devon loch ( 1946 – 1963 ) was a racehorse , which fell on the final straight while leading the 1956 grand national .

owned by queen elizabeth the queen mother and ridden by dick francis , devon loch had won two races already that season and finished third in the national hunt handicap chase at cheltenham .

his progress was helped when the favourite , must , and a previous winner , early mist , fell early on .

he went to the front of the race with three jumps remaining , cleared the last half a length ahead of e.s.b. , and took a commanding lead on the final stretch .

then , in front of the royal box just 40 yards from the winning post and five lengths ahead , he suddenly inexplicably jumped into the air and landed on his stomach , allowing e.s.b. to overtake and win .

although jockey dick francis tried to cajole the horse , it was unable to continue .

afterwards , the queen mother said : " oh , that 's racing . "

it is still uncertain and debated to this day as to why devon loch jumped ; some reports claimed he suffered a cramp in his hindquarters causing the collapse .

another report asserted that a shadow thrown by the adjacent water-jump fence ( which horses only traverse on the first circuit of the aintree course ) may have baffled devon loch into thinking a jump was required and – confused as to whether he should jump or not – he half-jumped and collapsed .

jockey dick francis later stated that a loud cheer from the crowd , for an expected royal winner , distracting the horse is a more likely explanation .

reports that the horse had suffered a heart attack were dismissed , as devon loch recovered far too quickly for this to have been the case .

he lived another six years , being put down during or shortly after the cold winter of 1962 – 3 .

devon loch

just over sixty years ago devon loch , a horse owned by the queen mother , was set to win the grand national . for over four miles devon loch had soared over thirty fences and was clear of the field . with 50 yards to go victory was assured . but as hats were being thrown in the air and punters counting their winnings , devon loch fell . its race was over .
every now and then you ' ll hear the term ' he did a devon loch ' which was a phrase coined after his famous fall .
but that day a phrase entered the culture : ‘doing a devon loch’ , capturing that all too common experience of seizing defeat from the jaws of victory .
what did you think when my horse fell down ?
inquired the queen mother , owner of the stricken devon loch , when the two met after the race .
the jockey didn ' t respond and d loch corrected himself . . . . but belly flopped .
esb ' s jockey , d . dick , cheerfully admitted afterwards that he had given up hope of catching devon loch . he had his head down , he said , resigned to second place .
this was the 1956 grand national in which the late dick francis galloped towards the finish line on the queen mother’s horse , devon loch . dick was just yards away from the finish line and was undoubtedly about to win the race when suddenly devon inexplicably jumped up and fell to his stomach .
it was as if he thought there was a fence in front of him . esb who was behind , swooped past devon loch who was still scrambling to his feet and went on to win the grand national .
without wishing to put any extra pressure on ranieri and his players , it is starting to look as though it would take a devon loch - style collapse for leicester to miss out on a place in the top four .
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armorial iii , the tallest horse in the field of 29 , sprang into the lead in the first circuit , with eagle lodge , sandew , much obliged , gentle moya and devon loch - the latter taking his jumps with care and complete confidence .
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so , did dick not feel a touch guilty that he had been the jockey to have profited from devon loch ' s inexplicable fall ?
naaaagh . he was brought to a ruddy standstill by a riderless horse at the first fence after the canal turn . but for that , he might have won by rights and devon loch would have been long forgotten . that said , i ' ve always felt sorry for the queen mum because she ' s such a smashing person . she ' s a star , she is .
failure can be a great teacher but a poor master . we have all ‘done a devon loch’ . so let’s learn from it and what this kind of experience tells us about how to look after and prepare ourselves better . i look forward to seeing you in the winner’s paddock !
jessica ennis is almost there . it would take a devon loch - style collapse to deny her the gold medal now . going into the 800 metres , the final event of the heptathlon , she leads the field by 188 points . that equates to a country mile in layman terms .
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even 46 years on , what happened next remains one of sport ' s greatest mysteries ; 50 yards from the line and with the entire nation cheering a royal victory , devon loch pricked up his ears , appeared to jump a phantom obstacle , and belly - flopped to the turf with his four legs splayed out like bambi on ice .
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but with only ten horses left at the run in to the straight the crowd surged to the rails and the cheers all centred on the faraway , bobbing head and swinging hooves of devon loch . with three others he took the last thorn fence with great lift and rhythm . you could see some of the hooves hitting the brushwood but no one came down . devon loch got first into stride and was soon pounding past the stands , five lengths clear of esb , with francis already stretching out a hand for his bay - leaves . then the astonishing happened . devon loch ' s hind - legs buckled and he went down on his stomach . in what can have been no more than two seconds - but it seemed like an age - francis threw his weight forward and his mount struggled to his feet . could be still do it ? it looked as though he might . the first royal victory in the national since 1900 , the 7 # 163 ; 8 , 000 prize and what a reception with it ! - only forty yards away .
the same year that devon loch was running , robert zajonc was doing work that would help us understand the ‘audience effect’ – why we perform a task more poorly in front of an audience than we do when we are alone . anyone who has watched a child struggle to play a piece of music at a school performance that you’ve heard them play perfectly at home is familiar with this effect .
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` go on then you , lucky devil ,
muttered dave dick grudgingly as dick francis galloped off towards the growing crescendo of noise at the winning post . for four miles , dick and the gallant esb had soared over aintree ' s 30 fences ; now , as they cleared the last but a few hoofbeats behind devon loch , francis accelerated away from them in search of his place in grand national legend .
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everyone was trying to resolve the puzzle of devon loch ' s failure - while esb , a most honourable winner was rather starved of attention as no other national victor has been before - and there were a host of theories . frightened by the noise of the crowd , some said : or he slipped on a muddy patch and could not regain his stride ; or he was out off by the shadow of the water jump on his left .
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you know watching that film , just before the final jump , if you look at devon loch ' s hind legs , they were almost
loose
looking for a better term ? like the human adage
my legs felt like jelly
. i can see it clearly in the video starting around 1 : 04 and onward , look at his hind legs . he just looked spent . . . maybe like marathon runner whose legs just fall out from underneath him , it looks just about the same . .
on the outward run into the country on the second circuit , after two miles of extremely fast going , the fences began to take their toll . nine horses fell in the last ten jumps . at becher ' s , sundew , who had been helping to make the pace with armorial iii , went down on landing . the main group , including devon loch and many of the leading fancies , were now a good many lengths behind , but all coming up fast enough to spread the many hopes among the crowd .
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the effect of the tragic climax on the more hard - bitten ones of the racing fraternity was not the least curious feature of the day . used to the ups and downs of the track , in and out of the money by the hour , surely they could ride this emotional blow ? but no . devon loch had caught many of them in the middle of a cheer with all defences down .
no more racing today for me ,
said one horsey veteran with a sigh as he slumped on the seat near me .
i am very , very upset .
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it would have been hard to find a theatre - producer able to build up a race to such a climax . the luck of jumping , which put most of the favourites out of the race well before devon loch and three others leapt into sight in the home straight , ensured that the weight of the cheering all bent itself to the encouragement of the queen mother ' s horse . the favourite , must , and the fancied high guard ( with a . p . thompson up , riding in his last national ) and two other runners went down as the cavalcade cleared the first jump .
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it is better to look at newspaper stills of the event , rather than the old grainy film . off track , coming to the inside fence , there is a ditch in the field - approximately 1 metre broad . devon lock takes a moderate leap exactly at the point of this ditch .
none of the thousands who saw it will easily shake off the memory of devon loch ' s collapse in front of the royal box today within forty yards and a few seconds of triumph ; or the utterly poignant spectacle of the royal jockey r . francis , cast as the day ' s tragic hero , walking away from his crippled mount , too distressed to look anywhere . aintree was on its feet to roar it home for a great grand national victory ; hats , racecards , emotions all in the air . a moment later , as a certain winner buckled in its stride , the cheering thousands gave a loud
ah !
of dismay and crumpled into silence . i have never seen a race crowd - or any sporting crowd - more bewildered .
clearing the last and going on to the long run in , the jockey was later to write in an autobiography
never had i felt such power in reserve , such confidence in my mount , such calm in my mind
and it was clear that there was only going to be one winner , however disaster was to strike 50 yards from home when all the men in the stand were throwing up their hats into the air to salute a great win for devon , dick and the queen mother . suddenly the horse seemed to jump in the air and then completely collapsed onto his stomach , the horse got to his feet and his jockey tried to summon the horse to carry on but it was soon obvious that the horse could not carry on and as esb ran past to win , it was clear to all the shocked crowd that
all looked good for his crack at the title . his progress was helped when two of the market leaders fell at the first both must ( the favourite ) and also early mist ( a previous winner ) this was to leave m ' as - tu - vu in the lead and devon was going well in mid division . the horse had no problem with the obstacles and only had one problem on the fist circuit when a horse fell in front of him and he had to swerve to miss it , he did this in great style and went on to complete the first circuit by jumping ' the chair ' the biggest fence in the race easily , and then cleared the water to go back to the start for another circuit . his jockey was impressed with the ease his horse was showing indeed even turning in for the final straight his jockey could see all around him hard at work and he still had a ' double hand full ' .
francis will at least earn his sombre niche in sporting history among the great failures . the ryder cup has been won and lost by a putt and cup final hopes dashed by one twisted knee . but this was even more suddenly dramatic . the closer comparison is with , say , those marathon runners who have dropped within sight of the tape after a gruelling 26 miles like peters at vancouver or dorando in the olympics of 1908 .
i do not think any of these theories quite explain it . his sudden collapse looked to me to be of the same kind as the marathon runner ' s ; namely , cramp and exhaustion , leaving francis for all his crouching determination and skill , helpless to do anything about it .
the crowd was shocked : almost hamstrung itself . it was like a modern nightmare , the will without the power . but down went the hind legs again as esb rushed triumphantly past . francis dismounted , threw down his whip and wept when he heard the applause for his effort . the last of the bitter pill was that he might have broken the national record has he finished : esb was only four fifths of a second outside it .
the queen mother , who has been on her feet with the rest ( and so were the queen and princess margaret ) accepted the tragedy in regal fashion , and something more than that . when the winning owner , mrs carver , expressed her sympathy , queen elizabeth smiled and said .
oh that ' s racing !
she went at once to see her crestfallen jockey and later came to the windows of the stand to smile and wave to the crowd .
but you could see others weighing up the form for the next race . and , watching them trail over to out their money on , it looked rather like that gesture of wartime pilots , going up into action at once after a disaster , simply to recover their nerve .
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jamie vardy scores leicester’s second goal against stoke city at the king power stadium . photograph : michael regan / getty images
claudio ranieri has likened leicester city’s pursuit of the premier league title to a horse race and said he was prepared to “whip them” in march and take a bit of advice from sir alex ferguson .
on this evidence there will be no need for the italian to get off his saddle , or call ferguson for that matter , as leicester , playing like thoroughbreds , returned to the top of the table . perhaps more significantly , they have opened up a 10 - point lead over fifth - placed manchester united with 15 games remaining .
while it is true that leicester have some particularly tricky fixtures coming up , starting with an unpredictable liverpool side at home on tuesday week and followed by back - to - back trips to manchester city and arsenal , the run - in looks much more benign once those games have been negotiated .
this turned into a vintage leicester performance , one of those days when everything went right for them on an afternoon that finished with their supporters singing : “we’re gonna win the league” .
it was only the second game that leicester have won since beating chelsea in the middle of december , the first time that jamie vardy has scored in eight matches and riyad mahrez also looked much like his old self . three big boxes were ticked in that respect .
danny drinkwater also deserves more than a passing mention . an unsung hero in this leicester team , the former manchester united midfielder opened the scoring with his first premier league goal and also played the through ball that released vardy for their second .
by that point stoke were as good as raising the white flag and when leonardo ulloa slid in leicester’s third , following a lovely piece of skill from mahrez , their misery was complete .
it was certainly not much of a way for mark hughes to celebrate his 500th game in management and tempting , given how poorly the visitors performed , to think that stoke’s players had one eye on tuesday’s capital one cup semi - final second leg against liverpool . hughes hopes that ryan shawcross , who limped out of this game in the first half with a back problem , could be fit to play at anfield and also backed his players to bounce back .
ranieri , in contrast , is able to switch off for a few days and has encouraged his players to put their feet up while he goes back to italy . “it was very important to be top of the premier league at the end of january because now comes a very tough february , with liverpool , arsenal and manchester city to come , ” the leicester manager said .
“it is unbelievable but it is good . we are ready to fight . now the players will have three days off so they can clear their minds and then they will come back and we start to work hard again . this league for us is very exciting . ”
so much about leicester’s display gave ranieri pleasure , including drinkwater’s goal . he has been encouraging the 25 - year - old to shoot more often and that advice paid off three minutes before half time . philipp wollscheid only half cleared marc albrighton’s corner and drinkwater , loitering on the edge of the area , drilled a 20 - yard shot that took a deflection off marc wilson , shawcross’s replacement , before beating jack butland .
although joselu’s free header from a glen johnson cross finally forced kasper schmeichel into a save in the 61st minute , that was pretty much stoke’s only attempt on goal . shortly after that chance leicester doubled their lead when vardy , running on to drinkwater’s lofted pass , skipped around butland and tapped into an empty net from an acute angle .
with mahrez becoming more and more influential , leicester were starting to enjoy themselves and added a third three minutes from time . ulloa flicked on schmeichel’s punt upfield and vardy , gambling on the argentinian winning that header , chased the ball into the inside right channel before picking out mahrez .
after a lovely nutmeg of wollscheid , mahrez was able to tee up ulloa and leicester were rampant .
hughes had long seen enough . “it wasn’t a great day for us . we didn’t produce anything of note , to be honest , ” the stoke manager said . “from our point of view we’re looking to bounce back quickly . we’ve got a huge game on tuesday and i back my team to respond . ”
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johnson - thompson rose to twelfth place after jumping 6 . 19 metres stu forster / getty
that means that ennis , one of the best 800 metres runners in the field , can afford to run 13 seconds slower than a woman she is usually much faster than . austra skujyte , of lithuania , remains second after russia’s tatyana chernova , the world champion , failed to mount a lasting challenge . the russian goes into the final event in sixth place , some 314 points adrift . the olympic champion - for a few more hours anyway - nataliya dobrynska , pulled out of the event…
welsh national anthem just before wales beat england 30 - 3 . saturday 16th march 2013
. all this added up to what should have been a happy occasion but fate got in the way and another grand national story was entered in the history books .
was not favorite on that day because two past winners and a future winner were in the race but never the less the horse was fancied by his connections having showed his ability by wining twice that year and also running up a good third at cheltenham that season .
probably the most disappointed person on that day was hm the queen mother but as this remarkable national hunt enthusiast who ' s only concern on the day was for the horse , trainer and jockey , indeed on meeting esp ' s winning trainer and jockey later it was they who were full of tears and the queen mum was later to say when asked of the incident when being interviewed on the television that ' s racing ( a lesson to us all ) .
many theories have been given up to what happened on that day . the jockey said
i ' m convinced that the roar of the crown frightened the horse
, a police officer on duty that day said
there was a dark wet patch on the course and that caused the horse to stumble
, it is also said that the shadow of a fence caused the horse to think there was a fence there and it spooked him . i guess the real reason will never be known but the horse when checked at the stable afterwards was found to be in good health and never showed any sign of an abnormality indeed he went on to win twice after . the theory that i think is most likely is the shadow because this ' jumping of no fence ' is not unique even in the grand national as in 1901 the winner a horse called grundon also did this trick it was reported that he jumped a footpath that he thought was a fence !
as can be seen here was a dejected and was inconsolable on the day and now has a successful career as a writer of racing related thrillers but even he must admit that life is stranger than fiction .
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urltoken
i was absolutely delighted , ma ' am ,
replied dave dick without thinking .
though dick francis would become the queen mum ' s favourite author , she retained a soft spot for laugh - a - minute dave dick , who never failed to make her chortle with his stream of roguish one - liners .
despite my tactlessness ,
dick told me shortly before his death 14 months ago ,
i like to think we ' ve become great friends . she even invited me to be guest of honour at the official royal ascot lunch to celebrate her 400th winner as an owner . but that was another right royal cock - up wasn ' t it ? my invitation was sent to another dave dick in scotland . sat right next to hm he was . ` who are you ? ' demands the queen mum . ` dave dick ' says he . ` oh , no , you ' re not ' says she . and , of course , he was dave dick . . . just not the right dave dick ' .
it was one of those inane questions hacks sometimes ask for no apparent reason when we find ourselves in the company of greatness and suddenly can ' t think of a thing to say .
i don ' t suppose you ever rode red rum ?
i recently inquired of lester piggott at a racing lunch , regretting the words even as they were being uttered .
round aintree ?
i ventured ( in for a penny in for a pound ) .
lester bestowed a piteous look upon his hapless inquisitor before granting me the most gracious of explanations .
no . i won on red rum on the flat at aintree in 1967 when he was a two - year - old . but my family had a lot of connections with the grand national - and , you can look it up .
and look it up i did . did you know that lester ' s father , keith piggott , trained 1963 winner ayala for pierre raymond , better known in hairdressing circles as ` mr teasie weasie ' ? or that his grandfather , ernie piggott , won the national three times as a jockey aboard jerry m in 1912 , followed by poethlyn in 1918 ( when the wartime race was run at gatwick ) and again 1919 ?
although the cheltenham gold cup remains the ` holy grail ' for jockeys , trainers and owners , the grand national has been the undisputed ` people ' s race ' for 163 years . curiously , however , aintree gained social respectability only in 1900 when the prince of wales ' horse , ambush ii , rode to victory .
thereafter , grand national - winning owners have sashayed into the unsaddling enclosure in all shapes and guises ; from sir charles assheton - smith ( 1912 , 1913 ) , lady nelson ( 1915 ) and lord airlie ( 1924 ) , to holiday camp magnate fred pontin ( 1971 ) , comedian freddie starr ( 1994 ) and footballer ricky george ( 1998 ) , scorer of the winning goal in hereford ' s famous 2 - 1 defeat of mighty newcastle united in the fa cup in 1972 .
when i was a lad i always wanted to be a jockey , but the rest of my family were boxers ; except for my dad , that is , he was an alsatian .
i ' ve got four flat horses in training . the others are round , but i love ' em all to bits just the same .
no , thank you , paul ( the man with the microphone was called ` bob ' ) and may i say how much i like the dress you ' re wearing .
and finally - for those interested - after devoting . . . oh , minutes on end , poring over the form - book , consulting meteorologists about the likely going and studying weights , ages and whatnot of past winners , i can now reveal which noble steeds will be carrying the philip family ' s hard - earned cash come 3 . 45 this afternoon :
2 ) celibate ( which i will most certainly be for the foreseeable future should ' er indoors be less than enamoured by the return on my investment ) .
3 ) marlborough ( after all , i smoke enough of the wretched things ) .
but always remember , i hasten to add , as a wise man once said :
the only way to make money following horses is to carry a brush and shovel .
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just curious if more educated eyes could tell from the video , what caused him to fall ? did he just slip ? or did he injure himself ? couldn ' t find a lot googling . at first i laughed , thought it was just bad luck . but if you watch them walk away , it looked like his front left was buckling under his weight . . . not sure if it was just fatigue , or if it was broken . poor guy , though . . . urltoken
that question has been solidly debated ever since 1956 and even the jockey , dick francis , could not explain it . horse wasn ' t damaged .
pick up dick francis ' s book the sport of queens : the autobiography of dick francis . his 1993 revision has a lengthy chapter on the race and his thoughts on the cause of the freak fall . he laments losing a race every jockey dreams of winning in such a bizarre fashion . he also wrote that losing that race in that way was integral to the man he became - and for that he had no regrets .
thanks for the info . . . had never heard the story before , didn ' t realize it was such a huge event , much less an unexplained one . i love dick francis novels , have never read his autobio before .
darkmoonlady , that ' s the impression i got . maybe he just wasn ' t fit enough ? or was worked too hard that week ? or who knows . being the queen ' s horse , i can ' t imagine him not recieving the best possible care , but horses are still horses .
i think i remember dick francis ' theory was that he recoiled from the sound . francis said that the roar of the crowd in the stretch was unlike anything he had ever heard before on the track - people cheering for the certain royal victory . he says the horse hesitated a little in the stretch , then pricked his ears , then jumped back at the onslaught of sound as soon as he pricked them .
i always attributed it to the hand of god . the crone on the throne has never won , too bad that does not cause the overthrow of the empire but every little bit helps !
we , too , will be remembered not for victories or defeats in battle or in politics , but for our contribution to the human spirit .
jfk
ouch . that ' s unfortunate . what a way to go down in history , especially for a good horse who otherwise had a successful career .
like the baseball player tommy john whose name is now used to describe surgery for ailing pitchers .
the horse had imagined the ditch continues below his head and , reigned out , beyond his immediate vision .
it ' s always looked to me like the horse tried to jump something in the stretch . it ' s one of those great mysteries of the grand national .
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seriola is a genus of bony fish , commonly known as amberjacks .

nine extant species are currently recognized , although these were formerly split into many more .

also , several species are currently placed in several other genera of carangidae that were originally described under seriola .

they are a large , carnivorous finfish popularly known for the firm texture and rich flavour of their flesh , which make them an ideal fish for aquaculture .

because specimens caught can weigh up to 41 kg ( 90 lb ) , and are powerful swimmers and hunters , they are also highly prized by sport fisherman .

most seriola species are either benthic , demersal or pelagic , and can be found down to 200 m in depth .

all 9 species cover most of the globe in terms of distribution , usually in coastal waters .

most are shown to be pelagic spawners , releasing eggs into the open ocean habitat until hatching , and they do this through dioecious , external reproduction .

most seriola species are found in schools , and have diets consisting of fish , squid and other invertebrates .

seriola

fao . 2008 . cultured aquatic species information programme seriola quinqueradiata ( temminck & schlegel 1845 ) . urltoken seriola _ quinqueradiata / en
we cultured seriola lalandi for 488 days in a ras with artificial sea water .
garcía - gómez a . 1993 . primeras experiencias de crecimiento de juveniles de seriola mediterránea ( seriola dumerili , risso 1810 ) alimentados con una dieta semihúmeda . bol . inst . esp . oceanog . 9 ( 2 ) : 347 - 360 .
scientific synonyms and common names seriola rivoliana cuvier , 1833 synonyms : seriola rivoliana valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , hist . nat . poiss . , 9 : 207 ( ' archipel ' = brazil ) . holotype : mnhn no . a 6633 ( ' archipel ' ) . seriola falcata valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , hist . nat . poiss . , 9 : 210 ( ' golfe du mexique ' ) . holotype : mnhn no . a 781 . seriola bonariensis valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , hist . nat . poiss . , 9 : 211 ( ' buenos ayres ' ) . holotype : mnhn no . a 6619 . seriola dubia lowe , 1839 , proc . zool . soc . london , 7 : 81 ( ' madeira ' ) . seriola dubia : lowe , 1840 : 5 günther , 1860 , 2 : 463 . seriola rivoliana : carus , 1893 : 672 nichols , 1946 : 260 randall , 1968 : 103 , fig . 118 blache et al . , 1970 : 309 , fig . 808 . seriola bonariensis : barnard , 1927 : 556 . seriola falcata : fowler , 1936 : 680 nichols , 1946 : 259 maul , 1948 : 151 albuquerque , 1954 - 1956 : 672 . seriola colburni evermann & clark , 1928 seriola songoro smith , 1959 common names : almaco jack [ en ] charuteiro [ pr ] edregal limón [ es ] sériole limon [ fr ]
garcía - gómez a . 2000 . recent advances in nutritional aspects of seriola dumerili . cah options méditérr . 47 : 249 - 257 .
miranda i . t . & peet c . 2008 . farmed yellowtail seriola spp . japan and australia final report , october 22 , 2008 .
garcía a . & díaz m . v . 1995 . culture of seriola dumerili . cah . opt . méditerr . 16 : 103 - 114 .
holthus p . 2009 . seriola & cobia aquacultre dialogue . meeting summary . world wildlife fund , september 2009 . veracruz , mexico . www . worldwildlife .
a yellowtail kingfish , seriola lalandi , at the solitary islands , new south wales . source : rick stuart - smith / reef life survey . license : cc by attribution
moran d , gara b , wells rmg ( 2007 ) energetics and metabolism of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi valenciennes 1833 ) during embryogenesis . aquaculture 265 : 359 - 369
sanzo , l . 1930b . contributo alla conoscenza dello sviluppo nei carancidi : seriola dumerilii risso . boll . zool . , napoli , 1 : pp . 33 - 34 .
seriola and cobia , also known as amberjack , yellowtail kampachi , hamachi and hiramasa , are large , carnivorous finfish known for their firm texture and rich flavor . they also are prized by sport fishermen , in part because they can weigh up to 90 pounds . most seriola is farmed , mainly in japan ( where the industry started about 50 years ago ) and australia . the seriola aquaculture industry is set for significant growth . most cobia is caught in the wild by sport fishermen . but the cobia aquaculture industry has started to grow over the past few years , particularly in west virginia , puerto rico and belize . seriola and cobia are usually produced in cages , some close to land and some in the open ocean . several land - based tank trials also are underway with both fish species . cobia is usually sold fresh and served in the form of grilled or poached fillets . seriola is increasingly served raw in sushi .
moran d , smith ck , gara b , poortenaar cw ( 2007 ) reproductive behaviour and early development in yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi valenciennes 1833 ) . aquaculture 262 : 95 - 104
sanzo , l . 1933b . uova , larve e stadi giovanili di seriola dumerilii risso . memorie r . com . talassogr . ital . , 205 : 1 - 12 , 1 pl .
poortenaar cw , hooker sh , sharp n ( 2001 ) assessment of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi lalandi ) reproductive physiology , as a basis for aquaculture development . aquaculture 201 : 271 - 286
( of seriola boscii valenciennes , 1833 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola gigas poey , 1860 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola rhombica smith , 1959 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola tapeinometopon bleeker , 1853 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola tapeinometapon bleeker , 1853 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola sparna jenkins , 1903 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola purpurascens temminck & schlegel , 1845 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola simplex ramsay & ogilby , 1886 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola dumerilii ( risso , 1810 ) ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of seriola purpurescens temminck & schlegel , 1845 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
scientific synonyms and common names seriola dumerili ( risso , 1810 ) synonyms : caranx dumerili risso , ichth . nice : 175 , pl . 6 ( fig . 20 ) ( nice ' ) . holotype : mnhn no . b 868 ( nice ) . trachurus aliciolus rafinesque , 1810 , caratt . gen . spec . sicil . : 42 , pl . 11 ( fig . 2 ) ( sicily ) . seriola dumerili : risso , 1826 : 424 valenciennes , 1843 : 57 de buen , 1926 : 103 weber & beaufort , 1931 : 297 de buen , 1935 : 107 , fig . 56 nobre , 1935 : 273 fowler , 1936 : 678 tortonese , 1947 : 171 tortonese & trotti , 1949 : 83 cadenat , 1951 : 167 , fig . 97 ben - tuvia , 1953 : 19 dollfus , 1955 : 145 furnestin et al . , 1958 : 447 , fig . 51 dollfus , 1960 : 105 tortonese , 1961 : 357 randall , 1968 : 102 , fig . 117 bini , 1968 , 5 : 65 , col . fig . wheeler , 1969 : 329 , fig . 107 . seriola dumerilii : valenciennes , in cuv . val . , 1833 , 9 : 201 , fig . 258 moreau , 1881 : 462 , fig . 131 carus , 1893 : 672 sanzo , 1930 : 33 lozano rey , 1952 : 591 , col . pl . 46 ( fig . 2 - 5 ) dieuzeide et al . , 1954 : 225 , fig . seriola tapeinometopon : giglioli , 1880 : 27 carus , 1893 : 672 . seriola dumerili dumerili : albuquerque , 1954 - 1956 : 670 . seriola purpurescens temminck & schlegel , 1844 seriola simplex ramsay & ogilby , 1887 seriola rhombica smith , 1959 common names : accola [ mlt ] greater amberjack [ en ] insk [ eg ] mayàtico [ he ] orfan [ hr ] pez de limón [ es ] poisson limon [ fr ] ricciola [ it ] sarikuyruk [ tu ] seriola [ it ] seriole [ fr ] sériole couronnée [ fr ] serviola [ es ]
tachihara k . , ebisu r . & tukashima y . 1993 . spawning , eggs , larvae and juveniles of the purplish amberjack seriola dumerilii . bull . jpn . soc . sci . fish . 59 : 1479 - 1488 .
hutson ks , ernst i , mooney aj , whittington id . 2007 . metazoan parasite assemblages of wild seriola lalandi ( carangidae ) from eastern and southern australia . parasitol . int . 56 ( 2 ) : 95 - 105 .
chambers c . b . & ernst i . 2005 . dispersal of skin fluke benedenia seriolae ( monogenea : capsalidae ) by tidal currents and implications for sea - cage farming of seriola spp . aquaculture , 250 : 60 - 69 .
lazzari a . , fusari a . , boglione c . , marino g . & di francesco m . 2000 . recent advances in reproductional and rearing aspects of seriola dumerili . cah . options méditerr . 47 : 241 - 247 .
papandroulakis n . , mylonas c . , maingot e . & divanach p . 2005 . first results of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) larval rearing in mesocosm . aquaculture , 250 ( 1 - 2 ) : 155 - 161 .
carton , a . g . & m . r . vaughan 2010 . behavioural and anatomical measures of visual acuity in first - feeding yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) larvae . environ . biol . fish . 89 : 3 - 10
andaloro f . & pipitone c . 1997 . food and feeding habits of the amberjack , seriola dumerili in the central mediterranean sea during the spawning season . cah . biol . mar . , 38 ( 2 ) : 91 - 96 .
mazzola a . , fava loro e . & sara g . 2000 . cultivation of the mediterranean amberjack , seriola dumerili ( risso , 1810 ) , in submerged cages in the western mediterranean sea . aquaculture . 181 : 257 - 268 .
mylonas c . c . , papandroulakis n . , smboukis a . , papadaki m . & divanach p . 2004 . induction of spawning of cultured greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) using gnrha implants . aquaculture 237 , 141 - 154 .
papadakis i . e . , chatzifotis s . , divanach p . & kentouri m . 2008 . weaning of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerilii risso 1810 ) juveniles from moist to dry pellet . aquaculture international , 16 : 13 - 25 .
yokoyama h . , yanagida t . & takemaru i . 2006 . the first record of kudoa megacapsula ( myozoa : multivalvulida ) from farmed yellowtail seriola quinqueradiata originating from wild seedlings in south korea . fish pathol . 41 : 159 - 163 .
gillanders bm , ferrell dj , andrew nl ( 1999 ) size at maturity and seasonal changes in gonad activity of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ; carangidae ) in new south wales , australia . nz j mar freshw res 33 : 457 - 468
micale v . , maricchiolo g . & genovese l . 1999 . the reproductive biology of the amberjack , seriola dumerilii ( risso 1810 ) . i . oocyte development in captivity . aquac . res . 30 ( 5 ) : 349 - 355 .
this circumglobal species is restricted to subtropical waters , and consisting of a series of disjunct subpopulations , many of which until recently were considered to represent distinct species . until recently , most of the literature in the eastern pacific referred to this species are seriola dorsalis .
harris p . j . 2004 . analytical report . age , growth , and reproduction of greater amberjack , seriola dumerili , in the southwestern north atlantic . marine resources research institute , south carolina department of natural resources , charleston , south carolina , 35 pp .
masumoto , t . 2002 . yellowtail , seriola quinqueradiata . in : c . d . webster & c . e . lim ( eds . ) , nutrient requirements and feeding of finfish for aquaculture , pp 131 - 146 . cab international , wallingford , uk .
marino g . , mandich a . , massari a . , andaloro f . & porrello s . 1995 . aspects of reproductive biology of the mediterranean amberjack ( seriola dumerili risso ) during spawning period . j . appl . ichtiol . 11 , 9 - 24 .
hamasaki k . , tsuruoka k . , teruya k . , hashimoto h . , hamad k . , hotta t . & mushiake k . 2009 . feeding habits of hatchery - reared larvae of greater amberjack seriola dumerili . aquaculture 3 - 4 : 216 - 225 .
clark , t . d . & seymour , r . s . ( 2006 ) . cardiorespiratory physiology and swimming energetics of a high - energy - demand teleost , the yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) . j . exp . biol . 209 : 3940 - 3951 .
yanase , k . , n . a . herbert & j . c . montgomery . 2012 . disrupted flow sensing impairs hydrodynamic performance and increases the metabolic cost of swimming in the yellowtail kingfish , seriola lalandi . the journal of experimental biology 215 : 3944 - 3954 .
alcaide e . , sanjuan e . , de la gándara f . & garcía - gómez a . 2000 . susceptibility of amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) to bacterial fish pathogens . bull . eur . ass . fish . pathol . 20 ( 3 ) : 153 - 156 .
munro , i . s . r . [ 1956– ] 1961 . handbook of australian fishes . nos . 1–42 . australian fisheries newsletter 15 - 17 , 19 , 20 : 1 - 172 [ published as separates 1956 - 1961 ] ( p . 802 as seriola grandis )
mandich a . , massari a . , bottero s . , pizzicori p . , goos h . & marino g . 2004 . plasma sex steroid and vitellogenin profiles during gonad development in wild mediterranean amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) . mar . biol . 144 : 127 - 138 .
skaramuka b . , kozul v . , teskeredzic z . , bolotin j . & onofri v . 2001 . growth rate of tank reared mediterranean amberjack , seriola dumerili ( risso 1810 ) fed on three different diets . j . appl . ichthyol . 17 : 130 - 133 .
brown , e . v . & nishimura , s . 1977 . yellowtail ( seriola quinqueradiata ) . in : e . e . brown , ( ed . ) , world fish farming cultivation and economics , pp . 297 - 309 . the avi publishing company , inc . , usa .
talbot c . , garcía - gómez a . , de la gándara f . & muraccioli p . 2000 . food intake , growth , and body composition in mediterranean yellowtail ( seriola dumerilii ) fed isonitrogenous diets containing different lipid levels . cah . options méditérr . 47 : 259 - 266 .
jover m . , garcía - gómez a . , tomás a . , de la gándara f . & pérez l . 1999 . growth of mediterranean yellowtail ( seriola dumerili ) fed extruded diets containing different levels of protein and lipid . aquaculture 179 ( 1 - 4 ) : 25 - 33 .
kozul v . , skaramua b . , kraljevic m . , dulcic j . & glamuzina b . 2001a . age , growth and mortality of the mediterranean amberjack seriola dumerili ( risso 1810 ) from the south - eastern adriatic sea . j . appl . ichthyol . 17 : 134 - 141 .
kozul v . , skaramuka b . , glamuzina b . , glav ic n . & tutman p . 2001b . comparative gonadogenesis and hormonal induction of spawning of cultured and wild mediterranean amberjack ( seriola dumerili , risso 1810 ) . sci . mar . 65 ( 3 ) : 215 - 220 .
jerez s . , samper m . , santamaría f . j . , villamandos j . e . , cejas j . r . & felipe b . c . 2006 . natural spawning of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) kept in captivity in the canary islands . aquaculture , 252 : 199 - 207 .
gillanders , b . m . , ferrell , d . j . , andrew , n . l . 2001 . estimates of movement and life - history parameters of yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) : how useful are data from a cooperative tagging programme ? marine and freshwater research 52 : 179 - 92 .
martinez - takeshita n , purcell cm , chabot cl , craig mt , corinne n . paterson cn , hyde jr & allen lg . ( 2015 ) a tale of three tails : cryptic speciation in a globally distributed marine fish of the genus seriola . copeia 103 ( 2 ) : 357–368 . doi : urltoken
kawabe k . , kato k . , kimura j . , okamura y . , ando k . , saito m . & yoshida k . 1996 . rearing of broodstock fish and egg - taking from amberjack seriola dumerili in chichijima , ogasawara islands , southern japan . suisan zoyozhoku 44 : 151 - 157 ( in japanese with english abstract ) .
montero f . e . , crespo s . , padrós f . , de la gándara f . , garcía - gómez a . & raga j . a . 2004 . effects of the gill parasite zeuxapta seriolae ( monogenea : heteraxinidae ) on the amberjack seriola dumerili risso ( teleostei : carangidae ) . aquaculture 232 ( 1 - 4 ) : 153 - 163
stuart - smith , j . , pecl , g . , pender , a . , tracey . s . , villanueva , c . & smith - vaniz , w . f . 2016 . southernmost records of two seriola species in an australian ocean - warming hotspot . marine biodiversity : 4pp . doi : 10 . 1007 / s12526 - 016 - 0580 - 4 abstract
as with most types of aquaculture species , the farming of cobia and seriola can have a negative impact on the environment and society . to address these impacts , wwf has created the seriola and cobia aquaculture dialogue . the inaugural meeting of the dialogue was held february 2009 in seattle , washington . two additional public dialogue meetings have been held since then : september 2009 in mexico and february 2013 in japan . the next public dialogue meeting will be in october 2013 in japan . over the course of the dialogue , participants will identify the key environmental and social impacts associated with the farming of four types of seriola ( s . rivoliana , s . quinqueradiata , s . dumerilli and s . lalandi ) and cobia . they will then create principles for addressing each impact . next they will develop criteria that will aim to provide direction on how to reduce each impact and the indicators that will address how to measure the extent of each impact . all of this information will be the framework for creating measurable , performance - based standards for the industry . when finalized , the standards will be given to a new organization , the aquaculture stewardship council , that will be responsible for working with independent , third party entities to certify farms that are in compliance with the standards . all dialogue meetings will be open and transparent . reports , presentations and other documents related to the dialogue will be posted on this website . also posted for public comment will be the draft principles , criteria , indicators and standards for seriola and cobia .
rodríguez - barreto d . , jerez s . , cejas j . r . , martín m . v . , acosta n . g . , bolaños a . & lorenzo a . 2012 . comparative study on lipid and fatty acid composition in different tissues of wild and cultured female broodstock of greater amberjack ( seriola dumerili ) . aquaculture , 360 - 361 : 1 - 9 .
whittington i . d . , corneillie s . , talbot c . , morgan j . a . t . & adlard r . d . 2001 . infections of seriola quinqueradiata ( temminick & schlegel ) and s . dumerili ( risso ) in japan by benedenia seriiolae ( monogenea ) confirmed by morphology and 28s ribosomal dna analysis . j . fish dis . 24 : 421 - 425 .
wwf has identified farmed shrimp and salmon as priority commodities because , collectively , they represent the largest share of the global farmed seafood market . consequently , they can have a significant negative impact on the places and species we seek to protect . additionally , we are working to advance responsible seafood farming for abalone , bivalves ( clams , mussels , scallops and oysters ) , cobia , freshwater trout , pangasius , seriola , and tilapia .
dorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 29 - 35 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 18 - 22 . bluish grey or olivaceous above , silvery white below ; amber stripe along midside of body ; fins dusky ( ref . 3197 ) . second dorsal and anal fins with low anterior lobe ( ref . 26938 ) . species of seriola lack scutes ( ref . 37816 ) .
adults are benthopelagic in coastal and oceanic waters , off kelp beds and rocky areas ( eschmeyer et al . 1983 ) , sometimes entering estuaries ( may and maxwell 1986 ) . they are mostly solitary but can sometimes be found in small groups and can be found near rocky shores , reefs and islands ( kailola et al . 1993 ) . schools of juveniles are generally found in offshore waters , often near or beyond the continental shelf ( smith 1987 ) . seriola lalandi congregates in large offshore shoals in depths of 50 m , but occasionally ventures into surf zones in pursuit of prey . this species feeds primarily on small fishes and squids . it is also an excellent sport fish ( smith - vaniz in press ) . it is mainly caught on hook - and - line by sport fishers , but is also caught in seines and bottom trawls ( smith - vaniz 1984 ) . if seriola banisteri is conspecific , as believed , then the maximum verified size is 193 cm total length and 58 . 4 kg ( smith - vaniz in press ) .
circumglobal . indo - west pacific : south africa , persian gulf , southern japan and the hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia ; mariana and caroline islands in micronesia . western atlantic : bermuda ( ref . 26938 ) , nova scotia , canada to brazil ; also from the gulf of mexico and the caribbean sea ( ref . 9626 ) . eastern atlantic : british coast ( vagrant ) to morocco and the mediterranean . distribution in eastern central atlantic along the african coast is not well established due to past confusion with seriola carpenteri ( ref . 7097 ) .
the morphology of seriola dumerili changes considerably from juveniles to adults . body elongated , fusiform , moderate height , somewhat compressed laterally and covered with small cycloid scales . the total number of gill rakers decreases with size , from 15–22 at 2–7 cm in length , to 11–19 at sizes greater than 20 cm in length . two dorsal fins , the first with seven hard spines and the second with one hard spine and multiple soft rays ( 29–35 ) . colour yellow - green in juveniles and blue - olive laterally and silver ventrally in adults . black lateral band from eye to anterior base of dorsal fin , excluding the neck . the juveniles show 5 vertical , dark body bands and a sixth band at the end of the caudal peduncle .
this circumglobal species is restricted to subtropical waters and consists of a series of disjunct subpopulations , many of which until recently were considered to represent distinct species . in the indo - pacific , it is known from south africa , walters shoals , amsterdam island , japan , australia news zealand , new caledonia , rapa , pitcairn islands , easter island and hawaii . it is also found in the eastern pacific ( galapagos islands and the west coast of the united states ) ( smith - vaniz in press ) and southwest atlantic , from southern brazil and argentina . seriola lalandi also inhabits the eastern atlantic , known only from st helena island and south africa . it occurs at depths of one to 146 m ( r . myers pers . comm . 2015 ) .
the development of new species is a high priority for the diversification of the chilean aquaculture sector . the yellowtail kingfish ( seriola lalandi ) is a promising candidate for commercial production in recirculating aquaculture systems ( ras ) . this paper presents data on the culture of yellowtail kingfish in a marine ras working for 488 days using artificial sea water . growth performance , feed conversion , feeding rate , condition factor and mortality were determined for fish having an average initial weight ( ±s . d . ) of 0 . 7 ± 0 . 2 g up to a final average weight of 2006 ± 339 . 0 g . the ras configuration ( drum filter , protein skimmer with ozone , biological nitrification and denitrification , carbon dioxide removal and oxygenation ) showed performance stability under the conditions assayed ( low water renewal rate ) . total ammonia nitrogen and nitrite - nitrogen concentration averaged 0 . 74 ± 0 . 42 mg / l and 0 . 21 ± 0 . 24 mg / l respectively . after installation , the denitrification reactor kept nitrate - nitrogen concentrations below 40 mg / l . nitrate - nitrogen was totally reduced at oxidation reduction potential values between −150 and −250 mv . water temperature averaged 22 . 6 ± 1 . 4 °c and oxygen was maintained close to saturation levels . carbon dioxide concentration was in average 8 . 3 ± 2 . 47 mg / l and ph 7 . 5 ± 0 . 1 . water renewal rate was 0 . 45 % of the total system volume per day . the system proved the capability to maintain optimal water quality and secured animal welfare .
greater amberjack is a valuable food fish that sells well in the traditional fish markets as well as having potential for value - added products . farmed fish can be sold at different sizes ( whole or slices ) depending on the country . the preference in sizes affects market prices . in malta small sizes reach 15–20 usd per kg while larger fish fetch lower market prices , typically 10 - 15 usd per kg , because large fish are only suitable for steaks . however , prices in italy and spain for the largest fish are similar or even higher the smaller fish in malta . hong kong prices of cultured greater amberjack are slightly lower than the wild fish , but range from 10 to 20 usd per kg , while in japan the price is higher ( 20–30 usd per kg ) than other cultured seriola species because of the better texture of its flesh which is firmer and less buttery , and can sometimes reach up to 50 usd per kg . the price differences in europe according to the size will vary with the marketing strategy in the future . for now , whilst the production cost of the fry is very high , and because the culture technology is still being developed and refined , this benefit could be utilized . the optimum strategy may be to utilize the fast growth of the fish and sell at a larger size for a wider variety of value added products . greater amberjack has an existing reputation as a quality ingredient for sushi and sashimi and is very adaptable to a wide variety of prepared products including asian or american style marinated fillets or pieces . it would therefore be advisable to develop an active marketing strategy alongside any development of production capacity in order to exploit the full potential of this species .
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seafood is one of the most popular sources of protein worldwide . almost half of the seafood we eat comes from farms . and seafood farming—also known as aquaculture—is the fastest growing food production system in the world .
the rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry has not come without impacts . as a conservation organization , wwf is concerned about the negative effects the industry has had— and could continue to have—on the environment and society . we know that when done responsibly , aquaculture’s impact on wild fish populations , marine habitats , water quality and society can be significantly and measurably reduced .
shrimp farming is associated with mangrove destruction , water pollution , and illegal fishing and labor practices , but wwf is working with some of the world’s most innovative and conscientious farmers to demonstrate that shrimp production can be environmentally sustainable , socially responsible , and economically viable .
eighty - five percent of the world’s marine stocks are either fully exploited or overfished , driving accelerated growth in the farmed seafood industry . with annual revenue in excess of $ 60 billion , that industry is on the verge of surpassing the total volume of wild - caught product .
farmed seafood provides an answer to increasing demand for protein sources as the world’s population becomes more affluent , urbanized and approaches 9 billion before 2050 .
chemicals and excess nutrients from food and feces associated with aquaculture farms can disturb the flora and fauna on the ocean bottom .
excessive use of chemicals—such as antibiotics , anti - foulants and pesticides—or the use of banned chemicals can have unintended consequences for marine organisms and human health .
viruses and parasites that transfer between farmed and wild species as well as among farmed species present a risk to wild populations or other farms .
escaped farmed species can compete with wild fish and interbreed with local wild stocks of the same population , altering the overall pool of genetic diversity .
aquaculture must responsibly source and reduce its dependency upon fishmeal and fish oil—a primary ingredient in feed—so as not to put additional pressure on the world’s fisheries . fish caught to make fishmeal and fish oil currently represent one - third of the global fish harvest .
excess food and fish waste increase the levels of nutrients in the water and have the potential to lead to oxygen - deprived waters that stress aquatic life .
seafood farming often employs a large number of workers on farms and in processing plants , potentially placing labor practices and worker rights under public scrutiny . additionally , conflicts can arise among users of the shared coastal environment .
we are on the forefront of spreading awareness among aquaculture producers about the importance of responsible practices if they are to survive in their present business model . wwf actively supports producers in implementing responsible practices through aquaculture improvement projects . in the same way , wwf encourages large retailers and restaurant chains to adopt responsible seafood procurement policies that call for sourcing responsibly farmed seafood products .
in 2004 , we initiated and coordinated the aquaculture dialogues , a series of eight roundtables that included over 2 , 000 farmers , retailers , ngos , scientists and other important stakeholders within the aquaculture industry . together , the group committed to developing measurable and performance - based standards for responsibly farmed seafood . these standards focus on measureable performance and encourage innovation to reduce environmental impacts .
in 2009 , wwf co - founded the aquaculture stewardship council ( asc ) with the dutch sustainable trade initiative ( idh ) to manage the global standards and certification programs . asc works with accreditation services international ( asi ) to accredit independent certification bodies to audit and certify compliant farms . wwf also engages with governments in countries that produce and export farmed seafood to design regulatory policy that will support a responsible aquaculture industry . we encourage financial institutions to be diligent in placing sustainability filters on loan applications for aquaculture operations .
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latin word diminutive with the meaning of a large earthenware pot ( ref . 45335 )
marine ; reef - associated ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 1 - 360 m ( ref . 11441 ) , usually 18 - 72 m ( ref . 9626 ) . subtropical ; 45°n - 28°s , 180°w - 180°e
maturity : l m 99 . 5 , range 80 - 127 cm max length : 190 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3397 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 3197 ) ; max . published weight : 80 . 6 kg ( ref . 3287 ) ; max . reported age : 15 years ( ref . 113943 )
adults found in deep seaward reefs ; occasionally entering coastal bays . they feed primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad , also on invertebrates ( ref . 4233 ) . small juveniles associate with floating plants or debris in oceanic and offshore waters . juveniles form small schools or solitary ( ref . 5213 ) . eggs are pelagic ( ref . 4233 ) . utilized fresh and frozen ; eaten pan - fried , broiled and baked ( ref . 9987 ) . reported to cause ciguatera in some areas ( ref . 26938 ) .
spawning happens during the summer , in areas near the coast . embryo development lasts about 40 hours at 23° and larval development 31 - 36 days . egg size 1 . 9 mm , larval at hatching 2 . 9 mm .
paxton , j . r . , d . f . hoese , g . r . allen and j . e . hanley , 1989 . pisces . petromyzontidae to carangidae . zoological catalogue of australia , vol . 7 . australian government publishing service , canberra , 665 p . ( ref . 7300 )
) : 16 . 9 - 29 , mean 27 . 1 ( based on 3486 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5020 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01622 ( 0 . 01238 - 0 . 02125 ) , b = 2 . 92 ( 2 . 84 - 3 . 00 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 ±0 . 0 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( k = 0 . 18 ; tm = 4 ; tmax = 15 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate to high vulnerability ( 54 of 100 ) .
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marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 5 - 245 m ( ref . 90102 ) , usually 30 - 35 m ( ref . 40849 ) . subtropical ; 43°n - 38°s , 180°w - 180°e
circumglobal . indo - west pacific : kenya south to south africa ( ref . 3287 ) and east to mariana and wake islands in micronesia , north to the ryukyu islands , south to new caledonia and the kermadec islands ( ref . 8879 ) . absent from the red sea and french polynesia . likely at seychelles ( ref . 1623 ) . eastern pacific : usa to peru , including galapagos islands ( ref . 2850 ) . western atlantic : cape cod , usa to northern argentina ( ref . 9626 ) . distribution in the eastern atlantic is not well established . recently recorded from lampedusa island in the mediterranean ( ref . 47878 ) .
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 160 cm fl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 40637 ) ; common length : 90 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5450 ) ; max . published weight : 59 . 9 kg ( ref . 40637 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 8 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 27 - 33 ; anal spines : 3 ; anal soft rays : 18 - 22 .
adults are benthopelagic in outer reef slopes and offshore banks to 160 m or more . they form small groups ( ref . 9283 , 26235 , 58302 ) . young often seen around floating objects ( ref . 4887 , 48635 ) . they feed mainly on fishes , but also on invertebrates . eggs are pelagic ( ref . 4233 ) . marketed fresh and salted or dried ( ref . 9283 ) . may cause ciguatera poisoning , particularly in coral reef areas ( ref . 5217 ) . uncommon on east indian reefs but occasionally found in cool upwelling areas of lesser sunda islands of indonesia ( ref . 90102 ) .
myers , r . f . , 1991 . micronesian reef fishes . second ed . coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 298 p . ( ref . 1602 )
) : 22 . 1 - 28 . 6 , mean 27 . 3 ( based on 201 cells ) .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01905 ( 0 . 00755 - 0 . 04806 ) , b = 2 . 97 ( 2 . 75 - 3 . 19 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 5 ±0 . 7 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : very low , minimum population doubling time more than 14 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 74 of 100 ) .
description inhabits deep seaward reefs occasionally entering coastal bays . feeds primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad , also . . .
description inhabits deep seaward reefs occasionally entering coastal bays . feeds primarily on fishes such as the bigeye scad , also feeds on invertebrates ( ref . 4233 ) . small juveniles associate with floating plants or debris in oceanic and offshore waters . juveniles form small schools or solitary ( ref . 5213 ) . distribution in eastern central atlantic along the african coast is not well established due to past confusion with @ s . carpenteri @ ( ref . 7097 ) . the species is rarely exotic ( ref . 637 ) . flesh is edible ( ref . 5521 ) . utilized fresh and frozen ; eaten pan - fried , broiled and baked ( ref . 9987 ) . [ details ]
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van der land , j . ; costello , m . j . ; zavodnik , d . ; santos , r . s . ; porteiro , f . m . ; bailly , n . ; eschmeyer , w . n . ; froese , r . ( 2001 ) . pisces , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 357 - 374 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
scott , w . b . ; scott , m . g . ( 1988 ) . atlantic fishes of canada . canadian bulletin of fisheries and aquatic sciences . no . 219 . 731 pp . [ details ]
welshman , d . , s . kohler , j . black and l . van guelpen . 2003 . an atlas of distributions of canadian atlantic fishes . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
mceachran , j . d . ( 2009 ) . fishes ( vertebrata : pisces ) of the gulf of mexico , pp . 1223–1316 in : felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college station , texas . [ details ]
liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
risso , a . ( 1810 ) . ichthyologie de nice ou histoire naturelle des poissons du département des alpes - maritimes . schoell , paris . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 175 [ details ]
wheeler , a . ( 1992 ) . a list of the common and scientific names of fishes of the british isles . j . fish biol . 41 ( suppl . a ) : 1 - 37 ( look up in imis ) page ( s ) : 175 [ details ]
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of caranx dumerili risso , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of trachurus aliciolus rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of trachurus fasciatus rafinesque , 1810 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of regificola parilis whitley , 1948 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
intergovernmental oceanographic commission ( ioc ) of unesco . the ocean biogeographic information system ( obis ) , available online at urltoken [ details ]
hong kong marine fish database . afcd . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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marine ; brackish ; benthopelagic ; depth range 3 - 825 m ( ref . 4517 ) . subtropical ; 18°c - 24°c ( ref . 6390 ) ; 55°n - 57°s , 180°w - 180°e
circumglobal in subtropical waters : series of disjunct populations . indo - pacific : south africa , walter shoals , amsterdam island , japan , australia , new zealand , new caledonia , hawaii , rapa , pitcairn island , and easter island . eastern pacific : british columbia , canada to chile ( ref . 2850 ) , including desventuradas is . and juan fernández is . ( ref . 89357 ) . eastern atlantic : st . helena , south africa ( ref . 7097 ) .
maturity : l m ? , range 51 - ? cm max length : 250 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 27865 ) ; common length : 80 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9137 ) ; max . published weight : 96 . 8 kg ( ref . 40637 ) ; max . reported age : 12 years ( ref . 72462 )
dorsal spines ( total ) : 5 - 6 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 33 - 35 ; anal spines : 2 - 3 ; anal soft rays : 20 - 21 . the only jack without scutella on the caudal peduncle . dark blue dorsally and almost white ventrally ; with a well defined line of demarcation between the two colors .
adults are benthopelagic in coastal and oceanic waters , off kelp beds and rocky areas ( ref . 2850 ) , sometimes entering estuaries ( ref . 9563 ) . they are solitary or in small groups and can be found near rocky shores , reefs and islands ( ref . 6390 ) . schools of juveniles are generally found in offshore waters , often near or beyond the continental shelf ( ref . 27865 ) . they prefer warmer water ( 18 - 24°c ) although they are occasionally found in cooler water ( ref . 27128 ) . adults feed on small fish , squid and crustaceans ( ref . 27121 ) . marketed fresh and salted or dried ( ref . 9283 ) .
) : 9 - 23 , mean 14 . 9 ( based on 1169 cells ) .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01820 ( 0 . 00972 - 0 . 03408 ) , b = 2 . 93 ( 2 . 76 - 3 . 10 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 4 . 2 ±0 . 1 se ; based on diet studies .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( k = 0 . 13 ; tm = 2 ; tmax = 12 ) .
prior r = 0 . 6 , 2 sd range = 0 . 45 - 0 . 80 , log ( r ) = - 0 . 51 , sd log ( r ) = 0 . 14 , based on : 2 k , 1 tgen , 1 tmax , records
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high to very high vulnerability ( 69 of 100 ) .
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justification : this species is a circumglobal species restricted to subtropical waters , consisting of a series of disjunctive subpopulations . although highly sought after by sport fishers in some parts of its range and commercial exploitation in parts of its range , significant global population declines have not been reported and are not suspected . its range coincides with numerous marine protected areas . it is therefore listed as least concern .
argentina ; australia ; brazil ; chile ( easter is . ) ; colombia ; costa rica ; ecuador ( ecuador ( mainland ) , galápagos ) ; fiji ; french polynesia ; french southern territories ( amsterdam - st . paul is . ) ; japan ; mexico ; new caledonia ; new zealand ; nicaragua ; norfolk island ; panama ; peru ; pitcairn ; saint helena , ascension and tristan da cunha ( saint helena ( main island ) ) ; south africa ; tonga ; united states ( hawaiian is . ) ; uruguay
there is limited population information available for this species . however , based on museum collections , this species may be common in parts of its range , with 210 global occurrences with each lot containing mostly one to five individuals , but some having upwards of 30 individuals ( accessed through the fishnet2 portal , www . fishnet2 . org , 2015 - 10 - 12 ) . in the eastern central atlantic ( eca ) , this species is very abundant at st . helena and elsewhere ( w . smith vaniz pers comm . 2013 ) . population data based on the cecaf south working ( 2009 ) , which covers guinea bissau to angola , aggregated catch landings for carangidae species from 1994 through 2008 show an increase up to 20 , 000 metric tonnes in 2001 and are stable until 2008 , when they drop to 12 , 000 metric tonnes , but not all countries are reporting ( fao cecaf 2009 ) . based on eca country reported landings to fao for carangids not elsewhere included , landings peaked between 1970 to 1980 , averaging around 24 , 000 metric tonnes per year , and then in 1980 fell to an average of 18 , 000 metric tonnes per year , fluctuating between 16 , 000 and 18 , 000 metric tonnes per year and remaining relatively stable since .
this species is of minor commercial importance but is a highly sought after sportfish ( w . smith - vaniz pers . comm . 2015 ) . this species is caught with seines , bottom trawls and on hook - and - line ( smith - vaniz in press ) . it is marketed fresh and salted or dried ( smith - vaniz 1995 ) .
in the eastern central atlantic , catches for this species are not reported separately , and carangid species are mainly caught in the inshore fishery using purse - seines and in both industrial and artisanal fisheries . elsewhere , this species is a highly sought after sport fish . however , there have been no observed or suspected population declines resulting from these exploitation events .
there are currently no conservation measures in place for this species . however , its range overlaps with numerous protected areas ( iucn unep 2014 ) .
smith - vaniz , w . f . & williams , i . 2015 .
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body elongated , somewhat compressed , and without scutes on lateral line . dorso - posterior corner of maxillary angular . pectoral fin almost same length as pelvic fin . body with longitudinal yellow stripe . bears two free spines in front of the anal fin . anal fin is shorter than the weak dorsal fin , whereas the short spines of the first dorsal fin are not free , but interconnected by a membrane . fast swimming pelagic carnivorous fish , feeding by day on smaller fish , such as mackerels , horse - mackerels , sardines and squids .
japanese amberjack culture has a long history , having begun in 1927 in the kagawa prefecture of japan when wild caught juvenile amberjacks were first reared in shore enclosures . over time , this type of culture became obsolete , due to problems related to poor water quality and excessive waste accumulation within the system . commercial production of japanese amberjack began in the 1940s , and production began to expand rapidly in the 1960s , exceeding 43 000 tonnes by 1970 . by 1995 it had reached a peak of nearly 170 000 tonnes but ranged between 139 000 and 162 000 between 1996 and 2003 ; no further growth trend is apparent . however , it is important to note that fish farmers have been able to maintain total production level at these significant levels despite a fall in the number of wild caught juveniles ( mojako ) .
japanese amberjack features in the fisheries of the western central pacific ocean , from japan and the eastern korean peninsular to the hawaiian islands but its farming occurs mostly in japan , the republic of korea being the only other country reporting production to fao . in japan this species is the most cultured fish , its meat being relished as sashimi . the aquaculture production of
constituted about 57 percent of the total farmed marine finfish production in japan in 2003 .
japanese amberjack is endemic to japan and adjacent areas . it spawns along the 200 m contour in the east china sea ; juveniles migrate north to near hokkaido , feeding for three to five years until reaching sexual maturity ; then they migrate south for spawning . adults of 70 - 80 cm sl approach the western coast of kochi prefecture , japan in march - april . from season to season , various sizes can be caught in different parts of japan ; therefore , special names are given to them in different regions . the common name of japanese amberjacks varies with size . in japan , those that are < 50 g are called mojako , those between that and 5 000 g named hamachi , and those > 5 000 g termed buri . this species is highly piscivorous species and , in the fisheries , reaches a maximum size of 150 cm tl and 40 kg . in nature , it feeds on microorganisms and small fishes while drifting north with the seaweed . small mojako ( 4 to 5 mm ) stay under or inside floating seaweed ; larger fish ( 0 . 5 to 2 cm ) swim below the surface . after reaching a size of 10 to 14 cm , they disperse from the floating seaweed and swim towards the shore . the optimum rearing water temperature for japanese amberjack is 20 - 29 ºc and the optimum salinity is 30 - 36‰ .
aquaculture of amberjack is primarily dependent on seed supply from wild . soon after spawning , larvae less than 15 mm long are brought near the coast by the kuroshio current , where they are caught in fine mesh nets , and sold to fry specialists . wild seed is also imported from other countries , such as the republic of korea and viet nam . although artificial propagation of japanese amberjacks has been successful , the number of juveniles produced through induced breeding has not reached a level where it can make a significant contribution to the demand of juveniles for aquaculture . in fact , there remain some problems in larval rearing : feeding is particularly critical , as imbalanced larval feed has leads to heavy mortalities . efforts are being made to improve this situation . the design of suitable larval feed by using mass - produced food organisms , such as rotifers and brine shrimp nauplii fortified with n - 3 highly unsaturated fatty acids ( hufa ) and formulated feeds may soon make the production of healthy fry in large numbers possible .
wild caught japanese amberjack juveniles ( < 10 g ) , are reared in 5x5x5 m net pens and sold to growers when the fish have grown to 50 - 100 g . the first task of the fry specialists is to grade the larvae into small , medium , and large categories ; a failure to grade early can result in high mortality from cannibalism . after grading , the larvae are stocked into floating nylon net - pens . in 5 x 5 x 5 m net pens the stocking rate of 0 . 5 - 10 g mojako ranges from 10 000 to 30 000 and the harvest size ranges from 20 - 200 g with average survival of 90 percent . it is important to feed wild caught juveniles with good quality feed while the fish are on the collecting boat , to avoid growth related problems in the late grow - out phase ; weak individuals are eliminated . small juvenile amberjacks are sensitive to feed deprivation , and a prolonged fasting period before first feeding in net pens has a negative effect on subsequent growth rate .
) . japanese amberjack culture expanded due to the massive catches of the low - cost fish used for feeding , such as sand - lance and sardine around japan . the availability of freezing equipment made it possible for the farmers to feed minced frozen sardine and supported the further development of farming . however , in recent years , there has been decline in the sardine resources caught around japan and the cost has therefore increased . this has forced many farmers to change from feeding fish to the use of formulated feed . formulated feed production has increased and the amount of extruded pellets is now about 40 percent of the total food used for japanese amberjack production , on an ' as fed ' basis . feeding extruded pellets for the first year of culture during the growing season ( high water temperature ) is popular . however , the use of raw fish or moist pellets is still common when water temperatures are reduced ( < 15 ºc ) .