paeromopodidae is a family of large cylindrical millipedes of the order julida native to the western united states of america .

the family contains two genera and ten species and includes the longest millipedes in north america , with individuals reaching up to 16.5 cm ( 6.5 in ) long .

paeromopodidae

revision of the milliped family paeromopodidae , and elevation of the aprosphylosomatinae to family status . . .
revision of the millipede family paeromopodidae , and elevation of the aprosphylosomatinae to family status ( julida , paeromopodoidea ) . by shelley r . m . , in
shelley , r . m . 1994 . revision of the milliped family paeromopodidae , and elevation of the aprosphylosomatinae to family status ( julida : paeromopodoidea ) . insect systematics & evolution . 25 ( 2 ) : 169 - 214 .
shelley , r . m . and s . b . bauer . 1997 . new records and species , and taxonomic alterations in the milliped family paeromopodidae ( julida ) . entomological news . 108 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 .
shelley , r . m . and s . b . bauer . 1997 . new records and species , and taxonomic alterations in the milliped family paeromopodidae ( julida ) . entomological news . 108 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 .
shelley , r . m . ; bauer , s . b . ( 1997 ) . new records and species , and taxonomic alterations in the milliped family paeromopodidae ( julida ) . entomological news , 108 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14
shelley , r . m . ; bauer , s . b . ( 1997 ) . new records and species , and taxonomic alterations in the milliped family paeromopodidae ( julida ) . entomological news , 108 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 page ( s ) : 10 [ details ]
shelley , r . m . ( 1994 ) . revision of the milliped family paeromopodidae , and elevation of the aprosphylosomatinae to family status ( julida : paeromopodoidea ) . entomologica scandinavica , 25 : 169 - 214 . lund page ( s ) : 195 ; note : from atopolus chamberlini [ details ]
( of klansolus euphanus chamberlin , 1938 ) shelley , r . m . ; bauer , s . b . ( 1997 ) . new records and species , and taxonomic alterations in the milliped family paeromopodidae ( julida ) . entomological news , 108 ( 1 ) : 1 - 14 page ( s ) : 10 [ details ]
( of klansolus euphanus chamberlin , 1938 ) shelley , r . m . ( 1994 ) . revision of the milliped family paeromopodidae , and elevation of the aprosphylosomatinae to family status ( julida : paeromopodoidea ) . entomologica scandinavica , 25 : 169 - 214 . lund page ( s ) : 200 ; note : from klansolus euphanus [ details ]
( of klansolus parvior chamberlin , 1940 ) shelley , r . m . ( 1994 ) . revision of the milliped family paeromopodidae , and elevation of the aprosphylosomatinae to family status ( julida : paeromopodoidea ) . entomologica scandinavica , 25 : 169 - 214 . lund page ( s ) : 201 ; note : from klansolus parvior [ details ]
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1 : north carolina state museum of natural sciences , p . o . box , 27647 , raleigh , north carolina 27611 , u . s . a .
r . de jong ; r . i . vane - wright and p . r . ackery
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upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
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contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
insect systematics & evolution . 25 ( 2 ) : 169 - 214 . , 1994
full citation : shear , w . a . 2010 . the milliped family trichopetalidae , part 2 : the genera trichopetalum , zygonopus and scoterpes ( diplopoda : chordeumatida , cleidogonoidea ) . zootaxa 2385 : 1 - 62 .
the milliped family trichopetalidae , part 1 : introduction and genera trigenotyla causey , nannopetalum n . gen . , and causeyella n .
full citation - shear , w . a . 2003 . the milliped family trichopetalidae , part 1 : introduction and genera trigenotyla causey , nannopetalum n . gen . , and causeyella n . gen . ( diplopoda : chordeumatida , cleidogonoidea ) . zootaxa 321 : 1 - 36 .
shelley , r . ( 2000 ) . annotated checklist of the millipeds of florida ( arthropoda : diplopoda ) . insecta mundi , 14 ( 4 ) , 241–251 .
a detailed key to the millipedes of the british isles ( 52 species as of 1985 ) , with an introductory section on basic biology of millipedes . useful to students from north america and other areas due to widely introduced british species such as blaniulus guttulatus .
shelley , r . m . ( 2002 ) . annotated checklist of the millipeds of california ( arthropoda : diplopoda ) . monographs of the western north american naturalist , 1 : 90–115
cook , o . f . ; collins , g . n . ( 1895 ) . the craspedosomatidae of north america . annals of the new york academy of sciences , 9 : 1 - 100 . new york , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 6 ; note : bhl : urltoken [ details ]
scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
c . michael hogan marked
paeromopus angusticeps
as trusted on the
paeromopus angusticeps ( wood , 1864 )
page .
c . michael hogan marked the classification from
species 2000 & itis catalogue of life : april 2013
as preferred for
paeromopus angusticeps ( wood , 1864 )
.
confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .
to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .
disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .
this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .
data and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .
brölemann , h . w . ( 1922 ) . notes on female parajulids ( myriapods ) , with description of a new species . annals of the entomological society of america , 15 ( 4 ) : 281 - 303 page ( s ) : 298 [ details ]
causey , n . b . ( 1955 ) . new records and descriptions of californian diplopoda . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 68 : 87 - 94 page ( s ) : 89 [ details ]
verhoeff , k . w . ( 1938 ) . californiulus n . g . und paeromopellus n . g . , vertreter einer neuen familie der symphyognatha - arthrophora . zoologischer anzeiger , 122 ( 5 - 6 ) : 113 - 127 . leipzig page ( s ) : 123 ; note : description of species [ details ]
hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 141 [ details ]
verhoeff , k . w . ( 1938 ) . californiulus n . g . und paeromopellus n . g . , vertreter einer neuen familie der symphyognatha - arthrophora . zoologischer anzeiger , 122 ( 5 - 6 ) : 113 - 127 . leipzig page ( s ) : 122 [ details ]
jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1971 ) . nomenclator generum et familiarum diplopodorum : a list of the genus and family - group names in the class diplopoda from the 10th edition of linnaeus , 1758 , to the end of 1957 . monografieen van de nederlandse entomologische vereniging , 5 : 1 - 412 . amsterdam page ( s ) : 151 [ details ]
chamberlin , r . v . ( 1949 ) . american millipeds of the family paeromopidae . chicago acad . sci . nat . hist . misc . 2 : 1 - 6 . page ( s ) : 4 ; note : atopolus chamberlini [ details ]
( of klansolus euphanus chamberlin , 1938 ) chamberlin , r . v . ( 1938 ) . new diplopods . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 51 : 205 - 208 . washington page ( s ) : 205 [ details ]
( of klansolus euphanus chamberlin , 1938 ) chamberlin , r . v . ( 1949 ) . american millipeds of the family paeromopidae . chicago acad . sci . nat . hist . misc . 2 : 1 - 6 . page ( s ) : 4 [ details ]
( of klansolus euphanus chamberlin , 1938 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1971 ) . nomenclator generum et familiarum diplopodorum : a list of the genus and family - group names in the class diplopoda from the 10th edition of linnaeus , 1758 , to the end of 1957 . monografieen van de nederlandse entomologische vereniging , 5 : 1 - 412 . amsterdam page ( s ) : 163 [ details ]
( of klansolus euphanus chamberlin , 1938 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 142 [ details ]
cercopoidea types of species described by edmund schmidt in the u . s . national museum of natural history , with lectotype designations ( homoptera : cercopoidea )
bhl ' s existence depends on the support of its patrons . help us keep this free resource alive !
biodivlibrary july is # nationalblueberrymonth ! the w . a . cox nursery co . of mississippi ' s 1920s catalog proclaimed # blueberries to… urltoken
biodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p… urltoken
the millipede family nemasomatidae . with the description of a new genus , and a revision of orinisobates ( diplopoda : julida ) » brill online
the millipede family nemasomatidae . with the description of a new genus , and a revision of orinisobates ( diplopoda : julida )
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this is a huge book with beautiful pictures of insects and many illustrations as well . i would put it as an age range from 7 - 10 . note this is not a field guide .
contributed by hobo joe a . k . a insect lover on 12 january , 2016 - 6 : 09pm
a book similar to monster bugs , a book for beginning readers who are interested in bugs . note this is not a field guide .
contributed by hobo joe a . k . a insect lover on 12 january , 2016 - 11 : 12am
a good book with common bugs and some cool facts about them . i would say an age range from 6 - 10 . note this is not a field guide .
contributed by hobo joe a . k . a insect lover on 12 january , 2016 - 11 : 07am
a good book for young kids to read about bugs . note this is not a field guide .
contributed by hobo joe a . k . a insect lover on 12 january , 2016 - 10 : 58am
wikipedia is growing to be a good information source for insects and their like . i ' m thinking having this
book
will make it easier to reference citations on guide pages , much like bold systems and moth photographer group
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( of klansolus parvior chamberlin , 1940 ) chamberlin , r . v . ( 1940 ) . four new western millipeds . j . ent . zool . claremont cal . , 32 ( 4 ) : 81 - 83 page ( s ) : 83 [ details ]
( of klansolus parvior chamberlin , 1940 ) chamberlin , r . v . ( 1949 ) . american millipeds of the family paeromopidae . chicago acad . sci . nat . hist . misc . 2 : 1 - 6 . page ( s ) : 3 ; note : aigon parvior [ details ]
( of aigon parvior ( chamberlin , 1940 ) ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 142 [ details ]
( of klansolus parvior chamberlin , 1940 ) loomis , h . f . ; schmitt , r . ( 1971 ) . the ecology , distribution and taxnomy of the millipeds of montana west of the continental divide . northwest science , 45 : 107 - 131 . pallman page ( s ) : 117 [ details ]
( of klansolus parvior chamberlin , 1940 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1999 ) . checklist of the millipedes of north and middle america . virginia museum of natural history , special publication , 8 : 1 - 584 . martinsville page ( s ) : 142 [ details ]
a contribution on the milliped tribe nannariini ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) : revalidation of mimuloria chamberlin 1928 . . .
full citation : hennen , d . a . & shelley , r . m . 2015 . a contribution on the milliped tribe nannariini ( polydesmida : xystodesmidae ) : revalidation of mimuloria chamberlin 1928 ; identities of fontaria oblonga c . l . koch 1847 , and nannaria minor chamberlin 1918 ; elucidation of the tribal range ; and commentaries on nannaria chamberlin 1918 , and oenomaea hoffman 1964 . insecta mundi 0418 : 1–21 . open access , available online here .
distribution of the milliped genus narceus rafinesque , 1820 ( spirobolida : spirobolidae ) occurrences in new england and west . . .
by shelley , r . , c . t . mcallister & m . f . medrano
shelley , r . , c . t . mcallister & m . f . medrano . 2006 . distribution of the milliped genus narceus rafinesque , 1820 ( spirobolida : spirobolidae ) : occurrences in new england and west of the mississippi river , and a summary of peripheral localities ; first records from connecticut , delaware , maine , and minnesota . western north american naturalist , 66 ( 3 ) : 374 - 389 . full text
by walker , m . j . , a . k . stockman , p . e . marek , & j . e . bond
walker , m . j . , stockman , a . k . , marek , p . e . , & bond , j . e . ( 2009 ) . pleistocene glacial refugia across the appalachian mountains and coastal plain in the millipede genus narceus : evidence from population genetic , phylogeographic , and paleoclimatic data . bmc evolutionary biology , 925 ( 25 ) full text
keeton , william t . ( 1960 ) . a taxonomic study of the milliped family spirobolidae ( diplopoda ; spirobolida ) . memoirs of the american entomological society 17 : 1–146 . a detailed study of the family spirobolidae , with keys and copious illustrations .
hoffman , r . l . 1999 . checklist of the millipeds of north and middle america . special publication no . 8 . , virginia museum of natural history , martinsville , virginia . 584 pp .
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shear , w . a . 2003 . the milliped family trichopetalidae , part 1 : introduction and genera trigenotyla causey , nannopetalum n . gen . and causeyella n . gen . ( diplopoda : choreumatida , cleidgonoidea ) . zootaxa 321 : 1 - 36 .
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ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
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by worthington , r . d . , c . lieb and w . anderson .
full pdf worthington , r . d . , c . lieb and w . anderson . 2004 . 2010 . biotic resources of indio mountains research station : southeastern hudspeth county , texas . authors , el paso , texas . 85 pp . ( continually reviewed and updated by jerry d . johnson , last update : 2010 ) the indio mountains research station and utep are members of the chihuahuan desert biosphere reserve . other members are the biosphere reserves of mapimi in mexico , big bend national park and the jornada experimental range ( near las cruces , new mexico ) . for information on indio mountains research station and use opportunities , contact the director , dr . jerry d . johnson , department of biological sciences , the university of texas at el paso , el paso , texas 79968 ; ( 915 ) 747 - 6984 ; jjohnson @ urltoken
dictionary of natural history terms with their derivations , including the various orders , genera , and species .
northern territory government , department of primary industry , fisheries and mines , agnote no . 159 , 2003
this australian pest control publication includes description and life cycle for : cucumber moth ( diaphania indica ) , pumpkin beetle ( aulacophora hilaris ) , two - spotted mite ( tetranychus urticae ) and melon aphid ( aphis gossypii ) . full text pdf
the 10th edition is the official starting point of zoological nomenclature . online at urltoken or urltoken . the current ocr rarely gets more than a few characters in a row right .
usda forest service , pacific northwest res . station . gen . tech . rep . pnw - gtr - 512 . portland , or . 74 pp . , 2001
bugs rule ! provides a lively introduction to the biology and natural history of insects and their noninsect cousins , such as spiders , scorpions , and centipedes . this richly illustrated textbook features more than 830 color photos , a concise overview of the basics of entomology , and numerous sidebars that highlight and explain key points . detailed chapters cover each of the major insect groups , describing their physiology , behaviors , feeding habits , reproduction , human interactions , and more . ideal for nonscience majors and anyone seeking to learn more about insects and their arthropod relatives , bugs rule ! offers a one - of - a - kind gateway into the world of these amazing creatures .
contributed by jeffrey a . heupel , whn . on 16 november , 2013 - 7 : 15am
cl koch on yeast cells by byzov b . a . , thanh v . n . , babeva i . p . , tretyakova e . b . , dyvak i . a . , rabinovich y . m . in
the energetic cost of copulation in a polygynandrous millipede . by telford sr , webb pi in
verhoeff ( diplopoda : xystodesmidae ) on litter decomposition in a natural beech forest in central japan . 1 . density and biomass of soil invertebrates . by niijima k . , in
inhabiting seasonally inundated and non - flooded amazonian forests . by bachmann l . , tomiuk j . , adis j . , vohland k . , in
tutunema tutu n . g . , n . sp . , a primitive member of the hethidae ( nematoda : rhigonematida : ransomnematoidea ) parasitic in a papua new guinea diplopod . by hunt d . j . in
on the identity of further two millipede species ( diplopoda ) from the environs of manaus , central amazonia , brazil . by golovatch s . i . , hoffman r . l . , adis j . , vohland k . , marmol a . in
rendering the inedible edible : circumvention of a millipede ' s chemical defense by a predaceous beetle larva ( phengodidae ) . by eisner t . , eisner m . , attygalle a . b . , deyrup m . , meinwald j . , in
on the semiaquatic behaviour of a new troglobitic millipede from northern italy ( diplopoda , polydesmida : polydesmidae ) . by adis j . , caoduro g . , messner b . , enghoff h . in
study of a soil julidae community in mediterranean forest ( diplopoda , julida ) . by serra a . , miquel c . , mateos e . , vicente c . in
millipedes in small - scale farming systems in zimbabwe : abundance and diversity ( diplopoda , spirostreptida ) . by mwabvu t . , in
pelmatojulus tigrinus , a key detritivore of a tropical gallery forest ( diplopoda , spirobolida : pachybolidae ) . by mahsberg d . , in
year - round pitfall trapping of millipedes in mainly open grassland in belgium ( diplopoda ) . by kime r . d . , in
comparative biological study of the penicillate diplopods in japan ( diplopoda , penicillata ) . by ishii k . , in
cold - hardiness of european millipedes ( diplopoda ) by david j . f . , vannier g . , in
influence of human activities on the diplopod populations irt the region of abidjan , ivory coast . by bourdanne d . k . , in
in south australia : the need for a better understanding of the mechanism ( diplopoda , julida : julidae ) . by bailey p , t . , in
millipede communities of inundated ash - alder forests in puszcza bialowieska , poland ( diplopoda ) . by wytwer j . , in
the millipede fauna of the drava region , southern hungary ( diplopoda ) . by korsos z . in
preliminary assessment of the southern african millipede fauna : diversity and conservation ( diplopoda ) . by hamer m . l . , in
distribution of millipedes along an altitudinal gradient in three mountain regions in the czech and slovak republics ( diplopoda ) . by tajovsky k . , in
on the main traits of millipede distribution and faunogenesis in eurasia ( diplopoda ) . by golovatch s . i . , in
fine structure and possible functions of antennal sensilla in polyxenus lagurus ( diplopoda , penicillata : polyaenidae ) . by duyjacquemin m . n . , in
- a cave - dwelling millipede from yugoslavia ( diplopoda , chordeumatida : anthroleucosomatidae ) . by curcic b . p . m and makarov s . e . , in
gonopods of some south indian paradoxosomatid millipedes ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . by bano k . and murthy j . b . in
a new species of the previously monotypic genus allocotoproctus from the uluguru mountains , tanzania ( diplopoda , polydesmida : oxydesmidae ) . by sorensen l . , in
the glomeris - taxa hexasticha and intermedia : species or subspecies ? allozyme data ( diplopoda , glomerida : glomeridae ) . by hoess r . , scholl a . and lortscher m . , in
is the family atopogestidae based on a case of teratology or a periodomorphic stage ? ( diplopoda , spirostreptida : odontopygoidea ) . by mauries j . p . , in
intense receptor - mediated endocytosis in nephrocytes of myriapoda . by rosenberg j . , kruger e . and peters w . in
in vitro phagocytic activity of hemocytes of ommatoiulus sabulosus ( diplopoda , julida : julidae ) : preliminary observations . by kania g . and rzeski w . , in
diversification and biogeographic features of millipedes in serbia , yugoslavia ( diplopoda ) . by curcic b . p . m . and makarov s . e . in
diplopod defensive secretions as attractants for necrophagous scarab beetles ( diplopoda ; insecta , coleoptera : scarabaeidae ) . by krell f . t . , schmitt t . and linsenmair k . e . , in
granular hemocytes as the main location of prophenoloxidase in the millipede rhapidostreptus virgator ( diplopoda , spirostreptida : spirostreptidae ) . by xylander w . e . r . and bogusch o . , in
. by byzov b . a . and rabinovich y . m . , in
( attems , 1898 ) ( polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) secretions as possible defense substances . by noguchi s . , mori n . , higa y . and kuwahara y . in
swarming of millipedes , a new case noticed in the district of patrocinio - mg - brazil . by boccardo l . , penteado c . h . s . and jucachagas r . , in
giant millipede ' burns ' and the eye . by hudson b . j . and parsons g . a . , in
biology and biological action of the defensive secretion from a jamaican millipede . by williams l . a . d . , singh p . d . a . and calebwilliams l . s . , in
two new and one little - known species of the millipede family pyrgodesmidae from near manaus , central amazonia , brazil ( diplopoda : polydesmida ) . by golovatch s . i . , in
. by david j . f . , celerier m . l . and vannier g . , in
effects of yeast on the growth and reproduction of the saprophagous millipede polydesmus angustus ( diplopoda , polydesmidae ) . by david j . f . and celerier m . l . , in
australian chordeumatidan millipedes . 3 . a review of the millipede family metopidiotrichidae attems in australia ( diplopoda : chordeumatida ) . by shear w . a . and mesibov r . , in
soil in millipede diet : implications on faecal pellet stability and nutrient release . by mwabvu t . , in
changes in supercooling with body size , sex , and season in the long - lived millipede polyzonium germanicum ( diplopoda , polyzoniidae ) . by david j . f . and vannier g . , in
the allometry of metabolism in southern african millipedes ( myriapoda , diplopoda ) . by frears s . l . , webb p . i . and telford s . r . , in
( diplopoda ) . by zanger m . and kohler h . r . , in
in canada ( chordeumatida , conotylidae ) . by shelley r . m . and lesage l . , in
revision of the millipede genus xystodesmus , with reference to the status of the tribe xystodesmini ( diplopoda , xystodesmidae ) by tanabe t . and shinohara k . , in
defense - mechanisms of arthropods . 142 . millipede defense - use of detachable bristles to entangle ants . by eisner t . , eisner m . and deyrup m . , in
functional - morphology of genitalia of 4 species of julidan millipedes ( diplopoda - nemasomatidae , julidae ) . by tadler a . , in
fate of actinomycetes in the intestinal - tract of soil invertebrates fed on streptomycete spores . by polyanskaya l . m . , babkina n . i . , zenova g . m . and zvyagintsev d . g . in
revision of the millipede genus xystocheir cook ( polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
actinomycetes in the intestinal - tract of soil invertebrates fed with vermicompost or litter . by zenova g . m . , babkina n . i . , polyanskaya l . m . and zvyagintsev d . g . , in
mycophagy by a millipede and its possible impact on an insect - fungus mutualism . by bultman t . l . and mathews p . l . in
effects of starvation and mechanical manipulation of leaf - litter on fecal pellet production and assimilation in some millipedes from southern africa - implications for feeding strategies . by dangerfield j . m . in
millipede communities in rehabilitating coastal dune forests in northern kwazulu natal , south - africa . by vanaarde r . j . , ferreira s . m . and kritzinger j . j . , in
the millipede order callipodida in western north - america ( schizopetalidae , tynommatinae ) , and a summary of the new - world fauna . by shelley r . m . in
millipede fecal pellet production in selected natural and managed habitats of southern africa - implications for litter dynamics . by dangerfield j . m . , milner a . e . , in
( spirobolida , spirobolidae ) in wisconsin . by watermolen d . j . , in
the millipede family paradoxosomatidae on borneo , with contributions to the faunas of some other islands of the sunda area ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . by golovatch s . i . , in
the stress - 70 protein family in diplopods - induction and characterization . by zanger m . , alberti g . , kuhn m . and kohler h . r . in journal of
redefinition of the millipede genus pycnotropis , and description of a new species from manaus , brazil ( polydesmida , platyrhacidae , euryurinae ) . by hoffman r . l . , in
( diplopoda , spirostreptida ) at different photoperiod conditions . by boccardo l . and penteado c . h . s . , in
, 1989 ( nematoda , hethidae ) . by hunt d . j . in
the sigmocheirini , a xystodesmid millipede tribe in the sierra - nevada mountains , california , usa ( polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) by shelley r . m . , in
sp n ( nematoda , rhigonematidae ) , parasite of a millipede ( diplopoda , spirobolida ) from myanmar . by hunt d . j . and moore d . in
identification plate for the millipede orders populating the neotropical region south of central mexico ( myriapoda , diplopoda ) by golovatch s . i . , hoffman r . l , . adis j . and demorais j . w . , in
, no . 3 , pp . 159 - 164 seasonal field analyses of water and fat - content in the long - lived millipede polyzonium - germanicum ( diplopoda , polyzoniidae ) . by david j . f . and vannier g . , in
( diplopoda , spirostreptidae ) . by barnett m . , telford s . r . and tibbles b . j . in
interactions between introduced and native millipede species in south australia by griffin t . t . and bull c . m . in
( diplopoda , spirostreptidae ) by webb p . i . and telford s . r . , in
( peters ) ( polydesmida , platyrhacidae ) . by adolph s . c . and geber m . a . , in
seasonal abundance of millipedes in a mediterranean oak forest ( southern france ) . by david j . f . , in
silvestri , 1898 ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . by golovatch s . i . in
( diplopoda , julida ) . by telford s . r . and dangerfield j . m . in
( lucas ) ( diplopoda , julidae ) in southern australia . by terrace t . e andbaker g . h . , in
millipede behavior in a savanna woodland habitat in south - east botswana . by dangerfield j . m . and kaunda s . k . , in
. by sugita m . , hayata c . , yoshida t . , suzuki m . , suzuki a . , takeda t . , hori t . and nakatani f . , in
the timing of insemination and its implications for sperm competition in a millipede with prolonged copulation . by barnett m . and telford s . r . , in
the chonaphini , a biogeographically significant millipede tribe in eastern and western north - america ( polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
, pp 51 , 1993 ) . by shelley r . m . , in
koch c . l . . by byzov b . a . , zenova g . m . , babkina n . i . , dobrovolskaya t . g . , tretyakova e . b . and zvyagintsev d . g . , in
the millipede family nearctodesmidae in northwestern north - america , with accounts of sakophallus and s - simplex chamberlin ( polydesmida ) . by shelley r . m . , in
potential of earthworms , ants , millipedes , and termites for dissemination of vesicular - arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil . by harinikumar k . m . and bagyaraj d . j . , in
- another case of cohort - splitting . by david j . f . , couret t . and celerier m . l . , in
mysterious lesions - the burning millipede . by mason g . h . , thomson h . d . p . , fergin p . and anderson r . , in
koch ( polydesmida , polydesmidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
a new species of millipede ( myriapoda , diplopoda , chordeumatida ) from the british - isles . by gregory s . j . , jones r . e . and mauries j . p . , in
. by barnett m . , telford s . r . and devilliers c . j . , in
. by mathews p . l . and bultman t . l . , in
phylogenetic biogeography of a holarctic group - the julidan millipedes - cladistic subordinateness as an indicator of dispersal . by enghoff h . , in
( julida , julidae ) . by bailey p . t . and kovaliski j . , in
mating - behavior and mate choice experiments in some tropical millipedes ( diplopoda , spirostreptidae ) . by telford s . r . and dangerfield j . m . , in
. by attygalle a . b . , xu s . c . , meinwald j . and eisner t . in
a new family of mites , costacaridae ( mesostigmata , trigynaspida , celaenopsoidea ) , associated with millipedes in mexico . by hunter p . e . , in
diversity and structure of millipede communities ( diplopoda ) in 4 different biotopes . by tajovsky k . , in
the millipede genus isaphe cook ( polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
biology and myriapod egg predation by the neotropical myrmicine ant stegomyrmex vizottoi ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . by diniz j . l . m . and brandao c . r . f . , in
aggregation in the tropical millipede alloporus uncinatus ( diplopoda , spirostreptidae ) . by dangerfield j . m . and telford s . r . in
haplopodous diplopods - a new - type of millipede body construction discovered in cambalopsid juveniles ( diplopoda , spirostreptida ) . by enghoff h . , in
genitalia fitting , mating - behavior and possible hybridization in millipedes of the genus craspedosoma ( diplopoda , chordeumatida , craspedosomatidae ) . by tadler a . , in
silvestri , 1932 , with the description of 3 new species from near manaus , central amazonia , brazil ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . by golovatch s . i . , in
review of the neotropical fauna of the millipede family fuhrmannodesmidae , with the description of 4 new species from near manaus , central amazonia , brazil ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . by golovatch s . i . , in
studies on the respiratory metabolism of glomeris - balcanica ( diplopoda , glomeridae ) . by stamou g . p . and iatrou g . d . in
( diplopoda , spirostreptidae ) . by telford s . r . and dangerfield j . m . , in
ingestion and assimilation of leaf litter in some tropical millipedes . by dangerfield j . m . and milner a . e . , in
diplopoda from borneo in the museum - dhistoire - naturelle - de - geneve . 1 . a new genus and species of cryptodesmoid millipede from sarawak ( polydesmida , cryptodesmidae ) . by hoffman r . l . , in
latzel ( polydesmida , polydesmidae ) . by david j . f . and celerier m . l . , in
the millipede genus underwoodia ( chordeumatida , caseyidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
seasonal activity patterns and behavior of juliform millipedes in south - eastern botswana . by dangerfield j . m . , milner a . e . and matthews r . , in
species - diversity of julid millipedes - between habitat comparisons within the seasonal tropics . by dangerfield j . m . and telford s . r . , in
the role of diplopoda litter grazing activity on recycling processes in a mediterranean climate . by bertrand m . and lumaret j . p . , in
( diplopoda ) in forest soil . by tajovsky k . , santruckova h . , hanel l . , balik v . and lukesova a . , in
( diplopoda , pyrgodesmidae ) a facultative myrmecophile introduced into the united states . by wojcik d . p . and naves m . a . , in
( diplopoda ) . by tajovsky k . , villemin g . and toutain f . , in
diplopoda collected by the soviet zoological expedition to the seychelles - islands in 1984 . by golovatch s . i . and korsos z . , in
on a small collection of millipedes ( diplopoda ) from northern pakistan and its zoogeographic significance . by golovatch s . i . , in
centipede and millipede ( chilopoda and diplopoda ) faunas in sandhill communities of florida . by corey d . t . and stout i . j . , in
strips millipedes for prey - a novel predatory behavior in ants , and the 1st case of sympatry in the genus ( hymenoptera , formicidae ) . by brandao c . r . f . , diniz j . l . m . and tomotake e . m . , in
occurrence , isolation and partial characterization . by prasath e . b . and subramoniam t . , in
a revised cladistic - analysis and classification of the millipede order julida - with establishment of 4 new families and description of a new nemasomatoid genus from japan . by enghoff h . , in
pierrard in the cape - verde islands , west - africa . by mckillup s . c . , vanharten a . and neves a . m . , in
mahogany discoloration of the skin due to the defensive secretion of a millipede . by shpall s . and frieden i . , in
, to declining oxygen pressures . by penteado c . h . s . and heblingberaldo m . j . a . , in
( diplopoda , spirostreptida ) . by penteado c . h . s . , heblingberaldo m . j . a . and mendes e . g . , in
a new millipede of the genus metaxycheir from the pacific coast of canada ( polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) , with remarks on the tribe chonaphini and the western canadian and alaskan diplopod fauna . by shelley r . m . , in
a test of the copulatory guarding hypothesis . by telford s . r . and dangerfield j . m . , in
( lucas , 1860 ) ( diplopoda , julidae ) at different altitudes on tenerife ( canary - islands ) . by baker g . h . and baez m . , in
a phylogenetically interesting sphaeriodesmid millipede from oaxaca , mexico ( polydesmida , sphaeriodesmidae ) . by hoffman r . l . , in
( brandt ) in virginia ( polydesmida , platyrhacidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
a new millipede of the genus riukiaria from is yaku - shima , japan ( diplopoda , polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) . by tanabe t . , in
hungarian zoological studies in vietnam . 13 . contributions to the millipede fauna of vietnam ( diplopoda ) . 3 . spirobolida . by golovatch s . i . and korsos z . , in
species on the south - western iberian peninsula . by bailey p . t . and demendonca t . r . , in
( attems ) . by vanderwalt e . , mcclain e . , puren a . and savage n . , in
addenda to the millipede fauna of vietnam ( diplopoda ) . by korsos z . and golovatch s . i . , in
( lucas ) ( diplopoda , julida , julidae ) in australia . by bailey p . t . , in
new species , a biogeographically significant millipede from the chisos mountains , texas ( polydesmida , xystodesmidae ) . by shelley r . m . , in
( pocock , 1892 ) ( polydesmida , pratinidae ) , a grassland millipede of west - bengal . by mukhopadhyaya m . c . , bhakat s . and bandyopadhyay s . , in
( lucas , 1845 ) ( myriapoda , diplopoda , julida ) . by sahli f . , in
this is the family that contains the longest millipede known from north america , a 6 1 / 2 in . paeromopodid from yosemite nat . pk . , california . rowland shelley
biostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .
biokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright © 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .


eiders ( / ˈaɪ.dər / ) are large seaducks in the genus somateria .

the scientific name is derived from ancient greek somatos " body " and erion " wool " , referring to eiderdown .

the three extant species all breed in the cooler latitudes of the northern hemisphere .

the down feathers of eider ducks , and some other ducks and geese , are used to fill pillows and quilts — they have given the name to the type of quilt known as an eiderdown .

steller 's eider ( polysticta stelleri ) is in a different genus despite its name .

the call of the duck has been likened to sound of " surprised pantomime dames , or even the comedian frankie howerd " .

eider

the spectacled eider was originally named fischer’s eider in honor of a german paleontologist ( “fischer” still appears in the scientific name of the species ) .
the steller’s eider is flightless for about 3 weeks each year while it molts .
environmental contaminants in four eider species from alaska and arctic russia . - pubmed - ncbi
the king eider forages on sea beds up to 25 meters ( 82 ft ) deep .
the spectacled eider was first officially described in 1847 by german naturalist johann friedrich von brandt .
wildlife sound recordist , chris watson , presents the eider . eiders are northern sea - ducks perhaps
the inupiat name for steller’s eider , igniquaqtuq , means “the bird who travels with fire . ”
eider males typically show black and white pattern and soft - coloured areas on their bodies . but the head pattern is always very distinctive . from the black crown and white face of the common eider , through the “spectacles” and the long , sloped forehead of the spectacled eider or the conspicuous yellow - orange frontal shield and red bill of the king eider , to the nuchal greenish - black feather tuft and black collar of the steller’s eider , all these peculiar features allow a good identification .
the male spectacled eider is unmistakable with its green head and round white eye patches . the female may be more easily confused with the females of other eider species . however , a distinct characteristic of the female spectacled eiders are the round patches of slightly lighter brown feathers around the eyes . the female spectacled eider is also comparatively duller and paler in color with less distinctive barring than the females of other eider species .
reduced prey availability is another potential threat to spectacled eiders . regime shifts due to climate change may alter prey assemblages in the eider’s habitat . the spectacled eider may also compete for their prey with commercial fisheries .
the steller’s eider is the only species in its genus . the other three species are in different genera .
in winter , tens of thousands of the threatened steller ' s eider sea ducks stay in izembek and molt .
threats to the spectacled eider include lead poisoning , predation , overharvest , reduced prey availability , and catastrophic events .
the female steller’s eider is mostly brown and much less distinct than the male . the blue wing patches , blue - gray feet , white wing linings , and smaller size distinguish the female of this species from other eider species .
the spectacled eider ( somateria fischeri ) is a large sea duck that breeds on the coasts of alaska and northeastern siberia . they are named for the large white “spectacles” around its eyes , the spectacled eider’s striking look sets them apart from other marine birds .
most famous for the soft breast feathers with which they line their nests . these feathers were collected by eider farmers and used to fill pillows and traditional ' eider - downs ' . drake eiders display to the females with odd moaning calls which you can hear in the programme .
what made you want to look up eider ? please tell us where you read or heard it ( including the quote , if possible ) .
the oldest recorded common eider was a male , and at least 22 years , 7 months old , when he was found in eastern canada .
the men garments are available in many understated and vibrant colors , and in many sizes , so that you can find the eider garment that truly satisfies you . besides its finely tailored items , eider offers men garments that wick away sweat and provide warmth , to keep you comfortable in all situations . since 1962 , eider has been clothing and protecting nature lovers in all weather , while caring for nature . if the mountains are your playground and you love exploring them regularly , we can provide an outfit that will perform every time you take a trip . discover the eider collection of men garments available online !
the oldest recorded king eider was a female and at least 22 years , 1 month old when she was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in nunavut .
overharvest is not thought to be the driver behind the reduction in spectacled eider populations . however , it is possible that subsistence harvest of this species may hinder its recovery .
eiders can be found across arctic and subarctic regions of the northern hemisphere and all species breed in alaska and siberia . both king eider and common eider have larger breeding range , extending to northern europe and through arctic atlantic . during the breeding season , they frequent the seacoasts and freshwater lakes and rivers of arctic tundra , usually not far from sea .
the spectacled eider also faces possible threats from oil and gas development in the arctic ocean as there is currently no effective way of cleaning an oil spill in the arctic sea ice environment .
the female king eider does not feed very often during the 22 - 24 day incubation period . one female did not leave her nest for seven days before being flushed by an arctic fox .
eiders are gregarious birds and usually live in large flocks all year round , except the spectacled eider which occurs in smaller flocks . the pairs form in late winter or early spring and even during migration , and the nesting period usually begins as soon as they arrive at their breeding grounds . they nest mainly solitary or sometimes in loose colonies on islands or peninsulas in lakes and ponds in tundra . however , the common eider breeds in larger colonies along seacoasts , on small islands or on shorelines . the breeding season extends over april , may and june , although the steller’s eider nests from late june to august .
the pacific form of the common eider is distinct genetically and morphologically from the other forms , and may be a different species . the male has a thin black v on its chin and a bright yellow or orange bill .
no longer be afraid of running in the rain ! eider explains how to dress properly to deal with the elements . with the right gear , we’re sure that nothing will stop you and you’ll understand the enjoyment this activity can offer
but unlike males , the females have mostly brown , tinged rufous , barred and spotted plumage . the steller’s eider female shows some white wingbars on her dark brown plumage , and the spectacled eider female shows paler “spectacles” but well - visible . however , they can be identified by size and shape of both body and bill . this cryptic plumage protects them while they are incubating on the ground . the juveniles are paler than adults , and often resemble females .
these example sentences are selected automatically from various online news sources to reflect current usage of the word ' eider . ' views expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of merriam - webster or its editors . send us feedback .
a colorful duck of the northern seacoasts , the common eider is the largest duck in the northern hemisphere . the male ' s bright white , black , and green plumage contrasts markedly with the female ' s camouflaging dull striped brown .
the common eider is subject to strong predation pressure , primarily from glaucous gulls and arctic foxes which take a large proportion of the eggs , and small chicks . the polar bear can also be a major predator of eggs at some sites .
a large duck of arctic coastal waters , the king eider is one of north america ' s most spectacular waterfowl species . highly gregarious for most of the year , it forms prodigious flocks during spring migration , sometimes exceeding 10 , 000 individuals .
the common eider is a large diving duck that is easily distinguishable , even at quite long distances , because of the elongated profile of the head . adults of this species are approximately 58 cm long and weigh from 1 . 2–2 . 8 kg .
the female king eider alone attends the nest . when an intruder is present , the female sits low on the nest with her head flattened on the ground . she sits tightly on the eggs and sometimes can be touched or picked up off of the nest .
the spectacled eider’s habit of concentrating in large flocks during the winter and molting periods makes it very vulnerable to catastrophic events , such as an oil spill or bilge pumping . any catastrophic events in the area of these flocks could have a major impact on the entire population .
the only member of the genus polysticta , the steller’s eider , is the smallest species . its head pattern is simpler , but the greenish - black tuft of feathers on the nape gives it an interesting appearance . this one represents probably the link between eiders and other sea ducks .
north slope borough residents have been involved with education and outreach programs to protect steller’s eiders . there are few opportunities for citizens to be involved in the research or management of steller’s eiders at this time but they can help protect steller’s eider habitat if they live near communities where eiders breed or winter .
management of steller’s eiders falls under the jurisdiction of the us fish and wildlife service ( usfws ) . management by the usfws is governed by the migratory bird treaty act . sport hunting for this species was closed in 1991 . subsistence hunting is also closed . the steller’s eider is also protected under the endangered species act .
the threat of oil and gas development in and near teshekpuk lake , known as an important bird area of global significance , is a possible threat to the spectacled eider’s future . representative doc hastings’ proposed legislation to drill in the national petroleum reserve - alaska could open up the most sensitive areas like teshekpuk lake to drilling and lead to the downfall of this threatened species .
population declines in four species of eider ; common ( somateria mollissima ) , king ( somateria spectabilis ) , spectacled ( somateria fischeri ) and steller ' s ( polysticta stelleri ) , have raised concerns about exposure to contaminants . livers and kidney tissues were collected from eiders in alaska and russia for organic and elemental analyses . results showed that organochlorine and many elemental levels were below toxic thresholds ; however , in many cases , cadmium , copper , lead and serenium appeared high relative to other waterfowl and may warrant concern . with the exception of lead , local anthropogenic sources for these elements are not known . although adverse physiological responses have not been documented in eiders , these four elements cannot be ruled out as contaminants of potential concern for some eider species .
population declines in four species of eider ; common ( somateria mollissima ) , king ( somateria spectabilis ) , spectacled ( somateria fischeri ) and steller ' s ( polysticta stelleri ) , have raised concerns about exposure to contaminants . livers and kidney tissues were collected from eiders in alaska and russia for organic and elemental analyses . results showed that organochlorine and many elemental levels were below toxic thresholds ; however , in many cases , cadmium , copper , lead and selenium appeared high relative to other waterfowl and may warrant concern . with the exception of lead , local anthropogenic sources for these elements are not known . although adverse physiological responses have not been documented in eiders , these four elements cannot be ruled out as contaminants of potential concern for some eider species .
the current population level of spectacled eiders is significantly lower than historical levels . the species is listed as threatened under the endangered species act ( esa ) and is a state of alaska species of special concern . current nesting population is ~ 8 , 000 breeding pairs in alaska and ~ 140 , 000 individuals in russia . to learn more , visit the adf & g special status page for spectacled eider .
threats to the steller’s eider include predation , lead poisoning , contaminants , and long - term or cyclical changes in the marine environment . the effect of climate change on steller’s eiders is unknown . steller’s eider eggs and ducklings are vulnerable to predation by ravens , jaegers , snowy owls , arctic and red foxes , and large gulls . on the wintering grounds , birds are vulnerable to bald eagles . lead poisoning due to ingestion of spent lead shot was historically a significant source of mortality . however , lead shot was outlawed for the hunting of waterfowl in 1991 making it less of a threat today . contaminants are also a concern for this species due to their habit of congregating in large dense groups in a few areas . contamination , such as an oil spill , in a wintering or molting area , could have a major impact on the entire population .
the eider is the uk ' s heaviest duck and its fastest flying . it is a true seaduck , rarely found away from coasts where its dependence on coastal molluscs for food has brought it into conflict with mussel farmers . eiders are highly gregarious and usually stay close inshore , riding the swell in a sandy bay or strung out in long lines out beyond the breaking waves . it is an amber list species because of its winter concentrations .
the common eider has a circumpolar distribution and breeds in the arctic and boreal zones of the northern hemisphere . they nest along the coast of europe from northern france , through the netherlands and the british isles to iceland and northwards through scandinavia to the arctic coasts of russia as well as in arctic regions such as svalbard , north - east siberia , the arctic north america and greenland . they winter largely within the breeding range , migrating southward from only the most northerly regions .
eiders are sea ducks , a group of diving ducks that breed inland but generally spend the rest of the year in coastal marine waters . the steller’s eider is the smallest of the four eider species . males are unusually colorful but both sexes have an iridescent blue wing patch , lined above and below by white , which is unique for a sea duck and more similar to a dabbling duck such as a mallard . the male ' s white head has a black spot behind each ear and green shading at the back of the head . the eye is surrounded by black and the bill is bluish gray . the white head is offset by iridescent blue - black under the chin and in a broad collar pattern extending down the back . large white shoulder patches and white - lined deep blue scapular plumes provide bold contrast on the back and sides . the light breast , sides , and belly of males is shaded front - to - back from a tan to deep rust .
the common eider is a large diving duck that is easily distinguishable even at quite long distances because of the elongated profile of the head . it has a circumpolar distribution and breeds in the arctic and boreal zones of the northern hemisphere . they nest along the coast of europe from northern france , through the netherlands and the british isles to iceland and northwards through scandinavia to the arctic coasts of russia as well as in arctic regions such as svalbard , north - eatern siberia , arctic north america and greenland .
at sea or in freshwater lakes or rivers , eiders feeds primarily on molluscs , crustaceans , small fish and various marine invertebrates including worms and echinoderms , and algae too . on arctic tundra , they feed on leaves , seeds and berries , green parts of plants and other vegetation . freshwater insects , larvae and arachnids are also taken . in the water , they feed mainly by diving and head - dipping , and upending in shallow waters . the spectacled eider also plucks and dabbles on the water surface .
the spectacled eider is a medium - sized sea duck measuring an average 53 cm in length for males and 50 cm in length for females . adult male breeding plumage is characterized by a white back and a black tail , belly and chest . other distinguishing characteristics include a bright orange bill with white feathers at the base , and a green shaggy head with round white “spectacles” around each eye . adult female breeding plumage is a dull brown color with darker brown barring and light brown eye patches . both sexes have long sloping foreheads .
historic numbers and distribution of steller’s eiders were significantly greater than current times . however , most information prior to the 1970s is anecdotal so it is difficult to accurately quantify the decline in numbers and the contraction of the breeding range . as of 2010 , 600 steller’s eiders or less arrive on the alaska breeding grounds each year with most near barrow . the alaska - breeding population is listed as threatened under the endangered species act ( esa ) and is a state of alaska species of special concern . to learn more , visit the adf & g special status page for steller ' s eider .
several sub - species have been described . the svalbard population belongs to the sub - species s . m . borealis , which also breeds in northeast canada , greenland , iceland and franz josef land . in svalbard the common eider breeds both in colonies on small islands and in a more dispersed fashion along the coast of spitsbergen . the greatest nesting densities occur on the western and north - western coast of spitsbergen and on tusenøyane . the svalbard population winters around iceland and along the coast of northern norway . some svalbard birds may also spend the winter in ice - free waters off the west coast of svalbard .
in svalbard the common eider has a nesting strategy that differs from that of most other populations , in that the males remain with the females during the first stage of the incubation period ( one to two weeks ) . the males then leave the nesting areas to form moulting flocks along the coast . immediately after hatching , as soon as the young are dry , they go out to sea with their mother . the females and their young usually aggregate in groups in shallow - water areas along the coast through the summer and early fall . the highest age recorded in norway ( including svalbard ) is 58 years .
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eiders are threatened by oil pollution and lead poisoning as they pick up lead shot from hunting in ponds or lakes . several predators such as ravens , gulls , jaegers and foxes , and hunting pressure in some areas , involve some declines in populations . the global warming is a problem in the wintering range as it is altering the ecosystem of this area . the ice is replaced by open water , and warmer temperatures reduce the prey’s availability . in the same way , higher temperatures involve the drying of wetlands in the breeding range . currently , the steller’s eider is listed as vulnerable , but the three other species are evaluated as least concern .
the nest is built by the female , a shallow scrape on the ground made with grasses and lined with down from the female’s breast during the egg laying . the females lay 4 - 6 eggs , 6 - 8 in steller’s eider . they incubate alone and perform all the nesting duties . the males leave the breeding grounds at the beginning of the incubation , and start the migration in order to gather at distant areas for moulting , before to reach the wintering grounds . the females incubate during 25 - 28 days . at hatching , the chicks are precocial and able to walk and feed within one day . they fledge between 50 and 75 days after hatching , depending on the species . they are sexually mature at 2 - 3 years .
the total common eider breeding population in svalbard is estimated to be somewhere between 13 , 500 and 27 , 500 pairs and the late summer population is comprised of 80 , 000–140 , 000 individuals . the european breeding population is estimated to be 840 , 000 pairs , and is regarded as stable , although some sub - populations are declining . extensive collecting of down and eggs are thought to have reduced the population somewhat during the first part of the 20th century , but early numbers are rather uncertain , so this may not be the case . although protection measures and bird sanctuaries were established in 1963 and 1973 , no marked increase in the population has occurred since that time . annual population monitoring established in the kongsfjorden area in 1980 and surveys of moulting birds in 2002 and 2010–2011 suggest a stable population in recent decades . human disturbance at nesting sites should be avoided in order to minimize loss of egg and chicks to predators .
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but that hasn ' t been good news for some of their prey , including other vulnerable birds , such as eiders .
for example , pilot - biologists discovered the wintering grounds of spectacled eiders , an arctic sea duck , after a swift decline based upon aerial survey data .
there are several species of large diving ducks called eiders . they are heavy and round - bodied , with a humped bill that produces a characteristic sloping profile . eiders live in the cold far north . they are the source of eiderdown , feathers that the hen plucks from her breast to line her nest and insulate her eggs . eiderdown is used as a warm filling for jackets , pillows , quilts , and sleeping bags . hens are mottled brown , but drakes ( males ) are boldly patterned , with green pigment on the head .
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a small , dark goose - the same size as a mallard . it has a black head and neck and grey - brown back .
a nocturnal bird that can be seen hawking for food at dusk and dawn .
male ring ouzels are particularly distinctive with their black plumage with a pale wing panel and striking white breast band .
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this bird species has different identifying features depending on sex / age / season .
in the breeding season , eiders are best looked for from the northumberland coast northwards and off the west coast of scotland . they are found in the same areas in winter and also further south on the yorkshire coast and around the east and south coast as far a cornwall . belfast lough is a n ireland stronghold and some are also found off the welsh coast .
* this map is intended as a guide . it shows general distribution rather than detailed , localised populations .
eiders can be seen all year round in breeding areas . on coasts to the south of the breeding range , birds can be seen from autumn and stay there for the winter .
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mother common eiders lead their young to water , and often are accompanied by nonbreeding hens that participate in chick protection . broods often come together to form
crèches
of a few to over 150 ducklings . attacks by predators may cause several broods to cluster together into a crèche . once formed , a crèche tends to stay together throughout the brood rearing period , although some of the different females attending it may leave .
any of the species of the genera polysticta or somateria , in the seaduck subfamily merginae , which line their nests with fine down ( taken from their own bodies ) .
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urltoken unabridged based on the random house unabridged dictionary , © random house , inc . 2018
and related genera , which occur in the n hemisphere . the male has black and white plumage , and the female is the source of eiderdown
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quand highline et parapente se rencontrent sur les dunes de huacachina , au pérou . . .
when highline and paragliding meet on the dunes of huacachina , peru . . . @ [ 1825756391038789 : 274 : esprits outdoor ]
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a northern sea duck , of which the male is mainly black - and - white with a coloured head , and the female brown .
‘terns and eiders had been disturbed , while eiders had been doubly hit because the pickers were depleting the mussel beds on which they feed . ’
‘both of these types are plentiful on the cape , as are sea ducks , such as scoters and eiders , viewable from many vantage points . ’
‘primary predators for these eiders were large gulls , and occasionally evidence of mammalian predation was found . ’
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males and females have very different plumage ; the male has a black crown , belly and tail , while the rest of the plumage is white , the breast usually has a pinkish tinge . males also have characteristic green marks on the sides of the head . the female is brown with light , closely packed bars over the whole body . young males are a mottled brown - black and white , the pattern of which varies with age . young birds are difficult to distinguish from adult males in transitional plumage after the nesting season , when they are switching to their winter colours .
the male ' s voice is a deep , prolonged ”coo - roo - uh” , the female ' s call is a growling ”cor - r - r” .
common eiders are maritime ducks , which occur along coastlines in the breeding season , especially on smaller islets where they are safe from mammalian predators . they breed in colonies of variable size and density . nesting groups become established in the spring as soon as the tundra is clear of snow and the ice around the islets has melted ; in most years in svalbard this occurs towards the end of may , but may be as late as the end of june at some sites in some years .
the proportion of the population that breeds varies greatly between years depending on ice condition in spring and early summer . common eiders leave the nesting area immediately after the eggs hatch to occupy shallows waters along the coast , where they remain until leaving svalbard during autumn .
they feed on various benthic animals ; mussels are a preferred food , but they will also consume small crustaceans found in the inter - tidal zone and shallows .
pair formation takes place during the autumn in common eiders and the same birds may stay together for several years . they are a ground - nesting species that prefers flat areas , sometimes sheltered by stones or pieces of wood , but usually the site is completely exposed . the nest is a simple , shallow scrape made by the female , but it is carefully lined with plant material and a thick layer of down . nest - sites are re - used , and old nests are often characterized by an elevated rim .
the normal clutch size consists of four to six eggs , which are grey - green or olive - green in colour . clutches with up to 13 eggs have been recorded in svalbard , but large clutches are usually laid by more than one female ( i . e . the result of dump nesting ) . the incubation period lasts 24–26 days . before nesting the females accumulate a large reserve of fat . they do not feed during the incubation period and must therefore survive on stored reserves . they can lose up to 40 % of their body weight during incubation .
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this species has been uplisted to near threatened . within europe it has experienced moderate declines and these have not been compensated for by increases elsewhere in the species ' s range . declines are thought to be driven by a range of threats including overharvesting of aquatic resources , pollution , disturbance and hunting . should the declines be found to be more severe , or new information reveal declines in the
populations then the species would warrant uplisting ; it almost meets the requirements for listing as threatened under criterion a4abcde .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : somateria mollissima . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
steller’s eiders first breed at 2–3 years of age . pair bonding occurs in the winter , and the eiders move to arctic nesting grounds as the spring sea ice breaks up . they are solitary breeders that prefer to nest on islands or peninsulas in tundra lakes and ponds near the coast . the female selects a nest site while the male performs distraction flights . the nest is built out of grass then lined with down during egg laying . females generally lay 5–7 olive - brown eggs . males typically leave once incubation begins . females incubate the eggs for 25–28 days until hatching .
ducklings are precocial and hatch with open eyes and a dark brown layer of down . they can thermoregulate and walk soon after hatching , allowing them to leave the nest within 24 hours . mothers stay with their young throughout brood rearing . young birds can fly within 5–7 weeks of hatching .
steller’s eiders forage by diving or dabbling in shallow water . on the breeding habitats , steller’s eiders primarily eat insect larvae associated with freshwater wetlands but may also eat aquatic plants . in marine habitats they eat small fish and saltwater invertebrates , including snails , clams , worms , and echinoderms found in the bottom sediment . they forage singly or in large flocks that often dive and surface in unison .
males perform courtship displays for females , with as many as 3–7 males following a single female . courtship behaviors include a series of head - turns , shakes , and rearing out of the water . males also perform aggressive displays towards other males , including chin - lifts which display the black chin - patch .
steller’s eiders migrate long distances each year , up to 4 , 800 kilometers , between their breeding and wintering grounds . they migrate side by side in long lines only a few feet above the water . they generally travel along coastlines or follow open leads in the ice . migration northward to the breeding grounds begins in late - april . they reach their nesting sites in the arctic tundra in late may to early june . males leave the breeding areas by early july to travel to molting areas . the females remain on the breeding grounds until the chicks fledge . then they travel to molting areas or directly to wintering grounds further south .
the breeding range of steller’s eiders is the arctic coastal plain of northern alaska and russia . there are three recognized breeding populations of steller’s eiders worldwide . two populations breed in russia . the russian - atlantic population breeds in russia and winters in the barents and baltic seas of northern europe , never associating with alaska . the russian - pacific population breeds in russia and winters in the bering sea and northern gulf of alaska and mixes with the russian - pacific population in the bering sea and northern gulf of alaska during the molt and winter . alaska’s breeding population occurs in two disjunct regions , the yukon - kuskokwim delta in western alaska , where only a few birds may nest , and the arctic coastal plain , primarily near barrow .
almost all steller ' s eiders nest in northeastern siberia , with less than 1 % of the population breeding in north america . in the winter , most of the world’s steller’s eiders are found in the alaska peninsula and the aleutian islands . others winter as far west as the commander and kuril islands of russia and as far east as kodiak island and kachemak bay in cook inlet , alaska .
the population of steller’s eiders may have declined by up to 50 % between the 1960s and 1980s . estimates of the wintering concentration of steller’s eiders along the alaska peninsula was 400 , 000–500 , 000 in the 1960s , and dropped to an estimated 200 , 000 in the 1990s , and 100 , 000–140 , 000 in the 2000s . the cause of this drastic decline is unknown .
steller’s eiders were once targets of waterfowl hunters . hunting of eiders was ended in 1991 .
egging and subsistence hunting of steller’s eiders is minimal in alaska . the effects of subsistence hunting in russia are poorly documented .
the usfws , in cooperation with the north slope borough , has developed an education and outreach program designed to protect steller’s eiders on the breeding grounds . fox control has also been implemented near barrow in order to improve nesting success . regulators are also protecting steller’s eiders on the wintering grounds by reviewing development plans .
current research and monitoring has focused on detecting population trends and improving our understanding of breeding biology and annual distribution . scientists do not know if the russian - pacific and alaskan breeding populations are distinct or if they represent one larger population with some birds breeding in alaska intermittently . other research has focused on trying to understand the role of contaminants and predators in limiting population growth .
the four eiders included in the tribe mergini , subfamily anatinae , in the large family anatidae , are sometimes separated from the other sea ducks and placed in their own tribe somateriini .
the three eiders of genus somateria are closely related . these large marine ducks show strong sexual dimorphism with males displaying complex and coloured head pattern and black and white bodies , while females are duller , mostly brown , and fairly similar in all species .
during winter , they remain in northern waters , either in bays or river mouths , or at sea in deep waters and away from land , according to the species . their usual wintering grounds include northern europe , iceland , w greenland , ne north america , alaska , aleutian islands , kamchatka , and southern bering sea . they return to their breeding grounds when the sea ice starts to break up .
the flight during these migrations is fairly low over the water . the birds fly side by side and form an undulating line just above the waves . sea ducks are powerful fliers .
the displays are typically similar to those of all the anatidae . the males perform usual courtship displays including rearing up out of water , wing - flapping , shaking head , stretching neck upwards and jerking head back in quick motion . at this period , the drakes produce various cooing and crooning calls while displaying . some fights may occur between males around one female .
females and chicks are threatened by several predators such as gulls , jaegers and foxes , the female during the incubation and the ducklings after hatching while they start to walk and feed . both females and young migrate and reach the wintering grounds where they will moult .
eiders are powerful marine ducks , somewhat different from other anatidae . the head pattern of males is sometimes considered ghostly and mysterious , but they are gregarious and beautiful .
when they are not nesting , these ducks spend most of the year in the frigid waters of the arctic , where they eat bottom - dwelling mollusks and crustaceans . during the winter months , these ducks move far offshore to deep waters , where they often gather in dense flocks in openings of nearly continuous sea ice .
unlike other sea ducks , spectacled eiders appear to remain in only a few areas and become vulnerable during their molting season as they cannot fly away from a hazard . spectacled eiders also use long large cracks in the ice where water flows in their migration .
the u . s . population is approximately 3 , 000 - 4 , 000 nesting pairs .
historically , spectacled eiders nested along much of the coast of alaska , from the nushagak peninsula in the southwest , north to barrow , east nearly to the canadian border , and along much of the arctic coast of russia . however , climate change and oil and gas development have drastically reduced their habitat range . as a result the western alaskan population of spectacled eiders dropped by 96 percent between 1957 and 1992 .
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spectacled eiders arrive on the breeding grounds as pairs in late - may or in june . preferred nest sites appear to be on islands or peninsulas in lakes . nest initiation typically occurs in may - july and varies according to numerous factors that include latitude and weather . females generally lay 3 - 9 oval , olive - green eggs at an average rate of one egg every 24 hours . males depart the breeding areas sometime during egg - laying and early incubation , leaving the females to care for the eggs . the females incubate the eggs 24 - 28 days and tend to the young after they hatch . ducklings are covered in down when they hatch . young spectacled eiders learn to fly at 50 - 52 days of age and fledge in late august . young eiders will remain at sea until their first breeding attempt at 2 - 3 years of age .
egg and duckling predators in alaska and russia include mink , arctic fox , red fox , gulls , and jaegers . hen eiders will take their young to open water , or to hide in emergent vegetation in response to avian attacks .
spectacled eiders feed by diving and dabbling . in the nonbreeding season , they are found in marine waters diving down to feed on benthic mollusks and crustaceans in shallow waters ( less than 80m deep ) or free - floating amphipods in deeper waters . during the nesting season , they forage in ponds by diving and dabbling , often feeding on aquatic insects , crustaceans , mollusks , and vegetation . they will also feed on grasses , berries , and seeds .
spectacled eiders generally congregate in large , dense flocks in the winter in small openings in the sea ice . outside the winter , they typically fly in small , compact flocks of less than 50 individuals . they typically fly with a rapid wing beat less than 50m above the ground or water .
males may chase each other to compete for females during the breeding season , however , physical contact is rare . spectacled eiders are believed to follow a monogamous mating system .
spring migration from the wintering area includes multiple stopovers at coastal sites with arrival on the breeding grounds in late may or june . males leave 1 - 2 weeks after incubation of the eggs begins . females and young eiders travel to their wintering grounds in late summer . after spectacled eiders leave the nesting grounds , they travel along established migration corridors in the bering , chukchi , and beaufort seas . males molt and stage in mechigmenskiy bay in russia , eastern chukotka peninsula in russia , or in ledyard bay , alaska . the females molt and stage in eastern norton sound if they nested in the yukon - kuskokwim delta or in ledyard bay and mechigmenskiy bay if they nested on the north slope . from these molting and staging areas , the birds will head out to the bering sea for the winter .
the breeding habitat of spectacled eiders is in wet tundra regions . they nest along arctic coasts of alaska and russia and on the yukon - kuskokwim delta in alaska . molting areas have been found in norton sound and ledyard bay in alaska and in mechigmenskiy bay and offshore waters between the kolyma and indigirka river deltas in russia . in the winter , the entire global population of spectacled eiders congregates in gaps in the sea ice ( called polynyas ) in the bering sea between st . lawrence and st . matthew islands . the wintering habitat of spectacled eiders was unknown until the 1990s . they use these gaps in the ice to dive down and collect mollusks and other crustaceans from the sea floor .
the population of spectacled eiders has declined significantly since the 1960s , but the cause of this decline remains unknown . on the yukon - kuskokwim delta , the population declined by over 96 % between the 1970s and 1990s . following this dramatic decline , the population appears to have stabilized .
though the cause of the decline in spectacled eiders is unknown , lead poisoning from ingestion of spent shot has been a significant source of mortality in alaska . the use of lead shot was banned in 1991 so the threat from lead poisoning should be reduced though illegal use may continue at some level .
in nesting areas , predation by foxes , gulls , and ravens may be preventing the recovery of the species . predation tends to be higher in areas near human habitation due to the year - round availability of food and shelter for certain predators .
all spectacled eiders overwinter in the bering sea using polynyas ( gaps ) in the sea ice .
spectacled eiders were once a target of waterfowl hunters . however , sport hunting of this species has been closed in alaska since 1991 .
this species was harvested for its meat and feathers , and their eggs also were an important subsistence food . however , in 1991 subsistence hunting of spectacled eiders was closed in alaska , and remains closed .
spectacled eiders are currently listed as a threatened species under the endangered species act and protected by the migratory bird treaty act , both of which are implemented by the u . s . fish and wildlife service . the state of alaska retains trust responsibilities over this species and is actively engaged in the management , conservation , and regulation of spectacled eiders and their habitat .
there are several research projects on spectacled eiders underway . one project is designed to determine winter habitat and the causes of the population decline . this study uses satellite transmitters to track the birds to identify molting and feeding areas in the bering sea . another project studies the impacts of lead shot poisoning and environmental contaminants on the eiders .