phyllodesmium is a genus of predatory sea slugs , aeolid nudibranchs , marine gastropod molluscs in the family facelinidae .

these nudibranchs occur in the tropical indo-pacific ocean and warm temperate waters of japan , tasmania and south africa .

the nudibranchs in this genus often show extraordinary mimicry , each species very closely resembling its prey species , which are octocorals , a kind of soft coral .

some of the species are also unusual in that they are able to utilize zooxanthellae from their prey , in a symbiotic relationship that provides them with extra nutrition from photosynthesis , hence they are commonly called " solar-powered " sea slugs ( also see the sacoglossa ) .

phyllodesmium

information on phyllodesmium spp . from : delisse m . ortiz , october 7 , 1999
this species is very similar in appearance to phyllodesmium hyalinum , another species found in association with the soft coral xenia . see phyllodesmium hyalinum , for distinguishing features of the two species .
phyllodesmium poindimiei , from bare island , sydney from : n . missenden , september 19 , 2005
figure 11 : effect of phyllodesmium metabolites in different concentrations on predation by canthigaster soland . . .
phyllodesmium poindimiei ? from sydney from : p . zylstra & h . rothenfluh , june 18 , 2000
figure 12 : phylogenetic tree of octocorals relevant as putative food sources for phyllodesmium spp . phylogram . . .
phyllodesmium poindimiei is a species of sea slug , an aolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family facelinidae .
phyllodesmium briareum is a species of sea slug , an aolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family facelinidae .
phyllodesmium opalescens is a species of small sea slug , an aolid nudibranch , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family facelinidae .
upper : phyllodesmium crypticum angourie , northern new south wales , australia . october 1979 . length 5cm . photo : bill rudman . lower : section through a tentacle of the soft coral xenia showing the pouches of symbiotic zooxanthellae ( stained red ) . xenia is the preferred food of phyllodesmium crypticum . photo : bill rudman .
the coral nudibranch , phyllodesmium horridum , is a species of sea slug , specifically an aeolid nudibranch . it is a marine gastropod mollusc in the family facelinidae .
rudman , w . b . , 2001 ( august 9 ) phyllodesmium horridum ( macnae , 1954 ) . [ in ] sea slug forum . australian museum , sydney .
the aeolid nudibranch genus phyllodesmium ( mollusca : gastropoda ) is reviewed , three new species are described and further information on the biology , anatomy and distribution on the eight previously known species is reported . the genus ennoia bergh , 1896 is considered a synonym of phyllodesmium and the type species ennoia briareus redescribed . the genus phyllodesmium is unique amongst the aeolids in feeding on octocoral cnidarians . this has led to the evolution of nudibranch - zooxanthellae symbioses , zooanthellae being obtained from the octocoral prey . the adaptations developed throughout the genus are described and possible relationships between the species proposed .
more information : moore , elizabeth and terrence gosliner . 2014 . additions to the genus phyllodesmium , with a phylogenetic analysis and its implications to the evolution of symbiosis . the veliger 51 : 237 - 251 .
as its name suggests , phyllodesmium crypticum is a very cryptic species , well - camouflaged amongst the colonies of the soft - coral xenia in which it lives and on which it feeds . this is another of the many species of aeolid which store zooxanthellae from their food , presumably obtaining nourishment when they photosynthesise . the large sacs of zooxanthellae found in the tentacles of xenia are clearly the source of phyllodesmium ' s zooxanthellae .
rudman w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies 57 : 167 - 203
baba , k . ( 1991 ) taxonomical study on some species of the genus phyllodesmium from cape muroto - misaki , shikoku and okinawa province , southern japan ( nudibranchia : facelinidae ) . venus , 50 , 109–123 .
rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia , aeolidacea ) . journal of molluscan studies , 57 , 167–203 .
rudman w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies 57 : 167 - 203 .
dear ingo , sorry it has taken me a while to post this message . it is indeed a spectacular xenia mimic , perhaps not quite as good as phyllodesmium sp . 11 , but almost . best wishes , bill rudman
moore e . & gosliner t . ( 2014 ) . additions to the genus phyllodesmium , with a phylogenetic analysis and its implications to the evolution of symbiosis . the veliger . 51 ( 4 ) : 237 - 251 . [ details ]
phyllodesmium briareum , like other species of phyllodesmium , feeds on soft corals and is very well camouflaged when crawling over or nestled between the polyps of the doft coral it is feeding on . it is reported to feed on a number of species of briareid soft coral including solenopodium stelleri and briareum stecheri ( sensu macfadyen , 1936 ) . it is also reported from pachyclavularia violacea a mat forming soft coral with purplish trunks and greenish brown polyps ( see rie nakano ' s message below ) .
rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies . 57 : 167 - 203 . [ details ]
rudman w . b . ( 1991 ) .
further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidacea )
. journal of molluscan studies 57 ( 2 ) : 167–203 . abstract .
burghardt i . & goslinert . m . 2006 . phyllodesmium rudmani ( mollusca : nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) , a new solar powered species from the indo - west pacific with data on its symbiosis with zooxanthellae . zootaxa 1308 : 31 - 47 [ details ]
graceful
solar - powered
phyllodesmium sp . nudibranch in the surge . raja ampat . these are very difficult to spot if they are not moving . it is hard to imagine how they make any forward progress . i love to watch them try !
ortiz , d . m . & gosliner , t . m . ( 2003 ) a new species of phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( mollusca , nudibranchia ) from the tropical indo - pacific . proceedings of the california academy of sciences , 54 , 161–168 .
reference : • rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies , 57 ( 2 ) : 167 - 203 .
avila , c . , ballesteros , m . , slattery , m . & paul , v . j . ( 1998 ) phyllodesmium guamensis ( nudibranchia , aeolidoidea ) , a new species from guam ( micronesia ) . journal of molluscan studies , 64 , 147–160 .
burghardt , i . and wägele , h . ( 2004 ) a new solar powered species of the genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( mollusca : nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) from indonesia with analysis of its photosynthetic activity and notes on biology . zootaxa , 596 : 1 - 18 .
moore e . & gosliner t . ( 2014 ) . additions to the genus phyllodesmium , with a phylogenetic analysis and its implications to the evolution of symbiosis . the veliger . 51 ( 4 ) : 237 - 251 . page ( s ) : 238 - 242 [ details ]
( of ennoia bergh , 1896 ) rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies . 57 : 167 - 203 . [ details ]
( of myrrhine bergh , 1905 ) rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) . further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies . 57 : 167 - 203 . [ details ]
phyllodesmium jakobsenae is another species of phyllodesmium which lives in , feeds on , and mimics the soft coral xenia by the shape and colour of its cerata . it is solar - powered , retaining some of the soft corals zooxanthellae which continue to photosynthesise in the ceratal digestive gland cells . probably the most characteristic external feature of this species is the shape of the cerata , which have a basal cylindrical , stalk - like , region which becomes broader and flatter toward the tip . in this upper region there is a central pale vein - like region flanked on each side by a broad brown flattened blade . on the upper , sunlit , side of the blade are spherical structures in which the zooxanthellae are ' farmed ' . of the phyllodesmium which farm photosynthesising zooxanthellae , this is the only one we know that has no branching of the digestive gland in the body wall . it is reported to grow to 30 mm in length .
dear bill , i would like to provide the forum some pictures and info about the new phyllodesmium species that heike wägele and i described last year . phyllodesmium jakobsenae is a
solar - powered
species and is very cryptic . it lives in xenia soft corals and its cerata mimic the polyps of xenia . p . jakobsenae feeds on the soft coral and retains some of the corals ' zooxanthellae photosynthetic active inside their digestive glandular cells ( for further details see our publication ) . we only found them close to bunaken island / sulawesi , but i ' ve heard that some people also found them in the philippines , so it might have a wider distribution .
burghardt i . , schrödl m . & wägele h . 2008 . three new solar powered species of the genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( mollusca : nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) from the tropical indopacific with analysis of their photosynthetic activity and notes on biology . journal of molluscan studies , 74 ( 3 ) : 277 - 292 [ details ]
this is one of the species of phyllodesmium that does not harbour zooxanthellae in its tissues . the colour of the digestive glands ducts in the cerata is a deep pink in specimens i have observed . it has been found feeding on the telestacean soft coral carijoa . note the branching in the digestive gland ducts , a common feature in species of the genus .
defense strategy using sequestered soft coral metabolites has been discussed for the members of the genus phyllodesmium , however , there are only few studies supporting this hypothesis . besides our earlier study [ 12 ] reporting a feeding deterrent activity of 4 - oxochatancin ( 16 ) , only a study by slattery et al . [ 15 ] could show an antifeedant effect of a secondary metabolite sequestered by phyllodesmium . in the latter study , acetoxypukalide , which was sequestered by p . guamensis from its prey corals sinularia spp . , successfully deterred the omnivorous pufferfish canthigaster solandri under laboratory conditions at 0 . 5 % of dry mass in artificial food . the concentration chosen was at least an order of magnitude lower , than found in the body tissues of p . guamensis .
as you will see from the bernard picton ' s photo on the right , p . briareum is one of the species of phyllodesmium which has a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthella . the rows of brown specks in the photo are one - celled plants [ zooxanthellae ] which are nurtured in specialised ducts of the aeolid ' s digestive gland , where they continue to grow , reproduce and photosynthesise , providing nutrients for the aeolid .
in our former study in 2014 , relying on uplc - hrms data only , we assumed that isosarcophines 8 and 9 and sarcophytonin b ( 6 ) could be present in the p . longicirrum extract . in the current investigation we were able to isolate these metabolites and demonstrate the informative value of the preliminary uplc–hrms analysis . further investigations on alcyonacean and / or phyllodesmium chemistry may thus lead to the isolation and full characterization of the putative biscembranoids .
references : • rudman , w . b . ( 1981 ) the anatomy and biology of alcyonarian feeding aeolid opisthobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae . zoological journal of the linnean society , 72 : 219 - 262 . • rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies , 57 ( 2 ) : 167 - 203 .
wagner d . , kahng s . e . & toonen r . j . ( 2009 ) .
observations on the life history and feeding ecology of a specialized nudibranch predator ( phyllodesmium poindimiei ) , with implications for biocontrol of an invasive octocoral ( carijoa riisei ) in hawaii
. journal of experimental marine biology and ecology 372 ( 1 - 2 ) : 64 - 74 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . jembe . 2009 . 02 . 007 . pdf .
fish may represent the main , however not the only potential predation threat to slugs . the omnivorous echinodermata , crustacea and cephalopoda could also consider phyllodesmium as possible prey . whether the compounds , proven defensive against fish predation in this study function as deterrents towards other organisms , has yet to be shown . even if the furanocembranoids represent the protection against omnivorous fish , it is possible that some of the numerous secondary metabolites found in this study could be useful against a wider range of predators .
figure 11 : effect of phyllodesmium metabolites in different concentrations on predation by canthigaster solandri ( n = 8–40 , depending on availability ) . experiments were repeated twice with compounds 10–12 in all tested concentrations , twice with 16 at 1 % and 2 % and three times at 0 . 5 % . mean values with sd are displayed . significance of deterrence was shown with fisher´s exact test ( p < 0 . 05 for 10 , 12 and 16 , calculated for each trial separately ) . control pellets were 100 % eaten for each trial .
only few chemical investigations were undertaken on phyllodesmium species [ 10 - 15 ] , describing mostly terpenoid secondary metabolites . indirect evidence suggests that these compounds are sequestered from the respective octocorallian prey organisms . in rare cases , the ecological function of some of these metabolites as deterrent agents was demonstrated , e . g . , acetoxypukalide from p . guamensis [ 15 ] and 4 - oxochatancin ( 16 ) in p . longicirrum [ 12 ] were shown to cause a significant feeding deterrence under laboratory conditions at concentration levels below natural abundance in the sea slug bodies .
in summary , chemical investigation of a single large p . longicirrum specimen resulted in isolation of 19 secondary metabolites of terpenoid origin . taking the metabolites detected by uplc–hrms analysis also into account , p . longicirrum demonstrates an unprecedented level of secondary metabolite diversity . the herein studied p . longicirrum sequesters its secondary metabolites most probably from the chemistry - rich s . glaucum species complex , in contrary to a previously reported investigated p . longicirrum . the defensive role of the major diterpenoid constituents ( 10 , 12 and 16 ) as feeding deterrent agents against tropical omnivorous fish c . solandri was shown in laboratory assays , providing further strong evidence for the use of chemical protection strategy within the scarcely investigated aeolidoidean genus phyllodesmium .
references : • coll , j . c . , bowden , b . f . , tapiolas , d . m . , willis , r . h . , djura , p . . streamer , m . & trott , l . ( 1985 ) studies of australian soft corals - xxxv . the terpenoid chemistry of soft corals and its implications . tetrahedron , 41 ( 6 ) : 1085 - 1092 . • rudman , w . b . ( 1981 ) the anatomy and biology of alcyonarian feeding aeolid opisthobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae . zoological journal of the linnean society , 72 : 219 - 262 . • rudman , w . b . ( 1991 ) further studies on the taxonomy and biology of the octocoral - feeding genus phyllodesmium ehrenberg , 1831 ( nudibranchia : aeolidoidea ) . journal of molluscan studies , 57 ( 2 ) : 167 - 203 .
figure 12 : phylogenetic tree of octocorals relevant as putative food sources for phyllodesmium spp . phylogram of sarcophyton and lobophytum , based on a consensus phylogram of mcfadden et al . [ 54 ] . only the sarcophyton clade with species investigated with regard to secondary metabolites are given in detail . the two other clades from the original phylogram are only indicated ; lobophytum and the mixed clade consisting of sarcophyton and lobophytum species . numbers indicate the number of specimens that represent the respective branch . note that the single specimen of s . cherbonnieri groups with 4 specimens of s . glaucum . s . glaucum is not monophyletic , but is represented with several independent clades . the dots at the terminal branches of s . glaucum in the tree indicate that secondary metabolites are described from this species , but it is not known , from which clade . species in bold indicate that secondary metabolites were described .
phyllodesmium longicirrum is the largest aeolidoidean species known to date , and extremely rich in terpenoid chemistry . herein we report the isolation of a total of 19 secondary metabolites from a single specimen of this species , i . e . , steroids 1–4 , cembranoid diterpenes 5–13 , complex biscembranoids 14 and 15 , and the chatancin - type diterpenes 16–19 . these compounds resemble those from soft corals of the genus sarcophyton , of which to date , however , only s . trocheliophorum is described as a food source for p . longicirrum . fish feeding deterrent activity was determined using the tropical puffer fish canthigaster solandri , and showed activity for ( 2 s ) - isosarcophytoxide ( 10 ) , cembranoid bisepoxide 12 and 4 - oxochatancin ( 16 ) . determining the metabolome of p . longicirrum and its bioactivity , makes it evident that this seemingly vulnerable soft bodied animal is well protected from fish by its chemical arsenal .
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urltoken
upper : the sacoglossan placida cf . dendritica showing the green network of ducts which contain the green chloroplasts from its algal food . lower : the aeolid nudibranch pteraeolidia ianthina which
farms
colonies of brown single - celled algae ( zooxanthellae ) in its body . photos : bill rudman .
for further information : • zooxanthellae symbiosis references . • zooxanthellae - what are they ? • zooxanthellae - in cnidarians • zooxanthellae - in nudibranchs • chloroplast symbiosis references . • aspects of coral feeding • chloroplast symbiosis research • sacoglossan feeding • feeding on palythoa
rudman , w . b . , 1998 ( october 11 ) solar - powered sea slugs .
' solar - powered ' sea slugs from : caroline r . cripe , september 4 , 2001
the solar - powered ' ruffled sea slug ' from : molly e . hagan , december 5 , 1999
nudibranchs in symbiosis with zooxanthellae from : j . e . austin , november 9 , 1998
your
solar - powered
sea slugs . from : amanda lindsey , october 11 , 1998
zooxanthellae in nudibranchs from : j . e . austin , october 11 , 1998
ehrenberg c . g . ( 1828 - 1831 ) . in : f . g . hemprich & c . g . ehrenberg , symbolae physicae seu icones et descriptiones animalium evertebratorum sepositis insectis quae ex itinere per africam borealem et asiam occidentalem , novae aut illustrate redierunt . decas i mollusca . berlin . vol . 1 ( plates ) [ 1828 ] , vol . 2 ( text , 126 pp . ) [ 1831 ] . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : folio h [ page 3 ] [ details ]
( of ennoia bergh , 1896 ) bergh , l . s . r . ( 1896 ) . eolidiens d ' amboine . revue suisse de zoologie . 4 ( 2 ) : 385 - 394 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 392 [ details ]
( of myrrhine bergh , 1905 ) bergh , l . s . r . ( 1905 ) . die opisthobranchiata der siboga - expedition . siboga - expeditie . 50 : 1 - 248 , pls 1 - 20 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 226 [ details ]
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upper : southern end of sek island , madang , march 1987 . [ 20mm long preserved - wam391 - 87 ] . photo : f . e . wells , lower : closeup of animals showing the development of ducts in the body wall and cerata to nurture zooxanthellae , which can be seen as lines of brown specks . animal 25mm long alive , tambuli beach , mactan is , cebu , 20m , march 1983 , on solenopodium stelleri ( fam : briareidae ) philippines , march 1983 . photo : b . e . picton
the name briareus was apparently given to it by bergh because of its association with the soft coral briareum .
known from tropical eastern australia , but possibly more widely spread in the western pacific .
reference : • rudman , w . b . ( 1981 ) the anatomy and biology of alcyonarian - feeding aeolid opisthobranch molluscs and their development of symbiosis with zooxanthellae . zoological journal of the linnean society 72 : 219 - 262 .
how it made the top 10 : for this sea slug , the top 10 competition was more than a beauty contest . it is a “missing link” between sea slugs that feed on hydroids and those specializing on corals . gastropods do not get more photogenic than sea slugs whose graceful lines and vivid coloration make them beauties of the deep . this new species , which photographs in shades of blue , red and gold , also contributed to a better understanding of the origin of an unusual symbiosis in other species of the genus . related sea slugs have multi - branched guts in which algae called zooanthellae live . these algae have a primary symbiotic relationship with the corals on which the sea slugs feed . once sequestered in the gut , the photosynthetic algae produce nutrients of benefit to the host . the newly identified species is an inch long , more or less ( 17 - 28 mm ) , and resides in the japanese islands .
etymology : the name refers to the spiny appearance of papillae on the surface of the rhinophores or paired smelling organs at front end of body .
esf is committed to the accessibilty of all online materials . if you have any issues , contact web @ urltoken for a prompt solution .
burn , r . f . ( 2006 ) . a checklist and bibliography of the opisthobranchia ( mollusca : gastropoda ) of victoria and the bass strait area , south - eastern australia . museum victoria science reports . 10 : 1–42 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
to biodiversity heritage library ( 4 publications ) to biological information system for marine life ( bismal ) to encyclopedia of life to sea slug forum ( via archive . org )
right : animal ( 10cm long ) crawling over porites colony . indonesia . lower left : ceras showing the white ducts of the digestive gland radiating out to the brown
gardens
of symbiotic zooxanthellae . photo : bill rudman . lower right : section through the a ceras showing the ducts leading to the zooxanthellae
gardens
at the surface of the ceras . ( zooxanthellae stained red . ) photo : bill rudman .
bunaken island , north sulawesi , indonesia . intertidal . length : up to 30 mm . 12 july 2003 . intertifal coral reef with patches of sea grass . lower photo showing animal nestling in xenia colony . photographer : michael schrödl
la perouse , sydney , new south wales , australia , august 1979 . photo : john fields .
this article is part of the thematic series
lipids : fatty acids and derivatives , polyketides and isoprenoids
.
marine gastropods , of which approximately 150 . 000 are known , mostly are protected by a shell . however , shell reduction or even loss is common within several marine heterobranchia clades , which were united under the name opisthobranchia in former times [ 1 ] . to compensate this lack of physical protection , alternative defensive strategies , such as the production of calcareous needles or acidic sulfates , and sequestration or de novo synthesis of toxic metabolites emerged within the opisthobranch taxa [ 2 - 5 ] . adaptations and mimicry , which help to hide in habitats is frequent in marine gastropods , as obvious from very diverse and spectacular phenotypes [ 1 , 6 ] .
herein we report on the secondary metabolome of a single specimen of p . longicirrum , including the structure elucidation of the new metabolites 1 , 5 , 9 , 14 and 15 , and show the fish feeding deterrent activity of the major metabolites 10 and 12 .
from the ethanolic extract of p . longicirrum the ethyl acetate - soluble organic compounds were analyzed . a first fractionation was achieved by vacuum liquid chromatography ( vlc ) on reversed - phase material yielding 11 fractions . 1 h nmr analysis of these indicated the presence of chemically diverse secondary metabolites in the major fractions 3–8 , whereas the hydrophilic fractions 1 and 2 merely contained sugars and the lipophilic ones , i . e . , 9–11 simple lipids .
detailed uplc–hrms investigation was thus performed with the vlc fractions 3–8 . the resulting uplc chromatograms ( supporting information file 1 , figures s47–52 ) were extremely complex and gave an impression on the multi - faceted metabolome of this animal . the majority ( except 4 and 17 ) of the subsequently isolated and characterized secondary metabolites ( 1 – 19 , figure 1 ) could be assigned to the detected m / z values ( supporting information file 1 , table s7a ) , e . g . , prominent ms data were associated with the presence of metabolites with a molecular weight of 362 da , relating to 4 - oxochatancin ( 16 ) or 1 - oxo - 9 - hydroisochatancin ( 18 ) . peaks with retention times around 14 min in the chromatograms of vlc 5 and 6 contained a metabolite showing an m / z of 319 . 23 ( m + h ) and 341 . 21 ( m + na ) , which indicated the presence of bisepoxide 12 , having a molecular weight of 318 . 45 da . a mass charge ratio of 475 . 39 ( m + h − h 2 o ) and 493 . 39 ( m + h ) , found for the peak with a retention time of 14 . 7 min of the uplc - chromatogram of vlc fraction 7 , is characteristic for the secosteroid 1 or the polyhydroxylated steroid 4 , both with a molecular weight of 492 da .
more importantly , uplc–hrms investigations produced also some peaks with m / z values that cannot be linked to isolated compounds 1 – 19 . thus , in vlc fraction 7 and 8 an m / z value of 287 . 24 ( m + h ) indicates most probably the presence of the instable sarcophytonin a with a molecular weight of 286 . 23 da [ 16 ] . vlc fractions 7 and 8 also contain m / z values characteristic for steroid constituents of sarcophyton soft corals that could not be isolated in the current study , e . g . , m / z 397 . 35 ( m + h ) suggests the presence of a steroid compound reported by kobayashi et al . from sarcophyton glaucum [ 17 ] with a molecular mass of 396 da as outlined in table s7b ( supporting information file 1 ) . detailed analysis of the uplc–hrms data also revealed the presence of m / z 711 . 39 ( m + h ) and 669 . 44 ( m + h ) in vlc fractions 6 and 7 . these values would fit to not yet reported biscembranoids , containing compound 5 as a possible biogenetic precursor , with a suggested molecular mass of 710 and 668 da ( see supporting information file 1 , table s7b ) .
notable is the occurrence of numerous peaks containing m / z values attributable to isomers of the isolated metabolites . besides the isosarcophines 8 and 9 with a molecular weight of 316 da , m / z values 317 . 21 ( m + h ) were also detected in the chromatograms of the fractions vlc 6 and 7 in different chromatographic peaks ( t r : 12 . 0 , 12 . 7 , 14 . 0 , 15 . 9 min ) indicating the presence of further possible cembranoid isomers as shown in table s7a ( supporting information file 1 ) . the m / z values ( m + h , 739 . 44 ) attributable to the isobisglaucumlides b ( 14 ) and c ( 15 ) are also found at four different retention times of the uplc chromatograms , suggesting the presence of the further isomeric metabolites . these findings highlight the amazingly complex and diverse metabolome of p . longicirrum .
regarding the reported secondary metabolites of p . longicirrum 20–22 , figure 2 by coll et al . [ 13 ] , only compound 22 with a molecular weight of 304 da resulting in an m / z of 305 . 25 ( m + h ) may be present in vlc 8 ( see supporting information file 1 , figure s7b ) . however , there are about 20 further cembranoids described from sarcophyton spp . with a molecular weight of 304 da , making this assessment very tentative . it can , however be stated that the p . longicirrum specimen investigated in this study either belongs to a different chemotype or has different food preference than the one investigated by coll and co - workers [ 13 ] .
figure 2 : structures of secondary metabolites from p . longicirrum as described by coll et al . in 1985 [ 13 ] .
figure 2 : structures of secondary metabolites from p . longicirrum as described by coll et al . in 1985 [ 13 ] .
detailed chemical investigation of p . longicirrum including structure elucidation of the new metabolites 1 , 5 , 9 , 14 , 15 and stereochemical assignment of 12
repeated fractionation of vlc fractions 5–8 resulted in the isolation of a range of secondary metabolites , i . e . , four steroids 1–4 , nine cembranoid diterpenes 5–13 and two biscembranoids 14 and 15 , as well as four polycyclic diterpenes of the chatancin type 16–19 [ 12 ] . compounds 1 and 5 are new chemical structures . the same applies to the biscembranoids 14 and 15 , which however show close resemblance to bisglaucumlides b and c [ 18 ] , but differ in their stereochemistry from the latter . since no studies regarding the stereochemical features of the cembranoid bisepoxide 12 were published to date , we propose here its relative configuration . figure 1 summarizes all metabolites found during this investigation . it is noteworthy , that the previously reported cembranoid diterpenes ( see figure 2 , compounds 20–22 ) from p . longicirrum by coll et al . [ 13 ] were not isolated from the complex secondary metabolome of the investigated specimen , although the uplc–hrms data ( see above ) suggest that cembranoid alcohol 22 may be present .
compound 1 was isolated as amorphous white solid . the specific optical rotation was measured in chloroform ( c 0 . 1 ) , giving [ α ] d 20 −21 . 0 . the molecular formula c 30 h 52 o 5 was established by a hrms measurement , which yielded m / z 515 . 3694 [ m + na ] for the molecular ion . the ring double bond equivalent ( rde ) was calculated to be five . the ir spectrum revealed the presence of hydroxy groups ( broad band at 3360 cm −1 ) and a keto function ( sharp band at 1697 cm −1 ) .
the planar structure of 1 was established by extensive nmr experiments ( 1 h , 13 c nmr , cosy , dept , hsqc and hmbc ( see supporting information file 1 , table s1 ) . the 13 c nmr spectrum showed 30 resonances attributable to 7 methyl , 9 methylene and 8 methine groups . a 13 c nmr resonance at 218 . 4 ppm confirmed the keto group ( c - 9 ) , whereas a primary alcohol moiety was evident from a 13 c nmr resonance at δ c 59 . 1 ( c - 11 ) . further oxygenated carbons , i . e . , c - 3 , c - 5 and c - 6 gave rise to 13 c nmr resonances at δ c 68 . 0 , 80 . 7 and 75 . 7 , respectively . proton carbon assignments were done according to correlations obtained in a hsqc experiment . the absence of 13 c nmr resonances for sp 2 hybridized carbons for c = c bonds , together with a rde of five indicated the presence of several rings in 1 , likely of steroid origin . the latter is supported by characteristically shielded 1 h nmr resonances at δ h 0 . 54 and δ h −0 . 05 ( both dd , h 2 - 30 ) as well as a multiplet at δ h 0 . 32 ( h - 22 ) for a cyclopropyl group , as typically found in gorgosterols [ 19 , 20 ] .
a 1 h , 1 h cosy experiment led to partial structures which could be combined using hmbc correlations . spin system a included h 2 - 1 to h 2 - 4 , whereas h - 6 through to h - 30 formed spin system b ( see figure 3 ) . the connection of partial structures a and b was established from hmbc correlations , i . e . , from the resonances of h - 4 to c - 5 and c - 6 , as well as h - 6 to c - 5 . the position of the c - 9 ketone function was established due to hmbc correlations from resonances of h 2 - 7 and h - 8 to c - 9 . the decaline system was finally confirmed by the heteronuclear long range correlations of the resonances from h 3 - 19 . of the five degrees of unsaturation one is ascribed to a keto function , another one to the cyclopropane ring in the side chain , and two further ones to the decaline ring , thus requiring a further ring in 1 . considering this , a secosterol backbone was likely . also , the 13 c nmr resonance of the oxygenated methylene at δ c 59 . 1 ( c - 11 ) is characteristic for marine - derived secosterols [ 21 ] . the 1 h - 1 h spin system c only including h 2 - 11 and h 2 - 12 was connected to the partial structure b via long range correlations from h 3 - 18 to c - 12 , c - 13 , c - 14 and c - 17 . this also established the still required ring d . finally , the complete gorgosterol side chain could be elucidated by connection of the 1 h , 1 h spin system d with b using hmbc correlations from h 3 - 28 to c - 23 and from h 3 - 29 to c - 22 , c - 23 , c - 24 and c - 30 ( see figure 3 ) .
figure 3 : significant 1 h , 1 h cosy correlations as found in compound 1 .
the nmr data ( supporting information file 1 , table s1 ) of compound 1 resembled most closely those of epoxy - secosterols isolated from the gorgonian pseudopterogorgia americana [ 22 ] and from the soft coral pachyclavularia violacea ( now briareum violaceum [ 23 ] ) by anta et al . ( [ 24 ] , figure 4 ) . however , the 13 c nmr chemical shifts of c - 5 and c - 6 in compound 1 ( δ c 80 . 7 and δ c 75 . 7 , respectively ) differ from shifts for the equivalent carbons in epoxy - secogorgosterol reported by naz et al . ( δ c 61 . 0 and δ c 60 . 4 , respectively ; [ 22 ] ) and from those of the epoxy - secosterol reported by anta et al . ( δ c 65 . 5 and δ c 58 . 1 , respectively ; [ 24 ] ) . the downfield shift , observed for these carbons in 1 , results from the cleavage of the epoxide ring , and 13 c values around δ c 70–80 as observed for 1 are characteristic for hydroxylated carbons .
figure 4 : secosterols [ 22 , 24 ] related to 3β , 5α , 6β - trihydroxy - 9 - oxo - 9 , 11 - secogorgostan - 11 - ol ( 1 ) from p . longicirrum .
the relative stereochemistry of the secogorgosterol 1 was established by analysis of 1 h , 1 h coupling constants , noesy data , and comparison of nmr spectral data with those of similar compounds [ 22 , 24 ] . an equatorial orientation of the oh - group at c - 3 was evident , since h - 3 displayed 1 h , 1 h coupling constants to the vicinal axial h - 2β and h - 4β of 12 hz and to the equatorial h - 2α and h - 4α of 6 hz . noe correlations of h - 3 to h - 1α , h - 2α and h - 4α indicate thus an α - orientation of axial h - 3 and a β - orientation of the equatorial hydroxy group at c - 3 . the identical 13 c nmr shift of c - 3 ( δ c 68 . 0 ) with the reported value [ 24 ] supports this orientation .
1 h nmr measurements in pyridine - d 5 led to a further downfield shift of the deshielded h - 3 resonance to δ h 4 . 81 ( compared with δ h 4 . 00 in meoh - d 4 ) . this shift is explained by a 1 , 3 axial–axial interaction with the 5α hydroxy group [ 25 , 26 ] , demonstrating the α - orientation of the substituent at the bridge head carbon c - 5 . noes between the resonances for h - 2β as well as h - 1β to h 3 - 19 showed the latter to be β - orientated , and thus the trans configuration of the decaline system . the 1 h nmr signal at δ h 3 . 66 for h - 6 exhibited noe correlation with h - 4α ( δ h 1 . 70 , m ) indicating β - orientation of the equatorial oh - group at c - 6 . contrary to the reported epoxy - secosteroid by naz et al . [ 22 ] , no noe was observed between the resonances of h - 6 and β - oriented h 3 - 19 confirming the β - orientation of the hydroxy group at c - 6 ( see figure 5 ) .
figure 5 : conformational structure of 1 ( key noesy correlations are indicated with blue arrows ; coupling constants crucial for the determination of the orientation of the 3 - oh group are shown ) .
figure 5 : conformational structure of 1 ( key noesy correlations are indicated with blue arrows ; coupling cons . . .
noe correlations between h 3 - 19 and h - 8 , as well as between h - 8 and h 3 - 18 showed the β - orientation of the methyl groups ch 3 - 18 , ch 3 - 19 and of the proton at c - 8 , which is in accordance with reported stereochemistry for the related metabolites of this compound - class [ 21 , 22 ] . free rotation along the bond between c - 8 and c - 14 is unlikely because of the bulky substituents on ring d . noe correlations were observed between α - oriented h - 14 and h - 17 demonstrating β - orientation of the gorgosterol side chain . 13 c nmr shifts for the carbons of the side chain ( c - 20 to c - 30 : δ c 36 . 3 , 21 . 4 , 33 . 3 , 26 . 9 , 52 . 2 , 33 . 4 , 22 . 7 , 21 . 9 , 15 . 8 , 14 . 7 , 22 . 2 ) were almost identical with those reported by naz et al . ( c - 20 to c - 30 : δ c 34 . 9 , 20 . 8 , 31 . 9 , 25 . 9 , 50 . 5 , 31 . 4 , 22 . 3 , 21 . 5 , 15 . 2 , 14 . 2 , 21 . 2 ) [ 22 ] . the relative stereochemistry of the gorgosterol side chain was thus suggested to be the same . for the compound 1 we propose the name 3β , 5α , 6β - trihydroxy - 9 - oxo - 9 , 11 - secogorgostan - 11 - ol .
chemical structures of the polyhydroxylated steroids 2 – 4 were established by comparison of the nmr and ms data obtained in our laboratory ( supporting information file 1 , figures s6–11 ) with the reported values [ 27 , 28 ] .
compound 5 was isolated as colorless oil ( 1 . 5 mg ) . the specific optical rotation was measured in chloroform ( c 0 . 09 ) , and yielded [ α ] d 20 + 3 . 5 . the molecular formula of compound 5 was deduced by hrms–esi ( m + na 355 . 2244 da ) to be c 21 h 32 o 3 . ring double bond equivalents ( rde ) were calculated to be six . the ir spectrum of compound 5 showed absorptions for carbonyl bonds at 1700 cm −1 and 1679 cm −1 , indicating the presence of ketone and / or ester functions .
extensive nmr measurements ( 1 h , 13 c nmr , cosy , dept , hsqc and hmbc , see supporting information file 1 , table s2 ) revealed the presence of a methoxy group ( δ h 3 . 71 3h , δ c 52 . 1 ) , an ester carbonyl ( δ c 170 . 0 , c - 18 ) and a keto group ( δ c 211 . 3 , c - 2 ) . the 13 c nmr spectrum of compound 5 contained a total of 21 resonances attributable to 5 methyl , 6 methylene , 5 methine and 5 quaternary carbons as indicated by a dept 135 experiment . six characteristic shifts in the 13 c nmr spectrum at δ c 130 . 5 ( c - 4 ) and 142 . 8 ( c - 5 ) , 121 . 6 ( c - 7 ) and 136 . 9 ( c - 8 ) , 127 . 0 ( c - 11 ) and 135 . 4 ( c - 12 ) pointed towards three carbon–carbon double bonds . together with two carbonyls ( at c - 2 and c - 18 ) one rde accountable to a ring remained , and suggested a cembrane - class diterpene .
the proton resonances could be unambiguously assigned to those of directly attached carbons by a hsqc measurement , and afterwards the fragments of the molecule were elucidated using a cosy experiment . thus , the cosy data showed correlations of the resonances h 3 - 16 , h 3 - 17 and h - 1 to h - 15 , forming an isopropyl moiety . together with cosy correlations from h - 1 over h 2 - 14 to h 2 - 13 spin system a was established . two further smaller fragments were established via cosy correlations from h - 5 to h - 7 ( b ) , and from h - 9 to h - 11 ( c ) . these subunits could be assigned to a 14 - membered cembrane skeleton according to couplings detected in the hmbc experiment . key heteronuclear long range correlations for assembling the complete structure were from h 3 - 20 to c - 11 , c - 12 and c - 13 connecting fragments a and c . the fragments b and c were then connected according to hmbc cross peaks of the methyl group resonance h 3 - 19 with quaternary c - 8 and with c - 7 and c - 9 ( see figure 6 ) .
figure 6 : structure of cembranoid 5 . 1 h , 1 h spin systems ( a , b and c ) are indicated in bold , arrows show key hmbc correlations .
figure 6 : structure of cembranoid 5 . 1 h , 1 h spin systems ( a , b and c ) are indicated in bold , arrows show key h . . .
the absence of a further 1 h , 1 h spin system required heteronuclear long range correlations for the elucidation of the remaining structural features and the closure of the cembrane ring . methylene group ch 2 - 3 exhibited hmbc correlations with resonances of the keto at c - 2 , sp 2 quaternary carbon c - 4 and tertiary carbon c - 5 and with the ester carbonyl c - 18 . due to the deshielded nature and large 1 h - coupling constant ( signals of both protons appear as doublets , j = 17 . 7 hz at δ h 3 . 49 and 3 . 64 ) of the 1 h nmr resonance of the h 2 - 3 , the position of the methylene group between keto carbonyl c - 2 and the quaternary sp 2 carbon c - 4 was very likely . the methyl ester moiety could be localized at c - 4 due to long range correlation of the - och 3 resonance with ester carbonyl c - 18 and quaternary c - 4 . a hmbc cross peak between the resonances of h - 1 and c - 2 established the 14 - membered cembranoid ring .
the e - geometries at olefinic double bonds δ 7 , 8 and δ 11 , 12 were easily deduced from the 13 c nmr upfield shifts of the methyl group resonances ch 3 - 19 ( δ c 16 . 0 ) and ch 3 - 20 ( δ c 15 . 2 ) . the deshielded resonance of h - 5 ( δ h 7 . 08 ) indicated e - geometry of the olefinic double bond δ 4 , 5 [ 29 ] .
figure 7 : compound 5 and the most closely related cembranoids from soft corals .
known compounds 6–8 , 10 , 11 and 13 were unambiguously identified comparing the obtained 1 h and 13 c nmr spectral data with the literature reports [ 31 - 36 ] .
repeated hplc separation of vlc fraction 7 firstly led to two metabolites , which could not be structurally analyzed due to their instability . it was noted however , that two stable degradation products resulted and could be isolated , i . e . , compounds 8 and 9 . the planar structure of 8 and 9 was established as that of isosarcophine by 1d and 2d nmr data ( 1 h , 13 c , cosy , hsqc and hmbc ) . specific optical rotation measurements in chloroform ( c 0 . 1 each substance ) yielded [ α ] d 20 values of + 92 . 0 for 8 and −38 . 0 for 9 . due to the close similarity of the 1 h and 13 c nmr data ( supporting information file 1 , table s3 ) compounds 8 and 9 were supposed to be stereoisomers . nmr spectral data of compound 8 were identical with those of ( + ) - isosarcophine ( [ α ] d 20 + 235 . 3 ) reported by kusumi et al . [ 32 ] , so 8 is established as ( + ) - isosarcophine . the configuration at c - 2 for 8 and 9 was established with the help of cd experiments ( supporting information file 1 , figures s22 and s27 ) . according to kobayashi et al . [ 31 ] ( s ) configuration at c - 2 in furanocembranoids causes a negative cotton effect at 246 nm like we obtained for compound 8 , which is thus ( 2 s ) - isosarcophine . the cd spectrum of 9 was the inverse of 8 and displayed a positive cotton effect at 246 nm demonstrating that 8 and 9 are diastereomers . thus , compound 9 is 2 r - isosarcophine .


peripsocus subfasciatus is a species of psocoptera from peripsocidae family that can be found in great britain and ireland .

the species are either black or brown coloured .

peripsocus subfasciatus

barklice are a convenient group to study because there are relatively few species and these are generally not too difficult to identify . identification keys ( in english ) for most , but not all , species are available in new ( 1974 ) . comprehensive keys for all species ( in french ) are in lienhard ( 1998 ) . since barklice are little studied by entomologists there is plenty of scope for making further discoveries . if nothing else it would be valuable to find out how widespread peripsocus milleri is in the area .
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summary : has been found on branches of deciduous and coniferous / evergreen trees / bushes ( no records from trunks ) .
deciduous branches : beech , bird cherry , elder , hawthorn , lime , oak and sycamore .
conifer / evergreen branches : broom , ivy , larch , laurel , pine , sitka spruce and yew .
upcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington
disclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .
contributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright © 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .
no cubital loop ( a u - shaped vein on the top - middle of the forewing ) narrows down the families . smokey gray wings = > perispocus
the gray triangles at the wing tips ( distal forewing ) don ' t have a clear rectangle at their center .
blå punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och övriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan innehålla observationer som inte är validerade . kartan uppdateras var fjärde vecka .
i det avancerade verktyget kan man söka ut och få fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst län , i en viss biotop , substrat , som påverkas av en hotfaktor , eller som är knutna till en sk värdart , t ex trädet alm . dessa kan även kombineras .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , knutna till alm , är beroende av död ved och som finns i kronobergs län .
söka fram arter som är rödlistade , lever i småvatten och som påverkas negativt av igenväxning .
defaultläget i verktyget är arter som är rödlistade 2015 och dessa är klassade på samtliga sökfaktorer . under fliken rödlistekategori kan man dock välja att även inkludera arter som inte är rödlistade . om man väljer att inkludera icke rödlistade arter behöver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte är klassade på samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanställning av vad som är komplett .
denna funktion används när du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka på deras namn . du kan också välja att använda knappen ”jämför arter” för att se bilder , kartor och kännetecken i en jämförelsevy .
du kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via släktträdet och där välja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat sätt att göra ditt urval är att använda fliken ”filtrera” , där du kan söka på olika egenskaper . ovanför listan med sökresultatet finns en knapp ”lägg i mitt urval” .
during a stay in the brandwood area of birmingham from 6 - 8 august 2004 i carried out some work to determine which barklice species occur in the area .
the psocoptera is a small order of insects of which about 100 species have been recorded in britain . barklice is the common name for the psocid species that have been recorded out - of - doors ( c . 60 species ) . although little studied by entomologists , barklice are very common and virtually every bush and tree will be home to some species . shaking tree branches over a beating tray and brushing the insects off tree trunks are the best ways of finding most species .
i spent the majority of the short time i had available in brandwood end cemetery and surrounding streets . a few records were made along the worcester and birmingham canal and in king’s norton park .
the following table summarises the sampling areas where each of the 18 species recorded were found .
on 8 august 2004 a single female of this species was found on the trunk of a mature oak tree in jasmin croft ( sp073796 ) , a few metres from brandwood end cemetery . the identification of the specimen was confirmed by charles lienhard of the geneva natural history museum . this species’ inclusion on the british list is due to two specimens being discovered in the hold of a ship in liverpool in 1953 ( new , 1974 ) . this is consequently the first known outdoor record in britain .
the detailed records of the findings including species names , location , 6 - figure grid references , species numbers , sampling details and dates have been given to simon wood of the worcestershire biological record centre .
alexander , k . n . a . ( 2002 ) epicaecilius pilipennis ( lienhard ) ( psocoptera ) new to england from west sussex . entomologist’s record . 114 : 181 .
lienhard , c . ( 1998 ) psocoptères euro - méditerranéens in faune de france . 83 : 1 - 517 .
new , t . r . ( 1974 ) handbooks for the identification of british insects : psocoptera . 1 ( 7 ) : 1 - 102 .
saville , b . ( 1999 ) the barklice ( insecta : psocoptera ) of the lothians ( scotland ) . glasgow naturalist . 23 ( 4 ) : 50 - 54 .
saville , b . ( 2004 ) cumbrian barklice ( psocoptera ) . the carlisle naturalist 12 ( 1 ) : 17 - 20 .
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all identifications on this page have been made as accurately as possible . corrections ? please contact me . . .
seperated into two distinct sub - orders . those you find on walls or trees , or even leaf - litter , are likely to be
' link below each article to return here to choose another species , or continue scrolling up and down for others .
almost certain id by bob saville , though as he suggests an underside shot would confirm , though apparently wing veins help .
- a good find ! i actually found four all on the same day . id by bob saville who runs the uk ' s recording scheme . my images represet this species on the site ' s gallery .
loensia sp . can be little difficult to id . wing veins help , but in some cases the density of the pattern obscures it .
summary : has been found on a wide range of deciduous trees / bushes ( branches and trunks ) , conifer / evergreen branches and heather .
deciduous branches : apple , beech , birch , blackthorn , elder , elm , hawthorn , oak , rowan , sallows and sea buckthorn .
conifer / evergreen branches : broom , cedar , chinese juniper , cypress family , larch , pines , privet , spruces and yew .
kento furui added the japanese common name
マドチャタテ科
to
peripsocidae
.
eol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .
to request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !
[ cite : 370489 ] a remarkably helpful source , with species accounts ( status , distribution maps , phenology , habitat data ) ; interactive key for rapid identification of adults ; excellent gallery of live photos ; and more . . . strangely , the names of those who put together and run this fine online resource are nowhere to be found : (
johnson k . p . , smith v . s . ( 2013 ) psocodea species file online . version 5 . 0
[ cite : 1286620 ] link all of the nomenclatural , bibliographic , and specimen data accumulated in missouri botanical garden ' s ( mbg ) electronic databases during the past 30 years are publicly available here . this system has nearly 1 . 3 million scientific names and over 4 . 4 million specimen records . great resource for plant distribution beyond us & canada .


the bamenda apalis ( apalis bamendae ) is a species of bird in the cisticolidae family .

it is endemic to cameroon .

its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and dry savanna .

it is threatened by habitat loss .

bamenda apalis

apalis du bamenda : nom français uniformisé par la commission internationale des noms français des oiseaux .
ryan , p . ( 2018 ) . bamenda apalis ( apalis bamendae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
sw & c cameroon ( bamenda highlands s of 6° n , adamawa plateau ) and se nigeria ( ngel nyaki forest reserve # r ) ; probably also extreme w central african republic ( yade hills ) .
12 - 13 cm small grey , white and pale rufous forest warbler . upperparts greyish with darker wings and tail . underparts pale rufous on face and throat with remainder greyish , slightly paler than upperparts . similar spp . the only dark grey apalis within its range to have rufous on throat . differs from buff - throated apalis by being darker and lacking any white in tail . however , their ranges do not overlap . voice fast and tuneless ` chwee pipi chwee pipi ' and more rapid and rattling variation . hints most reliable place in recent times is the forests surrounding the bali safari lodge in the bamenda highlands , cameroon .
12 cm . a dark grey apalis with chestnut throat and fairly short , dark tail . has frons and face washed chestnut , dark grey crown and upperparts washed olive - brown ; upperwing . . .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : apalis bamendae . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : although this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
the global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon or rare ( urban et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is unlikely to be declining at the present time since it is able to adapt well to degraded habitats including plantations and farmland ( bobo et al . in prep . ) .
the species is found from 750 - 2 , 050 m ( bobo et al . 2001 ) , where its preferred habitat is gallery forest , typically narrow belts of 10 - 15 m high trees . it is also found in secondary growth and isolated trees near forest , riverine thickets and forest relicts in farmland ( urban et al . 1997 ) , and in degraded habitat , including farmland dominated by eucalyptus , avocado and mango trees with maize cultivated beneath ( bobo et al . 2001 ) .
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although this species may have a small range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
has sometimes been considered conspecific with a . sharpii and a . goslingi . apparently closely related to a . rufogularis ; the two have largely non - overlapping ranges , replacing each other within 1–2 km . monotypic .
male song a series of notes starting with deeper , descending note , “chew chit chit chit chit…” , . . .
confined to gallery forest in savanna woodland on adamawa plateau ; occupies wider range of habitats . . .
not globally threatened . restricted - range species : present in cameroon mountains eba . total range covers no more than c . 80 , 000 km² . locally common throughout its range . . .
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to date , sampling insufficiently dense # r # r to provide a genetic perspective on many long - standing issues of specific and subspecific taxonomy . many relationships postulated here remain to be tested by molecular data , and further examples of polyphyly may emerge once more extensive sampling has been possible # r # r .
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