt these snails were too common and may affect crops , so several predatory species of snails were introduced to the island , as well as an edible species . within just 2 decades , the bermuda land snail was nearly wiped out , and the new species dominated . currently , it is believed that three species of snails have gone completely extinct , and only one remains , poecilozontes circumfirmatus , which is now an endangered species , and may also be extinct soon .
the genus poecilozonites contains at least 4 species of snails , all of which are endemic to bermuda . two of them , poecilozonites nelsoni and poecilozonites reinianus are extinct . the two surviving species are poecilozonites circumfirmatus and poecilozonites bermudensis , which are rare in bermuda .
partners : government of bermuda’s department of conservation services ( bdcs ) and the bermudian aquarium , museum and zoo ( bamz ) .
snakes . absolutely illegal . conservationists have warned of the disastrous consequences snakes could have on bermuda’s wildlife after a species of kingsnake was captured in july 2016 in sandys . the latest snake capture is believed to be the third in four years and comes after a black racer was picked up on the tucker’s point golf club in 2013 was likely brought in accidentally in a visitor’s golf bag . bermuda’s wildlife has been innocent of snake predation . the consequences would be like having a lionfish on land .
there are many types of sea fish , all similar to what are found off florida and in the caribbean , but none are indigenous to bermuda . there are also blackish pond fish , killifish ( see below ) , several of which are unique to bermuda .
zsl has successfully bred , clarified the life history and developed husbandry guidelines for this species and following liaison with the bermuda’s department of conservation services ( bdcs ) , 200 snails were returned to bermuda , to establish an ex situ population at the bermuda aquarium zoo and aquarium as a prelude to field releases . we are collaborating with bdcs on the revision of the species recovery programme for this species .
temperature , humidity and rainfall patterns would have fluctuated to some degree between glacial and interglacial periods , but the effects of most of those variables on shell evolution in land snails are often ambiguous ( goodfriend 1986 ) . we rejected gould ' s ( 1969 ) hypothesis that reduced availability of calcium carbonate during glacial periods was a limiting factor in snail evolution on bermuda based on several different lines of evidence ( olson & hearty 2007 ) . therefore , we consider that predation was the factor most likely to have been selecting for gigantism in poecilozonites .
march 9 . for decades , bermuda has been the site of a fierce — if tiny — war between rival species of ant .
only in all the islands of bermuda , the islands of the bahamas including harbour island and at least five places in scotland is the sand pink , but not because of the warm water corals . it is untrue to say that bermuda ' s beaches have coarser sand . in fact , the sand in bermuda is exceptionally fine . bermuda ' s coral reefs , from where the forams come , are in better condition than many bahamas reefs . many caribbean reefs have the disease known as ybd . by comparison , there has been only one recorded case of ybd in bermuda recently . local coral diseases are mostly bbd , less infected , the majority of them brain corals .
like in marine predator - snail interactions , where predators tend to drill a hole at less - ornamented positions of the prey shell ( kelley & hansen , 2003 ) we may expect atopos to drill its holes preferentially between shell ribs , rather than through them . conversely , if snail shell ribs are adaptive traits in the context of the slug’s shell - drilling behaviour , we would expect the snail shell to have evolved more densely - placed , thicker , and more protruded ribs to defend themselves against shell drilling predators .
he added : its certainly lucky because im probably one of only five people in bermuda that would have known what they were looking at .
he came down here as a deckhand on a ship originally and was fascinated by the evolution that had happened to these snails in bermuda .
one particularly interesting live shell is the atlantic trumpet triton found in local waters . a bermuda 40c stamp was issued to note it in philately
dr gould put it down to the introduction of predatorial snails that were deliberately brought to bermuda to control the edible garden snail  another introduction that was proving a pest . one of the sad sides to this story is that dr gould is not alive now to hear that this animal still remains in the wild .
manipulation of carcasses of modern birds with analogues in the fossil record of bermuda to show potential swallowing ability of shells of poecilozonites . ( a ) clapper rail rallus longirostris with shell of poecilozonites zonatus ( zona ) nearly at the point of ingestion . ( b ) black duck anas rubripes ditto . ( c ) whooping crane grus americana , a species larger than the extinct endemic crane of bermuda , with shell of poecilozonites nelsoni ( nel4 ) . the very large size of the snail would not have permitted intact ingestion by any bird known from the quaternary of bermuda . scale bar , 2 cm .
interestingly enough , i have recently discovered that land snails were also a favorite topic of my great great grandfather , olof p . nylander . olof was swedish immigrant , who became a well known naturalist in northern maine , and later founded the nylander museum in caribou , maine , which is still in existence today . in fact , he also studied and had a group of land snails named after him — the vertigo nylanderis . new species are still discovered all the time , and old species once thought extinct can sometimes pop up where you least expect it . it is thought that one extinct group of bermuda land snails may have been recently found , though it’s not verified yet . so , be sure to get out there and look on the ground , in the plants , and keep exploring – there is a possibility you can make another big find , or have a species named after you too .
they fly over the sea but return to bermuda to begin courtship activities in late october . they mate for life and produce only one egg each year . the female lays a single white egg in january and in early march a chick covered in dense grey down emerges . young chicks leave bermuda in late may or early june and spend their first eight years of life on the open ocean before returning as adults to breed . like most petrels , cahows are nocturnal and land only to breed . they nest in a soil burrow the bird excavates .
and his son , alex , was heavily involved in helping to save a very similar but smaller snail , poecilozonites circumfirmatus , from extinction through a lifeboat project with the london zoo .
schilthuizen m , van til a , salverda m , liew t - s , james ss , elahan bb , vermeulen jj . microgeographic evolution of snail shell shape and predator behavior .
argopecten gibbus . the atlantic calico scallop is a species of medium - sized edible saltwater clam , specifically a scallop , a marine bivalve mollusk in the family pectinidae . sometimes known as zigzag scallops , featured on a recent 45 cent bermuda stamp , once reared in harrington sound , in a bermuda government project . they have been a protected species since 1978 in bermuda but are eaten readily in other places such as florida where they are common .
introduced in the 1950s . an invasive which feeds on the fruits of the hugely invasive indian laurel tree and spreads even more invasive seeds throughout bermuda .
) . in this situation , the slug uses shell - drilling to make a new opening directly on the part of the shell whorls where the snail is hiding ( e . g . ,
species recovery plans have been developed for several of bermuda ' s protected species . these plans outline the actions necessary to recovery and protect a specific listed species .
bulletin of marine science . bermuda natural history museum . the issue prior to july 14 , 2000 had an inventory by dr . wolfgang sterrer on the number of species ( at least 8 , 299 ) of flora and fauna then in bermuda , of which 4 , 597 are marine and 3 , 702 are terrestrial .
this species was almost eradicated from its mainland range due to several accidentally introduced predatory flat worm species and the predatory rosy wolf snail . zsl was asked by bermuda’s department of conservation services ( bdcs ) to establish a secure breeding population of this species and to clarify that species life history and associated care requirements as part of the government’s recovery programme for this species .
anagenetic procession of snails ( subgenus poecilozonites ) and their predators on bermuda during the mid to late quaternary stratigraphic order . green on the left shows relative percentage of exposed land area of the bermuda platform , with known vertebrate predators being associated with glacial lowstand periods . the central column shows the morphotypes of poecilozonites associated with glacial and interglacial cycles ( after hearty & olson in press ) . the right column identifies mis events and various sea - level cycles during the quaternary . gigantism is expressed in glacial - age snails when vertebrate predators are present . the predators became extinct through reduction in habitat with interglacial flooding of the platform .
but when he returned to bermuda in the early 1990s their numbers appeared to have taken a dramatic plunge , to the point that he could no longer find one .
cardisoma guanhumi . an illusive and rare species in bermuda . the female can be nearly a foot long in width . one this size was caught in october 2001 .
odontomachus insularis . an indigenous ant long thought extinct until re - discovered living in july 2002 by local college student alex lines , a bermuda aquarium museum and zoo intern .
its habitat in bermuda ( where it has been seen in the mangrove swamp area of hungry bay , paget , is somewhat different to that of say , northern florida .
) , is known from the same basal mis 9 sediments as call . the only period when such a tortoise could have colonized and evolved on bermuda was during mis 10 (
not to be confused with scallops , these were once reared in harrington sound , in a bermuda government project . a protected species since 1978 . they are under the sand .
once , particularly when bermuda cedar trees were common ( until the 1950s ) , there were other spiders including very small black and white ones with a hard shell . the silk spider
present in bermuda . ( aedes aegypti and aedes albopictus - including those potentially liable to catch west nile virus ) and which caused outbreaks of dengue fever in bermuda in the 1940s . but roofs are not sprayed for fear of what the spray or fogging could do to harm drinking water and roof catchments . instead , other parts of the home and gardens are .
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bermuda is a sanctuary for whales - humpback , blue , northern - and dolphins in its 200 mile exclusive economic zone under the fisheries ( protected species ) order of the fisheries act .
the largest and most complete collection of bermuda shells to be found anywhere in the world was donated in october 2001 to the natural history museum at the bermuda aquarium , museum and zoo . they were collected by retired banker jack lightbourn and his late colleague and friend arthur guest since 1965 . there are about 7 , 700 species in all in the collection , with several endemic .
three species have been recorded in bermuda , hippocampus reidi ; hippocampus erectus ; and hippocampus zosterae . not endemic , now endangered or vulnerable , on the world conservation red list of threatened animals .
without knowing it beforehand , with the kiskadees bermuda allowed in a veritable bird gang of terrorists . those 200 original yellow - breasted kiskadees have become the prolific and noisy mafioso of bermuda ' s bird lands , trees , shrubs and telephone wires - and a major threat to the lives , feeding and nesting habits of bermuda ' s beautiful bluebirds and other birds as well as to soft - skinned local fruit , crabs , fish and other choice edibles . also , they were the major reason for the extinction of the endemic cicada ( known locally as singers ) by the late 1990s .
punctuated equilibrium is a theory that says animals evolve rapidly in new environments . it’s similar to the work of charles darwin ( and of course 1800′s british paleontologist mary anning , who did not receive much credit for her work , described in thl’s the furious case of the fraudulent fossil - link below ) , which states that animals will adapt to new conditions , based on random mutations . however , stephen jay gould believed that it could occur in much faster spurts , in geologically speaking , very short periods of time . there were periods in time , when there were large numbers of species evolving , and they were generally times after something catastrophic or significant happened . that’s why you can find 15 species of bermuda land snail fossils in a relatively short geological timeframe of only a few hundred thousand years .
he noted that no original research had been done on the subject in more than 50 years which is why he and dr . schneider are working on cataloguing bermuda ' s various types of seaweed .
the bermuda cicada ( tibicen bermudiana ) , a big , black , noisy , buzzing beetle called a singer because of its distinctive buzzing - almost completely disappeared , first after the blight of cedar trees in the 1940s and 1950s and also because the kiskadee flycatcher ( see below ) fancied cicadas as food . the cicada is featured on a 1990 bermuda collector ' s coin . there are cicadas elsewhere .
arca zebra . bermuda ' s turkey - wing shaped mussels . these attractive brown and white striped shells get their name because they are shaped somewhat like a turkey wing . they are the most abundant bivalve in bermuda’s waters , and are most commonly sourced in harrington sound . these animals are found along the east coast of the united states from north carolina to florida , through the caribbean and as far south as venezuela . turkey - wing mussels grow slowly to a maximum size of approximately 80 mm , and are thought to reach 10 years old ! they are the principal ingredients in a traditional bermuda mussel pie .
the lifeboat project was a last - ditch effort to save the species that was being driven to extinction by the introduction of the predatory snail , euglandina rosea , and argentine ants . the conservation effort to save the snails has proved to be a success .
back when dr . gould was a young student in the late 1950′s , he was a deckhand for the woods hole oceanographic institute , based in massachusetts , which ended up taking him on a research trip to bermuda . he had already done some studies on gastropods ( snails and related creatures ) , and noticed various living and fossilized snails while he was there . it turned out at that time there was a single very abundant species of snail , poecilozontes bermudensis , which could be found all over the island ( there were also other species too , including p . nelsoni and p . renianus ) . this snail was so ubiquitous , that the they were sometimes collected and burned just for their lime ( cac03 ) .
two species , eleutherodactylus johnstonei and eleutherodactylus gossei ( first is shown in 1979 bermuda postage stamp graphic here ) sing loudly at night . they are one of the most characteristic night sounds of bermuda between april and november . they are not indigenous - both were introduced accidentally sometime prior to 1880 , most likely on orchids imported from the lesser antilles . they can be found elsewhere in temperate and sub - tropical regions .
when a plectostoma snail withdraws into its shell , part of the lower shell whorls are left vacant . we named this vacant part the ‘predatory path’ , located between shell aperture and soft - body withdrawal terminal point ( i . e . , between the endpoint of the shell whorls and the withdrawn snail’s operculum ) . in shell - apertural entry predation events , the predator’s feeding apparatus would need to pass through the predatory path to reach the snail that is withdrawn deeply into the shell . hence , success of a predation event would depend on the interplay between the morphometrics of both the prey’s predatory path and the predator’s feeding apparatus . in this section , we quantified these morphometrics . because both prey and predator traits vary throughout their growth , we assessed variability of these morphometrics at several different growth stages .
many of the shell traits of land snails ( e . g . , whorl number and size , shell periphery form , umbilicus , shell coiling direction , aperture shape and size , and shell shape , thickness and size ) are adaptive responses to abiotic ecological factors ; by contrast , very few traits , viz . aperture shape and size , shell size , and shell wall thickness , are known to offer a selective advantage when faced with predation ( goodfriend , 1986 ) . since goodfriend ’s ( 1986 ) review , few additional studies have shown the adaptive significance of land snail shell traits under predation pressure , namely , aperture form ( gittenberger , 1996 ; quensen & woodruff , 1997 ; konumu & chiba , 2007 ; hoso & hori , 2008 ; hoso , 2012 ; wada & chiba , 2013 ) ; shell form ( quensen & woodruff , 1997 ; schilthuizen et al . , 2006 ; moreno - rueda , 2009 ; olson & hearty , 2010 ) ; shell ribs ( quensen & woodruff , 1997 ) ; and shell coiling direction ( hoso et al . , 2010 ) .
beautiful but potentially deadly poisonous fish . it found its way to bermuda from the pacific in 2001 and was reported in a local newspaper on december 28 , 2001 when one was caught off a local beach . it is about 12 inches long and was introduced to the atlantic . there have since been many sightings on bermuda beaches . there are lots of different species . if you get one in your swim suit , you will be stung badly .
) . although we did not experimentally test the anti - predation role of shell thickness , we suggest that a thicker shell may not fully protect the snail from shell - drilling by the slug , because we find drill holes on the shells regardless of their shell thickness . nevertheless ,
we thank wolfgang sterrer and lisa green , bermuda aquarium , museum and zoo ( bamz ) for supporting our research and david b . wingate and frederick v . grady for assistance in the field . rüdiger bieler , joachim gerber , gustav paulay , gary rosenberg and geraat vermeij commented on various drafts . brian k . schmidt assisted with graphics preparation . louise roth suggested useful references . this is contribution no . 141 of the bermuda biodiversity project of the bamz .
, scientists have recorded conflict between two invasive ant species — the african big - headed ant and the argentine ant — for more than 60 years as they battle for dominance in bermuda . while the african big - headed ant (
bermuda ' s new protected species act 2003 became law on 1st march 2004 . endemic animals are shown below by name and description . except for birds , no prior legislation existed . the new act called for a proactive approach to the protection of local species threatened with extinction , and their habitats . protected species include 27 plants , birds , animals and marine organisms , plus 21 cave organisms , as threatened and ' listed ' according to international criteria . recovery plans for the other species include the bermuda cedar , palmetto and yellowwood , plus fern and flowering plant species . wildlife includes the cahow , longtail , white - eyed vireo , skink , turtles , whales , a species of snail , the tiny cave shrimp and other crustaceans . the bermuda protected species act 2003 allows for the listing of threatened species and recovery plans for active intervention , in order to enhance population levels . the protected species recovery plan project is funded by the uk overseas territory environmental programme ( otep ) .
in sea fish , wahoo and yellowfin tuna are two of the most important species . they are also an important component of the offshore recreational fishery . traditionally caught during their spring and fall
runs
, these species pass by bermuda during annual migrations that take them throughout the central atlantic , although small individuals may remain in the area through the summer . it is thought that the bermuda seamount is an important feeding stop for these species during their long migratory journeys .
, specimens deposited in bor 5656 ) . then , in the field , we disturbed each snail with forceps so that the animal withdrew into the shell . immediately after that , the snail was killed with and preserved in 70 % ethanol . after arriving in the laboratory , we photographed each specimen to record the withdrawal position of the animal in its translucent shell . then , we obtained 3d models ( ply format ) of these shells , based on the x - ray microtomography ( µct ) technique as described in test 1 ( b ) , using ct analyser 1 . 12 ( ©skyscan ) .
attack by shell - apertural entry ( i . e . , predatory path distance > proboscis length & whorl radius of curvature < proboscis diameter ) . the insets show the simulation of interaction between slug proboscis and snail predatory path at three growth stages , namely , a , f and l ( see
the species of bermudian land snail , known as poecilozonites bermudensis , hadn ' t been seen on the island for more than 40 years . but now a colony of the creatures has been found flourishing in a
damp and overgrown alleyway
in the capital city , hamilton , by a local resident , the royal gazette website reports .
for it to be found in hamilton is unbelievable . it ' s the last place you would imagine that a small colony of rare snails would be discovered ,
says dr mark outerbridge of the government ' s conservation service . it ' s thought that by choosing a concrete home , the snails were protected from the predators that wiped out the rest of their population , dr outerbridge says .
after the snail has been captured , the slug would attempt to reach the soft body by inserting its proboscis into the prey shell via the shell aperture ( e . g . , heude , 1882–1890 ; kurozumi , 1985 ; wu et al . , 2006 ; tan & chan , 2009 ) . the slug is more likely to succeed by shell - apertural entry when the prey is not yet fully - grown ( test 2c ) . all other things being equal , when using the shell - apertural entry strategy , the slug would prefer to attack immature prey over prey with a fully - grown shell ( test 2a ) . if the slug can reach the deeply - withdrawn body of the snail ( lying immediately behind the operculum ) it would be able to consume it entirely ( test 2a ) . the slug may take more than three hours to attack and consume a juvenile snail by shell - apertural entry ( test 2a ) .
are correlated with drastic changes in island area and environmental conditions caused by eustatic sea - level changes during the pleistocene . during glacial periods , sea levels fall below the level of the bermuda platform creating a large island with an area of > 650 km
it is worth noting that lampyridae beetle larvae also use shell - apertural entry to attack plectostoma snails . hence , the anti - predation properties of the snail tuba against atopos attack might similarly defend against the lampyrid larvae . in addition to the increased predatory path as anti - predation property , it is possible that the twisted vacant tuba whorls also help obstruct the insertion of the feeding apparatus of the slug and beetle larva if these are not flexible enough to pass through the twists of the tuba . in short , this second line of defence posed by the snail tuba could force predators to use an alternative , more costly , predatory strategy .
very important to the marine ecosystem . they link mangrove communities to coral reefs . the four species in bermuda are thalassia testudinum ( turtle grass ) ; syringodium ( manatee grass ) ; halodule wrightii ( shoal grass , common ) and halophila decipiens ( rare ) .
they usually stay beyond - not inside - the reefs but bermuda ' s history records several deaths by swimmers in the 1900s . unlike in britain , they are not protected . when caught locally , their liver often becomes shark oil in home - made barometers .
megachile spp . extremely rare in bermuda , known to inhabit nonsuch island . a native of the western usa . in bermuda , most are approximately the size of the common honeybee , although they are somewhat darker with light bands on the abdomen . they also have different habits . leafcutter bees are not aggressive and sting only when handled . their sting is very mild , much less painful than that of honeybees or yellow jacket wasps . leafcutter bees are solitary bees , meaning that they don ' t produce colonies as do social insects .
vireo griseus bermudianus . known to bermudians as chick of the village in imitation of its cheery song which is sung throughout the year . an endemic sub - species characterized by shorter wings and duller plumage compared to its american first cousin . an insect - eating bird of the forest canopy , it was originally associated with bermuda’s once - large , long - gone cedar and palmetto forest . the almost total destruction of the bermuda cedar tree in the 1940s and 1950s by accidentally introduced insect pests nearly caused its extinction , but it has recovered .
predator–prey interactions are among the main ecological interactions that shape the diversity of biological form . in many cases , the evolution of the mollusc shell form is presumably driven by predation . however , the adaptive significance of several uncommon , yet striking , shell traits of land snails are still poorly known . these include the distorted coiled “tuba” and the protruded radial ribs that can be found in micro - landsnails of the genus plectostoma . here , we experimentally tested whether these shell traits may act as defensive adaptations against predators . we characterised and quantified the possible anti - predation behaviour and shell traits of plectostoma snails both in terms of their properties and efficiencies in defending against the atopos slug predatory strategies , namely , shell - apertural entry and shell - drilling . the results showed that atopos slugs would first attack the snail by shell - apertural entry , and , should this fail , shift to the energetically more costly shell - drilling strategy . we found that the shell tuba of plectostoma snails is an effective defensive trait against shell - apertural entry attack . none of the snail traits , such as resting behaviour , shell thickness , shell tuba shape , shell rib density and intensity can fully protect the snail from the slug’s shell - drilling attack . however , these traits could increase the predation costs to the slug . further analysis on the shell traits revealed that the lack of effectiveness in these anti - predation shell traits may be caused by a functional trade - off between shell traits under selection of two different predatory strategies .
a recently discovered fossil land tortoise ( testudines : testudinidae ) is described from the pleistocene of bermuda . its morphology is sufficiently well preserved to allow assignment to the extinct north american genus hesperotestudo . however , several features of this tortoise are unique and it is named hesperotestudo bermudae sp . nov . a review of the phylogenetic relationships of the better known genera of the testudinidae suggests that the affinities of hesperotestudo lie with other north american tortoises ( gopherus ) and not with geochelone or other testudinines ; thus , hesperotestudo is reassigned to the xerobatinae . this is at least the fifth documentation of a testudinid dispersing over open ocean to an oceanic island ( the first for hesperotestudo ) and it corroborates the hypothesis that members of this family are well suited to over - water dispersal .
there , it usually includes glass worts ( salicornia sp . ) , salt meadow hay ( spartina alterniflora ) , sweet bay , ( magnolia virginiana ) , youpon ( ilex vomitoria ) , fiddler crabs ( uca sp ) , and an occasional raccoon ( not present in bermuda ) .
when a plectostoma snail is resting or is disturbed , it withdraws its soft body into the shell and adheres its shell aperture to the substrate . thus , when the snail is in this position , its aperture is not accessible to the slug , and for the slug to access the shell aperture , it would need to remove the shell from the substrate . in this test , the ability of the slug to manipulate the adherent prey shell was inferred by examining the drill hole location of the specimens used in test 1 ( b ) . we predict that the sector of the shell facing the substrate is less susceptible to drilling by the slug if it is unable remove the adherent prey shell from the substrate .
bermuda rock lizard ( skink ) . eumeces longirostris . it is bermuda ' s only endemic , non - flying , non - swimming terrestrial vertebrate . it was described as unique to bermuda in 1860 by p . h . pope , the smithsonian herpetologist . its fossil bones , dating back 300 , 000 years or more , have been found in local limestone caves . now quite rare in most parishes , largely restricted to pockets of coast and isolated islands . an adult can grow up to seven inches long . sometimes referred to as the somerset or warwick lizard . it is a protected endangered species . it is quite different to those imported from the caribbean . people from scotland who are familiar with the national dish called cullen skink can rest assured that they are not eating a rock lizard or any other kind of skink of the type mentioned above or below .
sialia sialis . native . once very common , it nested in hollows of cedar trees , on coastal cliffs and even under eaves of houses . as a cavity nester , it became especially vulnerable to nest site competition from the english house sparrow . with the bermuda cedar spoilage in the 1950s and its repercussions , the population declined by more than 80 % . an artificial wooden nest book program was introduced which has had limited success , but still a firm favorite among many bermudians and other residents . loves concrete bird baths with lots of water and can splash around in them for ages . this bermuda postage stamp honors them .
bermuda does not have alligators , badgers , buffalo , chipmunks , crocodiles , deer , ferrets , giraffes , hedgehogs , lions , moles , mongooses , moose , raccoons , skunks , snakes , squirrels , stoats , tigers , weasels or zebras . a recent attempt to bring in skunks for domestic purposes was defeated .
) . however , the operculum that had withdrawn together with the soft body into the shell remains intact and has been moved to the outside of the shell ( test 2a ) . we did not observe how the slug extracts the soft body from the shell , but we suppose the slug may secrete digestive fluid to dissolve the snail’s tissues and then ingesting this with its proboscis , like other rathouisiidae (
here , we attempt to reconstruct the predatory strategies of one of the predators , the atopos slug , against the plectostoma snail and try to empirically unravel any anti - predation function of the unusual plectostoma shell traits through a series of experiments , and direct and indirect observations ( hereafter known as “tests” ) . we examined the effectiveness of several plectostoma shell traits , namely , ( 1 ) ribs on shell surface ; ( 2 ) shell whorl thickness ; ( 3 ) shell tuba ; and ( 4 ) snail resting behaviour . these three shell traits and one behavioural trait were selected because these are known in other snail taxa for having antipredation properties against shell - apertural entry and shell - drilling behaviour by other predators ( see overview in goodfriend , 1986 ; vermeij , 1993 ) . we examined the effectiveness of the first three shell traits of plectostoma against atopos slug shell - drilling ( test 1 ) ; and the effectiveness of the last two traits of plectostoma against atopos slug shell - apertural entry ( test 2 ) . additionally , we investigate possible constraints in the development of anti - predation shell traits . finally , we discuss the results of this study in the context of predator–prey interactions and shell - trait evolution in general .
pterodroma cahow . a native , it was once prolific but consumed with gusto by early colonists . it was considered extinct until quite recently . it is rare and protected . it is believed to have been in bermuda for 300 , 000 years . heard only during the winter months , the cahow earned its christmas bird name from mariners who became involuntary early temporary colonists after their ships going elsewhere were damaged on the reefs . it is said that they were so frightened by the nocturnal cries of this once abundant bird that they referred to bermuda as the isles of devils . when the first settlers arrived in 1609 and 1612 , it is believed there were half a million cahows .